The Jews of Islam: Updated Edition [Updated edition with a New Introduction] 9781400852222

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T H E J E W S OF I S L A M

The Jews of Islam B E R N A R D LEW IS

with a new foreword by Mark R. Cohen

PR IN CET O N UNIV ERSITY PRESS

PRINCETON AND OXFORD

Copyright © 1984 by Princeton University Press Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey, 08540 In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, 6 Oxford Street, Woodstock, Oxfordshire OX20 1TW All Rights Reserved First Princeton Paperback printing, 1987 First Princeton Classics Paperback printing, with a new foreword, 2014 ISBN: 978-0-691-16087-0 Library of Congress Control Number: 2014943651 This book has been composed in Linotron Sabon Princeton University Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources press.princeton.edu Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

F o r Y,

who

will understand

¿No ha de haber un espíritu valiente? ¿Siempre se ha de sentir lo que se dice? ¿Nunca se ha de decir lo que se siente? — Francisco de Quevedo

Contents note on illustrations foreword foreword to the princeton classics edition one. Islam and Other Religions two. The Judaeo-Islamic Tradition

viii ix xiii 3 67

three. The Late Medieval and Early Modern Periods 107 four. The End of the Tradition

154

notes 193 index 227

Note on Illustrations Illustrations

f o l l o w page

66

My thanks are due to the following institutions and individ­ uals for permission to reproduce pictures of items in their possession. Israel Museum, Jerusalem: Nos. i, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 21 Hebrew Union College, Skirball Museum, Los Angeles: Nos. 2, 4, and 5. Jewish Museum, London: No. 3 British Library, London: No. 11. Professor Myriam Ayalon, Jerusalem: Nos. 12 and 13. Jewish Museum of Greece, Athens: Nos. 16 and 17. Gennadius Library, Athens: Nos. 14, 15, 18, 19, and 20. No. 16 is taken from R ec u e il de cen t estam pes représentant d ifferentes N a tio n s du L eva n t . . . (text by) M. De Ferriol, Ambassadeur du Roi à La Porte (Paris, 1714). No. 20 is taken from Georges de La Chappelle, R ec u e il de divers portraits des p r in c ip a ls dam es de la P orte du G ra n d T u rc (Paris, 1648).

Foreword A r e a d i n g of medieval and modern Jewish history would seem to suggest that Jews in the Diaspora can only flourish, perhaps even only survive in any meaningful sense, under the aegis of one or the other of the two successor religions of Judaism— Christianity and Islam. Virtually the whole pano­ rama of Jewish history, or rather that part of it which is of any significance between the destruction of the ancient Jewish centers and the creation of the new Jewish state, is enacted either in the lands of Islam or in the lands of Christendom. There were occasional Jewish settlements in areas dominated by other civilizations and religions, such as India and China, but—despite the very large measure of tolerance they en­ joyed— they did not flourish. They had no great share in the life and culture either of those countries or of the Jewish people, and appear to have produced nothing of any real importance for the one or the other. In India it was only with the advent of Islam that the small Jewish communities of that country received a modicum of attention and played a small part. In the realms of Hinduism, Buddhism, and the religions of the Far East, the Jews remained few and inactive, attracting neither persecution nor favor nor even attention. In Hindu India and in China, Judaism atrophied. When Arnold Toynbee used the term “ fossil” to describe the Jews and some other minority groups that survived from the ancient world, he was vehemently criticized. Indeed the term “ fossil,” applied to something as vibrant as Jewish life in the Middle East, in Europe, and in the Americas, seems an absurdity. It is less absurd when applied to the isolated and immobilized Jewish communities of southern and eastern Asia. The main centers of Jewish life and activity since the early Middle Ages have always been in the lands of Islam and Chris­ tendom. It seems that these two religions share some quality

X ■ FOREWORD

that is conducive to active Jewish life and that is lacking in societies dominated by Hinduism, Buddhism, and other faiths, to which perhaps in our own day we should add communism. Under Christian or Muslim rule, Jewish life has not always been comfortable. Jews may be slighted or hated; they may be despised or oppressed or slaughtered, but they are never ignored. For both Christianity and Islam, and therefore for both Christians and Muslims, the Jews and Judaism have a certain cosmic stature. They are known; they have a place, and indeed an important place, in both the theological and historical scheme of things. For good or for evil, they are seen as significant. The Christians even adopted the Jewish scrip­ tures. The Muslims, though they did not go that far, were prepared to recognize the Jewish scriptures as a corrupt relic of an authentic revelation. For the Christian and the Muslim alike, the Jewish religion was neither alien nor absurd. It was a faith of the same kind as his own, but in an earlier and outdated version. He might punish the Jew for not catching up with his own, final version of G od’s message; he would not brush him aside as a votary of one minor sect or cult among a multiplicity of others. For the believer, persecution is easier to endure than disregard. There are, it would seem, certain preconditions required to make possible the kind of cultural symbiosis— and still more the mutual and interacting cultural influences— that gave rise to what is now commonly called the Judaeo-Christian tradi­ tion in the Western world, and its equivalent in Islam. Until the twentieth century, when the positions of both Jews and Muslims underwent radical change, the term “Judaeo-Islamic” is at least as meaningful and as valid as “JudaeoChristian” to connote a parallel and in many ways comparable cultural tradition. As far as I am aware, the term “Judaeo-Islamic” has been used only by Western scholars and was never adopted either by Jews or by Muslims in the Islamic lands, since neither side saw their relationship in this light. At the present time it is a term of purely historical relevance, since the Judaeo-Islamic tradition no longer exists as a living force. The tradition has

FOREWORD ■ XI

been destroyed, and its bearers have gone into exile or to Israel, where the two great branches of the Jewish people, the Jews of Islam and the Jews of Christendom, are meeting again for the first time in centuries and are struggling to create a new synthesis based on their common Jewishness. Their en­ counter repeats in miniature the clash of the two civilizations from which they come, and the aim of unity will not easily be achieved. The attempt will in part determine, in part be determined by, the parallel effort—so far of little avail—to create a new and different symbiotic relationship between Israel and the Islamic world by which it is surrounded. In the following pages I have tried to examine the origins, the flowering, and the ending of the Judaeo-Islamic tradition, and to set these processes against the background of both Jewish and Islamic history. At most times and in most places, the Jews of Christendom were the only non-Christian minority in an otherwise wholly Christian land. Under the rule of Islam, in contrast, the Jews were normally one of several religious minorities, usually not the most important. The attitude of Islam to Judaism, of Muslims to Jews, is thus one aspect of a larger and more complex issue. The first chapter is therefore devoted to a general consideration of the relations between Islam and other religions—in theology and in law, in theory and in practice. The second chapter deals with the beginning and formation of the Judaeo-Islamic tradition, and is mainly concerned with the formative and classical periods of medieval Islam. The third chapter concentrates on the Ottoman Empire, the last of the great Islamic world states and the home of large and important Jewish communities; it also touches more briefly on other Muslim states in North Africa and in Asia. The fourth and last chapter, covering the nineteenth and twentieth cen­ turies, takes as its theme the era of Western impact on the world of Islam, and the final phase of the Judaeo-Islamic tradition. T h i s book is based on the Gustave A. and Mamie W. Efroymson Memorial Lectures delivered at Hebrew Union Col­ lege in Cincinnati, Ohio, in November 1981. I have consid-

Xll ■ FOREWORD

erably expanded the material presented in those lectures and added annotations. I should like to express my appreciation to my hosts and to my attentive and well-informed audiences, from whose questions and comments 1 derived much benefit. My thanks are also due to the A llia n ce Israelite U niverselle for permission to use its archives, and to the archives’ staff for their patience and courtesy. I am greatly indebted to several friends and colleagues for reading and commenting on earlier versiòns of this book; to Professors S. D. Goitein, Halil Inalcik, and Itamar Rabinovitch; and to Professors Judith Goldstein and Amnon Cohen, both members of the Institute for Ad­ vanced Study in the academic year 1982-83, who generously sacrificed some of their carefully hoarded time to read my drafts. I responded gratefully to some of their suggestions, and apologize to them for resisting others. I would like to thank Mr. Nikola Stavroulakis of Athens for his generous and in­ valuable advice and help in selecting and procuring illustra­ tions. Finally, a special word of thanks to David Eisenberg, a graduate student in Near Eastern Studies at Princeton Uni­ versity, for his invaluable efforts as a research assistant, and to Ms. Dorothy Rothbard for her uncomplaining typing of innumerable revisions and changes in the long journey from the first draft of the lectures to the final text of the book. A French version of parts of chapter 1 was published in A n n a les (1980). I would like to offer my thanks to the editors of that journal. B. L. September 1983

Foreword to the Princeton Classics Edition

The Jews of Islam, first published in 1984,1 is one of two books that Bernard Lewis devoted entirely to Jewish history. The other, Semites and Anti-Semites, appeared two years later.2 But the history of the Jews in the Islamic world has occupied a place in Lewis’s research agenda for three-quarters of a century. Indeed, I once asked him why he wrote so often about the Jews. He answered with his characteristic wry humor, quoting a commercial for the soft drink Pepsi Cola: “it’s the pause that refreshes.” 3 Already in 1939, at the very beginning of his professional career, he published an article entitled “A Jewish Source on Damascus just after the Ottoman Conquest,” which appeared in the Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies.4 In this piece he showed Ottomanists that they could learn something about their own subject from contemporary Jewish sources; in this case, a Hebrew travelogue (part of which Lewis translated) by an Italian Rabbi and kabbalist who visited Damascus (and many other places) shortly after the Ottoman Conquest and described its robust economy. Conversely, the following year, in a Hebrew article entitled “ Jewish Science according to an Arabic Author of the Eleventh Century,” he published for the benefit of Jewish scholars a Hebrew translation of the section of al-Ş; id al-Andalusī’s Arabic account of learned Jews in his encyclopedia of men of science and philosophy.5 In 1945, with the same goal in mind, Lewis brought three “Arabic Sources on Maimonides” to the attention of Jewish scholars, with new, Hebrew translations from the Arabic originals. Two of these sources include information about Maimonides’s much debated conversion to Islam in his youth during the Almohad persecutions in North Africa and Spain and his reversion to Judaism after arriving in Egypt. The article appeared in a new British journal of

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Jewish studies published by the scholar of Jewish thought, Simon Rawidowicz.6 In 1950, Lewis was the first Western scholar to be admitted to the Turkish archives. Two years later he published some of his discoveries in a modestly-titled but path-breaking pamphlet called Notes and Documents from the Turkish Archive: A Contribution to the History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire (1952). The venture into those archives heralded a lifelong interest in the history of Turkish Jewry and spurred research based on those archives for both Jewish and Ottoman history. A few years after he arrived in Princeton in 1974, Lewis organized a famous conference on the history and legacy of the millet system in the Ottoman Empire, which led to a hefty two-volume book of essays, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire, subtitled The Functioning of a Plural Society, co-edited with Benjamin Braude (1982). This publication is still the standard starting point for research on the religious minorities in Ottoman lands. One of his characteristically engaging pieces on Jewish studies is his 1968 article, “ The Pro-Islamic Jews,” the lead essay in a special issue of the journal Judaism devoted to the subject of “Judaism and Islam.” In the paper, Lewis describes the phenomenon of Jewish partiality toward Islam, exemplified by such luminaries as Benjamin Disraeli, the baptized Jewish prime minister of Britain. Disraeli was attacked by opponents on account of his pro­ Turkish stance on the Eastern Question and was often depicted, as were other Jews of his time, as an “ oriental” at heart, allied with the Muslims in the struggle against anti-Semitic Christian Russia. Islam and Islamic civilization appealed as well to Jewish scholars in Central Europe, many of them rooted in Talmudic studies, such as the legendary Hungarian scholar Ignaz Goldziher. Goldziher’s admiration for Islam led him to travel to study in the famous Al-Azhar mosque school in Cairo and to become the father of modern Arabic and Islamic studies. To explain the pro­ Islamic outlook of so many European Jews, Lewis formulated a still widely accepted theory. He argued that these Jews were frustrated with the slow progress of emancipation in Europe and, at the same time, alarmed by the rise of the new, racist, political

FOREWORD TO THE PRINCETON CLASSICS EDITION ■ XV

anti-Semitism. They looked back, nostalgically, to medieval Islam, especially Muslim Spain, “ mythically” imagining Islamdom to have been a tolerant society, granting Jews the freedom and equality that they, as Central European Jews, particularly those in Germany, yearned for from their Christian compatriots. Here Lewis uttered what was to become one of many Lewis-ian maXims: “The myth was invented by Jews in nineteenth-century Europe as a reproach to Christians—and taken up by Muslims in our own time as a reproach to the Jews.” 7 Here I must interject a comment about the famous “ orientalism” debate between Lewis and Edward Said. In Orientalism, Said excused his omission of the German Arabists and Islamicists on the grounds that Germany had not taken part in the colonialization of the Middle East, unlike France and England, for whom “ orientalism,” in Said’s pejorative meaning of the word, served as the handmaiden of their imperialist colonial project. Had Said thoroughly investigated the German (or German-writing) orientalists he would have discovered what Lewis had described in 1968—that they were disproportionally Jews and that they admired Islam—and that Lewis , the arch “ orientalist” in Said’s lineup of culprits, had written sympathetically about their pro­ Islamic posture.8 Looking from the outside in, The Jews of Islam commands our attention for many reasons. I will take them up in the order of the chapters. The opening chapter, “Islam and Other Religions,” announces from its title one of the foundational themes of the book. Lewis approaches the Jews as but one of the several religions with whom Islam came into contact. These (primarily Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians), are the dhimmĩs, the “protected people,” a status awarded to the adherents of religions whom the Qur’an identifies as “People of the Book.” Lewis’s choice of framework for this chapter may have been a response to two works about the non-Muslims he cites in the very first note, one in French (subsequently translated into English, Hebrew, and Russian), the other in German—studies that, he writes, “ emphasize the negative aspects of the Muslim record.” The Internet did not yet exist as a public medium when The Jews o f Islam was first published in 1984. The present reprint

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appears at a time when the world of electronic (mis)information has become a forum for post-9/11 Islamophobic condemnation of what some have come to call, derogatively, “ dhimmitude.” The Jews of Islam presents a different and more balanced paradigm of interfaith relations than the one that I have called “the neo­ lachrymose conception of Jewish-Arab history.” 9 Lewis treats the dhimma as it should be treated, as a category, enshrined in Islamic holy law (in turn, anchored in the religious principles of Islam), that guaranteed basic privileges, even as it defined limitations on those rights. It was the outcome of a process, based in the first instance on Muhammad’s contact and conflict with the Jews of Medina (there were no Christians in this first center of the Islamic polity). The early dhimma policy, as Lewis describes it, was forged in a context in which Muslims were the numerical minority and had to assert their power over and differentiate themselves from the majority of indigenous inhabitants of the territories conquered by the Muslim armies. After Medina, the Jews in the former lands of the Byzantine Empire and Sasanian Persia subjugated by Islam receded into the demographic background, though they were subject to the same status as the more numerous Christian and Zoroastrian populations. During the early centuries of Islamic rule (up to the twelfth or thirteenth century), when Islamic society went largely unchallenged by outside forces, dhimma policy in practice exhibited substantial toleration, reflecting the pluralistic makeup of the Islamic world, in which “Muslims, Christians and Jew s.w hile professing different religions, formed a single society.” During these centuries, the dhimma restrictions, codified in the so-called Pact o f Umar, were honored more in the breach than in the execution, and persecution was the exception, not the rule. Additionally, Muslim clerics and rulers (with notable exceptions, to be sure) normally exercised due process before “punishing” a non-Muslim for alleged violations of the Pact. In this connection, Lewis notes an important contrast with the fate of the Jews in Christian lands, where they were the only non-Christian group and hence the focused attention of Christian fears and enmity, and more frequently the objects of persecution than in Islamic countries.

FOREWORD TO THE PRINCETON CLASSICS EDITION ■ x v i i

Furthermore, Lewis argues, the well-known episodes of severity or “persecution” in the early Islamic centuries, such as the enforcement of the dhimma under the pious Caliph Umar II in the early eighth century and the anti-dhimmĩ decrees of the Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil in the middle of the ninth, should be understood contextually, as responses to challenges to proper Islamic belief and to unacceptable non­ Muslim behavior. The (in)famous assassination of the Jewish vizier, Joseph ibn Nagrella, and the subsequent massacre of the Jewish community of Granada in 1066 (one of the few violent episodes in the early centuries that specifically targeted Jews), resulted from a backlash against Jewish failure to keep their part of the dhimma bargain by exceeding the lowly profile they were required to maintain. Lewis explains that things changed for the worse in the later Middle Ages, in part, as S. D. Goitein already suggested, because the politically decentralized, more open, hence more tolerant “ bourgeois” society of the early centuries was replaced by authoritarian regimes that exercised stricter control over the economy and undermined some of the toleration of the preceding centuries. Lewis also presents his own, complementary thesis to explain the shift from tolerance to intolerance. When Islamic dominion was secure, dhimmĩs were secure; when Islam was threatened from the outside, dhimmĩs became insecure. Islamic power began to be challenged by external forces in the East at the time of the Crusades that began at the end of the eleventh century, and in the West, in the form of the Catholic Reconquista in Spain that got underway somewhat earlier. In the thirteenth century, the pagan Mongols decimated a large portion of the population in the Eastern Islamic domain and destroyed the last vestiges of the Caliphate. But Lewis explains that the reversal in dhimmĩ fortunes in the later Muslim Middle Ages bore none of the traits characteristic of Christian anti-Semitism. Muslim repression was based in part on what we might call a “rational” fear that dhimmĩs might act in collusion with the external enemy. Christian persecution of Jews in medieval Europe (in modern times as well), in contrast, was based on an “irrational” fear of “imagined” Jewish power.

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Dhimmĩ policy was enforced more rigorously on the periphery of the Muslim world, in the Islamic West under the rigorist Almohads in the twelfth century, and in Iran after Shi ism became the state religion in the sixteenth century. Driven by a purist, “messianic” vision of Islam, the Almohads violently imposed their version of Islam upon non-Muslims as well as nonconforming Muslims, in violation of the principle of “ no compulsion in religion” (Qur’an 2:256). They thereby effectively put an end to Christianity in North Africa. The Jews, who returned to open profession of Judaism after Almohad zealotry died down, remained the only dhimmĩs on the scene, losing some of the protection that being part of a pluralistic society offered. In late medieval Iran, Shi ism posed a special difficulty for the Jews and other non-Muslims. In contrast to mainstream Sunni Islam, the Shi ites of Iran elevated the concept of impurity (najasa, based on Qur’an 9:28) to the center of their belief. Jews and other dhimmĩs were considered inherently impure, and physical contact with them was prohibited. This doctrine, likely intensified, as Lewis cogently suggests, by Zoroastrian concepts of impurity, increased the vulnerability of the Jews and others to repression, persecution, and forced conversion. Chapter 2 introduces the felicitous term, “Judaeo-Islamic Tradition,” by which Lewis means the shared religious and cultural civilization of Judaism and Islam, a closer relationship even than the better-known “Judaeo-Christian tradition.” Lewis also employs Goitein’s term, “ symbiosis,” to highlight the reciprocal influence of the two cultures. His discussion of possible Jewish or Christian influences on the founder of Islam is tempered with a respectful summary of what Muslims themselves believe about their religion. This was a “ diverse and pluralistic civilization,” a civilization (again, contrasted with Christendom) which was “non-theological” and “ non­ ideological” in its attitudes and treatment of Jews. Some of the hostility expressed in the (relatively meager) fund of Muslim polemic against the Jews originated, in fact, with Christian or Jewish converts. In contrast, a respectful trend can be found among Sufi mystics and rational relativists. Islam’s proximity to Judaism as well as political opportunism explains the many

FOREWORD TO THE PRINCETON CLASSICS EDITION ■ XIX

voluntary Jewish conversions to the dominant faith. Episodes of forced conversion mentioned above explicate Lewis’s claim that non-Muslims experienced greater difficulty on the periphery of the Islamic world than in the central Islamic lands. Most of the time Jews and other non-Muslims encountered, not violence, but “ humiliation” and “minor harassment.” Lewis understands contextually Maimonides’s famous statement in his letter to the beleaguered Jews of Yemen in 1172, that “ [n]o nation has ever done more harm to Israel” than Islam, a passage that has become the banner motto of the “neo-lachrymose,” Islamophobic school. The statement reflects the great sage’s own recent experience of Almohad persecution in his native Spain and Morocco and “cannot be accepted as an accurate general picture...[b]ut his observations certainly contain a proportion of truth.” Lewis concludes this chapter with a few necessary words about the communal and judicial autonomy that the Muslim authorities granted to the Jews. In chapter 3, “ Late Medieval and Early Modern Times,” Lewis discusses, briefly, the geopolitical background of Jewish life from Central Asia to Morocco and then devotes his main attention to the Ottoman Empire, which, compared to the classical period, offers “ such greater opportunity,” while “ showing such smaller accomplishment.” He describes the exciting data that are revealed by the Ottoman archives as well as other types of source material that can be exploited for this period. Since 1984, much additional work has been done in this area, and the scholarship is in no small way indebted to Lewis’s pioneering efforts and encouragement. The detailed data on Jewish demography afforded by Ottoman archival records is unique for pre-modern Jewish history. Communal life and intellectual contributions of Ottoman Jewry, explicated in the mostly Hebrew sources, appear quite different from the classical Islamic period, in part because of the presence of a strong European element in the form of the conspicuous Spanish-speaking exiles from Iberia and their descendants—immigrants escaping Christian persecution who brought useful economic skills to the Empire. Ottoman policy and practice with regard to the Jews was not particularly onerous, and in some ways the Jews were favored

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by the Sultans for their economic skills and their international contacts, and because the rulers preferred their unquestionably loyal services to those of their Greek, Armenian, and Christian Arab subjects. On the whole, the interaction of Jews and Turks did not exhibit the cultural symbiosis of the classical period. Furthermore, following the Jewish florescence in the sixteenth century, Jewish vitality, in part the result of the economic competition just mentioned, slipped gradually into a state of decline in the seventeenth century, a decline that mirrored the growing weakness of the Ottoman Empire itself. The Ottoman regime became less tolerant, though the worst excesses were instigated by Christians, for instance, the blood libel, occasionally in the sixteenth century and then more frequently, with serious repercussions, in the nineteenth century. The dominant attention paid to Ottoman Jewry in this chapter, reflecting Lewis’s own research interests and his efforts to advance the study of this relatively neglected period, leaves the treatment of Morocco and of Iran to a relatively short coda at the end of the chapter. The “historical law” that pluralism worked to the advantage of the Jews is illustrated by Lewis’s depiction of the more miserable position of Moroccan Jewry, who represented the only remaining dhimmī community in the country. Jews in Iran in this late medieval/early modern period suffered the consequences of the doctrine of impurity and periodic pressures to convert, and things did not improve under the Qajar dynasty (1794-1925). In the final chapter Lewis describes what he calls “The End of the Tradition.” The picture of Jewish life in the nineteenth century that emerges, whether in Iran, Morocco, or the Ottoman Empire, is depressing. The blood libel, an import from European Christian anti-Semitism to the Muslim world, proliferates, though the perpetrators are typically Christian, not Muslim. Increasingly, the story features Western governments intervening in these territories in defense of fellow Christians and of their own national interests. In the case of the Jews, European organizations like the French Alliance Israelite Universelle come to the Jews’ defense, supporting at the same time the French mission to “civilize” the “ backward” Muslim world. Iran is the

FOREWORD TO THE PRINCETON CLASSICS EDITION ■ XXI

worst place for the Jews in this period. The Ottoman Empire, with reforms that include the end of the dhimma system, emerges from Lewis’s account with a better record. As he does for earlier centuries, among the many causes of the deterioration in Jewish life in this final epoch, Lewis singles out the decline of Islamic power and self-confidence, this time in reaction to the “ stranglehold” of British, French, and Russian interventionism—in short, Western imperialism. Muslim resentment towards the non-Muslim population—in the first instance, the more numerous European Christians, but eventually also the Jews—rises in proportion to the newfound influence and protection that many non-Muslims derived from their identification with western powers. If something of the cohesive “Judaeo-Islamic tradition” still survived in the nineteenth century, Lewis seems to be telling us, foreign intervention and Jewish responsiveness to European education and to modernization began to drive a wedge between the indigenous Jews and their Muslim neighbors. At the same time, eastern Christians, seeking to discomfort their Jewish business competitors, increasingly turned to European-style anti-Semitism. For their part, Jews in the Ottoman Empire failed to mimic the Greeks and Armenians by embracing the education provided by European schools and other trappings of modernization, at least until the end of the nineteenth century; they differed in this respect from North African Jewry, whose countries were directly under French colonial rule. Another indication of the “ end of the tradition” Lewis points to is the migration of anti-Semitism to the Muslims themselves. This trend, driven to a large eXtent, Lewis acknowledges, by the perceived threat of Zionism, appears in propaganda of all sorts—from speeches by politicians to children’s school books and cartoons. Along with other, longer-range causes of decline in their position that the Jews of Islam shared with other nonMuslims, the Palestine question made things worse for the Jews, even though most of them took little interest in Zionism until prompted by violence perpetrated by Arabs in response to the growing Zionist threat. The departure of most Jews from Muslim lands in response to verbal and physical violence following the

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establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 spelled the final rupture in what was left of the Judaeo-Islamic tradition. The Jews of Islam was a landmark book when it appeared. No up-to-date overview of the subject existed at that time. Its translations into a half-dozen or more foreign languages signify its international impact. This reissue of the book, appearing thirty years after its original publication, is a testament to the author’s sober understanding of a controversial subject. It stands head and shoulders above the many Islamophobic depictions of the Jewish experience in the Islamic world as well as the spate of overly rosy accounts in Arabic books and articles appearing both before and since the book’s publication. Those wishing a concise overview of the long period of Jewish-Muslim relations will find it engaging, while more serious students who need a starting point from which to branch out and go deeper into some of the subjects covered here will find Lewis’s book an indispensable introduction.10 Mark R. Cohen The Khedouri A. Zilkha Professor of Jewish Civilization in the Near East, Emeritus Princeton University

NOTES 1. It was presaged by an article in French, “ L’lslam et les nonmusulmans,” Annales: histoire, sciences sociales 35 (1980), 784-800. 2. Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice (New York, 1986; rev. ed. 1999). Lewis published a short, anticipatory article, “Semites and Anti-Semites: Race in the Arab-Israel Conflict,” in the journal Survey 79, no. 2 (1971), 169-184. The same year the book came out Lewis published a longer article on “The New Anti-Semitism” in the pages of the New York Review of Books (March 1986). 3. In his memoirs, Lewis writes: “While my principal concern had for

FOREWORD TO THE PRINCETON CLASSICS EDITION ■ x x i i i

some time been mainstream Islamic history, I had never forgotten the Hebraic and Judaic interests and concerns which had first led me into the field of Middle Eastern studies.” Notes on a Century: Reflections of a Middle East Historian (with Buntzie Ellis Churchill) (New York, 2012), 95. In what follows I do not include Lewis’s writings on Israel and the Middle East conflict, as they do not properly belong to his oeuvre on Jewish history under Islam. 4. BSOAS 10 (1939), 179-184. 5. Sinai (1940), 25-29. 6. Metsudah, ed. S., Rawidowicz, (London, 1945), 171-180. See Notes on a Century, 95-96. 7. I have developed this idea further in my book, Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages (Princeton University Press, 1994; new edition with new Introduction and new Afterword, 2008), chapter 1, “Myth and Countermyth.” 8. Said cites Goldziher only three times in Orientalism. His only substantive comment about him is the following: “Ignaz Goldziher’s appreciation of Islam’s tolerance towards other religions was undercut by his dislike of Mohammed’s anthropomorphisms and Islam’s tooexterior theology and jurisprudence.” 9. Mark R. Cohen, “The Neo-Lachrymose Conception of Jewish-Arab History,” Tikkun (May/June, 1991), 55-60. 10. An additional overview of this subject can be found in the recently published History of Jewish-Muslim Relations: From the Origins to the Present Day, edited by Abdelwahab Meddeb and Benjamin Stora, published by Princeton University Press in 2013, simultaneously with the original French edition.

TH E JE W S O F ISL A M

ONE

Islam and Other Religions T w o stereotypes dominate most of what has been written on tolerance and intolerance in the Islamic world.1 The first depicts a fanatical warrior, an Arab horseman riding out of the desert with a sword in one hand and the Qur’an in the other, offering his victims the choice between the two. This picture, made famous by Edward Gibbon1 in his D e clin e and Fall o f the R om an E m pire , is not only false but impossible— unless we are to assume a race of left-handed swordsmen. In Muslim practice, the left hand is reserved for unclean purposes, and no self-respecting Muslim, then or now, would use it to raise the Qur’an. The other image, almost equally preposterous, is that of an interfaith, interracial uto­ pia, in which men and women belonging to different races, professing different creeds, lived side by side in a golden age of unbroken harmony, enjoying equality of rights and of op­ portunities, and toiling together for the advancement of civ­ ilization. To put the two stereotypes in Jewish terms, in one version classical Islam was like modern America, only better; in the other it was like Hitler’s Germany, only worse, if such can be imagined. Both images are of course wildly distorted; yet both contain, as stereotypes often do, some elements of truth. Two features they have in common are that they are relatively recent, and that they are of Western and not Islamic origin. For Christians and Muslims alike, tolerance is a new virtue, intolerance a new crime. For the greater part of the history of both com­ munities, tolerance was not valued nor was intolerance con­ demned. Until comparatively modern times, Christian Europe neither prized nor practiced tolerance itself, and was not greatly offended by its absence in others. The charge that was always brought against Islam was not that its doctrines were imposed

4 ■

CHAPTER I

by force— something seen as normal and natural— but that its doctrines were false. Similarly on the Muslim side, the claim to tolerance, now much heard from Muslim apologists and more especially from apologists for Islam, is also new and of alien origin. It is only very recently that some defenders of Islam have begun to assert that their society in the past ac­ corded equal status to non-Muslims. No such claim is made by spokesmen for resurgent Islam,3 and historically there is no doubt that they are right. Traditional Islamic societies nei­ ther accorded such equality nor pretended that they were so doing. Indeed, in the old order, this would have been regarded not as a merit but as a dereliction of duty. How could one accord the same treatment to those who follow the true faith and those who willfully reject it? This would be a theological as well as a logical absurdity. The truth, as usual, is somewhere between the opposing and contrasting stereotypes, and is more complex, more var­ ied, more shaded than either of them. How tolerant has Islam been in the past? The answers we may give to this question depend very much on the definitions we assign to its terms. What do we mean by Islam? This is neither as easy nor as obvious as might at first sight appear. What do we mean by tolerance? This again has many different definitions and raises many questions, not least of which is our standard of comparison. The definition of Islam raises problems that are by now familiar. As has often been pointed out, the word “ Islam” is commonly used in several different senses. In the first instance it denotes what Muslims conceive as the definitive revelation vouchsafed by God to the Prophet Muhammad and contained in the holy book called the Qur’an. This is what might be called the original Islam, a set of doctrines and commandments that is the basis and also the starting point of the religion known by that name. But the word “ Islam,” like the word “ Christianity,” is also used in a second and broader sense to indicate the historical development of that religion after the death of its founder. In this sense the term “ Islam” embraces theology and mysticism,

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 5

worship and ritual, law and statecraft, and the whole complex of what countless Muslims thought, said, and did in the name of their faith. Islam in this sense may be as different from the Islam of the Prophet as, shall we say, the Christianity of the Emperor Constantine and the bishops from the Christianity of Christ— or, we might add, as different as the Judaism of the Talmud from that of the Torah, or the Judaism of today from that of the Talmud. On the whole, however, the difference was probably less radical in Islam than in either Judaism or Christianity, because of the very different experiences of the founders of the three religions. M oses died before he entered the promised land; Christ died on the cross. Muhammad attained not martyrdom but power. During his lifetime he became a head of state, commanding armies, collecting taxes, administering justice, and promulgating laws. The resulting interpenetration of faith and power, of religion and authority, has remained charac­ teristic of Islam throughout most of its history. Even so, a great deal happened after the death of the Prophet, and Islam in the empire of the caliphs, like Christianity in the empires of Rome and its successors, evolved into something vastly more complex and more extensive than the original dispen­ sation. Finally, there is a third meaning in which the term “ Islam” is the counterpart not of Christianity but of Christendom. In this sense it denotes not just a religion but a whole civilization, including many things that, as we in the Western world classify them, would not be regarded as religious in any sense. The term “ Islamic art,” for example, denotes virtually any kind of art produced within the Islamic world and marked by cer­ tain cultural and not merely religious characteristics. The term “ Christian art” is limited to devotional and ecclesiastical art and would certainly not be extended to include art produced by Christians, still less by non-Christians living within the world of Christendom. Similarly, “ Islamic science” means mathematics, physics, chemistry, and the rest, produced within this Islamic civilization and expressed normally in Arabic, occasionally in one of the other languages of Islam. Much of

6

■ CHAPTER I

this science, as of this art, is the work not of Muslims but of Christians and Jews living in Islamic lands and constituting a part of the Islamic civilization in which they were formed. In contrast, the term “ Christian science” is not used to designate the scientific achievements of Christians and others in Chris­ tendom. Indeed, until comparatively recently the term was not used at all, and when it first made its appearance, it was with an entirely different meaning. Given the centrality and pervasiveness of religion in Islamic life and culture, even in this third sense of the word, the religious element in Islam is greater and more significant than in Christendom. But in this sense the term “ Islam” denotes not precept but practice, not the doctrines and commandments of Islam, but the record of Muslim history— a record, that is, of the activities of human beings, their successes and failures, their weaknesses and achievements. And Muslims, like the rest of mankind, sometimes fall short of their own ideals, and sometimes relax their own strict rules. If we look for tolerance or intolerance in both the theory and practice of Islam, the answers may differ according to the definition of Islam that we adopt. They may also differ according to our standard and measure of tolerance. What indeed do we mean by tolerance? In dealing with such subjects there is an inevitable tendency to assess and evaluate by comparison. If we speak of tolerance in Islam, we shall soon find ourselves measuring tolerance in Islam against tol­ erance in other societies—in Christendom, in India, in the Far East, or perhaps in the modern West. This is a form of com­ parison much cultivated by polemicists of various factions. The polemicist can of course make his task much easier by choosing the terms of comparison that suit him best. It is, for example, always easy to demonstrate the superiority of one religion to another by contrasting the precept of the one with the practice of the other. I recall reading a delightful little pamphlet proving that the Islamic caliphate was superior to the American presidency. This was done by the simple device of defining the caliphate in terms of theological and juridical treatises and the presidency in terms of the latest scandals

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■

J

from Washington. It would of course be equally easy, if any­ one thought it worth the trouble, to demonstrate the reverse by the same method—by defining the presidency in terms of the constitution, and the caliphate in terms of gossip from medieval Baghdad, which is not lacking in the sources at our disposal. This kind of comparison, however common, is not very helpful. It may be emotionally satisfying, but it is intellectually dishonest to compare one’s theory with the other’s practice. It is equally misleading to compare one’s best with the other’s worst. If, as the term of comparison for Christendom, we take the Spanish Inquisition or the German death camps, then it is easy to prove almost any society tolerant. There is nothing like Auschwitz in Islamic history, but it would not be difficult to name Muslim rulers or leaders worthy to rank with Cotton Mather or Torquemada and thus demonstrate Christian tol­ erance. Other, more subtle, forms of loaded comparisons can be achieved by comparing discrepant times, places, and situa­ tions. For example, we can compare a medieval society with a modern one, or a believing society in which religion is pro­ foundly important and religious tolerance is a searching test with a secular society in which religion is of minor interest. Tolerance is easy in matters of indifference; it is much more difficult in those that deeply concern us. A glance at the ef­ fective limits on freedom of expression in academic life even in the most advanced present-day democracies will illustrate this point. Though other disparities have displaced religion as the main source of conflict and therefore of repression in our modern society, the term “ tolerance” is still most commonly used to indicate acceptance by a dominant religion of the presence of others. Our present inquiry is limited to one question: How did Islam in power treat other religions? Or, to put it more precisely, how did those who, in different times and places, saw themselves as the upholders of Muslim authority and law, treat their non-Muslim subjects? Whether this treatment deserves the name of tolerance de­

8

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pends, as already noted, on the definition of terms. If by tol­ erance we mean the absence of discrimination, there is one answer; if the absence of persecution, quite another. Discrim­ ination was always there, permanent and indeed necessary, inherent in the system and institutionalized in law and prac­ tice. Persecution, that is to say, violent and active repression, was rare and atypical. Jews and Christians under Muslim rule were not normally called upon to suffer martyrdom for their faith. They were not often obliged to make the choice, which confronted Muslims and Jews in reconquered Spain, between exile, apostasy, and death. They were not subject to any major territorial or occupational restrictions, such as were the com­ mon lot of Jews in premodern Europe. There are some ex­ ceptions to these statements, but they do not affect the broad pattern until comparatively modern times and even then only in special areas, periods, and cases. Islam has often been described as an egalitarian religion, and in many senses it is indeed such. If we look at the changes made by Islam at the time of its advent in seventh century Arabia; still more, if we compare the Muslim world in me­ dieval times with caste in India to the east or with the en­ trenched aristocratic privilege of Christian Europe to the west, then Islam does indeed appear as an egalitarian religion in an egalitarian society. In principle and in law, it recognizes nei­ ther caste nor aristocracy. Human nature being what it is, both tend to obtrude themselves on occasion; but when this happens, it is in spite of Islam and not as part of it, and such departures from equality have repeatedly been condemned by both traditionalists and radicals as non-Islamic or anti-Islamic innovations. All in all there was far greater social mobility in Islam than was permitted either in Christian Europe or Hindu India. But this equality of status and opportunity was limited in certain important respects. The rank of a full member of society was restricted to free male Muslims. Those who lacked any of these three essential qualifications—that is, the slave, the woman, or the unbeliever—were not equal. The three basic inequalities of master and slave, man and woman, believer and unbeliever,

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 9

were not merely admitted; they were established and regulated by holy law. All three groups of inferiors were seen as nec­ essary, or at least as useful, and all had their places and func­ tions, even if occasional doubts were expressed about the third. Though there was general agreement on the need for slaves and women, there was at times some question about the need for unbelievers. The common view, however, was that they served a variety of useful purposes, mostly economic. A major difference between the three is the element of choice. A woman cannot choose to become a man. A slave can be freed, but by the choice of his master, not his own. Both the woman and the slave are thus in a position of involuntary— for the woman also immutable— inferiority. The inferiority of the unbeliever, however, is entirely optional, and he can end it at any time by a simple act of will. By adopting Islam he becomes a member of the dominant community, and his status of legal inferiority is at an end. True, in the earliest Islamic period there was some social differentiation between the Arab Muslims who founded the Empire and the non-Arab converts who appeared among their subjects, and traces of these dif­ ferences remained in the formulations of the law.4 But in general, these early distinctions were forgotten, and in most times and places the perceived differences between old M us­ lims and new converts did not go beyond the bounds of fa­ miliar social snobbery. The status of inferiority to which the unbeliever was subject was thus entirely voluntary; from a Muslim point of view it might indeed be described as willful. For the Muslim, Jews and Christians were people who had been offered G oď s truth in its final and perfect form, of which their own religions were earlier, imperfect, and abrogated forms, and yet had willfully and foolishly rejected it. Of the three victims of social inferiority, therefore, the un­ believer was the only one who remained inferior by his own choice. He was also the one whose disabilities were on the whole the least onerous of the three. Other things being equal, it was more comfortable to be a free male unbeliever than a woman or a slave in Muslim society. Perhaps for this very reason it was felt to be more necessary with an unbeliever

IO ■ CHAPTER I

th a n w ith a w o m a n o r a slave to en fo rce o r a t least visibly to sym bolize th e sta tu s o f in fe rio rity . O f this m o re in a m o m e n t. T h e h isto ry o f th e re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e M u slim sta te o n th e o n e h a n d a n d its n o n -M u slim su b jects a n d , la te r, n e ig h b o rs o n th e o th e r begins w ith th e c a re e r o f th e P ro p h e t. T h e Q u r ’an a n d th e M u slim tra d itio n tell us a b o u t M u h a m m a d ’s d ealin g s w ith th e Je w s o f M e d in a a n d o f th e n o rth e rn H ijaz, w ith th e C h ristia n s o f N a jr ā n in th e so u th a n d som e o th e r C h ristia n s in th e n o rth , a n d w ith th e p a g a n s w h o c o n stitu te d th e m a jo rity o f th e A ra b ia n p o p u la tio n . F o r p a g a n s th e choice w as clear: Islam o r d e a th . F o r Jew s a n d C h ristia n s, p o ssesso rs o f w h a t w ere recognized as revealed religions, based on authentic th o u g h su p e rse d e d re v e la tio n s, th e choice in c lu d e d a th ird term : Is­ lam , d e a th , o r su b m issio n . S u b m issio n involv ed th e p a y m e n t o f trib u te a n d th e ac c e p tan c e o f M u slim su p rem acy . D e a th m ig h t be c o m m u te d to slavery. A t an early stage in his career as ruler o f M ed in a, the P ro p h et cam e in to co n flict w ith th e th re e re sid e n t Jew ish trib es. All th re e w ere o v e rc o m e a n d , a c c o rd in g to th e M u slim tra d itio n , tw o w ere given th e choice b etw een c o n v e rsio n a n d exile, a n d th e th ird , th e B anū Q u ra y z a , b etw een co n v ersio n a n d d e a th . T h e b itte rn e ss g e n e ra te d by th e o p p o sitio n o f th e Jew ish trib e s to M u h a m m a d is reflected in th e m o stly neg ativ e references to Jew s in th e Q u r ’an a n d in th e b io g ra p h y a n d tra d itio n s o f th e P ro p h e t.5 A d iffe re n t situ a tio n a ro se w ith th e c a p tu re in th e y e a r 7 o f th e H ijra (c o rre sp o n d in g to a .d . 629) o f th e oasis o f K hayb a r, a b o u t ninety-five m iles fro m M e d in a . T h is o asis, in h a b ­ ited by Jew s, in c lu d in g som e w h o h a d se ttled th ere a fte r b ein g d riv en o u t o f M e d in a , w as th e first te rrito ry c o n q u e re d by th e M u slim sta te a n d b ro u g h t u n d e r its rule. T h e Jew s o f K h a y b a r c a p itu la te d to th e P ro p h e t a fte r a b o u t a m o n th an d a h a lf o f h o stilities, a n d w ere g ra n te d term s by w h ich th ey w ere allo w e d to re m a in in th e oasis a n d to cu ltiv ate th e ir lan d s; b u t th ey w ere to h a n d o v er o n e -h a lf o f th e p ro d u c e to th e M u slim s. T his a g re e m e n t b ecam e a locu s classicus fo r la te r legal d is­ cu ssio n s o f th e sta tu s o f c o n q u e re d n o n -M u slim su b jects o f th e M u slim sta te . Its force as a le ad in g case w as n o t affected

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ I I

by th e s u b se q u e n t e x p u lsio n o f th e Jew s o f K h a y b a r in th e tim e o f th e calip h 'U m a r I (6 3 4 -6 4 4 ).6 C o n ta c ts w ith C h ristia n s d u rin g th e lifetim e o f th e P ro p h e t w ere ra th e r less im p o rta n t a n d very m uch less c o n te n tio u s th a n w ith Jew s. T h e P ro p h e t’s re la tio n s w ith C h ristia n trib es a n d se ttle m e n ts in th e n o rth e rn H ija z , a n d la te r in so u th e rn A ra b ia , w ere in g en eral reg u la te d by ag reem en ts, th e m o st fa m o u s o f w h ic h w as th a t co n c lu d e d w ith th e C h ristia n s o f N a jrā n . By its te rm s th e C h ristia n s w ere p e rm itte d to p ractice th e ir relig io n a n d ru n th e ir o w n affairs, o n c o n d itio n th a t th ey p a id a fixed trib u te , gave h o sp ita lity to th e P ro p h e t’s re p re ­ se n tativ es, p ro v id e d supplies to th e M u slim s in tim e o f w a r, a n d re fra in e d fro m u su ry . N o d o u b t because o f th e ra th e r m o re p eacefu l re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e P ro p h e t an d th e C h ris­ tia n s, references to th e m in th e Q u r ’an are m o re fav o rab le th a n to Jew s. A m u c h -q u o te d p assag e reflects th e P ro p h e t’s d ifferin g ex p erien ces w ith th e follow ers o f th e tw o earlier religions: “ Y o u w ill surely find th a t th e m o st h o stile to th e B elievers a re th e Jew s a n d th e id o la to rs, w hile th o se w h o have th e g re a te st a ffectio n to th e m are th e ones w h o say: ‘W e are C h ris tia n s ’ ” (V ,86). O th e r passages in th e Q u r ’an a n d else­ w h ere d e a lin g w ith Jesus, w hile n o t accep tin g C h ristia n d o c ­ trin e s o n C h ris t’s n a tu re a n d m ission, nevertheless sh are th e C h ristia n view o f th e Jew ish rejectio n . T o w a rd th e en d o f the P ro p h e t’s life, th e e x p a n sio n o f th e M u slim state b ro u g h t it in to c o n ta c t a n d som etim es in to conflict w ith C h ristia n trib es, a n d a s o m e w h a t less b enign a ttitu d e to w a rd C h ristia n s is re ­ flected in M u slim sc rip tu re a n d tra d itio n . B ut in g en eral, w hile these o n th e w h o le ex p ress a far m o re sy m p a th e tic a ttitu d e to w a rd C h ristia n s th a n to w a rd Jew s, th e su b se q u e n t dev el­ o p m e n t o f Islam ic law m ak es n o such d istin c tio n b etw een th e tw o . T h e p o litic a l p ro b le m p o se d by th e re la tio n s b etw een M u s ­ lim a n d n o n -M u slim w as a lre a d y clear in th e lifetim e o f th e P ro p h e t, a n d th e p rin cip les fo r its so lu tio n are c o n ta in e d in th e Q u r ’an . As chief m a g istra te a n d la te r ru ler o f th e co m ­ m u n ity o f M e d in a , th e P ro p h e t h a d Jew ish sub jects; as so v ­ ereign o f th e Islam ic sta te he h a d re la tio n s w ith b o th C h ristia n

1 2 ■ CHAPTER I

a n d Je w ish n e ig h b o rs in o th e r p a rts o f A ra b ia . A lread y a t th e b e g in n in g , th e q u e stio n w as seen as o n e o f p o w e r— th e ru les to be fo llo w e d by th e M u slim sta te in its dealin g s w ith n o n M u slim su b jects, n e ig h b o rs, a n d u ltim a te ly c o n q u e sts, a n d th e la rg e r p rin c ip le s fro m w h ic h th ese rules derive. T h e Q u r ’an sp e a k s clearly a n d u n e q u iv o c a lly o n these issues a n d c o n ta in s th e n u cleu s o f w h a t la te r b ecam e a n e la b o ra te sy stem o f legal re g u la tio n s. B ut M u h a m m a d becam e a sta te sm a n in o rd e r to acco m p lish his m issio n as a p ro p h e t, n o t vice v ersa, a n d it is clear th a t th e m o re strictly relig io u s asp ect o f th ese re la tio n sh ip s w a s also a p rim e co n c e rn . H e re to o th e Q u r ’an is very in stru c tiv e . U nlike m o st e a rlie r relig io u s d o c u m e n ts, it sh o w s aw a re n e ss o f re lig io n as a c a te g o ry o f p h e n o m e n a , a n d n o t m erely as a single p h e n o m e n o n .7 T h e re is n o t ju st o n e relig io n ; th e re are relig io n s. T h e w o rd u sed in A ra b ic is dīn, o b v io u sly re la te d to th e H e b re w a n d A ra m a ic w o rd m e a n in g law . In b o th J u ­ daism an d Islam , religion an d law , th o u g h n o t identical, largely o v e rla p . O u r m o d e rn w o rd “ re lig io n ” com es fro m th e L a tin , b u t th e L a tin religio a n d th e G re e k threskeia m ean ra th e r d iffe re n t th in g s. T h e n o tio n o f relig io n as a class o r c a te g o ry , in w h ic h Islam is o n e a n d in w h ich besides Islam th e re are o th e rs, seem s to h av e been p re se n t fro m th e a d v e n t o f th e Islam ic d isp e n sa tio n . T h e Q u r ’an c o n ta in s a n u m b e r o f p a s ­ sages in w h ic h th e n ew religion defines itself a g a in st o th e rs— a n o rm a l w a y o f self-d efin itio n , fo r co m m u n ities as w ell as in d iv id u a ls. A m u c h -c ite d p h ra se d escribes th e M u slim s as a um m a dũn al-nãs , a p e o p le o r a c o m m u n ity d istin c t fro m th e re st o f m a n k in d . Islam is defined a g a in st C h ristia n ity by verses rejectin g th e in c a rn a tio n a n d th e trin ity , a g a in st J u d a ism by p assag es a b a n d o n in g som e o f th e Jew ish d ie ta ry law s. F a r m o re im p o rta n t th a n th e rejectio n o f C h ristia n ity o r J u d a ism , h o w e v e r, w a s th e re je c tio n o f p a g a n ism — th e m a in en em y a g a in st w h ic h th e P ro p h e t fo u g h t a n d fro m w h ich h e w o n th e m a in b o d y o f his c o n v erts. In ev itab ly , th e stru g g le a g a in st p a g a n ism b ro u g h t Islam closer to J u d a ism a n d C h ristia n ity , seen, if n o t as allies, th e n as k in d re d faith s o p p o se d to a c o m m o n ad v e rsa ry .

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 13

S o m e th in g o f th is sense o f k in sh ip can be d iscern ed , a t least in la te r tim es, in th e co n scio u sn ess o f all th re e c o m m u n ities. T h e re are p assag es in th e Q u r ’a n th a t have been in te rp re te d by la te r c o m m e n ta to rs a n d exegetes as an accep tan ce o f re ­ ligious p lu ra lism , even o f coexistence. T h o u g h th e precise m e a n in g o f som e o f these p assages in th e o rig in al te x t h as recen tly b een ch allen g ed , th e re can be n o d o u b t a b o u t th e co n sen su s o f M u slim o p in io n . T h u s, fo r ex am p le, th e verse la ikrãha fľl-d īn (II,2 5 6 ), “ th e re is n o co m p u lsio n in re lig io n ,” h a s u su ally b een ta k e n to m ean th a t o th e r religions sh o u ld be to le ra te d , a n d th a t th e ir fo llo w ers sh o u ld n o t be fo rced to a d o p t Islam . R ecen tly a E u ro p e a n sc h o la r h as arg u ed th a t th is p h ra se is n o t a c o m m e n d a tio n o f to le ra n c e b u t ra th e r an e x p re ssio n o f re sig n a tio n — an a lm o st re lu c ta n t a ccep tan ce o f th e o b d u ra c y o f o th e rs .8 O n e m ay arg u e fo r o r a g a in st th is in te rp re ta tio n o f th e o rig in a l m e a n in g o f th e Q u r ’an ic w o rd s, b u t even if w e accep t th is v ersio n , it does n o t affect th e w ay in w h ic h th e verse w as n o rm a lly a n d reg u larly in te rp re te d in th e Islam ic legal a n d th eo lo g ical tra d itio n . T h e sam e m ay be said o f th e w ell k n o w n verse lakum d īn uku m w a līd īrìī (C IX ,6 ), “ T o y o u y o u r religion, to m e m y re lig io n .” H ere ag ain th e re m ay be som e u n c e rta in ty as to w h a t precisely th ese w o rd s co n v ey ed in th e ir o rig in al c o n te x t, b u t a c o m m o n su b se q u e n t in te rp re ta tio n w as to use this as p ro o f-te x t fo r p lu ra lism a n d coex isten ce. A n o th e r Q u r ’anic verse (II,62) a p p e a rs to o ffer even m o re strik in g su p p o rt: “ T h o se w h o believe [i.e., th e M u s ­ lim s], a n d th o se w h o pro fess Ju d a ism , a n d th e C h ristia n s a n d th e S ab ian s, th o se w h o believe in G o d a n d th e L ast D ay a n d a c t rig h te o u sly , shall have th e ir re w a rd w ith th e ir L o rd ; th e re shall be n o fe a r in th e m , n e ith e r shall th ey g riev e.” A t first sig h t, th is verse m ig h t seem to tre a t th e fo u r m o n o th e istic a n d sc rip tu ra l religions as eq u al. W hile such an in te rp re ta tio n is ex c lu d e d by o th e r passages in th e Q u r ’a n , th is verse n e v e r­ theless served to justify th e to le ra te d p o sitio n ac c o rd e d to th e fo llo w ers o f these religions u n d e r M u slim rule. A m u c h -c ite d ex am p le o f o th e r, m o re neg ativ e, passag es o c c u rs in V ,5 i : “ O y o u w h o believe, d o n o t ta k e th e Jew s a n d C h ristia n s as frien d s [or p e rh a p s allies— th e w o rd is aw-

1 4 ■ CHAPTER I

liyã’]\ th ey are frien d s o f o n e a n o th e r, a n d w h o e v e r a m o n g y o u ta k e s th e m as frien d s w ill beco m e o n e o f th e m .” T h is a n d o th e r sim ila r verses reflect th e p e rio d s w h e n th e P ro p h e t w as in conflict w ith b o th religions. A w e ll-k n o w n verse o f th e late p e rio d deals w ith th e n eed fo r th e h o ly w a r a g a in st th e u n ­ believers a n d th e im p o sitio n o n th e m o f a p o ll ta x (Q u r’an , IX ,29): “ F ig h t a g a in st th o se w h o d o n o t believe in G o d o r in th e L ast D ay , w h o d o n o t fo rb id w h a t G o d a n d his P ro p h e t hav e fo rb id d e n o r p ra c tic e th e tru e relig io n , a m o n g th o se w h o h av e been given th e B o o k , u n til th ey p ay th e jizya [poll-tax] fro m th e ir h a n d , th ey b ein g h u m b le d (‘an yadin w ahum sãgh irūrì)Γ T h ese fo u r w o rd s have recen tly been th e su b ject o f several stu d ie s, cu rio u sly e n o u g h w ritte n a lm o st e n tirely by Je w ish , m o stly Israeli sch o lars, o fferin g n ew in te rp re ta tio n s o f w h a t th ese A ra b ic w o rd s really m e a n o r co u ld o rig in ally have m e a n t.9 B ut h ere ag a in w h a t co n c e rn s us is n o t th e o rig ­ in al m e a n in g o f th e verse b u t th e w ay in w h ich it w as in te r­ p re te d in h isto ric Islam . O n th is th e re is little d o u b t. T h e n o rm a l in te rp re ta tio n w a s th a t th e jizya w as n o t o n ly a ta x b u t also a sy m b o lic e x p re ssio n o f su b o rd in a tio n . T h e Q u r ’an a n d tra d itio n o fte n use th e w o rd d h u lł o r dhilla (h u m ilia tio n o r a b a se m e n t) to in d ic a te th e sta tu s G o d h as assig n ed to th o se w h o reject M u h a m m a d , a n d in w h ich they sh o u ld be k e p t so lo n g as th e y p e rsist in th a t rejectio n . T h u s, in a p assag e o n th e C h ild re n o f Israel, w e read : “ T h ey w ere c o n sig n ed to h u m ilia tio n a n d w re tc h e d n e ss; th ey b ro u g h t th e w ra th o f G o d u p o n th em selv es, a n d this because they used to d en y G o d ’s signs a n d kill H is P ro p h e ts u n ju stly a n d becau se th ey d iso ­ beyed a n d w ere tra n s g re s s o rs ” (II,6 i). T h e im p o sitio n o f th e jizya, a n d m o re especially th e m a n n e r o f its p a y m e n t, a re u su ally in te rp re te d in th is light. T h e w o rd s 'an yadin w ahum şãghirũn are e x p la in e d sym b o lically . T h u s, fo r M a h m u d ib n 'U m a r a l-Z a m a k h s h a rī (1 0 7 5 -1 1 4 4 ), a u th o r o f a s ta n d a rd c o m m e n ta ry o n th e Q u r ’a n , th e m ean in g o f th ese w o rd s is th a t “ th e jizya shall be ta k e n fro m th em w ith b e little m e n t a n d h u m ilia tio n . H e [the d h im m ī , i.e., th e n o n M u slim su b je c t o f th e M u slim state] shall com e in p e rso n , w a lk in g n o t rid in g . W h en he p ay s, he shall sta n d , w h ile th e

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 15

ta x c o lle c to r sits. T h e co lle c to r shall seize h im by th e scruff o f th e neck , sh ak e h im , a n d say: ‘Pay th e jizya\\ a n d w h en he p ay s it he shall be sla p p e d o n th e n a p e o f his n e c k .” 10 O th e r a u th o ritie s a d d sim ilar d e tails— such as, fo r e x am p le, th a t th e d b im m ī m u st a p p e a r w ith b e n t b a c k a n d b o w e d h e a d , th a t th e ta x c o lle c to r m u st tre a t him w ith d isd ain a n d even w ith violence, seizing his b e a rd a n d slap p in g his cheeks, a n d th e like. A piece o f sym bolism p re sc rib e d in m an y law b o o k s is th a t th e d h im m ĩs h a n d m u st be b elo w , th e ta x c o lle c to r’s h a n d ab o v e , w h e n th e m o n ey changes h a n d s. T h e p u rp o se o f all th is is m a d e clear by a fifteen th -cen tu ry ju rist o f th e rig ­ o ro u s H a n b a lī sch o o l w h o , a fte r p re sc rib in g these a n d sim ilar acts o f ritu a l h u m ilia tio n to be p e rfo rm e d in p u b lic “ so th a t all m ay en jo y th e sp e c ta c le ,” co n clu d es: “ P erh ap s in th e en d th ey w ill com e to believe in G o d a n d H is P ro p h e t, a n d th u s be d eliv ered fro m this sh am efu l y o k e .” 11 In c o n tra s t to th e c o m m e n ta to rs a n d o th e r th e o lo g ia n s, th e ju rists are less fero cio u s a n d m o re co n cern ed w ith th e fiscal th a n th e sy m b o lic asp ect o f th e jizya. A bū eU b ay d (7 7 0 -8 3 8 ), a u th o r o f a classical tre a tise o n ta x a tio n , insists th a t th e dhintm īs m u st n o t be b u rd e n e d b e y o n d th e ir cap acity , n o r m u st th ey be ca u se d to su ffe r.11 T h e g re a t ju rist A bū Y ū su f (731?8 0 8 ), th e chief q ā d ĩ o f th e calip h H ā rū n al-R a sh īd , rules e x ­ plicitly a g a in st such tre a tm e n t: “ N o o n e o f th e p eo p le o f th e dbim m a sh o u ld be b e a te n in o rd e r to e x a c t p a y m e n t o f th e jizya^ n o r m a d e to sta n d in th e h o t su n , n o r sh o u ld h a te fu l th in g s be inflicted u p o n th e ir b o d ies, o r a n y th in g o f th a t so rt. R a th e r, th e y sh o u ld be tre a te d w ith len ien cy .” A b ū Y ū su f w a s n o t, h o w e v e r, in fav o r o f co d d lin g th e ta x ­ p ay ers: “ T h ey sh o u ld be im p riso n e d u n til th ey p ay w h a t they o w e. T h ey are n o t to be let o u t o f c u sto d y u n til th e jizya h as b een e x a c te d fro m th em in full. N o g o v e rn o r m ay release any C h ristia n , Je w , Z o ro a s tria n , S ab ian , o r S a m a rita n unless th e jizya is c o llected fro m h im . H e m ay n o t red u ce a n y o n e ’s p a y ­ m e n t by allo w in g a p o rtio n to be left u n p a id . It is n o t p e r­ m issible fo r o n e p e rso n to be e x e m p te d a n d fo r a n o th e r to h av e to p a y . T h a t c a n n o t be d o n e , because th e ir lives a n d

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p o ssessio n s a re g u a ra n te e d safety o n ly u p o n p a y m e n t o f th e jizy a , w h ic h is c o m p a ra b le to trib u te m o n e y .” 13

Several p o in ts m u st be n o te d in c o n sid e rin g th ese a n d o th e r sim ila r p assag es. F irst, th e ju rists, w ith th e ir m o re h u m a n e a n d also m o re p ra c tic a l a ttitu d e , b elo n g to th e early p e rio d o f Islam , w h e n it w as co n fid en t a n d e x p a n d in g ; th e c o m m e n ­ ta to r s cited w ere w ritin g in a p e rio d o f c o n tra c tio n a n d c o n ­ strain t, w hen Islam w as u n d er th re a t b o th at hom e an d ab ro ad . Second, th e re can be n o d o u b t th a t it is th e a ttitu d e s o f th e ju rists, r a th e r th a n o f th e c o m m e n ta to rs a n d o th e r th e o lo g i­ an s, th a t m o re a c c u ra tely reflect th e p ra c tic e o f M u slim ru lers a n d a d m in is tra to rs . M o s t o f these, in th e tre a tm e n t o f dhim m īs as in m a n y o th e r m a tte rs, failed to m eet th e e x a c tin g d e m a n d o f th e ir relig io u s advisers a n d critics. T h e rules th a t so m e o f th e u le m a laid d o w n o n th e co llectio n o f th e jizya a n d re la te d m a tte rs b e lo n g m o re to th e h isto ry o f m en talities th a n o f in stitu tio n s. T h ey h av e th e ir o w n k in d o f im p o rta n c e , w h ich b eco m es g re a te r in tim es o f crisis o r defeat. In g e n e ra l, th ese p re sc rip tio n s ag ain illu stra te th e n eed th a t w as felt to re m in d th e u n b eliev er o f an in fe rio rity th a t he m ig h t o th e rw ise be te m p te d — a n d even p e rm itte d — to fo rg et. N o such re m in d e r w as n eed ed fo r th e w o m a n o r th e slave. A fter th e d e a th o f th e P ro p h e t, th e sw ay o f Islam w as e x ­ te n d e d acro ss a v a st te rrito ry re a c h in g fro m th e A tla n tic in th e w e st to th e b o rd e rs o f In d ia a n d C h in a , a n d a t tim es even b e y o n d th ese b o rd e rs, in th e east. In these n ew ly a c q u ire d te rrito rie s th e re w ere large, im p o rta n t, a n d esta b lish e d reli­ g io u s c o m m u n itie s; th e re w ere also o ld esta b lish e d legal a n d a dm inistrative system s regulating h o w these com m unities w ere tre a te d . T h e m o st im p o rta n t o f these system s— in d eed th e o n ly o n es e n c o u n te re d d u rin g th e early fo rm a tiv e cen tu ries o f th e Islam ic sta te — w e re th o se in h e rite d fro m th e a n c ie n t em p ires o f P ersia a n d o f R o m e .14 T h e o v e rw h e lm in g m a jo rity o f th e n e w su b jects o f th e Islam ic sta te w ere C h ristia n s o f v a rio u s c h u rch es. Ira q , th o u g h p a r t o f th e P ersian E m p ire, w as p re ­ d o m in a n tly N e s to ria n C h ristia n . Syria, P alestin e, th e w h o le o f N o r th A frica, a n d th e M u slim a c q u isitio n s in E u ro p e h a d all fo rm e d p a r t o f th e C h ristia n R o m a n E m p ire. In all th ese

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 17

c o u n trie s th e re w ere Jew ish m in o rities, som etim es o f c o n sid ­ e ra b le size. In Ira n , to o , th e re w ere C h ristia n as w ell as Jew ish p o p u la tio n s , b u t th e m a jo rity o f th e Ira n ia n s p ro fessed th e re lig io n o f Z o ro a s te r o r o n e o f its v a ria n ts. In th e early c e n tu ries o f Islam ic rule, th e re w as little o r n o a tte m p t a t fo rcib le co n v ersio n , th e sp re a d o f th e fa ith b eing effected r a th e r by p e rsu a sio n a n d in d u cem en t. T h e ra te a n d scale o f c o n v e rsio n are d ifficult to assess fro m th e av ailab le evidence, a n d som e sch o lars have arg u e d th a t as late as th e C ru sa d e s, n o n -M u slim s still c o n stitu te d a m a jo rity o f th e p o p ­ u la tio n . It is clear, h o w ev er, th a t large n u m b e rs o f C h ristia n s, Jew s, a n d Z o ro a s tria n s a d o p te d th e M u slim religion a n d b e ­ cam e p a r t o f Islam ic so c ie ty .1* T h e re a re significant differences in th e fates o f th e th ree religions after the M uslim conquest. Z oroastrian ism fared w orst. T h e p re -Isla m ic P ersian sta te , u n lik e th e C h ristia n sta te , w as c o m p letely o v erco m e a n d d e stro y e d , a n d all its te rrito rie s a n d p e o p le s w ere b ro u g h t w ith in th e e m b race o f th e Islam ic ca l­ ip h a te . T h e Z o ro a s tria n p rie s th o o d h a d been closely asso ci­ a te d w ith th e stru c tu re o f p o w e r in a n c ie n t Iran . D ep riv ed o f th is a sso c ia tio n , a n d possessing n e ith e r th e stim u la tio n o f p o w e rfu l frien d s a b ro a d en jo y ed by th e C h ristia n s n o r th e b itte r skill in su rv iv al possessed by th e Jew s, th e Z o ro a s tria n s fell in to d isc o u ra g e m e n t a n d decline. T h e ir n u m b e rs d w in d le d ra p id ly , a n d it is strik in g th a t th ey to o k little o r n o p a r t in th e Ira n ia n c u ltu ra l a n d p o litic a l revival th a t o c c u rre d u n d e r th e aegis o f Islam in th e te n th cen tu ry a n d th e re a fter. C h ristia n ity w as d efeated , n o t d estro y ed by th e rise o f Islam a n d th e e s ta b lish m e n t o f th e Islam ic state. B ut th e p ro cesses o f A ra b se ttle m e n t, o f co n v ersio n to Islam a n d assim ilatio n to th e d o m in a n t c u ltu re , g ra d u a lly red u ced th e C h ristia n s— w h e n a n d a t w h a t stage is im possible to say— fro m a m a jo rity to a m in o rity o f th e p o p u la tio n . In som e places, n o ta b ly in C e n tra l A sia, s o u th e rn A ra b ia , a n d N o rth A frica, w h ere C h ris­ tia n ity b e fo re th e a d v e n t o f Islam h a d o ccu p ied a sig nificant o r even, in th e la st-n a m e d , a d o m in a n t p o sitio n , it d ied o u t co m p letely . F o r m a n y C h ristia n s, th e tra n sitio n fro m a d o m ­ in a n t to a su b je c t sta tu s, w ith all th e d isad v an tag es inv o lv ed ,

i 8 ■ CHAPTER I

w as to o m u c h to e n d u re , a n d larg e n u m b e rs o f th e m so u g h t refuge fro m su b je c tio n by a d o p tin g Islam a n d jo in in g th e d o m ­ in a n t fa ith a n d c o m m u n ity . J u d a ism in c o n tra s t su rv iv ed . Jew s w ere m o re a c c u sto m e d to a d v ersity . F o r th e m , th e Islam ic c o n q u e st m erely m e a n t a c h an g e o f m a ste rs, in m o st p laces in d e e d fo r th e b e tte r, a n d th ey h a d alre a d y le a rn e d to a d a p t a n d e n d u re u n d e r c o n d itio n s o f p o litic a l, social, a n d e co n o m ic d isab ility . In th e co re c o u n trie s o f th e M id d le E ast, in E g y p t, Syria, L e b a n o n , P alestin e, a n d to a lesser e x te n t Ira q , C h ris­ tia n ity sh o w e d g re a te r e n d u ra n c e th a n in N o rth A frica, a n d C h ristia n m in o ritie s su rv iv ed in significant n u m b e rs. T h e re a ­ so n m ay be th a t in th ese c o u n trie s th e C h ristia n s en jo y ed th e sam e a d v a n ta g e , if w e m ay call it th a t, as th e Jew s: ex p erien ce in su rv iv al. In Ira q th ey h a d been su b o rd in a te to th e d o m in a n t Z o r o a s tr ia n fa ith ; in E g y p t a n d th e S yrian lan d s, th o u g h s h a r­ ing th e C h ristia n relig io n w ith th e ru lers o f th e B y zan tin e E m p ire, th ey w ere o f d iffe re n t sects a n d su b ject to d isc rim i­ n a tio n a n d even a t tim es to p e rse c u tio n . F o r m an y o f th e a d h e re n ts o f th e E a ste rn c h u rch es, th e a d v e n t o f Islam a n d th e tra n s fe r o f th e ir c o u n trie s fro m C h ristia n to M u slim ru le b r o u g h t a m a rk e d im p ro v e m e n t in th e ir circu m stan ces, a n d a g re a te r d eg ree o f relig io u s fre e d o m th a n they h a d p rev io u sly en jo y ed . T h e fu rth e r e x p a n sio n o f Islam b ro u g h t th e a u th o rity o f th e M u slim sta te b e y o n d th e h e a rtla n d s o f th e M id d le E ast a n d N o r th A frica, w h ic h w ere also th e h o m e la n d s o f C h ristia n ity a n d Ju d a ism , in to n e w are a s w h e re th ese relig io n s h a d little o r n o im p a c t. B u d d h ists a n d H in d u s in A sia, a n im ists in A frica s o u th o f th e S a h a ra a n d o f E th io p ia , n o w cam e w ith in ran g e o f M u slim p o w e r. F o r th e M u slim , th ese w ere p o ly th e ists a n d id o la to rs, a n d w e re th e re fo re n o t e n title d to to le ra n c e . F o r th e m th e ch o ice w as b e tw e e n Islam a n d d e a th , w h ic h la te r m ig h t be c o m m u te d to en sla v e m e n t a t th e d isc re tio n o f th e ir c a p to rs. In th e v a st e m p ire w h ic h th ey c re a te d by c o n q u e st, th e M u slim s a t first fo u n d them selves as a d o m in a n t b u t sm all m in o rity . T h e ir relig io n p ro v id e d th e m w ith c e rta in b asic re ­ ligious p rin c ip le s by w h ic h to ru le th e ir su b ject p o p u la tio n s ;

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 19

th e o ld e r regim es w h ich they h a d rep laced b e q u e a th e d th e m tra d itio n s , p ro c e d u re s, a n d even p e rso n n e l w ith w h ich to p u t these p rin c ip le s in p ra c tic e , o r to m odify th em . C e rta in fea­ tu re s o f th e s itu a tio n in th e fo rm e r P ersian a n d B yzan tin e lan d s th a t c o n s titu te d th e n ew Islam ic c a lip h a te are very re le v a n t to th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f M u slim policies to w a rd o th e r religions. P e rh a p s m o st im p o rta n t, th e M id d le E astern reg io n w as a n d h a d fo r lo n g been o n e o f eth n ic a n d religious p lu ra lism . T ru e , th e G reek o rth o d o x C h ristia n m asters o f th e B yzan tin e E m p ire a n d th e P ersian o rth o d o x Z o ro a s tria n m a ste rs o f th e em p ire o f Ira n h a d been try in g , in th e n o t-so -d ista n t p a st, to im p o se th e ir fa ith a n d id e n tity o n o th e r religious a n d eth n ic g ro u p s. B ut th ese effo rts h a d failed, a n d th e resu ltin g ten sio n s a n d re se n tm e n ts m ad e th e M u slim c o n q u e ro rs m o re w elco m e, a n d th e ir p resen ce, a fte r th e c o n q u e st, m o re accep tab le. A p a rt fro m o n e ep iso d e, o f b rie f d u ra tio n a n d m in o r significance, th e A ra b M u slim ru lers o f th e new em p ire d id n o t re p e a t th e e rro rs o f th e ir p red ecesso rs b u t in ste a d resp ected th e p a tte rn o f p lu ra lism th a t h a d ex isted since a n tiq u ity . T his p a tte rn w as n o t o n e o f e q u a lity , b u t ra th e r o f d o m in a n c e by o n e g ro u p a n d , u su ally , a h ie ra rc h ic sequence o f th e o th ers. T h o u g h th is o rd e r d id n o t concede e q u a lity , it p e rm itte d p eaceful c o e x ist­ ence. W h ile o n e g ro u p m ig h t d o m in a te , it d id n o t as a rule in sist o n su p p re ssin g o r a b so rb in g th e o th e rs. T h e n ew d o m ­ in a n t g ro u p w as v ario u sly defined— a t first as A rab M u slim s, then sim ply as M uslim s. A nd w ith the replacem ent o f an e th n o ­ religious by a p u re ly religious d efin itio n , access to th e d o m i­ n a n t g ro u p w a s o p e n to all, th u s m a k in g it p o ssib le, in th e c o u rse o f th e cen tu ries, fo r a d o m in a n t m in o rity to b eco m e a n o v e rw h e lm in g m ajo rity . T h is c h a n g e , to o , w as fa c ilita te d by a fe a tu re o b se rv a b le in th e M id d le E ast th ro u g h m o st o f its re c o rd e d h isto ry — a p a t­ te rn o f flu c tu a tio n , o f ch an g e, even o f fusio n b etw een th e d iffe re n t c o m m u n a l, n a tio n a l, te rrito ria l, c u ltu ra l, a n d legal id en tities. It is a n essential p a r t o f h u m a n b e h a v io r to d ivide th e w o rld in to ourselves a n d th e rest. T h e an c ie n t M id d le E ast h a d k n o w n m any such divisions— kinsm en an d strangers, Jew s a n d g entiles, G reeks a n d b a rb a ria n s , citizens, m etics, a n d

2 0 ■ CHAPTER I

alien s, as w ell as o th e rs. A classificatio n a lre a d y fa m ilia r to Jew s a n d C h ristia n s w as b e tw e e n believers a n d u n b eliev ers. In Islam ic tim es th is cam e to be by fa r th e m o st im p o rta n t line o f d iv isio n , o v e rsh a d o w in g all o th e rs. B oth these g ro u p s w e re o f c o u rse su b d iv id ed in v a rio u s w ays. T h e su b d iv isio n s o f th e believers d o n o t c o n cern us h ere. T h e u n b eliev ers a re su b d iv id e d , in m o st M u slim th e o ­ retical d isc u ssio n s o f th e su b ject, by tw o b ro a d classificatio n s, o n e th e o lo g ic a l, th e o th e r p o litical. T h e th eo lo g ical classifi­ c a tio n is b e tw e e n th o se w h o fo llo w a m o n o th e istic relig io n b a se d o n re v e la tio n , a n d th o se w h o d o n o t. T h e p o ssesso rs o f such a re v e la tio n a re k n o w n as ahl al-kitã b , th e p eo p le o f th e b o o k , a te rm c o m m o n ly used o f th e Jew s, b u t also a p p li­ c ab le to o th e r relig io u s co m m u n itie s p o ssessin g reco g n ized sc rip tu re s. T h e Q u r ’an recognizes J u d a ism , C h ristia n ity , a n d a ra th e r p ro b le m a tic th ir d p a rty , th e religion o f th e S a b ia n s,16 as e a r­ lier, in c o m p le te , a n d im p e rfe c t fo rm s o f Islam itself, a n d th e re ­ fore as c o n ta in in g a g e n u in e if d is to rte d divine rev elatio n . T h e in c lu sio n o f th e n o t very precisely id en tified S ab ian s m a d e it p o ssib le, by legal in te rp re ta tio n , to e x te n d th e k in d o f to le r­ an ce a c c o rd e d to Je w s a n d C h ristia n s m u ch m o re w id ely , first to Z o ro a s tria n s in P ersia, la te r to H in d u s in In d ia a n d o th e r g ro u p s elsew h ere. C o m m u n itie s p ro fessin g reco g n ized reli­ gions w ere a llo w e d th e to le ra n c e o f th e Islam ic state. T h ey w ere a llo w e d to p ra c tic e th e ir relig io n s, su b ject to c e rta in c o n d itio n s, a n d to en jo y a m e a su re o f c o m m u n a l a u to n o m y . T h o se w h o w ere n o t so q u alified , in o th e r w o rd s th o se clas­ sified as p o ly th e ists a n d id o la to rs, w ere n o t eligible to receive th e to le ra tio n o f th e Islam ic sta te ; fo r th e m , in d eed , ac c o rd in g to th e law , th e choice w as th e Q u r ’a n , th e sw o rd , o r slavery. A difficult p ro b le m is p re se n te d by m o n o th e istic relig io n s th a t arose after the advent o f Islam , especially those th a t em erged fro m w ith in th e M u slim c o m m u n ity , such as th e B a h ā ’ĩs in Ira n a n d th e A h m a d iy y a in In d ia. T h e fo llo w ers o f such re ­ ligions c a n n o t be dism issed e ith e r as b e n ig h te d h e a th e n s, like th e p o ly th e ists o f A sia a n d th e an im ists o f A frica, n o r as o u td a te d p re c u rso rs, like th e Jew s a n d C h ristia n s, a n d th e ir

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 2 1

very ex isten ce p re se n ts a challenge to th e Islam ic d o c trin e o f th e p e rfe c tio n a n d finality o f M u h a m m a d ’s rev elatio n . M u slim p iety a n d Islam ic a u th o rity have alw ays h a d g re a t difficulty in a c c o m m o d a tin g such p o st-Isla m ic m o n o th e istic religions. T h e p o litic a l classification w as b etw een th o se w h o h a d been c o n q u e re d o r w h o h a d s u b m itte d them selves to th e p o w e r o f Islam a n d th o se w h o h a d n o t. In M u slim law a n d p ra c tic e , th e re la tio n sh ip b etw een th e M u slim sta te a n d th e su b ject n o n M u slim c o m m u n itie s to w h ic h it ex te n d e d its to le ra n c e a n d p ro te c tio n w a s re g u la te d by a p a c t called dhim m a , a n d th o se b en efitin g fro m this p a c t w ere k n o w n as ahl al-dhim m a (p eo ­ ple o f th e p a c t) o r m o re briefly, d h im m īs.17 By th e term s o f th e d him m a , these co m m u n itie s w ere ac c o rd e d a c e rta in s ta ­ tu s, p ro v id e d th a t th ey u n e q u iv o c a lly recogn ized th e p rim acy o f Islam a n d th e su p re m a c y o f th e M u slim s. T h is rec o g n itio n w a s ex p re sse d in th e p a y m e n t o f th e po ll ta x an d o b ed ien ce to a series o f re stric tio n s defined in d etail by th e h o ly la w .18 T h e se c o n d ca te g o ry o f unbelievers in th is p o litical classi­ ficatio n c o n sists o f th o se w h o have n o t yet been c o n q u e re d a n d are n o t su b ject to M u slim p o w e r. L an d s w h ere M u slim s ru le a n d th e Islam ic law prev ails are k n o w n collectively as th e D ã r al-Islã m , th e H o u se o f Islam ; th e o u tsid e w o rld , in h a b ite d a n d also g o v e rn e d by infidels, c o n stitu te s th e D ã r al-H arby th e H o u se o f W a r. It h a s th is n a m e because b etw een th e realm o f Islam a n d th e realm s o f u n b elief th e re is a can o n ically o b lig a to ry p e rp e tu a l sta te o f w a r, w h ich w ill co n tin u e u n til th e w h o le w o rld e ith e r accep ts th e m essage o f Islam o r su b m its to th e ru le o f th o se w h o b rin g it. T h e n a m e o f this w a r is jih ã d , u su a lly tra n s la te d as “ h o ly w a r ,” th o u g h th e p rim a ry m e a n in g o f th e w o rd is striv in g o r struggle, hence stru g g le in th e cau se o f G o d . T h e re are som e p arallels betw een th e M u s ­ lim d o c trin e o f jih ã d a n d th e ra b b in ic a l Jew ish d o c trin e o f m ilhem et m itsva o r m ilhem et h ova , w ith th e im p o rta n t d if­ ference th a t th e Jew ish n o tio n is lim ited to one country w hereas th e Islam ic jih ã d is w o rld w id e .19 A n o n -M u slim fro m th e D ã r al-H arb m ay be p e rm itte d to visit th e M u slim lan d s a n d even to reside th e re fo r a specified p e rio d o f tim e, fo r w h ic h he receives w h a t is k n o w n in M u slim

2 2 ■ CHAPTER I

la w as a n am ān , a k in d o f g ra n t o f safe c o n d u c t. T h e h o ld e r o f a n am ān is called m u s tď m in . T h is d e n o te s th e legal sta tu s o f th e n o n -M u slim fro m o u tsid e w h o com es as a m e rc h a n t o r en v o y a n d stay s fo r a w hile u n d e r M u slim rule. H e is n o t a dhitnm t a n d is n o t su b je c t to th e p o ll ta x a n d o th e r disab ilities. T h e M u slim law b o o k s discuss in som e d etail th e g ra n tin g o f am ān — w h e n , by w h o m , to w h o m , a n d o n w h a t c o n d itio n s it m ay be g ra n te d . T h e amān w a s in p rin cip le given fo r a lim ite d p e rio d , a n d th e v isito r fro m o u tsid e w h o b ecam e a p e rm a n e n t re sid e n t c h a n g e d his sta tu s fro m m u stď m in to dhim m ī. In fact, h o w e v e r, th e amān w as n o rm a lly ren ew ed o n a yearly basis a n d re sid e n t c o m m u n itie s o f fo reig n m e r­ c h a n ts w ere a llo w e d to re ta in th a t sta tu s. C itizen s o f a fo reig n sta te co u ld b en efit fro m a collective amān a c c o rd e d to th e ir g o v e rn m e n t. In terestin g ly , th e sta tu s o f m u sta ’min w as o n so m e in te rp re ta tio n s lim ited to C h ristia n citizens o f C h ristia n states. E u ro p e a n Je w s tra v e lin g in th e O tto m a n E m p ire w ere so m etim es, especially la te r, tre a te d as citizens o r su b jects o f th e ir c o u n trie s, b en efitin g fro m th e collective amān a c c o rd e d to th e m ; a t o th e r tim es as Jew s, o n th e sam e fo o tin g as O tto ­ m a n Je w s, w ith b o th th e ad v a n ta g e s a n d d isa d v a n ta g e s o f th is d iffe re n t sta tu s. In so m e O tto m a n d o c u m e n ts th e p h ra se kafir yahudisi (the in fid el’s Jew ) is used to d e sig n ate Jew s w h o are su b jects o f C h ristia n states. S im ilarly, in P ersia, Sunni M u slim su b jects o f th e R u ssia n czars w ere n o t allo w ed to benefit fro m th e e x tra te rrito ria l privileges a c c o rd e d to R u ssian su bjects b u t w ere tre a te d as S u n n i M u slim s— n o t alw ays an im p ro v e m e n t in a S h ľī M u slim s ta te .10 T h e d iscu ssio n s b o th o f dhim m a a n d amān relate to th e p o sitio n o f th e n o n -M u slim re sid e n t o r v isito r in M u slim te r­ rito rie s. T h e p o sitio n o f th e M u slim , w h e th e r as resid en t o r as v isito r, in n o n -M u slim te rrito ry is a n o th e r m a tte r. It is d iscu ssed very little in the classical Islam ic so u rces fo r th e g o o d re a so n th a t th e q u e stio n rarely aro se. In th e early c e n ­ tu rie s o f Islam , w h e n th e basic p rin cip les o f M u slim law an d th e o lo g y w e re fo rm u la te d , Islam w as ad v a n c in g stead ily all th e tim e. T e rrito ry m ig h t be briefly lost in th e co u rse o f m il­ ita ry o p e ra tio n s , b u t it w a s alw ays sw iftly reco v ered . T h e re

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 23

seem ed n o g o o d re a so n to d o u b t th a t th e ad v an ce o f Islam w o u ld c o n tin u e u n til, in th e n o t to o d ista n t fu tu re , th e h o ly w a r ach iev ed its u ltim a te goal a n d all th e w o rld w as in c o r­ p o ra te d in to th e H o u se o f Islam . T h e possib ility o f re tre a t, o f th e loss o f te rrito ry a n d p o p u la tio n s to infidel ru le, sim p ly d id n o t o c c u r to th e m en o f th e h ero ic age. By th e m id -e ig h th c e n tu ry it w as b eco m in g clear th a t th e a d v a n c e o f Islam h a d com e to a sto p , a n d th e n o tio n o f a fro n tie r, a n d o f dealings w ith m o re o r less p e rm a n e n t a u ­ th o ritie s o n th e o th e r side o f it, cam e to be accep ted . T h o u g h fro m tim e to tim e th e re w a s a resu rg en ce o f th e jih ā d a n d a n ew w av e o f c o n q u e st, th e final v icto ry in th e jih ā d w as p o s t­ p o n e d fro m h isto ric a l to esch ato lo g ical tim e. B ut w o rse w as to com e. W h a t beg an as a p au se b ecam e a h a lt a n d in tim e th e h a lt gave w a y to a re tre a t. W ith th e C h ristia n reco v ery in P o rtu g a l, S pain, a n d Sicily a n d th e a r ­ riv al o f th e C ru sa d e rs in Syria a n d P alestine, M u slim te rrito rie s w e re c o n q u e re d by C h ristia n arm ies a n d M u slim p o p u la tio n s fell su b je c t to C h ristia n sovereigns. T h e re su ltin g p ro b le m w as m u ch d iscu ssed by M u slim ju rists, p a rtic u la rly o f th e M ā lik ĩ sch o o l, p re d o m in a n t in N o r th A frica a n d a m o n g th e M u slim s o f Sicily a n d th e Ib erian p e n in su la . T h e re w ere d ifferen t o p in ­ io n s o n th e o b lig a tio n s o f M u slim s w h o fo u n d them selves u n d e r n o n -M u slim rule. Som e a u th o ritie s to o k a le n ien t view . If a n o n -M u slim g o v e rn m e n t w as to le ra n t, th a t is, if it allo w ed M u slim s to p ra c tic e th e ir religion a n d obey th e ir law s a n d th u s live a g o o d M u slim life, th e n they m ig h t stay w h e re th ey w ere a n d be la w -a b id in g su b jects o f such a ru ler. Som e o p in ­ io n s go fu rth e r a n d p e rm it M u slim s to rem ain even u n d e r an in to le ra n t ru le r, if necessary p re te n d in g to a d o p t C h ristia n ity b u t p re se rv in g th e ir Islam in secrecy. T h e o p p o sin g , m o re severe, view is fo rm u la te d in a classical tex t, a fatwã o r responsum w ritten by a M o ro ccan jurist nam ed A h m a d a l-W a n sh a risī a n d issued sh o rtly afte r th e final c o n ­ q u e st o f S pain by th e C h ristia n s. T h e fatw ã ad d resses th e q u e stio n : M a y M u slim s re m a in u n d e r C h ristia n ru le o r m u st th e y leave? H is a n sw e r is u n eq u iv o cally th a t th ey m u st leave— m en , w o m e n , a n d c h ild ren alike. If th e C h ristia n g o v e rn m e n t

24 ■ CHAPTER I

fro m w h ic h th e y a re d e p a rtin g is to le ra n t, th a t m ak es it all th e m o re u rg e n t th a t th ey sh o u ld leave, since u n d e r a to le ra n t C h ristia n g o v e rn m e n t th e d a n g e r o f a p o sta sy is g re a te r. AlW a n sh a rīsĩ d ra m a tiz e s his ru lin g in th e p h ra se : “ R a th e r M u s ­ lim ty ra n n y th a n C h ristia n ju stic e .” 21 T h is fo rm u la tio n w a s m o re rh e to ric a l th a n real, since fo r th e m o st p a r t C h ristia n justice w as n o t o n o ffer. T h e re w as n o dhim m a fo r M u slim re sid e n ts in E u ro p e , n o am ãn fo r M u slim v isito rs. F o r a w hile C h ristia n ru lers in S pain a n d Italy , in sp ire d by th e e x a m p le o r p e rh a p s fearin g th e rep risals o f th e su rv iv in g M u slim states w ith C h ristia n su b jects o n E u ­ ro p e a n soil, tre a te d th e ir M u slim (an d also Jew ish ) su b jects w ith a m e a su re o f to le ra n c e . B ut th e final ex p u lsio n o f th e M o o rs re m o v e d b o th th e e x a m p le a n d th e incen tiv e, a n d M u s ­ lim s, like Je w s, w ere given th e choice, if th ey w ish ed to live, o f exile o r a p o sta sy . In e v ita b ly , th e g re a t struggles b etw een C h riste n d o m an d Islam in th e R ẹ c o n q u ista a n d th e C ru sa d e s b ro u g h t a s h a rp ­ e n in g o f relig io u s lo y alties a n d a n ta g o n ism s, a n d a w o rse n in g o f th e p o sitio n o f m in o ritie s— Je w ish as w ell as C h ristia n — u n d e r M u slim rule. Even so, in th is as in m a n y o th e r th in g s, Islam ic p ra c tic e o n th e w h o le tu rn e d o u t to be g en tler th a n Islam ic p re c e p t— th e reverse o f th e situ a tio n in C h riste n d o m . T h e early h isto ry o f th e d him m a , o r m o re b ro a d ly o f th e re stric tio n s im p o se d o n th e to le ra te d n o n -M u slim su b jects o f th e M u slim sta te , is full o f u n c e rta in tie s. T h e M u slim h is to ­ rio g ra p h ic tra d itio n ascrib es th e first fo rm u la tio n o f th ese reg ­ u la tio n s to th e c alip h 'U m a r I (6 3 4 -6 4 4 ) a n d preserv es w h a t p u rp o rts to be th e te x t o f a le tte r ad d re sse d to h im by C h ris­ tia n s in Syria in d ic a tin g th e term s o n w h ich th ey are w illin g to su b m it— th e d isa b ilities th ey are p re p a re d to accep t a n d th e p e n a ltie s to w h ic h th ey m ak e them selves liable if th ey v io late these u n d e rta k in g s. A c c o rd in g to th is a c c o u n t, w h en th e calip h w as sh o w n th is le tte r he agreed to th e te rm s w ith tw o a d d i­ tio n a l clauses. T h o u g h th e so -called “ p a c t o f 'U m a r” w as fre q u e n tly cited b o th by M u slim a n d d h im m ī w rite rs as th e legal b asis of th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e tw o sides, th e d o c u m e n t can

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 25

h a rd ly be a u th e n tic . As A. S. T ritto n p o in te d o u t, it is n o t n o rm a l fo r th e v a n q u ish e d to p ro p o se th e term s o f su rre n d e r to th e v ic to rs, n o r is it likely th a t Syrian C h ristia n s in th e sev en th c e n tu ry , w h o k n e w n o A rab ic a n d u n d e rto o k n o t to stu d y th e Q u r ’a n , w o u ld echo its lan g u ag e a n d p ro v isio n s so faith fu lly . Som e o f th e clauses clearly reflect d e v elo p m en ts o f a so m e w h a t la te r p e rio d , a n d it is n o t unlikely th a t in th is as in m a n y o th e r aspects o f early M u slim a d m in istra tiv e h isto ry , som e m easu res th a t w ere really in tro d u c e d o r en fo rced by th e U m a y y a d calip h 'U m a r II (7 1 7 -7 2 0 ) are ascrib ed by p io u s tra d itio n to th e less c o n tro v e rsia l a n d m o re v en erab le 'U m a r I/2 H o w e v e r, w hile this a n d o th e r sim ilar d o cu m en ts m ay in them selves be p a rtly o r w h o lly fa b ric a ted , th ey n ev erth eless reflect th e d e v e lo p m e n t, in th e co u rse o f th e early c en tu ries, o f th e p o licy o f m a in ta in in g a c e rta in d iffe re n tia tio n b etw een th e d o m in a n t g ro u p a n d th e v a rio u s su b o rd in a te g ro u p s. T h e o rig in s o f m a n y o f these re stric tio n s seem to go b a c k to th e very first p e rio d o f th e A ra b co n q u ests, a n d to be m ilitary in n a tu re . W h e n th e M u slim s first c o n q u e re d im m ense te rrito rie s a n d w ere a tin y m in o rity o f c o n q u e ro rs a m id a v ast m a jo rity o f th e c o n q u e re d , th ey n eed ed security p re c a u tio n s fo r th e p ro te c tio n o f th e o c c u p y in g a n d g o v ern in g elem ents. As w ith so m a n y o f th e p ra c tic e s o f th e early p e rio d , th e ir actio n s, even th o u g h d e te rm in e d by im m ed iate c o n sid e ra tio n s o f e x ­ ped ien cy , w e re sanctified a n d in c o rp o ra te d in th e h o ly law , so th a t w h a t b eg an as secu rity re stric tio n s b ecam e social a n d legal d isab ilities. T h ese re stric tio n s involved som e lim ita tio n o n th e clo th es th a t d him m īs m ig h t w e a r a n d th e b easts th ey m ig h t rid e, a n d fo rb a d e th e m to b e a r arm s. T h ere w ere lim its o n th e b u ild in g a n d use o f p laces o f w o rsh ip . T hey w ere n o t to be h ig h e r th a n m o sq u es; n o n ew ones w ere to be b u ilt b u t o n ly o ld o n es re sto re d . C h ristia n s a n d Jew s w ere to w e a r special em b lem s o n th e ir clothes. T h is, in cid en tally , is th e o rig in o f th e y ellow b ad g e, w h ich w as first in tro d u c e d by a c alip h in B a g h d a d in th e n in th ce n tu ry a n d sp re a d in to W e st­ e rn la n d s in la te r m edieval t i m e s / 3 Even w h e n a tte n d in g th e p u b lic b a th s , n o n -M u slim s w ere su p p o se d to w e a r d istin ­

2 6 ■ CHAPTER I

g u ish in g signs su sp e n d e d fro m c o rd s a ro u n d th e ir neck s, so th a t th e y m ig h t n o t be m ista k e n fo r M u slim s w h e n d isro b e d in th e b a th h o u se . (U n d er S h ĩ'a ru les, th ey w ere n o t allo w ed to use th e sam e b a th h o u se s.) T h e n eed to d istin g u ish a ro se especially in th e case o f Jew s, w h o sh a re d w ith M u slim s th e rite o f circu m cisio n . T h e n o n -M u slim s w ere re q u ire d to a v o id n o ise a n d d isp la y in th e ir cerem o n ies, a n d a t all tim es to sh o w re sp e c t fo r Islam a n d deference to M u slim s. M o s t o f th ese d isab ilities h a d a social a n d sy m b o lic ra th e r th a n a ta n g ib le a n d p ra c tic a l c h a ra c te r. T h e o n ly real eco ­ n o m ic p e n a lty im p o se d o n th e d him m īs w a s fiscal. T h ey h a d to p a y h ig h e r ta x e s, a system o f d isc rim in a tio n in h e rite d fro m th e p re v io u s em p ires o f Ira n a n d B y zan tiu m . T h e re are v a ry in g o p in io n s a m o n g sc h o la rs as to h o w h a rd th e p a y m e n t o f these e x tra ta x e s b o re o n th em . W h e re w e h av e d o c u m e n ta ry evi­ dence, as in the eleventh-century G eniza docum ents from C airo, it w o u ld seem th a t fo r th e p o o re r classes a t least th e b u rd e n w as h e a v y .24 H o w e v e r, since th e ra te o f th e jizya w as fixed in g o ld by H o ly L aw , it becam e p ro g ressiv ely less o f a b u rd e n w ith th e ste a d y rise o f prices a n d incom es th ro u g h th e c e n ­ tu ries. In a d d itio n to th e poll ta x , dhim m īs w ere in p rin cip le, th o u g h n o t alw ay s in p ra c tic e , called u p o n to p ay a h ig h er ra te th a n M u slim s in o th e r ta x e s— in ce rta in p erio d s in clu d in g even to lls a n d cu sto m s duties. A p a rt fro m ta x a tio n , th e re w as o n e o th e r eco n o m ic d isa ­ b ility th a t o fte n w eig h ed very heavily o n th e n o n -M u slim s u b ­ jects. T h is a ro se fro m th e law s o f in h e rita n c e . T h e g en eral ru le o f M u slim la w w as th a t difference o f religion w as a b a r to in h e rita n c e . M u sim s co u ld n o t in h e rit fro m d him m īs , n o r co u ld d him m īs in h e rit fro m M u slim s. A c o n v e rt to Islam co u ld th e re fo re n o t in h e rit fro m his u n c o n v e rte d k in sm en , a n d o n his o w n d e a th o n ly his M u slim heirs co u ld in h e rit fro m him . If he re v e rte d to his p rev io u s religion b efo re his d e a th , he ra n k e d as a n a p o s ta te , a n d his e sta te w as forfeit. T h e ru le th a t a M u slim c a n n o t in h e rit fro m a d h im m ī , w hile ac c e p ted by th e fo u r c a n o n ic a l sch o o ls o f M u slim ju risp ru d e n c e , w a s n o t a d m itte d by all th e d o c to rs o f H o ly L aw . Som e o f th e m h eld th a t in in h e rita n c e as in m a rria g e , th e re is a n ecessary in e­

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■

Z J

q u a lity , a n d th a t w hile a d h im n ïī m ay n o t in h e rit fro m a M u slim , a M u slim m ay in h e rit fro m a dhim m ī. Som e S h ľa ju rists w e n t so far as to m a in ta in th a t a M u slim h e ir w ill alw ay s p re e m p t d h im m ī h eirs, a n d th u s if a d h im m ī d ied leav­ ing a n u m b e r o f d h im m ī heirs a n d a single M u slim h eir, th e la tte r alo n e co u ld in h e rit to th e ex clu sio n o f all o th e rs. T h e a p p lic a tio n o f th is rule, p a rtic u la rly in p erio d s o f fo rced c o n ­ v ersio n , c o u ld cause c o n sid erab le h a rd sh ip . It w as th e su b ject o f fre q u e n t c o m p la in t a m o n g th e Jew s o f Ira n .15 In th e ir o w n in te rn a l affairs, th e dhim m īs n o rm a lly en jo y ed som e a u to n o m y , b eing su b ject to th e ir o w n chiefs a n d judges, a n d living, a t least in fam ily, p e rso n a l, a n d religious m a tte rs, a c c o rd in g to th e ir o w n law s. In re la tio n s b etw een dhim m īs a n d M u slim s, th ey w ere tre a te d u n e q u ally . A M u slim co u ld m a rry a free d h im m ī w o m a n , b u t a d h im m ī m a n co u ld n o t m a rry a M u slim w o m a n . A M u slim co u ld o w n a d h im m ī slave, b u t a d h im m ī co u ld n o t o w n a M u slim slave. W hile th e seco n d o f th ese lim ita tio n s w as o fte n d isreg ard ed , th e first, to u c h in g a fa r m o re sensitive p o in t, w as en fo rced w ith th e u tm o st rig o r, an d an y v io la tio n o f it w as severely p u n ish e d a n d by som e a u th o ritie s tre a te d as a ca p ita l offense. A sim ilar p o sitio n e x ­ isted u n d e r th e law s o f th e B yzantine E m p ire, ac c o rd in g to w h ich a C h ristia n c o u ld m a rry a Jew ish w o m a n , b u t a Jew co u ld n o t m a rry a C h ristia n w o m a n u n d e r p a in o f d e a th . L ikew ise, Jew s in B yzantium w ere fo rb id d e n to o w n C h ristia n slaves o n w h a te v e r g ro u n d s. T h e law s o f th e M u slim state assim ilated th e p o sitio n o f its C h ristia n an d Jew ish su bjects to th a t p re v io u sly held by th e Jew ish subjects o f B y zan tiu m , b u t w ith som e allev iatio n fo r b o th . T he evidence o f a d h im m ī w as n o t a d m issib le b efo re a M u slim c o u rt, an d m o st sch o o ls— b u t n o t th e H a n a fīs— p u t a lo w er value o n dhim m īs th a n o n M u slim s in th e c o m p e n sa tio n o r b lo o d w it to be p a id fo r an in ju ry .16 O n th e o th e r h a n d , a p a r t fro m th e fiscal a n d o ccasio n ally th e te sta m e n ta ry b u rd e n , dhim m īs w ere n o t su b ject to any ec o n o m ic d isab ilities. T hey w ere n o t b a rre d fro m any o c c u ­ p a tio n s, n o r w ere th ey fo rced in to an y o th ers. T h ere w ere no re stric te d p ro fe ssio n s a n d , besides th e H ijaz, th e M u slim ho ly

28 ■ CHAPTER I

la n d , a n d a few s a n c tu a rie s elsew h ere, th e re w ere n o re stric te d places. E x c e p t in M o ro c c o a n d so m e tim e s in Ira n , d him m īs w ere n o t co n fin ed to g h e tto s e ith e r in th e g e o g ra p h ic a l o r in th e o c c u p a tio n a l sense. T h o u g h C h ristia n s a n d Jew s te n d e d o n th e w h o le to fo rm th e ir o w n q u a rte rs in M u slim cities, th is w as a n a tu ra l social d e v e lo p m e n t a n d n o t, like th e g h e tto s o f C h ristia n E u ro p e , a legally e n fo rc e d re stric tio n . T h e o n ly sig­ n ifican t e x c e p tio n in early tim es w as th e d ecisio n o f th e calip h 'U m a r I to ex p el th e Je w s a n d C h ristia n s fro m A ra b ia , so th a t o n ly Islam w o u ld be p ro fe sse d in th e h o ly la n d o f its b ir th .27 T h is d ecisio n seem s to h av e a p p lie d o n ly to th e H ija z , since Jew ish a n d fo r a w h ile C h ristia n c o m m u n itie s re m a in e d in s o u th e rn a n d e a ste rn A ra b ia . H o w e v e r, ju st as th e m in o ritie s te n d e d to c o n g re g a te in c e rta in p laces, so to o w e find th e m c o n c e n tra tin g in c e rta in p ro fe ssio n s, m o re p a rtic u la rly in th o se re q u irin g skills th a t th e M u slim s n e e d e d a n d e ith e r d id n o t possess them selv es o r d id n o t care to a c q u ire . In c e rta in p e rio d s th e d him m īs w ere h e a v ­ ily en g ag ed in tra d e a n d finance, v o c a tio n s sc o rn e d by h e ro m ilita ry societies; in so m e p e rio d s, p a rtic u la rly in th e la te r ce n tu rie s, th ey w e re w ell re p re se n te d in w h a t o n e m ig h t call th e d irty tra d e s. T h ese in c lu d e d such ta sk s as clean in g cess­ p o o ls a n d d ry in g th e c o n te n ts fo r use as fuel— a c o m m o n Je w ish o c c u p a tio n in M o ro c c o , Y em en, Ira q , Iran a n d C e n tra l A sia. Jew s w e re also fo u n d as ta n n e rs , b u tc h e rs, h a n g m e n , a n d o th e r sim ila r d isa g re e b le o r d esp ised o c c u p a tio n s. As w ell as th e m o re o b v io u s d irty jo b s, th ese d h im m ī p ro fessio n s in ­ c lu d ed w h a t w a s also , fo r a s tric t M u slim , so m e th in g to be a v o id e d — n a m e ly , d e a lin g w ith u n b eliev ers. T h is led a t tim es to a ra th e r h igh p r o p o r tio n o f n o n -M u slim s in such o c c u p a ­ tio n s as d ip lo m a c y , c o m m erce, b a n k in g , b ro k e ra g e , a n d es­ p io n ag e. Even th e p ro fe ssio n s o f w o rk e r a n d d ealer in go ld a n d silver, esteem ed in m a n y p a rts o f th e w o rld , w ere re g a rd e d by stric t M u slim s as ta in te d a n d e n d a n g e rin g th e im m o rta l souls o f th o se e n g a g e d in th em . T h e q u e stio n o f th e e m p lo y m e n t o f n o n -M u slim s in high g o v e rn m e n t p o sitio n s w a s a sensitive o n e , a n d is p ro b a b ly th e

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 29

c o m m o n e st single fo rm o f c o m p la in t. A few d him m īs , in b o th e a rlie r a n d la te r tim es, m a n a g e d to reach p o sitio n s o f g re a t p o w e r a n d influence u n d e r M u slim sovereigns. M u c h g re a te r n u m b e rs served in th e m id d le a n d lo w er ra n k s o f th e state b u re a u c ra c y . T h is w as o f special im p o rta n c e in a society w h ere access to th e e c o n o m ic activ ities o f th e sta te w as th e su rest— a t tim es th e o n ly — ro a d to riches. A saying a ttrib u te d to th e calip h T Jm a r I is relev an t: “ D o n o t a p p o in t Jew s a n d C h ris­ tia n s to p u b lic office b ecau se in th e ir religio n th ey are p eo p le o f b rib es. B ut [in Islam ] b rib es are n o t la w fu l.” 28 T h e a ttitu d e o f th e d o c to rs o f th e la w to th e e m p lo y m e n t o f dhim m īs is u n e q u iv o c a l, as fo r e x a m p le in th is re sp o n su m fro m a th ir ­ te e n th -c e n tu ry ju rist:

Q u e s t i o n : A Jew h as been a p p o in te d in sp e c to r o f coins in th e tre a su ry o f th e M u slim s, to w eigh th e d irh a m s th a t co m e a n d go a n d to te st th e m , a n d his w o rd is relied u p o n in th is. Is his a p p o in tm e n t p erm issib le u n d e r th e H o ly L aw o r n o t? W ill G o d re w a rd th e ru le r if he dism isses h im an d rep laces h im w ith a c o m p e te n t M u slim ? W ill a n y o n e w h o helps to p ro c u re his dism issal also be re w a rd e d by G od? A n s w e r : It is n o t p e rm issib le to a p p o in t th e Je w to such a p o s t, it is n o t p e rm itte d to leave him in it, a n d it is n o t p e rm issib le to rely o n his w o rd in any m a tte r re la tin g to th is. T h e ru le r, m ay G o d g ra n t h im success, w ill be re w a rd e d fo r d ism issin g h im a n d re p la c in g him w ith a c o m p e te n t M u slim , a n d a n y o n e w h o h elp s to p ro c u re his dism issal w ill also be re w a rd e d . G o d said , “ O y o u w h o believe, d o n o t ta k e in tim a te s fro m a m o n g th o se w h o are n o t o f y o u r o w n p e o p le , fo r th e y w ill sp a re n o p a in s to c o rru p t y o u ; w h a t th ey d esire is w h a t m a k e s y o u su ffer; th e ir h a tre d a p p e a rs in th e ir m o u th s, b u t th a t w h ic h is h id d e n in th e ir b re a sts is g re a te r. W e h av e m a d e th e signs clear to y o u , if y o u can u n d e r s ta n d ” ( Q u r ’a n , III,1 14). T h e m e a n in g o f th is is th a t y o u sh o u ld n o t a d o p t o u tsid e rs, th a t is, u n b eliev ers, a n d a llo w th e m to p e n e tra te to y o u r in n e rm o st affairs. “ T h ey w ill sp a re n o p a in s to c o r r u p t y o u .” T h is m ean s th a t th ey

3 0 ■ CHAPTER I

w ill n o t re fra in fro m a n y th in g w h ic h is in th e ir p o w e r to cause y o u h a rm , d a m a g e , o r in ju ry . “ T h e ir h a tre d a p p e a rs in th e ir m o u th s ,” fo r th ey say, “ W e a re y o u r e n em ies.” 29 D e sp ite such ru lin g s a n d p o lem ics, h o w e v e r, th e p ra c tic e o f e m p lo y in g n o n -M u slim s w as a n d re m a in e d a lm o st u n iv ersal— fo r p ra g m a tic r a th e r th a n th e o re tic a l re a so n s. T h ey w ere u se­ ful, a n d th a t w a s e n o u g h ; M u slim ru lers a n d th e ir sp o k esm en d id n o t n o rm a lly find it necessary o r e x p e d ie n t to ju stify th e p ra c tic e . T h e re is, h o w e v e r, a n in te re stin g sto ry p reserv ed in th e scrib al tr a d itio n a n d a ttrib u te d to th e tim e o f th e calip h 'U m a r I. T h e c a lip h , w h o w as in th e m o sq u e , ask ed A b ū M ū sā, the g o v ern o r o f K ūfa, to send his secretary to the m osque to re a d h im so m e letters th a t h a d a rriv e d fro m Syria. A b ū M ū sā re p lie d th a t th e se c re ta ry c o u ld n o t e n te r th e m o sq u e. T Jm a r ask e d : “ W h y , is he in a sta te o f ritu a l im p u rity ? ” “ N o ,” rep lied A b ū M ū s ā , “ b u t he is a C h ris tia n .” T h e calip h w as sh o c k e d , sla p p e d his th ig h in in d ig n a tio n a n d said to A b ū M ū sā : “ W h a t is th e m a tte r w ith you? M a y G o d strik e y ou! D o n ’t y o u k n o w th e w o rd s o f A lm ig h ty G o d : ‘O y o u w h o believe, d o n o t ta k e th e Jew s a n d th e C h ristia n s as frie n d s’ (V ,5 i). W h y c o u ld n ’t y o u ta k e a g en u in e M u slim ? ” T o w h ich A b ū M ū s ā re p lie d : “ H is relig io n is his, his se c re ta ry sh ip is m in e .” A b ū M û s ā ’s m e a n in g is clear— a m a n ’s relig io n is his o w n affa ir; his e m p lo y e r’s c o n c e rn is o n ly w ith his p ro fe s­ sio n al skill. T h e n a r r a to r o f th is sto ry , h o w e v e r, gives th e c alip h th e la st w o rd : “ I w ill n o t h o n o r th e m w h e n G o d h as d e g ra d e d th e m ; I w ill n o t g lo rify th e m w h e n G o d h a s h u m il­ ia te d th e m ; I w ill n o t b rin g th e m n e a r w h e n G o d h as set th em fa r a w a y .” 30 T h is d istin c tio n b e tw e e n a m a n ’s relig io u s affil­ ia tio n , w h ic h m ig h t be d isa p p ro v e d , a n d his p ro fe ssio n a l c o m ­ p eten ce, w h ic h m ig h t be u sefu l, w as ra re ly e x p ressed b u t o ften ap p lied . T h e fiscal p e n a liz a tio n o f th e u n b eliev er is basic to th e p e r ­ ceived re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e tw o sides, a n d is c e n tra l to th e dhim m a as a w h o le . U nlike m o st o f th e o th e r re stric tio n s o f th e d h im m a , it rests o n a cle a r te x t in th e Q u r ’ā n , a n d is w ell a u th e n tic a te d a n d e sta b lish e d in th e o ld e st tra d itio n s a n d h isto ric a l n a rra tiv e s. In th e e a rlie st p e rio d , w h e n , in a c c o rd ­

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 31

ance w ith th e usage o f th e tim e, th e M u slim s w o u ld h av e been e n title d to tre a t th e c o n q u e re d p e o p le as b o o ty a n d sell th e m in to slavery, th e p ro c e d u re a d o p te d , o f im p o sin g a po ll ta x , w as a n a c tio n a t o n ce o f p ru d e n c e a n d o f clem ency. T h e p o in t is clearly m a d e in an early tre a tise o n ta x a tio n citin g a letter allegedly w ritte n by th e ca lip h 'U m a r I to o n e o f his g o v ern o rs: N e ith e r y o u n o r th e M u slim s w h o are w ith y o u sh o u ld tre a t th e un b eliev ers as b o o ty a n d sh a re th em o u t [as slaves] . . . if y o u ta k e th e p o ll ta x fro m th e m y o u h av e n o claim o n th e m o r rig h t o v e r th e m . H a v e y o u c o n sid e re d , if w e ta k e th e m a n d sh a re th e m o u t, w h a t w ill be left fo r th e M u slim s w h o com e a fte r us? By G o d , th e M u slim s w o u ld n o t find a m a n to ta lk to a n d p ro fit fro m his la b o rs. T h e M u slim s o f o u r d a y w ill e a t [from th e w o rk of] these p eo p le as lo n g as th ey live, a n d w h e n w e a n d th ey die, o u r so n s w ill e a t [from ] th e ir so n s fo rev er, as lo n g as they re m a in , fo r th ey are slaves to th e p e o p le o f th e relig io n o f Islam as lo n g as th e re lig io n o f Islam shall p re v a il. T h e re fo re, p lace a p o ll ta x u p o n th e m a n d d o n o t enslave th e m a n d d o n o t let th e M u slim s o p p re ss th e m o r h a rm th e m o r co n su m e th e ir p r o p ­ erty e x c e p t as p e rm itte d , b u t faith fu lly ob serv e th e c o n d i­ tio n s w h ic h y o u hav e a c c o rd e d to th e m a n d all th a t y o u h av e a llo w e d to th e m .31 T h e fiscal d iffe re n tia tio n b e tw e e n believer a n d u n b eliev er re m a in e d in force th ro u g h o u t th e Islam ic w o rld u n til th e n in e ­ te e n th c e n tu ry , a n d w as n ev er a t an y tim e o r p lace allo w ed to lapse. T h e o th e r re stric tio n s, in c o n tra s t, seem ed to h av e v a rie d very c o n sid e ra b ly in th e ir a p p lic a tio n . O n th e w h o le o n e gets th e im p re ssio n th a t th e y w ere m o re o fte n d isre g a rd e d th a n stric tly en fo rced . P a rtly , n o d o u b t, such lax n ess m ay be a ttrib u te d to lim ited p o w e rs a m edieval sta te w a s ab le to exercise o v e r th e m ass o f its su b jects, b u t p a rtly also to a gen u in e d isin c lin a tio n o n th e p a r t o f ru lers to en fo rce th e m o re irk so m e a n d h u m ilia tin g re stric tio n s. All in all, th o u g h so m etim es allev iated , th is p a tte rn o f re ­ stric tio n b ec a m e p a r t o f th e Islam ic w a y o f life. As in m a n y o th e r so cieties a n d situ a tio n s, its sym bolic p u rp o se w as to

32 ■ CHAPTER I d e m o n s tra te w h o b e lo n g e d , h o w e v e r rem o tely , to th e d o m i­ n a n t g ro u p a n d w h o d id n o t, a n d to m a in ta in th e d istin c tio n b e tw e e n th e tw o . T h e e x te n t to w h ic h th ese re stric tio n s w ere re la x e d o r e n ­ fo rc e d w a s d e te rm in e d by m a n y fa c to rs, o n e o f th e m o st im ­ p o r ta n t b ein g th e stre n g th o r w eak n ess o f th e M u slim state. It is easier to be to le ra n t w h e n o n e feels stro n g th a n w h en o n e feels w e a k a n d e n d a n g e re d . T h e re la tio n sh ip b etw een M u slim s a n d dhim m ts w a s affected by th e state o f re la tio n s b e tw e e n Islam a n d th e o u tsid e w o rld . W e shall h a rd ly be su rp rise d to find th a t fro m th e tim e of th e C ru sa d e s o n w a rd , as th e M u slim w o rld , c o m p a re d w ith th e C h ristia n w o rld , becam e w e a k e r a n d p o o re r, th e p o sitio n o f th e n o n -M u slim su b jects o f th e M u slim sta te s d e te rio ra te d . T h ey su ffered fro m a m o re rig o ro u s e n fo rc e m e n t o f th e re stric tio n s a n d even fro m a degree o f social se g re g a tio n — so m e th in g th a t h a d n o t o ften h a p p e n e d p re v io u sly .32 T h e ir p o s itio n w a s in gen eral to le ra b le b u t insecure. H u ­ m ilia tio n w a s p a r t o f th e p a tte rn . T h e Q u r ’ān ic w o rd s d h u ll an d dhilla , m eaning low liness, abasem ent, abjectness, are often u sed by M u slim w rite rs to d e n o te th e h u m ility th a t w as felt to be a p p ro p ria te fo r th e n o n -M u slim a n d m o re especially th e Je w ish su b jects o f th e sta te . T h is is am p ly a tte ste d b o th in m ed iev al so u rces a n d by a succession o f W estern tra v e le rs to th e Islam ic la n d s .33 In c o n sid e rin g th e lo n g re c o rd o f M u slim rule o v er n o n M u slim s, a key q u e stio n is th a t o f p e rc e p tio n a n d a ttitu d e s. H o w d id M u slim s view th e ir d h im m ī subjects? W h a t d id th ey see as th e n o rm a l re la tio n sh ip b etw een them selves a n d th o se subjects? W h a t d e p a rtu re s fro m these n o rm s d id th ey see as c allin g fo r a c tio n — a n d w h a t actio n ? O n e im p o r ta n t p o in t sh o u ld be m a d e rig h t aw ay . T h e re is little sign of any deep-rooted em otional hostility directed against Jew s— o r fo r th a t m a tte r an y o th e r g ro u p — such as th e a n tiS em itism o f th e C h ristia n w o rld . T h e re w ere, h o w e v e r, u n ­ a m b ig u o u sly n eg ativ e a ttitu d e s. T hese w ere in p a r t th e “ n o r ­ m a l” feelings o f a d o m in a n t g ro u p to w a rd su b ject g ro u p s, w ith p a ra lle ls in v irtu a lly an y society o n e cares to e x a m in e ;

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 33

in p a r t, m o re specifically, th e c o n te m p t o f th e M u slim fo r th o se w h o h a d been given th e o p p o rtu n ity to accep t th e tru th a n d w h o w illfully chose to p e rsist in th e ir disbelief; in p a rt, c e rta in specific p reju d ices d ire c te d a g a in st on e o r o th e r g ro u p a n d n o t a g a in st th e rest. O n th e w h o le , in c o n tra s t to C h ristia n an ti-S em itism , th e M u slim a ttitu d e to w a rd n o n -M u slim s is o n e n o t o f h a te o r fear o r envy b u t sim ply o f c o n te m p t. T his is ex p ressed in v a rio u s w ay s. T h e re is n o lack o f p olem ic lite ra tu re a tta c k in g th e C h ristia n s a n d o ccasio n ally also th e Je w s.34 T h e neg ativ e a ttrib u te s asc rib e d to th e su b ject religions a n d th e ir fo llo w ers are u su ally ex p ressed in religious a n d social term s, very rarely in e th n ic o r racial term s, th o u g h th is does so m etim es o ccu r. T h e la n g u a g e o f a b u se is o fte n q u ite stro n g . T h e co n v e n tio n a l e p ith e ts a re apes fo r Jew s a n d pigs fo r C h ristia n s.35 D ifferen t fo rm u la e o f greetin g are used w h e n ad d ressin g Jew s a n d C h ris­ tia n s th a n w h e n a d d re ssin g M u slim s, w h e th e r in c o n v e rsa tio n o r in c o rre sp o n d e n c e. C h ristia n s a n d Jew s w ere fo rb id d e n to give th e ir c h ild re n distinctively M u slim n am es a n d , by O t­ to m a n tim es, even th o se n am es th a t w ere sh a re d by th e th re e relig io n s, such as Jo se p h o r D av id , w ere differen tly spelled fo r th e th re e .36 N o n -M u slim s le a rn e d to live w ith a n u m b e r o f differences o f th is so rt; like th e s a rto ria l law s, they w ere p a r t o f th e sy m b o lism o f in ferio rity . S h ľite M u slim s are fu rth e r c o n c e rn e d w ith th e q u e stio n o f ritu a l p u rity . P u rity (ţahāra) a n d im p u rity (najãsa) are m a tte rs o f g re a t im p o rta n c e fo r p ra c tic in g M u slim s. D efilem ent, ac ­ c o rd in g to M u slim ju rists, p ro d u c e s a sta te o f ritu a l im p u rity a n d m ay re su lt fro m sex u al in te rc o u rse , m e n stru a tio n , a n d c h ild b irth ; fro m m ic tu ritio n a n d d efecatio n ; o r fro m c o n ta c t w ith u n c le a n th in g s o r c re a tu res such as w in e, pigs, c a rrio n , a n d c e rta in d isch arg es fro m th e b o d y . A m o n g th e stric t S h fa , n o n -M u slim s also fall in to this categ o ry , an d c o n ta c t w ith th e m , o r w ith clo th es, fo o d , o r utensils h a n d le d by th e m , c auses ritu a l im p u rity re q u irin g p u rific a tio n b efo re u n d e rta k ­ ing relig io u s o r ritu a l d u tie s.37 Som e a u th o ritie s in Ira n w ere even stric te r o n th e q u e stio n o f ritu a l p u rity . T h u s th e first o f a set o f rules d a tin g fro m late n in e te e n th -c en tu ry Ira n fo rb id s

34 ■

CHAPTER I

Jew s to go o u t o f d o o rs w h e n it ra in s o r sn o w s, p re su m a b ly fo r fe a r lest th e ra in o r sn o w c a rry th e im p u rity o f th e Jew s to th e M u s lim s .38 Such obsessive co n c e rn w ith th e d a n g e rs o f p o llu tio n by u n c le a n p e rso n s o f a n o th e r g ro u p is v irtu ally lim ited to Ira n ia n S hi'ism a n d m ay be influen ced by Z o ro a stria n p ra c tic e s. It is u n k n o w n to m a in stre a m Sunni Islam . By th e ea rly y ears o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry such beliefs a n d th e re su ltin g p ra c tic e s w ere g ra d u a lly b eing fo rg o tte n . M o re recen tly , h o w e v e r, th ey h av e a g ain been rem em b ered . T h e A y a to lla h K h o m ein i, in a w idely c irc u la te d b o o k w ritte n fo r th e g u id a n c e o f M u slim s in ritu a l a n d re la te d m a tte rs, o b ­ serves: “ T h e re a re eleven th in g s w h ich m a k e u n clean : i . u rin e ; z. faeces; 3. sp e rm ; 4. c a rrio n ; 5. b lo o d ; 6. d o g ; 7. p ig ; 8. u n b eliev er; 9. w in e ; 10. beer; 11. th e sw e a t o f a cam el w h ich eats u n c le a n th in g s .” In a gloss o n n u m b e r 8 he a d d s: “ T h e e n tire b o d y o f th e u n b eliev er is u n c le a n ; even his h a ir a n d n ails a n d b o d y m o istu re s are u n c le a n .” T h e re is, h o w ev er, som e relief: “ W h e n a n o n -M u slim m a n o r w o m a n is co n v e rte d to Islam , th e ir b o d y , saliva, n asal secretio n s, a n d sw e a t are ritu a lly clean. If, h o w e v e r, th e ir clo th es w ere in c o n ta c t w ith th e ir sw eaty b o d ie s b e fo re th e ir c o n v e rsio n , these rem ain u n ­ c le a n .” 39 T o som e e x te n t th e d istin ctiv e c lo th in g o r h e a d g e a r w o rn by v a rio u s su b g ro u p s w ith in Islam ic society served fo r in te rn a l a t least as m u c h as fo r e x te rn a l re c o g n itio n , a n d in m an y situ a tio n s m ig h t h av e conveyed n o h o stile in te n tio n . F ro m very a n c ie n t tim es u n til, in som e reg io n s, th e p re se n t d ay , v a rio u s se c ta ria n , re g io n a l, e th n ic , trib a l, a n d o th e r g ro u p s h av e re ta in e d a n d even p rized th e c u t o r c o lo r o r style o f th e ir c lo th in g a n d h e a d g e a r, w h ich m a rk e d th e m off as d ifferen t fro m o th e r p e o p le a n d th e re fo re , p re su m a b ly in th e ir o w n e s tim a tio n , as su p e rio r. P ride in id e n tity is n o rm a l a m o n g h u m a n social g ro u p s, even a m o n g th o se su b ject to d isc rim i­ n a tio n o r p e rse c u tio n . D istin ctiv e c lo th in g also serves a useful p u rp o s e by fa c ilita tin g m u tu a l re c o g n itio n an d claim s to so l­ id a rity o r s u p p o rt. A lread y in th e seventh cen tu ry b .c ., th e P ro p h e t Z e p h a n ia h (1, 8) re c o rd s th a t “ in th e d ay o f th e L o rd ’s sacrifice,” G o d w ill punish “ all such as are clothed w ith strange

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 35

a p p a re l.” S im ilarly, th e T a lm u d urges Jew s n o t to dress like P ersian s, th a t is, like th e m a ste rs o f th e em p ire in w h ich they liv ed .40 F ro m th e b eg in n in g s o f Islam , th e M u slim a u th o ritie s are v irtu a lly u n a n im o u s in th e ir in stru c tio n to th e believers: “ K h ā lifũ h u m ” — d iffe re n tia te yourselves fro m th em — th a t is, th e un b eliev ers— in dress as in m a n n e rs a n d c u sto m s.41 A nd since M u slim s m ig h t n o t dress like unbelievers, it fo llo w s th a t u n b eliev ers sh o u ld n o t a d o p t o r im itate th e a ttire o f M u slim s. T h is p rin c ip le w as by n o m eans alw ays strictly en fo rced , b u t its d isre g a rd w as a c o m m o n grievance o f th e u lem a. Even th e u su ally calm a n d to le ra n t E b u ssu u d E fendi, chief m u fti o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire in th e tim e o f S ultan Suleym an th e M a g n if­ icen t, w as p ro v o k e d to a ra re disp lay o f an g er by th e v io la tio n o f th is ru le in his d ay , as is sh o w n in a resp o n su m , q u o tin g s ta n d a rd a u th o ritie s:

Q u e s t i o n : If a ru le r p rev en ts th e dhim m īs w h o live a m o n g th e M u slim s fro m b u ild in g high a n d o rn a m e n te d h o u ses, rid in g h o rse s inside th e city, dressing them selves in su m p ­ tu o u s a n d costly g a rm e n ts, w e a rin g k a fta n s w ith co llars an d fine m u slin a n d furs a n d tu rb a n s , in sum fro m d elib e ra te a c tio n s to b elittle th e M u slim s a n d e x a lt them selves, w ill th a t ru le r be re w a rd e d a n d reco m p en sed by G od? A n s w e r : Yes. T h e d him m īs m u st be d istin g u ish ed fro m th e M u slim s by th e ir dress, th e ir m o u n ts, th e ir sad d les, an d th e ir h e a d g e a r.42 T h e re stric tio n s o n clo th in g im p o sed on th e d him m īs w ere d ra w n fro m several d ifferen t sources a n d in sp ired by m o re th a n o n e m o tiv e. In o n e sense, they no d o u b t re ta in e d a n d co n firm ed c e rta in styles o f dress th a t h a d p rev io u sly b een — o r su b se q u e n tly b eco m e— th e accep ted fo rm o f v estim en tary self-expression o f the groups them selves. In early Islamic tim es, th e re w a s, fro m th e M u slim side, a necessary secu rity c o n sid ­ e ra tio n — th a t o f m u tu a l rec o g n itio n a n d p ro te c tio n a m o n g th e M u slim s them selves, w h e n these w ere still a tin y ru lin g m in o rity . By m edieval tim es, th is need h a d d isa p p e a re d , b u t

3 6 · CHAPTER I

th e O tto m a n a d v a n c e in to C h ristia n A sia M in o r a n d th e n in to C h ristia n so u th e a s te rn E u ro p e b ro u g h t it b a c k ag ain . F inally, th e re w as a th ird c o n sid e ra tio n , w h ich b ecam e m o re im p o rta n t a n d p e rh a p s d o m in a n t in th e la te r cen tu ries: th e d esire to h u m ilia te , to re m in d th e d h im m ī o f his in fe rio rity , a n d to p u n ish h im if he ever trie d to fo rg e t his q u a lity a n d his place. T h e stig m a o f in fe rio rity is ex p ressed in a n u m b e r o f w ays. T h e re q u ire m e n t th a t Jew s a n d C h ristia n s, th e ir fam ilies, a n d th e ir slaves w e a r clo a k s a n d h e a d g e a r o f distin ctiv e co lo rs is n o t in itself necessarily hostile. H o w e v e r, th e re q u ire m e n t th a t they w e a r a p a tc h o f a d iffe re n t c o lo r o n th e ir o u te r g a rm e n ts is clearly in te n d e d to d e g rad e as w ell as to d ifferen tiate. T h e sam e is tru e o f M o ro c c a n re g u la tio n s re q u irin g Jew s to go e ith e r b a re fo o t o r to w e a r s tra w slippers w h e n th ey w a n d e re d o u tsid e th e g h e tto . O f ra th e r m o re significance are th e re g u la tio n s d esig n ed to sh o w , a n d in d eed to stress, th a t th e dhim m ts d o n o t b e lo n g to th e a rm s-b e a rin g classes.43 T h e d h im m ī m u st rid e an ass, n o t a h o rse ; he m u st n o t sit his b e a st a strid e b u t sid esad d le, like a w o m a n . M o s t serio u s of all, he m u st ca rry n o w e a p o n s, a n d is th e re fo re alw ay s a t th e m ercy o f any w h o ch o o se to a tta c k him . W h ile a rm e d a ssa u lt o n dhim m ts is c o m p a ra tiv e ly ra re , th e re is alw ay s a sense o f d a n g e r, as w ell as o f in ferio rity , fo r th o se w h o m ay n o t b e a r arm s in a society w h ere it is n o rm a l to d o so. T h e d h im m ī w as n o t alo n e in th is d isa b ility , w h ich also affected som e o th e r social g ro u p s, n o ta b ly in th e A ra b ia n p e n in su la . H e w as, h o w e v e r, th e m o st v u ln erab le. T h e d h im m ī c a n n o t a n d in d eed m ay n o t defen d him self even a g a in st such p e tty b u t p ain fu l a tta c k s as sto n e th ro w in g , d o n e m ain ly by c h ild re n — a fo rm o f a m u se m e n t re c o rd e d in m an y p laces fro m early u n til m o d e rn tim es. T h e d h im m ī h a d to rely o n th e p u b lic a u th o ritie s to p ro te c t h im fro m a tta c k o r o th e r h a rm , a n d w h ile th is p ro te c tio n w as o fte n , ind eed u su ally , given, it in ev itab ly fa lte re d in tim es o f tro u b le o r d iso rd e r. T h e re su ltin g feeling o f e n d a n g e rm e n t, o f p re c a rio u sn e ss, is fre q u e n tly ex p re sse d in d h im m ī w ritin g s. A sim ilar ex p re ssio n o f in fe rio rity , this tim e m o re sy m b o lic th a n su b sta n tia l, is in th e re g u la tio n s re g a rd in g th e a ttire o f

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 3 J

d h im m ī w o m e n . T h e re g u la tio n s fo rb id d in g th em to w e a r

lu x u rio u s g a rm e n ts o r costly jew els w ere on ly sp o rad ically e n fo rc e d , a n d in an y case w ere p a ra lle le d by re stric tio n s im ­ p o se d o n M u slim w o m e n . B ut o n e difference is clearly a m a rk o f in fe rio rity . Free M u slim w o m e n going o u t o f d o o rs w ere re q u ire d to k eep th e ir faces co v ered by som e so rt o f veil. D h im m ī a n d slave w o m e n w ere p e rm itte d to go b arefaced , a n d so m etim es even re q u ire d to d o so. T h ere are som e sets o f re g u la tio n s th a t ac tu a lly fo rb id th e w o m en o f th e d him m īs to w e a r v eils.44 T h e a sso c ia tio n o f th e u n co v ered face w ith slave w o m e n a n d o f th e veiled face w ith v irtu e a n d p ro p rie ty is clear. T h e se n tim e n t ex p ressed in these rules is clearly th e sam e as th a t w h ic h in sp ire d W e ste rn co n v en tio n s, in th e recen t p a s t, c o n c e rn in g th e e x p o su re o f th e fem ale b o so m . A t a tim e w h e n s ta n d a rd s in th e cin em a a n d television w ere stric te r th a n they are n o w , it w as acceptable to display bare-breasted w o m en if th ey w ere re g a rd e d as p rim itiv e natives o f som e re m o te p lace. It w a s fo rb id d e n to disp lay th e m if they w ere w h ite a n d , so to sp eak , civilized. A c o m m o n fe a tu re o f all these re g u la tio n s, Sunni a n d S h ľ a alike, is th e co n cern to m a in ta in a n d m o re especially to sy m ­ bolize th e social in fe rio rity o f th e d him m īs , an d th e c o rre ­ s p o n d in g su p e rio rity o f th e M u slim s. T h e sym bols o f in fe ri­ o rity w ere so m etim es o f g re a te r im p o rta n c e th a n th e reality , a n d surely— a t least fo r th e w e a lth y — m o re irk so m e. W h ile in g en eral th e p u rp o se o f th e c lo th in g re stric tio n s im p o sed o n th e d him m īs w as social a n d , in a sense, p o litical, som e o th e r c o n sid e ra tio n s m ay o ccasio n ally have in tru d e d . A n O tto m a n ferm ãn o f 1 5 6 8 , re sp o n d in g to a w ish ex p ressed by th e q ā d ī o f Ista n b u l fo r a stric te r en fo rc e m en t o f th e rules, n o tes as a re a so n given by th e q ā d ī th a t th e extensive p u rc h a se by d h im ­ m īs o f th e k in d o f h e a d g e a r, fo o tw e a r, an d c lo th in g w o rn by M u slim s h a d led to a sh a rp increase in th e prices o f th ese c o m m o d itie s, th u s c au sin g in ju ry to th e M u slim p o p u la tio n : O rd e r to th e Q ā d ī o f Istan b u l: W h e re a s y o u sen t a le tte r to m y T h re sh o ld o f Felicity, in w h ic h y o u in fo rm e d m e th a t Jew ish a n d C h ristia n m en an d w o m e n , a m o n g th e infidels residing4* in th e G o d -g u a rd e d

38 ■ CHAPTER I city o f Is ta n b u l, a re w e a rin g g a rm e n ts o f fine, frin g ed c lo th , b u y in g fine tu rb a n s a n d b in d in g th e m in th e style o f ca v a lry officers (sipãhĩ) a n d th e like, w e a rin g k a fta n s o f a tla s a n d c o tto n a n d o th e r fine clo th s a n d a d o p tin g th e sam e k in d o f sh o es a n d slip p ers as M u slim s, w ith th e re su lt th a t th e p rices o f tu rb a n s , c lo th s, a n d fo o tw e a r h as risen b e y o n d re a c h , a n d in w h ic h y o u re q u e ste d th a t infidels be p re v e n te d fro m dre ssin g like M u slim s— A n d w h e re a s, in rep ly to th is, m y im p e ria l decree h a d a lre a d y p re v io u sly been w ritte n a n d sen t, co n c e rn in g th e d ress o f th e infidels— T h e re fo re I n o w c o m m a n d th a t w h e n th is p re se n t a rriv es, y o u p ro c e e d in a c c o rd a n c e w ith m y p rev io u sly se n t im p e ria l d ecree, a n d e n su re th a t h e n c e fo rth n e ith e r Je w n o r C h ristia n n o r an y o th e r infidel be a llo w e d to w e a r fine c lo th es, as set fo rth a b o v e , a n d in c o n tra v e n tio n o f m y p rev io u sly issu ed n o b le c o m m a n d . (G iven to th e In sp e c to r o f M a rk e ts) 2 i S afar 9 7 6 /1 5 A u g u st 1 5 6 8 .46 A c o n sid e ra tio n o f th e h ig h e st im p o rta n c e w a s th a t th e d him m īs sh o u ld sh o w re sp e c t n o t o n ly fo r Islam b u t also fo r

e ach a n d every in d iv id u a l M u slim . P ro v isio n s to th is effect w e re u su ally in c o rp o ra te d in to th e sets o f re g u la tio n s th a t fro m tim e to tim e w ere d ra w n u p by religio u s a u th o ritie s o r p ro m u lg a te d by M u slim ru lers to specify a n d item ize th e re ­ stric tio n s a risin g fro m th e dhim m a. S om etim es th e p ro v isio n s w e re set fo rth in su rp risin g d e ta il. T h u s in a tw e lfth -c e n tu ry w o rk fro m Seville in S pain, d e a lin g w ith th e re g u la tio n o f m a rk e ts, w e re a d : A M u slim m u st n o t m assag e a Je w o r a C h ristia n n o r th ro w a w a y his refuse n o r clean his la trin e s. T h e Je w a n d th e C h ristia n a re b e tte r fitted fo r such tra d e s, since th ey are th e tra d e s o f th o se w h o are vile. A M u slim sh o u ld n o t a tte n d to th e a n im a l o f a Je w o r o f a C h ristia n , n o r serve h im as a m u le te e r, n o r h o ld his s tirru p . If any M u slim is k n o w n to d o th is, he s h o u ld be d e n o u n c e d .47

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 39

A set o f c o n d itio n s th e m u lla h s w ish ed to im p o se o n th e Jew s o f H a m a d ā n in Ira n , in a b o u t 1 8 9 2 , are even m o re sp e­ cific: A Je w m u st nev er o v e rta k e a M u slim o n a p u b lic street. H e is fo rb id d e n to ta lk lo u d ly to a M u slim . A Jew ish c re d ito r o f a M u slim m u st claim his d e b t in a q u a v e rin g a n d re ­ sp ectfu l m a n n e r. If a M u slim in su lts a Jew , th e la tte r m u st d ro p his h e a d a n d re m a in sile n t.” 48 If re sp e c t fo r th e p e rso n s o f M u slim s w as a social o b lig a tio n , failu re in w h ic h w o u ld lead to u n p le a sa n tn e sss a n d p o ssib ly to severe re p risa ls, lack o f re sp e c t fo r th e Islam ic fa ith itself, its b o o k , o r its fo u n d e r c o u ld be a c a p ita l offense. M u slim b o o k s o f ju risp ru d e n c e d ev o te c o n sid e ra b le a tte n tio n to th e q u e stio n o f “ th e d h im m ī w h o in su lts Isla m ”— to th e d e fin itio n o f th e o ffense, k n o w n te ch n ically as sa b b , th e p ro o fs re q u ire d to su sta in a c h arg e, a n d th e p u n ish m e n t im p o se d .49 In g en eral, th e S h ľite s a n d , a m o n g th e S unnis, th e H a n b a lī a n d M ā lik ī sch o o ls, a re m o re severe, p re sc rib in g th e d e a th p e n a lty ; th e H a n a fĩs a n d to som e e x te n t th e Shāfi'ĩs are m o re len ien t, b ein g c o n te n t in so m e cases w ith flogging a n d im p riso n m e n t. T h e T u rk ish ju ris t E b u ssu u d E fendi prescrib es th e d e a th p e n a lty o n ly fo r h a b itu a l a n d p u b lic o ffen d ers, a n d is a t som e p a in s to in sist th a t it sh o u ld n o t be given lightly. C learly c o n c e rn e d to av o id friv o lo u s a n d m a licio u s p ro se c u tio n s, he lays d o w n th a t a n o ffe n d e r c a n n o t be tre a te d as h a b itu a l “ m erely o n th e w o rd o f o n e o r tw o p e rs o n s .” T h e h a b itu a l c h a ra c te r o f th e offense m u st be m a d e k n o w n to th e a u th o ritie s by “ d isin te r­ ested M u s lim s ” ; th e w o rd he uses is bīgaraz — literally , w ith ­ o u t g ru d g e o r m alice. “ W h e n it becom es m a n ife st th a t it is h a b itu a l, th e o ffe n d e r m ay be p u t to d e a th .” O th e rw ise , “ se­ vere flogging a n d lo n g im p riso n m e n t are e n o u g h .” S im ilarly, w h ile E b u ssu u d p rescrib es d e a th fo r th e o ffe n d e r w h o d efam es o r b e littles th e P ro p h e t, he n o te s th a t this ap p lies w h e re th e o ffense is p u b lic a n d b ro a d c a st, a n d th a t th e u n b eliev er is n o t h e ld g u ilty u n d e r th is h e a d m erely fo r sta tin g “ th a t w h ich c o n stitu te s his u n b e lie f,” th a t is, fo r rejectin g M u h a m m a d ’s p ro p h e tic m issio n . W ith th ese re se rv a tio n s, th e d h im m ī w h o

40 ■ CHAPTER I

p u b licly in su lts th e P ro p h e t m u st be p u t to d e a th , since “ it is n o t fo r th is th a t w e g ra n te d h im th e d h im m a ” ìº T h e re w e re in d e e d so m e seekers fo r m a rty rd o m w h o a t­ ta in e d th e ir w ish es in th is w ay . O fte n , th e o ffen d ers w ere d e m e n te d o r d ru n k ; so m etim es th e a c c u sa tio n a n d p u n is h ­ m e n t m ig h t be d u e to p o litic a l n eeds, p o p u la r p re ssu re s, o r even p riv a te ven g ean ce. In g en eral, p ro se c u tio n s a n d c o n d e m ­ n a tio n s fo r th is offense w e re n o t c o m m o n , b u t th ey o c c u rre d , fro m tim e to tim e , u n til w ell in to th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , a n d th e fe a r o f d e n u n c ia tio n m u st h av e been a big fa c to r in k eep in g th e dhim m īs in th e ir p lace. E d w a rd L ane, w h o w a s in E g y p t fro m 1833 to 1 8 3 5 , a fte r n o tin g th e im p ro v e m e n t in th e p o ­ sitio n o f E g y p tia n Jew s u n d e r th e ru le o f M u h a m m a d 'A ll P a sh a , re m a rk e d : “ A t p re se n t, th ey a re less o p p re sse d ; b u t still th ey scarcely ever d a re to u tte r a w o rd o f ab u se w h e n reviled o r b e a te n u n ju stly by th e m e a n e st A rab o r T u rk ; fo r m a n y a Je w h a s b een p u t to d e a th u p o n a false an d m alicio u s a c c u sa tio n o f u tte rin g d isresp ectfu l w o rd s a g a in st th e K u ra n o r th e P ro p h e t.” 51 A fa m o u s case o c c u rre d in 185 7 in T u n isia . A Jew o f very h u m b le s ta tu s, by th e n a m e o f B atu Sfez, w as c h a rg e d w ith in su ltin g Islam w h ile in a sta te o f in to x ic a tio n . If trie d by H a n a fī la w , th e n th e sta te sch o o l in T u n isia , he w o u ld h av e b een let o ff w ith a lesser p e n a lty . In ste a d , th e ru le r to o k th e e x c e p tio n a l m e a su re o f re fe rrin g th e case to th e far m o re rig ­ o ro u s M ā lik ī c o u rt, th u s e n su rin g a d e a th sen ten ce. A c c o rd in g to c o n te m p o ra ry o b se rv e rs, th e re a so n w as th a t th e ru le r h a d recen tly o rd e re d th e e x e c u tio n o f a M u slim so ld ier fo r ro b b in g a n d m u rd e rin g a Je w . T h e e x e c u tio n o f th e Jew ish o ffe n d e r w a s th u s seen as a n ecessary d e m o n s tra tio n o f ev en h a n d e d n e ss.52 T h o u g h th e c rim in a l p ro se c u tio n o f th is offense h a s in m o st p laces ceased , criticism , o r even d iscu ssio n , o f Islam by a n o n -M u slim is still a very sensitive su b ject. S h ľite s in Ira n w ere fa r less to le ra n t th a n th e ir S unni c o n ­ te m p o ra rie s in th e O tto m a n E m pire. E x p u lsio n , fo rced c o n ­ v e rsio n , a n d m a ssa c re — all th re e o f ra re o c c u rre n ce in th e S u n n i la n d s— w e re fe a tu re s o f life in Ira n u p to th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . W e ste rn tra v e le rs c o m m e n t fre q u e n tly o n th e a b je c t

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 41

a n d m ise ra b le s ta tu s o f th e n o n -M u slim subjects o f th e sh āh s. In g e n e ra l, it is significant th a t, w ith th e strik in g e x c e p tio n o f S pain a n d A ra b ia , Islam ic regim es w ere m o re to le ra n t a t th e c e n te r th a n a t th e p e rip h e ry , in d eed b eco m in g m o re repressive th e fu rth e r th ey w ere fro m th e h e a rtla n d s o f Islam ic civili­ z a tio n . Life fo r n o n -M u slim s w as u sually b e tte r in E gypt o r T u rk e y , S yria o r Ira q th a n in N o r th A frica a n d C e n tra l A sia. P e rh a p s th e clearest in d ic a tio n o f th e p e rc e p tio n o f th e dbim m īs as o f lo w e r a n d h u m b le r sta tu s is th e ir use as a p a ra d ig m o f d isc rim in a tio n a n d in ferio rity . A S h i'ite a u th o r a ccu sed th e C a lip h 'U m a r o f in tro d u c in g racial d isc rim in a tio n b e tw e e n A ra b a n d n o n -A ra b M u slim s in m a rria g e ; by re ­ stric tin g th e rig h ts o f th e la tte r, he w as tre a tin g th e m “ like Jew s o r C h ristian s.” 53 A Syrian historian, notin g th a t the N o rth A frican s w h o c o n q u e re d E gypt in th e te n th c en tu ry w ere d is­ c rim in a tin g a g a in st soldiers o f E a ste rn (n o t N o rth A frican) o rig in , o b se rv e d th a t “ o u r b re th re n th e eastern ers a m o n g th e m h av e b eco m e like th e dhim m īs a m o n g th e M u slim s.” 54 A n eighteenth-century D am ascene diarist, recording the arrest an d ro u g h h a n d lin g by jan issaries o f a M u slim Sharif, a d e sc e n d a n t o f th e P ro p h e t, c o m m e n te d th a t he w as tre a te d “ as th o u g h he w ere o n e o f th e Jew s. . . .” 55 T h e sam e p e rc e p tio n is re ­ flected in a c o m m o n o a th fo rm u la : “ [If w h a t I say is n o t tru e ], m ay I b eco m e a Jew . . . .” As w ell as th e n egative side, th e re is also a p o sitiv e side. R e la tio n s b e tw e e n these co m m u n ities a n d th e M u slim state w ere re g u la te d by law , by th e d him m a , a n d seen as a c o n ­ tra c tu a l re la tio n sh ip . B oth Q u r ’an a n d hadīth in sist stro n g ly o n th e sa n c tity o f tre a tie s, a n d o n th e need to resp ect th e lives a n d p ro p e rty o f th o se p e rso n s o r g ro u p s, called m u 'ã k a d , w ith w h o m a tre a ty ( ʼn h d ) has been co n clu d ed . Som e early ju rists a t least re g a rd e d th e d him m a as a fo rm o f tre a ty , co v ­ e red by th ese p re sc rip tio n s. A le tte r ascrib ed to th e fam o u s S yrian A ra b ju rist a l-A w z ā 'ĩ (d. 774) is in stru ctiv e. T h e A rab g o v e rn o r o f L e b a n o n h a d c ru sh e d a reb ellio n a m o n g th e C h ris­ tia n s, a n d a l-A w z ā 'ĩ accused h im o f actin g w ith in d isc rim in a te h a rsh n e ss. T h e g o v e rn o r, he said , h a d expelled dhim m īs fro m M o u n t L e b a n o n w h o h a d h a d n o p a r t in th e reb ellio n :

Ą Z

■ CHAPTER I

“ Y o u k illed so m e, a n d sen t o th e rs b a c k to th e ir villages. H o w can y o u p u n ish th e m a n y fo r th e sins o f th e few a n d d ep riv e th e m o f th e ir h o m e s a n d p ro p e rty , w h e n G o d h as d ecreed th a t ‘n o n e sh all b e a r a n o th e r ’s b u rd e n ’ ( Q u r’a n , V I,164). T h e b est co u n sel to o b se rv e a n d fo llo w is th a t o f th e P r o p h e t . . . w h o said: T f a n y o n e o p p re sse s a m u 'ã h a d a n d b u rd e n s h im b e y o n d his c a p a c ity , th e n I m yself w ill be his accu ser [on th e D ay o f J u d g m e n t].’ ” 56 In this co n tex t the term m u'ãhad clearly includes the dhim m ī. In la te r w ritin g s, less im p o rta n c e is given to th e c o n tra c tu a l a n d b ila te ra l c h a ra c te r o f th e d him m a , w h ich is seen ra th e r as a co n c e ssio n g ra n te d by th e M u slim sta te to a g ro u p o f th o se o v e r w h o m it rules. As su ch , h o w e v e r, it is still p a r t o f th e H o ly L a w o f Islam a n d m u st be resp ected a n d d efen d ed by a n y g o o d M u slim . T h e H o ly L aw c o n fe rre d a ce rta in sta tu s o n th e fo llo w e rs o f th ese religions. T h ey w e re , th e re fo re , e n ­ title d to th a t s ta tu s in a c c o rd a n c e w ith G o d ’s law . If th e la w fo rb a d e th e m to rise a b o v e it, it also fo rb a d e M u slim s to d ra g th e m d o w n b e lo w it, a n d fro m tim e to tim e th is p rin c ip le w a s ex p licitly reaffirm ed . In th e early elev en th c e n tu ry , w e are to ld , th e F a tim id calip h a l-Z ā h ir issu ed a re sc rip t . . . w h ich w as re a d b efo re th e p e o p le , ex p re ssin g his g o o d in te n tio n s to w a rd all a n d reaffirm in g th a t all p e rso n s e n tru s te d w ith a u th o rity in th e service o f th e sta te a n d in th e a d m in is tra tio n o f justice m u st base th em selv es o n w h a t is rig h t, p u rsu e ju stice in all th a t com es b e fo re th e m a n d c o n c e rn s th e m , d efen d th e p eacefu l a n d u p rig h t, a n d p u rs u e w ro n g -d o e rs a n d tro u b le m a k e rs. H e also said th a t he h a d h e a rd o f a fear a m o n g th e p e o p le o f th e p ro te c te d re lig io n s, th e C h ristia n s a n d Jew s, th a t th ey w o u ld be c o m p e lle d to pass to th e relig io n o f Islam a n d o f th e ir re se n tm e n t a t th is, since th e re sh o u ld be n o c o n s tra in t in re lig io n ( Q u r ’a n , II,256). H e said th a t th ey sh o u ld rem o v e th ese im a g in a ry fears fro m th e ir h e a rts a n d be assu re d th a t th e y w o u ld en jo y p ro te c tio n a n d care a n d re ta in th e ir p o ­ sition as p ro tected com m unities. W hoever am o n g th em w ishes to e n te r th e re lig io n o f Islam by th e choice o f his o w n h e a rt

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 43

a n d by th e g race o f G o d , a n d n o t fo r th e p u rp o se o f self­ a d v a n c e m e n t a n d a g g ra n d iz e m en t, m ay d o so a n d be b o th w elco m e a n d blessed; w h o e v e r prefers to rem ain in his re ­ lig io n , b u t n o t th e b a c k slid e r, has p ro te c tio n a n d sa fe g u a rd , a n d it is th e d u ty o f all m em b ers o f th e [M uslim ] co m m u n ity to g u a rd a n d p ro te c t him. 57 In th e fo llo w in g cen tu ry , th a t is, in th e p e rio d o f th e C ru ­ sad es, a ju rist ru le d o n th e q u e stio n o f w h e th e r a M u slim ru le r m a y d e p o rt his d h im m ī subjects. T h e a n sw er w as th a t he m ay, b u t o n ly if th e re is g o o d re a so n , w h e th e r fo r th e ir o w n p r o ­ te c tio n o r in th e in terests o f M u slim security: If th e Im a m w ishes to m ove th e peo p le o f th e p ro te c te d relig io n s [ahl al-dhimma\ fro m th e ir la n d , it is n o t law fu l fo r h im to d o so w ith o u t ju stificatio n , b u t it is law fu l if th e re is ju stificatio n . T h e ju stificatio n in o u r tim e is th a t th e Im a m m ay fear fo r th e safety o f th e p eo p le o f th e p ro te c te d religions a t th e h a n d s o f th e infidel enem y [ahl al-harb ], since th ey a re helpless a n d have little stre n g th , o r he m ay fear fo r th e safety o f th e M u slim s a t th e ir h a n d s, lest th ey in fo rm th e enem y o f th e p o in ts o f w eakness o f th e M u s ­ lim s.58 A n O tto m a n ↑ ermān issued by S u ltan M e h m e d III, d a te d M a rc h 1 6 0 2 , very clearly states th e o b lig a tio n s o f th e M u slim sta te to w a rd th e dhim m īs. It begins: Since, in a c c o rd a n c e w ith w h a t A lm ighty G o d th e L o rd o f th e U niverse c o m m a n d e d in H is M a n ife st B o o k co n cern in g th e co m m u n itie s o f Jew s a n d C h ristia n s w h o are p e o p le o f th e dhim m a , th e ir p ro te c tio n a n d p re se rv a tio n a n d th e safe­ g u a rd in g o f th e ir lives a n d p o ssessions are a p e rp e tu a l a n d collective d u ty o f th e g en erality o f M uslim s an d a n ecessary o b lig a tio n in c u m b e n t o n all th e sovereigns o f Islam a n d h o n o ra b le ru le rs, T h e re fo re it is necessary a n d im p o rta n t th a t m y ex a lte d a n d relig io u sly in sp ire d co n cern be d irected to en su re th a t, in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e n o b le S h a rľ a , every o n e o f th ese c o m m u n itie s th a t p ay s ta x to m e, in th e days o f m y im p erial

44 " CHAPTER I

sta te a n d th e p e rio d o f m y fe licity -en co m p assed C a lip h a te , sh o u ld live in tra n q u illity a n d peace o f m in d a n d go a b o u t th e ir b u sin ess, th a t n o o n e sh o u ld p re v e n t th e m fro m th is, n o r a n y o n e cause in ju ry to th e ir p e rso n s o r th e ir p o sse s­ sions, in v io la tio n o f th e c o m m a n d o f G o d a n d in c o n tra ­ v e n tio n o f th e H o ly L aw o f th e P ro p h e t.59 T h e n eed to u p h o ld th e H o ly L aw by w h ich th e sta tu s o f th e d h im n iī is e sta b lish e d a n d p ro te c te d w as a c o m m o n c o n ­ cern o f M u slim ju rists, a n d even o f ru lers. T h e O tto m a n p e ­ rio d , a b o u t w h ic h , th a n k s to th e survival o f arch iv es, w e are m u c h b e tte r in fo rm e d , gives n u m e ro u s ex am p les o f successful ap p e a ls by m e m b e rs o f th e m in o ritie s to th e forces o f law a n d o rd e r, to p ro te c t th e m a g a in st m o b violence. S om etim es th e forces o f la w a n d th e forces o f o rd e r m ay n o t be in c o m p lete a c c o rd , a n d th e re a re o ccasio n s w h e n th e m in o ritie s ta k e re f­ uge w ith o n e fro m th e o th e r. In an O tto m a n p ro v in c ia l cen ter, la w a n d o rd e r w e re re p re se n te d , respectively, by th e q ā d ī, th e ju d g e, a n d th e vali, th e g o v e rn o r. T h e o n e w as b u ttre sse d by th e u le m a , th e o th e r by th e a rm e d forces. A t d iffe re n t tim es w e find m e m b e rs o f th e m in o ritie s seeking th e h elp o f a rig h t­ e o u s judge a g a in st an o p p ressiv e ru ler, a n d a t o th e r tim es callin g o n a fa ir-m in d e d ru le r to save th e m fro m th e in c ite ­ m en ts o f b ig o te d u lem a. T h e la tte r rarely in clu d ed such g o v ­ e rn m e n t-a p p o in te d officers as th e q ā d ī h o w ev er, a n d m o re o fte n th a n n o t th e d him m ĩs w ere able to c o u n t o n th e s u p p o rt o f b o th th e a d m in istra tiv e a n d religious a u th o ritie s. T ro u b le arose— in later centuries w ith increasing frequency— w hen these a u th o ritie s them selves lack ed p o w e r a n d w ere u n a b le to m a in ­ ta in o rd e r o r en fo rce th e law . S om etim es, w h e n a p e rse c u tio n o c c u rre d , w e find th a t th e in stig a to rs w ere c o n c e rn e d to justify it in term s o f th e H o ly L aw . T h e u su a l a rg u m e n t w as th a t th e Jew s o r th e C h ristia n s h a d v io la te d th e p a c t by o v e rste p p in g th e ir p ro p e r place. T h ey h a d th u s b ro k e n th e c o n d itio n s o f th e c o n tra c t w ith Islam , a n d th e M u slim sta te a n d p eo p le w ere n o lo n g er b o u n d by it. T his c o n c e rn a p p e a rs even in v io len tly a n ti -d h im m ī lite ra ­ tu re . P a rtic u la rly in stru c tiv e in th is resp ect is th a t a n ti-Jew ish

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 45

p o e m o f A b ū Ish ā q , w ritte n in G ra n a d a in 1 066. T h is p o em , w h ic h is sa id to h ave been in stru m e n ta l in p ro v o k in g th e an tiJew ish o u tb re a k o f th a t y ear, c o n ta in s these sig nificant lines: D o n o t c o n sid e r it a b re a c h o f faith to kill th em th e b re a c h o f faith w o u ld be to let th em c arry o n . T h ey h av e v io la te d o u r c o v e n a n t w ith th em so h o w can y o u be h eld guilty a g a in st th e v io lato rs? H o w can th ey have an y p a c t w h e n w e are o b sc u re a n d th ey are p ro m in e n t? N o w w e a re th e h u m b le , beside th em , as if w e w ere w ro n g , a n d they right! D o n o t to le ra te th e ir m isdeeds a g a in st us fo r y o u are su rety fo r w h a t th ey do G o d w a tc h e s H is o w n p e o p le a n d th e p eo p le o f G o d w ill p re v a il.60 O u tra g e is th e d o m in a n t th e m e o f th e p o em . B ut in strik in g c o n tra s t to th e an ti-S em itism o f C h riste n d o m , A b ū Ish ā q even in his o u tra g e does n o t refuse Jew s th e rig h t to life, liv elih o o d , a n d th e p ra c tic e o f th e ir religion. As a ju rist he is a w a re th a t these rig h ts are g u a ra n te e d by th e H o ly L aw a n d in c o rp o ra te d in th e d b im m a , w h ich is a b in d in g legal c o n tra c t. A b ū Ish āq does n o t seek to d eny o r even to m inim ize th e c o n tra c t. O n th e c o n tra ry , he is a t som e p a in s to reassu re his h e a re rs, a n d n o d o u b t him self, th a t in ro b b in g a n d killing Jew s th ey w o u ld n o t be a c tin g illegally— th a t is to say, they w o u ld n o t be v i­ o la tin g th e p ro v isio n s o f a c o n tra c t estab lish ed a n d san ctified by th e H o ly L aw o f Islam , a n d th u s im p erilin g th e ir souls in th e h e re a fte r. It is th e Jew s, he arg u es, w h o h av e v io la te d th e c o n tra c t th a t h a s, th e re fo re , ceased to be b in d in g o n th e M u s ­ lim s. T h e M u slim s a n d th e ir ru lers are ab so lv ed fro m th e ir o b lig a tio n s u n d e r th e d him m a a n d are th u s free to a tta c k , kill, a n d e x p ro p ria te th e Jew s w ith o u t illegality, th a t is, w ith o u t sin. D ia trib e s su ch as A b ū Ish a q ’s a n d m assacres such as th a t in G r a n a d a in 1 0 6 6 are o f ra re o c c u rren ce in Islam ic h isto ry . In g en eral, th e dhim m ts w ere allo w ed to p ractice th e ir reli­ g ions, p u rsu e th e ir a v o c a tio n s, a n d live th e ir o w n lives, so

4 6 ■ CHAPTER I

lo n g as th ey w ere w illin g to ab id e by th e rules. Significantly, it is d u rin g th e n in e te e n th a n d tw e n tie th cen tu ries, w h e n th e dhim m īs w ere n o lo n g e r p re p a re d to ac c e p t o r resp ect th e ru les, th a t th e m o st v io le n t a n d b lo o d y clashes h av e o c c u rre d . E ven in e a rlie r tim es, h o w e v e r, w h e n th e rules w ere u n d e r­ s to o d a n d a c c e p ted by b o th sides, th e re w ere o ccasio n al d if­ ficulties. S om etim es th ese led to violence, to w h a t o n e side m ig h t call p e rse c u tio n a n d th e o th e r ch a stise m e n t. Such v io ­ lence w a s ra re . M u c h m o re fre q u e n t w as a tig h te n in g o f th e ru les— th e s tric te r e n fo rc e m e n t o f re stric tio n s th a t h a d p re ­ v io u sly b een a llo w e d to lapse, o r even th e im p o sitio n o f n ew re stric tio n s. A classificatio n a n d p o ssib ly a ty p o lo g y o f such re p re ssio n s, o r a t least o f th e a rg u m e n ts a d v a n c e d o n th e M u slim side to ju stify o r to e x p la in th e m , m ay th ro w so m e lig h t o n th e la rg e r p ro b le m o f h o w to le ra n c e w as u n d e rs to o d a n d p ra c tic e d . T h e c o m m o n e st case is th a t o f th e p io u s a n d rig o ro u s ru le r w h o m ak es g o o d th e e rro rs o f his im p io u s a n d lax p re d e c e s­ so rs, a n d re sto re s th e c o m m u n ity to th e a u th e n tic Islam ic w ay . T h e p a ra d ig m o f such a ru le r is th e U m ay y ad calip h 'U m a r II w h o se b io g ra p h y , as to ld by la te r h isto ria n s, c o n ta in s w h a t b ec a m e th e s ta n d a rd th em es o f an Islam ic re sto ra tio n . A t re ­ c u rrin g in te rv a ls in Islam ic h isto ry , m o v em en ts o r in d iv id u al ru le rs in a u g u ra te p e rio d s o f stric t a n d m ilita n t o rth o d o x y . In such tim es th e re is a n insistence o n th e p u rific a tio n o f Islam , o n th e need to rem o v e th e a c c re tio n s a n d in n o v a tio n s th a t hav e c o rru p te d a n d d isto rte d th e faith in th e co u rse o f th e ce n tu rie s, a n d to re tu rn to th e tru e , a u th e n tic Islam o f th e P ro p h e t a n d his c o m p a n io n s. T h e p ro p e r su b o rd in a tio n o f th e u n b e lie v e r a n d th e rig o ro u s e n fo rc e m e n t o f th e re stric tio n s im p o se d o n h im a re a n o b v io u s p a r t o f an y such p io u s res­ to ra tio n . T h is d o es n o t re q u ire th e p e rse c u tio n o f th e u n b e ­ liever; o n th e c o n tra ry , b io g ra p h e rs a n d h isto ria n s o f p io u s ru le rs u su ally in sist o n th e fairness a n d justice w ith w h ic h th e d him m īs are tre a te d . B ut ju stice req u ires th a t th ey be k e p t in th e p lace w h ic h th e law assigns to th e m , a n d n o t be p e rm itte d to go b e y o n d it. 'U m a r II is c re d ite d w ith a stric te r e n fo rc e m en t o f th e fiscal

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 47

a n d o th e r re stra in ts o n th e n o n -M u slim s an d w ith ta k in g steps to ex clu d e th e m fro m p o sitio n s o f p o w e r a n d influence th ey h a d been p e rm itte d to o ccu p y u n d e r his predecesso rs. It is n o t im p o ssib le th a t 'U m a r II w a s re sp o n sib le fo r in tro d u c in g som e o f th e re stric tio n s tra d itio n a lly a ttrib u te d to 'U m a r I. T h e re stric tio n o f dhim nit rig h ts w as co u p led w ith th e e x te n sio n o f th e rig h ts a c c o rd e d to n o n -A ra b co n v erts to Islam , w h o w ere n o w in larg e m easu re a c c o rd e d th e eq u ality th ey h a d p re v io u sly c laim ed a n d w h ich th e A rab a risto c ra c y h a d h ith ­ e rto w ith h e ld fro m th em . T h e h isto ric a l circu m stan ces o f 'U m a r Iľ s refo rm s are sig­ n ifican t. A v a st A ra b n a v a l a n d m ilitary ex p e d itio n sen t to c a p tu re C o n s ta n tin o p le h a d failed d isastro u sly , a n d th e U m a y y a d E m p ire faced a m o m e n t o f crisis. T h e w a r im p o sed n e w a n d h eav y e co n o m ic b u rd e n s; th e d e stru c tio n o f th e A rab a rm y u n d e r th e w alls o f C o n sta n tin o p le dep riv ed th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t o f th e m ean s to im p o se its w ill by force. U m ay y ad rule, a t all tim es c h allen g ed by p io u s a n d o th e r M u slim d issid en ts, co u ld w ell h av e been in d a n g e r o f o v e rth ro w . W h en th e calip h S u lay m ān (7 1 5 -7 1 7 ), w h o h a d la u n c h e d the ex p e d itio n , d ied , th e U m a y y a d fam ily, alw ay s d istin g u ish ed by p o litical skill, chose as his successor th e o n e U m ay y ad p rin ce w ith a re p u ­ ta tio n fo r p ie ty a n d w ith th e ab ility to rally M u slim o p in io n to th e s u p p o rt o f th e d y n a sty by p u rsu in g policies close to th e ir beliefs. S im ilar c o n sid e ra tio n s m ay have gu id ed th e A b b asid calip h a l-M u ta w a k k il (8 4 7 -8 6 1 ). In M u slim h isto rio g ra p h y he is c re d ite d w ith p u ttin g an en d to th e d o m in a tio n o f th e d ev ian t a n d p e rse c u tin g M u 'ta z ila sch o o l, fav o red by th e p rev io u s calip h s, a n d re tu rn in g to a u th e n tic Islam ic d o c trin e a n d p ra c ­ tice. T h ese ch an g es m ay n o t be u n re la te d to th e n eed to m o ­ bilize p o p u la r s u p p o rt a g a in st his o w n p re to ria n g u a rd s, w h o w e re th re a te n in g his rule a n d even his p erso n . In a d ecree issued in 8 5 0 , w e read : It h a s b eco m e k n o w n to th e C o m m a n d e r o f th e F a ith fu l th a t m en w ith o u t ju d g m e n t o r d isc e rn m e n t are seek in g th e h elp o f dhim m īs in th e ir w o rk , a d o p tin g th e m as co n fid an ts

48 ■ CHAPTER I

in p re fe re n ce to M u slim s, a n d giving th e m a u th o rity o v er th e su b jects. A n d th e y o p p re ss th e m a n d stre tc h o u t th e ir h a n d s a g a in st th e m in ty ra n n y , deceit, a n d en m ity . T h e C o m m a n d e r o f th e F a ith fu l, a tta c h in g g re a t im p o rta n c e to th is, h a s c o n d e m n e d it a n d d isa v o w e d it. W ish in g to find fa v o r w ith G o d by p re v e n tin g a n d fo rb id d in g th is, h e h as d ecid ed to w rite to his officers in th e p ro v in ces a n d th e cities a n d to th e g o v e rn o rs o f th e fro n tie r to w n s a n d d istric ts th a t th ey sh o u ld cease to em p lo y d him m īs in an y o f th e ir w o rk a n d affairs o r to a d o p t th em as a sso ciates in th e tru s t a n d a u th o rity c o n fe rre d o n th e m by th e C o m m a n d e r o f th e F a ith fu l a n d c o m m itte d to th e ir charg e. . . . D o n o t th e re fo re seek h elp fro m any o f th e p o ly th e ists, a n d re d u c e th e p e o p le o f th e p ro te c te d relig io n s to th e s ta ­ tio n w h ic h G o d has assigned to th e m . C au se th e le tte r o f th e C o m m a n d e r o f th e F a ith fu l to be re a d a lo u d to th e in h a b ita n ts o f y o u r d istric t a n d p ro c la im it a m o n g th e m , a n d let it n o t b eco m e k n o w n to th e C o m m a n d e r o f th e F a ith fu l th a t y o u o r an y o f o u r officials o r h elp ers are e m ­ p lo y in g a n y b o d y o f th e p ro te c te d religion s in th e b u sin ess o f Isla m .61 T h e m a in p u rp o s e o f th is a n d o th e r sim ila r m easu res seem s to h av e been to red u ce th e e n c ro a c h m e n t o f n o n -M u slim s o n th e M u slim sta te a n d th e ir a rro g a tio n to them selves o f an a u th o rity th a t w o u ld rig h tfu lly b e lo n g to M u slim s alo n e. A t th e sam e tim e, a l-M u ta w a k k il gave o rd e r th a t th e C h ristia n s a n d th e dhim m īs in g en eral be re q u ire d to w e a r h o n e y -c o lo re d h o o d s a n d g irdles; to rid e o n sad d les w ith w o o d e n stirru p s a n d tw o balls a tta c h e d to th e re a r; to a tta c h tw o b u tto n s to th e caps o f th o se w h o w e a r th e m a n d to w e a r caps o f a d iffe re n t c o lo r fro m th o se w o rn by th e M u slim s; to a tta c h tw o p a tc h e s to th e ir slav es’ c lo th in g , o f a d iffe re n t c o lo r fro m th a t o f th e g a rm e n t to w h ich th ey a re a tta c h e d , o n e in fro n t o n th e ch est, th e o th e r a t th e b a c k , each p a tc h fo u r fingers in le n g th , a n d b o th o f th e m h o n e y -c o lo re d . T h o se o f th e m w h o w o re tu rb a n s w ere to w e a r h o n e y -c o lo re d tu rb a n s . If th e ir w o m e n w e n t o u t

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 49

a n d a p p e a re d in p u b lic , th ey w ere o nly to a p p e a r w ith ho n ey c o lo re d h e a d scarfs. H e gave o rd e rs th a t th e ir slaves w ere to w e a r girdles a n d he fo rb a d e th em to w e a r belts. H e gave o rd e rs to d e stro y any ch u rch es w h ich w ere new ly b u ilt, a n d to ta k e th e te n th p a r t o f th e ir h ouses. If th e place w as large e n o u g h it w a s to be m a d e in to a m o sq u e ; if it w as n o t su ita b le fo r a m o sq u e it w as to be m ad e in to an o p e n space. H e o rd e re d th a t w o o d e n im ages o f devils sh o u ld be n ailed to th e d o o rs o f th e ir h o u ses to d istin g u ish th em fro m the ho u ses o f th e M u slim s. H e fo rb a d e th e ir e m p lo y m e n t in g overnm ent offices an d o n official business w here they w o u ld h av e a u th o rity o v er th e M u slim s. H e fo rb a d e th e ir c h ild ren to a tte n d M u slim sch o o ls o r th a t any M u slim sh o u ld teach th em . H e fo rb a d e th e d isp lay o f crosses o n th e ir P alm S u n ­ days a n d Je w ish rites in th e streets. H e o rd e re d th a t th e ir graves be m a d e level w ith th e g ro u n d so th a t th ey sh o u ld n o t resem b le th e graves o f th e M u slim .6z T h e re is n o evidence o f any v io len t p e rse c u tio n o f n o n M u slim s u n d e r a l-M u ta w a k k il, n o r is it clear h o w far, h o w w id e, a n d h o w lo n g th o se re stric tio n s w ere en fo rced . T h e fre q u e n t p io u s c o m p la in ts o f th e ir d isre g a rd an d o ccasio n al p io u s a tte m p ts to reim p o se th e m b o th suggest th a t th e ir a p ­ p lic a tio n w a s fo r th e m o st p a r t lax a n d in te rm itte n t. T h e re w e re m a n y la te r ru lers w h o fo llo w ed th e m o d el o f 'U m a r II. O n e such w as th e O tto m a n su lta n B ayezid II (1 4 8 1 1 5 1 2 ), w h o se reign m a rk e d so m e th in g o f a re a c tio n a g a in st th e policies o f his fa th e r a n d p re d e c e sso r M e h m e d th e C o n ­ q u e ro r. M e h m e d h a d o p e n e d , so to sp eak , a w in d o w to th e W est. H e h a d sh o w n fa v o r to b o th G reeks a n d Jew s, a n d h a d even e x te n d e d p a tro n a g e to a rtists a n d sch o lars fro m C h ristia n E u ro p e .63 B ayezid, re p u te d to be a m a n o f g re a t p iety an d m u c h u n d e r th e influence o f the u lem a, c h an g ed all th a t. T h e p a in tin g s his fa th e r h a d a c c u m u la te d in th e p a la c e w ere re ­ m o v ed a n d so ld , w h ile th e C h ristia n a n d Jew ish co u rtie rs a n d fu n c tio n a rie s w ere sen t a b o u t th e ir business. A cco rd in g to a Je w ish so u rc e , th e su lta n gave o rd e rs to close sy n ag o g u es th a t h a d b een b u ilt in Ista n b u l a fte r its c a p tu re by th e T u rk s an d

5 0 ■ CHAPTER I

w ere th u s in b re a c h o f th e rules o f th e H o ly L aw p e rm ittin g d him m īs to re ta in o n ly th o se places o f w o rsh ip th ey h a d p o s ­ sessed b e fo re th e c o n q u e st a n d fo rb id d in g th e m to b u ild n ew o nes. T h is m ay be re la te d to specific m easu res, re p o rte d by M u slim so u rces, re su ltin g fro m d e m o g ra p h ic ch an g es. C e rta in d istric ts th a t h a d b een p re d o m in a n tly n o n -M u slim w ere in ­ tensively se ttle d by M u slim s. In som e o f these are a s, ch u rc h e s a n d sy n ag o g u es, p re v io u sly to le ra te d , w ere seen as offensive to th e n ew m a jo rity , a n d steps w e re ta k e n to close th e m o r tra n s fe r th e m elsew here. In th is as in o th e r cases, a c tio n to c u rta il th e p re s u m p tio n o f th e dhim m īs e a rn e d th e a p p ro v a l o f p io u s ch ro n ic le rs. It is strik in g , h o w e v e r, th a t it is th is sam e S u ltan B ayezid II w h o , in 149 2 a n d a fte r, p e rm itte d a n d even e n c o u ra g e d g re a t n u m b e rs o f Jew s fro m S pain a n d P o rtu g a l to settle in th e O tto m a n realm s a n d to re b u ild th e ir lives a fte r th e ir e x p u lsio n fro m th e ir h o m e la n d s.64 T h e p a r a d o x is a p p a re n t, n o t real. T h e stric t a p p lic a tio n o f th e S h a rľ a im p o se d c e rta in re stric tio n s o n th e n o n -M u slim c o m m u n itie s, a n d lim ited o r p re c lu d e d th e ir p a rtic ip a tio n in th e processes o f g o v e rn m e n t. It d id n o t re q u ire — in d eed , it d id n o t p e rm it— th a t th ey be p e rse c u te d , in th e sense th a t th ey be p re v e n te d fro m p ra c tic in g th e ir religions, living a c c o rd in g to th e ir o w n c u sto m s, o r e a rn in g th e ir liv elih o o d . It w as in d eed d u rin g th e reig n o f th e ste rn a n d rig o ro u s b u t ju st a n d p io u s B ayezid II th a t th e g re a te st Jew ish im m ig ra tio n in to th e O t­ to m a n la n d s to o k place. O n ce ag a in it m ay be n o te d th a t th e severities o f S u ltan B ayezid co in c id e d w ith a p e rio d o f g rav e e x te rn a l a n d in te rn a l th re a ts to his th ro n e . H is b ro th e r Je m , a n unsu ccessfu l riv al c la im a n t to th e th ro n e , h a d fled to E u ro p e , w h ere th e p o p e a n d som e o f th e C h ristia n p rin ces w ere try in g to use h im in a c o m b in e d a tta c k o n th e O tto m a n te rrito rie s a n d th e O tto ­ m a n th ro n e . H is re la tio n s w ith b o th his M u slim n eig h b o rs w e re b a d . T h e re w ere d isp u tes w ith th e M a m lu k su lta n s w h o ru le d o v er E g y p t a n d Syria, w hile in th e ea st th e n ew m ilita n t S h i'ite d y n a sty in Ira n th re a te n e d B ayezid n o t o n ly w ith w a r ­ fare o n his b o rd e r b u t w ith se d itio n a n d u p h e a v a l a m o n g his o w n M u slim su b jects. A g ain st th e d o u b le th re a t o f C h ristia n

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C ru sa d e s fro m th e w est a n d S h i'ite su b v ersio n fro m th e east, B ayezid n eed ed th e re w a rd s o f piety b o th fro m ab o v e a n d a n d fro m b elow . U n d e r th e ru le o f B ayeziď s successors th e p o sitio n o f th e su b je c t c o m m u n itie s im p ro v e d , b u t a new m o m e n t o f d a n g e r cam e d u rin g th e reign o f M u ra d III ( i 5 7 4 -1 5 9 5 ). A g ain th e p a tte r n is m u ch th e sam e: a p re d e c e sso r seen as o v erin d u lg e n t to th e d him m īs , religious a n d m ilitary p ro b le m s a t h o m e an d a b ro a d ; m e a su re s a g a in st som e dhim m īs seen as u n d u ly rich o r p o w e rfu l; o rd e rs to close u n a u th o riz e d places o f w o rsh ip ; a n d th e re in tro d u c tio n o f th e o ld rules c o n cern in g c lo th in g a n d h e a d g e a r. A cco rd in g to a re p o rt by a V en etian cleric, th e su lta n a t o n e p o in t decid ed to kill first all th e Jew s a n d th e n all th e C h ristia n s in his em p ire, b u t w as d issu ad ed by his m o th e r a n d th e g ra n d vizier. T h is sto ry is co n firm ed n e ith e r by Je w ish n o r by T u rk ish so u rces, a n d seem s in h eren tly im ­ p ro b a b le .65 W h a t is w ell a tte ste d is th e n o rm a l p a tte rn o f such in te rlu d e s o f religious severity— th e re stric tio n o n fine clo th es, th e p re sc rip tio n o f a special k in d o f h a t, th e clo su re o f n ew p laces o f w o rsh ip deem ed illegal, a n d th e like. T h e dhim m īs m ay also suffer— a n d ra th e r m o re serio u sly — u n d e r a n o th e r k in d o f religious regim e, very d ifferen t fro m th a t o f p io u s a n d rig o ro u s e x p o n e n ts o f a re tu rn to th e g o o d o ld w ay s. F ro m tim e to tim e, especially in p erio d s o f g re a t u p h e a v a l a n d d iso rd e r, M essian ic a n d m illen arian m o v em en ts h av e a p p e a re d in th e lan d s o f Islam , w hich so m etim es d e ­ stro y e d o ld regim es a n d sw e p t n ew ru lers a n d even d y n asties in to p o w e r, th ro u g h re v o lu tio n o ften fo llo w ed by c o n q u est. O n e o f th e m o st successful o f these w as th e m o v em en t k n o w n as th e A lm o h a d s, fo u n d e d by a B erber religious lead er called M u h a m m a d ib n 'A b d a lla h ib n T u m a rt in th e seco n d a n d th ird decad es o f th e tw e lfth c en tu ry . In 1121 he w as reco g n ized by his fo llo w e rs as th e M a h d ī, th e divinely a p p o in te d lead er w h o is to re sto re Islam to th e tru e p a th a n d in a u g u ra te th e k in g d o m o f h e a v e n o n e a rth . U n d e r th e M a h d ľ s successors th e p o w e r o f th e A lm o h a d s sp re a d fro m th e valleys o f th e H ig h A tlas w h e re it h a d b e g u n , a n d by th e late tw e lfth cen tu ry th ey w ere m a ste rs o f m o st o f M u slim N o r th A frica a n d Spain. T h e M e s­

52 ■ CHAPTER I sian ic ferv o r o f th e A lm o h a d s c o u ld n o t to le ra te an y d e v ia tio n fro m th e ir p a rtic u la r v ersio n o f Islam . M u slim s w h o w o u ld n o t su b m it w e re ru th le ssly p u rg e d , w h ile Jew s a n d still m o re C h ristia n s w ere d en ied th e to le ra n c e p re sc rib e d by th e S h a rľ a . It w a s p ro b a b ly a t th is tim e th a t C h ristia n ity w as finally e x ­ tirp a te d fro m N o r th A frica. Jew s, to o , su ffered b ad ly in b o th N o r th A frica a n d S pain a n d — e x c e p tio n a lly in M u slim h isto ry w e st o f Ira n — w e re given th e choice b e tw e e n c o n v e rsio n , exile, a n d d e a th .66 T h e la te r A lm o h a d s m odified th e ir stan ce a n d p e rm itte d th e dbim tńts to p ra c tic e th e ir religion in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e law . T h e ir p o sitio n w a s, h o w e v e r, p e rm a n e n tly w o rse n e d , esp e­ cially in N o r th A frica, w h e re C h ristia n s d isa p p e a re d a n d Jew s w e re su b ject to th e severest a n d m o st rig o ro u s in te rp re ta tio n o f th e dhim m a. T h e e n th ro n e m e n t o f th e Safavids, a m ilita n t S h i'ite d y n a sty w ith M e ssia n ic claim s, in Ira n a t th e b eg in n in g o f th e six te e n th c e n tu ry also led to a w o rse n in g in th e p o sitio n o f th e n o n -M u slim s, Jew s, C h ristia n s, a n d Z o ro a s tria n s . U n ­ d e r th e S afavid sh ā h s th ey w ere su b ject to fre q u e n t v e x a tio n s a n d p e rse c u tio n s, a n d a t tim es to fo rced c o n v e rsio n .67 A p a ra lle l to e a rlie r Islam ic m essian ism m ay be d iscern ed in som e m o d e rn m o v e m e n ts, ex p ressed in n a tio n a l a n d social r a th e r th a n relig io u s te rm s, b u t a sc rib in g an a n a lo g o u s ro le to th e c h a rism a tic le a d e r a n d to th e d o c trin e th a t he p ro c la im s. L ike th o se w h o reject G o ď s final re v e la tio n an d its la te st re n e w a l, so to o th o se w h o c a n n o t rally o r w ill n o t be id en tified w ith th e cau se m ay n o lo n g e r be a c c o rd e d to le ra n c e . T o th ese relig io u sly o r id eologically m o tiv a te d fo rm s o f re p re ssio n o n e m ay a d d a th ird , also d eriv ed fro m th e so v ­ e re ig n ’s in itia tiv e , b u t in sp ire d by lim ited a n d p ra c tic a l ra th e r th a n by larg e a n d m o ra l c o n sid e ra tio n s. T h e u su al re a so n is s h o rta g e o f m o n ey . W h e n a ru le r is in financial stra its, a sim ple w a y o f ra isin g fu n d s is to en fo rce som e d isag reeab le a n d p re ­ vio u sly fo rg o tte n re stric tio n , o r to im p o se a n ew o n e o n th e n o n -M u slim s, w h o a re th e n u su ally w illin g to p e rsu a d e th e ru le r, by m e a n s o f a su ita b le gift, to rescin d his decree. In all these s itu a tio n s th e re p re ssio n is in itia te d by th e ru le r, so m etim es to p la c a te p o p u la r se n tim e n t, m o re o fte n in re ­

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sp o n se to his o w n m o ra l o r p o litic a l needs. Som etim es, h o w ­ ever, th e a tta c k o n th e dhim m ts o rig in a te d w ith th e p o p u la c e , a n d it w a s m o stly o n these o ccasio n s th a t it in v o lv ed p h y sical violence. T h e c o m m o n e st re a so n by fa r fo r such o u tb re a k s in p re m o d e rn tim es w a s th a t th e dhim tńīs w ere n o t k e ep in g th e ir p la c e , th a t th e y w ere actin g a rro g a n tly , th a t th ey w ere g ettin g a b o v e them selves. T h is b rin g s us to o n e o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l p o litic a l id eas o f Islam — th e idea o r ideal o f justice. In m o st M u slim p o litic a l th o u g h t th e c e n tra l d u ty o f g o v e rn m e n t, th e m a in ju stific a tio n o f a u th o rity a n d th e c a rd in a l v irtu e o f th e g o o d ru le r, is justice. T h e d efin itio n o f justice h as v a rie d in Islam ic h isto ry . In th e ea rlie r p e rio d , justice u su ally m e a n t th e e n fo rc e m e n t o f G o ď s law , th a t is, th e m a in te n a n c e a n d a p ­ p lic a tio n o f th e H o ly L aw o f Islam . L ater, w h e n th e H o ly L aw in all b u t p e rso n a l a n d ritu a l m a tte rs w as in creasin g ly d isre ­ g a rd e d by M u slim g o v e rn m e n ts, it co u ld n o lo n g er serve as a to u c h s to n e o f th e ju st o r u n ju st ru le r; th e te rm “ ju stic e ” cam e ra th e r to h av e th e sense o f b alan ce, o f e q u ilib riu m — th a t is, th e m a in te n a n c e o f th e social a n d p o litical o rd e r, w ith e ach g ro u p , each elem en t, in its p ro p e r p lace, giving w h a t it m u st give a n d g e ttin g w h a t it sh o u ld get. In e ith e r o f th ese senses, th e n o n -M u slim su bjects h a d a c e rta in place. If th ey seem ed to be goin g b ey o n d th e place a ssig n ed to th e m , it w as e ith e r, in th e first sense o f justice, a b re a c h o f th e law , o r, in th e seco n d sense, a d istu rb a n c e o f th e social b a la n c e a n d co n se q u e n tly a d a n g e r to th e social a n d p o litic a l o rd e r. H e re w e m ay see a p a ra lle l in th e M u slim a ttitu d e to w a r d heresy, w h ich differs very rad ically fro m th e C h ris tia n a ttitu d e . In th e h isto ry o f th e C h ristia n c h u rch es, h eresy h a s been a m a tte r o f p ro fo u n d co ncern . H eresy m e a n t a d e v ia tio n fro m c o rre c t belief as defined by a u th o rity , th e d e v ia tio n b ein g re co g n ized a n d defined as such by a u th o rity . In Islam th e re w a s less c o n cern a b o u t th e d etails o f belief. W h a t m a tte re d w as w h a t p e o p le did — o rth o p ra x y ra th e r th a n o rth o d o x y — a n d M u slim s w ere a llo w ed o n th e w h o le to b e ­ lieve as th e y ch o se so lo n g as th ey accep ted th e basic m in im u m , th e u n ity o f G o d a n d th e a p o stö la te o f M u h a m m a d , a n d c o n ­ fo rm e d to th e social n o rm s. E ven heresies d ev iatin g very c o n ­

5 4 ' CHAPTER I

sid e ra b ly fro m m a in stre a m Islam w ere a c c o rd e d to le ra n c e . H e re sy w a s p e rse c u te d o n ly w h e n it w a s seen to o ffe r a s u b ­ s ta n tia l th r e a t to th e social o r p o litic a l o r d e r .68 M u c h th e sam e c o n sid e ra tio n s re g u la te d M u slim a ttitu d e s to w a r d th e n o n -M u slim su b jects. T ro u b le aro se w h e n Jew s o r C h ristia n s w e re seen to be g e ttin g to o m u c h w e a lth o r to o m u c h p o w e r, th a t is to say, m o re th a n w a s th o u g h t p ro p e r o r a p p ro p ria te fo r th e m , a n d m o re p a rtic u la rly w h e n th ey w e re e n jo y in g th e m to o visibly. T h e b e st-k n o w n e x a m p le o f th is is th e m a ssa c re o f Jew s in G ra n a d a in 1 0 6 6 , u su ally a s­ c rib e d to a re a c tio n a m o n g th e M u slim p o p u la tio n a g a in st a p o w e rfu l a n d o s te n ta tio u s Je w ish v izier.69 O n e c o u ld a d d a few o th e r e x a m p le s, m o re o fte n d ire c te d a g a in st C h ristia n s th a n a g a in st Jew s. A n o th e r th e m e o c c u rrin g in p o p u la r a tta c k s o n th e n o n M u slim s is a c h a rg e o f w h a t o n e m ig h t call traffic w ith th e en em y , th a t is to say, w ith th e enem ies o f Islam . T h e first m a jo r case w a s a t th e tim e o f th e C ru sa d e s, w h e n so m e C h ris­ tia n c o m m u n itie s in M id d le E a ste rn c o u n trie s iden tified th e m ­ selves w ith th e C ru sa d e rs, a n d h a d to p a y a p rice a fte r th e C ru sa d e rs h a d g o n e. Jew s w ere o f co u rse n o t d irectly affected by th is. T h ey h a d n o love fo r th e C ru sa d e rs; q u ite th e reverse. B ut th e y w ere so m etim es also c a u g h t in th e b a c k la sh , a n d w e re affected by th e g en eral feeling o f re se n tm e n t a g a in st n o n M u slim s w h o w e re seen— n o t w ith o u t so m e re a so n — as u n ­ reliab le su b jects o f a M u slim sta te a t w a r w ith th e ir c o re li­ g io n ists. A n o th e r a n d m o re strik in g e x a m p le o c c u rre d a t th e tim e o f th e M o n g o l in v asio n s. T h e C ru sa d e rs h a d o n ly succeed ed in e sta b lish in g so m e sm all states a lo n g th e S yrian a n d P ale stin ia n litto ra l; th e M o n g o ls c o n q u e re d a n d d o m in a te d th e h e a rtla n d s o f Islam a n d d e stro y e d th e c a lip h a te , th u s e sta b lish in g a n o n M u slim asc e n d a n c y o v e r th e m a jo r cen ters o f Islam fo r th e first tim e since th e d ay s o f th e P ro p h e t. T h e M o n g o l ru le rs fo u n d C h ristia n s a n d Jew s— local p e o p le k n o w in g th e la n ­ g uages a n d th e c o u n trie s b u t n o t them selves M u slim s— very useful in s tru m e n ts , a n d a p p o in te d som e o f th e m to h ig h office. A fte rw a rd s, w h e n th e M o n g o ls w ere c o n v e rte d to Islam , b e ­

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c am e p a r t o f th e Islam ic w o rld , a n d a d o p te d Islam ic a ttitu d e s, th e C h ristia n s a n d Jew s ag ain h a d to p a y fo r p a s t c o lla b o ­ ra tio n w ith th e p a g a n c o n q u e ro rs. A m o re re c e n t a n d in som e w ay s p a ra lle l e x am p le is th e ro le o f th e E u ro p e a n em pires in Islam ic lan d s. H e re ag ain m e m b e rs o f th e m in o ritie s, C h ristia n s a n d to a lesser e x te n t Jew s, w e re in v a rio u s w ays useful a n d h elp fu l to th e im p erial a u th o ritie s. Som e m em b ers o f th e m in o ritie s, a n d especially th e ir u p p e r classes, identified them selves w ith th e E u ro p e a n im p e ria l p o w e rs, a d o p tin g th e ir lan g u ag es, th e ir c u ltu re , a n d a t tim es even th e ir citizen sh ip . A fter th e en d o f th e em p ires a n d th e w ith d ra w a l o f E u ro p e , th e re w as a rec k o n in g to be p a id by th o se w h o stay ed b e h in d . O n e final ite m sh o u ld be a d d e d to o u r ty p o lo g y o f p e rse ­ c u tio n , a n d th is is th e case w h e re M u slim h o stility to dhim m īs is in stig a te d by o u tsid e rs, fo r re a so n s o f th e ir o w n . In th e g re a t d ay s o f M u slim p o w e r a n d c iv ilizatio n , such in stig a tio n w as a b s e n t o r ineffective, e x c e p t fo r som e ea rlie r C h ristia n in flu ­ ences o n th e M u slim p e rc e p tio n o f th e Je w ; b u t in th e d eclin in g y ears o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire it becam e a fa c to r o f som e im p o rta n c e . T h e m a jo r d h itn m ĩ c o m m u n itie s, th e G reek s, th e A rm e n ia n s, th e A ra b C h ristia n s, a n d th e Jew s, w ere in m an y resp ects rivals, c o m p e tin g fo r a p o sitio n in society co m p le ­ m e n ta ry to th a t o f th e d o m in a n t M u slim s. It w as n o t u n c o m ­ m o n fo r o n e m in o rity to try a n d tu rn th e ir M u slim m a ste rs a g a in st a n o th e r. In p a rtic u la r, som e o f th e s ta n d a rd th em es o f C h ris tia n E u ro p e a n an ti-S em itism w ere used a g a in st th e Jew ish c o m m u n itie s o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire by som e o f th e ir C h ristia n c o m p a trio ts. In m o re recen t tim es th e c o u n trie s o f th e M id d le E a st h av e been a p rim e ta rg e t fo r th e successive lead ers o f w o rld an ti-S em itism ; som e o f th em h av e even a t tim es a sp ire d to th a t ro le them selves. T h is raises th e la rg e r q u e stio n o f th e d ev elo p m en t a n d tr a n s ­ fo rm a tio n o f M u slim a ttitu d e s to w a rd th e v a rio u s su b ject m i­ n o ritie s, a g a in st th e b a c k g ro u n d o f in te rn a l a n d e x te rn a l ch an g es, a n d in th e la rg e r persp ectiv e o f fo u rte e n cen tu ries o f Islam ic h isto ry . In th e early cen tu ries o f th e c a lip h a te w e m ay sp e a k o f a m o v e in th e d ire c tio n o f g re a te r to le ra n c e . F ro m

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■ CHAPTER I

th e tim e o f th e P ro p h e t to th a t o f th e first calip h s, a n d b e y o n d th a t to th e u n iv e rsa l e m p ire o f th e U m ay y ad s a n d th e A bb a sid s, th e re is a n u n m ista k a b le increase in to le ra n c e a c c o rd e d to n o n -M u slim s. F ro m a b o u t th e tw e lfth a n d th irte e n th c e n ­ tu rie s o n w a rd , th e re is a n o tic e a b le m o v e in th e o p p o site d i­ re c tio n . In e a rlie r tim es a g o o d d eal o f easy social in te rc o u rse e x iste d a m o n g M u slim s, C h rista in s, a n d Jew s w h o , w h ile p ro fe ssin g d iffe re n t re lig io n s, fo rm e d a single society, in w h ich p e rso n a l frie n d sh ip s, b u sin ess p a rtn e rs h ip s , in te lle c tu a l d iscip lesh ip s, a n d o th e r fo rm s o f sh a re d activ ity w ere n o rm a l a n d , in d eed , c o m m o n . T h is c u ltu ra l c o o p e ra tio n is a tte ste d in m a n y w ay s. W e h av e, fo r e x a m p le , b io g ra p h ic a l d ic tio n a rie s o f fa m o u s p h y sic ia n s. T h ese w o rk s , th o u g h w ritte n by M u slim s, in clu d e M u slim , C h ris tia n , a n d Je w ish p h y sician s w ith o u t d istin c tio n . F ro m th ese larg e n u m b e rs o f b io g ra p h ie s it is even p o ssib le to c o n s tru c t a k in d o f p ro s o p o g ra p h y o f th e m ed ical p ro fe s­ sio n — to tra c e th e life curves o f som e h u n d re d s o f p ra c titio n e rs in th e Islam ic w o rld . F ro m th ese so u rces w e get a very clear im p re ssio n o f a c o m m o n e ffo rt. In h o sp ita ls a n d in p riv a te p ra c tic e , d o c to rs o f th e th re e fa ith s w o rk e d to g e th e r as p a r t­ n e rs o r as a ssista n ts, re a d in g each o th e r ’s b o o k s a n d acc e p tin g o n e a n o th e r as p u p ils. T h e re w a s n o th in g resem b lin g th e k in d o f s e p a ra tio n th a t w a s n o rm a l in W e ste rn C h riste n d o m a t th a t tim e o r in th e Islam ic w o rld a t a la te r tim e. T h is k in d o f c o m m o n e n d e a v o r in a sh a re d field o f le a rn in g w a s n o t lim ite d to m ed icin e a n d th e sciences. It even in c lu d e d p h ilo so p h y , w h e re in o n e m ig h t h av e e x p e c te d differen ces o f relig io n to m a k e fo r se p a ra te n ess. A n ex a m p le m ay serve to illu stra te th is p o in t. T h e re is a c h a p te r in o n e o f th e th e o lo g ic a l w ritin g s o f th e g re a t M u slim th e o lo g ia n a l-G h a z ā lī (1 0 5 9 11 1 1 ) th a t is a lm o s t id e n tic a l to a c h a p te r in a w o rk by his n e a r c o n te m p o ra ry , th e Jew ish p h ilo s o p h e r B ahye ib n P a q u d a . T h e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e tw o h a s p u z z le d m an y sch o lars. A t o n e tim e it w a s assu m e d th a t B ahye m u st h av e ta k e n th e c o n te n ts o f th e c h a p te r fro m a l-G h a z ā lī, since, w h ile B ahye c o u ld re a d A ra b ic , a l-G h a z ā lī c o u ld n o t h av e re a d th e H e b re w sc rip t in w h ic h B a h y e ’s w o rk w a s w ritte n . W h e n it w a s sh o w n

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th a t th e re w a s n o w a y in w h ich B ahye co u ld h av e seen o r re a d a l-G h a z ā lľ s w o rk , th e p ro b le m seem ed in so lu b le u n til th e late P ro fe sso r B a n e th fo u n d th e a n sw er. A n earlie r te x t, p rev io u sly u n k n o w n , w a s th e c o m m o n so u rce o f th e re le v a n t c h a p te rs in b o th a l-G h a z ā lī a n d B ahye, a n d ac c o u n ts fo r th e strik in g re se m b la n c es b e tw e e n th e tw o . W h a t m ak es th e case still m o re re m a rk a b le is th a t th is ea rlie r w o rk w as w ritte n by a C h ristia n . W e th u s h a v e a C h ristia n w h o w rites a th eo lo g ical tre a tise , p re su m a b ly in te n d e d fo r C h ristia n re a d e rs, w h ich is th e n s tu d ­ ied a n d , so to sp e a k , b o rro w e d by tw o su b se q u e n t th e o lo g ia n s, o n e M u slim a n d th e o th e r Jew ish , each w ritin g a w o rk o f relig io u s in stru c tio n fo r his o w n corelig io n ists. A society in w h ic h p la g ia rism is p o ssib le b etw een th e o lo g ia n s o f th re e d if­ fe re n t relig io n s h as in d eed achieved a high degree o f to le ra n c e a n d sy m b io sis.70 In th e la te r M id d le A ges such re la tio n sh ip s begin to d im in ­ ish. W e find less a n d less o f such sh a rin g o f in tellectu al, so cial, o r c o m m e rc ia l life, a n d see an in creasin g p a tte rn o f seg reg atio n a n d se p a ra tio n . T h e re is m o re fre q u e n t a n d g re a te r in sisten ce o n th e e n fo rc e m e n t o f th e re stric tio n s o f th e d him m a . W h ile in e a rlie r tim es th ey w ere o n th e w h o le d isre g a rd e d a n d o n ly o c c a sio n a lly en fo rc e d , in la te r tim es th ey w ere m o re strictly a p p lie d a n d a re la tio n sh ip o f h u m ilia tio n , so m etim es even o f d e g ra d a tio n , becam e th e n o rm , especially in N o r th A frica a n d in Ira n a n d C e n tra l A sia. V a rio u s e x p la n a tio n s h av e been ad v an ced as to w h y these ch an g es to o k p lace. P ro fesso r S. D . G o itein ascrib es th e m in th e m a in to th e d isa p p e a ra n c e o f th e b o u rg eo is society o f th e classical M id d le A ges a n d its re p la c e m en t by a k in d o f m ilita ry fe u d a l o rd e r. In th e b o u rg e o is life o f th e cities, th e m e rc h a n t w as a very sig n ifican t figure, a n d in te rn a tio n a l tra d e p la y e d a n im p o r ta n t p a r t; relig io u s differences d id n o t m a tte r all th a t m u c h , w h ile fre e d o m o f m o v e m e n t a n d c o o p e ra tio n m a tte re d a g re a t d eal a n d w e re beneficial to all p a rtie s. P olitical d ecen ­ tra liz a tio n a n d e c o n o m ic in itiativ e b o th fa v o re d m o re to le ra n t re la tio n sh ip s. W ith th e decline o f th is b o u rg eo is m e rc a n tile so ciety a n d th e e sta b lish m e n t o f regim es th a t w ere p o litically a u th o r ita r ia n a n d eco n o m ically dirigiste , in w h ich w e a lth w as

58 ■ CHAPTER I

a c q u ire d less by tra d e th a n by ta x a tio n a n d o th e r uses o f th e sta te a p p a ra tu s , th e re w as less in d u c e m e n t to to le ra n c e , a n d g re a te r scope, a n d even re w a rd , fo r in to le ra n c e . A n o th e r fa c to r, c e rta in ly o f m a jo r im p o rta n c e , w a s th e th re e fo ld stru g g le w a g e d by S u n n i Islam d u rin g th ese c e n tu ries a g a in st C h riste n d o m , a g a in st S h i'ism , a n d a g a in st th e M o n ­ gols. T h e b itte r stru g g le in S p ain , Sicily, a n d S yria-P alestin e, w h ic h c o n tin u e d fo r m o re th a n tw o cen tu ries b etw een th e C h ristia n a n d M u slim w o rld s, to g e th e r w ith th e te rrib le e x ­ am p les o f in to le ra n c e sh o w n by C h ristia n ru lers to th e M u slim p e o p le s o f th e c o u n trie s th ey c o n q u e re d o r re c o n q u e re d in S pain, S yria, a n d P alestin e, all led to a h a rsh e n in g o f a ttitu d e s a n d a w o rse n in g o f re la tio n s b etw een M u slim s a n d C h ristia n s. W h ile Islam w a s still stru g g lin g to d efen d itself a g a in st R e­ c o n q u e st a n d C ru sa d e fro m th e w est, it w a s su d d en ly a tta c k e d by a far d e a d lie r enem y fro m th e east— th e p a g a n M o n g o l c o n q u e ro rs w h o cam e fro m e a st A sia a n d o v e rra n so m e o f th e h e a rtla n d s o f Islam . A t th e sam e tim e, w h ile c o n fro n tin g C h riste n d o m in th e w e st a n d h e a th e n d o m in th e east, Islam w a s riven a t h o m e by th e m a jo r religious schism b etw een S unni a n d S h ľ a , th e la tte r o ften in ra d ic a l a n d re v o lu tio n a ry fo rm s. B etw een th e te n th a n d th irte e n th cen tu ries th e S unni sta te w as o b lig ed to w age a lo n g h a rd strug g le to p reserv e w h a t w as perceived as Islam ic o rth o d o x y an d legitim acy against th e seductive a p p e a l o f ra d ic a l S h ľite d o c trin e s, th e p o litico m ilita ry ch allen g e o f th e F a tim id c a lip h a te , a n d th e te rro ris t m en ace o f th e Ism ā 'ĩlī assassins. In this th re e fo ld stru g g le a g a in st C h ristia n ity , p a g a n ism , a n d heresy, M u slim s b ecam e m o re c o n c e rn e d fo r c o n fo rm ity , less to le ra n t o f d iversity. A l­ th o u g h th is w a s n o t d ire c te d p rim a rily a g a in st th e relig io u s m in o ritie s, th e y w ere adversely affected by it. A q u e s t i o n o f so m e im p o rta n c e is h o w fa r th e M u slim s, in th e ir a ttitu d e s to w a rd u n b eliev ers, d istin g u ish e d b etw een C h ristia n s a n d Jew s. In p rin cip le, as h as been seen, th e tw o m a jo r d istin c tio n s w ere th e o lo g ic a l, b etw een m o n o th e ists a n d p o ly th e ists, a n d p o litic a l, b etw een u n su b ju g a te d enem ies a n d su b ju g a te d d bim m īs. In g en eral th e M u slim s sh o w little in ­

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te re st in th e su b d iv isio n s o f th e p o ly th e ists, a n d te n d to lo o k o n th e w h o le o u tsid e w o rld as a n u n d iffe re n tia te d w h o le, in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e o ft-c ite d d ic tu m th a t al-ku ↑ ru m illatun w ãhida , u n b e lie f is o n e religion. T h e y w e re , h o w e v e r, m u ch m o re co n c e rn e d w ith th e d if­ ferences b e tw e e n th e ir o w n n o n -M u slim sub jects, w ith w h o m th e y w e re o b lig ed to deal in a n u m b e r o f w ays. In th e M id d le E ast, N o r th A frica, a n d M u slim E u ro p e , these c o n sisted o v e r­ w h elm in g ly o f C h ristia n s a n d Jew s. T hey w ere k n o w n to th e M u slim s. T h e P ro p h e t h a d dealings w ith b o th , a n d th ey figure p ro m in e n tly in th e Q u r ’a n a n d in th e tra d itio n s. T h ey w ere fa m ilia r to th e M u slim s as c o m p a trio ts, o r m o re ac c u ra tely as n e ig h b o rs, so m etim es as em ployees. M u c h in fo rm a tio n c o n c e rn in g th e ir beliefs as w ell as th e ir p ractices w as m ad e a v ailab le to M u slim s by n ew c o n v erts fro m these relig io n s to Islam . In d eed , w est o f Ira n a n d n o rth o f th e S a h a ra , v irtu ally all M u slim s w ere descen d ed fro m co n v e rte d C h ristia n s o r, to a m u c h lesser e x te n t, Jew s. In m o st o f these M u slim c o u n trie s, o n e o r th e o th e r o f these religions, som etim es b o th , re m a in e d p re se n t. B ro ad ly sp eak in g , C h ristia n s a n d Jew s w ere tre a te d in th e sam e w ay . S om etim es w e find th e o n e b e tte r off, so m etim es th e o th e r, b u t this w as d u e to specific circu m stan ces a n d n o t to g en eral p rin cip les. T h e Q u r ’an show s an u n eq u iv o cal p re f­ erence fo r C h ristia n s; th e M u slim tra d itio n , reflecting th e c ir­ c u m sta n c e s o f th e P ro p h e t’s c a reer, show s even m o re. In g en ­ era l, th e p o rtra y a l o f th e Je w in hadīth is negative— less so in d iscu ssin g his beliefs a n d p ra c tic e s, m o re so in referen ce to Je w ish re la tio n s w ith th e P ro p h e t a n d M u slim s. A cco rd in g to the g reat ninth-century A rab a u th o r al-Jāhiz, the M uslim m asses p re fe rre d C h ristia n s to Jew s fo r a n u m b e r o f reaso n s. T h e m o st im p o rta n t, he n o tes, w as th a t th e Jew s, u n lik e th e C h ris­ tia n s, h a d actively o p p o se d th e P ro p h e t in M e d in a : T h a t stru g g le a g a in st th e m w as p ro lo n g e d , ex h a u stiv e , a n d it cam e in c reasin g ly in to th e o p en . R a n c o r b u ilt u p , h a tre d d o u b le d , a n d re se n tm e n t w as firm ly estab lish ed . T h e C h ris­ tia n s, o n th e o th e r h a n d , d u e to th e fact th a t th ey lived far

6ö

■ CHAPTER I

a w a y b o th fro m th e p lace w h e re th e P ro p h e t— m a y A llah bless h im a n d g ra n t h im p eace— received his call a n d fro m th e p lace to w h ic h he e m ig ra te d , d id n o t u n d e rta k e to sla n ­ d e r Islam , n o r d id th ey hav e a ch an ce to stir u p p lo ts, n o r u n ite fo r w a r. T h is, th e re fo re , is th e first re a so n w h y th e h e a rts o f M u slim s are h a rd e n e d to w a rd th e Jew s, b u t in ­ clin ed to w a r d th e C h ristia n s. In a d d itio n to th is h isto ric a l re a so n , d u e, as al-Jah iz o b serv es to fo rtu ito u s circ u m sta n c es, he a d d u ces o th e rs: C h ristia n s o c ­ c u p y im p o rta n t p o sitio n s as g o v e rn m e n t officials, c o u rtie rs, p h y sic ia n s o f th e n o b les, p e rfu m e rs, a n d b a n k e rs, w h ile Jew s a re n o rm a lly d y ers, ta n n e rs, c u p p e rs, b u tc h e rs, o r tin k e rs, “ so w h e n th e m asses sa w th e Jew s a n d C h ristia n s in th is lig h t, th e y im a g in e d th a t th e J e w s’ relig io n h eld th e sam e p lace a m o n g th e o th e r religions as d o th e ir tra d e s a m o n g o th e r p ro fe s s io n s .” A n o th e r re a so n fo r th e p o p u la r M u slim p re f­ eren ce is th a t th e C h ristia n s, th o u g h ugly, are less ugly th a n th e Jew s, w h o se ugliness is a c c e n tu a te d by in b reed in g : T h e re a so n th a t th e C h ristia n s are less h id eo u s— th o u g h th e y c e rta in ly a re ugly— is th a t th e Israelite m a rrie s on ly a n o th e r Israelite, a n d all o f th e ir d e fo rm ity is b ro u g h t b a c k a m o n g th e m a n d co n fin ed w ith th e m . . . th ey h av e, th e re ­ fo re, n o t been d istin g u ish e d e ith e r fo r th e ir in telligence, th e ir p h y siq u e , o r th e ir cleverness. As th e re a d e r certain ly k n o w s, th e sam e is th e case w ith h o rse s, cam els, asses, a n d p ig e o n s w h e n th ey are in b re d .71 A l-Jāhiz w a s fa m o u s as a h u m o rist, sa tirist, a n d p a ro d is t a n d it is o fte n d ifficult to k n o w w h e th e r he is sp eak in g in jest o r in e a rn e st. In an y case, a p a r t fro m th e early relig io u s lit­ e ratu re, there is no evidence th a t Jew s w ere view ed w ith g reater h o stility o r a c c o rd e d w o rse tre a tm e n t th a n w ere C h ristia n s u n d e r M u slim rule. O n th e c o n tra ry , th e re are som e in d ic a ­ tio n s th a t C h ristia n s w ere m o re o p e n to su sp icio n th a n Jew s. F o r m o s t o f th e fo u rte e n c en tu ries o f Islam ic h isto ry , th e m a jo r e x te rn a l en em y o f Islam w a s C h riste n d o m . It w a s fro m th e B y zan tin e e m p e ro rs a n d o th e r C h ristia n ru lers th a t th e first

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 6 1

M u slim c o n q u e ro rs w re ste d Syria, P alestin e, E gypt, N o r th A frica, Sicily, a n d S pain. It w as fro m C h ristia n E u ro p e th a t th e R e c o n q u e st a n d th e C ru sa d e s w ere la u n c h e d to reco v er th e lo st te rrito rie s, som e o f th e m fo r an in te rlu d e o f tim e, som e o f th e m p e rm a n e n tly . It w as a g a in st C h ristia n E u ro p e a g a in th a t th e T u rk s la u n c h e d th e n ew w av e o f Islam ic e x ­ p a n s io n th a t b ro u g h t th e m tw ice as far as th e w alls o f V ien n a. A n d it w a s, finally, a n ew im p erial c o u n tero ffen siv e fro m C h ristia n E u ro p e , b o th w e ste rn a n d ea ste rn , th a t b ro u g h t th e g re a te r p a r t o f M u slim A sia a n d A frica u n d e r C h ristia n ru le fo r a w h ile. W ith C h ristia n d him m īs , th ere w as alw ay s th e su sp ic io n o f a t least sy m p a th iz in g w ith th e C h ristia n en em y — a su sp ic io n th a t w as som etim es w ell fo u n d ed . Jew s w ere n o t su b je c t to an y such su sp icio n , a n d in ce rta in situ a tio n s— as, fo r e x a m p le , in th e O tto m a n E m p ire in th e fifteenth a n d six ­ te e n th c e n tu rie s— th e re w as a m a rk e d p referen ce fo r Jew s in sensitive p o sitio n s. W h ile th e p o sitio n o f th e C h ristia n m in o rities u n d e r M u slim ru le m ig h t be affected fa v o ra b ly o r adversely by re la tio n s w ith th e C h ristia n p o w e rs b e y o n d th e fro n tie r, th is c o n sid e ra tio n d id n o t a p p ly to th e Jew s, ex c e p t p e rh a p s in d irectly a n d c o n ­ se q u e n tia lly . T h e re w ere m a n y C h ristia n states, som e frien d ly , so m e h o stile , som e w e a k a n d som e p o w e rfu l, a n d so m e in d eed w ith M u slim subjects w h o c o u ld be used as h o stag es o r fo r re p risa ls. T h e Jew s h a d n o such a d v a n ta g e o r d isa d v a n ta g e — w ith o n e e x c e p tio n . F o r a few c en tu ries in th e early M id d le A ges, th e k in g d o m o f th e K h azars, a T u rk ic p eo p le w h o lived in th e la n d s b e tw e e n th e D o n a n d V olga rivers, w as co n v e rte d to Ju d a ism . As fa r as can be a sc e rta in ed , th e K h a z a r k in g d o m w a s g o v e rn e d by a relativ ely sm all d o m in a n t class o f co n v erts to J u d a is m , ru lin g o v e r a la rg e r p o p u la tio n o f h e a th e n s, C h ris­ tia n s, a n d M u slim s. H o w fa r th e esta b lish m e n t, a n d la te r th e d isa p p e a ra n c e , o f a Jew ish k in g d o m n o rth o f th e lan d s o f Islam a ffected th e fate o f th e Jew ish co m m u n ities u n d e r M u s ­ lim ru le a n d th e a ttitu d e o f M u slim s to w a rd th e m is d ifficult if n o t im p o ssib le to d eterm in e. In g e n e ra l, C h ristia n s a n d Jew s w ere a c c o rd e d th e sam e degree o f to le ra n c e ; b o th w ere su b ject to th e sam e d isab ilities

62 ■ CHAPTER I

a n d e x p o se d to th e sam e in secu rities. A n d b o th w ere ab le to survive, o fte n to p a rtic ip a te , a n d so m etim es to flourish in th e sta te s a n d societies fo u n d e d by M u slim s a n d g o v ern ed by th e law s o f Islam . In m o st resp ects th e p o sitio n o f n o n -M u slim s u n d e r tr a d i­ tio n a l Islam ic ru le w as very m u ch easier th a n th a t o f n o n C h ristia n s o r even o f h e re tic a l C h ristia n s in m edieval E u ro p e , n o t to sp e a k o f so m e events in m o d e rn E u ro p e o r, fo r th a t m a tte r, th e m o d e rn M id d le E ast. B ut th e ir sta tu s w as o n e o f legal a n d social in fe rio rity o r, as w e w o u ld say n o w a d a y s, o f seco n d -class c itizen sh ip . A t th e p re se n t tim e th is e x p re ssio n conveys a form al co n d em n atio n an d has becom e a catch p h rase to d e n o te u n a c c e p ta b le d isc rim in a tio n by a d o m in a n t g ro u p a g a in st o th e r g ro u p s in th e sam e society. B ut th e p h ra se d e ­ serves a clo ser lo o k . S econd-class c itizen sh ip , th o u g h seco n d class, is a k in d o f citizen sh ip . It involves som e rig h ts, th o u g h n o t all, a n d is su rely b e tte r th a n n o rig h ts a t all. It is ce rta in ly p re fe ra b le to th e k in d o f s itu a tio n th a t p rev ails in m a n y states a t th e p re se n t tim e, w h e re th e m in o ritie s, a n d fo r th a t m a tte r even th e m a jo rity , en jo y n o real civil o r h u m a n rig h ts in sp ite o f all th e re sp le n d e n t p rin c ip le s e n sh rin e d in th e c o n stitu tio n s, b u t u tte rly w ith o u t effect. A reco g n ized sta tu s, alb e it o n e o f in fe rio rity to th e d o m in a n t g ro u p , w h ich is esta b lish e d by law , reco g n ized by tra d itio n , a n d co n firm ed by p o p u la r assen t, is n o t to be despised. U n d e r M u slim ru le such a sta tu s w as fo r lo n g accep ted w ith re sig n a tio n b y th e C h ristia n s a n d w ith g ra titu d e by th e Jew s. It ceased to be a c c e p tab le w h e n th e risin g p o w e r o f C h riste n ­ d o m o n th e o n e h a n d a n d th e ra d ic a l ideas o f th e F ren ch R e v o lu tio n o n th e o th e r cau sed a w av e o f d isc o n te n t a m o n g th e C h ristia n su b jects o f th e M u slim sta te s, an u n w illin g n ess to su b m it to th e h u m ilia tio n s o r even to th e th re a t o r p o ssi­ b ility o f h u m ilia tio n , w h ic h e x isted in th e o ld o rd e r. J u s t a t th e tim e w h e n C h ristia n s w ere b e c o m in g less read y to accep t th ese re stra in ts, th e M u slim s— fo r som e o f th e sam e re a so n s— w ere m o re c o n v in c e d o f th e ir necessity. So lo n g as th e M u slim e m p ires re ta in e d th e re a lity o r even th e illu sio n o f su p re m a c y , th e y w ere p re p a re d to to le ra te th e in creasin g ly p o w e rfu l h o ld

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 63

o f th e m in o ritie s o n th e eco n o m ic life. B ut w ith th e ch an g e in th e real re la tio n sh ip o f eco n o m ic a n d th e n o f m ilita ry p o w e r b e tw e e n Islam a n d C h riste n d o m in th e eig h teen th a n d n in e ­ te e n th ce n tu rie s, a n d still m o re w ith th e b e la te d M u slim a w a re n e ss o f th e changes th a t h a d ta k e n place, th is s itu a tio n o f m in o rity eco n o m ic p o w e r becam e a source o f c o n cern , a n d u ltim a te ly o f anger. It is n o t u n c o m m o n in h isto ry fo r a relatively u n d e v e lo p e d ec o n o m y to be stim u la te d by th e co m m ercial im p a c t o f a n ­ o th e r m o re active a n d m o re dev elo p ed society. W h a t is special to th e case o f th e M id d le E ast, in th e age o f E u ro p e a n e x ­ p a n s io n , is th a t th e ag en ts a n d beneficiaries o f th e resu ltin g eco n o m ic changes w ere aliens o n b o th sides. T h e o u tsid e rs w ere n a tu ra lly E u ro p e a n s, b u t even in th e M id d le E ast th e p rin c ip le a c to rs w ere e ith e r fo reig n ers o r m em b ers o f religious m in o ritie s seen a n d tre a te d by th e d o m in a n t society as m a r ­ g inal to itself. T h e new m id d le class— som e h isto ria n s use th e te rm com prad or — th a t evolved in th e n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th cen tu ries c o n sisted largely o f foreig n ers a n d o f n a ­ tive C h ristia n s a n d som e Jew s, w h o as a resu lt o f th is p ro cess b ecam e even less identified w ith th e ir M u slim c o m p a trio ts a n d even m o re w ith E u ro p e. It w as n o t u n til a c o m p arativ ely late stag e th a t a n ew M u slim b o u rg eo isie, n o t in h ib ite d like its dhim m t p red ecesso rs by social s e p a ra tio n fro m th e ru lin g p o l­ ity a n d th e m a jo rity society, w as able to have som e social a n d p o litic a l im p a c t. It w a s o f lim ited e x te n t a n d d u ra tio n , a n d in m a n y c o u n trie s h as alre a d y given w ay to o th e r elem en ts. T h e p e rio d o f m o d e rn iz a tio n fro m th e late e ig h teen th cen ­ tu ry to th e p re se n t tim e g reatly stre n g th e n e d th e p o sitio n o f th e n o n -M u slim s in som e w ay s, a n d seriously w o rse n e d it in o th e rs. M a te ria lly th ey d id very w ell. As C h ristia n s th ey w ere m o re o p e n to influences c o m in g fro m th e W est, a n d th e re fo re b e tte r ab le to m a k e use o f W e ste rn e d u c a tio n an d th e m a n y a d v a n ta g e s it o ffered , especially im p o rta n t in an age o f W e st­ e rn d o m in a n c e . T h e ro le o f foreigners a n d o f m em b ers o f m in o ritie s in financial m a tte rs m ay be illu stra te d by ex am p les. In a d o c u m e n t o f 1 9 1 2 , fo rty p riv a te b a n k e rs are listed in Ista n b u l, n o t o n e o f w h o m is a T u rk ish M u slim . T h o se w h o

6

ą

■ CHAPTER I

c a n be id en tified by th e ir n a m e s in clu d e tw elv e G reek s, tw elv e A rm e n ia n s, e ig h t Je w s, a n d five L e v an tin es o r E u ro p e a n s. A list o f th irty -fo u r sto c k b ro k e rs in Ista n b u l in clu d es eig h teen G re e k s, six Je w s, five A rm e n ia n s, a n d n o t a single T u r k .72 S im ilar s itu a tio n s p re v a ile d in th e O tto m a n p ro v in ces a n d , to a lesser e x te n t, in N o r th A frica a n d Ira n . T h e ch a n g e w a s even m o re d ra m a tic in th o se areas th a t, as a re su lt o f th e im p e ria l e x p a n sio n o f E u ro p e a t b o th en d s, c am e u n d e r d ire c t E u ro p e a n rule. T h e m a ritim e p e o p le s o f W e ste rn E u ro p e a d v a n c in g fro m th e so u th a n d th e R u ssian s e x p a n d in g o v e rla n d fro m th e n o rth en clo sed th e Islam ic h e a r t­ la n d s o f th e M id d le E a st in g ig an tic p in cers. In th e te rrito rie s th e y h a d a c q u ire d , th e n ew im p e ria l m a ste rs, like th e M o n g o ls c e n tu rie s b e fo re , av ailed th em selv es o f th e skills a n d local k n o w le d g e o f th e n o n -M u slim p o p u la tio n s o f th ese la n d s. N o t lo n g a fte r th e R u ssia n c o n q u e st o f A rm e n ia , A rm e n ia n s a p ­ p e a re d in th e R u ssia n service o n th e e a ste rn fro n tie r o f T u rk e y , th e re b y p o sin g ch allen g es o f d iffe re n t k in d s to b o th th e T u rk s a n d A rm e n ia n s o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire. F u rth e r so u th , in an e x a m p le b e tte r k n o w n in th e W e ste rn w o rld , B o n a p a rte ’s e x ­ p e d itio n to E g y p t d re w exten siv ely o n th e services o f C o p ts a n d o th e r C h ristia n s in its a d m in is tra tio n . T h e se n tim e n ts o f a M u slim o b se rv e r a t th e tim e are vividly e x p re sse d in th e w ritin g s o f th e E g y p tia n h isto ria n a l-Ja b a rtī, p e rh a p s th e la st o f th e g re a t Islam ic h isto ria n s in th e classical m o ld . A m e m b e r by b a c k g ro u n d a n d e d u c a tio n o f th e u le m a class, a l-J a b a rtī w a s n o b lin d fa n a tic , n o in d isc rim in a te h a te r o f th in g s n o n -M u slim . H e reco g n ized som e o f th e m e rits o f F ren ch ru le, a n d c o m m e n ts p a rtic u la rly o n F ren ch c o m m it­ m e n t to ju stice, o n e o f th e q u a litie s m o st esteem ed in th e M u slim scale o f p o litic a l values. H e d id n o t, h o w e v e r, a p p re ­ c iate th e ir e m a n c ip a tio n o f th e n o n -M u slim in h a b ita n ts o f E g y p t, in w h a t a m o u n te d to a te rm in a tio n o f d him m a . AlJ a b a r tī c o m m e n ts re p e a te d ly a n d b itte rly o n th e e m p lo y m e n t o f C o p ts a n d o th e r d him m īs by th e F ren ch . H e w a s p a r tic u ­ la rly o ffe n d e d by th e ir w e a rin g fine clo th es, th e ir b e a rin g a rm s, c o n tra ry to o ld e sta b lish e d u sage, th e ir ex ercisin g a u th o rity o v e r th e a ffairs a n d p e rso n s o f th e M u slim s, a n d g en erally

ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS ■ 65

th e ir a c tin g in a w a y th a t seem ed to him a rev ersal o f th e p ro p e r o rd e r o f affairs as esta b lish e d by th e law o f G o d . AlJ a b a r tī w a s a fa ir-m in d e d o b se rv e r w h o fo u n d m u ch to a d m ire in th e F ren ch a n d m u ch to criticize in th e O tto m a n s. N e v e r­ th eless, he w a rm ly w elco m ed th e re tu rn o f O tto m a n a u th o rity a n d w ith it th e o ld o rd e r involving, in p a rtic u la r, th e re s to ­ ra tio n o f th e dhim m a a n d th e re stric tio n s it im p o sed o n his C o p tic c o m p a trio ts .73 A l-J a b a rtĩ’s w as n o t th e o n ly negative M u slim re a c tio n to th e e g a lita ria n ideas o f th e F ren ch R ev o lu tio n . F ro m 1 7 9 8 , w h e n h o stilitie s b eg an b etw een th e F rench rep u b lic a n d th e O tto m a n E m p ire, O tto m a n d o c u m e n ts m ak e fre q u e n t a llu sio n to th e “ a b s u rd a n d p re p o s te ro u s ” ideas o f e q u a lity a m o n g m a n k in d . Y et d e sp ite th ese o b je c tio n s a n d o th e rs like th em , th e n ew idea h a d s tru c k ro o ts, a n d in th e co u rse o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry th e c o n c e p t o f e q u a l citizen sh ip fo r m en o f d iffe re n t relig io n s g ra d u a lly g ain ed stre n g th . It d re w su p p o rt n o t o n ly fro m th e c o n tin u in g a n d g ro w in g p re ssu re o f th e E u ro p e a n p o w e rs fo r re fo rm w ith in th e em p ire, b u t also fro m a sig n if­ ic a n t g ro u p o f re fo rm e rs a m o n g th e M u slim T u rk s them selves w h o trie d to b rin g th e ir c o u n try in to line w ith w h a t th ey p erceiv ed as m o d e rn en lig h te n m e n t. F inally, in th e g re a t re ­ fo rm ferm ãn o f F e b ru a ry 1 8 5 6 , th e age-old re stric tio n s im ­ p o se d o n th e n o n -M u slim s w ere rep ealed a n d su b jects o f th e O tto m a n sta te , irresp ectiv e o f religion, w ere fo rm ally d e clared to be e q u a l. T h e w elco m e a c c o rd e d to this d ecree o f e m a n c ip a tio n w as by n o m e a n s u n ifo rm ly e n th u sia stic — n o r w ere th e c o m p la in ts en tire ly o n th e M u slim side. F o r th e M u slim s, o f co u rse, it m e a n t th e loss o f th e su p re m a c y w h ich they re g a rd e d as th e ir rig h t. B u t fo r C h ristia n s, to o , o r a t least fo r th e C h ristia n le a d e rsh ip , it inv o lv ed th e loss o f e n tre n c h e d a n d reco g n ized privileges. It also inv o lv ed e q u a liz a tio n d o w n w a rd as w ell as u p w a rd — a ch an g e n o t en tirely to th e ir ta s te .74 W ith th e g ra n tin g o f legal e q u a lity , th e p o ll ta x w as fo rm ally a b o lish e d a n d th e n o n -M u slim subjects o f th e sta te w ere m a d e eligible fo r th e recen tly in tro d u c e d co m p u lso ry m ilita ry serv-

66

■ CHAPTER I

ice. F o r a lo n g tim e, h o w e v e r, th ey w ere n o t in fact called b u t w e re e x p e c te d to p a y a c o m m u ta tio n ta x , k n o w n as bed el-i a skeri , m ilita ry c o m m u ta tio n , w h ich re p laced th e n o w su p e rse d e d jizya. It w a s levied a n d collected in m u ch th e sam e w ay . By th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , this fo rm o f d isc rim in a tio n w a s also a b o lish e d , a n d c o n sc rip tio n w as a d d e d to th e p riv ­ ileges o f citizen sh ip a n d o p e n e d to n o n -M u slim su b jects o f th e state. O w in g th e ir fa v o ra b le p o sitio n largely to E u ro p e a n s u p p o rt, th e m in o ritie s relied heavily o n E u ro p e a n p ro te c tio n . M a n y a c q u ire d th e sta tu s o f p ro te c te d p e rso n s, som etim es even th e c itizen sh ip o f v a rio u s E u ro p e a n states, a n d in th e co u rse o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry several o f th e E u ro p e a n p o w e rs e s ta b ­ lish ed w h a t w e re v irtu a l p ro te c to ra te s o v er w h o le c o m m u ­ n ities o f th e S u lta n ’s n o n -M u slim subjects. A t th e sam e tim e th e ir s itu a tio n w as c o m p lic a te d by o th e r d e m a n d s a n d a sp i­ ra tio n s — fo r in d e p e n d e n c e fro m th e M u slim sta te , fo r e q u a lity w ith in th e M u slim state. All these— fo reig n p ro te c tio n , d o ­ m estic e q u a lity , n a tio n a l se lf-d e te rm in atio n — w ere clearly in ­ c o m p a tib le w ith each o th e r as w ell as w ith th e basic a ssu m p ­ tio n s o f th e dhim m a. T h e re su ltin g te n sio n s c u lm in a te d — b u t d id n o t e n d — w ith th e co m p le te b re a k d o w n o f th e o ld o rd e r. T h e en d in g o f th e classical Islam ic system a n d th e a b r o ­ g a tio n o f th e s ta tu s it a c c o rd e d th e n o n -M u slim s b ro u g h t a c o n sid e ra b le im p ro v e m e n t in th e fo rm a l a n d legal sta te o f th ese c o m m u n itie s in th e ir respective c o u n trie s. T h e a c tu a l w o rk in g o u t o f th e ir e m a n c ip a tio n , in an age o f im p e ria list d o m in a tio n a n d n a tio n a lis t rev o lt, o f secu lar ch allen g e a n d Islam ic re sp o n se , is a very d iffe re n t m a tte r.

1.

Torah scroll with case. Synagogue of Zaako, Iraqi Kurdistan.

2.

Ceremonial bottle with Hebrew letters. Middle East, 18th century.

3. Sabbath lamp with Hebrew inscription. Damascus, 19th century.

4.

Finials from Iran, !8th -l9th centuries

5.

Finials from North Africa. 19th century.

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6.

Ketubah (marriage contract). Meshed, Iran, late 19th century.

7.

Ketubah. Isfahan, Iran, 1874

8.

Judaeo-Persian manuscript of a version of the Book of Exodus. Copied by Nehemia ben Amshel of Tabriz, 1686.

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Ift#fWļ⅛"f /

v

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m⅜,⅜it ⅝ .ẃ į⅛ĵw»Į ⅜wï">⅝»⅝⅛« ŕ ⅝⅝» 9.

The burning of the golden calf, from the Book of Exodus (see fig. 8).

10.

Manuscript of sabbath blessings from Iranian Kurdistan, mid-l9th century.

11.

Jewish lady, from a Turkish manuscript of a book on women. Istanbul, ca. 1793.

12.

Bridegroom Ben Shlomo playing the tar. Iran, ca. 1846.

13.

Bride Rachel making up her eyes. Iran, ca. 1846.

14. Jewish woman and widow. Istanbul, 1574. Anonymous artist.

15. Jewish doctor and merchant. Istanbul, 1574. Anonymous artist.

16.

Jewish woman. Istanbul, 1714. Anonymous artist.

17.

Haham and widow. Istanbul, ca. 1850. By Amadeo, Count Preziosi.

18.

Jewish woman smoking a chibouk. Istanbul, 1768. By G. Rumpf.

19.

Rabbi. Istanbul, 1769. By G. Rumpf.

20. Jewish woman of the Seraglio. Istanbul, 1648. By Georges de La Chappelle.

21.

Jewish woman from the area of Akra, Kurdistan. Photographed in Israel.

TWO

The Judaeo-Islamic Tradition 1 F or

m o s t o f th e M id d le Ages th e Jew s o f Islam co m p rise d th e g re a te r a n d m o re active p a r t o f th e Jew ish p eo p le. T h e Jew s w h o lived in C h ristia n c o u n ­ tries, th a t is in E u ro p e , w ere a m in o rity , a n d a relatively u n ­ im p o r ta n t o n e a t th a t. W ith few e x c e p tio n s, w h a te v e r w as creative an d significant in Jew ish life h appened in Islam ic lands. T h e Jew ish c o m m u n itie s o f E u ro p e fo rm e d a k in d o f c u ltu ra l d e p e n d e n c y o n th e Jew s o f th e fa r m o re ad v an ced a n d so ­ p h istic a te d Islam ic w o rld , e x te n d in g fro m M u slim S pain in th e w e st to Ira q , Ira n , a n d C e n tra l A sia in th e east. In th e la te r M id d le A ges— th e c h ro n o lo g y is im p o ssib le to e sta b lish w ith any p re c isio n — a m a jo r shift to o k p lace. In n u m b e rs, th e Jew s o f Islam d im in ish ed , b o th relatively a n d absolutely, an d the center o f gravity of the Jew ish w o rld m oved fro m e a st to w est, fro m A sia to E u ro p e , fro m Islam to C h ris­ te n d o m . W e h av e o f co u rse n o p o p u la tio n statistics, an d can d o n o m o re th a n guess a t th e n u m b e rs o f Jew s in M u slim c o u n trie s. B ut fro m th e d o c u m e n ts a t o u r d isp o sal, p a rtic u la rly fro m a b o u t th e y e a r 9 0 0 c .e . o n w a rd , w e can get an a p p ro x im a te id ea o f th e p r o p o r tio n o f Jew s to th e gen eral p o p u la tio n . P ro fe sso r S. D . G o ite in estim ates th a t Jew s c o n stitu te d ro u g h ly o n e p e rc e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n o f M u slim c o u n trie s, b u t th a t th ey n u m b e re d m an y m o re in th e cities, since th ey w ere m o stly a n u r b a n p e o p le w ith o n ly a sm all a n d d im in ish in g ru ra l p o p ­ u la tio n .1 T h e Jew s o f th e Islam ic w o rld also becam e a sm aller p r o ­ p o rtio n o f th e Jew s as a w h o le. H a v in g o n ce been th e o v e r­ w h e lm in g m a jo rity o f th e Jew ish p eo p le, th e ir n u m b e rs d w in ­ dled w hile th o se o f the Jew s o f C hristendom grew , until, finally, th e Jew s o f Islam b ecam e a m in o rity o f th e Jew ish p eo p le a n d

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th e Jew s o f C h riste n d o m becam e th e m a jo rity — w ith in th e c o n te x t o f Je w ish life, even a d o m in a n t m a jo rity . O b v io u sly , th e m a in re a so n s fo r th is sh ift m u st be so u g h t in th e ch a n g in g re la tio n sh ip o f Jew s to th e h o st societies o f w h ich th e y w ere a p a rt. B ut th a t is n o t th e w h o le sto ry . T h e p ace a n d m o d a litie s o f ch an g e a m o n g th e Jew s d o n o t c o n fo rm e n tirely to th e la rg e r p a tte r n , a n d c e rta in asp ects— a t least o f th e ch an g e a m o n g th e Je w s— m u st be seen a g a in st th e b a c k g ro u n d o f specifically Je w ish events a n d tre n d s. F o r th is p e rsp ectiv e a b e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e Ju d a e o -Isla m ic tra d itio n , a n d o f th e J u d a e o -Isla m ic sym biosis w h ich gave rise to it, is a p re ­ re q u isite. T h e Je w ish c o n trib u tio n to Islam , o r m o re p recisely th e reco g n iz a b ly Jew ish c o m p o n e n t in Islam ic civ ilizatio n , h as been a fa v o rite to p ic o f Je w ish sc h o la rsh ip since A b ra h a m G eiger p u b lish e d , in 1 8 3 3 , his fa m o u s b o o k W as hat M o ­ h am m ed aus dem ]u d e n th u m e aufgenom m en?$ (W h a t d id M u h a m m a d acc e p t fro m Ju d a ism ? ), in w h ich he d re w a tte n ­ tio n to c e rta in b ib lical a n d ra b b in ic a l elem en ts in early Islam ic te x ts, w ith th e o b v io u s im p lic a tio n th a t these w ere M u slim b o rro w in g s fro m Jew ish so u rces o r, to p u t it in m o re fa m ilia r te rm s, Je w ish c o n trib u tio n s to Islam . T h is p io n e e r stu d y w as fo llo w e d by m a n y o th e rs, w ith so m e sc h o lars even arg u in g th a t M u h a m m a d h a d h a d Jew ish te a c h e rs o r in stru c to rs w h o p ro v id e d h im w ith th e ru d im e n ts o f his relig io n . F o r a lo n g tim e, such a rg u m e n ts p a sse d u n n o tic e d by M u slim sc h o la r­ sh ip . T h e y d id , h o w e v e r, evoke a c e rta in re a c tio n fro m rival c la im a n ts, fro m o th e rs w h o a p p a re n tly also w ish ed to claim c re d it fo r th e a d v e n t o f Islam a n d to a rg u e th a t M u h a m m a d ’s fo rm a tiv e influences h a d been n o t Jew ish b u t C h ristia n . Such view s en jo y e d p a rtic u la r fa v o r w ith sc h o la rs w h o se b a c k ­ g ro u n d w a s in P ro te s ta n t th e o lo g y as, fo r e x am p le, th e S co t­ tish A ra b ist R ic h a rd Bell a n d th e g re a t Sw edish sc h o la r T o r A n d ra e , w h o w as b o th a p ro fe sso r o f c o m p a ra tiv e relig io n a n d a L u th e ra n b ish o p . Y et a n o th e r view is th a t w h ile M u ­ h a m m a d m a y in d e e d h av e h a d e ith e r Je w ish o r C h ristia n te a c h e rs, th ese w ere n o t ra b b in ic a l Jew s o r o r th o d o x C h ris­ tia n s, b u t fo llo w ers o f so m e o u tla n d ish se c ta ria n g ro u p .

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M o re recen tly th e re h av e been n ew a p p ro a c h e s to th e to p ic o f alleged Je w ish influences. W hile th e Jew ish o rig in s o f so m e Islam ic id eas w ere o rig in a lly a d d u c e d by Je w ish , m o stly r a b ­ b in ic, sc h o la rs, in a k in d o f p rid e o f an cestry , th e sam e a r ­ g u m e n t h as b een used by an ti-Islam ic p o lem icists, m ain ly R o ­ m a n C a th o lic , w h o se p u rp o se w as n o t to glorify Ju d a ism b u t to d isc re d it Isla m .4 M o s t recen tly a w o rk by tw o y o u n g sch o l­ ars w h o m ig h t be d e scrib ed as p o st-C h ristia n h as p re se n te d th e h isto ric a l re la tio n sh ip b etw een Ju d a ism a n d Islam in an e n tirely n e w light, in w h ich th e sh are o f Ju d a ism in Islam is d e p ic te d as so m e th in g v astly g re a te r th a n a “ c o n trib u tio n ” o r a n “ in flu e n c e .” T h is w o rk , w h ich depicts Islam as a k in d o f o ffs h o o t o r a b e rra tio n fro m Ju d a ism , h as a ro u se d v io len t c o n ­ tro v e rs y .5 T h e w h o le p ro b le m o f Jew ish , o r fo r th a t m a ttte r o f C h ris­ tia n o r o th e r e x tra n e o u s influences o n Islam is o f co u rse a p ro b le m fo r Je w ish a n d o th e r n o n -M u slim sch o lars. It is n o t a p ro b le m fo r M u slim sch o lars, fo r w h o m such a q u e stio n sim ply c a n n o t arise. As M u slim s see it, M u h a m m a d is th e P ro p h e t o f G o d , a n d th e Q u r ’an is divine in a sense b o th m o re lite ra l a n d m o re precise th a n in th e Jew ish o r C h ristia n p e r­ c e p tio n o f th e O ld a n d N e w T e sta m e n ts. A cco rd in g to w h a t h as b eco m e th e a ccep ted Sunni d o c trin e , th e Q u r ’a n is e te rn a l a n d u n c re a te d , c o e x iste n t w ith G o d fro m e te rn ity to e te rn ity . T h e Q u r ’ān ic te x t th u s h as a literal divine sa n c tity th a t h as n o p a ra lle l in th e n o rm a l fo rm s o f Ju d a ism o r C h ristia n ity . T o su g g est b o rro w in g o r influence is th e re fo re , fro m a M u slim p o in t o f view , a b la sp h e m o u s a b su rd ity . D oes G o d b o rro w ? Is G o d influenced? F o r a M u slim , Ju d a ism , like C h ristia n ity , is a su p e rse d e d p re d e c e sso r o f Islam . T h e Jew ish a n d C h ristia n sc rip tu re s w e re a u th e n tic divine re v elatio n s given to p ro p h e ts sen t by G o d . B ut th ey w ere neglected a n d c o rru p te d by th e Jew s a n d C h ristia n s, a n d h av e been rep laced by G o d ’s final a n d p e rfe c t re v e la tio n , w h ich is th e Q u r ’an. If th e re are c o m ­ m o n elem en ts o r resem b lan ces b etw een th e Bible a n d o th e r Je w ish a n d C h ristia n w ritin g s a n d th e Islam ic d isp e n sa tio n , th is is d u e to th e c o m m o n divine so u rce. W h ere th e y differ,

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th e Je w ish o r C h ristia n te x ts h av e been d isto rte d by th e ir u n w o rth y c u sto d ia n s. Som e Je w ish influence is m e n tio n e d by th e early ju rists a n d th e o lo g ia n s o f Islam , b u t w h e re it is seen a n d reco g n ized as su ch , it is p e rceiv ed as a d e b a se m e n t o r a d ilu tio n o f th e a u th e n tic m essage— as so m e th in g like w h a t in C h ristia n h is­ to ry w a s called a Ju d a iz in g heresy. T h e re is a w h o le b o d y o f early Islam ic religious m aterial th a t is neither p a rt o f the Q u r’an n o r p a r t o f th e a c c e p ted a n d a u th e n tic a te d had īth , b u t th a t is used to su p p le m e n t th e m . It consists o f sto ries co n c e rn in g th e P ro p h e ts, n a rra tiv e s o f v a rio u s o th e r k in d s, a n d in te rp re ta ­ tio n s o f th ese sto ries, m a n y o f th e m o f m id ra sh ic o rig in , p r o b ­ ab ly in tro d u c e d a n d c irc u la te d by Je w ish co n v erts to Islam . T h is m a te ria l is collectively k n o w n in M u slim lite ra tu re as Isrã’īliyyãt , Israelite stu ff o r Israelitish fables. T o b egin w ith , th is te rm , in A ra b ic u sage, w as p u re ly descrip tiv e. N e v e r in an y sense a te rm o f p ra ise , it w as a t first n e u tra l a n d th e n cam e to h a v e a d istin c tly neg ativ e c o n n o ta tio n . In la te r tim es Isrã’īliyyãt b ecam e a lm o st a sy n o n y m fo r su p e rstitio u s n o n ­ sense, a n d w a s u sed, dism issively, to c o n d e m n sto ries, in te r­ p re ta tio n s , a n d usages seen as n o t fo rm in g p a r t o f a u th e n tic Islam b u t as b ein g d u e to J u d a ic a n d th e re fo re u n a c c e p ta b le e x te rn a l in flu en ce.6 In g en eral, w h e n a Jew ish influence o r e lem en t is id en tified as su ch , it is fo r th a t re a so n rejected. If it is accep ted as p a r t o f a u th e n tic Islam , th e n by d efin itio n it is n o t Jew ish b u t d iv in e in o rig in . If th e Jew s h av e so m e th in g sim ilar, th e n it is becau se th ey to o w e re fo rm e rly th e recip ien ts o f divine rev elatio n s. T h e re a re , h o w e v e r, a few in te re stin g cases in w h ic h it w as n o t im m e d ia te ly c le a r w h e th e r a belief o r a usage w as o f Je w ish o r divine in s p ira tio n a n d a b o u t w h ic h th e re w as th e re fo re so m e a rg u m e n t a m o n g th e M u slim a u th o ritie s. O n e su ch in ­ sta n c e is th e lo n g d e b a te a m o n g th e d o c to rs o f th e H o ly L aw o n th e sa n c tity o f J e ru sa le m .7 Is Je ru sa le m a h o ly city fo r Islam , o r is it n o t? F o r so m e tim e n o w , it h a s com e to be g en erally ac c e p ted by M u slim s th a t Je ru sa le m is a h o ly city; in d eed , m o st ra n k it th ird a fte r M ecca a n d M e d in a . T h is w as, h o w ­ ever, by n o m e a n s alw ay s ac c e p ted by M u slim s, a n d in ea rlie r

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tim es th e re w as s tro n g resistan ce a m o n g m an y th e o lo g ia n s a n d ju rists w h o re g a rd e d th is n o tio n as a Ju d a iz in g e rro r— as o n e m o re a m o n g m a n y a tte m p ts by Jew ish co n v erts to infil­ tra te Je w ish ideas o r p ra c tic e s in to Islam . A sto ry to ld by th e g re a t n in th -c e n tu ry h isto ria n Ţ a b a rī, d escrib in g a visit by th e calip h 'U m a r to th e new ly c o n q u e re d city o f Je ru sa le m , il­ lu stra te s th is p o in t: W h e n 'U m a r cam e . . . to A elia8 . . . he said , “ B ring m e K a 'b .” K a 'b w a s b ro u g h t to h im , a n d 'U m a r a sk e d h im , “ W h e re d o y o u th in k w e sh o u ld p u t th e p lace o f p ra y e r? ” “ By th e R o c k ,” an sw e re d K a 'b . “ By G o d , K a 'b ,” said 'U m a r, “ y o u are fo llo w in g a fte r J u d a ism . I saw y o u ta k e o ff y o u r s a n d a ls.” “ I w a n te d to feel th e to u c h o f it w ith m y b a re feet,” said K a 'b . “ I saw y o u ,” said 'U m a r. “ B ut n o . . . w e w ere n o t c o m ­ m a n d e d co n c e rn in g th e R o ck , b u t w e w ere c o m m a n d e d c o n c e rn in g th e K a 'b a [in M e c c a ].” 9 K a 'b a l-A h b ā r10 w as a w e ll-k n o w n Jew ish c o n v e rt to Islam a n d an im p o r ta n t figure o fte n cited in co n n ectio n w ith w h a t a re seen as J u d a iz in g in se rtio n s in to tru e Islam ic d o c trin e . T h e p o in t o f th e sto ry clearly is th a t th e san ctity o f Je ru sa le m is a Je w ish , n o t a M u slim , belief, th a t K a 'b w as a t fa u lt in m a in ta in in g it d esp ite his co n v ersio n , a n d th a t o n ly M ecca is th e d ire c tio n o f p ra y e r a n d th e p lace o f pilg rim ag e fo r M u s ­ lim s. T h e sto ry is a lm o st ce rta in ly an in v e n tio n , p ro b a b ly reflect­ ing th e co n tro v e rsie s o f th e fo llo w in g decades. T h ere are o th e r sto ries o f th is ty p e, th e p u r p o r t o f w h ich is th a t to v en erate Je ru sa le m as a h o ly city is a sign o f Jew ish influence a n d th e re fo re b a d . T his w as a view th a t d id n o t p rev ail, a n d it w as in tim e fo rg o tte n . A fter som e vicissitudes, th e p rin cip le w as g en erally a d o p te d th a t Je ru sa le m w as in d eed a h o ly city o f Islam . T h e loss a n d re c a p tu re o f th e city d u rin g th e C ru sad es a n d th e o b v io u s e n o rm o u s im p o rta n c e a tta c h e d to it by th e C h ristia n s n o d o u b t h a d som e im p a c t, to o , as d id th e g re a t

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controversies am o n g the E u ro p ean pow ers over the holy places in Je ru sa le m d u rin g th e late O tto m a n p e rio d . By n o w th e Islam ic sa n c tity o f Je ru sa le m , w h a te v e r its o rig in , is firm ly e sta b lish e d . A n o th e r e x a m p le is th e e s ta b lish m e n t o f F rid ay as th e M u s ­ lim s a b b a th , clearly a reflectio n o f th e Je w ish S a tu rd a y a n d th e C h ris tia n S u n d a y .11 As th e C h ristia n s d ista n c e d th em selv es fro m th e ir Je w ish p re d e c e sso rs by m o v in g th e s a b b a th fro m S a tu rd a y to S u n d ay , so to o d id th e M u slim s d istan ce th e m ­ selves fro m b o th th e ir p re d e c e sso rs by ch o o sin g F rid ay . B ut th e y d iffe re d also in a n o th e r im p o rta n t resp ect. N o t o n ly d id th e y ch o o se a d iffe re n t d ay o f th e w eek ; th ey also c h a n g e d th e w h o le c o n c e p tio n o f th e n a tu re o f th e s a b b a th . T h e M u s ­ lim “ s a b b a th ” is p rim a rily a d ay o f p u b lic p ra y e r, as is in ­ d ic a te d by th e A ra b ic n a m e given to F rid ay , yaw m al-jum 'a (the d ay o f g a th e rin g ). In classical tim es, F rid a y w as n o t a d ay o f re st, a n d th e idea th a t it sh o u ld be tre a te d as su ch , th o u g h o fte n p u t fo rw a rd , w as c o n d e m n e d by m o st M u slim a u th o r ­ ities as a b la m e w o rth y im ita tio n o f th e p ractices o f th e Jew s a n d C h ristia n s. In tim e, th e a ttra c tio n s o f th e d ay o f rest p re v a ile d o v e r th e o lo g ic a l d o u b ts c o n c e rn in g its o rig in s, a n d by th e p re s e n t d ay m o st M u slim sta te s h av e a d o p te d w h a t is n o w th e u n iv e rsa l p ra c tic e a n d in stitu te d a w eekly d ay o f rest. F o r th e ea rly p e rio d o f Islam ic h isto ry , in th e sev en th a n d th e g re a te r p a r t o f th e eig h th c e n tu ry , th e h isto ria n o f th e Ju d a e o -Isla m ic tra d itio n is m ain ly c o n c e rn e d w ith id e n tify in g Je w ish e le m e n ts in Islam , w ith w h a t m ig h t be called Jew ish influences o r Je w ish c o n trib u tio n s . T h is is in itself by n o m ean s a n easy ta sk . D e sp ite m a n y sto ries to ld o f Jew ish c o n v erts a n d th e ir (m ostly h a rm fu l) influence, th e re is little h a rd in fo rm a ­ tio n . T h e o n ly evidence o n early Islam is th a t in th e Q u r ’an a n d th e Islam ic tra d itio n s a n d , as is w ell k n o w n , th e in te r­ p re ta tio n a n d e v a lu a tio n o f these tra d itio n s , even th e ir d a tin g a n d a u th e n tic ity , raise m a n y p ro b le m s. T h e re is also th e q u e s­ tio n o f h o w fa r th e Jew ish c o m p o n e n t in Islam cam e d irectly fro m Je w ish so u rc e s, a n d h o w fa r it w a s m e d ia te d via C h ris­ tia n ity . T h e C h ristia n ele m e n t in early Islam is n o less th a n th e Je w ish , a n d p o ssib ly g re a te r, a n d th e C h ristia n c o m p o n e n t

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in itself in c a p su la te s c e rta in Je w ish elem ents th a t h a d alre a d y beco m e p a r t o f C h ristia n ity . T h e ta sk o f th e h isto ria n is fu rth e r c o m p lic a te d by th e activities in o r n e a r A ra b ia o f Ju d a e o C hristian g roups a n d o th e r Jew ish an d C hristian sectaries a b o u t w h o se beliefs a n d p ra c tic e s w e are p o o rly in fo rm ed . D u rin g th e la te eig h th c e n tu ry a n ew co m p lex ity w as a d d e d . By th is tim e , th e traffic in influence w a s n o lo n g er o n e w ay. T h e Jew s w e re n o lo n g e r b y sta n d e rs, p e rh a p s a ssista n ts, a t th e b irth o f a n ew relig io n , b u t w e re o n e c o m p o n e n t a m o n g m a n y in a diverse a n d p lu ra listic civ ilizatio n . In th is situ a tio n , p a ra lle ls a n d resem b lan ces b etw een Je w ish a n d M u slim beliefs a n d p ra c tic e s m ay w ell be due to M u slim influences o n J u ­ d a ism a n d n o t m erely— as ea rlie r sch o lars believed— to Jew ish influences o n Islam . A few e x a m p le s m ay serve to illu stra te th e d ifferen t k in d s o f p ro b le m s th e sc h o la r e n c o u n te rs. M u slim la w lays d o w n th a t d u rin g th e fast o f R a m a d a n th e o b lig a tio n to fast a p p lies o nly d u rin g th e d ay tim e. D u rin g th e n ig h t, fro m su n se t to d a w n , it is p e rm itte d to e a t a n d d rin k . T h e fa st begin s ag a in a t d a y b re a k , “ w h e n a w h ite th re a d can be d istin g u ish e d fro m a b la c k th r e a d ” (Q u r’an , II,187). A b ra ­ h a m G e ig e r12 first d re w a tte n tio n to th e resem b lan ce b etw een th is m a n d a te a n d th e d ic tu m in th e T a lm u d defining d a y b re a k , fo r th e p u rp o se s o f th e S h e m a ' p ra y e r, as th e tim e w h e n o n e can d istin g u ish b e tw e e n blue a n d w h ite o r, a c c o rd in g to a n ­ o th e r o p in io n , b e tw e e n b lu e a n d green. T h e Je ru sa le m T a lm u d is a little m o re specific a n d refers to th e “ frin g es” th a t c o n ta in a b lu e th re a d a n d are used w h e n re citin g th e S h em a'. In th is case, as in th e case o f Je ru sa le m , th e c h ro n o lo g y is n o t in d o u b t. B o th M is h n a a n d G e m a ra , b o th o f B ab y lo n a n d o f Je ru sa le m , w e re co m p le te d befo re th e ad v e n t o f Islam . T h e re se m b la n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o is close e n o u g h a t least to su g ­ gest a c o n n e c tio n ; even th e difference— b la c k a n d w h ite in ­ ste a d o f b lu e a n d w h ite o r blue a n d green— co u ld be a n in ­ te n tio n a l d ista n c in g , like th e a d o p tio n o f S u n d ay a n d la te r F rid a y in ste a d o f S a tu rd a y as a d a y o f p u b lic p ra y e r. F o r th e M u slim b eliever, th e T a lm u d ic p assag es re p re se n t d isto rte d relics o f so m e lo st e a rlie r re v e la tio n , re ite ra te d in its co m p lete

7 4 " CHAPTER 2

a n d final fo rm in th e Q u r ’an . F o r th e c o m p a ra tiv ist th e choice is b e tw e e n Je w ish influence a n d c o m m o n o rig in . S o m etim es th e Islam ic v ersio n o f a Je w ish th em e o r sto ry is tra n s fo rm e d a n d a d a p te d , to c a rry a d iffe re n t m essage o r to m eet d iffe re n t c irc u m sta n c es. A n e x a m p le o f th is is th e sto ry o f K o ra h , w h o reb elled a g a in st th e a u th o rity o f M o ses a n d w a s d u ly sw a llo w e d u p in th e e a rth , a lo n g w ith all his p e o p le . In th e Je w ish v ersio n s o f th is sto ry , b o th B iblical a n d A ggadic, K o ra h ’s offense is th a t he q u e stio n s an d even rebels a g a in st th e a u th o rity o f th e T o ra h a n d o f its u p h o ld e rs, v a r ­ io u sly n a m e d as M o se s, th e p rie sts, o r th e ra b b is. In so m e o f th e A ggadic v ersio n s K o ra h a p p e a rs as P h a ra o h ’s tre a s u re r a n d a m a n o f im m en se w e a lth . It is th is asp e c t th a t p re d o m ­ in a te s in th e M u slim v ersio n s, w h e re Q ā rū n , as he is n a m e d in th e Q u r ’a n , beco m es th e p ro to ty p e o f th e a rro g a n c e o f w e a lth . H e p ossesses im m en se riches a n d is m a rk e d by av arice a n d o s te n ta tio n , u n re lie v e d by c h a rity o r g o o d w o rk s. T h e m essage o f his fall, w h e n h e, his p a la c e , a n d his tre a su re s are sw a llo w e d u p in th e e a rth , is th a t w e a lth a n d th e p o w e r it co n fers in th is w o rld a re fleeting a n d insignifican t. O n ly G o d h a s tru e p o w e r; o n ly G o d ’s re c o m p e n se h as tru e value. O th e r B iblical a n d ra b b in ic a l th em es— fo r ex am p le, th e s to ­ ries o f E lijah a n d o f th e cu rse o f H a m — also h av e sig n ifican tly d iffe re n t Islam ic a n a lo g u e s. By m edieval tim es, even Jew ish d iscu ssio n s o f som e o f th ese th em es w ere som etim es in flu en ced by Islam ic v ersio n s th a t h a d beco m e k n o w n to J e w s .13

T h e r e w ere Jew s in A ra b ia a t th e tim e o f th e a d v e n t o f Islam . T h e y w ere few in n u m b e r, a n d a p a r t fro m th e ro le th a t th ey p la y e d o r th a t th e M u slim h isto rio g ra p h ic tra d itio n ascrib es to th e m in th e c irc u m sta n c es o f th e P ro p h e t’s c a reer, th ey w ere o f n o g re a t im p o rta n c e in Jew ish h isto ry a n d are v irtu a lly u n k n o w n to Jew ish h is to rio g ra p h y .14 O f far g re a te r signifi­ can ce w ere th e large a n d active Jew ish c o m m u n itie s in S o u th ­ w e st A sia a n d N o r th A frica— c o u n trie s in to w h ich th e A rab s cam e in a g re a t w av e o f c o n q u e st in th e sev en th a n d eig h th c e n tu rie s, a n d w h ic h c o n s titu te d th e core o f th e Islam ic c a l­ ip h a te .

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A m o n g th e Jew s o f th e M id d le E ast a t th a t tim e w ere tw o im p o r ta n t d iv isio n s, o n e c u ltu ra l, th e o th e r p o litical, th e tw o n o t w h o lly co in cid in g . C u ltu ra lly , th e re w as a m a jo r cleavage b e tw e e n th e A ra m a ic -sp e ak in g Jew s a n d th e H ellen ized Jew s. M o s t o f th o se w h o lived in th e F ertile C rescen t sp o k e A ram aic, a n d h a d a c u ltu re e x p ressed in th a t language. Specifically J e w ­ ish fo rm s o f A ra m a ic served as th e m edia o f b o th th e B ab y ­ lo n ia n a n d Je ru sa le m T a lm u d s, as w ell as o f m a n y o th e r, m o stly relig io u s w ritin g s. T h e seco n d g ro u p co n sisted o f th e Jew s o f A le x a n d ria a n d o th e r cities in th e eastern p ro v in ces o f th e R o m a n E m p ire w h o h a d a d o p te d th e G reek lan g u ag e a n d h a d beco m e p a r t o f th e H ellen istic civilizatio n o f th e tim e. B esides th is c u ltu ra l div isio n , th e re w as also a p o litic a l d i­ v isio n b e tw e e n th e Jew s o f th e R o m a n E m p ire, o r la te r th e B y zan tin e E m p ire, o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d th e Jew s o f th e P ersian E m p ire o n th e o th e r. T h e fo rm e r in clu d ed all th e M e d ite r­ ra n e a n la n d s; th e la tte r, besides th e p la te a u o f Iran , ru le d o v er Ira q , w h e re in d eed th e S asan id e m p e ro rs h a d th e ir c a p ita l, a t C te sip h o n . T h e a n c ie n t a n d le a rn e d Jew ish c o m m u n ities o f B ab y lo n ia a n d th e ir b ro th e rs in P alestine a n d Syria w ere th u s su b jects o f tw o em p ires, b etw een w h ich th e re w as p e rp e tu a l riv a lry a n d fre q u e n t w a r. A ra b ia , w h e re th e Islam ic faith w as b o rn , b elo n g ed to n ei­ th e r em p ire. B ut b o th R o m e a n d P ersia w ere active in th e p e n in su la , w h ic h at tim es w as th e a re n a o f co m m ercial a n d d ip lo m a tic as w ell as m ilitary clashes b etw een th e tw o . D u rin g th e six th c e n tu ry , th a t is to say, o n th e eve o f M u h a m m a d ’s m issio n , A ra b ia n Jew s p la y e d a n o b scu re b u t p o ssib ly im ­ p o r ta n t ro le in th is im p erial c o m p e titio n .15 T h e A ra b c o n q u e sts a n d th e c re a tio n o f th e Islam ic c a lip h a te b ro u g h t to g e th e r th e e a ste rn a n d w estern halves o f th e M id d le E a st fo r th e first tim e since th e d e a th o f A lex an d er th e G re a t. T h e P ersian E m p ire w as o v e rth ro w n a n d its te rrito rie s a b ­ so rb e d in th e ir en tirety . T h e B yzantine E m p ire re m a in e d s ta n d in g , b u t w a s red u ced to A n a to lia a n d so u th e a ste rn E u ­ ro p e . Syria, P alestine, E gypt, a n d N o rth A frica w ere c o n ­ q u e re d , a n d th e ir Je w ish co m m u n ities, n o w jo in ed to th o se

j β

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o f Ira q a n d Ira n , fo rm e d th e o v e rw h e lm in g m a jo rity a n d also th e m o st a d v a n c e d a n d active p a r t o f th e Je w ish p eo p le. In these c o m m u n itie s o f s o u th w e st A sia a n d n o rth e rn A f­ rica, u n ite d u n d e r Islam ic ru le, a n u m b e r o f im p o rta n t ch an g es to o k p lace. T h e first w a s th e p ro cess o f u n ificatio n itself, th e m e rg in g o f th e v ery d isp a ra te a n d diverse g ro u p s th a t w ere n o w jo in e d to g e th e r u n d e r o n e rule. Jew s fro m th e sh o res o f th e A tla n tic O c e a n to th e b o rd e rs o f In d ia a n d C h in a fo rm e d o n e society, fo r a w h ile su b je c t to o n e sta te . A n d even w h e n th a t sta te , fo r a v a rie ty o f re a so n s, b ro k e u p in to m a n y sm all s ta te s, th e c u ltu ra l, social, a n d to som e e x te n t eco n o m ic u n ity o f th e society w a s m a in ta in e d , w ith a re m a rk a b le degree o f p e rso n a l a n d p h y sical m o b ility b etw een c o u n trie s as far a p a r t as Ira n a n d M o ro c c o o r S pain a n d th e Y em en. R ig h t th ro u g h th e M id d le A ges th e re w as active c o m m ercial a n d c u ltu ra l in te rc o m m u n ic a tio n b e tw e e n th e far-flu n g reg io n s o f th is v ast Islam ic w o rld a n d c o n se q u e n tly also b e tw e e n its Jew ish c o m ­ m u n ities. O n e o f th e m a jo r ch an g es th a t to o k p lace in Jew ish life in th ese c o u n trie s w as th e p ro cess o f A ra b iz a tio n , m e a n in g p r i­ m arily b u t n o t exclusively th e re p la c e m e n t o f th e o ld e r la n ­ guages by A ra b ic . A ra m a ic died o u t as a sp o k en lan g u ag e, su rv iv in g — a p a r t fro m a few re m o te a n d iso lated c o m m u n i­ ties— o nly in ju rid ic a l a n d litu rg ical use. G reek w as fo rg o tte n , a n d L a tin h a d h a rd ly been a d o p te d by Jew s. H e b re w o f co u rse re m a in e d , b u t its use w as lim ited . It w a s ab o v e all a relig io u s la n g u a g e , u sed in th e litu rg y o f th e sy n ag o g u e a n d in p o e try , so m etim es m o re gen erally in belles lettres. B ut fo r m o st p u r ­ poses H e b re w a n d all th e o th e r lan g u ag es fo rm erly u sed by Jew s w ere re p la c e d by A rab ic, w h ich b ecam e th e lan g u ag e o f science a n d p h ilo so p h y , o f g o v e rn m e n t a n d co m m erce, even th e la n g u a g e o f Je w ish th e o lo g y w h e n such a d iscipline b eg an to dev elo p u n d e r Islam ic influence. Y eh u d a ha-L evi c o m p o se d p o e try a n d M a im o n id e s w ro te o n Je w ish la w in H e b re w , b u t w h e n th ey w ish e d to e x p o u n d a p h ilo so p h y b o th used A ra b ic , w h ic h p o ssessed th e n ecessary lin g u istic reso u rces. A ra b ic reig n ed e v ery w h ere ex c e p t in th e e a ste rn m o st p a rts o f th e Islam ic E m p ire , in Ira n a n d b e y o n d . E ven th e re , A ra b ic w as

THE JUDAEO- ISLAMIC TRADITION ■ 7 7

fo r a w h ile th e d o m in a n t lan g u ag e, th o u g h a p p a re n tly a m o n g P ersian Jew s, as a m o n g o th e r P ersians, it d id n o t b eco m e th e sp o k e n la n g u a g e . In Ira n a n d p o in ts east, P ersian w as still sp o k e n a n d la te r, in a n e w fo rm , reco v ered its lite ra ry sta tu s. W e st o f Ira n , A ra b ic b ecam e th e lan g u ag e n o t o n ly o f lite r­ a tu re a n d g o v e rn m e n t b u t also o f ev ery d ay speech. T h e Jew s a d o p te d A ra b ic a n d m ad e it th e ir o w n as th ey h av e d o n e w ith o n ly a few o th e r lan g u ag es in th e ir h isto ry . T his w as in strik in g c o n tra s t to th e situ a tio n in m edieval C h riste n d o m , w h e re th e Jew s m a d e very lim ited use o f G reek a n d v irtu ally n o n e o f L atin . Jew ish h isto ry sh o w s tw o c o n tra stin g p a tte rn s o f c u ltu ra l re la tio n s b e tw e e n Jew s a n d th e ir n e ig h b o rs. In o n e th e Jew s a re c u ltu ra lly in te g ra te d in to th e society in w h ich th ey live, u sin g th e sam e lan g u ag e a n d to a large e x te n t sh a rin g th e sam e c u ltu ra l values as th e s u rro u n d in g m ajo rity . T h is is th e s itu a tio n in m o d e rn W e ste rn E u ro p e a n d A m erica. T h e o th e r p a tte r n is o n e in w h ich th e Jew s are linguistically an d th e re fo re c u ltu ra lly se p a ra te d , u sing e ith e r H e b re w o r, m o re c o m m o n ly , som e o th e r la n g u a g e th ey b ro u g h t fro m elsew h ere a n d tr a n s ­ fo rm e d in to a Jew ish lan g u ag e used exclusively by Jew s. Such w a s th e Ju d a e o -S p a n ish o f th e S ep h ard ic Jew s in th e O tto m a n E m p ire o r th e J u d a e o -G e rm a n (Y iddish) o f th e A sh k en azi Jew s in th e P olish k in g d o m a n d th e R u ssian E m pire. Such to o , a t a n e a rlie r d a te , w ere th e J u d a e o -A ra m a ic dialects u sed in th e F ertile C re sc e n t a n d b ey o n d . T hese tw o situ a tio n s p ro d u c e d iffe re n t ty p es o f Je w ish life a n d o f co u rse a d iffe re n t re la ­ tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e Jew ish m in o rity a n d th e d o m in a n t m a ­ jo rity . T h e m edieval sym biosis o f Jew s a n d A rab s is in th is resp ect fa r clo ser to th e p a tte rn o f m o d e rn W estern E u ro p e a n d A m er­ ica a n d very d iffe re n t fro m th e s itu a tio n in th e R o m a n , O t­ to m a n , a n d R u ssian em pires. As P ro fesso r G o itein h as p o in te d o u t, th is sym biosis p ro d u c e d so m e th in g th a t w as n o t m erely a Je w ish c u ltu re in A rabic. It w as a Ju d a e o -A ra b ic , o r o n e m ig h t even say a Ju d a e o -Isla m ic , c u ltu re. T h e re w ere som e m in o r differences in lan g u ag e. T h e Jew s, like th e C h ristia n s, d e v e lo p e d th e ir o w n specific dialects o f A rab ic w ith d istin ctiv e

78 ■ CHAPTER 2

lexical a n d p h o n e tic c h a ra c te ris tic s .16 F o r so m e p u rp o se s th e Jew s w ro te A ra b ic in th e H e b re w sc rip t w hile C h ristia n s so m e ­ tim es w ro te A ra b ic in th e S yriac scrip t. In M id d le E a ste rn re lig io n s, b a se d o n rev ealed sc rip tu re s a n d ex p ressed in w r it­ te n litu rg ies, th e re is an in tim a te a sso c ia tio n b etw een sc rip t a n d c u lt, sc rip t a n d faith . B ut th e re su ltin g differences in M u s ­ lim , C h ristia n , a n d Je w ish A ra b ic w ere in m edieval tim es c o m ­ p a ra tiv e ly m in o r. W h a t w a s fa r m o re im p o rta n t w as th e s h a r­ ing o f th e la n g u a g e a n d o f th e c u ltu ra l valu es ex p ressed in it— th e w h o le c u ltu ra l fram e o f referen ce th a t m ad e p o ssib le a degree o f c o m m u n ic a tio n , in d e e d o f c o o p e ra tio n , th a t is c o m p a ra tiv e ly ra re in th e h isto ry o f th e Jew ish d ia sp o ra . T h e p ro c e ss o f th e a c c u ltu ra tio n o f th e Jew s in th e A ra b Islam ic w o rld goes b e y o n d th e p o in t o f A ra b iz a tio n , a te rm th a t is p e rh a p s to o n a rro w ly linguistic, a n d m ig h t b e tte r be d e sig n a te d as Isla m iz a tio n . T h is does n o t n ecessarily m ean co n v e rsio n to Islam , th o u g h th e re w ere o f c o u rse m an y Jew ish co n v e rts, so m e o f w h o m w h o p la y e d a ro le o f g re a t signifi­ cance. W h a t is in te n d e d h ere is n o t th e a d o p tio n o f th e Islam ic re lig io n b u t a ssim ila tio n to Islam ic m o d es o f th o u g h t a n d p a tte rn s o f b e h a v io r— in a w o rd , a Ju d a e o -Isla m ic tra d itio n p a ra lle l to th e Ju d a e o -C h ris tia n tra d itio n o f w h ich w e are a c c u sto m e d to sp e a k in th e m o d e rn w o rld . W e hav e a lre a d y n o te d som e o f th e p ro b le m s o f th e in te r­ re la tio n b e tw e e n J u d a ism a n d Islam , a n d th e influences e ith e r m ay hav e e x e rte d o n th e o th e r. It is o fte n difficult a n d so m e ­ tim es im p o ssib le to say o f o n e o r a n o th e r p ra c tic e o r id ea, w h ic h is th e e a rlie r a n d w h ic h is th e la te r, a n d w h ich th e re fo re in sp ire d o r in flu en ced th e o th e r. It is safer fo r th e tim e b ein g to use a n e u tra l fo rm u la tio n , a n d to sp e a k o f a series o f re ­ m a rk a b le re se m b la n c es b e tw e e n d e v e lo p m e n ts in Ju d a ism a n d p a ra lle l d e v e lo p m e n ts in Islam . In som e m a tte rs, th e sim ple facts o f c h ro n o lo g y in d ic a te b ey o n d re a so n a b le d o u b t w h ich is th e so u rce, w h ic h is th e re c ip ie n t o f influence. In o th e rs th e line o f d e v e lo p m e n t is m o re difficult to d eterm in e. T h e late R a b b i Ignaz M a ib a u m , a refo rm ra b b i in L o n d o n , w as o n ce in v o lv ed in a p o lem ic w ith som e o f his o rth o d o x ra b b in ic co lleag u es in th e c o lu m n s o f a Jew ish w eek ly p a p e r.

THE JUDAEO-ISLAMIC TRADITION ■ 79

A t o n e p o in t, an o rth o d o x ra b b i re m a rk e d in a letter th a t re fo rm ra b b is are m erely “Jew ish clerg y m en ,” a term th a t w as clearly in te n d e d to convey th a t they h a d d e p a rte d fro m th e a u th e n tic Jew ish tra d itio n a n d w ere im ita tin g th e w ay s o f C h ristia n priests an d m inisters. M a ib a u m replied th a t if re ­ fo rm ra b b is c o u ld be d escrib ed as Jew ish “ clerg y m en ,” o r ­ th o d o x ra b b is co u ld equally w ell be described as Jew ish u lem a. T he m eaning o f the counteraccusation is clear enough. T here are in d eed c e rta in resem blances betw een th e p o sitio n o f th e ulem a in Islam ic life a n d th a t o f the ra b b in a te in o rth o d o x Jew ish co m m u n ities. N e ith e r the řãlim (the sin g u lar o f ulem a) n o r th e ra b b i is an o rd a in e d p riest; n e ith e r has any sa c e rd o ta l office. N e ith e r Ju d a ism n o r Islam has sacram en ts, a lta rs, o r ­ d in a tio n , o r priestly m e d ia tio n . T h ere is no religious office th a t an 'ãlim o r a ra b b i can p e rfo rm th a t any o rd in a ry a d u lt m ale believer, possessing th e necessary k n o w led g e, c a n n o t p e rfo rm eq u ally w ell. B oth are p ro fessio n al m en o f relig io n , b u t n e ith e r is in any sense a p riest. T hey acq u ire th e ir sta tu s th ro u g h k n o w led g e, th ro u g h learn in g , an d th ro u g h re c o g n i­ tio n , w h ich becom es a form o f certificatio n — the sem ikha of th e ra b b i closely resem bling th e ijãza a new 'ãlim receives fro m his te ach er. In all these respects as well as som e o th e rs, th e re are strik in g resem blances in tra in in g , q u a lificatio n , an d fu n c tio n b etw een the o rth o d o x ra b b i a n d th e Sunni M u slim 'ãlim. (T he S h ľite m ullah is so m e w h a t differen t.) So strik in g a resem b lan ce, u n d e rlin e d by th e difference b etw een th eir c o m m o n sta tu s a n d th a t o f th e p rie sth o o d in C h ristia n ity a n d som e o th e r religions, clearly argues for som e h isto rical c o n ­ n ectio n . T h e resem b lan ce ex ten d s b ey o n d the d o c to rs o f th e law a n d m ay be seen even in th e law itself— a n o th e r p o in t in w h ich Ju d a ism a n d Islam resem ble o n e a n o th e r an d differ fro m C h ristia n ity . T h e tw o religions have m uch in co m m o n in th e ir c o n c e p tio n o f th e law , its scope, th e range o f to p ics th a t th e law em b ra c e s, a n d th e place a c co rd ed to th e law in ev eryday p e rso n a l, p u b lic, an d p riv a te life. B oth agree su b sta n tia lly o n th e divine so u rce a n d d u al n a tu re o f th e law , w ritte n a n d o ra l, in re v e la tio n a n d tra d itio n . T h e Jew ish n o tio n o f halakha an d

8 0 ■ CHAPTER 2

th e Islam ic n o tio n o f sh a rľa — b o th w o rd s m ean “ p a th ” o r “ w a y ” — a re su rely closely re la te d . Since th e halakha b o th as a te rm a n d as a c o rp u s o f law , o rig in a te d som e cen tu ries e a rlie r th a n th e b eg in n in g s o f th e sh a r ľa , it w o u ld seem th a t in th is case th e in itia l influence w as fro m Ju d a ism to Islam , a n d n o t vice v ersa. B ut even here, in th e su b se q u e n t d e v e lo p m e n t o f b o th legal system s, th e re a re clearly m u tu a l in flu en ces.17 T h e v o c a b u la ry o f /⅛/?, M u slim ju risp ru d e n c e , ow es m u ch to ra b b in ic a l p re c e d e n ts. B ut th e s u b se q u e n t d e v e lo p m e n t a n d d iscu ssio n o f ra b b in ic law also ow es a g re a t deal to th e c a t­ egories, th e fo rm u la tio n s, even th e te rm in o lo g y o f th e M u slim ju rists. A n o b v io u s p a ra lle l is in th e p ra c tic e o f re sp o n sa — th e r a b ­ b in ical tesh u v o t , th e Islam ic fatw ã. T h e ea rlie st e x ta n t e x ­ am p les o f th e tw o are ro u g h ly c o n te m p o ra ry , b u t h ere w e m ay find a c o m m o n so u rc e in th e responsa pruden tium o f th e R o m a n ju rists, w h ic h are very m u ch e a rlie r th a n e ith e r a n d p ro b a b ly u n d e rlie b o th . In th e lite ra tu re o f p h ilo so p h y a n d even o f th eo lo g y o n e m ay say w ith o u t h e sita tio n th a t th e influence flow ed fro m Islam to J u d a ism a n d n o t th e o th e r w ay a ro u n d . T h e n o tio n o f a th e o lo g y , o f a fo rm u la tio n o f religious belief in th e fo rm o f p h ilo so p h ic a l p rin c ip le s, w as alien to th e Jew s o f B iblical a n d T a lm u d ic tim es. T h e em ergence o f a Je w ish th e o lo g y to o k p lace a m o st e n tire ly in Islam ic lan d s. It w as th e w o rk o f th e ­ ologians w h o used b o th the concepts an d the vocabulary (either in A ra b ic o r c a lq u e d in to H e b rew ) o f M u slim k a lā m .iS T h is illu stra te s a n o th e r im p o r ta n t influence— th e lexical im p a c t o f A ra b ic o n H e b re w . A ra b ic a n d H e b re w are o f c o u rse c o g n a te la n g u a g e s, w ith a larg e sto c k o f co m m o n ro o ts. T h e b o rro w in g o r im ita tio n o f lexical m a te ria l fro m th e o n e to th e o th e r w as th e re fo re easy. E d u c a te d Jew s in th e lan d s o f Islam in m ed iev al tim es w ere th o ro u g h ly fa m ilia r w ith b o th lan g u ag es. A very larg e p a r t o f th e p h ilo so p h ic a l a n d scientific v o c a b u la ry o f m ed iev al H e b re w , m u c h o f w h ich h as p a sse d in to m o d e rn H e b re w , w a s fo rm e d by ca iq u e o r lo a n tra n s la tio n fro m A r­ abic. T o cite b u t o n e ex am p le: th e H e b re w m u rka v , com -

THE JUDAEO- ISLAMIC TRADITION ■ 8l

p o u n d , is clearly a lo a n tra n s la tio n fro m th e A rab ic m urakkab. T h e re are m a n y o th e r sim ilar fo rm a tio n s. T h is raises th e la rg e r q u e stio n o f A rab ic influence o n H e ­ b re w p h ilo lo g y . Jew s, stu d y in g H e b re w to achieve a b e tte r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e H e b re w B ible, fo llo w ed m an y o f th e p ro c e d u re s devised by M u slim s e x a m in in g A rab ic fo r th e p a r ­ allel p u rp o se o f stu d y in g th e sacred te x t o f th e Q u r ’an. T h e o rig in s, g ro w th , a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f g ra m m a r an d lex ico g ­ ra p h y , th e desire a n d th e e ffo rt to e stab lish an a u th e n tic te x t, a re re m a rk a b ly sim ilar in th e tw o religions, an d th e q u e stio n in e v ita b ly arises w h e th e r th e re w as a c o n n e c tio n b etw een th e a ctiv ities o f th e M a so re te s a n d th e ir c o n cern fo r fixing th e te x t o f th e H e b re w Bible, a n d th e p arallel a n d p ro b a b ly earlier M u slim e ffo rt to estab lish an a u th o rita tiv e te x t o f th e Q u r ’an. M u slim influences o n Ju d a ism w e n t b e y o n d th e w o rld o f th o u g h t a n d sc h o la rsh ip a n d even affected th e ritu a l an d w o r ­ sh ip o f th e syn ag o g u e. D r. N a fta li W ied er p u b lish e d som e years ag o a re m a rk a b le stu d y o n Islam ic influences in Jew ish w o rsh ip . T h is is, in cid en tally , o n e o f th e few H e b re w w o rk s o f sc h o la rsh ip tra n s la te d in to A ra b ic .19 In lite ra tu re a n d th e a rts, th e M u slim influence o n th e Jew s is e n o rm o u s, a n d it is a lm o st en tirely o n e w ay. H e b re w p o e try , in th e m edieval g o ld en age, follow s very closely o n th e p ro so d y a n d te c h n iq u e o f A rab ic p o e try a n d in d eed o n its w h o le system o f sy m b o l a n d a llu sio n . T h o u g h w ritte n in a n o n -Islam ic la n ­ gu ag e a n d sc rip t, m edieval H e b re w p o e try a n d m u ch o f th e p ro se lite ra tu re b elo n g to th e sam e c u ltu ra l w o rld as A rab ic a n d th e o th e r lite ra tu re s o f Islam . Islam ic influence o n H e b re w p o e try is n o t lim ited to th e Jew s o f th e Islam ic w o rld ; it even sp re a d th ro u g h S pain in to P rovence. In th e visual a rts, Ju d a ism a n d Islam sh a re ce rta in c o m m o n a ttitu d e s c o n cern in g th e re p ­ re s e n ta tio n o f h u m a n a n d even an im al figures, a n d b o th w ere affected by the resulting direction o f artistic e x p re ssio n /0 T here are striking resem blances betw een Islam ic a rt an d Jew ish w o rk s o f a r t p ro d u c e d n o t on ly in Islam ic c o u n trie s b u t, as w ith p o e try , also in C h ristia n E u ro p e , w h ere, fo r ex am p le, Jew ish b o o k illu m in a tio n o n th e o n e h a n d a n d Jew ish sy n ag o g u e a rc h ite c tu re o n th e o th e r sh o w reco g n izab le Islam ic influences.

8z

■ CHAPTER Z

A c o m p a riso n b etw een the Jew s of C h riste n d o m an d th e Jew s o f Islam sh o w s to w h a t e x te n t th e Jew ish m in o rities fo llo w ed the m o res a n d a d o p te d the n o rm s o f th e d o m in a n t c o m m u n itie s, even in m a tte rs o f in tim a te p e rso n al an d reli­ gious significance. An o b v io u s ex a m p le is the law o f m arriag e. O n e o f th e clearest a n d m o st strik in g differences b etw een C h ristia n a n d Islam ic usage is th a t w hile Islam p erm its p o ­ lygam y b u t n o t c o n c u b in a g e , C h ris tia n ity b a n s b o th . In th e C h ris tia n w o rld th e Je w s a d o p te d a n d p ra c tic e d m o n o g a m y to th e p o in t o f m a k in g it a ru le o f law ; in th e M u slim w o rld m o st Je w ish c o m m u n itie s p ra c tic e d , o r a t least p e rm itte d , p o ly g a m y u n til a lm o s t th e p re se n t d a y .21 A n o th e r very strik in g d istin c tio n is in th e p e rc e p tio n o f m a rty rd o m a n d th e circu m stan ces in w hich it becom es a d u ty . T h e re is a Ju d a e o -C h ris tia n tra d itio n of m a rty rd o m — a n d this is o n e case w h e re one m ay legitim ately use th a t ra th e r o v e r­ w o rk e d e x p re ssio n “ J u d a e o -C h ris tia n ” — a c c o rd in g to w h ich th e believer m u st be p re p a re d to lay d o w n his life ra th e r th a n re n o u n c e his religious beliefs. Jew s still h o n o r th e an c ie n t Jew ish m a rty rs: H a n n a h a n d h er sons, R ab b i A kiva a n d his c o m p a n io n s, a n d m an y o th e rs. T h e sam e tra d itio n w as m a in ­ ta in e d by th e C h ristia n s, an d also, w ith no lack of o p p o rtu n ity , by th e Jew s in C h ristia n c o u n trie s. C h ristia n ity w as a religion th a t b o th m a d e a n d p ro v id e d m arty rs. In th e Islam ic w o rld b o th the M u slim s an d th eir su b jects, w ith p e rh a p s th e p a rtia l ex cep tio n of the ShΓa, to o k a ra th e r m o re relax ed view . In a verse a lread y q u o te d , the Q u r ’an lays d o w n th a t “ th e re is no c o n s tra in t in re lig io n ,’’ w hich w as in te rp re te d to m ean th a t people c a n n o t be o r sh o u ld n o t be fo rced to c h an g e th e ir religions, unless of co u rse they are h e a th e n s o r id o la te rs, in w hich case they deserve no c o n sid ­ e ra tio n . But th e re w ere few if any h e a th e n s o r id o la te rs in th e c e n tra l lan d s o f Islam , w h ere the m ain tra d itio n w as fo rm ed a n d from w h ich th e c o m m u n a l h isto ric m em o ry derives. F o r C h ristia n s a n d Jew s u n d e r M u slim rule, the q u e stio n o f fo rced c o n v e rsio n a n d th e re fo re of m a rty rd o m rarely aro se. F or th e M u slim s th em selv es, it did n o t arise until cen tu ries later. Islam does, how ever, possess the notion of m arty rd o m , w hich

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is in d e e d c o n n o te d by a w o rd w ith th e sam e m ean in g . T h e Islam ic te rm fo r m a rty r is sh a b īd , fro m an A rab ic ro o t m e a n ­ ing “ to w itn e ss,” a n d th u s c o rre sp o n d s to th e G reek martyros. T h e n o rm a l A rab ic w o rd fo r a w itness in th e legal sense is sh a h īd , fro m th e sam e ro o t. B ut a M u slim shahīd is so m e ­ th in g q u ite d iffe re n t fro m a Jew ish o r C h ristia n m a rty r. T h e sh a h īd is o n e w h o dies in b a ttle , fighting in th e h o ly w a r fo r Islam . Since h o ly w a r is a religious d u ty in c u m b e n t o n th e believers, th o se w h o fulfill th a t d u ty an d are killed in d o in g so a re c o n sid e re d m a rty rs in th e tech n ical Islam ic sense o f the w o rd , a n d q u alify fo r th e re w a rd s o f m a rty rd o m . T h e Ju d a e o C h ristia n n o tio n o f m a rty rd o m — to suffer an d testify fo r o n e ’s fa ith ra th e r th a n re n o u n c e it— is n o t u n k n o w n to Islam . T h e fate o f th e M e d in a Jew ish trib e o f th e B anū Q u ra y z a , w h o a c c e p ted d e a th ra th e r th a n a b ju re th e ir faith , is p a r t o f th e sem i-sacred b io g ra p h y o f th e P ro p h e t, an d is re la te d w ith re ­ spect, a t tim es b o rd e rin g o n a d m ira tio n .22 B ut th is w as n o t seen as an ex a m p le fo r M u slim s to fo llo w — if fo r n o o th e r re a so n , b ecau se in th e early fo rm a tiv e cen tu ries o f Islam ic h isto ry th e q u e stio n did n o t arise a n d M u slim s w ere n o t p u t to th e test. O n th e ra re o ccasio n s w h e n M u slim s w ere su b ject to religious c o n s tra in t, it w as w ith in ra th e r th a n fro m o u tsid e th e fa ith , a n d a ro se fro m a tte m p ts by one o r a n o th e r school o f M u slim d o c trin e to im pose its view s on th e rest. In such a situ a tio n it w as n a tu ra l to ta k e a m o re len ien t view o f c o m ­ p lia n c e , a n d th e d o c trin e aro se a n d w as w idely accep ted th a t it w a s p erm issib le to conceal o n e ’s tru e beliefs so lo n g as o n e p reserv ed th e m in o n e ’s o w n h e a rt a n d m in d — th a t it w as re a so n a b le to a c c o m m o d a te to th e p rev ailin g d o ctrin es in o r ­ d e r to survive, so th a t in d u e co u rse, w h en circu m stan ces w ere m o re fa v o ra b le , one m ig h t resum e a n d p ro c la im o n e ’s tru e fa ith .23 O n ce th is p rin cip le w as a d o p te d , it w as c ap ab le o f e x te n sio n . C e n tu rie s la te r, w ith th e M u slim re tre a t fro m Spain a n d Italy, M u slim s c o n fro n te d a new an d far g re a te r th re a t to th e ir beliefs— n o t ju st th e p re ssu re o f a rival M u slim d o c ­ trin e , b u t th e d e te rm in e d p e rse c u tio n of a c o m p e tin g religion. Som e chose m a rty rd o m o r exile. O th e rs p ra c tic e d accom -

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m o d a tio n , a n d fo r as lo n g as it w as p o ssib le th ey p reserv ed th e ir o w n relig io n in secret. T h is re sp o n se to p e rse c u tio n is o f c o u rse fa m ilia r in Jew ish h isto ry , a n d is k n o w n as m a rra n ism , th e p ra c tic e o f th e S p a n ­ ish a n d P o rtu g u e se M a rra n o s , w h o affected c o n v e rsio n to C a th o lic ism b u t p re se rv e d th e ir Jew ish faith an d to so m e e x ­ te n t even w o rsh ip e d in secret u n til th ey cam e to a n o th e r tim e, o r m o re c o m m o n ly a n o th e r place, w h e re it w as p o ssib le to re v e rt o p e n ly to th e ir o w n faith . Significantly, th e p h e n o m e ­ n o n o f m a rra n is m in Je w ish h isto ry is v irtu ally lim ited to c o u n trie s o f Islam ic civ ilizatio n o r influence. T h e o u ts ta n d in g e x a m p le s a re th e Jew s o f S pain a n d P o rtu g a l afte r th e e x p u l­ sion. O th e r in sta n c e s are a tte ste d in Islam ic lan d s fro m N o rth A frica to Ira n a n d C e n tra l A sia. It is a lm o st co m p letely u n ­ k n o w n a m o n g th e Jew s o f C h riste n d o m , w h o su ffered in c o m ­ p a ra b ly g re a te r p e rse c u tio n s, a n d yet— in c u rio u s a c c o rd w ith th e ir p e rse c u to rs— chose d e a th o r exile ra th e r th a n su b m is­ sion. Som e m ed iev al Jew ish a u th o rs , a m o n g th e m th e g re a t M aim o n id e s, even trie d to p ro v id e a th e o re tic a l ju stificatio n fo r th is c o n tra s t a n d a rg u e d o n th e o lo g ic a l g ro u n d s th a t w h ile a Je w m u st su ffer to rtu re a n d d e a th ra th e r th a n p ro n o u n c e a C h ristia n creed , he m ay affect c o n v e rsio n to Islam in o rd e r to survive. T h e sig n ifican t difference w as th a t w hile th e Jew s reco g n ized Islam as a stric t m o n o th e ism o f th e sam e k in d as th e ir o w n , th ey h a d som e d o u b ts, w h ich they sh a re d w ith th e M u slim s, a b o u t C h ristia n ity . F o r o n e w h o believed n e ith e r s ta te m e n t, it w as a lesser p e rju ry to testify th a t M u h a m m a d w as th e P ro p h e t o f G o d th a n to testify th a t Jesu s w as th e Son o f G o d . T h ese d istin c tio n s, w h ile n o d o u b t b ased o n an im ­ p e rfe c t u n d e rs ta n d in g o f C h ristia n d o c trin e , w ere nev erth eless im p o rta n t in sh a p in g in te rfa ith a ttitu d e s. A n o th e r issue o n w h ich Ju d a ism a n d Islam w ere clo ser to each o th e r th a n e ith e r o f th e m to C h ristia n ity w as th e m a tte r o f d ie ta ry law s. M u slim d ie ta ry law s are n o t as stric t as th o se im p o se d by R a b b in ic law . T h e lo o se n in g o f som e o f th ese re stric tio n s is specifically in d ic a te d in th e Q u r ’an , a n d in d eed , w illin g n ess to e a t c a m e l’s flesh w as so m etim es u sed as a te st

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o f th e sin cerity o f a Je w ish c o n v e rt, ra th e r in th e w ay th a t e a tin g p o r k w a s im p o sed o n Je w ish c o n v erts to C h ristia n ity . T h e M u slim s, h o w e v e r, sh a re d th e Jew ish p ro h ib itio n o f th e pig an d som e lesser abom inations. M o re im p o rtan t, they shared th e n o tio n — u n k n o w n to C h ristia n ity — th a t som e fo o d s w ere p e rm itte d , o th e rs fo rb id d e n by divine law . T h is c o u ld even h av e p ra c tic a l co n seq u en ces. M u slim s w ere p e rm itte d by m o st relig io u s a u th o ritie s to e a t Jew ish m e a t24— a m a tte r o f som e im p o rta n c e w h e n tra v e lin g a b ro a d in c o u n trie s w h ere th e re w ere re sid e n t Jew ish co m m u n itie s b u t n o M u slim s. Jew s fo r th e ir p a r t, w h ile n o t p e rm itte d to e a t M u slim m eat, n ev er­ theless h a d fa r g re a te r affinity w ith th e general M u slim a tti­ tu d e . T h e im p o r ta n t e x c e p tio n w as S h ľa Islam , w h ich , by its in sisten ce o n ritu a l p u rity a n d o n th e p o llu tin g effect o f c o n ­ ta c t w ith a d h im m ī rejected as u n clean any fo o d p re p a re d o r even to u c h e d by a Je w , let alo n e a d m it th e law fu ln ess o f Jew ish m eat. If w e c o m p a re th e M u slim a ttitu d e to Jew s a n d tre a tm e n t o f Jew s in m edieval tim es w ith th e p o sitio n o f Jew s a m o n g th e ir C h ristia n n e ig h b o rs in m edieval E u ro p e , w e see so m e strik in g c o n tra sts. E ven th e h o stilities o f th e tw o m a jo rity c o m m u n itie s differ c o n sid e ra b ly . In Islam ic society h o stility to th e Je w is n o n -th e o lo g ic a l. It is n o t re la te d to any specific Islam ic d o c trin e , n o r to any specific c ircu m stan ce in Islam ic sa c re d h is to ry .25 F o r M u slim s, it is n o t p a r t o f th e b irth p an g s o f th e ir re lig io n , as it is fo r C h ristia n s. It is ra th e r th e u su al a ttitu d e o f th e d o m in a n t to th e su b o rd in a te , o f th e m a jo rity to th e m in o rity , w ith o u t th a t a d d itio n a l th eo lo g ical a n d th e re ­ fo re p sy ch o lo g ical d im en sio n th a t gives C h ristia n an ti-S em i­ tism its u n iq u e a n d special c h a ra c ter. P a rtly b ecau se o f th e n o n -id e o lo g ic a l n a tu re o f th e h o stility d ire c te d a g a in st Jew s, p a rtly also because th e Jew ish m in o rities in Islam ic la n d s, u n lik e th o se o f C h riste n d o m , w ere o n e am o n g m a n y m in o ritie s in a diverse a n d p lu ra listic society, th ey w ere fa r less n o tic e a b le . T his w as o n th e w h o le an ad v a n ta g e . In g en eral M u slim p o lem icists p ay little a tte n tio n to th e relativ ely in sig n ifican t Jew s. In so fa r as they deign to discuss th e su p e rse d e d religions, th ey are fa r m o re co n cern ed w ith th e

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C h ristia n s w h o , as th e b e arers o f a c o m p e tin g p ro sely tizin g relig io n a n d th e m a ste rs o f a rival un iv ersal em p ire, o ffered a serio u s a lte rn a tiv e a n d th e re fo re a p o te n tia l th re a t to th e M u slim d isp e n sa tio n a n d th e Islam ic o ecu m en e. T h e Jew s o ffe re d n o p o litic a l th re a t to th e Islam ic w o rld o rd e r, n o re ­ ligious c h allen g e to th e Islam ic fa ith ; n o r, like th e C h ristia n s, d id th ey c o m p e te w ith th e M u slim s fo r th e ad h e re n c e o f th e still u n c o n v e rte d h e a th e n s. D esp ite th e c o n d e m n a tio n o f Jew s a n d J u d a ism in th e Q u r ’an , a n d in b o th c o m m e n ta ry a n d h a d īth , a n ti-Je w ish p o lem ic w as ra re , a n d w h e n it a p p e a re d it w as a lm o st alw ay s th e w o rk o f Je w ish co n v erts to Islam ju stify in g th e ir o w n ch an g e o f fa ith , a n d p ro v id in g th e ir n ew co relig io n ists w ith facts a n d a rg u m e n ts to use a g a in st th e ir old. M u c h th e sam e m ay be said a b o u t C h ristia n c o n v erts, w h o , b ecau se o f th e ir g re a te r n u m b e rs a n d im p o rta n c e , h a d a far g re a te r im p a c t. A m o n g th e n o tio n s a n d a ttitu d e s b ro u g h t by C h ristia n c o n v e rts in to Islam w as a c e rta in h o stility to w a rd Jew s, w h ich so m etim es influenced M u slim w ritin g s o n th is su b ject. P ro fe sso r M o sh e P e rlm a n n , w h o h as m ad e an e x te n ­ sive stu d y o f this lite ra tu re , o bserves th a t: It w o u ld seem th a t to a very g re a t, decisive m easu re, Islam ic p o lem ic d ire c te d a g a in st Jew s a n d Ju d a ism o rig in a te d fro m a n d w as fed by C h ristia n so u rces, p a rtly p re-Islam ic, flo w ­ ing in to th e Islam ic m ilieu w ith th e m ass co n v ersio n o f C h ristia n s. T h ese a rg u m e n ts w ere in tu rn p a rtly ro o te d in th e an ti-Jew ish lo re o f a n tiq u ity , a n d w ere re fu rb ish e d by Je w ish c o n v e rts. T h e re w as a sto c k o f a rg u m e n ts fo r Islam a n d a g a in st th e o ld e r faith s, a sto c k su p p lied by Jew ish a n d C h ristia n c o n v e rts to I s l a m / 6 W h ere specific references to Jew s a n d Ju d a ism o c c u r in M u slim relig io u s w ritin g s, they are u su ally ra th e r n egative. G iven th e p re d o m in a n tly h o stile p re se n ta tio n o f th e Je w in b o th Q u r ’an a n d h a d īth , a n d th e m ain ly C h ristia n so u rce o f a g o o d deal o f th e in fo rm a tio n a b o u t Jew s th a t w as su b se ­ q u e n tly a c q u ire d , th is is h a rd ly su rp risin g . T h e re are e x c e p tio n s. T h u s, th e te n th -c e n tu ry B ag h d ad i th e-

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o lo g ia n al-B āq illān ĩ, in a w o rk sta tin g th e M u slim case a g a in st o th e r relig io n s a n d p h ilo so p h ie s, includes a d iscu ssio n o f J u ­ d aism . H is tre a tm e n t o f Je w ish sc rip tu re s a n d beliefs is b rief b u t w ell in fo rm e d . It is also free from invective, a n d is o n th e c o n tra ry c o u rte o u s, even resp ectfu l, in to n e .17 A t a tim e w h e n th e o lo g ic a l differences w ith in a n d b etw een religions u su ally a ro u se d s tro n g p a ssio n s, e x p ressed in stro n g lan g u ag e, such m o d e ra tio n is re m a rk a b le . W h a t is p e rh a p s m o re re m a rk a b le is th a t in classical tim es th e re is o nly o n e serio u s a tta c k o n J u d a ism w ritte n by a m a jo r a u th o r th a t has com e d o w n to us. T h is is a tre a tise by th e sc h o la r, h eresio lo g ist a n d litte ra te u r Ibn H a z m (9 9 4 -1 0 6 4 ), a d o m in a n t figure in th e in tellectu al h isto ry o f M u slim S pain, k n o w n b o th fo r a ch a rm in g little b o o k o n c o u rtly a n d p o e tic love a n d a m a jo r tre a tise o n th e religions o f th e w o rld . T h e la tte r show s his h a rsh a n d in to l­ e ra n t a ttitu d e n o t o nly to w a rd n o n -M u slim religions b u t even to w a r d th o se fo rm s o f Islam th a t d iffered fro m his o w n . In a d d itio n , Ib n H a z m w ro te an an ti-Jew ish tra c t, refu tin g a p a m p h le t allegedly w ritte n by Sam uel Ibn N a g re lla , in w h ich he a tta c k e d Islam . Ibn H a z m h a d n o t seen S am u el’s tra c t, if in d e e d it ever e x isted , a n d th e re fo re re fu te d it on th e basis o f a p re v io u s M u slim re fu ta tio n . T h e b o o k is ex trem ely h o stile in c o n te n t a n d in to n e a n d w as certain ly n o t u n re la te d to Ibn H a z m ’s re se n tm e n t o f Sam uel Ibn N a g re lla (9 9 3 -1 0 5 6 ), w h o e n jo y ed a re m a rk a b ly successful career as a sta te sm a n an d g en eral in th e service o f a M u slim ru ler, a n d as a sch o lar, p o e t, a n d c o m m u n a l lead er a m o n g th e Jew s. It is d ifficult to say h o w m u ch im p a c t Ibn H a z m ’s d ia trib e h a d o n m edieval M u slim o p in io n . It is surely significant th a t it is th e o nly k n o w n b o o k o f its k in d .28 In Ibn H a z m ’s m a jo r tre a tise o n religions, he d evotes m o re space to Ju d a ism th a n to C h ristia n ity . In this d is p ro p o rtio n — d u e c e rta in ly to th e special c ircu m stan ces o f so u th e rn Spain in his tim e— he is v irtu a lly alone. M o s t w riters dev o te far m o re a tte n tio n to th e C h ristia n s n o t o nly, as alread y p o in te d o u t, b ecau se o f th e ir n u m b e rs a n d im p o rta n c e , b u t also becau se, as an e sta b lish e d p a r t o f th e b u re a u c rac y a n d in tellig en tsia o f

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M id d le E a ste rn cities, th e y w ere b e tte r k n o w n a n d m o re fa ­ m ilia r to M u slim sch o lars. W h e re w e find a m o re p o sitiv e a ttitu d e a m o n g M u slim a u ­ th o rs d isc u ssin g Jew s a n d J u d a ism , it is th e c o n te x t so m etim es o f ra tio n a lis t o r even sk ep tical th o u g h t, so m etim es o f Sufi m ysticism . F o r b o th th e sk ep tic a n d th e m ystic, th e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n relig io n s w as o f n o g re a t im p o rta n c e . F o r th e o n e th e y w e re all e q u a lly false, fo r th e o th e r a lm o st e q u ally t r u e / 9 M o re g en erally , a m o n g th e u rb a n m id d le class in tim es a n d places o f h ig h civ ilizatio n , a m o re to le ra n t a n d lib eral a ttitu d e p re v a ile d a n d is ex p re sse d in th e lite ra ry sou rces. T h e sp re a d o f ra tio n a lis t re la tiv ism a n d m ystical p a n th e ism b o th u n ­ d o u b te d ly c o n trib u te d to th is resu lt. All th is h e lp e d to cre a te , in e a rlie r th o u g h n o t la te r Islam ic tim es, a k in d o f sym biosis b e tw e e n Jew s a n d th e ir n e ig h b o rs th a t h a s n o p a ra lle l in th e W e ste rn w o rld b etw een th e H e l­ len istic a n d m o d e rn ages. Jew s a n d M u slim s h a d ex ten siv e a n d in tim a te c o n ta c ts th a t involved social as w ell as in tellec­ tu a l a sso c ia tio n — c o o p e ra tio n , co m m in g lin g , even p e rso n a l frie n d sh ip . W ith th e e x c e p tio n o f c e rta in m y stical p o e ts w h o in sist o n th e o n en ess o f all relig io n s, th e re w as n o in c lin a tio n o n th e M u slim side to co n ced e e q u a lity ; b u t th e re w as n e v e r­ theless an a ttitu d e o f live a n d let live, a n d even a ce rta in resp ect fo r th e p o sse sso rs a n d tra n sm itte rs o f o ld e r cu ltu res a n d re v ­ e la tio n s. T h u s, fo r e x a m p le , in e le v e n th -c en tu ry T o le d o a M u slim q ā d ī, in a b o o k o n th e “ C a te g o rie s o f N a tio n s ,” e n u m e ra te d th e eig h t n a tio n s th a t h av e c o n trib u te d to th e g ro w th o f sci­ ence a n d s c h o la rsh ip a m o n g m a n k in d . T h ey are: th e In d ia n s, P ersian s, C h a ld e e s, G reek s, R o m a n s (a te rm th a t in clu d es th e B y zan tin es a n d E a ste rn C h ristia n s generally ), E g y p tian s (m ean in g th e a n c ie n t E g y p tian s), A rab s (in clu d in g M u slim s in g en eral), a n d Jew s. T h e Jew s are th u s in g o o d c o m p a n y , a n d th e c h a p te r d e v o te d to th e m is c o u rte o u s in to n e a n d w ell in fo rm e d in c o n te n t. In early tim es, th e q ā d ī n o tes, th e Jew s w ere n o t distinguished in philosophy b u t w ere concerned m ainly w ith th e stu d y o f th e H o ly L aw a n d th e lives o f th e P ro p h e ts. In th is la tte r su b je c t th ey w ere th e b est in fo rm e d o f all a n d

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w ere th u s a m a jo r so u rce o f in fo rm a tio n fo r M u slim sc h o lars. Israel w as th e cra d le o f p ro p h e c y , a n d it w as a m o n g th is p eo p le th a t th e a p o s to la te first a p p e a re d . T h e m a jo rity o f th e p r o p h ­ ets, he n o te s, w ere Jew s. T h e re m a in d e r o f th e c h a p te r is d e v o te d to Je w ish scientists a n d sch o lars in th e Islam ic lan d s, ending w ith the a u th o r’s o w n contem poraries in M uslim Spain.30 A th o u g h th is a d m irin g a c c o u n t o f Jew ish a ch iev em en t is v ir­ tu a lly u n iq u e in classical Islam ic lite ra tu re , th e re are d iscu s­ sions o f Je w ish religious beliefs a n d se c ta ria n div isio n s, a n d also o f c h ro n o lo g y a n d c a le n d a rs, to p ics th a t seem to h av e in te re ste d M u slim sch o lars. T h is in te re st w as n o d o u b t a w a k e n e d by th e Q u r ’an ic ref­ erences to B iblical p e rso n s a n d events, som e o f w h ich th u s fo u n d th e ir w a y in to classical Islam ic h isto rio g ra p h y . T h e a n ­ cien t Je w ish hero es a n d p ro p h e ts w ere, so to sp eak , given rig h t o f e n try in to Islam th ro u g h th e Q u r ’an , an d so m e M u s ­ lim sc h o la rs w e n t so fa r as to seek fuller in fo rm a tio n fro m o th e r, in c lu d in g Jew ish , so u rces, to su p p le m e n t th e b rief a n d so m etim es c ry p tic Q u r ’an ic allu sio n s. Such a search , invo lv in g th e stu d y o f a b ro g a te d sc rip tu re s a n d su p ersed ed relig io n s, re q u ire d so m e in tellectu al d a rin g , a n d th e re w ere th e re fo re few w h o u n d e rto o k it. E n o u g h d id so, h o w ev er, to in tro d u c e a m o d ic u m o f B iblical a n d ra b b in ic a l in fo rm a tio n to th e c o r­ p u s o f Islam ic le a rn in g .31 W h ile th e e a rlie r u n iv ersal h isto ries usu ally in clu d ed som e a c c o u n t o f th e p ro p h e ts b efo re M u h a m m a d , it is n o t u n til th e late M id d le A ges th a t w e find co n n e c te d ac c o u n ts o f Jew ish h isto ry . T w o w o rk s are especially im p o rta n t a m o n g th e larg er u n iv e rsa l h isto rie s p ro d u c e d by A rab ic a n d P ersian a u th o rs in th e la te r M id d le Ages. R a sh īd al-D ĩn (1 2 4 7 -1 3 1 8 ), h im self a Je w c o n v e rte d to Islam , in clu d ed in his u niv ersal h isto ry an a c c o u n t o f “ th e h isto ry o f th e c h ild ren o f Israel” b ased o n th e O ld T e s ta m e n t a n d su p p le m e n te d , fo r th e post-B ib lical p e rio d , by u n sp ecified a p o c ry p h a l m a te ria ls. U nlike m o st o th e r M u s ­ lim w rite rs o n a n c ie n t Israelite h isto ry , R a sh īd al-D īn does n o t close his a c c o u n t w ith th e d e stru c tio n o f th e S econd T e m ­ ple in a .d . 7 0 , b u t allu d es briefly to th e rev o lt o f B ar K o k h b a a n d its su p p re ssio n : “ T h e n cam e H a d ria n a n d d e stro y e d this

9 0 ■ CHAPTER 2

p lace a n d to o k th e p e o p le w ith all th e ir p o ssessio n s c a p tiv e .” H e en d s his n a rra tiv e w ith a n e n u m e ra tio n o f th e B y zan tin e a n d R o m a n e m p e ro rs w h o h eld sw ay o v er P alestin e u n til th e A ra b c o n q u e s t.32 A n o th e r m a jo r Islam ic h isto ria n , Ib n K h a l­ d u n (1 3 3 2 -1 4 0 6 ), a lso in clu d es an a c c o u n t o f th e c h ild re n o f Israel in his su rv ey o f u n iv ersal h isto ry ; it is d eriv ed fro m an A ra b ic tra n s la tio n , m a d e by a Y em enite Je w , o f th e H e b re w ch ro n ic le o f J o s ip p o n , itself loosely b ased o n th e w ritin g s o f J o s e p h u s .33 S om e o f th e m a n u sc rip ts o f th e ch ro n icle o f R a sh id al-D ĩn c o n ta in illu stra tio n s, p u rp o rtin g to d e p ic t ep iso d es in th e h isto ry o f th e a n c ie n t Israelites. P icto rial re p re se n ta tio n s o f Jew s, as o f o th e r specific e th n ic o r religiou s elem en ts, are ex tre m e ly ra re . In g e n e ra l, h o w e v e r, th e Jew s receive little a tte n tio n fro m M u slim a u th o rs , w h e th e r h isto ria n s o r th e o lo g ia n s, a n d if p o sitiv e c o m m e n ts a re ra re , so to o are a tta c k s.

W h il e th e Je w s o f Islam w ere n o t su b ject to o c c u p a tio n a l re stric tio n s such as w e find in E u ro p e , th e re w as a ten d en cy , fo r a v a rie ty o f re a so n s, fo r Jew s to fa v o r so m e o c c u p a tio n s a n d av o id o th e rs. T h e re w ere o b v io u s b a rrie rs to a m ilitary o r b u re a u c ra tic c a re e r; ta le n te d a n d e d u c a te d Jew s th e re fo re fo u n d o th e r p ro fe ssio n s, in w h ich th ey so m etim es p lay ed an im p o rta n t th o u g h nev er a p re p o n d e ra n t role. T h ere is an o ld A ra b saying th a t th e Je w rises to g reatn ess w ith e ith e r th e m ed icin e b o ttle o r th e m o n e y b a g in his h a n d . T his ex p resses a g en erally verifiable h isto ric tr u th , th a t th e tw o w ays to su c­ cess o p e n to an a m b itio u s Jew w ere e ith e r th ro u g h th e p ra c tic e o f m edicine o r th e h a n d lin g o f m o ney. T h e a d v a n ta g e s o f these tw o p ro fe ssio n s are o b v io u s. W ith resp ect to m o n e y , th e M u slim s h a d a w h o le series o f p r o h i­ b itio n s a n d in h ib itio n s re g a rd in g th e h a n d lin g o f m o n ey a n d p re c io u s m e ta ls, seen as d a n g e ro u s to th e ir im m o rta l souls. A re su lt o f th is feeling w as th a t in th e M u slim w o rld th ese m a t­ ters w ere left largely to C h ristia n s a n d Jew s. R u lers in n eed o f re a d y cash o fte n h a d reco u rse to th e services o f d h im m ī b a n k e rs, ab le to m a k e use in tu rn o f th e ir o w n n e tw o rk s o f c o re lig io n ist co lleag u es sc a tte re d th r o u g h o u t th e far-flu n g Is­

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lam ic d o m in io n s. T h e a b ility to p ro v id e m oney a t sh o rt n o tice a n d in large q u a n titie s w as an excellent w ay o f g ain in g access a n d fa v o r a t c o u rt. T h e p ra c tic e o f m edicine also h a d its benefits. W h en m en are very sick, th e desire to get th e best m edical tre a tm e n t is likely to o v erco m e even th e stro n g e st religious preju d ices. In m edieval Islam , as in som e o th e r tim es a n d places, Jew ish ph y sician s, d e p e n d e n t n o t o n p u b lic a p p o in tm e n t b u t o n p ri­ v ate p ra c tic e , w ere able to go as far as th e ir talen ts w o u ld ta k e th em . T h e ir access to o th e r languages an d th e re fo re to o th e r b o d ies o f m edical lite ra tu re som etim es gave th e m an a d v a n ta g e o v e r th e ir M u slim colleagues. A successful m edical p ra c titio n e r m ig h t include high officials a n d even ru lers am o n g his p a tie n ts. T h ro u g h th e close a n d im m ed iate access to th e c e n te r o f p o w e r th a t this gave him , he co u ld achieve som e a d v a n ta g e fo r th e Jew ish c o m m u n ity to w h ich he b elo n g ed a n d o f co u rse fo r him self, his fam ily, a n d his friends. O c c a ­ sio n ally w e find Jew ish p h y sician s p lay in g a po litical role o f som e im p o rta n c e , th o u g h this is ra re in m edieval tim es an d usu ally a t som e stage req u ires c o n v ersio n to Islam b efo re th e p ra c titio n e r can e x p lo it his p o sitio n to th e full. In a society g o v ern ed by p e rso n a l a u to c ra tic rule, access to th e ru le r w a s a n im p o rta n t, o fte n th e o nly, avenue to p o sitio n s o f p o w e r a n d influence. B ut this k in d of p o w e r, like th e a u ­ th o rity fro m w h ic h it d eriv ed , w as alw ays p re c a rio u s. It c o u ld be e n d e d a b ru p tly a n d p a in fu lly by th e d e a th o r o u stin g o f th e ru le r, by th e loss o f fa v o r o f th e fav o rite, o r by a sim ple ch an g e in p o litic a l circu m stan ces. Such a fall, after such a rise, co u ld o fte n be d isa stro u s fo r th e fam ily an d c o m m u n ity o f th e in c u m b e n t, w h o rose a n d fell w ith him . If m edicine a n d m oney w ere th e tw o ro u te s by w h ich a Jew c o u ld a tta in p o litical p o w e r, th e re w ere o th e r w ays o f e a rn in g a liv e lih o o d . T h e Jew ish p o o r seem o n th e w h o le to have co n sisted o f sm all a rtisa n s a n d cra ftsm e n ; th e Jew ish rich w ere m e rc h a n ts, a n d in th e earlier p e rio d fo rm ed an im p o rta n t c o m p o n e n t in th e m e rc h a n t c o m m u n ity o f th e Islam ic E m pire. If in g en eral Jew s te n d e d to g ra v ita te to w a rd tra d e s th a t fo r o n e re a so n o r a n o th e r w ere re g a rd e d w ith d isfav o r by M u s-

9 2 ■ CHAPTER 2

lim s, th e re w e re o th e r “ sensitive” o c c u p a tio n s, to use P ro fes­ so r G o ite in ’s w o rd , th a t Jew s fo u n d it safer to a v o id .34 In th e w id e ra n g e o f Je w ish in d u stria l a n d c o m m ercial activ ities re ­ flected in th e G e n iz a d o c u m e n ts fro m m ediev al E gypt, th e re a re sig n ifican t g ap s. T h e m o st n o ta b le a re th o se c o n n e c te d w ith fo o d , tra n s p o r ta tio n , a n d w a r. Jew s d o n o t a p p e a r as d ealers in th e m a jo r cereals, such as w h e a t, b arley , a n d rice, n o r a re th e y c o n c e rn e d w ith ra isin g o r selling cattle fo r fo o d . T h ey h a d n o th in g to d o w ith th e tra d e in cam els, h o rses, a n d o th e r rid in g a n d p a c k an im als. T h ey d id n o t bu y o r sell arm s, e x c e p t to a lim ited e x te n t fo r th e ir o w n g u a rd s. N o r, in th ese d o c u m e n ts, is th e re an y reference to Jew ish p a rtic ip a tio n in th e slave tra d e , th o u g h Jew s p la y e d som e p a r t in th is traffic in o th e r tim es a n d p laces. W e can o n ly guess a t th e re a so n s fo r th ese e x c lu sio n s, w h ich are by n o m ean s u n iv ersal in Is­ lam ic h isto ry . G o ite in ’s su g g estio n th a t these tra d e s are “ sen ­ sitiv e ,” in a stra te g ic sense, m ay w ell be th e an sw er. It is surely sig n ifican t th a t w h ile Jew s d id n o t tra d e w ith C h ristia n E u ro p e in th ese c o m m o d itie s, th ey w ere w ell re p re se n te d in th e tra d e w ith In d ia , w h e re n o m a jo r relig io u s o r m ilita ry co n flict e x ­ isted.

T h e r e w as o n e w a y in w h ich th e Je w co u ld alw ay s o v erco m e an y a n d all o f th ese difficulties, a n d th a t w as by co n v ersio n to Islam . In th e c o u rse o f th e c en tu ries d u rin g w h ich Jew ish c o m ­ m u n itie s lived u n d e r M u slim ru le, co n sid e ra b le n u m b e rs o f Je w s, fo r o n e re a so n o r a n o th e r, e m b ra c e d Islam . O u r in fo r­ m a tio n a b o u t such c o n v ersio n s is, in g en eral, scan ty . Jew ish w rite rs p re fe rre d n o t to dw ell o n so p a in fu l a su b ject, w hile M u slim a u th o rs d eem ed it h a rd ly w o rth y o f m en tio n . F o r th e M u slim s, u n lik e th e C h ristia n s, th e c o n v e rsio n o f th e Jew s to th eir faith h a d n o special theological significance. It w as merely a p a r t— a relativ ely sm all p a rt— o f th e in ev itab le sp re a d o f th e tru e faith a m o n g m a n k in d . Such in fo rm a tio n as w e have is co n c e rn e d fo r th e m o st p a r t w ith th re e situ a tio n s: th e c o n v e rsio n o f n a m e d a n d p ro m in e n t

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in d iv id u a ls, w h ic h a w a k e n s som e echo in th e h isto ric a l a n d b io g ra p h ic a l lite ra tu re ; co n v ersio n s th a t give rise to legal d is­ p u te s in m a tte rs o f p e rso n a l sta tu s, a n d th u s leave so m e re ­ cord; an d finally, the com paratively few occasions w hen, either by c o n s tra in t o r a ttra c tio n , large n u m b e rs o f Jew s, sincerely o r o th e rw ise , a d o p t th e d o m in a n t faith. T h e first such w av e o f c o n v ersio n seem s to h ave o c c u rre d in th e early y ears o f Islam . T o som e Jew s a t th e tim e, th e a d v e n t o f th e P ro p h e t in A ra b ia a n d th e c reatio n o f a n ew w o rld p o w e r th a t o v e rth re w th e m ig h t o f b o th R o m e an d P ersia a n d w re ste d Je ru sa le m a n d th e h oly la n d fro m th e h eavy h a n d o f B y zan tiu m seem ed to presag e th e im m in e n t fu lfillm ent o f th e Jew ish p ro p h e c ie s a n d th e co m in g o f th e M essian ic age. F ra g m e n ts o f Jew ish a p o c a ly p tic a n d o th e r w ritin g s o f th e tim e give som e indication of the fervor an d expectation aroused by th e early A ra b victories. A piyyūţ (liturgical p o em ), p r o b ­ ably c o m p o se d a fte r th e first A ra b victories in P alestin e b u t b efo re th e c a p tu re o f eith er Je ru sa le m o r th e R o m an p ro v in c ia l ca p ita l, C a e sa re a , m ay serve as an exam ple: O n th a t d ay w h en th e M e ssia h , so n o f D av id , w ill com e T o a d o w n tro d d e n p eo p le T h ese signs w ill be seen in th e w o rld , a n d w ill be b ro u g h t fo rth : E a rth a n d h eav en w ill w ith e r, A n d th e su n a n d th e m o o n w ill be blem ish ed , A n d th e d w ellers in th e L a n d w ill be stru c k silent. T h e k in g o f th e W est a n d th e k ing o f th e E ast W ill b e g ro u n d a g a in st o n e a n o th e r, A n d th e arm ies o f th e k in g o f th e W est w ill h o ld firm in th e L an d . A nd A nd The A nd A nd

a k in g w ill go fo rth fro m th e la n d o f Y o q ta n his arm ies w ill seize th e L an d , d w ellers o f th e w o rld w ill be ju d g ed th e h eav en s w ill ra in d u st o n th e e a rth , w in d s w ill sp re a d in th e L and.

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Z

G o g a n d M a g o g w ill incite o n e a n o th e r A n d k in d le fe a r in th e h e a rts o f th e G entiles. A n d Israel w ill be freed o f all th e ir sins A nd w ill n o m o re be k e p t fa r fro m th e h o u se o f p ra y e r B lessings a n d c o n so la tio n s w ill be sh o w e re d o n th em , A n d th ey w ill be e n g ra v e d in th e B ook o f Life. T h e K ings fro m th e la n d o f E d o m w ill be n o m o re A nd th e p e o p le o f A n tio c h w ill rebel a n d m ak e peace A n d M a ’u ziya a n d S am aria w ill be co n so led A n d A cre a n d G alilee w ill be sh o w n m ercy. E d o m ites a n d Ishm ael w ill fight in th e valley o f A cre T ill th e h o rse s sin k in th e b lo o d a n d p an ic. G a z a a n d h e r d a u g h te rs w ill be sto n e d A nd A scalo n a n d A sh d o d w ill be te rro r-s tric k e n .35 T h e m o o d o f e x a lta tio n p assed as it becam e clear th a t th e em p ire o f th e calip h s, th o u g h re p re se n tin g a c o n sid erab le im ­ p ro v e m e n t fro m th e Je w ish p o in t o f view o n w h a t h a d go n e before, w as still n o t the fulfillm ent of Jew ish M essianic dream s. M a n y Jew s w ere c o n v e rte d to Islam a n d identified them selves w ith th e n ew faith a n d d isp e n sa tio n ; th e re m a in d e r g ra d u a lly a d ju ste d them selves to a new ex isten ce u n d e r M u slim rule, a n d in tim e evolved a n ew sym biosis w ith th e M u slim A rab rulers. Je w ish M e ssia n ic e x p e c ta tio n s o f Islam did n o t e n tirely die o u t a n d re a p p e a re d fro m tim e to tim e in sy n cretistic M essian ic m o v e m e n ts led by Jew ish c la im a n ts to th e title o f M essiah . O n e such w a s a c e rta in A bū eIsā o f Isfah an , a Jew ish false M essiah o f th e early eig h th ce n tu ry , w h o , w hile claim in g to be th e Jew ish M e ssia h , w as p re p a re d to recognize th e a u ­ th e n tic ity a n d v alid ity o f b o th C h ristia n ity an d Islam — fo r C h ristia n s a n d M u s lim s .36 Such m o v e m e n ts b ecam e increasingly ra re . In th e la te r c e n ­ tu ries th e m o st u su al re a so n fo r large-scale o r m ass c o n v ersio n w as c o m p u lsio n o r re p re ssio n . S om etim es a M u slim ru ler, in defiance o f b o th M u slim law a n d tra d itio n , d ecreed a n d e n ­ fo rced th e c o m p u lso ry Isla m iz a tio n o f his Je w ish su b jects, w h o re sp o n d e d w ith c o n v e rsio n , m a rra n ism , o r e m ig ra tio n . F o rced co n v e rsio n o f th is k in d w as c o m p a ra tiv e ly ra re ; m o re c o m ­

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m o n , especially in N o r th A frica an d in Iran , w as a situ a tio n in w h ic h th e Jew s, su b ject to in creasin g h u m ilia tio n a n d d eg ­ r a d a tio n a n d w ith o u t h o p e o f relief, so u g h t escape fro m th eir p ro b le m s by jo in in g th e m a jo rity . T his m ean s of escape w as alw ay s th e re a n d alw ays easy, a n d w h a t surp rises us is n o t its o c c u rre n ce b u t its ra rity . T h e p o e t a n d p h ilo so p h e r Y eh u d a H a-L evi, in his K u za ri , speaks w ith p rid e o f “ p ro m in e n t m en a m o n g st us w h o c o u ld escape this d e g ra d a tio n by a w o rd sp o k e n lightly, b ecom e free m en, a n d tu rn ag ain st th e ir o p ­ p re sso rs, b u t d o n o t d o so o u t o f d e v o tio n to th e ir fa ith .” 37 A p a rt fro m such occasio n s, o u r in fo rm a tio n a b o u t c o n v e r­ sion refers to th e acts o f in d iv id u als. F o r a M u slim , it w as n a tu ra l to assu m e th a t a new re c ru it to his faith w as a ttra c te d by its self-evident tr u th — in d eed , th e term fo r a n ew M u slim is m u h ta d ī , literally , one w h o has fo u n d his w ay to th e rig h t p a th . F o r th e c o n v e rt’s fo rm e r co relig io n ists, w h o saw h im as a n a p o s ta te o r ren eg ad e, it w as eq u ally n a tu ra l to lo o k fo r b a se r m o tiv es. T h e n o n re lig io u s reaso n s th a t m ig h t im pel a Jew to a d o p t Islam are listed by th e th irte e n th -c e n tu ry Jew ish p h ilo so p h e r Ibn K a m m ū n a : “ H e is m o ved by fear o r a m b itio n ; he is liable to a heavy ta x , o r w ishes to escape fro m h u m ili­ a tio n , o r is ta k e n p riso n e r, falls in love w ith a M u slim w o m a n , o r som e o th e r m otives like th e se .” 38 Ibn K a m m ū n a ’s list seem s to cover m o st cases w h ere c o n ­ v e rsio n c a n n o t be ascrib ed to religious belief. F ear— o f p e r­ secu tio n o r even d isc rim in a tio n — m u st have led to in d iv id u al as w ell as g ro u p co n v ersio n s. A m b itio n w as clearly th e m o tiv e o f m a n y w h o , in th e course o f a successful career in th e service o f a ru le r re a c h e d th e ceiling o f th e ir posssible a d v a n c e m en t as m em b ers o f a m in o rity faith. Som e w ere c o n te n t to sto p a t th a t p o in t; o th e rs, by co n v ersio n , b ro k e th ro u g h th e ceiling to reach g re a te r, a n d m o re d a n g e ro u s, heights. S om etim es c o n v e rsio n w as n ecessary n o t o nly to ad v an ce fu rth e r b u t even to survive a t th e p o in t alre a d y reach ed , a n d w as seen as th e o n ly w ay to escape th e envy a n d h o stility aro u se d by p a st successes. C o n v e rsio n as an a lte rn a tiv e to p u n ish m e n t— as a w ay to set asid e a sentence o f d e a th , im p riso n m e n t, o r lesser p e n a ltie s— is a c o m m o n featu re o f crim inal p ro c e d u re . A n d

9 6 ■ CHAPTER 2

m a rria g e , in m ed iev al as in m o d e rn societies, m ay be th e m o st c o m m o n single cau se o f ch an g e o f religion . U n d er M u slim law , a M u slim m a n m ay m a rry a C h ristia n o r Jew ish w o m a n . She is n o t re q u ire d to b eco m e a M u slim , b u t h e r c h ild ren m u st be b r o u g h t u p as such. A n o n -M u slim m a n , h o w ev er, m ay in n o c irc u m sta n c es m a rry a M u slim w o m a n . T h e p e n a lty fo r such a m a rria g e , o r an y sex u al re la tio n sh ip , is d e a th . O n ly by c o n v e rsio n to Islam can a n o n -M u slim escap e th e c o n se ­ q u en ces o f such a re la tio n sh ip in th e p a st, o r m a k e o n e p o ssib le in th e fu tu re . T h e in d iv id u a ls w h o se c o n v e rsio n , fo r o n e re a so n o r a n ­ o th e r, is k n o w n a n d d o c u m e n te d , p ro v id e ex am p les o f all o f th ese m o tiv a tio n s, as w ell as o f c o n v e rsio n th ro u g h relig io u s co n v ic tio n . A few re p re se n ta tiv e cases m ay serve as illu s tra ­ tio n s. C e rta in ly th e m o st fa m o u s a m o n g M u slim s o f all Jew ish c o n v e rts to Islam w a s a Y em enite Je w k n o w n as K a 'b alA h b ā r, K a 'b o f th e A h b ā r, w h o w as p ro b a b ly c o n v e rte d in a b o u t 6 3 8 .39 H e is said to have a rriv e d in M e d in a d u rin g th e reign o f th e c a lip h 'U m a r I, a n d to h ave a c c o m p a n ied h im to Je ru sa le m in 6 3 6 . T h e n a m e K a 'b m ay re p re se n t th e H e b re w J a c o b (Y a'q o v ) o r, m o re likely, A qiva; A h b ā r is th e p lu ra l o f H a b r o r H ⅛ r , fro m th e H e b re w H aver. T h is w as u sed as a title fo r sc h o la rs, b e lo w th e ra n k o f ra b b i, in th e P alestin ian Je w ish a cad em ies. N o th in g a p p e a rs to be k n o w n o f K a 'b fro m Je w ish so u rces, b u t he figures p ro m in e n tly in Islam ic lite ra tu re as an a u th o rita tiv e re la te r o f tra d itio n s . H e d ied in Syria b e ­ tw een 6 5 2 a n d 6 5 6 . A cco rd in g to G ib b , a g ra v e sto n e b e a rin g his n a m e is still e x ta n t in D am ascu s. In g en eral, th e M u slim tra d itio n p re se n ts K a 'b in a fa v o ra b le light. H e is cre d ite d w ith w isd o m a n d k n o w le d g e , th e la tte r in clu d in g b o th B iblical sc h o la rsh ip a n d o ld Y em enite tra d itio n . In a d d itio n to w h a t he k n e w as a le a rn e d Je w a n d as a Y em eni, he is also cited as an a u th o rity fo r th e life a n d tim es o f th e calip h 'U m a r, w ith w h o m he w a s o n in tim a te term s. W h ile th e h isto ric a l figure o f K a 'b is so o v e rg ro w n w ith m yth a n d legend as to be barely distinguishable, there is enough to sh o w th a t his im ag e h a d a neg ativ e as w ell as a p o sitiv e

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side in M u slim p e rc e p tio n s. H is fre q u e n t use o f B iblical a n d ra b b in ic a l m a te ria l in in te rp re tin g a n d e la b o ra tin g M u slim d o c trin e b ro u g h t charges o f try in g to in filtrate Jew ish elem en ts in to Islam . P olitically, his stro n g s u p p o rt fo r th e calip h 'U th m ā n in th e stru g g le lead in g u p to th e first civil w a r in Islam e a rn e d h im th e re p ro b a tio n o f 'U th m ā n ’s enem ies a n d ac­ cusers. O n e o f th e m , th e ra d ic a l ascetic A b ū D h a rr w h o is n o w e n jo y in g a new p o p u la rity as a p re c u rso r o f A ra b so ­ cialism , is even re p o rte d to have set u p o n K a 'b a n d flogged h im fo r th is offense. T h e th em e o f K a 'b as a false co n v e rt try in g to u n d e rm in e a n d d e stro y Islam fro m w ith in is o f c o m ­ p a ra tiv e ly m in o r im p o rta n c e in classical Islam ic lite ra tu re , th o u g h it h a s en jo y ed som e recen t revival. K a'b is usu ally highly re g a rd e d , a n d is fre q u e n tly q u o te d as a so u rce by m a jo r n a r r a to r s o f M u slim tra d itio n . A n o th e r early n a r r a to r m u ch cited in M u slim lite ra tu re is W a h b ib n M u n a b b ih , b o rn in Ş a n 'ā ’ in th e Y em en in a b o u t 6 5 4 o r 6 55. A cco rd in g to som e M u slim tra d itio n s he w as e ith e r by b irth o r by an c e stry a m e m b e r o f th e People o f th e B ook (A h l al-K itãb) \ o th e rs are m o re specific an d d escrib e h im as a Je w . T h e evidence is conflicting. H e is n am ed as an a u ­ th o rity fo r b o th C h ristia n a n d Je w ish m aterial a n d is even c re d ite d w ith a w o rk e n title d K itāb a lΛ sra īliy y ã t , th e b o o k o f Israelitish m a te ria l. W h ile th is seem s d u b io u s, he is in any case o fte n cited as a so u rce o f Isrā’īliyyāt sto ries a n d in te r­ p re ta tio n s . K n o w n fo r his p io u s a n d ascetic w ay o f life, he n e v erth eless m a n a g e d to fall foul o f a u th o rity , a n d d ied in 7 2 8 o r 7 3 2 a fte r a flogging a d m in iste re d by o rd e r o f th e g o v ­ e rn o r o f th e Y em en .40 M a n y early co n v erts fro m Ju d a ism w ere u n d o u b te d ly in ­ sp ire d by g en u in e religious co n v ic tio n , a n d th ey o r th e ir sons o r g ra n d s o n s , d ra w in g o n th e ir p rev io u s Jew ish learn in g , m ad e a su b sta n tia l c o n trib u tio n to th e relig io n a n d c o m m u n ity th ey h a d jo in ed . E ven th o se, a t a la te r d a te , w h o se c o n v ersio n w as n o t w h o lly relig io u s in o rig in som etim es re n d e re d som e service to Islam . O n e w e ll-k n o w n figure w as Y a 'q u b ibn Killis (9 3 0 9 9 1 ), a B a g h d a d i Je w w h o settled first in Palestine a n d th e n in E g y p t, w h e re he e n te re d th e p u b lic service an d ro se to hig h

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ra n k u n d e r th e ru le o f K āfūr. A cco rd in g to an early a c c o u n t, Ibn K illis w a s to ld by K āfū r th a t if he b ecam e a M u slim he c o u ld be vizier, w h e re u p o n in 9 6 7 he a d o p te d Islam a n d u n ­ d e rto o k a co u rse o f religious in stru c tio n in his n ew faith . A t so m e stage he seem s to have esp o u sed b o th th e F atim id cause a n d its Ism ā 'ĩlī d o c trin e . Fleeing fro m E gypt to N o rth A frica, he e n te re d th e service o f th e F a tim id calip h a l-M u 'iz z (952975) a n d re tu rn e d w ith him to E gypt, w h ere he w as p laced in c h arg e o f th e sta te finances. Fie achieved his g re a te st p o w e r u n d e r th e seco n d F a tim id caliph in E gypt, al-'A zīz (9 7 5 -9 9 6 ). T h e M u slim h isto ria n s a n d b io g ra p h e rs sp e a k very highly o f his a c c o m p lish m e n ts a n d his services to th e state. Som e a u ­ th o rs even d escrib e him as a specialist in Ism ā 'ĩlī ju risp ru d e n c e a n d th e a u th o r o f a tre a tise o n Ism ā 'ĩlī law , w h ich is, h o w ev er, u n k n o w n to th e Ism ā 'ĩlī b ib lio g ra p h ic a l tr a d itio n .41 A lth o u g h th e sin cerity o f his c o n v e rsio n is n o t generally q u e stio n e d , he w a s accu sed o f fa v o rin g his fo rm e r co relig io n ists. Such ac ­ c u sa tio n s are c o m m o n p la c e w h e n dhim m īs o r even fo rm e r dhim m īs h o ld p o sitio n s o f p o w e r. O fte n , they are n o t w ith o u t fo u n d a tio n . Ibn Killis is a lm o st th e classical ex a m p le o f th e c o n v e rt w h o se co n v e rsio n w as a necessary, a n d in his case also an a c c e p tab le , step in his cursus bon oru m . A n o th e r fam o u s c o n ­ v e rt w h o se c o n v e rsio n w as so m e h o w , th o u g h ra th e r d iffe r­ en tly , re la te d to his ca re e r w as th e p h ilo so p h e r A b u ’l-B a ra k ā t IT ib atallãh Ib n M a lk a al-B ag h d ād ī, k n o w n as A w h a d a l-Z a m ā n , “ th e u n iq u e o n e o f his tim e ” (ca. 1 0 7 7 -1 1 6 4 ). A n ativ e o f th e reg io n o f M o su l, A b u ’l-B a ra k ā t, like so m an y o th e r Jew s, re a c h e d g re a tn e ss th ro u g h th e p ra c tic e o f m ed icin e, serv ­ ing as p h y sic ia n b o th to th e A b b a sid calip h s in B ag h d ad an d to th e Seljuq su lta n s. A cco rd in g to his b io g ra p h e rs, his re la ­ tio n s w ith his ro y a l p a tro n s an d c o u rtly rivals w ere o ften d ifficult, a n d it w a s b ecau se o f th ese, it w o u ld a p p e a r, th a t he d ecid ed , late in life, to em b ra c e Islam . V a rio u s reaso n s fo r th is c o n v e rsio n , d eriv ed n o d o u b t fro m conflictin g ru m o rs h e a rd a t c o u rt, a re given in th e sources. O n e v ersio n ascribes his c h a n g e o f faith to w o u n d e d p rid e ; a n o th e r to fear o f th e co n se q u e n c e s w h e n a w ife o f th e su lta n died u n d e r his tr e a t­

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m e n t; a th ird alleges th a t he a b ju re d his faith in o rd e r to save his life w h e n he w as ta k e n p riso n e r in a b a ttle b etw een th e arm ies o f th e calip h a n d o f th e su lta n . Som e idea o f th e s it­ u a tio n o f dbim m t p h y sician s a t c o u rt can be g a th e re d fro m an in c id e n t re la te d in th e b io g ra p h y o f his p ro fessio n al rival a t c o u rt, th e C h ristia n p h y sican Ibn al-T ilm īd h , k n o w n as A m īn a l-D a w la . A cco rd in g to th is story th e C h ristia n la m ­ p o o n e d th e Je w in a verse in w hich he re m a rk e d th a t his stu p id ity w as m a n ife st a n d th a t he w as o u tra n k e d by a dog. A M u slim colleague th e n dism issed th e p re te n sio n s o f b o th th e C h ristia n a n d th e Jew : A b u ’l-H a sa n th e d o c to r a n d his rival A b u ’l-B a ra k ā t are en g ag ed in a feud T h e o n e in his m o d esty rises to th e Pleiades T h e o th e r in his h au g h tin e ss sinks to the d e p th s.4Z O n e o f A b u ’l-B a ra k ā t’s p u p ils w as a c ertain Ish āq , th e son o f th e fa m o u s H e b re w p o e t A b ra h a m ibn E zra a n d th e sonin -la w o f th e even m o re fa m o u s Y eh u d a H a-L evi. In 1 1 4 0 he tra v e le d w ith his fa th e r-in -law fro m Spain to E g y p t, w h ere th ey p a rte d c o m p a n y . Ish ā q w e n t to B ag h d ad an d b ecam e a disciple o f A b u ’l-B a ra k ā t, fo r w h o m he c o m p o sed a p an eg y ric in H e b re w . A t som e stag e, fo r w h a t re a so n is n o t k n o w n , he e m b ra c e d Islam . A t a la te r stage he a p p a re n tly d ecid ed to re tu rn to J u d a ism a n d , since a p o sta sy is a ca p ita l offense u n d e r Islam ic law , he em ig ra te d to a C h ristia n c o u n try fo r th is p u r ­ p ose. A w ay fro m th e c o m fo rts o f civilization , he becam e ill a n d d ie d .43 A n o th e r o f A b u ’l-B a ra k ā t’s p u p ils w as a c ertain S a m a w ’al (Sam uel) a l-M a g h rib ĩ, a Je w o f N o rth A frican o rig in w h o a c q u ire d som e fam e as a sc h o la r, p h y sician , a n d m a th e m a ti­ cian. L ike his m a ste r A b u ’l-B a ra k ā t a n d his fellow s tu d e n t Ish āq ib n A b ra h a m ibn E zra, Sam uel m ad e th e d ecision to c o n v e rt fro m Ju d a ism to Islam . B ut w hile A b u ’l-B a ra k ā t w as c o n v e rte d to w a rd th e en d o f his life arid h a d n o th in g to say a b o u t it, a n d w hile Ish āq la te r re g re tte d his c o n v ersio n an d re tu rn e d to his p rev io u s religion, Sam uel b ecam e a n d re ­

IOO ■ CHAPTER 2

m a in e d a co n v in c e d M u slim w h o is chiefly re m em b ered fo r his po lem ics a g a in st Ju d a ism a n d th e Je w s.44 O c c a sio n a l e x c e p tio n s w ere m a d e to th e ru le th a t th e p e n ­ alty fo r a p o sta sy w a s d e a th . A fa m o u s case w as th a t o f M aim o n id e s, w h o w as fo rcib ly c o n v e rte d to Islam in his b irth p la c e in S pain a n d re v e rte d to Ju d a ism w h e n he w as able to escape to th e east. O n e d ay , w h ile a t th e h e ig h t o f his p o w e r a n d fam e in C a iro , he w as reco g n ized by a M u slim fellow c o u n ­ try m a n w h o k n e w o f his e a rlie r co n v ersio n an d d en o u n c e d him as a n a p o s ta te fro m Islam , d e m a n d in g th e p e n a lty o f d e a th . F o rtu n a te ly fo r M a im o n id e s, th e case w as h e a rd by th e q ā d ī al-F ād il, his frien d a n d p a tro n . T h e q ā d ĩ ru led th a t since M a im o n id e s ’ co n v e rsio n to Islam in C o rd o v a h a d been o b ­ ta in e d by force, it w as n o t legally o r religiously valid , a n d his re v ersio n to J u d a is m did n o t th e re fo re c o n stitu te a p o sta sy .45 N o t all d e te c te d a p o sta te s w ere as fo rtu n a te . Like th e S p a n ­ ish M a rra n o s w h o fled fro m C h ristia n S pain to M u slim T u r ­ key o r M o ro c c o in o rd e r to rev ert to Ju d a ism , so u n d e r M u s ­ lim ru le Je w ish c o n v e rts w h o ch an g ed th e ir m in d s h a d to leave th e lan d s o f Islam a n d trav el to C h riste n d o m . A p p a re n tly n e ith e r M u slim s n o r C h ristia n s o b je c te d to Jew s a b ju rin g th e rival religion. S om etim es even c o n v e rsio n did n o t en d th e tro u b le s o f a fo rm e r Jew . O n e such case w as th e fam o u s R ash īd al-D īn F ażlallāh , a P ersian Je w by b irth , a n d a c c o rd in g to an early so u rc e th e so n o f a Jew ish a p o th e c a ry in T a b riz . As u su a l, his av en u e to fam e a n d p o w e r w as th e p ra c tic e o f m ed icin e, b u t it is n o t as a p h y sic ia n th a t he is chiefly rem em b ered . A t th e c o u rt o f th e M o n g o l Il-K hāns in Ira n he revealed g re a t ta le n t a n d w o n re sp e c t as an a d m in is tra to r a n d , ind eed , a sta te sm a n ; w h ile a t th e sam e tim e, his im m ense u n iv ersal h isto ry , w h ich he p la n n e d a n d e d ite d a n d in g re a t p a r t w ro te , ra n k s him a m o n g th e fo re m o st h isto ria n s o f Islam . Like m an y Jew ish co u rtie rs a n d officials, a t som e stage in his c a reer he fo u n d it e x p e d ie n t to a d o p t Islam ; like n o t a few of th em he a p p e a rs, a t th e tim e o f his ch an g e o f relig io n o r su b se q u e n tly , to have u n d e rg o n e a g en u in e co n v ersio n . In his a c tio n a n d b e n e fa c ­

THE JUDAEO- ISLAMIC TRADITION ■ IOI

tio n s, as w ell as in his w ritin g s, th e re is am p le evidence o f an a u th e n tic c o m m itm e n t to th e Islam ic faith. H is c o m m itm e n t d id n o t, h o w e v e r, save h im fro m su sp icio n d u rin g his lifetim e a n d in su lt a fte r his d e a th . O n o n e o c casio n , in 1 3 12, he h a d a n a rro w escape w h e n his enem ies p ro d u c e d a fo rg e d le tte r p u rp o rtin g to be w ritte n by him a n d in stig a tin g a n o th e r p h y sic ia n to p o iso n th e Il-K han. R ash id al-D ĩn w as able to p ro v e th e le tte r a fake a n d ex p o se th e p lo t, a n d th u s he c o n tin u e d fo r a w hile in favor. Significantly, th e alleged p o iso n e r w a s a Je w , a n d th e fo rg ed le tte r w ritte n in th e H e ­ b re w scrip t. A few years la te r, in 1 3 1 8 , he w as ag ain accu sed by his rivals o f h av in g p o iso n e d th e Il-K h a n ’s fa th e r a n d p re d ­ ecessor. T h is tim e th e accusers achieved th e ir p u rp o se . U n d er in te rro g a tio n , R a sh id a l-D ïn a d m itte d th a t, a g a in st th e advice o f th e Il-K h a n ’s p h y sician s, he h a d p rescrib ed a p u rg a tiv e , w h ich w o rse n e d in ste a d o f rem ed y in g his d iso rd e r. T h o u g h m o re th a n seventy years o ld , he w as p u t to d e a th by m u tila tio n a n d d e c a p ita tio n . All his g o o d s a n d estates w ere co n fiscated , w hile th e q u a rte r in T a b riz th a t he h a d fo u n d e d a n d e n d o w e d , a n d w h ic h b o re his n a m e , w as lo o te d by th e m o b . E ven th e w a q fs , o r p io u s fo u n d a tio n s fo r Islam ic religious p u rp o se s, e sta b lish e d by him w ere d eem ed in v alid a n d th e ir assets seized. Several early sources re la te th a t a fte r his e x ecu tio n his severed h e a d w a s ta k e n to T a b riz a n d p a ra d e d a ro u n d th e city fo r several d ay s a m id cries o f “ T his is th e h e a d o f th e Jew w h o a b u se d th e n a m e o f G o d ; m ay G o d ’s curse be u p o n h im !” A lm o st a c e n tu ry la te r a n o th e r ru ler, M ïrā n sh ā h , th e d e ­ m e n te d so n o f th e g re a t T a m e rla n e , ren ew ed th e a tta c k o n R a sh id a l-D ĩn . H is to m b w as d e stro y e d , a n d his b o n es w ere e x h u m e d a n d re b u rie d in th e Jew ish cem etery .46 In th e c e n tra l la n d s, h o w ev er, co n v erts w ere u su ally w el­ co m ed a n d w ell tre a te d , a n d th ey d isa p p e a re d ra p id ly in to th e m a in b o d y o f M u slim s. It w as on ly rarely th a t M u slim s o f Jew ish b irth — still m o re rarely o f Jew ish an cestry — w ere stig ­ m a tiz e d o r p en a liz e d as such. In Ira n a n d N o rth A frica, in co n trast, the m em ory o f Jew ish ancestry w as retained for m any g e n e ra tio n s, b o th by th e d e sc e n d a n ts o f th e c o n v erts a n d , m o re

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especially, by th e ir n e ig h b o rs.47 S ignificantly, b o th w ere c o u n ­ tries w h e re fo rc e d c o n v e rsio n w as p ra c tic e d . F o r th o se w h o re m a in e d Jew s, th e re w as a d a rk as w ell as a b rig h t side to life as a d h im m ĩ u n d e r th e ru le o f Islam . “ H u m ilia tio n a n d w re tc h e d n e ss w ere sta m p e d u p o n th e m a n d th ey w e re v isited w ith w ra th fro m G o d ” says th e Q u r ’an ( I I,6 i), sp e a k in g o f th e Jew s. F ro m tim e to tim e M u slim ru lers, a n d m o re o fte n M u slim p o p u la tio n s , felt it necessary to re sto re th is c o n d itio n if th e Jew s seem ed to be e scap in g fro m it. In g en eral, w h a t th ey h a d to fear w as n o t violence, n o t p e rse ­ c u tio n , n o t e x p u lsio n , b u t m in o r h a ra ssm e n t, p e tty h u m ilia ­ tio n , ta u n ts a n d in su lts, a n d o f c o u rse c h ro n ic in secu rity . In th e age o f th e C ru sa d e s a n d a fte r, th e re w as a n o ta b le d e te ­ rio ra tio n in th e p o sitio n o f th e Jew s, as o f o th e r relig io u s m inorities. T he physician an d p hilosopher M aim o n id es, w hose w ritin g s o n science in A rab ic a n d o n Jew ish relig io u s le a rn in g in b o th A ra b ic a n d H e b re w are a m o n g th e g re a te st ach iev e­ m en ts o f th e A rab -Jew ish sym biosis, h a d h im self b een a v ictim o f th e n ew in to le ra n c e . It w as fro m p e rso n a l e x p erien ce as w ell as religious co n c e rn a n d le a rn in g th a t he w as able to send a le tte r o f advice to th e Jew s o f Y em en in 1 1 7 2 , w h en they to o faced th e p ro b le m o f fo rced c o n v e rsio n . T h e re is a strik in g c o n tra s t b e tw e e n M a im o n id e s ’ le tte r to his H e b re w tra n s la to r in E u ro p e in w h ich he sp eak s o f th e richness o f th e A rab ic la n g u a g e a n d th e su p e rio rity o f th e A rab sciences, a n d his le tte r to th e p e rse c u te d Jew s o f th e Y em en, in w h ich he c o m ­ p la in s b itte rly o f th e w re tc h e d sta te o f th e Jew s u n d e r M u slim rule: “ Y ou k n o w , m y b re th re n , th a t o n a c c o u n t o f o u r sins G o d h as c a st us in to th e m id st o f th is p eo p le, th e n a tio n o f Ish m ael, w h o p e rse c u te us severely, a n d w h o devise w ay s to h a rm us a n d to d eb ase us. . . . N o n a tio n h as ever d o n e m o re h a rm to Israel. N o n e h as m a tc h e d it in d e b a sin g a n d h u m il­ ia tin g us. N o n e h as been able to red u ce us as th ey h a v e .” 48 T h ese stric tu re s, n o d o u b t w ritte n u n d e r th e im p a c t o f his o w n m e m o rie s o f S pain a n d M o ro c c o revived by th e recen t new s fro m so u th e rn A ra b ia , c a n n o t be a ccep ted as an a c c u ra te g en eral p ic tu re . M a im o n id e s ’ o w n p o sitio n , his p rid e a n d his success as a c o u rt p h y sic ia n a n d c o m m u n a l lead er in C a iro ,

THE JUDAEO- ISLAMIC TRADITION ■ 103

a tte s t th e c o n tra ry . B ut his o b se rv a tio n s certain ly c o n ta in a p r o p o r tio n o f tru th . Som e in d ic a tio n o f M u slim p e rc e p tio n s o f Jew s a n d Ju d a ism m ay be g a th e re d fro m th e w ays in w hich th ese a p p e a r in c e rta in c o m m o n th em es o f M u slim discourse. O n e, freq u en tly e n c o u n te re d in classical tim es, is th e a ttrib u tio n o f a Jew ish o rig in o r a n c e stry in o rd e r to d isc re d it an in d iv id u al, a g ro u p , a c u sto m , o r a n idea. A n ex a m p le cited by G o ld zih er in d icates th a t th is p ra c tic e goes b a c k to early A rab tim es. In a passag e he q u o te s, tw o rival p o e ts o f th e A ra b trib e o f A w f ch allen g ed each o th e r ’s rig h t to tra c e his d escen t from this trib e. O n e o f th e m , to d isc re d it th e o th e r, accused him o f being o f Jew ish d escen t. A sim ilar charg e w as m ad e ag ain st th e p h ilo lo g ist A bu 'U b a y d a by his enem ies, a n d by A bu 'U b a y d a him self a g a in st a n U m ay y ad g o v e rn o r w h o m he w ish ed to d e n ig ra te .49 T h ese a n d o th e r sim ilar ex am p les a m o u n t to little m o re th a n social sn o b b e ry — th e gam e, w idely p racticed in m an y societies, o f assertin g a n d im p u g n in g pedigrees. M o re serio u s is th e re c u rrin g ten d en cy to a ttrib u te subversive a n d e x tre m ist d o c trin e s to Jew ish orig in s o r in stig a tio n . T h u s, fo r e x am p le, th e em ergence o f th e S h ľa a n d hence o f schism w ith in Islam , a n d m o re p a rtic u la rly th e a p p e a ra n c e of th e e x a g g e ra ted e x ­ a lta tio n o f 'A ll a n d th e la te r im am s, is a ttrib u te d to th e d e ­ m o n ic figure o f 'A b d a lla h ibn S abā, allegedly a Y em enite Jew c o n v e rte d to Islam . In th e Sunni tra d itio n , he is th e in stig a to r o f S h i'ism ; in th e S h i'ite tra d itio n , he som etim es a p p e a rs as th e o rig in a to r o f e x trem e d o c trin e s o f th e ty p e th a t w ere re p ro b a te d by th e m o d e ra te T w elv er S hī'a. M o d e rn critical sc h o la rsh ip has successively cast d o u b t o n 'A b d a lla h ib n Sa­ b a ’s ro le , his Jew ish n ess, a n d even his h isto ric ity .50 A n o th e r ex am p le is th e n in th -c e n tu ry M u 'ta z ilĩ Ib n al-R āw a n d ĩ, w h o is b lam ed fo r som e o f th e m o re e x trem e ideas p r o p o u n d e d by o r o n b e h a lf o f the early A bb asid s. H e is also c re d ite d w ith h av in g been one o f th e leadin g p ro p o n e n ts o f fre e -th o u g h t a n d m a te ria lism in this p erio d . T h ere are d iffe r­ e n t v e rsio n s a b o u t Ibn a l-R ā w a n d ī’s b a c k g ro u n d ; in som e o f th e m he is said to have been o f Jew ish o rig in .51 A th ird a n d m o re fam o u s e x am p le is 'A b d a lla h ib n M ay -

1 0 4 * CHAPTER 2

m ū n a l-Q a d d ā h , w h o figures in a n ti-Ism ā ‘ĩlī a n d a n ti-F a tim id p o le m ic a l w ritin g s as th e fo u n d e r o f th e I s m ā ìlĩ fa ith a n d th e a n c e sto r o f th e F a tim id calip h s. ‘A b d a lla h ib n M a y m ū n is a sh a d o w y figure, a n d a g a in th e re are d iffe re n t v ersio n s o f his b io g ra p h y . In several o f th e m he is said to hav e been o f Jew ish b irth , w ith th e im p lic a tio n th a t Ism ā ‘īlism w as a J u d a iz in g h eresy a n d th e F a tim id s w ere u su rp e rs o f Jew ish e x tra c tio n .52 N eed less to say, th e re is n o serio u s evidence fo r an y o f these a sse rtio n s. N e v e rth e le ss, th e te n d e n c y to see Jew ish in v o lv e­ m e n t in su b v ersiv e ideas a n d se d itio u s a c tio n s— fa m ilia r in o th e r tim es a n d places— p e rsiste d fo r som e tim e a m o n g th e M u slim s, to o . A strik in g e x a m p le is th e d a n g e ro u s d erv ish re v o lt th a t in th e early fifteenth c e n tu ry a lm o st d e stro y e d th e n a sc e n t O tto m a n sta te . T h e le a d e r o f th e derv ish es, w h o w as accu sed by th e h isto rio g ra p h ic tra d itio n o f p re a c h in g in terd e n o m in a tio n a lis m a n d c o m m u n ism , w as th e so n o f th e q ā d ī o f S im av n a, B e d red d in . A sso ciated w ith h im w as a c e rta in T o rla k H u K em al, said by som e to have been a c o n v e rt fro m J u d a ism a n d to h av e p lay ed a p a rtic u la rly evil ro le .53 In m o d e rn tim es th is line o f a rg u m e n t is sw itch ed fro m relig io u s to p o litic a l su b v e rsio n . T h u s, co n serv ativ e o p p o n e n ts o f th e Y o u n g T u rk s , p a rtic u la rly in th e A ra b p ro v in ces o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire , m a d e m u ch o f th e ir alleged Jew ish c o n n e c ­ tio n s— th o u g h , it sh o u ld be n o te d , this p a rtic u la r a c c u sa tio n a p p e a rs to h av e o rig in a te d in C h ristia n E u ro p e . M o re recen tly , Jew s w ere ac c u se d o f b ein g resp o n sib le fo r sp re a d in g so cialist a n d related ideas in the Islam ic w orld. T hese accusations ceased w h e n so cialism c h a n g e d its sta tu s fro m a m en ace to a m e rit a n d w as a d d e d to th e official d e sig n a tio n s o f m o st sta te s a n d p o litic a l p a rtie s. It w a s o n ly th e enem ies o f socialism w h o a sc rib e d it to Je w ish in stig a tio n , a n d th ey are n o w silen t, o r a t le a st c a u tio u s. As w ell as th e d e m iu rg ic subversive, th e Je w also a p p e a rs in M u slim fo lk lo re in a n o th e r ro le— as th e u ltim a te e x a m p le o f th e h u m b le a n d d o w n tro d d e n . A figure o f speech c o m m o n in M u slim w ritin g s is to sta te a fact o r p ro p o s itio n in a g ro ­ te sq u e a n d e x a g g e ra te d fo rm — n o t, as in th e W estern reductio ad a b su rd u m , in o rd e r to p ro v e it false, b u t fo r th e o p p o site

THE JUDAEO- ISLAMIC TRADITION ■ IO5

p u rp o se : to sh o w th a t even w h e n p u sh e d to an im p ro b a b le e x tre m e it re m a in s tru e . T h e Je w , like th e b la c k , is so m etim es u sed fo r th is p u rp o se . O n e little sto ry , to ld a b o u t m a n y d if­ fe re n t M u slim ru lers to illu stra te th e ir co n c e rn fo r ju stice a n d re sp e c t fo r th e law , m ay serve as a n e x am p le. In th e O tto m a n fo rm , it is re la te d th a t w h e n S u ltan S uleym an th e M ag n ificen t w as p re p a rin g to b u ild th e g re a t Süleym aniye m o sq u e , his p la n s w ere im p e d e d by an o b stin a te Je w w h o o w n e d a sm all piece o f la n d o n th e in te n d e d site a n d refused all o ffers to b u y it fro m h im . T h e su lta n w as u rg e d by his adv isers to co nfiscate, o r a t least c o m p u lso rily to p u rc h a se , th e la n d fro m th e re ­ c a lc itra n t infidel; b u t he refu sed to d o so, since th is w o u ld be c o n tra ry to th e law o f G o d . T h e sam e sto ry is to ld by Sunnis o f th e calip h ¢U m a r, by S h ľite s o f th e calip h cA lī, a n d n o d o u b t o f m a n y o th e r ru le rs, a n d is a s ta n d a rd m y th d e p ic tin g th e ju st ru ler. T h e sam e th em e so m etim es o ccu rs in a m o re e x p licitly h isto ric a l c o n te x t. T h u s th e em ir Z a n g i, w h o ru le d in M e s o p o ta m ia a n d n o rth e rn Syria in th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry , is p ra ise d by h isto ria n s fo r his piety a n d his re sto ra tio n o f Islam ic legal n o rm s; as an e x a m p le , “ E ven if th e p la in tiff w as a Jew a n d th e accu sed his o w n so n , he w o u ld still d o justice to th e p la in tiff.” 54 G o ite in ’s inference fro m th is th a t “ an u n p ro te c te d m e m b e r o f a seco n d -class c o m m u n ity h a d little ch an ce n o r ­ m ally th a t his case w o u ld be p ro p e rly h e a rd ” seem s re a so n a b le fo r th a t a n d p e rh a p s som e o th e r tim es a n d p laces. It w as n o t, h o w e v e r, tru e o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire, w h e re th e evidence o f ju d icial re c o rd s m ak es it clear th a t Jew s co u ld a n d fre q u e n tly d id h av e re c o u rse to th e q ā d ľ s c o u rt, a n d th a t th ey c o u ld , o n o c c a sio n , sue M u slim s a n d w in .55

S o m e t im e s Jew s even re so rte d to th e q ā d īs’ c o u rts fo r th e a d ju d ic a tio n o f d isp u te s a m o n g them selves. N o rm a lly , h o w ­ ever, th e y w e re ru le d by th e ir o w n Jew ish c o u rts, w h e re r a b ­ b in ical judges d isp en sed justice in a c c o rd a n ce w ith b a la khic law . T h is w a s p a r t— p e rh a p s th e m o st significant p a r t— o f th e w h o le a p p a ra tu s o f q u a si-a u to n o m y , w h e re b y th e Je w ish c o m ­ m u n ity , like o th e r religious co m m u n itie s su b ject to th e M u slim s ta te , w a s in large m e a su re re sp o n sib le fo r th e c o n d u c t o f its

ΓO6 ■ CHAPTER 2

o w n in te rn a l a ffa irs, a n d even, a t c e rta in p e rio d s, fo r th e a s­ sessm en t a n d co lle c tio n o f ta x e s, w h ich w ere th e n re m itte d to th e sta te a u th o ritie s. T h is system o f c o m m u n a l a u to n o m ie s w as a n a tu ra l e x te n sio n o f th e p ra c tic e o f th e p re-Islam ic e m p ire s; it flo u rish ed in a society in w h ich relig io n w as th e u ltim a te d e te rm in a n t o f a m a n ’s id e n tity a n d th e d o m in a n t force sh a p in g his w a y o f life. T h e dhim m a w as an a rra n g e ­ m e n t— w h e th e r p a c t o r g ra n t— co n ced ed to th e c o m m u n ity , n o t th e in d iv id u a l; th e d h im m ī h a d a sta tu s a n d a ro le o n ly as a m e m b e r o f a c o m m u n ity reco g n ized as p o ssessin g th o se a ttrib u te s . T h is p a tte rn o f social o rg a n iz a tio n gave g re a t a u ­ th o rity , so m etim es even p o w e r, to th e lead ers o f th e c o m ­ m u n ity , especially w h e n these w ere reco g n ized o r ac c re d ited by th e M u slim state. T h e e x ila rc h — R esh G a lu ta , Prince o f th e C a p tiv ity — o f A b b a sid B a g h d a d h eld an office th a t h a d ex iste d since S asan id tim es, a n d he w as o ften a figure o f som e significance a t th e c a lip h a l c a p ita l. T h e em erg en ce o f sim ilar c o m m u n a l lead ers in o th e r M u slim c a p ita ls w e a k e n e d his p o ­ sitio n . In th e la te r M id d le A ges, w ith th e stre n g th e n in g o f sta te a u th o rity a n d th e w e a k e n in g o f a u to n o m o u s in stitu tio n s g en erally , th e office o f C h ief o f th e Jew s lo st its im p o rta n c e . T h e sim plified a n d id ealized n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry a c c o u n ts o f th e h isto ry o f th e Jew s in S pain p re se n t a b lack a n d w h ite p ic tu re o f C h ristia n in to le ra n c e a n d M u slim to le ra n c e , w ith th e Jew s fleeing fro m th e o n e to th e o th e r. It w as n o t alw ay s so. D u rin g th e ce n tu rie s w h e n b o th M u slim a n d C h ristia n sta te s ex iste d in th e Ib e ria n p e n in su la , th e re w ere tim es an d places, as in M a im o n id e s ’ o w n b irth p la c e , w h e n it w as th e M u slim s w h o p e rse c u te d a n d th e C h ristia n s w h o o ffered ref­ uge. In N o r th A frica o n th e o n e h a n d a n d in Iran a n d C e n tra l A sia o n th e o th e r, th e p a tte rn o f Je w ish life fro m th e la te r M id d le A ges w a s o n e o f in creasin g p o v e rty , m isery, a n d d eg ­ ra d a tio n . O n ly in th e c e n tra l lan d s o f th e M id d le E ast, u n d e r th e ru le o f M a m lu k su lta n s a n d far m o re u n d e r th e ru le o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire, w ere Jew s able to p reserv e so m e sta tu s a n d d ig n ity , a n d even to e n te r o n a new age o f efflorescence.

THREE

The Late Medieval and Early Modern Periods F or

so m e tim e n o w it has been th e p ractice o f W e ste rn h isto ria n s to divide h isto ry , fo r co nvenience o f d iscu ssio n , in to th re e p e rio d s d esig n ated a n cien t, m ed iev al, a n d m o d e rn , each o f w h ich m ay be fu rth e r su b d i­ v id ed in to early a n d late o r in to even sm aller su b u n its. T h is classificatio n is d eriv ed fro m th e stu d y of E u ro p e a n h isto ry , a n d strictly sp e a k in g is o n ly a p p ro p ria te to th e c o n sid e ra tio n o f E u ro p e a n to p ics. It h as, h o w ev er, becom e accep tab le to use th ese categ o ries also in d iscussing the h isto ry o f o th e r civili­ z a tio n s, w h ich m ay have dev elo p ed a t a d ifferen t p ace, w ith a d iffe re n t rh y th m , a n d in resp o n se to d ifferen t p ressu res an d im pulses. E ven in th e Islam ic lan d s o f th e M id d le E ast an d N o r th A frica, it is n o w u su al fo r h isto ria n s to w rite th e h isto ry o f th e ir o w n c o u n trie s a n d societies in this E u ro p e a n te rm i­ nology. W rite rs in A rab ic, P ersian , an d T u rk ish have devised th e necessary e q u iv a le n t term s in th e ir o w n lan g u ag es, in ­ c lu d in g re n d e rin g s o f such p rev io u sly u n k n o w n co n cep ts as M id d le Ages a n d m edieval. T h e use o f categ o ries d eriv ed fro m one civ ilizatio n to clas­ sify th e p h e n o m e n a a n d d e v elo p m en ts o f a n o th e r is alw ays h a z a rd o u s, o fte n am b ig u o u s, a n d som etim es d o w n rig h t m is­ leading. W h e n , fo r e x am p le, does the “ m ed iev al” h isto ry o f Islam , o r fo r th a t m a tte r o f In d ia o r o f C h in a, begin? W h en does it end? D oes the m edieval h isto ry o f Islam m ean th e events th a t o c c u rre d d u rin g th o se centuries w h ich in E u ro p e are k n o w n as m edieval? O r does it m ean th e p e rio d d u rin g w h ich Islam ic society sh a re d ce rta in d istin g u ish in g c h a ra c te r­ istics, certain specific qualities, w ith the E uropean society k n o w n as m edieval? W h en does th e m edieval h isto ry o f Islam en d — w h e n m o d e rn h isto ry begins in E u ro p e, o r w h en m o d e rn i­ z a tio n tra n sfo rm s th e M id d le E ast? Even the fo rm u la tio n o f

108 ■ CHAPTER 3

th ese q u e stio n s p re su p p o se s c e rta in a ssu m p tio n s a b o u t Islam ic h isto ry , especially th a t th e m o st im p o rta n t d e te rm in in g fac­ to rs, th e ch ief m o to rs o f ch an g e, are th e sam e as th o se o f E u ro p e , o r a t least close e n o u g h to m a k e such an alo g ies m e a n ­ ingful. T o d e sig n a te a c h a p te r in th e h isto ry o f th e Islam ic M id d le E a st a n d N o r th A frica w ith th e te rm s “ late m ed iev al a n d early m o d e rn ” m ay th u s p e rh a p s re q u ire som e ap o lo g y , c e rta in ly so m e e x p la n a tio n . T h e te rm s are used here b ecau se th ey are p a r t o f a u n iv e rsa lly a ccep ted te rm in o lo g y , c u rre n t n o w even in th e M id d le E a st a n d N o r th A frica, an d m ay th e re fo re serve to convey, in a few w o rd s, an a p p ro x im a te idea o f w h a t is in te n d e d . It m ay , h o w e v e r, be useful to d e v o te a m o m e n t o r tw o to th e p e rio d iz a tio n o f M id d le E a ste rn h isto ry in th e e ra th a t b e g a n w ith th e a d v e n t o f Islam in th e seventh c e n tu ry a n d h a s c o n tin u e d to th e p re se n t day. T h e w h o le q u e stio n o f p e rio d iz a tio n in Islam ic h isto ry is still a t a very ru d im e n ta ry stage o f d isc u ssio n ; th is in d eed m ay be a m a jo r re a so n fo r th e c o m m o n a c c e p tan c e o f th e E u ro p e a n categ o ries. A p re lim i­ n a ry a n d te n ta tiv e p e rio d iz a tio n — a con v en ien ce fo r th e h is­ to ria n , n o t a n a tte m p t to d iscern in n a te p a tte rn s in M id d le E a ste rn h isto ry — m u st suffice fo r th e tim e being. P e rh a p s th e sim p lest a n d m o st im m ed iately in tellig ib le w ay o f d iv id in g M id d le E a ste rn h isto ry in th e Islam ic p e rio d is in te rm s o f in v asio n s. T h e re have been m an y o f these, b u t th re e in p a rtic u la r h a d an e n o rm o u s, in m an y resp ects a decisive, influence o n th e ev en ts th a t fo llo w ed . T h e first w as th e in ­ v asio n o f th e A ra b M u slim s in th e seventh a n d eig h th cen ­ tu rie s, w h ich b ro u g h t a new relig io n , Islam ; a n ew lan g u ag e, A rab ic; a n d c re a te d a n ew p o litic a l s tru c tu re , th e c a lip h a te . T hese ch an g es in itia te d a n ew p o litic a l, social, a n d c u ltu ra l o rd e r in th e M id d le E ast, to a high degree co n siste n t w ith in itself, a n d significantly d iffe re n t fro m w h a t w e n t b efo re. T h e n e x t m a jo r tra n s fo rm a tio n begins w ith th e in v asio n o f th e M id d le E ast by th e step p e p eo p les fro m th e n o rth a n d n o rth e a s t, sta rtin g w ith th e m ig ra tio n of th e T u rk s in th e te n th a n d eleventh c e n tu rie s, a n d c u lm in a tin g in th e g re a t M o n g o l c o n q u e sts o f th e th irte e n th , w h ich d e stro y e d th e Islam ic c a l­

LATE MEDIEVAL, EARLY MODERN PERIODS ■ IO9

ip h a te a n d in a u g u ra te d a n ew age. P olitically, it w as d o m i­ n a te d by th e M o n g o ls a n d th e T u rk s, a n d g o v ern ed by th e lo n g -la stin g a n d e la b o ra te ly a d m in iste re d k in g d o m s a n d e m ­ p ires w h ic h th ey c reated . C u ltu ra lly , it w as ex p ressed m ain ly in P ersian a n d in v a rio u s T u rk ish languages. R eligiously, it re m a in e d M u slim , b u t w ith a new k in d o f Islam , m o re stru c ­ tu re d , m o re h ie ra rc h ic, m o re c o n c e rn e d w ith o rd e r a n d w ith o r th o d o x y .1 T h is p e rio d , to o , ends w ith yet a n o th e r in v asio n , th is tim e fro m E u ro p e . T h e k in g d o m s o f Islam h a d trie d several tim es to c o n q u e r E u ro p e — th e A rab s in Spain a n d Sicily, th e Islam ized T a ta rs o f th e G o ld en H o rd e in R ussia, th e O tto m a n T u rk s in so u th e a s te rn E u ro p e , tw ice re a c h in g as fa r as th e w alls o f V ien n a. All th re e a tte m p ts to d o m in a te E u ro p e failed, a n d as th e E u ro p e a n s expelled th e in v ad ers a n d c o n q u e ro rs, th ey th em selv es, in tu rn , beg an to fo llo w th e ir fo rm e r m asters in to th e ir o w n h o m e la n d s. T h e S p a n ia rd s a n d th e P o rtu g u ese, an d la te r th e o th e r m a ritim e p eo p les o f W estern E u ro p e, p u rsu e d th e M o o rs to M o ro c c o a n d th e n , sailing a ro u n d A frica, c a rrie d th e ir w a r a g a in st th e M u slim s to so u th A sia an d th e s o u th e rn a p p ro a c h e s to th e M id d le E ast. T h e A u strian s a n d H u n g a ri­ an s, re c o v e rin g fro m th e ir defeats, began to p u sh th e O tto ­ m a n s b a c k th ro u g h th e B alk an s to w a rd C o n sta n tin o p le . T h e R u ssia n s, h a v in g freed M o sc o w fro m th e “ T a ta r y o k e ,” em ­ b a rk e d o n a v a st series o f c o n q u e sts th a t to o k th em s o u th w a rd to th e B lack Sea, th e C a u c a su s, a n d th e C a sp ia n a n d th u s to th e n o rth e rn a p p ro a c h e s o f th e M id d le E astern h e a rtla n d s o f Islam . T h e p e rio d w ith w h ich w e are co n cern ed h ere is th e sec­ o n d — th e p e rio d , th a t is to say, th a t begins w ith th e co m in g o f th e ste p p e p eo p les a n d ends w ith th e co m in g o f th e E u ­ ro p e a n s, a t w h ic h p o in t w e m ay p la u sib ly sp eak o f th e m o d e rn h isto ry o f th e M id d le E ast o r o f th e Islam ic lan d s. C h ro n o lo g ic a lly , this m id d le p e rio d begins in a b o u t th e th ir ­ te e n th c e n tu ry , w h e n th e ru le o f th e M o n g o l k h a n s w a s e x ­ te n d e d to m o st o f s o u th w e st A sia an d w h e n th e A y y u b id d y n a sty , fo u n d e d by S alad in , gave w ay to th e su lta n a te o f th e M a m lu k s w h o ru le d in E gypt fro m th e m id -th irte e n th c e n tu ry

I I O ■ CHAPTER 3

to th e early six te e n th . T h e en d in g o f th is p e rio d is m o re d if­ ficult to d a te w ith an y p recisio n , since th e pro cesses o f E u ­ ro p e a n e x p a n sio n a n d th e re su ltin g changes affected d ifferen t p a rts o f th e M id d le E ast a n d N o r th A frica a t d ifferen t tim es— fo r som e b eg in n in g as early as th e se v en teen th c e n tu ry , fo r o th e rs d elay ed u n til th e n in e te e n th o r even th e tw e n tie th . D u rin g th e e a rlie r p a r t o f this p e rio d , th e re w ere six m a jo r cen ters o f p o w e r in th e w o rld o f Islam , all b u t o n e o f th em d o m in a te d by T u rk ish d y n asties a n d arm ies. T hese cen ters w ere In d ia, C e n tra l A sia, Ira n , T u rk e y , E gy p t w ith Syria, a n d N o rth A frica. In th e six te e n th c e n tu ry th e n u m b e r w as re d u c e d by a c o n sid e ra b le e x p a n sio n o f th e p o w e r o f th e O tto m a n s w h o , a lre a d y c o n tro llin g A n a to lia a n d m u ch o f s o u th e a ste rn E u ro p e, d e stro y e d th e M a m lu k s u lta n a te a n d in c o rp o ra te d its te rrito rie s— E gypt, Syria, P alestine, a n d p a rts o f A ra b ia , in to the O tto m a n E m p ire. T his w as fo llo w ed by th e ex te n sio n o f O tto m a n su z e ra in ty ov er N o rth A frica, to in clu d e th e c o u n ­ tries th a t are n o w called L ibya, T u n isia , a n d A lgeria. O n ly M o ro c c o , still ru le d by A rab d y n asties, rem a in e d b e y o n d th e reach o f O tto m a n p o w e r. In 1 5 3 4 , in o n e o f a lo n g series o f w ars fo u g h t b e tw e e n th e O tto m a n s a n d th e sh āh s o f Ira n , Iraq w as w re ste d fro m th e P ersian s a n d in c o rp o ra te d in to th e O tto m a n re a lm . T h e O tto m a n E m p ire re a c h e d its apogee in th e six te e n th and early se v e n te e n th cen tu ries w h e n it stru g g led w ith th e H a p s b u rg E m p ire fo r th e c o n tro l o f c e n tra l E u ro p e. In th is stru g g le, th e T u rk s w ere a t first v ic to rio u s, w ere h eld fo r a ce n tu ry a n d a h alf, a n d th e n w ere slow ly b u t decisively d e ­ feated. T h e seco n d unsuccessful T u rk ish siege o f V ien n a in 1683 w as fo llo w e d th re e years la te r by th e loss o f B u d a, th a t is, B u d a p e st, w h ic h h a d been th e se a t o f a T u rk ish p a sh a since 1541. A t th e e n d o f th e sev en teen th c e n tu ry , a fter th e v icto ries o f th e A u stria n s a n d th e ir allies, th e O tto m a n E m p ire, fo r th e first tim e in its h isto ry , w as co m p elled by a v icto rio u s en em y 1:0 sign a p eace tre a ty as a d e fe a te d p o w e r. M e a n w h ile a n ew a n d still m o re d a n g e ro u s enem y w as th re a te n in g th e O tto ­ m an s— th e risin g a n d e x p a n d in g p o w e r o f R u ssia, g ro w in g s o u th w a rd a n d e a s tw a rd largely a t T u rk ish ex p en se. By 1783

LATE MEDIEVAL, EARLY MODERN PERIODS ■ I I I

th e R u ssian s w ere able to a n n e x th e C rim ea, w h ich fo r cen ­ tu rie s h a d been a T u rk ish a n d M u slim lan d . F ro m th e c o n ­ q u e re d C rim e a th e R u ssian s sp re a d e a stw a rd an d w e stw a rd a lo n g th e n o rth e rn sh o re o f th e B lack Sea, an d th re a te n e d th e T u rk s a t b o th ends o f it. T h e city o f O d essa w as fo u n d e d in 1795 o n th e site o f a T a ta r village. Ira n a n d C e n tra l A sia w ere fo r som e tim e d o m in a te d by Islam ized su ccesso r states o f th e g re a t M o n g o l K h an s— som e o f th e m ru le d by d e sc e n d a n ts o f th e line of Jen g h iz K h an , o th e rs by M o n g o ls a n d T a ta rs o f o th e r lineage. In C e n tra l A sia these d y n asties c o n tin u e d to reign u n til they w ere co n q u e re d a n d a b s o rb e d by th e R u ssian E m pire in th e n in e te e n th cen tu ry . In Ira n p ro p e r th ey w ere o v e rth ro w n a n d su p p la n te d by a n ew d y n a sty , th a t o f th e S afavids, w h ich gain ed p o w e r a t th e b e­ g in n in g o f th e six te e n th cen tu ry an d laid the fo u n d a tio n s o f th e m o d e rn realm o f Iran . In M u slim India, w h ere v ario u s T u rk ish d y n asties h a d h eld sw ay since the first T u rk ish in ­ c u rsio n s in th e eleventh c e n tu ry , a n o th e r line o f T u rc o -M o n gol ru le rs, d e sc e n d a n ts o f th e re d o u b ta b le T a m e rla n e o r T im u r L ang, ru le d m o st o f th e s u b c o n tin e n t un til they w ere su p ­ p la n te d by th e B ritish. T h ey are som etim es k n o w n as th e G re a t M o g u ls. A t first, th e re w ere tw o m a jo r Jew ish g ro u p s in th e Islam ic w o rld , o n e Iran ic, th e o th e r A rabic. T h e first co n sisted o f th e P e rsia n -sp e a k in g Jew ish co m m u n ities o f Iran , w ith its c u ltu ra l e x te n sio n e a stw a rd in to th e te rrito rie s th a t n o w fo rm th e re ­ publics o f A fg h a n ista n a n d fo rm e r Soviet C e n tra l A sia. In all o f these th e re w ere Jew ish co m m u n ities o f P ersian lan g u ag e an d c u ltu re . E ven in In d ia, w h ich a t this tim e fo rm ed p a r t o f th e P erso -Islam ic w o rld , w e find som e in d icatio n s, o n a very m uch sm aller scale, o f a Jew ish presence. U ntil th e six teen th c en tu ry , th e P e rsia n -sp e a k in g Jew s fo rm ed a single c o m m u n ity . It w as sp lit in to tw o by th e e sta b lish m e n t o f th e S hi'ite S afavid m o n ­ arch y , w h ich s e p a ra te d Ira n fro m Sunni C e n tra l A sia. T h e la tte r in tu rn w as split in th e eig h teen th cen tu ry by th e rise o f n ew a n d w a rrin g p o w e rs, fo rm in g th e states o f B u k h a ra a n d A fg h a n ista n . T hese th re e Jew ish c o m m u n ities seem to

1 1 2. ■ CHAPTER 3

h av e h a d little c o n ta c t w ith th e o u tsid e w o rld o r even w ith each o th e r. W e st o f Ira n , fro m Ira q all th e w ay to M o ro c c o , w ere th e n u m e ro u s A ra b ic -sp e a k in g Jew ish co m m u n itie s th a t in e a rlie r tim es h a d been th e c re a to rs a n d c u sto d ia n s o f th e Ju d a e o Islam ic tra d itio n . B esides these tw o m a in g ro u p s th e re w as a th ird , d ifferin g fro m b o th o f th e m , a n d a t first relatively sm all a n d in sig n if­ ic a n t. T h is c o n siste d o f th e Jew s o f th e fo rm e r B yzan tin e E m ­ p ire, still fo u n d in A sia M in o r a n d in s o u th e a ste rn E u ro p e . T h ese h a d n ev er been e ith e r u n d e r A ra b o r P ersian ru le, a n d h a d n ev er a d o p te d e ith e r th e A ra b ic o r P ersian lan g u ag e. M o s t o f th e m a p p e a r to h av e been G re e k -sp e ak in g ; som e, in th o se fo rm e r B y zan tin e te rrito rie s in A sia M in o r th a t w ere n o w g o v ern ed by T u rk is h e m ira te s, b eg an , in som e m e a su re , to a d o p t th e T u rk is h lan g u ag e. T h is a d o p tio n nev er seem s to have g o n e very far, h o w e v e r, a n d T u rk ish -sp e a k e rs re m a in e d a sm all m in o rity o f th e Jew s in th e T u rk ish lan d s. In tim e b o th T u rk ish -sp e a k e rs a n d G re e k -sp e ak e rs a m o n g th e Jew ish c o m m u n itie s in these a reas w ere sw a m p e d by th e influx o f E u ro p e a n Je w s fro m th e late fifteenth c e n tu ry .2 T h e A ra b ic -sp e a k in g Jew ish c o m m u n itie s m ay be su b d i­ v id ed p o litic a lly , a c c o rd in g to th e states to w h ich th ey w ere su b ject. Ira q h a d o n ce been a m a jo r c e n te r, b o th in a n tiq u ity and in th e Islam ic M id d le A ges. It h a d n o w lo st m u ch o f its im p o rta n c e . N o lo n g e r th e se a t o f a g re a t em p ire n o r even o f an in d e p e n d e n t p o w e r, it h a d b eco m e a n o u tly in g a n d o fte n d isp u te d p ro v in c e o f th e o th e r em pires. In th e ea rlie r cen tu ries it w as fo r th e m o st p a r t ru le d fro m Ira n ; th e n , a fte r a p e rio d o f stru g g le, it w a s finally in c o rp o ra te d in to th e O tto m a n E m ­ p ire. It still re m a in e d a b o rd e r a re a , h o w e v e r, th re a te n e d a t first by th e riv al Islam ic p o w e r in Ira n , a n d la te r by th e a d v a n c e o f th e m a ritim e p o w e rs o f E u ro p e fro m th e P ersian G ulf. T h e c irc u m sta n c es o f Ira q in these cen tu ries d id n o t p e rm it e ith e r th e Je w s o r a n y o n e else to flourish. Syria a n d P alestin e d u rin g th is p e rio d w ere also d o m in a te d fro m e lsew h ere— a t first by th e M a m lu k su lta n s in E g y p t, a n d la te r fro m T u rk e y . D u rin g th e M a m lu k p e rio d , E g y p t w as fo r

LATE MEDIEVAL, EARLY MODERN PERIODS ■ I i 3

a w h ile a c e n te r o f som e im p o rta n c e , a n d so to o , th o u g h to a m u c h lesser e x te n t, w as Syria. W ith th e in c o rp o ra tio n o f b o th reg io n s in th e O tto m a n E m p ire, th e m ain ce n te r o f ac­ tiv ity in e v ita b ly sh ifted to th e n ew c a p ita l, a n d these c o u n trie s s h ra n k in to p ro v in c ia l insignificance. W est o f E gypt, all th e reg io n s o f N o r th A frica h a d Je w ish c o m m u n ities, th e larg est o f w h ic h w ere in M o ro c c o a n d — o n a m u ch sm aller scale— in T u n isia . T o th is e n u m e ra tio n o f th e A rab ic-sp eak in g Jew s o n e sh o u ld a d d th e Y em en in th e so u th w e ste rn c o rn e r o f A ra b ia . T h is w a s a re m o te a n d iso lated Jew ish c o m m u n ity , c u t o ff fro m m o st o th e r cen ters, b u t enjoying a rich a n d v aried c u ltu ra l life o f its o w n . O f all th ese Je w ish c o m m u n itie s, th e m o st im p o rta n t by far cam e to be th a t o f th e O tto m a n E m pire. It o w ed its im p o rta n c e to tw o m a jo r d e v e lo p m e n ts— o n e general, o n e Jew ish . T h e g e n e ra l fa c to r w a s o f co u rse th e rise a n d ex p a n sio n o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire itself, w h ich co n fe rre d a n ew a n d g re a te r im p o rta n c e o n all th o se co m m u n itie s th a t fo rm ed a p a r t o f it. T h e specifically Jew ish fa c to r w as th e g re a t im m ig ra tio n o f Jew s from E urope, especially tho u g h n o t exclusively from Spain, P o rtu g a l, a n d Italy , w h ich revived th e d w in d lin g Jew ries o f the L evant w ith a fresh infusion of num bers, know ledge, w ealth, a n d — p e rh a p s m o st im p o rta n t o f all, a t least in th e sh o rt ru n — gave th e m a n o p e n in g to th e w o rld o f E u ro p e , th e n b eg in n in g its rise to w o rld h egem ony. In th e c o u rse o f its e x p a n sio n th e O tto m a n state a c q u ire d , by o n e m e a n s o r a n o th e r, a c o n sid e ra b le n u m b e r o f Jew ish su b jects, w h o c o n stitu te d a larg e a n d ram ified c o m m u n ity , w ith w id e re g io n a l a n d social v a ria tio n . T h e stu d e n t o f Jew ish h isto ry u n d e r Islam , lo o k in g b o th a t th e sou rces o f in fo rm a ­ tio n an d the scholarly w o rk accom plished, canriot b u t be struck by th e c o n tra s t b etw een th e classical a n d O tto m a n p e rio d s— th e la tte r field o f stu d y o fferin g such g re a te r o p p o rtu n ity , sh o w in g su ch sm aller a c c o m p lish m e n t. F o r v irtu ally all th e p r e - O tto m a n c o m m u n itie s, th e so u rce m a te ria l av ailab le is sad ly lim ited . Je w ish h isto rio g ra p h y is sp arse a n d slight. R a b ­ b in ic a l re sp o n sa survive, b u t in very sm all n u m b e rs, a n d o n ly fro m a few places. Jew ish lite ra tu re is rich, b u t th e h isto ric a l

I I 4 ■ CHAPTER 3

m a te ria l it p ro v id e s is in c id e n ta l a n d o ften in su b sta n tia l. T h e g en eral M u slim h isto rio g ra p h ic a n d o th e r lite ra tu re c o n ta in s m a n y references to Jew s, b u t th e in fo rm a tio n p ro v id e d is e p ­ isodic a n d fra g m e n ta ry , a n d its v alue is m ain ly in illu m in a tin g th e gen eral c u ltu ra l a n d social b a c k g ro u n d . T h ere are n o a r ­ chives; o n ly th e G en iza p ro v id e s a b o d y o f sig n ifican t c o n ­ te m p o ra ry d o c u m e n ta tio n . T h e g re a t w o rk o f S. D . G o itein o n th e Jew s o f m edieval E gypt, b ased largely o n G en iza m a ­ te ria l, sh o w s h o w m u ch can be le a rn e d fro m even th is k in d o f d o c u m e n ta tio n , a n d h o w m u ch is p e rm a n e n tly u n k n o w a b le w ith o u t it. A n d even th e G en iza is a ra n d o m c o llectio n o f w a ste p a p e r, very d iffe re n t fro m a g en u in e arch iv e in w h ich d o c u m e n ts are still p reserv ed in th e ir o rig in al series a n d se­ q uence. A s tu d e n t o f O tto m a n -Je w ish h isto ry is far b e tte r p laced in every resp ect. T h e so u rces a t his d isp o sal m ay be d iv id ed in to th re e m a in g ro u p s— th e Je w ish , E u ro p e a n , a n d O tto m a n , in T u rk ish , A ra b ic , a n d o th e r languages. T h e m o st im p o rta n t o f th e Jew ish so u rces are th e ra b b in ic a l re sp o n sa , w h ich h av e com e d o w n to us in g re a t q u a n tity fro m v a rio u s O tto m a n cities a n d n o ta b ly fro m such cen ters as S alo n ik a, Ista n b u l, an d Iz m ir.3 T h ese a re very rich a n d in fo rm a tiv e a n d shed a flood o f lig h t o n social a n d e c o n o m ic h isto ry . Som etim es th e re­ sp o n sa even c o n ta in som e details a b o u t th e co u rse o f ev en ts, th o u g h fro m th e ir n a tu re th is does n o t a m o u n t to a g re a t deal. In gen eral th e h isto rio g ra p h ic p o v e rty o f th e earlier p e rio d c o n tin u e s in to O tto m a n tim es, th o u g h th e re is som e slig h t im p ro v e m e n t. It m ay seem stra n g e th a t th e sch o lars o f th is c o m m u n ity — so active in o th e r respects— sh o u ld h av e sh o w n so little in te re st e ith e r in th e ir o w n h isto ry o r in th e h isto ry o f th e c o u n try in w h ich th ey lived.4 T h e on ly b o o k s in H e b re w d ealin g w ith O tto m a n h isto ry o r even w ith O tto m a n Jew ish h isto ry w ere w ritte n o u tsid e th e O tto m a n E m pire. O n e o f th e m w as c o m p o se d in C rete, a t a tim e w h e n th e islan d w as still a p o ssessio n o f th e V en etian rep u b lic a n d th e re fo re w ith in in te lle c tu a l re a c h o f th e E u ro p e a n R e n aissan ce; th e o th e r w as w ritte n by a F re n c h -b o rn Je w in Ita ly .5 T h e c o m p o sitio n o f th ese tw o b o o k s reflects th e im p a c t o n Jew s o f th e n ew sc h o l­

LATE MEDIEVAL, EARLY MODERN PERIODS ■ I i 5

a rsh ip o f E u ro p e ra th e r th a n a n y th in g th a t aro se w ith in eith er th e O tto m a n o r Jew ish w o rld s. In a d d itio n to lite ra ry so u rces, th e re are Jew ish reco rd s o f v a rio u s k in d s— c o m m u n a l a n d synagogue reco rd s, n o t o n ly in th e O tto m a n a n d fo rm e r O tto m a n te rrito rie s, b u t also in E u ro p e. T h e c o n g re g a tio n o f S panish a n d P o rtu g u ese Jew s in L o n d o n , fo r ex a m p le , k e p t tw o series o f d o c u m e n ts relev an t to th e E ast. O n e , e n title d , in P o rtu g u ese, C a u tivo s , deals w ith th e ra n so m in g o f captives ta k e n p riso n e r by M u slim co rsairs o r C h ristia n p ira te s a n d p riv a te e rs in th e M e d ite rra n e a n ; th e o ther, called Terra Santa , is concerned w ith requests for m oney fro m in d ig e n t a n d d istressed p e rso n s com in g fro m th e holy la n d — a te rm som etim es ta k e n to include th e w h o le o f g eo ­ g ra p h ic a l Syria. T hese files, th o u g h lim ited in scope, give som e in sig h t in to a t least one asp ect o f Jew ish life in th e L e v a n t.6 S im ilar d o c u m e n ta tio n m ay w ell exist in th e archives o f o th e r E u ro p e a n Jew ish co m m u n itie s, especially in Italy, w h ich h a d co n n e c tio n s w ith th e ir co relig io n ists in th e E ast. T h e archives o f in te rn a tio n a l Jew ish o rg a n iz a tio n s, as also th o se o f th e O tto m a n Je w ish co m m u n ities, d o n o t becom e im p o rta n t u n til th e n in e te e n th c en tu ry . F a r ric h e r th a n Jew ish d o c u m e n ta ry sources are th o se o f th e v a rio u s E u ro p e a n c o u n trie s th a t h a d dealings o f o n e k in d o r a n o th e r w ith th e O tto m a n E m pire. T hese in clu d e d ip lo ­ m a tic a n d c o n su la r re p o rts, w h ich exist in v irtu ally every sta te in E u ro p e , as w ell as th e reco rd s o f th e tra d in g c o m p an ies a n d c h a m b e rs o f co m m erce th a t o p e ra te d extensively in th e O tto m a n d o m a in s. T hese E u ro p e a n g o v ern m en tal a n d c o m ­ m ercial arch iv es are o n th e w h o le w ell p reserv ed a n d fairly w ell stu d ie d . T h e E u ro p e a n m e rc h a n ts a n d th e ir d ip lo m a tic a n d c o n su la r p ro te c to rs o fte n h a d o ccasio n to deal w ith O t­ to m a n Jew s in v a rio u s cap acities, a n d th e ir re p o rts c o n ta in a g re a t deal o f useful in fo rm a tio n .7 T hese so u rces can be su p p le m e n te d by a fairly rich trav el lite ra tu re . In th e co u rse o f th e cen tu ries, co n sid erab le n u m b e rs o f trav elers fro m C h ristia n E u ro p e visited T u rk e y a n d th e a d jo in in g la n d s— pilgrim s a n d m issio n aries, tra d e rs a n d d ip ­ lo m a ts, spies a n d m ilitary officers, arch eo lo g ists an d sch o lars,

I I 6 ■ CHAPTER 3

a n d , to w a r d th e en d o f o u r p e rio d , g en tlem en trav elers a n d la te r even lad y tra v e le rs in search o f new sights a n d n ew ex p erien ces— th e v a n g u a rd o f th e m o d e rn arm y o f to u rists. T h ese tra v e le rs o fte n hav e so m e th in g in te re stin g to say a b o u t in d iv id u a l Jew s a n d even a b o u t Jew ish c o m m u n itie s in th e cities th ro u g h w h ic h th ey p assed , a n d th o u g h th e ir c o m m e n ts o fte n th ro w m o re lig h t o n them selves a n d th e ir c o u n trie s o f o rig in th a n o n th e c o u n trie s a n d p eo p les th a t th ey d escrib e, th ey n ev erth eless h av e m u ch to offer. T h ey are, in g en eral, m ore inform ative th a n the Jew ish travelers from E urope. A p art fro m th e n u m e ro u s pilgrim s a n d settlers w h o h av e left us de sc rip tio n s o f Je ru sa le m a n d th e holy la n d , Jew ish trav el lite ra tu re is ra th e r m eag er a n d u n in fo rm a tiv e b efo re th e n in e ­ te e n th c e n tu ry , w h e n E u ro p e a n Jew s in g re a te r n u m b e rs felt th e desire a n d fo u n d th e o p p o rtu n ity to tra v e l.8 U ntil recen tly , sc h o la rly stu d ies o n O tto m a n Jew ish h isto ry w ere b a se d a lm o st exclusively o n th ese tw o g ro u p s o f so u rces, th e Je w ish a n d th e E u ro p e a n . T h e resu lt w as th a t O tto m a n Jew ish c o m m u n itie s w ere o fte n p re se n te d as if th ey w ere living in a v a c u u m , w ith an a lm o st to ta l d isre g a rd o f th e la rg e r societies a n d p o lities o f w h ich th ey w ere a p a rt. T h is u su ally re su lte d in a serio u s d isto rtio n o f p ersp ectiv e. T o ta k e a single e x am p le: it is im p o ssib le to e v a lu a te th e p o sitio n o f th e Jew s as a m in o rity in th e O tto m a n la n d s, w ith o u t a t th e sam e tim e c o n sid e rin g th e p a ra lle l p o sitio n s o f th e C h ristia n m in o ritie s. T h e Jew ish m in o rity is n o t, as in m u ch o f E u ro p e, u n iq u e , b u t is, so to sp e a k , o n e o f a class o f p h e n o m e n a , a n d its p o sitio n is n o t intelligible w ith o u t reference to o th e rs in th e sam e class. A n d , needless to say, in o rd e r to u n d e rs ta n d O t­ to m a n Jew ish h isto ry it is useful to k n o w so m e th in g a b o u t th e O tto m a n sta te a n d society— a p o in t th a t m ig h t seem selfev id en t b u t h as fre q u e n tly been o v e rlo o k e d by sch o lars w o r k ­ ing in th is field. T h is k n o w le d g e o f co u rse req u ires th e stu d y o f th e T u rk ish so u rces, w h ic h , fo r th e p u rp o se s o f Jew ish h isto ry , h as b arely b egun. R eferences to Jew s in T u rk ish ch ro n icles a n d o th e r lite ra ry m a te ria ls are c o m p a ra tiv e ly few .9 T h e h isto ria n s o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire d id n o t re g a rd th e affairs o f th e d h im -

LATE MEDIEVAL, EARLY MODERN PERIODS ■ I I J

nits — Je w s a n d o th e rs— as very im p o rta n t, a n d th ey th e re fo re d e v o te little a tte n tio n to th em . In g en eral, references to Jew s in th e O tto m a n ch ro n icles o c c u r o nly in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e d eed s o r m isd eed s o f o c c a sio n a l n a m e d in d iv id u als o r, even m o re ra re ly , w h e n th e re is som e p u b lic in cid en t o r d iso rd e r in w h ic h Jew s a re co n c e rn e d , eith e r as p e rp e tra to rs o r as vic­ tim s. If, h o w e v e r, th e lite ra ry sources are few , th e arch iv es are o f e n o rm o u s rich n ess a n d value. A rchival co llectio n s are still p re se rv e d in m a n y p ro v in c ia l cap ita ls b o th in th e p re se n t re ­ p u b lic o f T u rk e y a n d in som e o f th e fo rm e r O tto m a n p ro v ­ inces, as, fo r e x a m p le , in D a m a sc u s, A lep p o , Je ru sa le m , C a iro , Sofia, a n d n o d o u b t o th e r cities. M o s t im p o rta n t o f all are th e fo rm e r im p e ria l archives in Ista n b u l, w h ich c o n ta in , o n c u rre n t e stim a te s, som e 6 0 ,0 0 0 b o u n d registers a n d letterb o o k s, a n d b e tw e e n fo u rte e n a n d fifteen m illio n d o c u m e n ts. T h ese re c o rd s, needless to say, are e x tra o rd in a rily in fo rm a tiv e fo r every a sp e c t o f life in th e O tto m a n E m p ire, especially in its g re a t d ay s, b u t also to n o sm all e x te n t d u rin g th e cen tu ries o f decline. O f p a rtic u la r relevance to th e stu d y o f Jew ish h isto ry is th e D efter-i H a k a n i , som etim es k n o w n as th e T a p u , th e im p erial survey o f la n d , p o p u la tio n , a n d revenue. F o r each sanjak o r p ro v in c e , fro m B uda to B asra, th e re is a register, o ften a series o f re g isters, in w h ich th e p o p u la tio n is e n u m e ra te d , city by city a n d village by village, a n d w ith in each city q u a rte r by q u a rte r, c o m m u n ity by co m m u n ity , stre e t by street, a n d h o u se by h o u se . T h e Tapu series alo n e c o n ta in s an estim a te d fifteen h u n d re d v o lu m e s in th e Ista n b u l archives alo n e as w ell as o th e rs in A n k a ra a n d elsew here. T h is series does n o t in clu d e E g y p t o r th e o th e r A frican te rrito rie s o f th e em p ire, n o r w as it e x te n d e d to th e A ra b ia n p e n in su la . T h ere are o n ly a few reg isters fo r th e th re e sanjaks o f Ira q — th a t is, o f M o su l, B ag h ­ d a d , a n d B asra— a n d a ra th e r la rg e r n u m b e r fo r th e p ro v in ces in to w h ic h S yria a n d P alestine w ere divided. F o r th e A n a to lia n a n d E u ro p e a n sanjaks th e n u m b e r o f registers is very m u ch g re a te r a n d surveys w ere re n ew ed a t m o re fre q u e n t in te rv a ls.10 F ro m th ese it is possible to ta b u la te th e Jew ish co m m u n ities

I l 8 ■ CHAPTER 3

in a lm o st all th e E u ro p e a n a n d A sian p ro v in ces o ř th e O tto ­ m a n E m p ire— w h e re th ey lived, in w h a t q u a rte rs o r c o m ­ m u n itie s th ey w ere o rg a n iz e d , a n d w h a t th e ir n u m b e rs w ere, u su ally w ith a list o f n am es o f a d u lt m ale Jew s. In th o se areas w h e re re g isters w ere re n e w e d a t in te rv a ls, it is p o ssib le n o t o n ly to ta b u la te d is trib u tio n b u t also to ob serv e c h an g e o v er a p e rio d o f tim e. A T u rk ish sc h o la r, th e late P ro fesso r O m e r Lûtfi B a rk a n , p re p a re d sta tistic s o f th e relig io u s d istrib u tio n o f th e in h a b ita n ts o f th e p rin c ip a l cities o f th e O tto m a n E m ­ p ire, a c c o rd in g to th e surveys c o m p le te d b etw een 1 5 2 0 a n d 1 5 3 0 .11 (See tab le.) T h e figures are fo r h o u se h o ld s. M o re re ­ cently, M a r k E p stein listed p o p u la tio n statistics fo r all th e Jew ish c o m m u n itie s in th e E u ro p e a n a n d A sian p ro v in ces o f th e em p ire, b a se d o n th e sam e series o f registers, b u t e x te n d in g o v e r a lo n g e r p e r io d .12 E ven fo r th e h isto ry o f th e Jew s o f Ira n , th e b est sta tistic a l evidence dates from the com paratively sh o rt perio d w hen p arts o f w e ste rn Ira n , th e p ro v in ces o f A z e rb a ija n , H a m a d ā n , a n d

Religious composition of the population of the main towns of the Ottoman Empire, 1520-1530 M u slim

C h ristia n

J ew ish

T o ta l

Towns

H o u se h o ld s

H o u se h o ld s

H o u se h o ld s

H o u se h o ld s

Istanbul Bursa Edirne Ankara Athens Tokat Konya Sivas Sarajevo Monastir Skopje Sofia Salonika Siroz Trikala Larissa Nicopolis

9 ,5 i 7 6,165

5,162 69 5“ 277 2,286 701 22

1,647 117 201 28

16,326 6 ,3 5 i 4,061 2,704 2,297 i,519 1,114 11 1,024 845 842 709 4,863 1,093 825 768

3,338 2·,399 I I

818 1,092 261 1,024 640 630 471 1,229 671 301 693 468

750

— 171 200 238 989 357 343 75 775

— — — — —

34

12 —

2,645 5

181 — —

1 ,3 4 3

LATE MEDIEVAL, EARLY MODERN PERIODS ■ I i 9

K e rm ā n sh ā h , w ere in c o rp o ra te d in to th e O tto m a n E m p ire a n d m a d e th e su b ject o f sim ilar survey registers. T h e registers give th e fo llo w in g figures: T a b riz H am adān K e rm ā n sh ā h

54 Jew ish h o u se h o ld s 132 " " 53 " "

T h e first is d a te d a .h . 1 1 4 0 = 1727 c .e . T h e seco n d a n d th ird are u n d a te d , b u t w ere co m p iled d u rin g the reign o f A h m ed III (1 7 0 3 -1 7 3 0 ).13 W hile th e Tapu series is o f th e m o st o b v io u s im m ed iate v alu e, m u c h useful in fo rm a tio n a b o u t Jew ish life a n d activities c an be o b ta in e d fro m o th e r series o f registers an d d o c u m e n ts in th e O tto m a n archives, in clu d in g som e d ev o ted specifically to th e affairs o f th e n o n -M u slim co m m u n ities. O n e series is o f special im p o rta n c e fo r Jew ish a n d , indeed , fo r gen eral h is­ to ry . T h is is th e Sijill registers, c o n ta in in g th e reco rd s o f th e office o f th e q ā d ĩ. T h e q ā d ĩ o f an O tto m a n p ro v in cial city w as n o t on ly th e chief judicial a u th o rity ; he also exercised a w id e ra n g e o f a d m in istra tiv e a n d even fiscal fu n ctio n s, an d th e q ād ľ s reg isters, o ften ex trem ely d etailed , offer to the re search er a d a y -b y -d a y p ic tu re o f events. In p rin cip le, a series o f Sijill registers s h o u ld exist in every city th a t w as th e seat o f an O tto m a n q ā d ĩ. In fact, co n sid e ra b le n u m b e rs h av e com e to light, a n d are on ly ju st b eg in n in g to yield results. T h e stu d ies o f A m n o n C o h e n o n th e Sijill registers fo r Jeru salem h av e sh o w n h o w m u ch these can offer fo r Jew ish h is to ry .14 Sim ilar research es o n o th e r series w ill n o d o u b t yield c o m p a ra b le results. F o r a lo n g tim e the stu d y o f O tto m a n Jew ish h isto ry , such as it w as, w as left to p re m o d e rn sch o lars w h o w ro te p rescientific h isto ry , su p p le m e n te d by o ccasio n al ra b b in ic a l s tu d ­ ies b ased o n o n e o r a n o th e r co llectio n o f re sp o n sa , o fte n u sed w ith o u t an y reference, even th e m o st p e rfu n c to ry , to th e O tto m a n b a c k g ro u n d a n d d o c u m e n ta tio n . F ro m th ese p re ­ m o d e rn effo rts th e re is a q u a n tu m ju m p to m o re recen t w o rk , n o ta b ly by U riel H ey d a n d a few o th e rs w h o have w o rk e d o n T u rk ish arc h iv a l a n d lite ra ry so u rc e s.15

120 ■ CHAPTER 3

A f t e r th is e x c u rsu s o n th e d o c u m e n ta tio n o f O tto m a n J e w ­ ish h isto ry , w e c a n n o w tu rn to th e c o m p o sitio n o f th e O t ­ to m a n Je w ish c o m m u n itie s. T h ese m ay be c o n sid e re d in su c ­ cessive lay ers, a n d in c h ro n o lo g ic a l sequence. T h e first a n d o ld e st a re th o se k n o w n as th e R o m a n io t Jew s— th e n a tiv e G re e k -sp e a k in g Je w s w h o m th e T u rk s fo u n d o n th e sp o t w h e n th e y c o n q u e re d th e o rig in a l p ro v in c e s o u t o f w h ich th e O t­ to m a n sta te w as fo rm e d . T h ese w ere th e co m m u n itie s in w e s t­ e rn A sia M in o r, in th e B y zan tin e c a p ita l o f C o n sta n tin o p le , in G reece, a n d in so m e o f th e B alk an cities. In Jew ish ritu a l a n d litu rg y th ey fo llo w e d th e M in h a g R o m a n ia , th a t is, th e c u sto m o f th e B y zan tin e E m pire. T h e ir la n g u a g e w as a n d h a d fo r lo n g b een G re e k , a n d th ey h a d lived in th a t a re a fo r a very lo n g tim e. T h e se c o n d la y e r c o n siste d o f early im m ig ra n ts fro m E u ­ ro p e , chiefly A sh k en azi Jew s co m in g fro m G e rm a n y a n d even fro m F ran ce. T h e re is m e n tio n o f such im m ig ra n ts a t th e b e ­ g in n in g o f th e fifteen th c e n tu ry ; som e m ay h av e co m e even earlier. T h e y w ere, h o w e v e r, d w a rfe d in to insignificance by th e m assive im m ig ra tio n o f S ep h ard ic Jew s fro m s o u th e rn E u ro p e , fro m th e e n d o f th e fifteenth c e n tu ry , fo llo w in g th e edicts o f e x p u lsio n a g a in st th e Jew s o f S pain in 1 4 9 2 a n d o f P o rtu g a l in 1 4 9 6 . F ro m th is tim e th ey b e g a n to arriv e in th e O tto m a n d o m a in s in ev er-in creasin g n u m b e rs. As w ell as in Is ta n b u l, th e c a p ita l, sizable S ep h ard ic Jew ish c o m m u n itie s a p p e a re d in S a lo n ik a , Izm ir (S m yrna), E d irn e (A d rian o p le), a n d o th e r cities in A n a to lia a n d th e B alk an p e n in su la . E d irn e h a d been th e c a p ita l o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire b efo re th e c a p tu re o f C o n s ta n tin o p le , a n d a lre a d y h a d a Jew ish c o m m u n ity a t th a t tim e. T h e O tto m a n survey reg isters en ab le us to p lo t in so m e d e ta il th e n u m b e rs, d is trib u tio n , a n d even th e p ro v e n a n c e o f th ese c o m m u n itie s. In cities w h e re Jew s w ere p re se n t in an y n u m b e rs, th e se p a ra te c o m m u n itie s a re listed by n a m e , w ith th e n a m e s o f th e ir a d u lt m ale in h a b ita n ts. In H e b re w so u rces th ese c o m m u n itie s a re k n o w n as k e h illo t ; in th e T u r k ­ ish reg isters th e y a re d e sig n a te d by th e te rm jem a 'a t , c o m ­ m o n ly u sed o f n ew ly a rriv e d g ro u p s. A fte r th e c o n q u e st o f th e F ertile C re sc e n t a n d E g y p t, a n d

LATE MEDIEVAL, EARLY MODERN PERIODS ■ I 2 I

th e e x te n sio n o f O tto m a n su z e ra in ty in N o r th A frica, th e O tto m a n E m p ire also a c q u ire d a larg e p o p u la tio n o f A ra b ic ­ sp e a k in g Jew s. T h ese a re u su ally d e sig n a te d in th e O tto m a n re c o rd s as m usta riba, a w o rd m e a n in g A rab ized a n d a p p a r ­ en tly u sed by O tto m a n officials to d istin g u ish b etw een th e A ra b ic -sp e a k in g Jew s o f Syria, Ira q , a n d E gypt a n d th e G reek , T u rk is h , o r S p a n ish -sp e a k in g Jew s w h o w ere m o re fam iliar to them . T h ere w ere in ad d itio n som e very m uch sm aller groups o f K u rd ish sp e a k e rs a n d A ra m a ic sp eak ers in re m o te areas. T h ese a re o f c o n sid e ra b le p h ilo lo g ical a n d h isto ric a l in terest, b u t a re n u m e ric a lly insignificant. T h e a c q u isitio n by th e O tto m a n s o f g ro w in g n u m b e rs o f Je w ish su b jects w as speeded by tw o m e th o d s, c o n q u e st a n d im m ig ra tio n . T h e first o f th ese w as sh a re d w ith m an y o th e r c o m m u n itie s th a t becam e O tto m a n subjects th ro u g h th e e x ­ p a n s io n o f th e O tto m a n arm ies a n d th e e x te n sio n o f O tto m a n p o w e r. T h e se c o n d elem en t w as a lm o st entirely lim ited to Je w s, w h o th u s h a d th e d istin c tio n o f being , so to sp e a k , th e o n ly O tto m a n su b jects by th e ir o w n free choice. F o r cen tu ries Jew s in g re a t n u m b e rs c o n tin u e d to trav el fro m v a rio u s p a rts o f C h ristia n E u ro p e in to th e O tto m a n lan d s, a ttra c te d by th e re p o rts th ey h a d h e a rd a b o u t th e g re a te r to le ra n c e a n d g re a te r o p p o rtu n ity o ffered by th e O tto m a n g o v ern m en t. T h ese m ig ra tio n s w ere n o t, h o w e v e r, alw ays en tirely v o l­ u n ta ry . S om etim es th e registers list g ro u p s o f Jew s in o n e o r a n o th e r city w h o a re d e sig n a te d as sü rgü n.16 T his T u rk ish w o rd m e a n s exile o r d e p o rta tio n , o r sim ply c o m p u lso ry tra n sfe r fro m o n e p lace to a n o th e r. T h e sürgün w as a m e th o d m u ch used by th e O tto m a n sta te ; it co u ld be ap p lie d to an in d iv id u a l o r a fam ily, o r to a g ro u p o f in d iv id u als o r fam ilies, to a n o m a d ic trib e , to w h o le p o p u la tio n s , som etim es even to w h o le d istric ts. T h e use o f sürgün w as o f tw o k inds. S om etim es, less c o m m o n ly , it w a s p e n a l; th a t is to say, a p erso n o r a g ro u p o f p e rso n s w a s exiled o r forcibly re lo c a te d fo r so m e offense th ey h a d c o m m itte d . M o re freq u en tly , sürgün w as im p o sed fo r re a so n s o f sta te p olicy, b ecau se it w as believed th a t th e in te re sts o f th e em p ire w o u ld be served by tra n sfe rrin g c e rta in p o p u la tio n s fro m o n e p lace to a n o th e r.

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This practice was by no means limited to Jews but was commonly applied to many elements in the empire, Muslim and Christian as well as Jewish. Sometimes the motive appears to be economic, as for example when the sürgün were agri­ cultural colonists or pastoral nomads. Sometimes it was stra­ tegic, as when populations of questionable loyalty were trans­ ferred away from border districts and replaced by elements that were both martial and faithful. Jews were not infrequently included in such compulsory transfers to some new destina­ tion. Such a m o v e m e n t is re p o rte d a fte r th e c o n q u e st o f C o n ­ s ta n tin o p le in 1 4 5 3 , w h e n large n u m b e rs o f Jew s w ere se ttled by im p e ria l o rd e r, in w h a t n o w b ecam e th e O tto m a n c a p ita l o f Ista n b u l. T h ey w ere b ro u g h t fro m O tto m a n p ro v in c ia l cities in b o th A n a to lia a n d th e B alk an p e n in su la w h e re , as w e can see fro m th e O tto m a n c a d a stra l reg isters, m an y cities w ere a lm o st d e n u d e d o f th e ir Jew ish in h a b ita n ts .17 A h u n d re d o r so fam ilies o f p ro s p e ro u s G en o ese Jew s, living in P era a t th e tim e o f c o n q u e st, w ere a p p a re n tly also m o v ed a t this tim e acro ss th e G o ld e n H o rn to th e o ld city o f Ista n b u l. T h e p u r ­ p o se, it w o u ld seem , w as to in tro d u c e to th e city an e c o n o m ­ ically active b u t p o litically reliab le p o p u la tio n . In th is w ay it w as p o ssib le to e n c o u ra g e th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e city w ith ­ o u t leav in g a d a n g e ro u sly large ro le in e co n o m ic affairs to p o ssib ly d isa ffe c te d C h ristia n m e rc h a n ts. A T u rk ish census r e p o rt o f 1 4 7 7 sh o w s th a t Ista n b u l a t th a t tim e p o ssessed a p o p u la tio n o f 1 ,6 4 7 Jew ish h o u se h o ld s, fo rm in g n p e rc e n t o f th e t o ta l.18 T h ese n u m b e rs in creased c o n sid e ra b ly a fte r th e a rriv a l o f th e Ib e ria n a n d Ita lia n Jew s, as is in d ic a te d by la te r estim ates. A T u rk ish reg ister d a te d 1535 lists 8 ,0 7 0 Jew ish h o u se h o ld s in th e c a p ita l. By th e last years o f th e fifteenth c e n tu ry th e G e rm a n p ilg rim A rn o ld von H a rff p u ts th e Jew s o f Ista n b u l a t 3 6 ,0 0 0 ; a S panish tra v e le r in th e m id -six te e n th c e n tu ry e stim a te s th e m a t 1 0 ,0 0 0 h o u se h o ld s; w hile an E n g ­ lish m e rc h a n t w h o visited Ista n b u l in 1594 sp eak s o f “ Ju es in a n d n e a r a b o u t th e citie, a t least 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 .” T h is figure does n o t in clu d e w o m e n .19 A t th e tu rn o f th e fifteen th -six teen th c e n tu rie s, th e sam e policy w as a p p lie d in S alo n ik a, w h ich h a d

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been c o n q u e re d by th e O tto m a n s in 1430. T h ere h a d been a Jew ish c o m m u n ity in S alo n ik a in th e M id d le Ages, b u t w h en th e city p a sse d u n d e r V en etian ru le m o st o f th e Jew s le ft.20 If any re m a in e d , th ey w ere p ro b a b ly in clu d ed in th e tra n sfe rs to C o n sta n tin o p le . T h e first e x ta n t O tto m a n survey reg ister o f S a lo n ik a , co m p iled in 1 4 78, sh o w s large n u m b e rs o f G reek C h ristia n s, sm all n u m b e rs o f C a th o lic C h ristia n s, a n d som e M u slim s, b u t n o Jew s. S u b seq u en t registers sh o w a ra p id in ­ crease in th e Jew ish p o p u la tio n o f th e city. A reg ister o f 1519 lists tw e n ty -fo u r Jew ish co m m u n itie s, m o st o f th e m b ea rin g th e n a m e s o f cities o r c o u n trie s in so u th e rn E u ro p e, a n d to ­ g e th e r fo rm in g m o re th a n h a lf th e to ta l p o p u la tio n o f 4 ,0 7 3 h ouseholds. By 1613 the com m unities have increased to tw entyfive, w ith a list o f 5,163 n am es— 2 ,933 h o u se h o ld s an d 2 ,2 3 0 b a c h e lo rs. By th is tim e they fo rm e d 68 p e rc e n t o f th e in h a b ­ ita n ts o f th e c ity .21 W e k n o w fro m o th e r sources th a t th e O tto m a n a u th o ritie s w ere a n x io u s to settle Jew ish p o p u la tio n s in n ew ly c o n q u e re d C h ristia n cities. T h e Jew s w ere so m etim es p e rsu a d e d , so m etim es co m p elled to go there. T h e T u rk ish c o n q u e sts o f R h o d es in 1523 an d o f C y p ru s in 1 571 w ere b o th fo llo w ed by im p erial o rd e rs to settle Jew s in th e new ly a c q u ire d p ro v in ces. T h e case o f C y p ru s is in te r­ e stin g in th a t it h a p p e n s to be w ell d o c u m e n te d . T h e O tto m a n re c o rd s fo r th e p e rio d im m ed iately fo llo w in g th e c o n q u e st c o n ta in a n u m b e r o f d e p o rta tio n o rd e rs fo r th e tra n sfe r o f p o p u la tio n s to C y p ru s. T h ey include T u rk ish p e a sa n ts, to be sen t to th e islan d so th a t th e c o u n try sid e sh o u ld n o t be e x ­ clusively G reek a n d C h ristia n b u t p a rtly T u rk ish an d M u slim . T h e re w e re o rd e rs to tra n sfe r T u rc o m a n trib es— T u rk ish p a s ­ to ra l n o m a d s— fro m A n a to lia , so th a t sto c k ra isin g a n d th e su p p ly o f an im a ls fo r fo o d a n d tra n s p o rt sh o u ld be safely in M u slim h a n d s. A n d fro m a b o u t 1576 o n w a rd , w e find o rd e rs to sen d Jew s to C y p ru s. T h u s an o rd e r o f th a t y ear ad d re sse d to th e g o v e rn o r o f th e sanjak o f Safed in P alestine in stru c ts h im to send “ 1 0 0 0 rich a n d p ro sp e ro u s Jew s . . . w ith th e ir p ro p e rty a n d effects a n d w ith th e ir fam ilies” to C y p ru s. A little la te r, an o rd e r d a te d 157 7 speaks o f “ 500 Jew ish fam ilies fro m th e rich a n d w e a lth y a m o n g th e Jew s in S afed ” to be

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tra n s fe rre d to C y p ru s. A n o th e r d o c u m e n t, a d d re sse d to th e g o v e rn o r g en eral o f C y p ru s, in fo rm s h im th a t these Jew s a re a rriv in g a n d in stru c ts him to m a k e a rra n g e m e n ts fo r th e ir se ttle m e n t. A n in te re stin g p h ra se o ccu rs a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e o rd e r: “ In th e in te re sts o f th e said Islan d m y n o b le c o m ­ m a n d h a s been w ritte n . . . to co n scrib e a n d send 500 fam ilies fro m th e Jew s o f S a fe d .” T h e p u rp o se w as to serve “ th e in ­ te re sts o f th e said is la n d ,” m e a n in g o f co u rse th e in te re sts o f th e O tto m a n sta te in th e said islan d . T h e g o v e rn o r o f Safed w as w a rn e d th a t he w as to send rich a n d n o t p o o r Jew s: “ In th e c o u rse o f c o n sc rib in g a n d re g isterin g th e p rescrib ed n u m ­ b e r o f Jew s, if a n y o n e receives p ro te c tio n o r if an y are re m o v e d fro m th e re g iste r a n d in ste a d o f th e m o th e rs are ta k e n so th a t in th e ir p lace n o t rich b u t p o o r Jew s are co n scrib ed , y o u r excuses w ill n o t be a c cep ted . . . . ” T h e g o v e rn o r w as fu rth e r w a rn e d th a t he w o u ld n o t m erely be dism issed b u t w o u ld also be severely p u n ish e d . All th is gives an in te re stin g in sig h t in to th e p u rp o se s a n d m o d a litie s o f th e tra n sfe r. T h e Jew s o f Safed w ere n o t in fact sent. T h ey h a d in flu en tial frien d s in Ista n b u l w h o , by m ean s th a t u n fo rtu n a te ly if u n ­ su rp risin g ly are n o t re c o rd e d in th e arch iv es, w ere able to p e rsu a d e th e a u th o ritie s to d ro p th is p ro p o sa l. H o w e v e r, th e g o v e rn o r g en eral o f C y p ru s, w h o a p p a re n tly w as very a n x ­ ious to a c q u ire so m e Jew s, g o t p a rtia l sa tisfa c tio n in an o rd e r o f 1 5 7 9 , in w h ich he w a s a u th o riz e d to re ta in an d resettle a c o n sig n m e n t o f Jew s w h o m he h a d in te rc e p te d o n th e ir w ay fro m S a lo n ik a to S afed .11 Jew s w ere n eed ed fo r this policy o f stra te g ic settlem en t. If th e esta b lish e d c o m m u n itie s in th e em p ire w ere u n w illin g to m ove, a n d th e su p p le m e n t p ro v id e d by v o lu n ta ry im m ig ra tio n w as insufficient, m o re Jew s co u ld be o b ta in e d by rig h t o f c o n q u e st. A fter th e T u rk is h c o n q u e st o f B elgrade in 15 21 a n d o f B uda in 1 5 2 4 , th o u s a n d s o f Jew s a n d C h ristia n s w ere tra n sfe rre d fro m th o se places a n d resettled in O tto m a n cities— in E d irn e, Izm ir, S a lo n ik a , a n d Ista n b u l. In th e w o rd s o f an O tto m a n c h ro n ic le r o f th e c o n q u e st o f B uda: “ A m o n g th e infidel ray ah s a n d Je w s w h o w ere given q u a rte r, som e th o u s a n d s , o f th o se

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w h o h a d re q u e ste d it, w ere p u t o n ships w ith th e ir fam ilies a n d c h ild re n a n d sen t as sürgün to th e realm o f Islam . T h ey se ttle d som e fam ilies in th e Y edikule d istric t [in Ista n b u l]; o f th e Jew s, th ey sen t som e to S a lo n ik a a n d th e rest to o th e r p la c e s.” 13 T h is sto ry is also re la te d in d e p e n d e n tly by th e E u ro p e a n Je w ish c h ro n ic le r Jo se p h h a -K o h e n , w h o confirm s th a t th e Je w ish tra n sfe re es w ere v o lu n te e rs a n d th a t th ey w ere sen t o n sh ip s, p re su m a b ly d o w n th e D a n u b e .14 C o m m u n ities o f “Jew s fro m B u d a ,” o r o f “ sürgün fro m B u d a ,” d uly a p p e a r in th e O tto m a n survey registers o f S a lo n ik a, E d irn e, Ista n b u l, a n d o th e r cities. T h e re are re p o rts o f sim ilar tra n sfe rs in th e sev­ e n te e n th c e n tu ry w h e n th e O tto m a n s ra id e d p a rts o f P o lan d . A c c o rd in g to a c o n te m p o ra ry o b serv er, th e little to w n o f K irk K ilise, b e tw e e n Ista n b u l a n d E d irn e, w as “ a lm o st en tirely p o s ­ sessed by Je w s, tra n s p la n te d th ith e r fro m P o d o lia by S u ltan M a h o m e t, by w h o m th e sam e c o rru p t G e rm a n is still sp o k e n as in P o la n d .” 15 In th e survey re c o rd s o f Ista n b u l a n d som e o th e r cities th a t e n u m e ra te th e Jew ish c o m m u n ities a n d list th e ir m e m b e rs, th e re are u su ally se p a ra te lists o f th o se w h o w ere c o m p u lso rily tra n sfe rre d a n d th o se w h o cam e o f th e ir o w n a c c o rd . T h e fo rm e r w ere k n o w n as sürgün ; th e la tte r as kendi gelen , literally “ com ing oneself.” T he sürgün cam e m ainly fro m reg io n s o c c u p ie d o r even ra id e d by th e O tto m a n forces; th ey in c lu d e d m an y localities in A n a to lia , in G reece a n d th e B a lk a n s, a n d even in ce n tra l E u ro p e . T he ken d i gelen co n sisted o f v o lu n ta ry im m ig ra n ts fro m E u ro p e a n C h ristia n c o u n trie s, m o s t o f th e m fro m S pain, P o rtu g a l, a n d Italy , b u t so m e also fro m G e rm a n y a n d H u n g a ry . Such p a tte rn s o f settlem en t can be seen in several O tto m a n cities, in b o th E u ro p e a n d s o u th ­ w e st A sia. T h e h isto ry o f Je w ish c o m m u n a l o rg a n iz a tio n in th e O t­ to m a n E m p ire p re se n ts som e p ro b le m s. In th e n in e te e n th cen ­ tu ry , as p a r t o f th e g re a t O tto m a n refo rm s, th e fam o u s m illet system , d ev elo p ed in th e m a in fo r th e g o v ern an ce o f th e G reek a n d A rm e n ia n c o m m u n itie s, w as e x te n d e d in sim ilar fo rm to th e Jew s. A c c o rd in g to th is system , as in te rp re te d a t th a t tim e, each o f th e religious c o m m u n itie s o f th e em p ire w as o rg a n iz e d

1 2 6 ■ CHAPTER 3

in te rn a lly , su b je c t to its o w n law s in m a tte rs o f relig io n an d p e rso n a l sta tu s, a d m in iste re d u n d e r th e a u th o rity o f its o w n relig io u s chief. T h e Jew s w ere reco g n ized as a m illet u n d e r th e a u th o rity o f th e b a h am basbi , th e chief ra b b i, e sta b lish e d a n d reco g n ized by O tto m a n im p erial decree, w ith ro u g h ly th e sam e sta tu s, rig h ts, a n d d u ties as th e ecclesiastical h e a d s o f th e G reek a n d A rm e n ia n ch u rch es. A k in d o f h isto ric a l m y ­ th o lo g y d e v e lo p e d to w h ich b o th T u rk s a n d Jew s c o n trib u te d . A c c o rd in g to th is v e rsio n , th e baham basbi d a te d b a c k to th e tim e o f M e h m e d th e C o n q u e ro r: w h en he c o n q u e re d th e city o f C o n s ta n tin o p le in 14 5 3 , he reco g n ized its chief ra b b i, R a b b i M o se s K ap sali, a n d th u s in stitu te d th e O tto m a n office o f baha m b a shi , w ith a u th o rity ov er all th e Jew s o f th e em p ire. T h is sto ry is a lm o st c e rta in ly u n tru e . It w as c o m m o n O t­ to m a n p ra c tic e to p ro je c t in to th e p a s t an y refo rm th o u g h t to be e x p e d ie n t to esta b lish in th e p re se n t, a n d w e can be re a ­ so n a b ly su re th a t in this as in m a n y o th e r cases it w as w ith o u t h isto ric a l fo u n d a tio n . T h e evidence o f th e T u rk ish reco rd s, c o n firm in g th e evidence o f th e ra b b in ic a l re sp o n sa , gives us a s o m e w h a t d iffe re n t p ic tu re . T h e O tto m a n d o c u m e n ts am p ly co n firm th a t th e Jew ish co m m u n itie s o f th e em p ire lived in k e h illo t , each keh illa living in its o w n q u a rte r, g ro u p e d a ro u n d its o w n sy n ag o g u e, a n d su b je c t to its o w n haham , o r ra b b i. T h is w as in a c c o rd w ith th e general p a tte rn o f O tto m a n u rb a n o rg a n iz a tio n . T h e effective u n it o f th e O tto m a n city w as n o t th e city as su ch , b u t th e q u a rte r o r w a rd , called m a ha lle , c o n sistin g o f a c o m m u n ity , u su ally religiou sly defined a n d o rg a n iz e d a r o u n d its p lace o f w o rsh ip , m o sq u e , c h u rc h , o r sy n ag o g u e, u n d e r th e le a d e rsh ip o f its im am o r p rie st o r ha­ ham. T he Jew ish kehillot w as norm ally nam ed after their places o f orig in . T h u s th e k e h illo t o f th e city o f E d irn e are n am ed C a ta la n , P o rtu g a l, G e rm a n y , S pain, A p u lia, T o le d o , A rag o n , Sicily, Italy, B u d a; th o se o f S alo n ik a in clu d e S pain, Sicily, M a g h rib , L isb o n , Italy, O tr a n to , C a ta la n , A rag o n , A p u lia, P ro v en çal, C a stilia n , E v o ra o f P o rtu g a l, G e rm a n , C a la b ria , S arag o ssa o f A ra g o n , C o rfu ; th o se o f Ista n b u l in clu d e m o st o f these as w ell as m an y B alk an an d A n a to lia n n am es. H u n ­ g a ria n (M ajar) a n d G e rm a n (A lam an) c o m m u n itie s are listed

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in E d irn e, Ista n b u l, Safed, a n d elsew here. Som e o f th e k e h illo t hav e H e b re w n am es. T h e p ro b a b ility is th a t since these sh o w n o te rrito ria l p ro v e n a n c e , they w ere in d ig en o u s— m o st likely th e n a tiv e G re e k -sp e ak in g Jew s. T h e re is fre q u e n t evidence o f splits in these co m m u n ities. F o r e x a m p le , th e C a ta la n co m m u n itie s b o th in S alo n ik a a n d E d irn e sp lit a t a c e rta in p o in t in to tw o g ro u p s, h en c e fo rth k n o w n as “ o ld C a ta la n ” a n d “ new C a ta la n .” T h is is n o t an in fre q u e n t o c c u rre n ce . W e d o n o t alw ays k n o w th e re a so n fo r th e sp lit, b u t o fte n it a p p e a rs to be b etw een th o se w h o cam e e arly a n d th o se w h o cam e la te r— a p o in t th a t h as alw ay s been o f g re a t significance in Jew ish c o m m u n a l life. B efore lo n g a m a jo r split seem s to have dev elo p ed b etw een th e E u ro p e a n , p re d o m in a n tly S p an ish , im m ig ran ts, a n d th e n a tiv e G re e k -sp e ak in g Jew s. T h e te rm co m m o n ly used by th e S ep h a rd ic im m ig ra n ts fo r th e n ativ e Jew s, w h en w ritin g in H e b re w , w as toshavim . In H e b re w usage, it w ill be recalled , toshav is o fte n a sso c ia te d w ith ger. T his w o rd m ig h t fairly be tra n s la te d as “ n a tiv e s,” w ith p e rh a p s th e sam e n u an ce. In S p an ish , th ey w ere refe rred to as G riegos, G reeks. It w o u ld seem th a t n e ith e r te rm is in te n d e d as a c o m p lim en t. T h e G rie ­ gos fo r th e ir p a r t so m etim es sp eak o f th e ir new ly arriv ed co relig io n ists fro m S pain as m egorashim , th o se w h o h av e been d riv en o u t. T his ag ain does n o t so u n d ex actly like an e x p re s­ sion o f c o m p a ssio n . T h e re is n o real evidence fro m th e fifteenth o r six te e n th c e n tu ry o f an y such office as a chief ra b b in a te o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire, th a t is to say, o f th e existence o f a chief ra b b i w ith ju risd ic tio n e x te n d in g th ro u g h o u t th e O tto m a n lan d s. In th is re sp e c t th e p a tte rn o f o rg a n iz a tio n o f Jew s in th e O tto m a n E m p ire seem s to hav e been ra th e r m o re like m o d e rn A m erica th a n like m o d e rn E u ro p e . W e are to ld o n fairly g o o d evidence th a t a fte r th e T u rk ish c o n q u e st o f C o n sta n tin o p le , th e c o n ­ q u e ro r S u lta n M e h m e d II co n firm ed th e existin g B y zantine ra b b i, M o sh e K ap sali, in his office. B ut it is v irtu ally ce rta in th a t th is office w as as chief ra b b i o f th e city, n o t as chief ra b b i o f th e em p ire. In late B yzantine tim es these tw o w ere v irtu ally th e sam e, since th e em p ire h a d been red u ced to th e city. B ut

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th e re w a s a g re a t d eal m o re o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire, a n d n o th in g sh o w s th a t K ap sali h a d any ju risd ic tio n o u tsid e th e n ew ly c o n q u e re d c a p ita l, n o r o v er Jew ish c o m m u n itie s in th e o ld e r O tto m a n la n d s .16 A fter K a p sa li’s d e a th he w as succeeded by a n o th e r R om a n io t Je w , R a b b i E liy ah u M iz ra h i, w h o se ju risd ic tio n w as p re su m a b ly sim ilarly lim ited . In re tu rn fo r th is p rivilege, th e Je w ish c o m m u n ity w a s re q u ire d to p ay a special ta x k n o w n as th e rav a k çesi , th e r a b b i’s asp er. A fter th e d e a th o f E liy ah u M iz ra h i in 1 5 2 6 , d isa g re e m e n ts b etw een th e tw o m a jo r g ro u p s m a d e it im p o ssib le fo r th em to agree o n a chief ra b b i, even o f Ista n b u l, u n til 1 8 3 4 , w h e n o n e w a s im p o se d o n th e m by th e O tto m a n s u lta n . A re sp o n su m o f th e S alo n ik a ra b b i, S am ­ uel de M e d in a (1 5 0 6 -1 5 8 9 ), briefly describes th e situ a tio n : T h is seco n d ta x is called in th e lan g u ag e o f th e Ish m aelites rav a k çesi , b ecau se in re tu rn fo r it th e Jew s w ere p e rm itte d to have a chief rab b i by royal patent. It is n o t k n o w n w h eth er th e k in g im p o se d th is o n th e Jew s as o n e o f his o w n ro y al sta tu te s, o r w h e th e r th e Jew s a sk ed th e k in g to let th e m h av e th e said ra b b i, a n d in re tu rn to o k it u p o n th em selv es to p a y th is se c o n d ta x . A n d in an y case th e m a tte r o f th e said ra b b i o n ly la ste d , becau se o f o u r m a n y sins, fo r a very s h o rt tim e, w h ile th e m a tte r o f th e seco n d ta x still d ra g s u p o n us, “ till th e L o rd lo o k d o w n a n d b e h o ld ” (L am en ­ ta tio n s III,5 0 ).17 T h e rav a kçesi w as in d eed im p o se d th ro u g h o u t O tto m a n A sia M in o r a n d E u ro p e th o u g h n o t, a p p a re n tly , in th e A rab p ro v ­ inces. Its c o lle c tio n , w ith th e a m o u n ts received, is re c o rd e d in th e fiscal a n d survey registers. T h is w a s p re su m a b ly re la te d to th e n u m e ro u s p ro v in c ia l ra b b is w h o exercised a u th o rity o v e r th e O tto m a n Je w s, each in his o w n city o r c o m m u n ity .

Evidence about religious and cultural life among the Ot­ toman Jews after the sixteenth century is meager, and it is difficult to resist the conclusion that the paucity of evidence reflects the poverty of life. At the beginning of the period, rabbinical learning was of great importance, and there is a large, rich, and valuable literature of responsa. There was also

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an active m ystical m o v e m e n t, a n d a co n sid erab le c a b alistic lite ra tu re . B ut n o n e o f th is la ste d m u ch b ey o n d th e six te e n th c e n tu ry , a fte r w h ic h Jew ish lite ra tu re , w h e th e r in H e b re w o r in th e Ju d a e o -S p a n ish v e rn a c u la r, is of lim ited ap p eal. As a l­ re a d y n o te d , th e re is v irtu a lly n o h isto rio g ra p h y w ith in th e em p ire. T h e re is som e H e b re w p o e try , b u t la te r ju d g m e n t h as n o t fo u n d it w o rth recallin g ex c e p t fo r th e D am ascen e p o e t Israel N a ja r a (d. 1 6 2 8 ), w h o se religious verses h a d a c o n sid ­ era b le influence o n litu rg ical p o e try — th e o n ly k in d th a t flo u r­ ished— in th e M id d le E astern co m m u n ities. B etter k n o w n is th e Ju d a e o -S p a n ish lite ra tu re , p a rtly o ra l a n d p a rtly c o m m it­ te d to w ritin g . E ven h ere th e p a r t o f th e Ju d a e o -S p a n ish lit­ e ra tu re o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire th a t has received m o st a tte n ­ tio n is w h a t th e im m ig ra n ts b ro u g h t w ith th em fro m Spain. T h e re a re, fo r e x a m p le , m edieval S panish ro m an ces, som e o f th e m lo st in S pain o r p reserv ed o nly in fra g m e n ta ry fo rm , w h ic h survive in fuller a n d b e tte r v ersio n s, th ro u g h o ra l tr a n s ­ m issio n , a m o n g th e O tto m a n Jew s. Som e o rig in al lite ra tu re w as a d d e d to th e S panish h e rita g e , b u t it h as so far n o t b een a d e q u a te ly stu d ied . T h e c u ltu ra l c o n trib u tio n o f th e O tto m a n Jew s to T u rk ish life— th a t is, to th e c u ltu ra l life o f th e O tto m a n E m p ire— w as so m e w h a t circu m scrib ed . It w as in th e m ain lim ited to th re e are a s— m ed icin e, th e p e rfo rm in g a rts, a n d p rin tin g . T h e Jew s b r o u g h t w ith th e m an im p o rta n t b o d y o f m edical k n o w led g e fro m E u ro p e . By th e tim e o f th e ir a rriv a l th e p o sitio n s o f th e Islam ic a n d C h ristia n w o rld s in th e m edical a n d o th e r sciences h a d b een rev ersed , a n d th e science a n d p ractice o f m ed icin e w e re n o w o n a fa r h ig h e r level in E u ro p e th a n in th e M id d le E ast. T h is fact w as re co g n ized by highly p laced p a tie n ts w h o , w h a te v e r th e ir religious co n v ictio n s, p re fe rred to be tre a te d by th e disciples o f P aracelsu s ra th e r th a n by th e fo llo w ers o f A v icen n a. A v icen n a in his tim e h a d re p re se n te d th e p e a k o f m ed ical a ch iev em en t, b u t som e cen tu ries h a d p assed since th e n , d u rin g w h ich th e re h a d been m a jo r ad v an ces in m edical k n o w le d g e a n d p ra c tic e in E u ro p e . M u slim p h y sician s, a t th a t tim e fo r th e m o st p a r t still fo llo w in g th e o ld b o o k s a n d rules,

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w e re n o lo n g e r th e su p e rio rs, n o r even th e eq u als, o f th e ir E u ro p e a n colleagues. T h e p ro m in e n c e o f Jew s in th e m edical p ro fe ssio n in T u rk e y d id n o t begin w ith th e a rriv a l o f th e S e p h a rd im fro m S pain a n d P o rtu g a l, b u t is w ell a tte ste d d u rin g th e fifteenth c e n tu ry . A Je w fro m Italy , G ia c o m o o f G a e ta , served as p e rso n a l p h y ­ sician to S u lta n M e h m e d II th e C o n q u e ro r a n d rose to a p o ­ sitio n o f em in en ce. A t som e stage in his c a reer he b ecam e a M u slim a n d a vizier, a n d e n d e d his day s as Y ak u b P a sh a .28 H e left tw o fam ilies, o n e Jew ish , th e o th e r M u slim . By th e six te e n th c e n tu ry th e re w ere so m an y Je w ish p h y sician s a t th e O tto m a n c o u rt th a t th e re c o rd s o f th e p alace e sta b lish m e n t sh o w tw o s e p a ra te co rp s o f p h y sician s, o n e o f M u slim s, th e o th e r o f J e w s .29 It m ay be assu m e d th a t th e first tre a te d th e ir p a tie n ts a c c o rd in g to th e rules o f G alen a n d A v icen n a, th e la tte r a c c o rd in g to th e E u ro p e a n p ra c tic e o f th e tim e. Som e o f these Je w ish p ra c titio n e rs, by v irtu e o f th e ir p e rso n a l access to th e su lta n s a n d to th e viziers, w ere able a t tim es to exercise influence o n m a tte rs o f high sta te policy. In th e six te e n th c e n tu ry a n d , in fre q u e n tly , la te r, Jew s so m etim es a p p e a r as in fo rm a l ad v isers o n m a tte rs o f foreign policy , an d w ere o c ­ casio n ally sen t to E u ro p e a n c a p ita ls as in te rp re te rs to O tto ­ m a n envoys o r even, rarely , as envoys them selves. Besides tre a tin g p a tie n ts, these refugee Jew ish d o c to rs fro m E u ro p e also p ro d u c e d som e m edical lite ra tu re , tra n s la tin g m ed ical b o o k s in to T u rk ish a n d even w ritin g a few o rig in a l w o rk s, in c lu d in g w h a t m u st be o n e o f th e e arliest treatises o n d e n tis try .30 B ut th is d id n o t last m u ch b e y o n d th e six te e n th c e n tu ry , w h e n th e Jew s o f T u rk e y lo st c o n ta c t w ith th e E u ro p e fro m w h ich th ey h a d com e. T h e seco n d a n d th ird g e n e ra tio n s o f S e p h a rd ic Je w s, b o rn a n d e d u c a te d in th e M id d le E ast, w ere n o w iser a n d n o m o re skilled th a n th e ir n eig h b o rs. T h e Je w ish p h y sic ia n s a t th e O tto m a n c o u rt becam e few er an d ra re r, a n d w ere in tim e rep laced by W e ste rn -e d u c a te d O tto ­ m a n G reek s. T h ese w ere able to d o w h a t th e Jew s h a d nev er d o n e — to stab ilize a n d even in stitu tio n a liz e th e influence th e ir m edical p ra c tic e gave th e m o v er O tto m a n fo reig n re la tio n s. T h e first a n d se c o n d h o ld e rs o f th e n ew office o f chief d ra g ­

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o m a n o f th e em p ire w ere b o th Ita lia n -tra in e d O tto m a n G reek p h y sician s. T h e re a fte r th a t office re m a in e d en tirely in G reek h a n d s, u n til th e o u tb re a k o f th e G reek w a r o f in d ep en d en ce in 1 8 2 1 . A seco n d im p o rta n t Jew ish c o n trib u tio n w as in th e p e r­ fo rm in g a rts. T h e Jew s h a d b ro u g h t w ith th em th e a rt o f th e th e a te r, p re v io u sly v irtu a lly u n k n o w n in the em p ire, a n d for som e tim e th e a tric a l p e rfo rm a n c es in th e m a jo r T u rk ish cen ­ ters w ere m ainly the w o rk of Jew s. T hey appear to have train ed som e successors, m ostly gypsies. T h e Jew s w ere in d u e co u rse o u tc la sse d a n d o u tsh o n e by A rm e n ia n s, w h o becam e th e le a d ­ ing p e rfo rm e rs u n til th e em ergence o f th e m o d e rn T u rk ish th e a te r .31 A th ird Je w ish c o n trib u tio n to O tto m a n life th a t w e m ay c o u n t as c u ltu ra l w as th e in tro d u c tio n of p rin tin g . T h is to o w as so m e th in g Jew s h a d b ro u g h t fro m E u ro p e. Jew s b eg an p rin tin g in Ista n b u l, S alo n ik a, a n d elsew here b efo re th e en d o f th e fifteen th cen tu ry . B ut they w ere p e rm itte d to p rin t by th e T u rk is h a u th o ritie s o nly o n th e stric t u n d e rsta n d in g th a t th e y d id n o t p rin t in A rab ic c h a ra c ters. T o p rin t in T u rk ish o r A ra b ic w o u ld defile th e ho ly scrip t— a n d o f co u rse in frin g e th e v ested in terests o f th e scribes a n d callig rap h ers. Jew ish p rin te rs w ere a u th o riz e d to p rin t in eith e r H e b re w o r L atin c h a ra c te rs, a n d th u s o ffered n o th re a t to eith er p reju d ice o r in te re st. It w as n o t u n til th e e ig h teen th cen tu ry th a t th e first T u rk ish p rin tin g press w as set u p to p rin t in T u rk ish . A t th a t tim e re c o u rse w as h a d to th e services o f Jew ish p rin te rs, since th ey , to g e th e r w ith som e G reeks a n d A rm en ian s w h o h a d also b eg u n to p r in t in th e ir o w n lan g u ag es, w ere th e o n ly skilled p rin te rs av ailab le in Ista n b u l.32 T h e Je w ish c o n trib u tio n a p p e a rs fa r m o re im p o rta n t w h en w e tu rn o u r a tte n tio n fro m c u ltu ra l to eco n o m ic life. H e re Jew s ach iev ed p ro m in e n c e in a n u m b e r o f fields. T h e ir in itial success is n o t difficult to u n d e rsta n d . W hen th ey arriv e d in T u rk e y th e y h a d useful th in g s to offer— k n o w led g e o f E u ro p e, o f its lan g u ag es, a n d o f th e c o n d itio n s p rev ailin g th ere. In th ese q u a lific a tio n s a n d in th e services they w ere ab le to re n d e r th e y h a d few rivals o r c o m p e tito rs. It is th e re fo re n o t su r­

13 2 ■ CHAPTER 3

p risin g th a t Jew s w ere e m p lo y e d in c o n sid e ra b le n u m b e rs in ta sk s w h e re th ese skills a n d th is k n o w le d g e w ere o f value. F ro m th e late fifteen th c e n tu ry b o th O tto m a n a n d E u ro p e a n d o c u m e n ts sh o w Jew s en g ag ed in c o m m erce, a n d p la y in g a n im p o rta n t, a t tim es even a p re d o m in a n t, ro le in th e tex tile tra d e , p a rtic u la rly in w o o le n clo th s. In a d d itio n to serv in g as m id d le m e n b e tw e e n E u ro p e a n , lo cal, a n d E a ste rn m e rc h a n ts, th ey also seem to h av e been th e p io n e e rs o f an O tto m a n te x tile in d u stry . T h e re c o rd s fo r S a lo n ik a a n d Safed, tw o im p o rta n t cen ters o f te x tile m a n u fa c tu re , in d ic a te th a t th ese w ere en tirely Jew ish in th e ir o rig in s a n d largely Je w ish in th e ir o p e ra tio n s. A th ird te x tile m a n u fa c tu rin g c en ter, in Ista n b u l, also seem s to h av e been a t le a st p a rtly Jew ish . In th e fifteen th a n d six te e n th ce n tu rie s Jew s w ere stro n g ly e sta b lish e d as tra d e rs a n d m a n u fa c tu re rs , a n d so m e o f th e m a tta in e d g re a t w e a lth . It w a s n o d o u b t becau se o f th e ir fin a n ­ cial reso u rces th a t th ey w ere ab le, in th is p e rio d , to p lay an im p o r ta n t ro le in th e fa rm in g o f tax es. E ven b efo re th e a rriv a l o f th e m ass im m ig ra tio n fro m E u ro p e , th e re w ere Jew ish ta x c o lle c to rs, ta x in sp e c to rs, a n d ta x in te n d a n ts , as w ell as ta x fa rm e rs. T h ey w ere p a rtic u la rly active in th e p o rts. A high p r o p o r tio n , p e rh a p s even a m a jo rity , o f th e ta x fa rm e rs a n d em p lo y ees o f th e im p e ria l O tto m a n c u sto m s service w ere Jew s, s ta rtin g fro m th e in te n d a n t o f c u sto m s o f a w h o le p ro v in ce to th e lo w ly fu n c tio n a ry w h o h a n d le d luggage. W e find a sim ila r p a tte r n in E g y p t a n d o th e r m o re d is ta n t p ro v in ces, w h e re Je w s p la y e d a p ro m in e n t ro le as in te n d a n ts, m o re fre­ q u e n tly as fa rm e rs, o f th e c u sto m s revenues. In la te r tim es, h o w e v e r, th e re w as less sco p e fo r e c o n o m ic e n te rp rise in g e n ­ e ra l, a n d fo r Je w ish e n te rp rise in p a rtic u la r. In th is p e rio d , th e su re st w a y to m a k e m o n ey w as n e ith e r th ro u g h co m m erce n o r th ro u g h in d u s try b u t th ro u g h access to th e financial a c ­ tivities o f th e sta te . T h e Je w ish ro le in th e O tto m a n cu sto m s th u s gave Je w s a c e rta in a d v a n ta g e , a n d en a b le d sm all b u t sig n ifican t n u m b e rs to a c q u ire w e a lth a n d th e k in d o f p o w e r th a t w e a lth c a n give. B ut b o th w e a lth a n d p o w e r w ere alw ay s p re c a rio u s , a n d fro m tim e to tim e w e h e a r o f th e d isa stro u s fall o f o n e o r a n o th e r h igh Je w ish d ig n ita ry . T h is u su ally

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m e a n t th e s p o lia tio n a n d d e a th o f th e p e rso n c o n c e rn e d , a n d o fte n also o f his a sso ciates a n d d ep en d en ts. So im p o rta n t w as th e Jew ish elem en t in th e c u sto m s service th a t m a n y o f th e c u sto m s receip ts, co llected by V en etian m e r­ c h a n ts tra d in g in th e L ev an t a n d still p reserv ed in b o x es in th e V e n e tia n sta te arch iv es, are in H e b re w w ritin g . T h is w ill n o t su rp rise us if w e w ill recall th a t a c u sto m s receip t w as o rig in a lly given so th a t it m ig h t be sh o w n if necessary to a n o th e r cu sto m s officer. It is o n ly c o m p a ra tiv e ly recen tly th a t such a re c e ip t h as a c q u ire d o th e r fu n ctio n s a n d p u rp o se s. Jew s w ere also em p lo y ed in th e m in ts— o n th e tech n ical side, c o n c e rn e d w ith strik in g coins, o n th e a d m in istra tiv e side, a n d o n th e fin an cial side. S om etim es in d iv id u al Jew s exercised a u th o rity o n la rg e r m a tte rs affectin g th e cu rren cy — its d istri­ b u tio n , its c o n tro l, a n d o n o ccasio n its recall. A t a relativ ely early d a te , Jew ish m e rc h a n ts fro m S alo n ik a e sta b lish e d a special re la tio n sh ip w ith th e co rp s o f jan issaries. T h e jan issaries em p lo y e d a fu n c tio n a ry w h o h a d th e title o f oca k baztrgant , m e rc h a n t o f th e c o rp s, a n d acted as a k in d o f p riv a te e n te rp rise q u a rte rm a s te r. H is ta sk w as to a rra n g e su p ­ plies fo r th e co rp s o f jan issaries, a n d , like so m an y th in g s in th e O tto m a n E m p ire, th is office a n d fu n c tio n becam e h e re d ­ ita ry . Specifically, it b ecam e th e h e re d ita ry p o ssessio n o f a sm all g ro u p o f Jew ish fam ilies in Ista n b u l a n d S alo n ik a, an a rra n g e m e n t th a t c o n tin u e d u n til th e d e stru c tio n o f th e ja n ­ issaries in 1 8 2 6 . A large p ro p o rtio n o f th e u n ifo rm s w o rn by th e ja n issa rie s w ere su p p lied by th e Jew ish tex tile m a n u fa c ­ tu rers o f Salonika. O n the evidence o f O tto m a n acco u n t books, th e a m o u n t o f w o o le n clo th delivered to th e g o v e rn m e n t p u r ­ ch a sin g a g e n t in S alo n ik a rose fro m 9 6 ,0 0 0 ells (6 1 ,2 8 0 m e­ ters) a t th e b eg in n in g o f th e six te e n th c en tu ry to 2 8 0 ,0 0 0 ells (1 7 8 ,7 3 3 m eters) by th e e n d o f th e c e n tu ry .33 T h is re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e Jew s a n d th e jan issaries w as n o t lim ite d to Ista n b u l a n d S alo n ik a. T h e p a tte rn is re p e a te d in a n u m b e r o f p ro v in c ia l cities w h e re th e re w ere sim ilar u n ­ d e rsta n d in g s b etw een ja n issa ry q u a rte rm a ste rs a n d Jew ish m e rc h a n ts a n d financiers. O f special im p o rta n c e in th e O tto m a n p ro v in ces w ere th e

1 3 4 ■ CHAPTER 3

“ m en o f b u sin e ss” o f th e p a sh a s. A p a sh a a p p o in te d to th e g o v e rn o rsh ip o f a p ro v in c e , o n leav in g Ista n b u l to ta k e u p his a p p o in tm e n t, w o u ld n o rm a lly h av e w ith h im a “ m a n o f b u si­ n e ss” to h a n d le his affa irs, these b ein g b e n e a th th e n o tice a n d o fte n b e y o n d th e co m p e te n c e o f an y self-resp ectin g p a sh a . S om e o f th ese “ m en o f b u sin e ss” w h o a c c o m p a n ied th e p a sh a s to th e ir p ro v in c e s w ere S e p h a rd ic Jew s. N u clei o f S p a n ish ­ sp e a k in g Jew s fro m th e c a p ita l em erged in places such as D a m a sc u s, C a iro , a n d B ag h d ad . T h e y h a d com e in th e first in sta n c e in th e su ite o f th e O tto m a n p a sh a s w h o w ere sen t to g o v ern th ese cities, a n d jo in ed th e sm all g ro u p s o f local Jew s w h o w ere e m p lo y e d in g o v e rn m e n t service. L ater, w h e n th e g o v e rn o rsh ip o f th e p ro v in ces te n d e d to b eco m e a u to n o m o u s o r even h e re d ita ry , Jew ish m e rc h a n ts a n d fin an ciers so m etim es fulfilled sim ilar fu n c tio n s as “ m en o f b u sin e ss” fo r local ru le rs, p a sh a s a n d o th e rs. T h e fam o u s F a rh i fam ily o f D a m a sc u s, fo r e x a m p le , rose to p ro m in e n c e in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry as financial ad v isers to th e v a rio u s a u to n o m o u s ru lers o f Syria. Jew s also served o n o ccasio n as m id d le m e n o r local re p re se n ta tiv es for E u ro p e a n m e rc h a n ts. B ut th is w as re stric te d . T h e m o re u su al p a tte rn w as th a t local C h ristia n s serv ed th e E u ro p e a n s, w hile Jew s served th e T u rk s. A n o th e r c o n trib u tio n th e Jew ish n ew co m ers fro m E u ro p e m ay h av e b ro u g h t to th e ir n ew m a ste rs w as in th e a rts o f w a r. N e ith e r th e T u rk ish n o r th e Je w ish so u rces hav e m u ch to say a b o u t th is, a n d o n th e face o f it o n e w o u ld n o t ex p e c t th e Je w s— a very u n m ilita ry elem en t in R e n aissan ce E u ro p e — to have m u c h to offer. T h ey seem , h o w e v e r, to h av e p o ssessed som e skills in w e a p o n ry a n d re la te d tec h n o lo g y , a n d c o n te m ­ p o ra ry E u ro p e a n C h ristia n tra v e le rs sp e a k w ith b itte rn e ss o f th e gain to T u rk e y , a n d th e c o n se q u e n t in ju ry to C h riste n d o m , re su ltin g fro m such a tra n s fe r o f tech n o lo g y . T h u s th e w ellk n o w n tra v e le r N ic h o la s de N ic o la y w h o visited T u rk e y in 1 5 5 1 , w rites o f th e M a rra n o s “ n o t lo n g since b a n ish e d a n d d riv en fro m S pain a n d P o rtu g a l, w h o , to th e g re a t d e trim e n t a n d d a m a g e o f C h riste n d o m , have ta u g h t th e T u rk several in v e n tio n s, artifices a n d m ach in es o f w a r, such as h o w to m ak e

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a rtille ry , a rq u e b u se s, g u n p o w d e r, c a n n o n b a lls a n d o th e r w e a p o n s .” 34 A S p an ish v isito r, w ritin g a few years later, says m u ch th e sam e th in g : “ H e re a t C o n sta n tin o p le are m an y Jew s, d e sc e n d ­ a n ts o f th o se w h o m th e C a th o lic K ing D o n F e rd in a n d o rd e re d to be d riv e n fo rth o f S pain, an d w o u ld th a t it h a d p leased G o d th a t th ey be d ro w n e d in th e sea in com in g h ith e r! F o r th ey ta u g h t o u r enem ies th e m o st o f w h a t th ey k n o w o f th e v illanies o f w a r, such as th e use o f brass o rd n a n c e a n d o f fire lo c k s.” 35 T h ese a n d sim ilar sta te m e n ts by o th e r trav elers, som e PP· i 5 > 18.

NOTES TO CHAPTER I ■ i 99

40. Cf. the observations of S. D. Goitein, Interfaith Relations in Medieval Islam (New York, 1973), pp. 28-29. 41. Cf. I. Goldziher, “ Usages juifs d’après la littérature religieuse des musulmans,” REJ 28 (1894): 324. 42. Text in Paul Horster, Zur Anwendung des islamischen Rechts im 16. ]ahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1935), p. 37 (translation p. 76); also in M. Ertugrul Düzdag, Şeyhülislâm Ebussuûd Efendi Fetvalan tụginda 16 astr Turk hayati (Istanbul, 1972), p. 94. 43. Fattal, Le Statut, pp. 232ff.; Khoury, Toleranz, pp. 90-91, i65ff. Some jurists permit the use of non-Muslim auxiliaries in war­ fare. “ One may use them,” says al-Sarakhsĩ, “ as one would use a dog.” The jurists agree, however, that dhimmī soldiers do not share the booty, but receive a stipend fixed by the Muslim authorities. 44. See, for example, Hanina Mizrahi, Toldot Yehudê Paras (Je­ rusalem, 1966), p. 36, and the document cited in note 38 above. 45. The use of the term “ residing” (sakin) is significant. Muslim inhabitants of, say, Damascus or Jerusalem are simply called Dam­ ascenes or Jerusalemites. Muslims who have come from elsewhere, and all non-Muslims no matter how long they and their forebears have lived in the city, are denied the simple attributive ending (Turk­ ish -//, Arabic -î) and are designated as “ residing in” the city in question. On a similar distinction in ancient Alexandria, see Pierre Vidal-Naquet, “ Du bon usage de la trahison,” introduction to Flavius Josèphe, La Guerre des Juifs (Paris, 1977), pp. 59-60. 46. Ahmed Refik, Onuncu asr-i hicride Istanbul hayati (Istanbul, 13 3 3 ), PP· 68-69; a French version in Abraham Galante, Documents officiels turcs concernant les juifs de Turquie (Istanbul, 1931), p. 114. See further, Binswanger, Untersuchungen, pp. i7off.; idem, “ Okonomische Aspekte der Kleiderordnung im osmanischen Reich des 16. Jahrhunderts,” Prilozi za Orijentalnu Filologiju 30 (1980): 51-6 547. Ibn 'Abdūn, Risãla fi’l-qadã’ wa’l-hisba, ed. E. Levi-Provençal (Cairo, 1955), pp. 43ff.; English translation in Lewis, Islam, II, pp. 162-163. 48. Littman, “Jews . . . Persia,” p. 7. 49. Abdelmagid Turki, “ Situation du ‘tributaire’ qui insulte ľlslam, au regard de la doctrine et de la jurisprudence musulmanes,” Studia ĩslamica 30 (1979): 39-72; Khoury, Toleranz, pp. i64ff. 50. Horster, Zur Anwendung, text, pp. 32-33, German translation, pp. 74-75; Düzdag, Şeyhülislâm Ebussuûd, p. 102.

2 0 0 ■ NOTES TO CHAPTER I

51. Edward William Lane,

A n A c c o u n t o f th e M a n n ers a n d C u s ­

to m s o f th e M o d e r n E g y p tia n s ,

5th ed., II (London, 1871), p. 305. 52. Robert Brunschvig, “Justice religieuse et justice laïque dans la Tunisie des Deys et des Beys jusqu’au milieu du XIXe siècle,” Stu dia Isla m ica 23 (1965): 68; reprinted in idem, E tu d es ď ls la m o lo g ie , II (Paris, 1976)5 P· 2.67. Accusations of this offense, often followed by arrest, imprisonment, and beating, continued through the nineteenth and into the twentieth centuries. 53. Cited in G. Levi Della Vida, “ Un’Antica opera sconosciuta di Controversia Ši'ita,” A n n a li d e lľ ls t it u t o U niversitario O rien ta le d i N a p o li , n.s. 14 (1964): 236. 54. Ibn al-Qalānisī, D h a y l T a ’rīkh D im a s h q , ed. H. F. Amedroz (Beirut, 1908), p. 46. 55. Shaykh Ahmad al-Budayrī al-Hallāq, H a w ā d ith D im a sh q alY a w m iy y a , ed. Ahmad 'Izzat rAbd al-Karīm (Damascus, 1959), p. 112 (cit. Sh. Shamir, “ Muslim-Arab Attitudes towards Jews: The Ottoman and Modern Periods,” in V io le n c e a n d D e fe n se in th e J ew ish E x p e r ie n c e , ed. S. W. Baron and G. S. Wise [Philadelphia, i977]5 P· i94)·

56. Al-Balādhurī, F u tũ h a l-B u ld ā n , ed. M. J. de Goeje (Leiden, 1866), p. 162. For a somewhat different translation of the text, see P. K. Hitti, T h e O rig in s o f th e Isla m ic State (New York, 1916), p. 251. Cf. Goldziher, “ Usages,” p. 323. 57. Yahyā al-Antākī, A n n a le s , ed. L. Cheikho, B. Carra de Vaux, and H. Zayyāt, in C o r p u s S crip toru m C h ristia n o ru m O rien ta liu m , S crip tores A r a b ic /, 3d ser., VII (Paris, 1909), pp. 235-236; English translation in Lewis, Isla m , II, pp. 227-228. 58. Al-Hasañ ibn Manşūr Qādīkhān, F a tã w ī , III (Cairo, 1865), p. 616; English translation in Lewis, Isla m , II, p. 228. 59. Cf. Uriel Heyd, “ 'Alilot dam be-Turkiya ba-me’ot ha-15 ve ha-16,” S e fu n o t 5 (1961): i4off. 60. The text of the poem is available in various versions and editions. See B. Lewis, “ An Anti-Jewish Ode,” in Salo W ittm a y er B a ron J u b ile e V o lu m e (Jerusalem, 1975), reprinted in B. Lewis, Islam in H istory: Id ea s , M e n a n d E v en ts in th e M id d le E a st (London, New edition (Chicago, 1 9 9 3 ), pp. 167 - 1 7 4 . 61. Al-Qalqashandī, Ş u b h , XIII, p. 368; English translation in Lewis, Isla m , II, pp. 225-226. 62. Al-Ţabarĩ, T a ’rīk h a l-R u su l w a ’l M u lũ k , III, ed. M. J. de Goeje et al. (Leiden, 1879-1901), pp. 1389-1390.

NOTES TO CHAPTER I ■ 2 0 1

63. See F. Babinger, M e h m e d th e C o n q u e r o r a n d H is T im e , tr. R. Mannheim (Princeton, 1978), pp. 494ff. 64. On this sultan, see E T , s.v. “ Bāyazīd II” (by V. J. Parry), where further literature is cited. 65. The source for this story is a passing reference in a report written by the Venetian Matteo Venier, archbishop of Corfu, 1586, and entitled R e la zio n e d e llo stato p resen te d el T u rco . It was pub­ lished by E. Alberi in L e R e la zio n i d eg li a m ba scia tori v en eti durante il s e c o lo d e c im o s e sto , series III, R e la zio n i degli stati O ttom ania II (Florence, 1844), p. 299, and cited in two standard works of nine­ teenth-century historiography, one on Turkey, the other on the Jews: J. W. Zinkeisen, G e sc h ic h te des o sm a n isch en R eich es in E u ro p a , III (Gotha, 1855), p. 372, and H. Graetz, G e sc h ic h te der ] u d e n , IX (Leipzig, 1877), p. 439. Venier was a visiting priest, and his reports are not of the same quality as those of the Venetian ambassadors and consuls. This story, despite its inherent improbability, was re­ peated by several later historians, but with no additional evidence. 66. For discussions of the Almohad persecutions in the context of North African and of Jewish history, see H. Z. (J. W.) Hirschberg, A H isto ry o f th e Jew s in N o r th A fr ic a , I (Leiden, 1974), pp. 123­ 139; J.F.P. Hopkins, M e d iev a l M u slim G o v e r n m e n t in Barbary (Lon­ don, 1958), pp. 59-70; Roger le Tourneau, T h e A lm o h a d M o v e m e n t in N o r th A frica in th e T w e lfth a nd T h irteen th C en tu ries (Princeton, 1969), pp. 57ff·, 77, etc. 67. See Roger Savory, Iran un der th e Safavids (Cambridge, Eng., 1980). 68. Cf. B. Lewis, “ Some Observations on the Significance of Heresy in Islam,” S tu dia Islam ica 1 (1953): 43-63; revised version in idem, 2, pp. 2 7 5 - 2 9 3 . 69. On this episode, see Stillman, T h e Jew s o f A ra b L a n d s , pp. 57-59, 211-225. 70. On these works, and more generally on mutual cultural influ­ ences between Judaism and Islam, see Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, S om e R elig io u s A sp e c ts o f Islam (Leiden, 1981), pp. 72-89. 7 1. Al-Jāhiz, E il-r a d d ʼn la ’l-N aşārã in T h alãth R a sä ’il, 2d ed., ed. J. Finkel (Cairo, 1382), pp. 13-14, 17-18; English translation in Stillman, T h e Jew s o f A ra b L a n d s , pp. 169-170. See also J. Finkel in J o u r n a l o f th e A m erica n O r ie n ta l S o ciety (1927). 72. Charles Issawi, T h e E c o n o m ic H isto ry o f T u rkey , 1 8 0 0 - 1 9 1 4 (Chicago, 1980), pp. i3-i4· 73. řAbd al-Rahmān ibn Hasan al Jabartī, 'A jã ’ib al-āthãr f i l -

202 ■ NOTES TO CHAPTER 2

tarãjim wďl-akhbãr III (Bulaq, 1297 [=1879-80]), pp. u ff., 28, 44ff., 7 8 ,1 0 9 ,113, 208, etc., cf. Harald Motzki, Dimma undÉgalité: Die nichtmuslimischen Minderheiten Ägyptens in der zweiten Hälfte des 18. ]ahrhunderts und die Expedition Bonapartes (ιγ98-1801) (Bonn, 1 9 7 9 ), PP· 2,63ff., 324ff. 74. See, for example, the remarks cited by Cevdet Pa§a, Tezakir, III, ed. Cavid Baysun (Ankara, 1963), pp. 236-237; English trans­ lation in Stillman, The Jews o f Arab Lands, p. 361.

TW O. THE JU D A E O -IS L A M IC TR A D ITIO N

i. The formation of the Judaeo-Islamic tradition and the history of the Jews in the medieval Muslim world have formed the subject of an extensive scholarly literature. A few longer recent works will be mentioned here; guidance to the rest may be found in Mark Cohen’s bibliographical studies, cited in Chapter 1, note 1. The only comprehensive surveys of the subject are still those contained in the larger, general Jewish histories; the latest, and by far the best, is S. W. Baron’s Social and Religious History o f the Jews (New York, 1952), in which the Islamic lands are examined both at length and in depth. Various aspects of relations between Jews and Muslims and between Judaism and Islam are discussed in E.I.J. Rosenthal, Judaism and Islam (London, 1961); A. I. Katsh, Judaism in Islam (New York, 1962); and, especially, S. D. Goitein, Jews and Arabs; Their Contacts through the Ages, 3d rev. ed. (New York, 1974). Goitein’s A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities o f the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents o f the Cairo Geniza (3 vols., 4th in press: Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1967- ) is a major achievement of scholarship, which, through the light it sheds on Jewish life in the medieval Islamic world, has brought a new di­ mension to the study of Islamic history itself. Though more limited in scope and purpose, Mark R. Cohen’s Jewish Self-Government in Medieval Egypt: The Origins o f the Office o f Head o f the Jews, ca. 1065-1116 (Princeton, 1980) contributes substantially to the un­ derstanding of Jewish communal organization in the Islamic Middle Ages. Among books on specific countries, mention may be made of the works of E. Ashtor (Strauss) on the history of the Jews in Mamluk Egypt and Syria (3 vols., in Hebrew, Jerusalem, 1944-1970), and in Muslim Spain (2 vols., in Hebrew, Jerusalem, 1960-1966; English translation, Philadelphia, 1973-1979); and of J. W. (H. Z.) Hirsch-

NOTES TO CHAPTER 2 ■ 203

berg on the Jews of North Africa (2 vols., in Hebrew, Jerusalem, 1965; English translation, Leiden, 1974-1982). 2. S. D. Goitein, “Jewish Society and Institutions under Islam,” J o u r n a l o f W o r ld H istory 11 (1968): 173. See also E. Ashtor, “ The Number of Jews in Mediaeval Egypt,” J ou rn a l o f Jew ish Stu dies 18 (1967): 9-42; 19 (1968): 1-22; idem, “ Prolegomena to the Mediaeval History of Oriental Jewry,” J Q R 50 (1959): 55-68, 147-166; N. Golb, “ The Topography of the Jews of Medieval Egypt,” Jou rn a l ■ o f N e a r E astern S tu dies 24 (1965): 251-270. 3. Geiger, W as h a t M o h a m m a d aus dem Ju d en th u m a u fg en om m en? (Bonn, 1833, rev. ed., Leipzig, 1902); English translation, J u ­ daism a n d Islam (Madras, 1898). 4. Hanna Zakarias, V I s la m , entreprise ju iv e de M o ïse a M o ­ h a m m ed (Cahors, 1955); idem, L T sla m et la critiqu e h isto r ią u e , la fin d u m y th e m usulm an et a ccu eil fa it a u x ouvrages de H a n n a Z a ­ karias (Cahors, i960). According to Maxime Rodinson (“ A Critical Survey of Modern Studies on Muhammad,” in Studies on Isla m , tr. and ed. Merlin L. Swartz [New York and London, 1981], p. 79, note 166), the author was a well-known Dominican scholar called G. Thery, who used a pseudonym because he was refused an im­ primatur by his order. 5. Patricia Crone and Michael Cook, Hagarism : T h e M a k in g o f th e Isla m ic W o r ld (Cambridge, Eng., 1977). 6. See £ / 2, s.v.v. “ Isrā'īliyyāt” (by G. Vajda), and “ Banū Isrā’īl” (by S. D. Goitein). Gordon D. Newby, “ Tafsir Isra’iliyat: The De­ velopment of Qur’an-Commentary in Early Islam in its Relationships to Judaeo-Christian Traditions of Scriptural Commentaries,” J ou rn a l o f th e A m er ica n A ca d em y o f R elig ion 47 (1979): 685-697. For a discussion of the views of different Muslim authorities on the law­ fulness or otherwise of accepting information from Jewish sources, see M. J. Kister, “ Haddithū 'an Banī Isrā’īla walā haraja: A Study of an Early Tradition,” Israel O rien ta l Stu dies 2 (1972): 215-239; reprinted in his S tu dies in Jahiliyya a n d Early Islam (London, 1980). The references to Jews and Judaism in h ad īth were studied in detail by G. Vajda, “Juifs et Musulmans selon le Hadit,” Journal A sia tiq u e 229 (1937): 57-127. The earlier studies by I. Goldziher are still of great value. 7. There is an extensive literature on this question. For a general survey, see £ / 2, s.v. “ al-Ķuds” (by S. D. Goitein), where earlier pub­ lications are listed. For a more recent study, see Hava Lazarus-Yafeh,

204

■ NOTES

to

CHAPTER 2

(Leiden, 1981), chapter 5, “ The Sanctity of Jerusalem in Islam,” pp. 58-71. 8. Aelia, the Roman name for Jerusalem, was also used in the early period of Arab rule, until it was replaced by the later al-Quds. 9. Al-Ţabarī, T a ’r ik h , I, pp. 2408-2409; English translation in Lewis, Isla m , II, p. 3. 10. See pp. 96-97. 11. S. D. Goitein, S tu d ies in Isla m ic H isto ry a n d In stitu tio n s (Lei­ den, 1966), chap. 5, “ The Origin and Nature of the Muslim Friday Worship,” pp. m - 1 2 5 (previously published in French in A n n a les E S C 3 (1958): 488-500. 12. Geiger, J u d a ism , pp. 68-69, citing M ish n a B e r a c h o t , 1,2. Cf. T h e S o n c in o T a lm u d , B e r a c h o t , pp. 48-49. 13. See E JZ, s.v.v. “ Ķārūn” (by D. B. Macdonald); “ Ham” and “ Ilyās” (by G. Vajda). On the Curse of Ham, see also Lewis, R a ce a n d S la v er y , pp. 5 5 , 5 7 -5 8 ; Ephraim Isaac, “ Genesis, Judaism and the ‘Sons of Ham,’ ” in Slavery a n d A b o litio n 1 (1980): 3-17; idem, “ Concept biblique et rabbinique de la malediction de Noé,” Service In tern a tio n a l d e d o cu m e n ta tio n ju d é o -ch ré tien n e 11 (1978): 16-35. 14. The evidence was very thoroughly examined by H. Z. (J. W.) Hirschberg, in his book Israel b e-A ra v (Tel-Aviv, 1946). 15. On the general background, see Sidney Smith, “ Events in Ara­ bia in the 6th century a .d .,” B u lletin o f th e S c h o o l o f O r ie n ta l a n d A frica n S tu d ies 16 (1954): 425-468; and Janos Harmatta, “ The Struggle for the Possession of Southern Arabia between Aksum and the Sasanians,” in /V C o n g resso ĩn tern a zio n a le d i S tu d i E tio p ic i , I (Rome, 1974), pp. 95-106, especially pp. io3ff., on the role of the Yemenite Jewish king Dhū Nuwās, now much better known, thanks to the discovery and decipherment of two important Himyaritic in­ scriptions of a .d . 518-519. 16. On Judaeo-Arabic, see Joshua Blau, D ik d u k h a -A r a v it haY e h u a it s h e l yem e h a-ben ayyim (Jerusalem, 1961); idem, J u d a eoA ra b ic L iterature: S e lected T e x ts (Jerusalem, 1980); idem, T h e E m e r ­ gen ce an d L in guistic B a ckg ro u n d o f Judaeo-A rabic (Jerusalem, 1981). 17. On possible connections between Rabbinic and Islamic law, see Goitein, S tu d ies , chap. 6, “ The Birth-Hour of Muslim Law,” pp. 126-134; idem, “ The Interplay of Jewish and Islamic Laws " J e w is h L a w in L eg a l H isto ry a n d th e M o d ern W o r ld , ed. Bernard S. Jackson (Leiden, 1980), pp. 61-77; Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, “ Bayn halakha bayahudut le-halakha ba-Islam: řal kama hevdelim 'iqariyim u-mishniyim,” in T a rb iz 51 (1982): 207-225; Robert Brunschvig, “ HerS o m e R e lig io u s A sp e c ts o f Islam

NOTES TO CHAPTER 2 ■ 205

meneutique normative dans le Judaïsme et dans ľlslam,” in A tti della series 8, R en d ico n ti, class. Sci m or. stor. fil 30 (1975) (Rome, 1976): 1-20; idem, “ Voeu ou serment: Droit compare du Judaïsme et de ľlslam,” in H o m m a g e à G eorg es V ajda (Louvain, 1980), pp. 125-134. 18. For a brief interpretative essay, see G. Vajda, “ Le ‘Kalāπľ dans la penseé religieuse juive du Moyen Age,” R ev u e de ľ H is to ir e des R elig io n s (1973), pp. 143-160. 19. N. Wieder, “ Hashpa'ot Islamiyot řal ha-pulhan ha-Yehudi,” M elila 2 (1946): 37-120. 20. See L. A. Mayer, V A r t ] u i f en terre ď ĩs la m (Geneva, 1959). 21. See Mordechai A. Friedman, “ Polygyny in Jewish Tradition and Practice: New Sources from the Cairo Geniza,” P roceed in g s o f th e A m er ica n A c a d em y fo r Jew ish R esearch 49 (1982): 33-68. 22. See, for example, Ibn Ishāq, Sīrat R a su l A lla h , ed. F. Wüstenfeld (Göttingen, 1858-1860), pp. 684ff.; Engish translation by A. Guillaume, T h e L ife o f M u h a m m a d (London, 1955), pp. 46iff. The treatment of the fate of the Banū Qurayza by modern scholars, both Muslim and Western, may serve as a touchstone of attitudes and preferences. An interesting point was made by Professor Rudi Paret, in his M o h a m m e d u n d der K oran (Stuttgart, 1957), p. 112: “ As regards the massacre of the Banū Qurayza, it must be borne in mind that the usages of warfare at that time were in many respects more brutal than those to which we are accustomed in the age of the Geneva convention. But Muhammad must be measured by the standards of his own time.” 23. E l2, s.v. “Takiyya” (R. Strothmann [Moktar Djebli]). 24. Qur’an, V,7: “ The food of those who were given the Book is lawful for you.” In practice this was usually restricted to Jews. For an Ottoman ruling, see Düzdag, Seyhülislâm E b u ssu û d , p. 91. The Ottoman qādī’s registers show that it was commonplace for Muslims to buy meat from Jewish butchers (see Amnon Cohen, J ew ish L ife u n d er Islam : Jerusalem in th e 1 6 th C en tu ry , in press). 25. On the recent attempts to assign a new and larger significance to the Prophet’s struggles with the Jews, see p. 187. 26. Moshe Perlmann, “ The Medieval Polemics between Islam and Judaism,” in R elig io n in a R elig io u s A g e, ed. S. D. Goitein (Cam­ bridge, Mass., 1974), p. 106. On polemics in general, see M. Steinschneider, P o lem isch e u n d ap ologetische L iteratur in arabischer Sprache z w isch en M u slim e n , C h risten u n d Juden (Leipzig, 1877); I. Goldziher, “ Ueber Muhammedanische Polemik gegen Ahl al-Kitab,” Z e itA cca d e m ia N a z io n a le d ei L in c ei,

2 0 6 ■ NOTES TO CHAPTER 2

schriţt der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 32 (1878): 341387. 27. Al-Bāqillām, Al-Tamhtd, ed. al-Khudayπ and Abū Rida (Cairo, 1366/1947), pp. 131-148; ed. R. J. McCarthy (Beirut, 1957), pp. 160-190; discussed by Robert Brunschvig, “ Ľ Argumentation ďun théologien musulman du Xe siècle contre le Judaiisme,” in Homenaje a Millas-Vallicrosa, I (Barcelona, 1954), pp. 225-241. 28. Ibn Hazm, Al-Radd 'ala ibn al-Naghrīla al-Yahüdī wa-rasã’il ukhrã, ed. Ihşān 'Abbās (Cairo, 1380/1960); discussed in M. Perlmann, “ Eleventh-Century Andalusian Authors on the Jews of Gra­ nada,” Proceedings o f the American Academy for Jewish Research 18 (1949): 271-284; and E. García Gomez, “ Polémica religiosa entre Ibn Hazm y Ibn al-Nagrila,” al-Andalus 4 (1936): 1-28. According to a story told by Yāqūt (Irshäd al-Arīb, V, ed. D. S. Margoliouth, [London, 1911], p. 114), the Damascene historian Ibn 'Asākir in­ terrupted a series of discourses he was giving on the history of the early caliphate to dictate a discourse “ in condemnation of the Jews and on their being doomed to eternal hellfire.” No copy appears to have survived. 29. The view that all religions are equally false appears, as one would expect, not as an opinion that a writer puts forward as his own, but as an abominable error that he ascribes to an adversary. The best-known example occurs in a letter allegedly written by a tenth-century Isma'ili leader, and cited by Sunni authors as an ex­ ample of Isma'ili sedition. See fAbd al-Qāhir al-Baghdādī, Kitāb alFarq bayn al-Firaq (Cairo, n.d.), p. 281; English translation in A. S. Halkin, Moslem Schisms and Sects (Tel-Aviv, 1935), PP· 136-137. For a more epigrammatic version, which later also circulated in Europe, see Nizām al-Mulk, Siyãsat-nãme, ed. Schefer (Paris, 1891), chap. 47, p. 197; French translation (Paris, 1893), p. 288; English translation by Hubert Darke, The Book o f Government (London, i960), p. 236. Similar sentiments are suggested in some of the quat­ rains of TJmar Khayyam. The more positive view, that all religions are true, appears in Sufi writings. For some examples, see Goldziher, Introduction, pp. 151-152. On some aspects of Muslim humanism, see also S. D. Goitein, “ The Concept of Mankind in Islam,” in History and the Idea o f Mankind, ed. W. Wager (New Mexico, 1971), pp. 72.-91* 30. Ibn Şā'id al-Andalusī, Kitāb Ţabaqãt al-Umam (Cairo, n.d.), pp. 131-136; another edition by Cheikho in Machriq (Beirut, 1912);

NOTES TO CHAPTER 2 ■ 207

French translation by Régis Blachère, Livre des Categories des Na­ tions (Paris, 1935), pp. 155-161. 31. See Franz Rosenthal, “The Influences of the Biblical Tradition on Muslim Historiography,” in Historians o f the Middle East, ed. Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt (London, 1962), pp. 35-45. 32. Karl Jahn, Die Geschichte der Kinder Israels des Rašīd adDīn (Vienna, 1973) (introduction, text, translation, and commen­ tary); cf. idem, “ Die ‘Geschichte der Kinder Israels’ in der islamischen Historiographie,” Anzeiger der phil. hist. Klasse der Osterreichischer Akademie der Wissenschaften 109 (1972): 67-76. 33. W. F. Fischel, “ Ibn Khaldun: On the Bible, Judaism and the Jews,” in Ignace Goldziher Memorial Volume, II (Jerusalem, 1956), pp. 147-171; idem, “ Ibn Khaldun and Josippon,” in Homenaje a Millas-Vallicrosa, I (Barcelona, 1954), pp. 587-589. 34. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, I, p. 211; idem, “Jewish society,” JW H, pp. i75řf. 35. Text published by L. Ginzberg, Genizah Studies in Memory o fD . Solomon Schechter (New York, 1928), pp. 310-312; discussed by B. Lewis. “ On That Day: A Jewish Apocalyptic Poem on the Arab Conquests,” in Melanges d ’Islamologie: Volume dédié à la memoire de Armand Abel (Leiden, 1974), pp. 197-200; cf. idem, “ An Apoc­ alyptic Vision of Islamic History,” Bulletin o f the School o f Oriental and African Studies 13 (1950): 308-338. 36. See El·, s.v. “ Abū řīsa” (by S. M. Stern); Encyclopaedia Judaica, s.v. (by Zvi Avneri). 37. Cited in S. W. Baron, A Social and Religious History o f the Jews , VIII, p. 342, n. 91. Cf. Judah Hallevľs Kitab al Khazari, 2d ed., tr. Hartwig Hirschfeld (London, 1931), p. 69. 38. Moshe Perlmann, ed., Saed b. Mansur Ibn Kammũnaỳs Ex­ amination o f the Inquiries into the Three Faiths (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1967), p. 102. 39. See E l1, s.v. “ Ka'b al-Ahbār” (by M. Schmitz). 40. See El·, s.v.v. “ Abū TJbayda” (by H.A.R. Gibb), and “ Abū Hanīfa al-Nuemān” (by J. Schacht). 41. See El·, s.v. “ Ibn Killis” (by M. Canard). 42. Ibn Abī 'Uşaybi'a, Kitāb eUyün al-Anbā’ ft Ţabaqāt al-Aţibba, I (Cairo, 1299/1883), p. 260, in the biography of Ibn al-Tilmīdh; for the same author’s biography of Abu’l-Barakāt, see pp. 278-280. See further El·, s.v. “ Abu’l-Barakāt” (by S. Pines). 43. See Goitein, Mediterranean Society, II, pp. 3o2ff.

2 θ 8 ■ NOTES TO CHAPTER 2

44. Samaw’al al-Maghribī, Ifhãm al-Yahūd , ed. and tr. Moshe Perlmann (New York, 1964). 45. Ibn al-Qiftī, Ta’rtkh al-Hukamã\ ed. J. Lippert (Leipzig, 1903), pp· 3i7-3i9· 46. Ibn Hajar, Al-Durar al-Kamina, III (Hyderabad, 1349), pp. 232-233; al-Maqřizī, Kitāb al-Sulük, II/3, ed. Muşţařā Ziāda (Cairo, 1958), pp. 189-190; al-Nuwayrī, Nihãyat al-arab, XXX, pp. 122123; Dawlatshah, The Tadhkirat ash-Sbuara , ed. E. G. Browne (London, 1901), p. 330; Walter J. Fischel, “ Azarbaijan in Jewish History,” Proceedings o f the American Academy for Jewish Research 32 (1953): 18-19. 47. See, for example, the ban imposed by the merchants’ guild of Fez on Muslim craftsmen and merchants descended from Islamized Jews; details in Enquête sur les corporations musulmanes d yartisans et de commerçants au Maroc by Louis Massignon, reprinted from Revue du Monde Musulman (1925), pp. 221-224. Some of the Almohad rulers even subjected converted Jews and their descendants to certain restrictions on dress and on intermarriage with old Muslim families. See Hirschberg, A History o f the Jews in North Africa, I, pp. 20iff. 48. From Maimonides’ Epistle to the Jews of Yemen, written in 1172. English translation in Stillman, The Jews o f Arab Lands, p. 241; text in Iggeret Teman, ed. A. Halkin (New York, 1952), p. 94; cf. S. D. Goitein, Interfaith Relations in Medieval Islam (New York, i 9 7 3 ), P· 2·7 · 49. On “ charges” of Jewish ancestry, see I. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, I (Halle, 1889), pp. 203-205; English transla­ tion, Muslim Studies, I (London, 1967), pp. 186-188. 50. See E l·, s.v. “ 'Abdallah b. Sabā” (by M.G.S. Hodgson). For earlier discussions, see I. Friedlander, “ fAbd Allah ibn Sabā’,” in Zeitschrift für Assyriologie (1909), pp. 296-327; (1910), pp. 1-47; G. Levi Della Vida, “ II Califfato di Ali secondo il Kitāb Ansāb alA ŝrãfάi al-Balādurī,” in Rivista degli Studi Orientali (1912), p. 495, note 2. 51. See El·, s.v. “ Ibn al-Rāwandī” (by P. Kraus [G. Vajda]). 52. See El·, s.v. “ Abd Allah b. Maymūn” (by S. M. Stern). On his alleged Jewish origins, see B. Lewis, The Origins o f Ismailism (Cambridge, Eng., 1940; reprinted New York, 1975), pp. 67-69. 53. Torlak means an unbroken colt and hence, figuratively, a wild youth. Some early sources speak of “ a torlak called Hu Kemal.” On this rebellion, see F. Babinger, “ Schejch Bedr ed-Din,” Der Islam 2

NOTES TO CHAPTER 3 ■ 209

( 1 9 2 1 ): i - 1 0 6 ; Abdülbaki Gölpinarh, Sim avna K a d isi oğlu Şeyh B e d (Istanbul, 1 9 6 6 ); J. Hammer, H istoire de ľE m p ir e O tto m a n , II (Paris, 1 8 3 5 ), pp. 1 8 2 - 1 8 6 ; Ismail Hakki Uzunçarşili, O sm a n lt T a rih i , I (Ankara, 1 9 6 1 ), pp. 3 6 3 -3 6 4 , 5 3 1 -5 3 2 , 5 6 5 . 5 4 . Goitein, Jew s a n d A r a b s , p. 7 3 . pp. 110 - 1 2 7 .

red d in

T H R E E . LATE M E D IE V A L AND EARLY M O D E R N PE R IO D S

ι . For a discussion of the effects of the coming of the steppe peoples on the Muslim polity, see Lewis, Islam in H isto ry , pp. 189 - 2 0 7 . 2. A critical bibliographical survey of scholarly publications on the history of all these communities, down to ca. 1670, will be found in the article by Mark R. Cohen, “ The Jews under Islam,” cited in chap, i, note 1. For a comprehensive, classified bibliography on North Africa, see Robert Attal, L es Juifs ď A fr iq u e du N o rd : Bib lio g ra p h ie (Jerusalem, 1973). Bibliographical and documentary ma­ terial will also be found in two Israeli periodicals devoted to the history and culture of Jews in the Islamic lands: S efu n o t (1956- ) and P e ʼn m im (1979- ), both published by the Ben-Zvi Institute in Jerusalem. The University of Haifa has also published the first of what is announced as a series of collections of studies devoted to “ research and monographs on the subject of Sephardic Jewry and Jews from Islamic countries” (M ik k e d e m U m iyyam , I [Haifa, 1981]). For a general survey, with documentary and bibliographical ap­ pendices, of the history of the Jews in Islamic lands from the end of the Middle Ages to the mid-nineteenth century, see Yosef Tobi, Jacob Barnai, and Shalom Bar-Asher, T o ld o t b a -Y eh u d im b e-a rtzot haIsla m , ed. Shmuel Ettinger (Jerusalem, 1981). Graetz’s account of the Ottoman Jews, though based exclusively on Jewish and European sources, is still of value. Baron’s history has already covered the Islamic lands in the later Middle Ages; volume 18, dealing with the Ottoman lands and Persia in the years 1260 to 1650 (1 9 8 3 ). 3. These responsa were extensively used by some earlier scholars, notably Joseph Nehama, H isto ire des Israelites de S a lo n iq u e , 5 vols. (Salonika and Paris, 1935-1959); L S. Emmanuel, H isto ire des Is­ raelites d e S a lo n iq u e , I (Paris, 1936); S. Rozanes, D iv rê Y em ê Yisrael b e-T og a rm a ( = K o r o t h a -Y eb u d im b e-T u rkiy a v e-artzot h a -Q e d e m ), vol. T (Tel-Aviv, 1930); vols. 2-5 (Sofia, 1934-1938); vol. 6 (Je­ rusalem, 1945); and more recently in a series of articles by J. Hacker. For a bibliography of responsa collections, see Boaz Cohen, K u n tres

210 ■ NOTES TO CHAPTER 3

(Budapest, 1930; reprinted Westmead, 1970). In gen­ eral, see Jacob M. Landau, “ Hebrew Sources for the Socio-Economic History of the Ottoman Empire,” D e r Islam 54 (1977): 205-212, where further bibliography is given. 4. A curious exception is a manuscript of an early Turkish anon­ ymous chronicle, transcribed in Hebrew letters; Ugo Marazzi, T evarih-i A l-i O sm a n : C ron aca anonim a ottom ana in trascrizione ebraica (Naples, 1980). 5. The two works are (1) Eliyahu Kapsali, Seder E ĩiy a h u Z u t a , 2 vols., ed. Aryeh Shmuelevitz et al. (Jerusalem, 1975-1977); some excerpts were published at a much earlier date by M. Lattes, D e Vita et scriptis E lia e K a p sa lii (Padua, 1869); (2) Joseph ha-Cohen, Sefer h a -T e s h u v o t

D iv r ê h a -Y a m im le-m a lk h ê T sarefat u -m a lk h ê b et O tto m a n b a -T o g er,

printed in Sabbionetta in 1554 and reprinted in Amsterdam in 1733 and in Lemberg in 1859. An English translation by C.H.F. Bialloblotsky {T h e C h r o n ic le s o f R a b b i J o sep h ben Josh u a ben M eir th e S ep h a rd i , 2 vols. [London, 1836]) is hopelessly inaccurate. For discussions of these (and other) Jewish historiographical works, see Moritz Steinschneider, D ie G e sch ich tslitera tu r der Juden (Frankfurt, 1905), pp. 93-94, 102. 6. R. D. Barnett, “ The Correspondence of the Mahamad of the Spanish and Portuguese Congregation of London during the Sev­ enteenth and Eighteenth Centuries,” in T ranslations o f th e Jew ish H isto r ic a l S o ciety o f E n g la n d 20 (1964): 1-50, especially pp. 23ff. 7. For examples of studies based wholly or in part on these ar­ chives, see A. C. Wood, A H isto ry o f th e L ev a n t C o m p a n y (London, 1935; reprinted 1964); Paolo Preto, V en ezia e i T u rch i (Florence, p, penhagen, 1907); André Raymond, Artisans et com m erçants au Caire au X V I I l · siè c le , 2 vols. (Damascus, 1973-1974); Robert Mantran, Ista n b u l dans la s ec o n d e m o itié du X V I I e siècle (Paris, 1962); A. H. de Groot, T h e O tto m a n E m p ire a n d the D u tc h R ep u b lic: A H isto ry o f th e E a rliest D ip lo m a tic R ela tio n s , 1610-1630 (Leiden-Istanbul, 1978). These and other similar works throw some light on the fre­ quent commercial and occasional diplomatic role of Jews in Ottoman-European relations. 8. An excellent guide to the travel literature may be found in Shirley Howard Weber, V oyages a n d Travels in G r e ec e , the N ea r E a st a n d A d ja c en t R eg ion s , M a d e Previous to the Year 18 0 1 (Princeton, 1953); idem, V oyages a n d T ravels in the N ea r E a st M a d e D u rin g th e X I X C en tu ry (Princeton, 1952). For Jewish travelers, Abraham Ya'ari’s

NOTES TO CHAPTER 3 ■ 2 I I

bibliographies and collections have to a large extent superseded the earlier works of J. Eisenstein and others. 9. See, for example, the chronicles of Rashid, anno 1077 (16661667), on the execution of a Jew and a Turkish woman for forni­ cation; 112.8 (1716), on the execution of three Jews for beating a Turkish boy; Çelebizade, 1139 (1726-1727), on the removal of Jew­ ish dwellings to make room for the Yeni Jami mosque; 1159 (1746), on the execution of several Jews for assaulting a Turk. 10. For general accounts of the archives, see ET, “ Başvekâlet arşivi” (by B. Lewis); Paul Dumont, “ Les Archives ottomanes de Turquie,” in Les Arabes par leurs archives (XVIe-X X e siècles), ed. Jacques Berque and Dominique Chevallier (Paris, 1976), pp. 229243; S. J. Shaw, “ Archival Sources for Ottoman History: The Ar­ chives of Turkey,” Journal o f the American Oriental Society 80 (i960): i-i 2; Midhat Sertoglu, Muhteva bakimtndan Başvekâlet Ar­ şivi (Ankara, 1955); Atillâ Çetin, Başhakanlîk Arşivi Kilavuzu (Istan­ bul, 1979); J. Reychman and A. Zajaczkowski, Handbook o f O t­ toman Turkish Diplomatics (Hague-Paris, 1968). On the Tapu series, see Ö. L. Barkan, “ Les grands recensements de la population et du territoire de l’Empire ottoman,” Revue de la faculté des sciences économiques de ľUniversité ďlstanbul 2 (1940): 21-34, 168-179; idem, “ Essai sur les donnés statistiques des registres de recensement dans ľEmpire ottoman au XVième et XVĬième siècles,” Journal o f the Economic and Social History o f the Orient (1957), pp. 36-39; idem, “ Daftar-i Khāķānī,” in ET. 11. Omer Lûtfi Barkan, “ Quelques observations sur ľorganisation économique et sociale des villes ottomanes des XVIe et XVIIe siècles,” in Recueils Société Jean Bodin, La Ville, II (Brussels, 1955), p. 295. 12. Mark Alan Epstein, The Ottoman Jewish Communities and Their Role in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries (Freiburg, 1980). 13. B. Lewis, “Judaeo-Osmanica,” in Thought and Action: Essays in Memory o f Simon Rawidowicz on the 25th Anniversary o f his Death, ed. A. A. Greenbaum and Alfred L. Ivry (1983), pp. I-VIII. 14. Amnon Cohen, Yehudê Yerushalayim ba-mea ha-sheshfesreh lefi te'udot Turkiyot shel bet ha-din ha-Shari (Jerusalem, 1976). For an example of this type of documentation, from the registers of Bursa, see Halil Inalcik, “ Osmanli Idare, Sosyal ve Ekonomik Tarihiyle ilgili Belgeler,” Belgeler: Turk Tarih Belgeleri Dergisi 10 (1980): 1-91, especially documents 2, 9, 24, 46, 75, 89, 107, 115, 118, 134, 151,156. The 190 documents published in this study were all written between February 1484 and January i486. For regesta, without texts,

2 1 2 ■ NOTES TO CHAPTER 3

from the registers of Ankara, from March 1583 to February 1584, see Halit Ongan, Ankaraʼnm I Numaralt Şer'iye Sicili (Ankara, 1958), especially numbers 107, 654, 997, 1112, 1114. Examples from Sofia in Galab D. Galabov, Die Protokollbücher des Kadiamtes Sofia, ed. H. W. Duda (Munich, i960); index, s.v. “Jude.” 15. A number of articles dealing with various aspects of Ottoman Jewish history will be found in Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire, 2 vols; ed. Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis (New York, 1982). A short classified bibliography is appended. This, and the relevant sections of Mark Cohen’s articles, include the writings of early modern chroniclers such as Franco, Rozanes, and Galante; the second generation studies in Rabbinic responsa (e.g., Goodblatt, Em­ manuel, and Zimmels); and more recent scholarly monographs based on Turkish archives (Heyd, Ankori, Amnon Cohen, Epstein, etc.). To these should be added a number of articles by Haim Gerber, dealing with the economic life of Ottoman Jewry, especially in Bursa, and based on both Turkish and Rabbinic sources. See especially Sefunot m.s. 1 (1980); Zion 14 (1980); Michael 7 (1982), and, in English, JQR 71 (1981). 16. Braude and Lewis, Christians and Jews, I, pp. 11-12, n 7 ff. (by J. R. Hacker); Barkan, “ Osmanli Imparatorluğunda bir iskân ve Kolonizyon Metodu olarak sürgünler,” Istanbul ÍĴniversitesi Iktisat Eakültesi Mecmuasi, 11 (1949-1950): 524-561; 13 (1951-1952): 5678; 15 (1953-1954): 209-236; idem, “ Les deportations dans l’Empire ottoman,” Revue de la faculté des sciences économiques de ľü n iversite ď Istanbul 2 (1949-1950): 67-131; Halil Inalcik, “ Ottoman Methods of Conquest,” Studia Islamica 2 (1954), especially pp. i22ff.; idem, EIZ, s.v. “ Istanbul,” Epstein, index. For a study, with docu­ ments, of deportations to and from Manisa, in Anatolia, see M. Çagatay Uluçay, “ Sürgünler,” Belleten 15 (1951): 507-592. Sev­ eral of Uluçay’s documents refer to the deportation or pardoning of Jewish malefactors (e.g., pp. 519, 532, 543, 554, 587, 591). 17. Jewish evidence in Kapsali, Seder Eliyahu Zuta, I, pp. 8iff.; cf. Rozanes, Divrê Yemê, I, pp. 21-22, and Galante, Histoire des Juifs ďIstanbul, I (Istanbul, 1941), pp. 3-5. 18. Topkapi Palace Archives D9524. This document was appar­ ently first published, in excerpts, in the Turkish newspaper Vatan, of July 26, 1948. It was analyzed from there by Alfons Maria Schnei­ der, “ Die Bevölkerung Konstantinopels im XV. Jahrhundert,” Nachrichten der Akademie des Wissenschaften in Göttingen: Phil. Hist. Klasse 9 (1949): 24off.; and again, from the original and at

NOTES TO CHAPTER 3 ■ 2 i 3

greater length, by Ekrem Hakki Ayverdi, Fatih devri sonlarmda Istanbul mahalleleri, şehrin iskâm ve nüfusu (Ankara, 1958), pp. 80-81. See further, Halil Inalcik, E J2, s.v. “ Istanbul,” pp. 238-239; and Robert Mantran, “ Règlements fiscaux ottomans: La police des marches de Stamboul au debut du XVICsiècle,” Cahiers de Tunisie 14 (1956): 238, note 68. 19. Arnold von Harff, Die Pilgerfahrt des Ritters A.v.H. . . . in den ]ahren 1496 bis 1499 vollendet, ed. E. von Groote (Cologne, i860); English translation by Malcolm Letts (London, 1946), p. 244; Cristóbal de Villalon (attrib.), Viaje de Turquia (Madrid, 1905), p. 146 (the author of this work was in fact not Villalon but Andrés Laguna; see Marcel Bataillon, he Docteur Laguna: Autour du Vo­ yage en Turquie [Paris, 1958], pp. 712-735); The Travels o f John Sanderson in the Levant, 1584-1602, ed. Sir William Foster (London, 1931), pp. 82-83; Uriel Heyd, “ The Jewish Communities of Istanbul in the Seventeenth Century,” Oriens 6 (1953): 299-314; Epstein, Ottoman Jewish Communities, pp. 178-188. 20. See, for example, S. D. Goitein, “ ‘Eduyot qedumot min haGeniza ‘al qehillat Saloniki,” Sefunot 2 (1971-1978): 11-33. 21. Lewis, “Judaeo-Osmanica,” pp. V-VI; idem, Notes and Doc­ uments from the Turkish Archives (Jerusalem, 1952), pp. 25-28; Epstein, Ottoman Jewish Communities, passim. See further, Heath W. Lowry, “ Portrait of a City: The Population and Topography of Ottoman Selânik (Thessaloniki) in the year 1478,” Diptykha (Ath­ ens) 2 (1980-1981): 254-292. 22. Documents from the Muhimme registers, edited and translated in Lewis, Notes and Documents, pp. 28-34. In an important article, Uriel Heyd (“ Te'udot Turkiyyot řal Yehudê Tsefat ba-me’a ha-16,” Yerushalayim 2/5 [1955]: 128-135) published the texts of five further documents from the Muhimme registers, as follows: (1) 981/1573, penal deportation to Cyprus; (2) 986/1579, deportation dropped; (3) 986/1578, confirms; (4) 987/1579 (order to Cyprus), authorizing the settlement there of Jews intercepted on their way from Salonika to Safed; (5) 992/1584 (order to Damascus), calls for an investigation of the synagogue in Safed. (Some translated in Heyd, Ottoman Doc­ uments on Palestine 1552-1615 [Oxford, i960], pp. 167-169.) 23. Tarih-i Peçevi, I (Istanbul, 1280/1863-1864), p. 99. 24. Joseph ha-Kohen (1496-1575), Divrê ha-Yamim le-Malkhê Tsarefat u-vêt Ottoman he-Toger, II (Amsterdam, 1733), P· 7*>; Bialloblotsky, Chronicles , II (London, 1835-1836), p. 58. Cf. A. Galante,

214

■ NOTES

to

chapter

3

Turcs et Juifs (Istanbul, 1932.), pp. 28-29; idem, Türklerve Yahudiler (Istanbul, 1947), p. 17. 25. Demetrius Cantemir, A History o f the Growth and Decay o f the Ottoman Empire (1 3 0 0 -1 6 8 3 J, from Latin into English by N. Tindal (London, 1734), P· 28 i , note 10; Galante, Türkler, p. 18. 26. Braude and Lewis, Christians and Jews, pp. 24ff.; see also the contributions by Benjamin Braude and Mark A. Epstein in this vol­ ume. On the structure of the rabbinate in the Ottoman Empire, see the study by Leah Bornstein, based on rabbinical sources, in Hirschberg, East and Maghreb, pp. 223-258. 27. B. Lewis, “ The Privilege Granted by Mehmed II to His Phy­ sician,” Bulletin o f the School o f Oriental and African Studies 14 (1952): 554. For a critical and annotated edition of the Hebrew text of this responsum, see Melila (Manchester) 5 (1955): 169-176. 28. Lewis, “ The Privilege,” passim. 29. Izzet [Kumbaracizade], Hekim-Başi odast> ilk eczane, Baş-Lala kulesi (Istanbul, 1933); Uriel Heyd, “ Moses Hamon, Chief Jewish Physician to Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent,” Oriens 16 (1963): 156-157; Eleazar Birnbaum, “ Hekim Yâqub, Physician to Sultan Mehemmed the Conqueror,” Harofe Haivri: The Hebrew Medical Journal i (1961): 222-250. According to an Ottoman document written ca. 1607-1608, the palace medical staff consisted of fortyone Jewish and twenty-one Muslim physicians. By the mid-seven­ teenth century the numbers and proportions had shrunk to four Jews and fourteen Muslims. 30. Heyd, “ Moses Hamon,” pp. 168-169. 31. Metin And, A History o f Theatre and Popular Entertainment in Turkey (Ankara, 1963-1964). 32. See B. Lewis, The Emergence o f Modern Turkey, 2d ed. (Lon­ don, 1968), pp. 41-42, 46-47, 50-52, where further sources are cited. 33. The relationship between the Jews and the janissaries has been discussed by both early and recent historians. See, for example, Franco, Essai, pp. 130, 133-134, 139; S. A. Rozanes, Korot ha-Yehudim beTurkiya uve-artzot ha-Qedem (Jerusalem, 1945), pp. 13ff.; A. Ga­ lante, Histoire des juifs ď Istanbul, II (Istanbul, 1942), pp. 55ff.; Lûtfi, Tarih-i Lûtfi, I (Istanbul, 1290-1328), pp. 245-246; II, pp. 203-204; Ismail Hakki Uzunçarşili, Osmanh Devleti Teşkilâtindan Kapikulu Ocaklan, I, Acemi Ocaği ve Yeniçeri Ocaği (Ankara, 1943), pp. 406-410, 495; Robert W. Olson, “Jews in the Ottoman Empire and Their Role in Light [sic] of New Documents,” Tarih Enstitüsü Dergisi (Istanbul) 7-8 (1976-1977): 119-144; cf. idem in Jewish

NOTES TO CHAPTER 3 ■ 2 i 5

Social Studies 42 (1979): 75-88. On the supply of cloth to the jan­

issaries, see Halil Sahillioğlu, “ Yeniçeri çuhasi ve II Bayeziďin son yillaπnda yeniçeri Çuha Muhasebesi,” Güney-Doğu Avrupa Araştirmalan Dergisi 2-3 (1973-1974): 415-467. 34. Navigations (Antwerp, 1576), p. 246. 35. Vicente Roca, Historia en la qual se trata de la origen y guerras que ban tenido los Turcos . . . (Valencia, 1556), fol. li verso; cited in The Turks in MDXXXIII: a series o f drawings made in that year at Constantinople by Peter Coeck o f Aelst . . . reproduced . . . in facsimile with an introduction by Sir William Stirling, Bart. (London and Edinburgh, 1873), P· 5 º· 36. Franz Kobler, ed., Letters o f Jews . . . , I (London, 1953), pp. 283-285. Cf. H. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden , VIII (Leipzig, 1875), pp. 423-425. The Hebrew text was published by A. Jellinek (Ķuntres Gezerat 48 5 6 [= 1095-96] . . . zur Geschichte der Kreuzzüge [Leip­

zig, 1854], pp. i4ff.). Graetz dates the letter ca. 1454. 37. Samuel Usque, A Consolaçam as Tribulacões de Israel, III, ed. Mendes Remedio (Coimbra, 1906), liii; cf. English translation by Martin A. Cohen, Consolation for the Tribulations o f Israel (Phil­ adelphia, 1965), p. 231. 38. F. von Pastor, The History o f the Popes, XIV (London, 1924), pp. 274ff.; Graetz, Geschichte der Juden , IX (Leipzig, 1877), pp. 4243, 349ff. There is an extensive modern literature, most of it some­ what romanticized, on Gracia Mendes and Joseph Nasi. For some Turkish documents, see Saffet, “ Yosef Nasi,’’ in Tarih-i Osmani Encümeni Mecmuasi, 3d year (1328), pp. 982-993; idem, “ Doña Gracia Mendes,” ibid., pp. 1158-1160; A. Galante, Don Joseph Nassi, due de Naxos , d ’après de nouveaux documents (Istanbul, I 9 i 3 )· 39. Examples in Binswanger, Untersuchungen, pp. i6off. and pas­ sim. 40. John Sanderson, Travels, p. 202; Joseph P. de Tournefort, A Voyage into the Levant, II (London, 1718), p. 74; French text in idem, Voyage dʼnn botaniste, II, ed. Stéphane Yerasimos (Paris, 1982), P· 92·· 41. Michele Febure (attrib.), Teatro della Turchia (Venice, 1681), pp. 314-315; cf. Mantran, Istanbul, pp. 60-62. The author of this

book was in fact a French Capuchin called Jean-Baptiste de SaintAignan (see Clemente da Terzorio, “П vero autore del Teatro della Turchia e Stato Presente della Turchia,” Collectanea Franciscana 3

2 1 6 ■ NOTES TO CHAPTER 3

(1933): 384-395; cf. Paolo Preto, Venezia e iT u r chi (Florence, 1975), PP· z 9 3 ~z 9 4 · 42. A. Ubicini, Lettres sur la Turquie, II (Paris, 1854), pp. 377ff. 43. B. Lewis, “ A Letter from Little Menahem,” in Studies in Ju­ daism and Islam Presented to Shelomo D ov Goitein (Jerusalem, 1981), pp. 181-184. 44. See J. H. Mordtmann, “ Die jüdischen Kira im Serai der Sultane,” Mitteilungen des Seminars für orientalischen Sprachen zu Ber­ lin 32/II (1929): pp. 1-38; further details in Orhan Burian, The Report o f Lello: Third English Ambassador to the Sublime Porte (Ankara, 1952), and Sanderson, Travels, pp. 85, 185, 188, 201-204. 45. See Attilio Milano, Storia degli Ebrei Italiani nel Levante (Flor­

ence, i949)· 46. Jabartī, *Ajã'ib> I, pp. 21 ff. Jabarti gives the text of a contem­ porary “ poem,” celebrating the downfall of the Jew. 47. Raymond, Artisans et commerçants au Caire, pp. 88, 452, 459-464, 487-488, 498-499, 625-626, 746-747·

48. A. C. Wood, A History o f the Levant Company (London, 1964), pp. 155-156, 214-215. 49. The best treatment of his career, and of its significance in Jewish history, will be found in the great work of G. Scholem, SabbetaiŞevi: The Mystical Messiah 1626-1676 (London, 1973; Hebrew original, Tel Aviv, 1957), Turkish sources are cited by Ibrahim Alâettin Gövsa, Şabatay Sevi (Istanbul, n.d.), especially pp. 46-52, and Abraham Galante, Nouveau:c Documents sur Sabbetai Sevi (Istanbul, 1935). For a discussion, see Geoffrey L. Lewis and Cecil Roth, “ New Light on the Apostasy of Sabbetai Zevi,” JQ R 52 (1963): 219-225. 50. For a brief account see E T , s.v. “ Dönme” (by M. Perlmann). For a Turkish view, see Selahattin Galip, Belgelerle Türkiye'de Dönmeler ve Dönmelik (Istanbul, 1977). 51. Texts edited by Heyd, “ 'Alilot,” Sefunot 5 (1961): 137-149; cf. Yaakov Barna’i, ‘“ Alilot dam ba-Imperiya ha-Ottomanit ba-me’ot ha-15-19,” in Sin at Yisra'el le-doroteha (Jerusalem, 1980), pp. 211216. 52. Stillman, The Jews o f Arab Lands, pp. 78-79. 53. Ibid., pp. 281-286. 54. This rule persisted until the French occupation. See Leven, Alliance , 1, pp. 348-372, and letters cited by David Littman in Wiener Library Bulletin 29, n.s. 37/38 (1976): i2ff. 55. Stillman, The Jews o f Arab Lands, p. 84.

NOTES TO CHAPTER

Ą

■

Z

1J

56. Details in W. J. Fischel, Jew s in th e E c o n o m ic a n d P o litic a l (London, 1937), pp. i2off. 57. On the Jews under Safavid rule, see W. J. Fischel, “ Toldot yehudê Paras biyemê shoshelet ha-Safavidim,” Z io n 2 (1936-1937): 273-293; idem, “ Ha-Yehudim be-Iran ba-meot ha-16-19,” P e ʼn m im 6 (1980): 5-31; Amnon Netzer, “ Redifot ushemadot be-toldot Ye­ hudê Iran ba-mea ha-17,” ibid., pp. 33-56. For a brief review of the literature of the history of the Jews in Iran and Central Asia, see Mark R. Cohen, “ The Jews,” p. 187 and bibliography. 58. W. Bacher, “ Les Juifs de Perse au XVIIe et au XVIIl· siècle,” R E J 103 (1906): 248. On these events, see further, Ezra Spicehandler, “ The Persecution of the Jews of Isfahan under Shah 'Abbas II (16421666),” H e b r e w U n ion C o lle g e A n n u a l 46 (1975): 331-356; Vera B. Moreen, “ The Persecution of Iranian Jews during the Reign of Shah 'Abbas II (1642-1666),” ibid., 52 (1981): 275-309 (citing and examining a number of Jewish, Muslim, and Christian sources). 59. Jean de Thevenot, Travels . . . in to the L ev a n t (London, 1687), p. n o . 60. See I. Markon, “ Otličiteľni Znak dlya Evreev v Persii,” Z a p is k i L ife o f M ed ia ev a l Islam

V o sto č n a v o O td e le n y a Im p era to rsk a vo R u ssk a v o A r k h e o lo g isk a v o

23 (1915): 364-365. The wearing of a distinguishing patch is attested by both Western and Jewish travelers. 61. On Judaeo-Persian literature, see W. J. Fischel, “ Israel in Iran,” in T h e J ew s , th eir H isto ry , C u ltu r e , a n d R e lig io n , 3d ed., II, ed. L. Finkelstein (New York, i960), pp. 1149-1190. 62. M. Zand, “ Bukhara,” in E n cy clo p a ed ia Judaica Y ea rb o o k (Jerusalem, 1976), pp. 183-192. O b šč e s tv a

FO U R. END OF THE TRA D ITIO N

1. Stillman, T h e Jew s o f A ra b L a n d s , p. 367, citing FO 174/10, in the Public Record Office. 2. See Sir Joshua Hassan, T h e T reaty o f U trech t a n d th e Jew s o f G ib r a lta r (London, 1970); A.B.M. Serfaty, T h e Jew s o f G ib ra lta r u n d er B ritish R u le (Gibraltar, 1933). 3. On the Damascus affair, see Stillman, T h e Jew s o f A ra b L a n d s , pp. 105-106, 393-402; and A. J. Brawer in E n cyclo p a ed ia Ju d a ica , V, pp. 1249-1252, where a full bibliography is given. Scholarly stud­ ies on the subject are based almost entirely on Jewish and Western documents. For a contemporary account by a Syrian Arab Christian,

2 l 8 ■ N O T E S TO C H A P T E R 4

see Mikhā’īl Mishāqa, Al-]awãb ʼnla iqtirãh al-Ahbāb, ed. A. J. Rustum and Abū Shaqra (Beirut, 1955), pp. 132-136. 4. Heyd, “ 'Alilot,” Sefunot 5 (1961): 13 7-149. For possible ex­ ceptions, see Galante, Histoire des juifs ďlstanbul, II, p. 125, citing RE] 17 (1888), on an alleged incident in San’a, Yemen, in 1633; idem, Histoire des juifs ď Anatolie, I (Istanbul, 1937), pp. 183, 185, on a minor incident in Izmir in 1774. 5. On blood libels, see J. Landau, Jews in Nineteenth-Century Egypt (New York, 1969), index; Franco, Essai, pp. 220-233; Leven, Alliance, 1, pp. 387-392; A. Galante, Histoire des Juifs ďAnatolie, les Juifs ď Izm ir (Smyrne) (Istanbul, 1937), pp. 183-199; idem, His­ toire des Juifs ďlstanbul, II, pp. 125-136; idem, Documents officiels turcs, pp. 157-161, 214-240; idem, Encore un nouveau recueil de documents concernant ľ histoire des Juifs de Turquie: Etudes scientifiques (Istanbul, 1953), pp. 43-45; Barna’i, “ 'Alilot dam.” An antiJewish disturbance in Urmia, in Iran, was described by Charles Stuart, Journal o f a Residence in Northern Persia (London, 1854), pp. 325326: “ Last month a Persian child was found dead in front of the house of a Jew at Ooroomiah. It had evidently died a natural death, but popular prejudice accused the Jew of murder, and the mob wished to massacre every member of that nation settled at Ooroomiah. The Ameer was applied to for permission to perpetrate this crime; he forbade the sanguinary bigots to touch a single Jew, but, impatient of delay, they had murdered, and afterwards burnt, the accused individual, before the return of the messenger. The remainder escaped death, but were forced to pay a considerable fine. I have not heard of any punishment being inflicted on the assassins.” Such accusations and persecutions are not unusual, in both east and west. There is no indication, however, that the allegation of murder was given a ritual significance. 6. On a case in Shiraz, in 1910, see the reports of M. Nataf in BAIU, 3d series, 35 (1910): 179-191, cited in D. Littman, “Jews under Muslim Rule: The Case of Persia,” The Wiener Library Bul­ letin 32 (1979), n.s. 49/50: 12-14. No cases appear in the standard works on North Africa. The reports in the AIU files on the blood libel in Damascus in 1890 are particularly full and instructive. 7. For examples, see Stillman, The Jews o f Arab Lands, pp. 399400, 403-405; and Landau, Jews in . . . Egypt, passim. 8. Harold Temperley, England and the Near East: The Crimea (London, 1936), pp. 443-444, citing FO/427, Palmerston to Ponsonby, no. 33 of 7 February 1841, and FO 78/535, report from Rose,

NOTES TO CHAP TER 4 ■ 2 i 9

no. 28 oř 29 March 1843. See further, F. S. Rodkey, “ Lord Palm­ erston and the Regeneration of Turkey, 1830-1841,” Journal o f Modern History 2 (1930): 215-216. 9. Paul Goodman, Moses Montefiore (Philadelphia, 1925), p. 96, citing Louis Loewe, Diaries o f Sir Moses and Lady Montefiore (Lon­ don, 1890), p. 388. 10. Elie Kedourie, “ The Alliance Israelite Universelle, 1860-1960,” Jewish Journal o f Sociology 9 (1967): 94. Two major histories of the Alliance were published on its fiftieth and hundredth anniver­ saries, by Narcisse Leven, Alliance Israelite Universellef cinquante ans d ’histoire, 2 vols. (Paris, 19n-1920), and by André Chouraqui, Cent ans ďkistoire: Ľ Alliance Israelite Universelle et la renaissance juive contemporaine (1860-1960) (Paris, 1965). On the Islamic lands, see in particular Leven, 1, pp. 147-170, 340-396; 2, pp. 72-272; and Chouraqui, pp. 101-128. More recently, Paul Dumont has published a series of important articles on late Ottoman Jewish history, based in the main on the Alliance archives. See especially his “Jewish Com­ munities in Turkey during the Last Decades of the Nineteenth Cen­ tury in the Light of the Archives of the Alliance Israelite Universelle,” in Braude and Lewis, Christians and Jews, I, pp. 209-242; “ Une source pour ľétude des communautés juives de Turquie: Les archives de ľAlliance Israelite Universelle,” Journal Asiatique 267 (1979): 101-135; “ La structure sociale de la communauté juive de Salonique à la fin du dix-neuvième siècle,” Revue Historique 263 (1980): 351393. For material from the Alliance archives on North Africa and Iran see David Littman’s articles in The 'Wiener Library Bulletin 27 (1975): 65-76; 29 (1976): 1-19; 32 (1979): 2·-i5; cf. idem, “ Quelques aspects de la condition de dhimmi juifs ďAfrique du Nord avant la colonisation,” Yod: Revue des Etudes Hebraïques et juives modernes et contemporaines 2 (1976): 1-32; idem, “ Les Juifs en Perse avant les Pahlevi,” Les Temps Modernes 34 (1979): 1910-1935. Much useful information will be found in the Bulletin of the Alliance, cited as BAIU. 11. Cf. the comments of Elie Kedourie, “ The Alliance Israelite Universelle.” 12. Charles MacFarlane, Constantinople in 1828, 1 (London, 1829), pp. 115-116. 13. G. Beauclerk, Journey to Morocco (London, 1828), p. 280. 14. Miss (Julia) Pardoe, The City o f the Sultan; and Domestic Manners o f the Turks, in 1836, II (London, 1837), pp. 361-363. 15. H. E. Wilkie Young, “ Notes on the City of Mosul,” enclosed

2 2 0 ■ N O T E S TO C H A P T E R Ą

with dispatch no. 4, Mosul, January 28, 1909, in F. O. 195/2308; published in Middle Eastern Studies 7 (1971): 229-235 (cit. p. 232). 16. Arminius Vambery, The Story o f My Struggles (London, n.d.), P· 3 9 5 * 17. (Lord) George N. Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question, I (London, 1892), pp. 510-511; cf. I, pp. 165-166, 333, 380, 567; II, pp. 240, 244, 493. Among Jewish travelers the most informative by far is Jakob Eduard Polak, Persien: Das Land und seine Bewohner, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1865). Polak, who spent some time in Iran as phy­ sician to the shāh and teacher at the medical school in Tehran, also wrote a separate article on the Jews. The history of the Jews in nineteenth-century Iran has been little studied, and before the coming of the Alliance representatives there are few documents. Such studies as exist rely mainly on Jewish and European travelers, supplemented by the local oral tradition. In addition to Littman’s articles cited above, reference may be made to W. J. Fischel, “ The Jews of Persia, i 795" i 9 4 ° j ,’ Jewish Social Studies 12 (1950): 119-160; Hanina Mizrahi, Toldot Yehudê Paras u-meshorerêhem (Jerusalem, 1966); Habīb Levi, Tärīkh-i Yahũd-i Iran, III (Tehran, i960). The AIU reports from Iran, where the school directors, for various reasons, became more involved in public affairs than their colleagues in the Ottoman Empire and North Africa, are particularly instructive. The Rob Roy on the Jordan: A Canoe Cruise in Palestine, Egypt, and the Waters o f Damascus (London, 1869; 8th ed., 1904), p. 356. 19. On the expulsion from Jedda, see M. Abir, “Jewish Com­ munities in the Arabian Peninsula between the End of the 18th and the Middle of the 19th Centuries,” Sefunot 10 (1966): 63 5ff. (citing J. L. Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia [London, 1829], p. 15, and J. R. Wellsted, Travels in Arabia [London, 1838], p. 210). OnTetuan, see Stillman, The Jews o f Arab Lands, p. 308, and idem, “ Two Accounts of the Persecution of the Jews of Tetuan in 1790,” Michael: On the History o f the Jews o f the Diaspora 5 (1978): 130-142 (citing Austrian and Arabic sources). On Baghdad, see Stillman, The Jews o f Arab Lands, p. 347, and Abir, “Jewish Communities,” p. 636. On Safed, see Stillman, The Jews o f Arab Lands, pp. 34off., and articles by M. Abir and I. Ben-Zvi in Sefunot 7 (1963). On Meshed, see Benjamin, Eight Years in Asia and Africa, pp. i95ff.; Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question, pp. 165-166; J. Wolff, Narrative o f a Mission to Bokhara in 1843-184j, I (London, 1845), pp. 238-239; and II, pp. i72ff. On the outbreak, in Barfurush, see Curzon, I, p.

NOTES TO CHAP TER 4 ■ 2 2 1

380, and A. H. Mounsey, Jou rn ey th rou gh the C au casu s (London, 1875), pp. 273-282. On this occasion, the A llia n ce made its first distribution of relief funds in Iran, through the good offices of the British minister. 20. Renzo De Felice, E b rei in un p aese arabo: G li ebrei nella L ib ia contem p oran ea tra colonialism o, nazionalism o arabo e Sionism o (18 3 5 -

(Bologna, 1978), pp. 19ft* 21. Cf. above, pp. 64-65. 22. See, for example, the appeal submitted by the Jews of England to the shāh when he visited London in 1873; text in Littman, W ien er L ibrary B u lletin (1979), pp. 5-7. The shāh received similar petitions in Paris, Berlin, Vienna, Amsterdam, Brussels, Rome, and Istanbul { B A IU , i873[2], pp. 93-113). 23. There are few extensive modern studies on the history of the Jews in the Middle East and North Africa in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Egypt is the most comprehensively covered, by J. M. Landau, Jew s in N in e te en th -C e n tu r y E g y p t (New York, 1969), and Gudrun Kramer, M in d erh eit, M ille t , N a tio n ? D ie Juden in Ä g yp ten 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 5 2 (Wiesbaden, 1982). The Jews of Libya have been treated by a distinguished Italian historian, Renzo De Felice, E b rei in un P a ese a ra b o , cit. note 20 above. André N. Chouraqui, B etw een E a st a n d W est: A H istory o f th e Jew s o f N o r th A frica (Philadelphia, 1968), is mainly concerned with the modern period. The now ex­ tensive literature on North Africa is listed in Robert Attal, L es Juifs d ’A fr iq u e du N o rd : B ib lio g ra p h ie (Jerusalem, 1973). For a general bibliography of the modern period, see A sia n a n d A frica n Jew s in th e M id d le E ast, 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 7 1 , ed. by H. J. Cohen and Zvi Yehuda (Jerusalem, 1976). 24. See Franco, E ssai, pp. 130-135; Rozanes, Ķ o r o t , pp. 13ff.; Galante, H isto ire des Ju ifs ď Ista n b u l, II, pp. 55-58; Ahmed Lûtfi, T a rih -i L û tfi , I (Istanbul, 1290-1328/1873-1910), pp. 245-246; II, pp. 203-204. 25. See above, pp. 126-128. 26. Galante, D o c u m e n ts o fficiels tu rcs , pp. 7-27; idem, H isto ire d es J u ifs ď ls t a n b u l , I, pp. 76ff.; Rozanes, Ķ o r o t , pp. 27ff. 27. Attilio Milano, Storia d egli E b r e i , pp. i69ff. 28. See J. Fraenkel, ed., T h e Jew s in A u stria (London, 1967), pp. 327-346. 29. §inasi, K ü lliy a t , IV (Ankara, i960), pp. 43-46 (first printed in the newspaper T asvir-i E fk â r , no. 52 of 4 Rajab 1279/26 December 19 7 0 )

2 2 2 ■ N O T E S TO C H A P T E R Ą

1862); cf. Franco, pp. 164-166 and 278; Rozanes, Ķorot, pp. 7off.; Galante, Histoire des Juifs ďlstanbul, I, pp. 130-131. 30. Anti-Jewish incidents in Iraq and Syria are reported toward the end of 1908, both in the diplomatic reports and in the Arabic press (e.g., al-Muqattam, no. 5933 of 1 October 1908, and no. 5973 of 19 November 1908). Cf. Neville Mandel, “ Turks, Arabs and Jewish Immigration into Palestine, 1882-1914,” in St. Antony's Pa­ pers—Number 17, Middle Eastern Affairs Number 4, ed. Albert Hourani (Oxford, 1965), pp. 94-95; idem, The Arabs and Zionism before World War I (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976), pp. 66ff. 31. Elie Kedourie, “ Young Turks, Freemasons and Jews,” Middle Eastern Studies 7 (1971): 89-104, reprinted in idem, Arab Political Memoirs and Other Studies (London, 1974), pp. 243-262. Lewis, Emergence, pp. 211-212; E. E. Ramsaur, The Young Turks: Prelude to the Revolution o f 1908 (Princeton, N.J., 1957), pp. 103-109. On the Young Turks and the Jews, see further Kandemir in Yaktn Tarihimiz, II, pp. 243-244; and Feroz Ahmad, “ Unionist Relations with the Greek, Armenian and Jewish Communities of the Ottoman Em­ pire 1908-1914,” in Braude and Lewis, Christians and Jews, I, pp. 425-428. 32. Feroz Ahmed, The Young Turks: The Committee o f Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908-1914 (Oxford, 1969), pp. 28, i 55 · 33. Dumont, Journal Asiatique (1979), p. 112. The report cited by Dumont is one of a large number of similar type sent in from various centers, and prepared in response to a questionnaire sent out from Alliance headquarters in Paris. 34. Benjamin, Eight Years in Asia and Africa, pp. 211-213. Similar descriptions of the conditions of the Jews in Iran are given by other Jewish travelers, e.g., Ephraim Neimark, Masa' be-eretz ha-Kedem, ed. A. Ya'ari (Jerusalem, 1946), pp. 72-97; David d’Beth Hillel, Travels from Jerusalem . . . to Madras (Madras, 1832); J. E. Polak, Persien, das Land und seine Bewohner (Leipzig, 1865). 35. BA/U, no. 28, 2d series (1903), pp. 115-128, especially p. 123. For a report on the occupational distribution of the Jews in Kashan in 1907, see BAIU, no. 32, 3d series (1907): 68-81. 36. See p. 218, note 6. 37. The most detailed examination of Arabic anti-Semitic literature is contained in Y. Harkabi, Arab Attitudes to Israel (Jerusalem, 1971; original Hebrew edition, Tel Aviv, 1968). See also Sylvia G. Haim, “ Arabic Anti-Semitic Literature,” Jewish Social Studies, vol. 17, no.

NOTES TO CHAP TER 4 ■ 223

4 (3:955): 307-312; Dafna Alon, Arab Racialism (Jerusalem, 1969); Yehoshua Ben-Hananya, “ Sifrut 'Aravit anti-tsiyonit,” Hashiloah, 43 (1935): 2.72-279; Yehoshaphat Harkabi, “ La’anti-shemiyat ha'aravit me-hadash,” in Sin at Yisrael le-Doroteha, pp. 247-259; Nor­ man A. Stillman, “ New Attitudes toward the Jew in the Arab World,” Jewish Social Studies 37 (1975): 197-204; Shimon Shamir, “ MuslimArab Attitudes toward Jews in the Ottoman and Modern Periods,” in Salo W. Baron and George S. Wise, eds., Violence and Defense in the Jewish Experience (Philadelphia, 1977), pp. 191-203; Moshe M a’oz, “ The Image of the Jew in Official Arab Literature and Com­ munication Media,” in World Jewry and the State o f Israel, edited by Moshe Davis (New York, 1977), pp. 33-51. A good specimen of this literature is 'Abdallah al-Telľs 400-page book, The Menace o f World Jewry to Islam and Christendom, published in Cairo in 1964. A very laudatory review, by Muhammad 'Abdallah al-Sammān, ap­ peared in the distinguished Egyptian literary magazine, Al-Risāla, 7 January 1965, pp. 54-56. Such publications are not limited to the Arab countries, but may also be found in other Islamic lands. See, for example, a Pakistani publication in English, Jewish Conspiracy and the Muslim World, ed. Misbahul Islam Faruqi (Karachi, Feb­ ruary 1967). The subject is treated from time to time in Patterns o f Prejudice and in The Wiener Library Bulletin, both published in London. 38. Interview with R. K. Karanjia on September 28,1958, reported in Al-Ahrãm, September 29, 1958; English translation in President Gamal Abdel Nasser s Speeches and Press-Interviews, 1958 (Cairo, i 9 5 9 ), P· 402.. 39. Deutsche National-Zeitung und Soldaten-Zeitung (Munich), i May 1964. 40. Interview in Ākhir Saa, 14 November 1973. Cf. his book AlFikr al-Dtnī al-Isrã’īlī: Aţwāruhu wa-madhãhibuhu (Cairo, 1971), pp. 222-227. For other examples, see Stillman, “ New Attitudes to­ ward the Jews,” pp. 202-203. 41. Al-Azhar Academy of Islamic Research, The Fourth Confer­ ence o f the Academy o f Islamic Research Rajab 1$88!September 1968 (Cairo, 1970); Arabic original, Kitãb al-Mu’tamar al-Rãbľ limajmae al-Buhūth al-Islãmiyya, 3 vols. (Cairo, 1388/1968). Selec­ tion from the official English translation in D. F. Green, Arab The­ ologians on Jews and Israel (Geneva, 1976). 42. UNESCO Document 82 EX/8, annex II, p. 9, section III, par­

2 2 4 ■ N O T E S TO C H A P T E R 4

agraph 6, and annex I, p. 3, section III, paragraph (4) [sic]. Cited in Stillman, “ New Attitudes toward the Jews,” pp. 203-204. 43. Al-Muşawwar, 4 August 1972, translation by Stillman in “ New Attitudes toward the Jews,” p. 197. 44. Le Monde, 29 January 1974. 45. Ali Re§at-Ismail Hakki, Dreyfus meselesi ve esbab-i hafìyesi (Istanbul 1315/1898-1899) (not seen); Ebüzziya, Kütübbane-i Ebüzziya, no. 66 (Istanbul, 1305/1888); “ Millet-i Israiliye.” It includes a rather striking passage in which Ebüzziya describes how he discov­ ered, to his astonishment, that a French Jew considered himself a Frenchman. At the time of the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, he says, he called on a French Jewish bookseller in Istanbul, and found him overcome with grief. “ The following conversation took place between us: ‘I: What is the matter with you. Is something afflicting you? The bookseller: Don’t you know of the misfortune which my country has suffered? Can there be any greater affliction? I (smiling): But you are not a Frenchman. What is it to you? The bookseller: How? If I am not a Frenchman, then what am I? I: But aren’t you Jewish? The bookseller: Excuse me sir! In France every­ thing is French.’ ” Ebüzziya goes on to describe his embarrassment and his shame at having, through ignorance, insulted a genuine pa­ triot (pp. 57-59). See further the later issues of the Ebüzziya collection and, for an opposing viewpoint, Celâl Nuri, Tarih-i Istikbal, III (Istanbul, 1332/1913), pp. 99-108. For studies of Turkish attitudes toward Zionism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see (Mim) Kemal Oke, II Abdülhamid, Siyonist’ler ve Filistin Meselesi (Istanbul, 1981); idem, Siyonism ve Filistin Sorunu (1880-ιọι4) (Istanbul, 1982); idem, “ The Ottoman Empire, Zionism, and the Question of Palestine,” International Journal o f Middle East Studies 14 (1982): 329-341. 46. See, for example, Hikmet Tanyu, Tarih Boyunca Yahudiler ve Türkler, 2 vols. (Istanbul, 1976), and the numerous writings of Cevat Rifat Atilhan, listed, along with other productions of the same kind, by Öke. Professor Tanyu was the dean of the Faculty of Divinity in the University of Ankara. In most of these writings the blood libel, the Protocols o f the Elders o f Zion, and the rest of the apparatus of European anti-Semitism are taken for granted and serve as the main basis of exposition. 47. Translated from the German documents in Fritz Grobba, Man­ ner und Mächte im Orient (Göttingen, 1967). English translation in Documents on German Foreign Policy, series D, vol. X (London and

NOTES TO CHAP TER Ą ■ 2 2 5

Washington, 1950-1964), no. 403, pp. 559-560, and vol. XI, no. 680, pp. 1151-1155. Cf. Lukasz Hirszowicz, The Third Reich and the Arab East (London, 1966), [Polish original (Warsaw, 1963)], pp. 82-84, 109-110. Cf. Bernd Philipp Schröder, Deutschland und der Mittlere Osten im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Frankfurt, 1975), pp. 44-48, 53, 65-66, where, however, the references to “ solving the Jewish problem” are not mentioned. 48. After the establishment of Israel in 1948, even Jewish visitors from elsewhere were unwelcome. Virtually all the independent Arab states included a question about religion on their visa application forms, and routinely refused visas to all who declared their religion as Jewish. Some even demanded proof from West European and American applicants that they were not Jewish, and thus presented the strange paradox of strongly Islamic governments demanding bap­ tism certificates from would-be travelers. In recent years some Arab states have dropped this policy of exclusion. Some have begun to apply it more selectively. Some still maintain it with full rigor.

Index 'Abbās I, 152, 198 n. 34 'Abbās II, 217 n. 58 'Abbās, Ihsān, 206 n. 28 Abbasids, 47, 56, 98, 106 'Abd al-Karim, Ahmad 'Izzat, 200 n. 55

'Abdallah al-Tell, T h e M e n a c e o f W o r ld J e w r y , 223 n. 37 'Abdallah ibn al-Maymūn al-Qaddāh, 103-4, 208 n. 52 'Abdallah ibn Sabā, 103, 208 n. 50 Abdulhamid II, 178, 224 n. 45 Abel, A., M e la n g e s , 207 n. 35 Abir, M., “Jewish Communities,” 220 n. 19 Abraham ibn Ezra, 99 Abū Dharr, 97 Abū Hanīfa, 207 n. 40 Abū 'Isā, 94, 207 n. 36 Abū Ishāq, 45 Abu’l-Barakāt Hibatallāh Ibn Malka al-Baghdãdī, 98-99, 208 n. 42 Abū Mūsā, 30 Abū Naddara, 189 Abū Ridä, 206 n. 27 Abū Shaa, 218 n. 3 Abū 'Ubayd, 15, K itä b a l- A m w ä f 195 n. 12 Abū 'Ubayda, 103, 207 n. 40 Abū Yūsuf, 15, K itã b a l-K h a rã j , 195 n. 13, 197 n. 31 Abulafia, Moses, 156 Achund, 182 Acre, 94 Aden, 169, 172 Adrianople, 120. See a lso Edirne Aelia, 71, 204 n. 8. See a lso Jerusa­ lem

Afghanistan, i n Africa, 18, 20, 61, 109, 117, 160, 198 n. 38, 220 n. 19, 221 n. 23, 222 n. 34 'AW, 41. See also m u ā h a d A h l a l-D h im m a , 21, 43, 197 n. 32. See also d h im m a , d h im m ī A h l a l-H a r b , 43 A h l a l- K itā b , 20, 205 nn. 24, 26 Ahmad, F., “Unionist Relations,” 222 n. 31, Y o u n g T u r k s , 222 n. 32 Ahmed III, 119 a l-A h r a m , 223 n. 38 À k h ir S a a , 223 n. 40 Akiva, Rabbi, 82 Aksum, 204 n. 15 Alaman, 126 Albanians, 179 Alberi, E., R e la z io n i , 201 n. 65 Aleppo, 117, 143, 158 Alexander the Great, 75 Alexandria, 75, 145-46, 158, 191, 199 n. 45 Algar, Hamid, Isla m a n d R e v o lu ­ tio n , 194 n. 3. See a lso Ayatollah Khomeini Algeria, no, 168-69, I7i > 191 'All, 103, 105, 183, 208 n. 50 Ali Re§at-Ismail Hakki, D r e y fu s , 224 n. 45 A llia n c e Isra e lite U n iv e rse lle , 16163, 169, 171-72., 177, I79-8i , 183, 193, 198 n. 38, 218 n. 6, 219 n. 10, 220 n. 17, 221 n. 19, 222 n. 33 Almohads, 51-52, 148-49, 201 n. 66, 208 n. 47

228

■ INDEX

Alon, D., A r a b

R a d ic a lis m ,

223 n.

37

am ãn,

22, 24, 196 n. 20 Amedroz, H. F., 200 n. 54 America, American, 3, 77, 127, 225 n. 48. See a lso United States American Jewish Committee, 162 Amin al-Dawla. See Ibn al-Tilmidh Amsterdam, 210 n. 5, 221 n. 22 Anatolia, 75, n o , 117, 120, 12223, 125-26, 212 n. 16, 218 nn.

4, 5. See a lso Asia Minor, Tur­ key Ancona, 137 And, Metin, H is to r y o f T h e a tr e , 214 n. 31 Anglo-Jewish Association, 162, 167 Animists, 20 Ankara, 117, 118, 212 n. 14 Ankori, Z., 212 n. 15 Antioch, 94, 158 Anti-Semitism, 32-33, 45, 55, 85, 158, 170-72, 180, 184-89, 222 n. 37, 224 n. 46 apocalyptic, 93, 207 n. 35 Apostasy, Apostate, 8, 24, 26, 95, 98-100, 141, 216 n. 49 Apulia, 126 Arabia, 8, 10-12, 17, 28, 36, 41, 73-75> 93, no, 113, 117, 172, 187, 190, 195 n. 5, 204 n. 15, 220 П. 19

Arabic, 5, 12, 14, 25, 56, 70, 7681, 83, 89-90, 102, 107-8, 11214, 121, 131, 139, 145, 159, 171, 184-86, 188, 193 n. I , 194 n. 5, 220 n. 19, 222 n. 37, 223 nn. 37, 41 Aragon, 126 Aramaic, 12, 75-77, 121 Arberry, A. J., R e lig io n in th e M id ­ d le E a s t , 193 n. i Armenia, Armenians, 55, 64, 12526, 131, 139-4U 150, i5¿> ĭ ¿ 4 , 166, i73-75> 1 7 7 -7 9 , i22· n· 3 i

arquebuses, 135 art: Islamic, 5-6, 81, 90; Jewish, 81 Årup, E., S tu d ie r , 210 n. 7 Ascalon, 94 Ashdod, 94 Ashkenazi, 77, 120 Ashtor, E., J e w s in M a m lu k E g y p t a n d S y ria , 202 n. 1, J e w s in M u s lim S p a in , 202 n. 1, “Num­ ber of Jews,” 203 n. 2, “Prole­ gomena,” 203 n. 2, “Social Isola­ tion,” 197 n. 32 Asia Minor, 36, 112, 120, 128. See a lso Anatolia, Turkey Atatürk, Kemal, 189 Athens, 118 Atiya, A. S., E a ste rn C h r is tia n ity , 193 n. i Atlantic Ocean, 16, 76 Atilhan, Cevat Rifat, 224 n. 46 Attal, R., B ib lio g r a p h ie , 209 n. 2, 221 n. 23 Austria, Austrians, 109-10, 159, 162, 176, 220 n. 19, 221 n. 28 Avicenna, 129 Avneri, Z., 207 n. 36 Awhad al-Zamān. See Abu’l-Barakãt al-Awzāfī, 41 Ayatollah Khomeini, 34, 194 n. 3, H u k ū m a I s lã m iy y a y 194 n. 3, R is ā la -i T a w ż th , 198 n. 39, Vilā y a ti-i E a q īh , 194 n. 3 'Ayn Shams University, 186 Ayverdi, Ekrem Hakki, F atih , 213 n. 18 Ayyubids, 109, 187 Azerbaijan, 118, 208 n. 46 al-Azhar, 186, 223 n. 41 al-'Azīz, 98 Babinger, F., M e h m e d , 201 n. 63, “Bedr ed-Din,” 208 n. 53 Babylon, 73, 75, 191

INDEX ■ 2 2 9

Bacher, W., “Les Juifes de Perse,” 217 n. 58 Baghdad, 7, 25, 86, 97-99, 106, 117, 134, 168, 220 n. 19 al-Baghdādī, 'Abd al-Qāhir, K itā b a l-F a rq , 206 n. 29 Baha’is, 20 Bahye ibn Paquda, 56-57 al-Balādhurī, 208 n. 50, Futũh> 200 n. 56 Balkans, 109, 120, 122, 125-26, 158, 171, 178, 180 Baneth, D. H., 57 Banū Qurayza, 10, 83, 205 n. 22 al-Bāqillānī, 87, K itā b a l-T a m h īd , 206 n. 27 Bar-Asher, S., T o ld o t , 290 n. 2 Barfurush, 168, 220 n. 19 Barkan, Omer Lûtfi, 118, “Daftar-i Khākānī,” 211 n. 10, “Essai,” 211 n. 10, “Les deportations,” 212 n. 16, “Les grands recensements,” 211 n. 10, “Osmanli Imparatorlugunda,” 212 n. 16, “Quelques observations,” 211 n. 11 Barnai, Jacob, “Alilot,” 216 n. 51, 218 n. 5, T o ld o t , 209 n. 2 Barnett, R. D., “Correspondence,” 210 n. 6 Baron, S. W., H is to r y o f th e J e w s , 196 n. 14, 197 n. 34, 202 n. i, 207 n. 37, 209 n. 2, V io len ce a n d D e fe n s e , 200 nn. 55, 60, 223 n. 37 Bashan, E., E a s t a n d M a g h r e b , 196 n. 20 Basra, 117 Ba§vekâlet arşivi, 211 n. 10 Bat Ye’or, L e D h im m a , 194 n. 1 Bataillon, Marcel, L e D o c te u r L a ­ g u n a , 213 n. 19 Batu Sfez, 40 al-Baydāwī, C o m m e n ta r iu s , 195 n. 10

Bayezid II, 49-51, 201 n. 64 Baysun, Cavid, 202 n. 74 Beauclerk, G., J o u rn e y , 219 n. 13 b e d e l-i a s k e r i , 66 Bedreddin, 104, 208 n. 53 Beirut, 158 Belgrade, 124 Belin, “Fetwa,” 195 n. 11 Ben-Hananya, Y., “Sifrut 'Aravit anti-tsiyonit,” 223 n. 37 Ben Zvi, L, 220 n. 19 Ben Zvi Institute, 209 n. 2 Benjamin, J. J., 181, E ig h t Y ea rs , 198 n. 38, 220 n. 19, 222 n. 34 B e r a c h o t , 204 n. 12 Berbers, 51, 150 Berberiscos, 150 Berlin, 162, 221 n. 22 Berque, J., 211 n. 10 d’Beth Hillel, D., T ra v e ls , 222 n. 34

Bialloblotsky, C.H.F., C h ro n ic les o f R a b b i J o s e p h , 210 n. 5, 213 n. 24 b īg a r a z , 39 Binswanger, K., “Okonomische Aspekte,” 199 n. 43, U n tersu ch u n g e n , 194 n. i, 199 n. 46, 215 n. 38 Birnbaum, E., “Hekim Yâkub,” 214 n. 29 Blachère, R., 195 n. 9, L iv re d e s C a te g o r ie s , 207 n. 30 Black Sea, 109, in , 169 blacks, 105 Blau, Joshua, D ik d u k , 204 n. 16, E m e r g e n c e , 209 n. 16, J u d a e o A r a b ic . . . T e x ts , 204 n. 16 blood libel, 147, 157-58, 168, 183, 185-86, 218 n. 5, 224 n. 46 bloodwit, 27 Bonaparte, 64, 202 n. 73 Bornstein, L., 214 n. 26 Brahmin, 166. See a lso Hinduism Braude, B., C h ristia n s a n d J e w s ,

2 30 ■ I N D E X

Braude, B. (c o n t .) 2i2 nn. 15, 16, 214 n. 26, 219 n. 10, 222 n. 31 Bravmann, M., A r a b i c s 195 n. 9, S p iritu a l B a c k g r o u n d , 195 n. 9 Drawer, A. J., 217 n. 3 Britain, 155, 157, 161-63. See a lso British, England, Englishmen British, i n , 154-55, 159-61, 166, 169-70, 172, 178, 217 n. 2, 221 n. 19 Browne, E. G., 208 n. 46 Brunschvig, R., E tu d e s , 200 n. 52, “Hermeneutique normative,” 204 n. 17, “Justice religieuse,” 200 n. 52, “ĽArgumentation,” 206 n. 27, “Voeu ou serment,” 205 n. 17 Brussels, 221 n. 22 Buda, no, 117, 124-26. See a lso Budapest Budapest, n o Bukhara, i n , 153, 217 n. 62, 220 n. 19 Bulaq, 145 Bulgarians, 179 Bulliet, R. W., C o n v e r s io n , 196 n. 15 Burckhardt, J. L., T ra v e ls, 220 n. 19

Burian, O.,

R e p o r t o f L e llo ,

216 n.

44

Bursa, 118, 211 n. 14, 212 n. 15 Bury, J. B., 194 n. 2 Bushire, 167 Büyükdere, 158 Byzantine Empire, Byzantines, By­ zantium, 18-19, 26-27, 60, 75, 88, 90, 93, 112, 120, 127, 158 Caesarea, 93 Cahen, C, “Dhimma,” 196 n. 17 Cairo, 26, 100, 102, 117, 134, 145, 157-58, 185-86, 205 n. 21, 210 n. 7, 216 n. 47

Çakşir, 138 Calabria, 126 caliph, caliphate, 5-7, n , 15, 1718, 24-25, 28-29, 4i-4i> 44, 4647, 54-56, 58, 74-75, 94, 9¿, 9¾,

105-6, 108-9, 2°6 n. 28 calligraphers, 131 Canard, M., “Ibn Killis,” 207 n. 41 Cantemir, Demetrius, G r o w th a n d D e c a y o f th e O tto m a n E m p ir e ,

214 n. 25 Capuchin, 140, 156, 215 n. 41 Carasso, Emmanuel, 179 Carra de Vaux, B., “al-Şābi’a,” 196 n. 16, 200 n. 57 caste, 8. See a lso Hinduism Castilian, 126 Catalan, 126-27 Caucasus, 109, 221 n. 19 C a u tiv o s , 115 Çelebizāde, 211 n. 9 Central Asia, 17, 28, 41, 57, 67, 84, 106, n o-π , 153, 166, 169, 172, 217 n. 57 Cetin, A., B a ş b a k a n lik A r ş iv i, 211 n. 10

Cevdet Paşa, T e z a k ir , 202 n. 74 Chaldees, 88 Cheikho, L., 200 n. 57, M a c h r iq , 206 n. 30 Chevallier, D., 211 n. 10 Chief of the Jews, 106 Children of Israel, 14, 89-90, 203 n. 6, 207 n. 32 China, 16, 76, 107 Chouraqui, A., B e tw e e n E a s t a n d W e s t, 221 n. 23, U A llia n c e , 219 n. 10

Christian Science, 6 circumcision, 26 Coeck, Peter, 215 n. 35 Cohen, Amnon, 119, 212 n. 15, J e w is h L ife , 205 n. 24, 209 n. 54, Y e h u d ê Y e ru sh a la y im , 211 n. M

INDEX ·

Cohen, Boaz, Ķ u n tr e s , 209-10 n. 3 Cohen, H. J., A sia n a n d A fric a n J e w s , 221 n. 23 Cohen, M. R., 212 n. 15, J e w ish S e lf-G o v e r n m e n t , 202 n. 1, “The Jews,” 193 n. i, 194 n. 5, 202 n. i, 209 n. 2, 216 n. 57 Cohen, Martin A., 215 n. 37 Commander of the Faithful, 47-48 c o m p r a d o r , 63 concubinage, 82 Constantine, 5 Constantinople, 47, 109, 120, 12223, 126-27, 135, 174, 212 n. 18, 215 n. 35, 219 n. 12. See a lso Istanbul conversion, converts, 9-10, 12, 16, 26, 34, 40, 47, 52, 61, 71-72., 78, 83, 87, 89, 92-101, 130, 135, 146-47, 151, 153, 156, 196 n. 15, 208 n. 47 Cook, Michael, H a g a ris m , 203 n. 5 Copts, 64-65 Cordova, 100 Corfu, 126, 201 n. 65 Crémieux, Adolphe, 157 Crete, 114 Crimea, i n , 218 n. 8 Crone, Patricia, H a g a r is m , 203 n. 5 Crusaders, Crusades, 23-24, 32, 43, 51, 54, 58, 61, 71, 102, 187, 215 n. 36 Ctesiphon, 75 Curzon, Lord (George), P ersia a n d th e P ersia n Q u e s tio n , 166-67, 220 nn. 17, 19 Cyprus, 123-24, 213 n. 22 Cyrenaica, 169 Czar, 22, 172 Daftar-i Khāķānī, 211 n. 10 Damanhur, 158 Damascene, Damascus, 41, 96, 117, 129, 134, 156-58, 162,

23I

168, 199 n. 45, 200 nn. 54, 55, 206 n. 28, 213 n. 22, 218 n. 6, 220 n. 18 Damascus Affair, 156, 158, 186, 217 n. 3 D ā r a l-H a r b , 21 D ã r a l-Islä m , 21, 23 Darke, H., 206 n. 29 Davis, M., W o r ld J e w r y , 223 n. 37 Dawlatshah, T a d h k ir a t , 208 n. 46 Dayr al-Qamar, 158 De Felice, Renzo, E b r e i , 221 nn. 20, 23 de Goeje, M. J., 200 nn. 56, 62 de Groot, A. H., T h e O tto m a n E m p ir e a n d th e D u tc h R e p u b lic , 210 n. 7 D e fte r -i H a k a n i , 117 Dervish Revolt, 104 D e u ts c h e N a tio n a l-Z e itu n g u n d S o ld a te n -Z e itu n g ,

223 n. 39 14, 32 d h im m a , 21-22, 24, 30, 38, 40-44, 57, 64-66, 106, 150-51, 170, 184, 191, 194 n. i, 196 n. 17. See also A h l a l-D h im m a , d h im m ī d h im rn i , 14-16, 21-22, 24-29, 32, 35-48, 50-52, 58, 61, 63, 85, 90, 98-99, 102, 106, 116-17, 13738, 147, 155, 162, 170, 185, 197 nn. 30, 34, 199 n. 43, 219 n. 10 Dhū Nuwās, 204 n. 15 d m , 12-13, 195 n. 8 doge, 155 d ö n m e , 147, 179, 216 n. 50 dragoman, 130-31, 146, 178 Dreyfus Affair, 162, 185, 188, 224 n. 45 Druze, 160 Duda, H. W., 212 n. 14 Dumont, P., “Jewish Communi­ ties,” 219 n. 10, “La Structure sociale,” 219 n. 10, “Les Ar­ chives . . . Turquie,” 211 n. 10,

d h illa , d h u ll,

232

■ INDEX

Dumont, P. (c o n t .) “Une source,” 219 n. 10, 222 n. 33

Dutch Republic, 210 n. 7 Düzdag, M. E., Ş e y h ü lisla m E b u ss u û d , 199 nn. 42, 50, 205 n. 24 Ebussuud Eřendi, 35, 39, 199 nn. 42, 50 Ebüzziya, 224 n. 45, K ü tü b b a n e , 224 n. 45, “Millet-i Israiliye,” 224 n. 45 Edirne, 118, 120, 124-27, 135, 158. See a lso Adrianople Egypt, Egyptians, 18, 40-41, 50, 61, 64, 75, 88, 92, 97-99, 109IO, 112, 114, 117, 120-21, 132, 144-46, i48, i56, i59, 168-69, i7i-72, i84, i87, i9O-9i, 202 П. 73, 2l8 П. 5, 220 П. i8, 221 n. 23, 223 n. 37 Eisenstein, J., 211 n. 8 Emmanuel, I. S., 212 n. 15, Isra e l­ ite s d e S a lo n iq u e , 209 n. 3 England, 159, 162, 164, 168, 183, 210 n. 6, 218 n. 8, 221 n. 22. See a lso Britain, British, English­ men Englishmen, 122, 138, 143, 216 n. 44

Enlightenment, 155 Entner, M. L., R u sso -P e rsia n C o m ­ m e r c ia l R e la tio n s , 196 n. 20 Epstein, Mark, 118, 212 nn. 15, 16, 214 n. 26, T h e O tto m a n J e w is h C o m m u n itie s , 211 n. 12, 213 nn. 19, 20 Ethiopia, 18 Ettinger, S., 209 n. 2 Exilarch, 106 exile, 8, 10, 24, 52, 83, 121 Evora, 126 eunuchs, 149. See a lso slaves, slav­ ery Europe, 3, 8, 24, 28, 36, 49, 55,

59, 61-62, 64, 67, 75, 77, 10710, 113, 115, 121, 125, 128-31, 134, 136, i39-44> 160-61, 164, 167, 169, 171-72, 176, 188, 206 n. 29 al-Fādil, 100 Farhi, 134 Faruqi, Mishbahul Islam, J e w ish C o n s p ir a c y , 223 n. 37 Fatimids, 42, 58, 98, 104 Fattal, A., L e S ta tu t, 193 n. 1, 195 n. 10, 197 nn. 22, 23, 25, 26, 199 n. 43 f a tw ā , 23, 35, 80, 200 n. 58. See a lso responsum, responsa Fayşal, King, 187 Febure, M., T e a tro d e lla T u rch ia , 215 n. 41 Ferdinand, Don, 135 fe rm ā n , 37, 43, 65, 147, 157, 174 Fez, 149-50, 208 n. 47 Finkel, J., 201 n. 71 Finkelstein, L., 217 n. 61 fiq h , 80. See a lso Shari'a First World War, 178, 181, 222 n. 30 Fischel, W. J., “Azarbaijan,” 208 n. 46, “Ha-Yehudim be-Iran,” 217 n. 57, “Ibn Khaldun: On the Bi­ ble,” 207 n. 33, “Ibn Khaldun and Josippon,” 207 n. 33, J e w s . . . I s la m , 198 n. 34, 217 n. 56, “Toldot yehudê Paras,” 217 n. 57, “The Jews of Persia,” 220 n. 17, “Israel in Iran,” 217 n. 61 Fitzmaurice, Gerald H., 178 Fleischer, H. O., 195 n. 10 f o r a s te r o s , 150 Foster, Sir William, T h e T ra v e ls o f J o h n S a n d e rso n in th e L e v a n t,

213 n. 19 Fraenkel, J., .221 n. 28

T h e J e w s in A u s tria ,

INDEX ■ 2 3 3

France, 120, 155-58, 161-63, 183, 224 n. 45 Franco, M., 212 n. 15, E ssa i , 214 n. 33, 218 n. 5, 221 n. 24 Franco-Prussian War, 224 n. 45 Franks, 164 French (language), 180, 184-85, 188, 194 nn. 3, 4, 206 n. 29, 207 n. 30 French Revolution, 62, 65, 174 Friedlander, I., “ fAbd Allah ibn Saba’,’’ 2.08 n. 50 Friedman, M. A., “Polygyny,” 205 n. 21 Gabrieli, F., “La Toleranza nell’Islam,” 194 n. 1 Galabov, G. D., D ie P r o to k o llb ü c h e r, 212 n. 14 Galante, A., 212 n. 13, D o c u m e n ts , 199 n. 46, 218 n. 5, 221 n. 26, D o n J o se p h N a s i , 215 n. 38, E n ­ c o r e , 215 n. 5, H is to ir e d e s Ju ifs . . . (S m y rn e ), 218 n. 5, H isto ir e d e s J u ifs . . . ď A n a to le , 218, H is ­ to ir e d e s J u ifs . . . ď ls ta n b u l, 212 n. 17, 218 nn. 4, 5, 221 n. 26, 222 n. 29, 224 n. 33, S a b b e ta i S e v i , 216 n. 49, T u rcs e t Ju ifs, 213-14 n. 24, T u rk le r v e Y a h u d iler, 214 nn. 24, 25 Galen, 130 Galilee, 94, 168 Galip, S., “Dönmeler ve Dönmelik,” 216 n. 50 García Gomez, E., “Polemica religiosa,” 206 n. 28 Gaza, 94, 186 Geiger, Abraham, W a s h a t M o ­ h a m m e d a u s d en J u d e n th u m e

68, 73, 203 n. 3, 204 n. 12 Gemara, 73. See Mishna, Talmud Geneva Convention, 205 n. 22 a u fg e n o m m e n ? ,

Geniza, 26, 92, 114, 205 n. 21, 207 n. 35, 213 n. 20 Genoese, 122 g e r , 127 Gerber, H., 212 n. 15 German (language), 125, 199 n. 50, 224 n. 47 Germans, Germany, 120, 122, 12526, 135-36, 141, 158, 162, 170, 186, 188, 190-91, 225 n. 47 al-Ghazālī, 56-57 ghetto, 28, 36, 167 Giacomo of Gaeta, 130 Gibb, H.A.R., 96, “Abū TJbayda,” 207 n. 40 Gibbon, E., D e c lin e a n d Fall, 3, 194 n. 2 Gibraltar, 154-55, 217 n. 2 Ginzberg, L., 207 n. 35 Goitein, S. D., 57, 67, 77, 92, 105, 114, 193 n. i, 216 n. 43, “Banū Isrā’ĩl,” 203 n. 6, “Birth-Hour,” 204 n. 17, “Concept of Mankind in Islam,” 206 n. 29, “'Eduyot,” 213 n. 20, In te rfa ith R e la tio n s , 199 n. 46, 208 n. 48, “Jewish Society,” 203 n. 2, 207 n. 34, J e w s a n d A r a b s, 202 n. 1, 209 n. 54, “al-Ķuds,” 203 n. 7, M e d i­ terra n ea n S o c ie ty , 197 n. 24, 202 n. i, 207 n. 34, 208 n. 42, “Muslim Friday Worship,” 204 nn. 11, 17, “Muslim Poll Tax,” 197 n. 24, R e lig io n in a R e li­ g io u s A g e , 205 n. 26, S tu d ie s, 204 nn. 11, 17 Golb, N., “Topography,” 203 n. 2 Golden Horde, 109 Golden Horn, 122 Goldziher, I., 103, 197 n. 29, 203 n. 6, Ig n a ce G o ld z ih e r M e m o ria l V o lu m e , 207 n. 33, I n tr o d u c tio n , 198 n. 37, 206 n. 29, Z ā h ir īs, 198 n. 37, M u h a m m e d a n isc h e S tu d ie n , 208 n. 49, “Polemik-

234 ' i n d e x

Goldziher, I. (c o n t .) gegen al-Kitab,” 205 n. 26, “Usages juifs,” 199 n. 41, 200 n. 56

Gölpinarli, Abdülbaki, S im a v n a , 209 n. 53 Goodblatt, 212 n. 15 Goodman, P., M o s e s M o n te fio re y 219 n. 9 Gornim, 176 Gottheil, R., “Dhimmis,” 197 n. 34 Gövsa, I. A., Ş a b a ta y S e v i , 216 n. 49

79-80, 105 Halkin, A. S., 208 n. 48, M o s le m S c h ism s , 206 n. 29 al-Hallāq, Shaykh Ahmad al-Budayrī, H a w ā d ith D im a s h q , 200 n. 55 Ham, 74, 204 n. 13 Hamadān, 39, 118-19, 198 n. 38 Hammer, J., H is to ir e d e ľ E m p ir e O tto m a n , 209 n. 53 Hamon, Moses, 214 nn. 29, 30 Hanafīs, 27, 39, 40 Hanbalīs, 15, 39 Hapsburg Empire, n o harem, 144 von Harřř, Arnold, 122, D ie P ilgerfa h r t , 213 n. 19 Harkabi, Y., A r a b A ttitu d e s , 222 n. 37, “La’anti Shemiyat,” 223 n. h a la k h a ,

Graetz, H., G e s c h ic h te , 201 n. 65, 209 n. 2, 215 nn. 36, 38 Granada, 45, 54, 197 nn. 33, 34, 198 n. 35, 206 n. 28 Great Moguls, i n Greece, 120, 125, 181, 210 n. 8 Greek (language), 12, 75-77, 83, 37 112, 120, 127, 150, 158 Harmatta, J., “Struggle . . . SassaniGreek War oř Independence ans,” 204 n. 15 (1821), 131 Hārūn al-Rashīd, 15 Green, D. F., A r a b T h e o lo g ia n s , Harvey, L. P., “Crypto-Islam,” 196 223 n. 41 n. 21 Green, James, 154 al-Hasan ibn Manşūr Qādīkhān, Greenbaum, A. A., 211 n. 13 F ã tã w l , 200 n. 58 Griegos, 127, 150 Hassan, Sir Joshua, J e w s o f G ib r a l­ Grobba, F., M a n n e r , 224 n. 74 ta r , 217 n. 2 Grohmann, A., “Khaybar,” 195 n. 6 h a v e r , 96 von Groote, E., 213 n. 19 Hebrew (language), 12, 56, 76-78, von Grunebaum, G. E., “Eastern 80-81, 90, 101-2, 114, 127, 129, Jewry,” 196 n. 14 131, 133, 143, 170, 183-84, Guillaume, A., 205 n. 22 186, 191, 210 nn. 3, 4, 214 n. 27, 215 n. 36, 216 n. 49, 222 n. Flacker, J. R., 209 n. 3, 212 n. 16 37 Ha-Cohen, Joseph, 125, S efer . . . Hekim Yâqub, 214 n. 29 h a -T o g e r , 210 n. 5, D iv r ê , 213 heresy, 53-54, 58, 62, 201 n. 68 n. 24 Heyd, U., 119, 212 n. 15, “Alilot,” fpadīth , 41, 59, 70, 86, 203 n. 6 200 n. 59, 216 n. 51, 218 n. 4, “Moses Hamon,” 214 nn. 29, Hadrian, 89 30, O tto m a n D o c u m e n ts , 213 n. h a h a m , 126 22, “Te'udot Turkiyyot,” 213 n. h a h a m b a sh i , 126, 174 Haim, S. G., “Arabic Anti-Semitic 22, “The Jewish Communities . . . 17th Century,” 213 n. 19 Literature,” 222 n. 37

INDEX ■ 2 3 5

Hijaz, 10-11, 27-28 al-Hillĩ, Najm al-Dĩn Ja'far, S h a rã ’i \ 198 n. 37

K itā b

H ilfs v e r e in d e r D e u tsc h e n ] u d e n ,

162 Himyaritic, 204 n. 15 Hinduism, 8, 18, 20 Hirschberg, H. Z. (J. W.), E a s t a n d M a g h r e b , 196 n. 20, 214 n. 26, Isra e l B e -A r a v , 204 n. Jew s in N o r th A fr ic a , 201 n. 66, 202 n. i, 208 n. 47 Hirschřeld, Hartwig, 207 n. 38 Hirszowicz, L., T h e T h ir d R eich a n d th e A r a b E a s t , 224 n. 47 Hitti, P. K., O r ig in s , 200 n. 56 Hodgson, M.G.S., “ 'Abdallah b. Saba,” 208 n. 50 Holt, P. M., 207 n. 31 Hopkins, J.F.P., M e d i e v a l . . . B a r­ b a r y , 201 n. 66 Horster, P., Z u r A n w e n d u n g , 199 nn. 42, 50 Hourani, A., 222 n. 30 Hungarians, Hungary, 109, 12526, 166 al-Husaynĩ, Hāj Amin, 190 Iberian Peninsula, 23, 106, 122, I4 I Ibn 'Abdun, R isa la , 199 n. 47 Ibn Ami 'Uşaybi'a, K itā b T Jyü n , 207 n. 42 Ibn 'Asākir, 206 n. 28 Ibn Hajar, a l-D u r a r , 208 n. 46 Ibn Hazm, 87, 198 n. 34, a l-R a d d , 198 n. 34, 206 n. 28 Ibn Ishāq, Sīrat> 205 n. 22 Ibn Kammüna, 95, 207 n. 38 Ibn Khaldun, 90, 207 n. 33 Ibn Killis, 97-98, 207 n. 41 Ibn Nagrella (or al-Naghrĩla), 87, 198 n. 34, 206 n. 27 Ibn al-Naqqash, “Fetwa,” 195 n. 11

Ibn al-Qalānisī, D h a y l , 200 n. 54 Ibn al-Qiftĩ, T a ’r īk h , 208 n. 45 Ibn Qutayba, TJyun, 197 n. 30 Ibn al-Rāwandĩ, 103, 208 n. 51 Ibn Şā'id al-Andalusī, K itā b Ţ ab a q ā t , 206 n. 30 Ibn al-Tilmidh, 99, 207 n. 42 ijā za , 79 Il-Khans, 100-1. See a lso Golden Horde, Mongols Ileri, Celâl Nuri, 188-89 Ilyas, 204 n. 13 Imam, 43, 126 Imperial Divan, 147 Inalcik, H., “Istanbul,” 212 n. 16, 213 n. 18, “Osmanli Idare,” 211 n. 14, “Ottoman Methods of Conquest,” 212 n. 16 India, 6, 8, 16, 20, 76, 88, 107, no-11, 186 inheritance, 26-27 Iran, 17, 20, 26-28, 33, 39-50, 52, 57, 59, 64, 67, 75-77, 84, 95, IOO-I, 106, IIO-I2, 118, 148, 150-53, 158, 163, 166, 168, 172-73, 181, 191, 196 n. 20, 217 n. 58, 218 n. 5, 220 n. 17, 221 n. 19. See a lso Persia Iraq, 16, 18, 28, 41, 67, 75-76, no, 112, 117, 121, 148, 172, 184, 190-91, 222 n. 29 Isaac, E., “Concept . . . Noé,” 204 n. 13, “Genesis,” 204 n. 13 Isfahan, 94, 152, 167, 217 n. 58 Ishāq al-Yahūdī, 145 Ishāq ibn Abraham ibn Ezra, 99 Ishmael, Ishmaelites, 94, 128 “Islamophilia,” 194 n. 1 Ismā'īlî, Ismailism, 58, 98, 206 n. 29, 208 n. 52 Israel, Israeli, Israelite: ancient, 60, 70, 89-90, 94, 97, 165, 180, 187; modern, 14, 186-87, 18991, 209 n. 2, 222 n. 37, 223 n. 41, 225 n. 48

Z

$6

■ INDEX

Isra e litisc h e A llia n z , 162 Isrā’iliyyāt, 70, 97, 203 n. 6 Issawi, C , T u r k e y , 201 n. 72 Istanbul, 37-38, 49, 63-64, 114, 117-18, 120, 122, 124-27, 13133, 145, 147, 158, 164-65, 171, 173, 176, 179-80, 210 n. 7, 212 n. 16, 213 n. 18, 218 n. 5, 221 n. 22, 224 n. 45. See a lso Con­ stantinople Italy, 24, 83, 113-15, 125-26, 130, 176, 190 Ivry, A., 211 n. 13 Izmir, 114, 120, 124, 158, 218 nn. 4, 5. See a lso Smyrna Izzet [Kumbaracizade], H e k im -B a şi, 214 n. 29

al-Jabartī, 64-65, 'A jā 'ib , 201 n. 73, 216 n. 46 al-Jāhiz, 59-60, F i’- R a d d , 201 n. 71 Jahn, K., G e s c h ic h te d e r K in d e r Is­ ra els d e s R a s īd a d - D īn , 207 n. 32, “ ‘Geschichte . . in der islamischen Historiographie,” 207 n. 32 J a h u d i , 166 janissaries, 41, 133, 173-74, 21415 n· 3 3 Javid Pasha, 179 Jedda, 168, 220 n. 19 Jellinek, A., Ķ u n tr e s , 215 n. 36 Jem, 50 je m a 'a t , 120 Jenghiz Khan, i n Jerusalem, 70-73, 75, 96, 117, 158, 160, 190, 199 n. 45, 204 n. 8, 209 n. 2, 211 n. 14, 223 n. 34. See a lso Aelia, al-Quds Jesus Christ, 5, 11, 84 jih ā d , 21, 23, 196 n. 19 įiz y a , 14-16, 21, 26, 31, 65-66, 152, 194 n. 3, 195 nn. 9, 10, 197 n. 24 Jordan, 186, 220 n. 18

Joseph Nasi, Don, 137, 144, 215 n. 38 Josephus, Flavius, 90, 199 n. 5, J e w is h W a r , 199 n. 5 Josippon, 90, 207 n. 33 Judeo-Arabic, 77, 153, 204 n. 16 Judeo-German. See Yiddish Judeo-Persian, 153, 217 n. 61 Judeo-Spanish, 77, 129, 143 ju d e r ia s , 149 Ka'ba, 71 Ka'b al-Ahbār, 71, 96-97, 207 n. 39

k a fir y a h u d is i ,

22 Kāřūr, 98 Kahaitchana (Kâthane), 165 k a lā m , 80 Kandemir, Y a k in , 222 n. 31 Kapsali, E., S e d e r E liy a h u Z u ta , 210 n. 5, 212 n. 17 Kapsali, Moses, 126-28 Karanjia, R. K., 223 n. 38 Karasu, A., 179 Kārūn, 204 n. 13 Kashan, 167, 222 n. 35 Katsh, A. I., J u d a ism in Is la m , 202 n. i Kedourie, E., A r a b P o litic a l M e m ­ o ir s , 222 n. 31, “The Alliance,” 219 nn. 10, 11, “Young Turks,” 222 n. 31 k e h illa , k e h illo t , 120, 126-27 k e n d i g e le n , 125 Kermānshāh, 119, 198 n. 38 Khaybar, io-n, 195 n. 6 Khazars, 61 Khomeini. See Ayatollah Khomeini Khoury, A., T o le r a n z , 194 n. 1, 195 n. 6, 196 n. 21, 197 nn. 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 199 n. 43 al-Khudayrī, 206 n. 27 k ir a , 144 Kirk Kilise, 125

INDEX ■ 2 3 7

Kister, M. J., A r a b ic a , 195 n. 9, “Haddithū,” 203 n. 6 Kobier, F., L e tte r s o f J e w s, 215 n. 36

K o la h ,

167 Konya, 118 Korah. See Qārūn Kramer, G., M in d e r h e it , 221 n. 23 Kraus, P., “Ibn al-Rawandī,” 208 n. 51 Kūřa, 30 Kurdish (language), 121 Kuzguncuk, 158 Laguna, Andrés, 213 n. 19 Lamentations, 128 Landau, J., “Hebrew Sources,” 210 n. 3, J e w s in . . . E g y p t , 218 nn. 5, 7, 221 n. 23 Lane, Edward, 40, M a n n e rs a n d C u s to m s , 200 n. 51 Laniado, Joseph, 156 Latin, 12, 76-77, 131, 143, 213 n. 25

Lattes, M.,

D e V ita . . . E lia e K a p 210 n. 5 Lazarus-Yafeh, H., A s p e c ts , 201 n. 70, 202 n. 7, “Bayn halakha bayahudut,” 204 n. 17 Lebanon, 18, 41, 186 Lemberg, 210 n. 5 L e M o n d e , 224 n. 44 Letts, Malcolm, 213 n. 19 Levant, 113-14, 139, 146, 171, 176, 210 n. 7, 213 n. 19, 215 n. 40, 216 n. 45 Levantines, 64 Levant Company, 146, 210 n. 7, 216 n. 48 Leven, N., A llia n c e , 198 n. 38, 216 n. 54, 218 n. 5, 219 n. 10 Levi, Habib, T ā r īk h -i , 220 n. 17 s a lii ,

Levi Della Vida, G., “II Califfato di Ali,” 208 n. 50, “Un’Antico opera,” 200 n. 53

Levi-Provençal, E., 199 n. 47 Levtzion, N., C o n v e r s io n , 196 n.

*5

Lewis, Bernard, “Anti-Jewish Ode,” 200 n. 60, “Apoc­ alyptic Vision,” 207 n. 35, “Başvekalet arşivi,” 211 n. 10, C h ris­ tia n s a n d J e w s , 212 nn. 15, 16, 214 n. 26, 219 n. 10, 222 n. 31, E m e r g e n c e , 219 n. 32, “Heresy,” 201 n. 68, H isto r ia n s o f th e M id ­ d le E a s t , 207 n. 31, Is la m , 194 n. i, 196 n. 18, 197 nn. 29, 31, 199 n. 47, 200 nn. 57, 58, 61, 204 n. 9, Isla m in H is to r y , 200 n. 60, 201 n. 68, “Judaeo-Osmanica,” 211 n. 13, 213 n. 21, “Little Menachem,” 216 n. 43, M u s lim D is c o v e r y , 196 n. 21, N o te s a n d D o c u m e n ts , 213 nn. 21, 22, “On that Day,” 207 n. 35, O r ig in s o f ĩs m a ilis m , 208 n. 52, R a c e a n d C o lo r , 194 n. 4, R a c e e t C o u le u r , 194 n. 4, 204 n. 13, “The Privilege Granted by Mehmed II to His Physician,” 214 nn. 27, 28 Lewis, G. L., “Sabbetai Zevi,” 216 n. 49 Libya, no, 168-69, i72> 221 nn· 20, 23 Lippert, J., 208 n. 45 Lisbon, 126 Littman, D., “Jews . . . Persia,” 198 n. 38, 199 n. 48, 216 n. 54, 218 n. 6, 219 n. 10, 221 n. 22, “Les Juiřs . . . Pahlevi,” 219 n. 10, “Quelques Aspects,” 219 n. 10 Livorno, 144, 176 Loewe, L., D ia r ie s , 219 n. 9 London, 78, 115, 157, 168, 210 n. 6, 221 n. 22 Lowry, Heath W., “Portrait of a City,” 213 n. 21 Lowther, Sir Gerard, 178

238

■ INDEX

Lûtfi, A., T a rih -i 221 n. 24

L û tfi,

214 n. 33,

MacDonald, D. B., “Kārūn,” 204 n. 13 MacFarlane, Charles, 164, C o n s ta n tin o p le , 219 n. 12 MacGregor, John, 168, T h e R o b R o y , 220 n. 18 M a c h r ią , 206 n. 30 Madras, 222 n. 34 Maghrib, 126, 196 n. 20. See a lso North Africa m a h a lle , 126 Mahdĩ, 51 Mahmud II, 173-74 Maibaum, Ignaz, 78-79 Maimonides, 76, 84, 100, 102, 106, 208 n. 48, I g g e r e t , 208 n. 48 Majar, 126 Mālikĩ, 23, 39-40, 151 Mandel, N., A r a b s a n d Z io n is m , 222 n. 30, J e w is h Im m ig r a tio n , 222 n. 30 Manisa, 212 n. 16 Mannheim, R., 201 n. 63 Mansura, 158 Mantran, R., I s ta n b u l . . . d u X V l l · siè c le , 210 n. 7, 215 n. 41, “Règlements,” 213 n. 18 Ma’oz, M., “The Image of the Jew,” 223 n. 37 al-Maqrizi, K itā b a l-S u lũ k , 208 n. 46 Maranids, 149 Marazzi, Ugo, T e v a rih -i A li-i O s ­ m a n , 210 n. 4 Margoliouth, D. S., 206 n. 28 Markon, 1., “Otliciteľni,” 217 n. 60 Maronites, 185 Marranism, Marranos, 84, 94, 100, I3 4 , 1 3 7 , 1 5 3

m a r ty r o s , 83 martyrdom, 5, 8, 40, 82-83, 146 Marv, 153 Marx, Karl, 186 masonic lodge(s), 179, 222 n. 31 Masoretes, 81 Massignon, L., E n q u ê te , 208 n. 47 Mayer, L. A., Ľ A r t J u if, 205 n. 20 McCarthy, R. J., 206 n. 27 Mecca, 70-71 medicine, 56, 60, 90-91, 98-102, 129-31, 135, 139, 144, 183, 214 nn. 27, 29, 220 n. 17 Medina, io-n, 59, 70, 83, 96 de Medina, Samuel, 128 m e g o r a s h im , 127 Mehmed II (“the Conqueror”), 49, 126-27, 130, i39> i47» ĭ 58, 214 nn. 27, 29 Mehmed HI, 43 M e lila , 214 n. 27 Mendes, Doña Gracia, 136, 215 n. 38

m e lla h ,

149-50 Meshed, 152-53, 168, 220 n. 19 messianism: Islamic, 51-52; Jewish, 93-94, 14^-47, 216 n. 49 M ic h a e l , 212 n. 15, 220 n. 19 M ik k e d e m U m iy y a m , 209 n. 2 Milano, A., S to r ia , 216 n. 45, 221 n. 26 Millas-Vallinciosa, H o m e n a je , 206 n. 27, 207 n. 33 m ille t, 125-26, 221 n. 23, 224 n. 45

120 Miques, João. See Joseph Nasi Mīrānshāh, 101 Mishāqa, M., a l-]a w ā h , 218 n. 3 Mishna, 73, 204 n. 12. See a lso Gemara, Talmud Mizrahi, Eliyahu, 128 Mizrahi, H., T o ld o t, 199 n. 44, 220 n. 17 m in h a g ,

INDEX ■ 2 3 9

Moberg, A., “Nadjrān,” 195 n. 5 Monastir, 118 Mongols, 54, 58, 64, 100, 108-9, i n , 151 Montefiore, Sir Moses, 157, 161, 219 n. 9 Moors, 109, 150, 154 Mordtmann, J. H., “Die jüdischen Kira,” 216 n. 44 Moreen, V. B., “Persecution,” 217 n. 58 Morocco, Moroccan, 23, 28, 36, 76, 100, 102, 109-10, 112-13, 148-51, 153-55, 158, 162, 164, 168, 172, 191 Moses, 5, 74 Mosul, 98, 117, 166, 219 n. 15 Motzki, H., D in tm a u n d E g a lité , 202 n. 73 Mounsey, A. H., J o u r n e y , 221 n. 19

m u 'ā h a d ,

41-42. See also 'A h d mufti, 35, 190 Muhammad, 4, 10-12, 14-16, 21, 39-42, 44, 46, 53-54, 56, 59-60, 68-70, 74-75, 83-84, 89, 93, 187, 194 n. 5, 205 nn. 22, 25, 210 n. 6, companions of, 46 Muhammad 'Abdallah al-Sammān, 223 n. 37 Muhammad 'All Pasha, 40, 156-57 Muhammad ibn 'Abdallah ibn Tumart, 51 Muhimme, 213 n. 22 m u h ta d ī , 95 al-Mu'izz, 98 mullah, 39, 79 Mu’nis, Husayn, 196 n. 21 Munk, Salomon, 157 a l- M u q a tta m , 222 n. 30 Murad III, 51 a l-M u şa w w a r> 224 n. 43 m u s tď m in , 22, 155. See also a m ā n m u sta 'r ib a , 121

al-Mutawakkil, 47-49 Mu'tazila, 47, 103 mysticism: Islamic, 4, 88, 206 n. 29; Jewish, 129, 216 n. 49 Nadir Shāh, 152 Nagel, T., 195 n. 5 Najara, Israel, 129 n a jã sa , 33, 198 n. 37 Najrān, 10-11, 195 n. 5 Nāşir, President, 180, 223 n. 38 Năşir al-Dīn, 167 Nataf, M., B A I U 1 218 n. 6 N a v ig a tio n s , 215 n. 34 al-Nawawī, a l-M a n th ü r ã t , 197 n. 29 Nazi, 163, 181, 185-86, 188, 190, 224 n. 47 Nehama, J., Isra e lites d e S a lo n iq u e , 209 n. 3 Neimark, E., M a s a \ 222 n. 34 Nejefi, Sheikh Agha, 167 Nestorians, 16 Netzer, A., “Redifot,” 217 n. 57 Newby, Gordon D., “Tafsir Isra’iliyat,” 203 n. 6 de Nicolay, Nicholas, 134 Nicopolis, 118 Nizām al-Mulk, S iy ã s a t-n ā m e , 206 n. 29 North Africa, 16-18, 23, 41, 51, 57, 59, 61, 64, 74, 76, 84, 95, 98-99, 101, 106-8, no, 113, I 2 I , 1 4 9 -5 0 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 6 , 1 5 9 , 162-63, τ 7 º - 7 2, 176, 183, 190, 201 n. 66, 209 n. 2, 218 n. 6, 219 n. 10, 221 n. 23. See a lso Maghrib

Nuri, Celâl,

T a rih -i I s tik b a l ,

224 n.

45

al-Nuwayri,

N ih a y a t ,

133 Oke, (Mim) Kemal, II

208 n. 46

o c a k b a zir g a n i ,

A b d ü lh a m id ,

2 40 ■ I N D E X

Oke, (Mim) Kemal (cont.) 224 n. 45, “Siyonism,” 224 n. 45, “The Ottoman Empire, Zion­ ism, and the Question of Pales­ tine,’’ 224 n. 45 Old Testament, 69, 89 Olson, R. W., “Jews in the Otto­ man Empire,’’ 214 n. 33 Ongan, Halit, A n k a r a ʼn in , 212 n. M

Otranto, 126 “Pact of 'Umar,” 24, 193 pagans, 10, 12, 55, 58, 151, 158 Pahlavis, 219 n. 10 Pakistani, 223 n. 37 Palestine, 16, 18, 23, 54, 58, 61, 75, 90, 96-97, no, 112, 117, 123, 157, 160-61, 168, 189, 220 n. 18, 222 n. 30. S ee a lso Israel Palmerston, Lord, 157, 160, 162, 218 n. 8 Paracelsus, 129 Pardoe, Julia, 165, T h e C ity o f th e S u lta n , 219 n. 14 Paret, R., M u h a m m a d u n d d e r K o ­ ra n , 205 n. 22, “Sure,” 195 nn. 8, 9, “Toleranz und Intoleranz,” 194 n. i Paris, 161, 187, 221 n. 22, 222 n. 33

Parliament: British, 157; Egyptian, 179 Parry, V. J., “Bāyazīd II,” 201 n. 64 von Pastor, F., H is to r y o f th e P o p e s , 215 n. 38 Pérès, H., L a P o é s ie , 198 n. 35 Perlmann, Moshe, 86, 198 n. 34, “Andalusian Authors,” 197 nn. 33, 34, 198 n. 35, 206 n. 28, “Anti-Christian Propaganda,” 197 n. 34, “Dönme,” 216 n. 50, “Ghiyār,” 197 n. 23, Ib n K a m m ü n a , 207 n. 38, “Medieval Po­

lemics,” 205 n. 26, Ifh ã m a l-Y a 208 n. 44 Pera, 122 Persia, 16-17, 19-2.0, 22, 35, 75, 77, 88, 93, 100, no, 112, 150, 152, 167-68, 181-83, 196 n. 20, 198 n. 38, 217 n. 58, 218 nn. 5, 6, 219 n. 10, 220 n. 17, 222 n. 34. See a lso Iran Persian Gulf, 112 Persian (language), 89, 107, 109, in-12, 153, 194 n. 3 Peters, R., Isla m a n d C o lo n ia lis m , 196 n. 19, J ih a d , 196 n. 19 physicians. See medicine Pines, S., “Abu’l-Barakāt,” 207 n. 42 p iy y ū ţ, 93 Podolia, 125 Polak, J. E., P ersien , 220 n. 17, 222 n. 34 Poland, 77, 125, 141, 191 polltax. See jiz y a polygamy, 82 polytheists, 20, 48, 58-59 Ponsonby, 218 n. 8 Pope Paul IV, 137 Port Said, 158 Portugal, Portuguese, 23, 50, 84, 109, 113, 115, 120, 125-26, 130, 134, 136, 148-50, 210 n. 6 Preto, P., V e n e zia e i T u rch i, 210 n. 7, 216 n. 41 printing, 129, 131, 135, 139 Prophet. See Muhammad hūd,

P r o to c o ls o f th e E ld e rs o f Z io n ,

185-87, 224 n. 46 Provençal, 126 Provence, 81 Prussia, 159 Public Record Office, 217 n. 1 Puin, Gerd-R., 195 n. 5 qādī, 15, 37, 44, 88, 100, 104-5, 119, 205 n. 24

INDEX ■ 2 4 i

Qajars, 152, 172, 183 al-Qalqashandi, Ş u b h , 197 n. 28, 200 n. 61 Qārūn, 74 al-Quds, 203 n. 7, 204 n. 8. See a lso Jerusalem Querry, A., D r o it m u su lm a n , 198 n. 37 Qur’an, 3-4, 10-15, 20, 25, 29-30, 32, 40-42, 59, 69-70, 72-74, 8182, 84, 86, 89, 102, 195 nn. 8, 9, 197 n. 33, 198 n. 35, 205 nn. 22, 24 Ramadan, 73 Ramsaur, E. E., T h e Y o u n g T u r k s , 222 n. 31 ransom, 115 Rashid al-DIn, 89-90, 100-1, 207 n. 32 Ratti-Menton, 156 ra v a k ç e s i , 128 Rawidowicz, Simon, 211 n. 13 Raymond, A., A r tisa n s . . . C a ire, 210 n. 7, 216 n. 47 Reconquest, Reconquista, 24, 58, 61 re d u c tio a d a b s u r d u m , 104 Refik, A., 199 n. 46 Remedio, M., 215 n. 37 Renaissance, 114, 134, 141 Resh Galuta, 106 responsum, responsa: Jewish, 11314, 119, 128, 212 n. 15, 214 n. 27; p r u d e n tiu m , 80. See also f a tw ã , teshuvot Reychman, J., H a n d b o o k , 211 n. 10 Rhodes, 123 a l-R isã la , 223 n. 37 Roca, Vincente, H is to r ia , 215 n. 35 Rodinson, M., “Studies on Mu­ hammad,” 203 n. 4 Rodkey, F. S., “Lord Palmerston,” 219 n. 8

Romaniot, 120, 128 Rome, Roman Empire, 5, 16, 75, 77, 88, 90, 93, 155, 194 n. 2, 204 n. 8, 221 n. 22 Rosenthal, E.I.J., J u d a ism a n d Is­ la m , 202 n. i Rosenthal, F., “Biblical Tradition,” 207 n. 31, J o sh u a S ta rr , 195 n. 9 Roth, Cecil, “Sabbetai Zevi,” 216 n. 49 Rozanes, S., 212 n. 15, D iv r ê , 209 n. 3, 212 n. 17, ĮCoroř, 214 n. 33, 221 nn. 24, 26, 222 n. 29 Rumania, 171 Russia, Russians, 22, 64, 77, 10911, 141, 153, 159, 161, 169-72, 196 n. 20 Rustum, A. J., 218 n. 3 Sabbath, 72 Sabbionetta, 210 n. 5 s a b b , 39. See also b īg a ra z Sabians, 13, 15, 20, 196 n. 16 Safavids, 52, i n , 151, 201 n. 67, 216 n. 57 Safed, 123-24, 127, 132, 168, 213 n. 22, 220 n. 19 Saffet, T a rih -i O s m a n i , 215 n. 38 Sagues, A I D , 198 n. 38 Sahillioglu, H., “Yeniçeri,” 215 n. 33

de Saint-Aignan, Jean Baptiste, 215 n. 41 s a k in , 199 n. 45 Saladin, 109, 187 Salonika, 114, 118, 120, 122-28, i3i-33> i 7 9 -8 i , 209 n. 3, 213 nn. 20, 22 Samaria, 94 Samaritan, 15 Samaw’al al-Maghribī, Ifh ã m alYahūd> 208 n. 44 Samuel Ibn Nagrella. See Ibn Nagrella Şan'ā’, 218 n. 4

ZĄZ

■ INDEX

Sanderson, John, T r a v e ls , 215 n. 40, 216 n. 44 sa rtja k , 117, 123 Santillana, D., I n s titu z io n i , 196 n. 21 Sanua, James (or Ya'qub). See Abū Naddara Saragossa, 126 Sarajevo, 118 al-Sarakhsi, 199 n. 43 Sasanids, 75, 106 Saudi, 187 Savory, R., S a fa v id s , 201 n. 67 Schacht, J., “Abū Hanīfa alNu'mān,” 207 n. 40, “Amān,’’ 196 n. 20 Schechter, S., 207 n. 35 Scherer, 206 n. 29 Schmitz, M., “Ka'b al-Ahbār,” 207 n. 39 Schneider, A. M., “Die Bevölkerung Konstantinopols,” 212 n. 18 Scholem, G., S a b b e ta i Ş evi, 216 n. 49

Schröder, B. P., D e u ts c h la n d , 225 n. 47 Schmucker, W., “Die Christliche Minderheit,” 195 n. 5 Second World War, 225 n. 47 Seljuqs, 98 s e m ik h a , 79 Sephardi, Sephardim, 77, 120, 130, 134, 149-50, 176, 180, 209 n. 2, 210 n. 5 Serbs, 179 Serfaty, A.B.M., J e w s o f G ib r a l­ ta r , 217 n. 2 Sertoglu, Midhat, M u h te v a , 211 n. 10 Seville, 38 Shabbatai Sevi, 146-47, 193 n. 1, 216 n. 49 Shāfns, 39 shāh, 41, 52, no, 151, 152, 167-

68, 172, 183, 194 n. 3, 217 n. 58, 220 n. 17, 221 n. 22 sh a h td , 83 Shamir, S., “Muslim-Arab Atti­ tudes,” 200 n. 55, 223 n. 37 Sharľa, 43, 50, 52, 80, 137. See also fiqh Sharif, 41 Sharif Pasha, 156 Shaw, S. J., “Archival Sources,” 211 n. 10 Sheikh Muhammad Mahdi, 198 n. 38 , 73 Shema', Shi'a, ShΠ, Shi'ism, 22, 25-26, 3 3 -3 4 , 3 7 , 3 9 -4 1 , 5 ¤-5 ¿, 5 8 , 7 9 , 82, 85, 103, I I I , 151-52, 200 n. 53

Shiraz, 167, 183, 218 n. 6 Shmuelevitz, A., 210 n. 5 Sicily, 23, 58, 61, 109, 126 sz/z7/, 1 19

Silivri, 179-80 Şinasi, K ü lliy a t , 221 n. 29 s ip ā h ī , 38 Siroz, 118 Sivas, 118 Skopje, 118 slaves, slavery, 8-10, 16, 20, 27, 31, 34, 36-37, 4 8 -4 9 , 9 i, 1 3 7 , 149, 166. See a lso eunuchs Slavs, 179 Smith, Sidney, “Events in Arabia,”

204 n. 15 Smith, W. Cantwell,

T h e M e a n in g

a n d E n d o f R e lig io n ,

195 n. 6 Smyrna, 120, 218 n. 5. See a lso Iz­ mir Sofia, 117-18, 212 n. 14 Soviet Central Asia, i n . See a lso Central Asia, Russia, Russians Spain, Spaniards, 8, 23-24, 38, 41,

50-52, 58-59, 61, 67, 76, 81, 8384, 87, 89, 99-100, 102, 106, 109, 113, 115, 120, 125-27,

INDEX ■ 2 4 3

129-30, 135, 139, 148-50, 154, 191, 210 n. 6 Spanish Inquisition, 7, 137 Spanish (language), 121, 134, 143. See a lso Judeo-Spanish Spicehandler, E., “Persecution,” 217 n. 58 Spuler, B., D ie M o rg e n lä n d isc h e n K ir c h e n , 193 n. i Spuler, Christa-U., 195 n. 5 Steinschneider, M., G e s c h ic h tslite ra tu r , 210 n. 5, P o le m is c h e , 197 n. 34, 205 n. 26 Stern, S. M., “Abd Allah b. Maymūn,” 208 n. 52, “Abū fIsa,” 207 n. 36 Stillman, Norman A., 149, “New Attitudes,” 223 nn. 37, 40, 224 nn. 42, 43, “Persecution,” 219 n. 20, T h e J e w s o f A r a b L a n d s , 193 n. i, 194 n. 5, 196 n. 13, 201 n. 69, 201 n. 71, 202 n. 74, 208 n. 48, 216 nn. 52, 53, 55, 217 nn. i, 3, 218 n. 7, 220 n. 19 Stirling Bart, Sir William, 215 n. 35 Strothmann, R., “Taqīya,” 205 n. 23 Stuart, C., J o u rn a l, 218 n. 5 Sufi. See mysticism, Islamic Sulaymān, 47 Suleyman II (“the Magnificent”), 35, 105, 137, 147, 214 n. 29 sultan, sultanate, 35, 43, 49-51, 66, 98-99, 105-6, 109-10, 112, 125, 127-28, 137-38, 1 4 5 -4 7 , i5o-5i> i54-55> 157, 160, 162, 165, 168, 173-74, 178, 201 n. 64, 216 n. 44, 219 n. 14 Sunni, 22, 34, 37, 39-4¤> 58, 69, 79, 105, 152, 206 n. 29 sü rg ü n , 121-23, 125, 138, 212 n. i6

Swartz, M., 203 n. 4 Syria, 16, 18, 23, 25, 30, 41, 50, 54, 58, 61, 75, 96, 105, no,

112-13, 117, 121, 134, 146, 148, 156-57, 159-61, 168, 174, 190, 217 n. 3, 222 n. 29 Syriac, 78 Ţabarī, 71, T a ’rik h , 200 n. 62, 204 n. 9 Tabriz, 100-1, 119 ţa h ā ra , 33, 198 n. 37. See also najā sa

taķĩya, 205 n. 23 Talmud, 5, 35, 73, 75, 80, 191, 204 n. 12. See a lso Gemara, Mishna Tamerlane, 101, i n Tanyu, H., 224 n. 46, T arih B o y u n c a Y a h u d ile r ve T ü r k le r , 224 n. 46 T a p u , 117, 119, 211 n. 10 T a rih -i P e ç e v i , 213 n. 23 T a sv ir -i E fk â r , 221 n. 29 Tatars, 109, i n tax farmers, 132, 145 Tehran, 167, 220 n. 17 te s h u v o t, 80. See a lso responsum Temperley, H., E n g la n d a n d th e N e a r E a s t , 218 n. 8 da Terzorio, Clemente, “Hvero autore,” 215 n. 41 Tetuán, 168, 220 n. 19 Tevfik, Ebüzziya, 188 theater, 129, 131, 184 Thery, G., 203 n. 4 de Thevenot, Jean, 152 Timur Lang. See Tamerlane Tobi, Y., T o ld o t, 209 n. 2 Tokat, 118 Toledo, 88, 126 Tomaso, Father, 156 Topkapi Palace, 212 n. 18 Torah, 5, 74 Torlak Hu Kemal, 208 n. 53 to s h a v , to s h a v im , 127, 150 le Tourneau, R., A lm o h a d M o v e ­ m e n t , 201 n. 66

244

"

index

de Tournefort, Joseph P., V o y a g e . . . L e v a n t , 215 n. 40 Transcaucasia, 169 Trikala, 118 Tripoli, 158 Tripolitania, 169 Tritton, A. S., 25, C a lip h s , 193 n. i, 197 nn. 22, 23, 27, “Naşãra,” 195 n. 5, “Tahāra,” 198 n. 37 Tunis, 176 Tunisia, 40, no, 113, 168, 172 Turcoman, 123 Turkey, 41, 64, 100, no, 112, 115, 136-37, 140-41, M3 , 14849, 151, 162-63, 175-76, 183, 191, 201 nn. 65, 72, 209 n. 3, 211 n. 10, 213 n. 19, 214 nn. 31, 32, 218 n. 5, 219 nn. 8, 10. See a lso Anatolia, Asia Minor Turki, A., “Situation du ‘tributaire’,” 199 n. 49 Turkish (language), 107, 109, 112, 114, 121, 130-31, 147, 188 Tyan, E., “Djihād,” 196 n. 19 Ubicini, 140-41, 143, L e ttr e s , 216 n. 42 Udovitch, A. L., “Jews and Islam,” 197 n. 30 ulema, 44, 49, 64, 79, 137. Uluçay, M. Çagatay, “Sürgünler,” 212 n. 16 'Umar I, π , 24-25, 28-31, 41, 47, 71, 96, 105 'Umar II, 25, 46-47, 49 'Umar Khayyam, 206 n. 29 Umayyads, 25, 46-47, 56, 103 u m m a , 12 UNESCO, 186-87, 223 n. 42 Uniates, 159, 185 United States, 163. See a lso Amer­ ica, American universities, 143, 185 University of Ankara, 224 n. 46

University of Haifa, 209 n. 2 UNRWA, 186 Urmia, 218 n. 5 Usque, Samuel, 136, C o n s o la tio n , 136, 215 n. 37 usury, II 'Uthmān, 97 Utrecht, 217 n. 2 Uzunçar§ili, Ismail Hakki, O s m a n li D e v le ti , 214 n. 33, O s m a n li T arih i , 214 n. 33 Vajda, G., H o m m a g e , 205 n. 17, “Ibn al-Rāwandī,” “Ilyas,” 204 n. 13, “Isrā’iliyyāt,” 203 n. 6, “Juifs et Musulmans,” 203 n. 6, “Le ‘Kalām’,” 205 n. 16, “Hām,” 204 n. 13 va li, 44 Vambery, Arminius, 166, T h e S to r y o f M y S tru g g le s , 220 n. 16 V a ta n , 212 n. 18 Venice, 144, 146, 155, 210 n. 7, 216 n. 41 Venier, Matteo, 201 n. 65 Vichy government, 162-63 Victoria, Queen, 160 Vidal-Naquet, P., “Du bon usage,” 199 n. 45 Vienna, 61, 109-10, 162, 176, 221 n. 22 de Villalon, Cristobal, V iaje d e T u r q u ia , 213 n. 19 Wager, W., 206 n. 29 Wahb ibn Munabbih, 97 al-Wansharisĩ, 23-24, A sn ā a l-m a tā jir , 196 n. 21 w a q f, 101 Weber, Shirley Howard, V o y a g e s . . . 1 8 0 1 , 210 n. 8, V o y a g e s . . . X I X C e n tu r y , 210 n. 8 Wellsted, J. K., T r a v e ls , 220 n. 19 West Bank, 186. See a lso Israel Wieder, N., “Hashpa'ot Island-

INDEX ■ 2 4 5

yot,” 81, 205 n. 16 Wilkie Young, H. E., “Notes . . . Mosul,” 219 n. 15 Wise, G. S., V io le n c e a n d D e fe n s e , 200 n. 55, 223 n. 37 Wolff, J., M is s io n , 220 n. 19 women, 8-10, 16, 27, 34, 37, 48, 95-96, 116, 122, 144 Wood, A. C., L e v a n t C o m p a n y , 210 n. 7, 216 n. 48 Wüstenfeld, F., 205 n. 22 Ya'ari, Abraham, 210-11 n. 8, 222 n. 34 Yahyā al-Antaki, A n n a le s , 200 n. 57

Yakub Pasha, 130 Yāqūt, I r sh ā d , 206 n. 28 Yāsif al-Yahūdī, 145 Y a w m a l-J u m ʼn , 72 Yazd, 152 Yedikule, 125 Yehuda, Z., A sia n a n d A fric a n J e w s , 221 n. 3 Yehuda ha-Levi, 76, 95, 99, K u z a r i , 95, 207 n. 37 Yemen, Yemenite, 28, 76, 90, 9697, 102-3, 113, 152, 168, 191, 204 n. 15, 208 n. 48, 218 n. 4 Yerasimos, S., 215 n. 40

Yiddish, 77 Young Turks, 104, 166, 178-79, 188-89, 222 n. 31 al-Zāhir, 42 Zajaczkowski, A.,

H andbook,

211

n. 10

Zakarias, H., L ’ls la m . . . Moh a m m e d , 203 n. 4, L I sla m e t la c r itiq u e h is to r iq u e , 203 n. 4 Zamakhshari, 14, a l-K a s h s h ā f 195 n. 10 Zand, M., “Bukhara,” 217 n. 62 Zangi, 105 Zaphir, Leon. See Yāsif al-Yahūdī Zarfati, Isaac, 136 Zayyāt, H., 200 n. 57 Zāzä, Hasan, 186 Zephaniah, 34 Ziāda, M., 208 n. 46 Zil-es-Sultan, 168 Zimmels, 212 n. 15 Zinkeisen, J. W., G e s c h ic h te , 201 n. 65 Zionism, 186, 189-90, 221 n. 20, 222 n. 30, 223 n. 37, 224 n. 45 Zoroaster, 17 Zoroastrianism, 15, 17-20, 34, 52, 150, 152