The Holy Fire and the Divine Photography: The Image of the Holy Shroud of Christ 9814968919, 9789814968911

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The Holy Fire and the Divine Photography

Jenny Stanford Series on Christian Relics and Phenomena Series Editor

Giulio Fanti

Titles in the Series Published Vol. 1 The Shroud of Turin: First Century after Christ! Giulio Fanti and Pierandrea Malfi 2015 978-981-4669-12-2 (Hardcover) 978-981-4669-13-9 (eBook) Vol. 2 The Shroud of Turin: First Century after Christ! (Second Edition) Giulio Fanti and Pierandrea Malfi 2019 978-981-4800-08-2 (Hardcover) 978-0-429-46812-4 (eBook) Vol. 3 Byzantine Coins Influenced by the Shroud of Christ Giulio Fanti 2021 978-981-4877-88-6 (Hardcover) 978-1-003-21992-7 (eBook) Vol. 4 The Sudarium of Oviedo: Signs of Jesus Christ’s Death César Barta 2022 978-981-4968-13-3 (Hardcover) 978-1-003-27752-1 (eBook)

Vol. 5 The Shroud of Christ: Evidence of a 2,000-Year Antiquity Michael Kowalski 2023 978-981-4968-80-5 (Hardcover) 978-1-003-41201-4 (eBook) Vol. 6 The Holy Fire and the Divine Photography: The Image of the Holy Shroud of Christ Giulio Fanti and Robert Siefker 2024 978-981-4968-91-1 (Hardcover) 978-1-003-45444-1 (eBook) Forthcoming Vol. 7 The Blood of Christ: Secret Discussions Revealed from the Shroud Science Group Theodora Pappas 2024

Jenny Stanford Series on Christian Relics and Phenomena — Volume 6

The Holy Fire and the Divine Photography

The Image of the Holy Shroud of Christ

Giulio Fanti Robert Siefker

Series Editor: Giulio Fanti

Published by Jenny Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. 101 Thomson Road #06-01, United Square Singapore 307591 Email: [email protected] Web: www.jennystanford.com

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. The Holy Fire and the Divine Photography: The Image of the Holy Shroud of Christ Copyright © 2024 Jenny Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the publisher.

ISBN  978-981-4968-91-1 (Hardcover) ISBN  978-1-003-45444-1 (eBook)

Contents Foreword Acknowledgements

Introduction 1. The Miracle of the Holy Fire









1.1 the Miracle of the Holy Fire Seen by a Tourist 1.1.1 The Journey 1.1.2 Arrival in Jerusalem 1.1.3 My Encounter with the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher 1.1.4 In the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher 1.1.5 The Golgotha Chapel 1.1.6 The Tomb in the Edicule 1.1.7 In the Holy Sepulcher 1.1.8 Paths in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher 1.1.9 The Journey to the Holy Light 1.1.10 With the Armenians 1.1.11 The Way to the Holy Sepulcher 1.1.12 The Ritual 1.1.13 The Appearance of the Holy Fire 1.1.14 The Way Back 1.2 The First Author at the Miracle of the Holy Fire 1.2.1 The Antecedents 1.2.2 The First Contact with the Holy Fire in 2018 1.2.3 Preparation of the Trip 1.2.4 What and How to Measure?

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1.2.5 The Trip 1.2.6 Discovering the Secrets of the Basilica 1.2.7 Conferences on the Holy Shroud 1.2.8 Odyssey towards the Holy Sepulcher 1.2.9 In the Holy Sepulcher 1.2.10 And Here Is the Holy Fire 1.3 Phenomena Possibly Related to the Holy Fire 1.3.1 The Fire of the Holy Spirit 1.3.2 Perspiration of Myrrh 1.3.3 Imprint on the Holy Burial Bed Rock

2. Miracle of the Holy Fire, History and Religious Significance









2.1 What Happens Every Year in the Holy Sepulcher? 2.2 Important Background and Contextual Information 2.2.1 Scriptural References to Holy Fire 2.2.2 Jesus’s Promise of a Sign 2.2.3 The Calendars in Use in Jerusalem at the Time of Jesus 2.2.4 The Date of Jesus’s Death and Resurrection and the Dating of the First Appearance of Holy Light 2.3 The Early Fate of Christ’s Tomb 2.3.1 The Roman Emperor Constantine 2.3.2 The First Council of Nicaea 2.3.3 Initial Construction of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher 2.3.4 First Reported Appearance (ca. 330) of the Holy Fire 2.4 Historical Events Related to the Holy Fire 2.4.1 The Report of the Pilgrim Egeria in the Year 384 2.4.2 The Appearance of the Holy Fire after the Fall of Jerusalem in the Year 617

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2.4.3 No Living Person in the Edicule from Mid-Ninth Century to the Mid-Fifteenth Century

2.4.4 The Letter of the Cleric Niketas in the Year 947

2.4.5 The Letter of the Muslim Doctor Al-Masihi in the Year ca. 990

2.4.6 The Destruction of the Basilica by the Caliph Al-Hakim in the Year 1009

2.4.7 The Break of Unity between the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches in the Year 1054

2.4.8 The First Crusade and the Holy Fire in the Years 1095–1101

2.4.9 The Famous Muslim Leader Saladin before the Holy Fire in the Year 1192

2.4.10 The Catholic Pope Gregory IX Declares False the Miracle of the Holy Fire in the Year 1238

2.4.11 Exterior Column of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher Fractured by the Holy Fire in the Year 1579

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2.4.12 The Gregorian Reform of 1582 and the Lack of Fire Appearance in 1970

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2.4.14 Criticism and Oppositions to the Miracle of the Holy Fire

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2.4.13 Ceremony of the Holy Fire from 1582 up to our Current Time

2.5 Religious Aspects of the Miracle of the Holy Fire

2.5.1 A Catholic Event Connected with the Holy Fire: The Explosion of the Florence’s Cart

2.5.2 Interview with Two Orthodox Priests in theUnited States

2.5.3 Significance for the Relationship of Christianity East and West

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3. Science Investigates the Holy Fire













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3.1 What Is Chemically and Physically a Common Fire? 3.1.1 A Common Fire Described by an Expert 3.1.2 The Blue Light 3.1.3 The Plasma in a Candle’s Flame 3.2 What Do We Know about the Holy Fire? 3.2.1 The Holy Fire and Related Phenomena 3.2.2 Exceptions to the Formation of the Holy Fire inthe Edicule 3.2.3 Flashes and Electric Discharges 3.2.4 Experimental Results 3.2.5 Initial Hypotheses to Explain the Coldness of the Holy Fire 3.2.6 Localization of the Holy Fire in the Edicule 3.2.7 The Miracle of the Holy Fire

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4.1 What Is the Shroud? 4.2 The Historical Route 4.2.1 Spun in India 4.2.2 Traces from the Remote Past 4.2.3 The Shroud’s Route to Constantinople 4.2.4 The Constantinople Period 4.2.5 The Icons of Pantocrator 4.2.6 The Orthodox Cross 4.2.7 The Voice of Numismatics 4.2.8 After the Fall of Constantinople 4.2.9 Documents from the Recent Past

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4. The Holy Shroud and the Impossible Image

4.3 The Body Image 4.3.1 Typical Features in General 4.3.2 Typical Features in the Details 4.3.3 Artistic Reproduction Hypothesis

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4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 4.3.7 4.3.8

Direct Contact Hypothesis Gas Diffusion Hypothesis Radiation Hypothesis Corona Discharge Hypothesis Initial Hypothesis of Divine Photography 4.3.9 Critical Comments on the Initial Hypothesis of Divine Photography 4.3.10 Hypothesis of Medieval Photography 4.4 The Blood Marks 4.5 Dating the Shroud 4.5.1 The 1988 Radiocarbon Dating 4.5.2 Alternative Dating Methods 4.5.3 The Age of the Shroud 4.6 Authors’ Opinion

5. The Divine Photography











5.1 Summary of the Body Image Features 5.1.1 Comments on Gas Diffusion Hypothesis 5.1.2 Comments on Radiation Hypothesis 5.1.3 Comments on Corona Discharge Hypothesis 5.1.4 Comments on the Results Produced by the Holy Fire 5.1.5 Comments on the Initial Formulation of Divine Photography Hypothesis 5.2 The Improved Divine Photography Hypothesis 5.2.1 Assumptions Adopted for the Hypothesis Improvement 5.2.2 Divine Photography Hypothesis 5.2.3 Solution of the Problems Detected with the Previous Hypotheses 5.3 First Experimental Confirmation of the Divine Photography Hypothesis

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Conclusion

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Appendices References Name Index

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Subject Index



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Foreword By Michael Kowalski Editor of the British Society for the Turin Shroud Newsletter I wonder how many people living today believe in miracles. It’s now over two hundred years since the dawning of the ‘Age of Reason’, during which people have increasingly chosen to put their trust in science rather than religion when looking for answers to questions concerning the world in which we live. One consequence of this trend is that in many countries today, the number of people who consider themselves to be atheist or agnostic now exceeds those who profess a religious faith. It’s therefore hardly surprising that there is a widespread skepticism that many of the key events described in the Bible ever occurred, especially those that involve miracles. Moses is considered to be the most important prophet in Judaism and is also highly revered by Christians and Muslims, but many historians today question whether he even existed. Some consider him to be a purely legendary figure and cite the absence of any archaeological evidence or historical records marking his existence as a justification for their point of view. Even those who believe in the biblical Moses and the story of how he freed the Israelites from slavery in Egypt often downplay the miracles described in the Book of Exodus. For example, the apparently miraculous parting of the Red Sea is now widely believed by many Bible scholars to have involved a mistranslation of ‘sea of reeds’, a marshy inland lake that would have been easier to cross than a sea. Likewise, the account of how Moses caused the river Nile to turn to blood is explained as being a consequence of red-colored silt being churned into the water of the Nile during the flooding season. The Bible also describes how God spoke to Moses from a bush that “burned with fire, but the bush was not consumed” but at least one eminent scientist with Christian convictionsa has

aThis

explanation is offered by Cambridge Professor Colin J. Humphreys in his book The Miracles of Exodus.

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Foreword

argued that the cause of this phenomenon could have been flames produced by hot gases emanating from a volcanic vent beneath the bush, giving the appearance that the bush was burning without being consumed by the fire. We might never know whether these were truly supernatural events or just natural phenomena that were interpreted as being miraculous by those who witnessed them. It is, however, clear that in these increasingly secular times, even people of faith struggle to believe in miracles and prefer to accept the rational explanations offered by our twenty-first-century scientific knowledge. The skepticism even extends to the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. This miracle was the ultimate demonstration of His Divinity and is a fundamental tenet of the Christian faith and yet a 2019 survey by Christian Research found that approximately one third of Church of England clergy either doubted or disbelieved in the Resurrection! This widespread skepticism is just one reason why this book is so important. Few people around the world are aware of an apparently supernatural phenomenon that Orthodox Christians refer to as ‘The Miracle of the Holy Fire’ which reoccurs each year in the Edicule of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. The Edicule encloses the remains of a cave that is venerated as the tomb where Jesus Christ was buried and where his miraculous Resurrection took place. Each Orthodox Easter Saturdayb, thousands of pilgrims carrying candles pack into every corner of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. They are there to witness a ceremony in which the Patriarch of the Orthodox Church is searched by security guards before entering the Edicule, which had previously been checked by Israeli authorities for any hidden source of fire. Shortly afterwards, the Patriarch emerges with two large candles which had been ignited in the Edicule following the spontaneous appearance of the Holy Fire. These are used to light candles carried by those closest to the Edicule entrance, who in turn pass the Holy Fire from candle to candle, eventually spreading it throughout the church. Although bThe

Orthodox Christian dating of Easter is fixed according to the Julian Calendar, rather than the Gregorian calendar used throughout western Europe. Consequently, the Orthodox Easter usually falls on a different date to that celebrated by Protestant and Catholic Christians.

Foreword

these are ordinary candles, for several minutes after the start of the ceremony the flames do not burn: hands, arms and faces can be held in the Holy Fire without any pain and beards exposed to the flames do not catch fire. Like the fire of the burning bush which Moses witnessed, the Holy Fire does not scorch or burn. It’s clearly significant that this annual phenomenon occurs on the anniversary of the first Easter, at the precise location where the miraculous Resurrection of Jesus Christ occurred. No one witnessed the moment when the Resurrection took place but many believe that this event produced an extraordinary imprint on the Shroud of Turin, a linen cloth that is revered as the burial shroud used to cover the body of Jesus in the tomb. This imprint is a faint, full-sized image of the front and back of the naked body of a man, with wounds which match biblical descriptions of the crucified Jesus. This faint image is quite difficult to discern when viewed directly but when photographed using film cameras, the photographic negative reveals the strikingly clear and realistic features of a human form. This remarkable feature is just one of many unusual characteristics of the Shroud image that have been revealed by years of scientific study. Scientists have so far been unable to determine how the image was produced and have failed to reproduce similar images which have the same unusual attributes. However, as the authors of this book reveal, a study of the Holy Fire phenomenon offers clues that can help explain how the image was formed. After all, the spontaneous appearance of the Holy Fire in the Edicule at Easter each year is surely connected in some way to the miraculous Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Giulio Fanti and Robert Siefker are both extremely well qualified to write about this subject. They have been engaged in Shroud research over many years and have contributed significantly to scientific understanding of this remarkable cloth. They have also made an extensive study of the Holy Fire and indeed Giulio Fanti was one of the pilgrims present at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre on Orthodox Easter Saturday in 2019. He took the opportunity to use instruments to measure some of the physical properties of the Holy Fire, which confirmed it to be unlike any ordinary candle flame. This book outlines the extraordinary findings revealed

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by these tests, as well as those made by other scientists who have witnessed this annual event. Contrary to the current tendency for scientists to attempt to discredit seemingly supernatural occurrences, the authors have concluded that this phenomenon defies scientific explanation and have no doubt about the existence of this and other miracles. They provide details of the scientific evidence that has led to this conclusion and also outline the key historical events connected to this miracle from the first reported appearance of the Holy Fire in the fourth century to the present day. The authors also outline many of the discoveries made by scientific research into the Shroud. They provide reasons for doubting the validity of the controversial 1988 radiocarbon dating result of 1260–1390 AD and detail some of the most notable evidence that shows that the Shroud is significantly older than indicated by that radiocarbon test. Much of that evidence was obtained from research undertaken by one of the authors, Giulio Fanti, which has been published in peer-reviewed scientific journals. The Shroud image is of course of particular interest and the authors provide an analysis of the various features and characteristics that have so far defied explanation and have yet to be successfully replicated. They assess the various proposals that scientists have put forward to explain how the Shroud image could have been formed and analyze the strengths and weaknesses of each of these different hypotheses. Most significantly however, the authors have used the findings revealed by their research into the nature of the Holy Fire to develop a new image formation hypothesis which attempts to address the problems associated with those previous proposals. One of those proposals was that the fabric discoloration in the image areas of the Shroud was caused by a Maillard reaction between reducing sugars left on the linen fabric by the manufacturing process and gases released by the corpse as it decomposed. I always had a difficulty accepting this hypothesis, not least because I couldn’t accept that the body of Jesus would have decomposed; after all, the bodies of some of the most revered Christian saints, such as Saint Bernadette of Lourdes, have been shown to be still incorrupt decades after death. The new hypothesis proposed by the authors also involves a Maillard

Foreword

reaction but in this case, the reaction is claimed to be a result of urea exuding from the body interacting with aloe and myrrh which, according to the Gospel of John, Nicodemus brought to the tomb. The authors explain how the combination of this chemical reaction and an electric field resulting from an intense burst of energy emitted by the body at the moment of Resurrection could have produced the Shroud image with all its particular features. And since the Holy Fire appears to be an echo of the energy explosion that occurred during Resurrection, Giulio Fanti and Robert Siefker have been able to use the findings revealed by their research into the Holy Fire to obtain an understanding of the nature and characteristics of that initial energy burst. It seems quite fitting that a study of the Miracle of the Holy Fire should lead to a breakthrough in our understanding of the physical processes that occurred during the miracle of the Resurrection and how these in turn led to the formation of the Shroud’s extraordinary image. There is little doubt that this book will be of great interest to those who take a keen interest in the Shroud, but it is to be hoped that it will also stimulate a much greater awareness of the Holy Fire, a miracle which defies known scientific laws. This in turn would no doubt lead to a more widespread belief in the authenticity of the Shroud and consequently, in the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. If more people can begin to accept that there are phenomena in this world that science cannot explain, then perhaps society’s seemingly relentless march towards atheism may at last be reversed.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Jesus Christ for having brought them closer to the Holy Fire and to the Holy Shroud and for having given them the opportunity to study the Miracle and the Relic so closely that they can be understood as a “direct way of communication” between man and God; they also thank the Holy Spirit for the various flashes of inspiration provided during the research. The authors are very grateful to Psychotherapist Cornelia Schrader, writer of an interesting book on the Holy Fire [Schrader, 2018], who kindly and freely allowed its partial inclusion of the text translated in English language with figures in Chapter 1. The authors thank Dr. Giuseppe Baldacchini of ENEA of Frascati, Italy, for his precious comments on the scientific aspects of the fire. Thanks to American Lawyer Theodora A. Pappas, who deeply revised the English language of Chapters 4 and 5 of this book after the illness of the second author. Thanks to Professors of photogrammetry Fabio Crosilla and Domenico Visintini at the University of Udine, Italy, for their help about the detection of the Holy Fire in the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher. Thanks to Professor Cristian Sorsoli of Udine for the samples of dust coming from the cracked column of the Holy Sepulcher furnished and for his useful discussions about the position of the Catholic Church in reference to the Holy Fire. Thanks to Mr. Ramsi Abumane, who performed some experiments on the Holy Fire in 2018 suggested by the first author of this book that pushed him to perform the tests in 2019, described in Chapter 4. Thanks to the Palestinian Doctor Ihsan Salama, who furnished the surface deposit of the column of the Holy Sepulcher samples with adhesive tapes.

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Acknowledgements

The first author is very grateful to Mr. Ramsi Abumane and to Dr. Ihsan Salama for having made it possible for him to enter the Holy Fire ceremony in 2019 despite all the difficulties and he thanks Robert Siefker for the help and support even during his illness.

Introduction Supported by the enormous technical scientific progress achieved, above all, in the last century, the man of the third millennium arrogantly tends to think himself the master of the world and sets science as his idol. Pope Benedict XVI [2006] made the following pronouncement to which the authors are in solidarity with: “As criterion of rationality the criterion of demonstrability through experiment has come to assert itself in an ever more exclusive way. Here then is the great challenge…: to do science within the horizon of a different rationality… according to a reason open to the transcendent, to God.” Man, therefore tends to forget, or to at least overshadow, everything that does not belong to the purely material and natural world, and, therefore, does not even take into consideration the miracles that have been erroneously cast aside as nothing more than mythology. Just as we know Truths such as the immateriality of the mind versus the materiality of the brain, we know through such indisputable evidence that not everything around us is material. The immaterial realm exists and it shows its tangible effects on the material world if only we open our eyes to it. Pope Benedict XVI [2006] also expressed the following, which the authors are also in agreement with: “Just the deepest things, which really sustain the life and the world, we cannot see them, but we can see and feel their effects. Electricity, the current, we do not see it, but then we see light. And so on. We don’t see the risen Lord with

The Holy Fire and the Divine Photography: The Image of the Holy Shroud of Christ Giulio Fanti and Robert Siefker Copyright © 2024 Jenny Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4968-91-1 (Hardcover), 978-1-003-45444-1 (eBook) www.jennystanford.com

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Introduction

our eyes, but we see that where Jesus is, men change, they become better... So, we don’t see the Lord Himself, but we see the effects...” Phenomena that do not fall within the material world, therefore, tend to be neglected by modern man, due to science’s inability to explain them, as well as their undermining the current scientific creed of a positivist or rationalist type according to which everything should be explained through science. This book centers its attention on two of these phenomena just mentioned that transcend beyond the strictly scientific field: the Holy Fire and the Holy Shroud. The first, that of the Holy Fire covered in Chapters 1–3, is a phenomenon that has occurred every Holy Saturday of the Orthodox Easter for more than 1000 years in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. The Patriarch enters the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher with a bundle of unlit candles, but without any lighters, matches or any other type of incendiary devices, as is verified by a prior search of the area by the Jerusalem Police. After having prayed, a few minutes later he emerges from the Edicule with the candles lit in an inexplicable way, and he distributes the Holy Fire that he has just received to the pilgrims who flock to the Basilica. Due to the problems related to the Schism of 1054, in the year 1238, Pope Gregory IX declared the Miracle of the Holy Fire to be fraudulent, and he forbade Catholic pilgrims to attend this miraculous event. As such, the belief, therefore, became widespread that the Patriarch must have entered the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher with matches or a lighter, and that this was nothing more than a cheap trick to inspire devotion among Christians. With time, this important annual Miracle has been relegated to obscurity for countless Catholic and Protestant Christians. As such, just as the Holy Shroud has had some of its fiercest critics and detractors arise from the Christian community, so has the Holy Fire. As reported at the end of Chapter 1, the first author had the opportunity to witness and personally verify what happens during the manifestation of the Holy Fire in 2019. In Chapter 3, the author then describes his scientific results. Since he did not have personal access to the Edicule during the miraculous process of the Holy Fire, he cannot testify as to how the Orthodox

Introduction

Patriarch came to procure this Holy Fire; however, he was able to test the very strange features of the Holy Fire that was transmitted to him by pilgrims who had received it by way of its being spread, hand-to-hand from the lit candles of the Patriarch and the surrounding pilgrims. The strangest feature of the Holy Fire is that it remained inexplicably cold for about ten minutes, and then it gradually transformed into a common fire. Consequently, the author does not deem it important to answer the question, regarding whether or not the Patriarch lit the Holy Fire with something he had in his pocket upon entering the Edicule, because the author relies upon his experimental findings reported in Chapter 3 which ascertain the very strange, low temperature of the fire that he received and performed tests on. In fact, the only explanation of this phenomenon for the author is that this Holy Fire is linked to a phenomenon of miraculous origin that cannot be reproduced in the environment of the Holy Sepulcher without the aid of particular laboratory instruments necessary to reproduce it. The authors of this book are, therefore, convinced that the Holy Fire is precisely the annual reproduction of what happened two millennia ago in the Holy Sepulcher of Jerusalem: the manifestation of supernatural energy directly connected to the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. The second phenomenon, that of the Holy Shroud (also called the Shroud of Christ or the Shroud of Turin) is treated in Chapters 4 and 5 of this book, and it concerns an ancient linen cloth, 4.4 m (14.4 ft) long and 1.1 m (3.6 ft) wide, which shows a double body image of a corpse. According to both historical, scientific and forensic evidence, it wrapped the corpse of Jesus Christ which had been placed in a tomb in Jerusalem. After decades’ worth of research and scientific experimentation, the two authors recognize the overwhelming evidence that on the Shroud of Turin is the image of the crucified Jesus Christ at the moment of His Resurrection. This double body image has such a particular and peculiar set of characteristics that science has been unable to explain them, much less propose a credible hypothesis for the formation of this image. Many scholars [Fanti & Malfi 2020] have proposed various techniques to reproduce the image, but, as we will see in

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Introduction

detail in Chapter 4, all these techniques have failed due to various factors. For example, the American chemist Raymond Rogers [Rogers & Arnoldi 2003] proposed a hypothesis of image formation based on the reaction of the amines produced by the corpse with the reducing sugars present in the linen. However, the experimental results that were carried out to validate this hypothesis were unsatisfactory. Even the first author of this book proposed [Fanti & Malfi 2020] an image formation technique based on the intense electric fields produced, for example by lightning, in direct reference to the energy that would have been released from Christ’s corpse during the Resurrection when His human body was transformed into His Glorious Body. This hypothesis obviously refers to something that lies outside science, the energy of the Resurrection, but it seems to be the one that best explains what we can detect on the Shroud. However, even this hypothesis, if it succeeds in reproducing many characteristics of the Shroud image, it fails to reproduce them all. At this point the reader will wonder why this book deals with two very different phenomena, but this book was written with the aim of highlighting the close connection between the two phenomena. In fact, after years of research, the authors realized that to explain the formation of the image of the Holy Shroud it is really necessary to suppose the presence of an energy similar to that of the Holy Fire to which, as we will see in Chapter 3, is closely related to electrical phenomena of high intensity. Thus, in combining the hypothesis of the formation of the Holy Shroud’s body image through the presence of electric fields (which was formulated a dozen years ago by the first author) with the hypothesis of the American chemist R. Rogers (referring not to the gaseous products emitted by a corpse in decomposition, but from the bodily fluids emitted also following the very harsh tortures suffered by Jesus Christ during His Passion) the authors of this book have come to formulate the “Divine Photography Hypothesis” as described in Chapter 5. Not only does this hypothesis seem the most reliable in explaining the complex formation of the “impossible image” [Marinelli 1996], but it might

Introduction

serve as a very important starting point for the reunification of Catholics and Orthodox. The Holy Fire of Jerusalem and the Holy Shroud of Turin are two extremely important miracles performed by God for all humanity and, therefore, the Holy Shroud belongs to all of Humanity. However, the annual Miracle of the Holy Fire is strongly associated with, and celebrated by, the Orthodox, and not by the Catholics, whereas the miracle of the Holy Shroud is strongly associated with, and celebrated by, the Catholics and not by the Orthodox. Even more, the citizens of Turin, with a strong parochial spirit, erroneously tend to consider the Holy Shroud a purely Turin Relic and therefore to be kept and exhibited only in the city of Turin Instead it should be kept and exhibited in a place more linked to Christianity such as Rome or, better yet, Jerusalem. The authors believe that this book, through the hypothesis of the “Divine Photography,” which closely unites the two most important tangible miracles of the Resurrection of Christ, is a means to disseminate the Miracle of the Holy Fire among Catholics and the miracle of the Holy Shroud among the Orthodox. This Shroud gives a strong impetus to the desire to reunite the two Churches of Jesus Christ. The book will also help bind the wounds of the division for all Christians and serve to enlighten the entire world.

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Chapter 1

The Miracle of the Holy Fire Many people are not aware of the very particular phenomenon called the Miracle of the Holy Fire or Holy Light or “Uncreated Light”, which manifests itself in Jerusalem every year at Easter. Not everyone has had the opportunity to go to Jerusalem in person and visit the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher, the place where the phenomenon occurs. For this reason, before going to the heart of the description of the Miracle of the Holy Fire, let us start by taking a trip to Jerusalem with Cornelia Schrader, writer of an interesting book on the subject [Schrader, 2018]. She will take us gradually to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher and then to the most revered region within the church, the location of the “Edicule.” The Edicule is a small structure within the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher that is venerated as the location of the tomb of Jesus Christ. The name “Edicule” is derived from the Latin word “Aedicule,” meaning “little house.” It is here, at the location of the Edicule, that Jesus Christ is said to have been cruci ied, died and was buried, and on the third day was risen from the dead. It is here, too, where the Miracle of the Holy Fire occurs each year on Orthodox Holy Saturday. Giulio Fanti, the irst author of this book, will then con irm the description given by Cornelia Schrader, and will then add his own personal experience. The Holy Fire and the Divine Photography: The Image of the Holy Shroud of Christ Giulio Fanti and Robert Siefker Copyright © 2024 Jenny Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4968-91-1 (Hardcover), 978-1-003-45444-1 (eBook) www.jennystanford.com

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The Miracle of the Holy Fire

1.1 The Miracle of the Holy Fire Seen by a Tourist The description of the journey to the Holy Sepulcher undertaken in 2013 by a tourist, Cornelia Schrader, follows.

1.1.1 The Journey

“We will meet on Holy Thursday at 4 p.m. in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem.” This was the most exciting date of my life. The message was written by Haris Skarlakidis, an Orthodox Greek who had recently written a book about the Holy Fire in Jerusalem. I had read it with great interest. In fact, the year before I had gone to Jerusalem for the Orthodox Easter feast, where I had tried in vain to arrive at the Holy Saturday rite in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. Over 20,000 Orthodox Christians, who came from all over the world, all had the same desire that I had: to enter the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. In the same year, a friend of mine sent me Haris’ book and I got in touch with him. This is how this adventurous appointment in Jerusalem in 2013 was born. There awaited me times of intense research, expectations and hopes, impressive encounters with Christian orthodoxy, and unfortunately also a lot of pain, and inally a profound spiritual experience. Already in the second century AD, the irst ancient sources report a ritual of light in Jerusalem at the place of Christ’s Resurrection. At that time, it was still in the Temple of Venus, which the emperor Hadrian had built on the site of Christ’s Cruci ixion and Resurrection. The appearance of a Holy Fire in the irst Constantinian Basilica above the tomb of Christ from the fourth century is clearly attested by the pilgrim Egeria and the historian Eusebius. Over the centuries to the present day, on the afternoon of Orthodox Holy Saturday, a blue light appears on the tomb of Christ and the Greek Orthodox Patriarch lights his candles. Then

The Miracle of the Holy Fire Seen by a Tourist

it spreads across the entire rotunda to thousands of candles in seconds. The Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher appears to be burning, but this light has never caused any damage. People touch the lames without getting burned. The celebration of Easter is indescribable. “Christos anesti”, people shout: “Christ is risen!” The Orthodox call the Holy Fire “Uncreated Light.”

1.1.2 Arrival in Jerusalem

The bus driver drops me off near my lodgings, avoiding the way up the mountain in the busy afternoon traf ic. Then I arrive at the Notre Dame Center to stay overnight, see Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1 The Notre Dame Center (G. Fanti).

Once there, I discover that no one inds my reservation. It is a catastrophe in Jerusalem at Easter: There is no available room even miles away, but I printed out my reservation and this is how

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I get a suite with the note: “Contact me tomorrow, then you will have another room.” The view is on the historic center of the Old City. Arriving in the room, I bent over the suitcase to pull out a clean shirt, but I was forced to sit down due to a severe pain in my back. This strong pain will accompany me every step in Jerusalem until the day of the Holy Fire. I will tell you later how it turned out, but for the moment the pain felt strong, particularly walking over the large disjointed stones of the Old City to go up to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. The Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem is for me a place of profound nostalgia. It is my fourth visit in over 30 years. I can only vaguely remember my irst visit. We were on a group tour during the trip and one day we were taken to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. It was full, dark, untidy and dusty. It is a church with a strange structure, initially impenetrable and many different chapels. This did not touch me then. I did not ind the usual peace that I ind in churches. I was simply blown away by this strange interior. It wasn’t even remotely comparable to any church I knew and I didn’t understand it. Then I left it behind as I had left other things on this trip: interested, curious, as a young tourist.

1.1.3 My Encounter with the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher

How different was my encounter with the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher three decades later! This was a special spiritual encounter, which matured after encountering in this long period of time the Shroud of Turin and the face of Christ of Manoppello in the Italian Abruzzo. Perhaps it is the days spent in front of these relics that awakened this particular relationship in me during my visit to the place of His Resurrection. In 2011 I walked into this “messy and dusty church” a second time in my life and was deeply touched and stunned. Suddenly I could feel the solemn sanctity of this place.

The Miracle of the Holy Fire Seen by a Tourist

It is still dusty and messy as it probably was for centuries and decades ago, but it is illed with an atmosphere that is particularly pleasant to me: spiritual solidarity and closeness. Let me irst tell you about the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher and my experiences there before I knew anything about the rite of the Holy Fire.

1.1.4 In the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher

The Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher not only arches over the tomb of Christ, but also over Golgotha, the place of His Cruci ixion, which is only “a stone’s throw” from the tomb. This is one of the reasons why the Church has several centers and domes that have developed over the different places of the events of the Cruci ixion, Burial and Resurrection. Each event of the Cross and the Passion of Christ is venerated in a separate chapel. Another reason for the diversity of the Church is the many Christian religions that worship there with regions also having their own chapels. Unfortunately, the different religious groups are not always well disposed to each other and there are various disagreements. During a mass just in front of the Sepulcher of Christ, (Edicule) I experienced once that the service was not yet inished when the Copts on the other side of the Edicule started singing very loudly. It was before 8 a.m., a full day to hold church services. A little surprised and amazed, we heard the last words of the mass, which were almost covered by the chant of the Copts. Let’s take a look from the outside of this sacred place. In Fig. 1.2 you can see the domes of the Holy Sepulcher. On the left, the largest dome is located above Jesus’s tomb, the Edicule. We are in the center of the Old City of Jerusalem. The bazaars or shuk extend around this area, where merchants offer their wares every meter and all kinds of oriental perfumes permeate the air. Narrow streets, veiled women, Orthodox Jews, Greek Orthodox dignitaries, African pilgrims, in addition to the calls of the muezzin over the city, complete the strange world. Before arriving at the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher, countless merchants asked me to buy

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something. The road to the holy place is full of thousands of oriental temptations!

Figure 1.2 Two domes of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher (in the center) (G. Fanti).

In the sketch of Fig. 1.3 you can see the numerous chapels that house their own altars, which refer to all phases of the Passion of Jesus. There are many different faiths that have their place in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher: Greek Orthodox, Catholic, Armenian, Coptic, Syrian. The Ethiopians could no longer pay the rent at the end of the nineteenth century and moved to the roof of the Holy Sepulcher in the monastery of Deir es Sultan from the twelfth century. They still live there today. In the movie “There are many apartments in my father’s house” we see a very old Ethiopian priest sitting on a chair in front of his chapel. When asked what he does all day, a philosophical answer arrives: “I’m waiting ...” Figure 1.4 shows the internal courtyard in front of the entrance to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. Thousands of pilgrims gather here on Holy Saturday who are then admitted to the church, group by group.

The Miracle of the Holy Fire Seen by a Tourist

Before that, all of them were previously inspected at the gates of the Old City. Anyone who does not have identity documents and a speci ic permit with them is not allowed into the historic center.

Figure 1.3 Plan of the Holy Sepulcher (https://www.206tours.com/cms/info/holyland/).

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Figure 1.4 Courtyard and entrance to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher (G. Fanti).

1.1.5 The Golgotha Chapel A friend who lived in Jerusalem told me about two special church secrets that I absolutely had to explore: the rock face behind the icon of Mary in the Holy Sepulcher and the rock of Golgotha in the Calvary Chapel, see Fig. 1.5. This is where my irst steps took me. First, I climbed a narrow spiral staircase to the Golgotha Chapel on the irst loor of the church. In the Greek Orthodox Chapel there is a representation of the cross with Mary and John. The cross stands exactly above the rock of Golgotha. In the 1980s, the loor under the cross, see Fig. 1.6, was still covered with marble slabs. Nobody suspected at the time what was under the slabs, and of course we didn’t know when we visited the chapel at the time. At the end of the 1990s, these stone slabs were lifted (during a maintenance/restoration project) and below the top of the Golgotha rock was found a depression in which a massive stone ring lay, see Fig. 1.7.

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Figure 1.5 The Chapel of Calvary. The first author of the book is kneeling under the altar with his right hand touching the stone of Calvary through a hole made in the floor (G. Fanti).

Figure 1.6 The rock of Golgotha (G. Fanti).

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Figure 1.7 Stone ring of the Calvary (C. Schrader).

Perhaps the cross of Christ was attached to it. The rock was covered with a sheet of glass in the 1990s so that it can be easily seen. A strip of light now surrounds the dish. In 2011 I had to put a pocket lamp on the glass to be able to see and photograph the recess and the stone ring see Fig. 1.7. Of course, this was only possible at a time when there was no one in the chapel. I crawled on the glass plate next to the altar and managed to illuminate everything well with my lamp. Today, I wonder if it was disrespectful because it is a sacred place that I knelt on. Also, I don’t know if I would do it again It was so important for me to be able to see everything clearly and it was very moving. How close were the people under the cross to the cruci ix? Close enough to touch it, within arm’s reach! How Mary, John and Mary Magdalene must have suffered standing under the cross in this closeness. It went through my soul like a terrible and painful realization while I was there. To the right of the image of John, under the cross, a deep issure runs through the rock of Golgotha, see Fig. 1.8, which splits the rock to the depths of the lower loors, see Fig. 1.9. The Bible records it, and here I could see it with my own eyes. The Bible says: “But Jesus, again crying out in a loud voice, yielded up his spirit. And suddenly, the veil of the Sanctuary was torn in

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two from top to bottom, the earth quaked, the rocks were split.” [Matt 27: 50–51]. It became increasingly clear to me that I was right here in the original places of the biblical stories. I could not only see it, but also feel it.

Figure 1.8 Stone on the Golgotha with the inscription referring to the Gospel of Mark (15, 21–25) on the left (G. Fanti). The fissure in the rock of Golgotha at the right of the image of John in the Calvary Chapel (C. Schrader).

Figure 1.9 The fissure in the rock of Golgotha on the lower floor (G. Fanti).

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1.1.6 The Tomb in the Edicule Then I went to the funeral chapel, the Edicule, a small chapel that contains the tomb of Christ. It stands in the huge rotunda under the largest dome of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher and it has not changed its appearance since the church was last rebuilt in 1810, see Figs. 1.10–1.11. Inside the Edicule, there are two rooms: an antechamber (the so-called Angel Chapel) and the actual Burial Chamber. A narrow and low passage leads from the Chapel of the Angel to the burial chamber, which can only be accessed in this way, humbly bent. The shrine is protected in the immense rotunda, see Fig. 1.12, of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher.

Figure 1.10 The Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher (C. Schrader).

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Figure 1.11 The dome above the Rotunda (C. Schrader).

Figure 1.12 The Edicule in the Rotunda during the Holy Fire event (C. Schrader).

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The Edicule is where the Resurrection took place and it is also the site that has received the Holy Fire for nearly two thousand years on Orthodox Holy Saturday. About seven hundred people enter the rotunda, which makes it a well packed crowd. What happens if each of these people carry one or more bundles of candles that are lit by the Holy Fire? We will hear about that later. Figure 1.13 shows the Chapel of the Angel looking through to the burial chamber. According to biblical tradition, at this point it was the angels who guarded the tomb of Christ. In the foreground, a last remnant of the stone that closed the tomb of Christ is venerated. Matthew reports that an angel was sitting on this stone. “And suddenly there was a violent earthquake, for an angel of the Lord, descending from heaven, came and rolled away the stone and sat on it.” [Matt 28:2].

Figure 1.13 The stone in front of the tomb (C. Schrader).

The Miracle of the Holy Fire Seen by a Tourist

1.1.7 In the Holy Sepulcher So now, after more than 30 years, I have returned to the Holy Sepulcher, see Fig. 1.14. I was lucky enough to be alone for a moment. The icon in the background immediately caught my eye, but irst I approached the plate above Christ’s Tomb. There was silence in the small and very narrow room. Scented candles burned, and the tomb was beautifully decorated with fresh lowers. What a beautiful holy place! On the right side I saw the tombstone on which the Holy Fire has appeared for almost 2000 years.

Figure 1.14 View into the Burial Chamber (C. Schrader).

Under the plate there is an ancient tomb built into the rock. It was found during the restoration of the Edicule in 2017.

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Then I went to the icon of the Mother of God of Fig. 1.15. I saw it was being worn down by a lot of contact on the face area. I hardly dared to touch it, let alone open it. But my friend had pointed this out to me. It opened to the left like a small door. Behind I saw a wall of black rock, see Fig. 1.16. “It’s the rest of the rock tomb you can see behind it,” he said. “Christ has risen from this burial chamber.” What a gift to be able to touch these ancient stones in the place of the Resurrection and where the Holy Light occurs every year!

Figure 1.15 The icon of the Mother of God in front of the tombstone (C. Schrader).

Meanwhile, during the renovation of the Edicule and the burial chamber, a further piece of the original rock tomb was discovered. I have visited Christ’s tomb as many times as I could. One day, one of the Orthodox guards at the Tomb told me somewhat reluctantly: “You come every ten minutes.” I explored the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher down to the lowest loor, in depth.

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Figure 1.16 The rest of the Sepulcher’s rock (C. Schrader).

1.1.8 Paths in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher Just behind the entrance to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher, we are greeted by a large stone slab: The Stone of Anointing. According to tradition, Christ was anointed at this point before burial, see Fig. 1.17. This stone is sprinkled with perfumed oil for anointing every morning by a priest. The oil is distributed so abundantly that it ills the edge of the stone to the top. During the day, countless pilgrims come here, kneel in front of the stone and collect the oil with towels to take it home. In the evening, this stone is dry! At this point, there is something to say about the perfume in the church. The recipe for this oil,

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which is attributed to Mary Magdalene, is a blend of roses, nard, frankincense and jasmine.

Figure 1.17 The stone of the anointing (G. Fanti).

The perfume not only ills the entire church, but also penetrates outside, in the inner courtyard and in the corridors of the bazaar: A unique, unforgettable mix. In front of the Edicule is the altar of the Magdalene with the only contemporary sculpture of the church, see Fig. 1.18.

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Figure 1.18 The altar of the Magdalene (C. Schrader).

Figure 1.19 Beato Angelico: Mary Magdalene meets the Risen One (C. Schrader).

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According to tradition, this is the place where Magdalene and Christ meet on Easter morning, where Magdalene hears Jesus pronounce her name, and when she realizes, see Fig. 1.19, that she sees the Risen One in front of her. In the Bible John reports: “Jesus said to her, ‘Woman, why are you weeping? Who are you looking for?” Supposing him to be the gardener, she said, ‘Sir, if you have taken him away, tell me where you have put him, and I will go and remove him.’ Jesus said ‘Mary!’ She turned round then and said to him in Hebrew, ‘Rabbuni!’ – which means Master.” (John 20:15–16).

Figure 1.20 Nave in the part of the old Crusader Church (C. Schrader).

Countless times I have walked these ancient and dark corridors, see Fig. 1.20, and always new discoveries awaited me.

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How many thousands of people have walked here over the centuries. The stones are bare from the steps of the many pilgrims. This path I am on now is the rest of the old eleventh century Crusader Church. At the end of this path, there is a door, behind which a staircase, see Fig. 1.21, leads to the Armenian Chapel. The Armenians call part of it the Helen Chapel. Remember that Helen, the mother of Emperor Constantine, went to the Holy Land in the fourth century to ind the sites of early Christianity.

Figure 1.21 Stairs to the St. Helen Chapel (C. Schrader).

After the expulsion of the early Christians, the Romans built Roman temples on all Christian places to spiritually expel Christianity. At the same time, they fortunately left precise references to these places. Even local traditions still knew how to tell the events. The place of the Resurrection, in particular, was marked by a special luminous event that has occurred annually since the second century. But we’ll talk about it later. In this way it was not dif icult for Helen to ind the place of Christ’s Cruci ixion and Resurrection. During the excavations, a cistern with three crosses was found. According to legend, one of them was crowned with a crown of thorns.

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There were also the nails of the cross. Helen had a church built in this place in 325 AD, a Constantinian forerunner of today’s Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. The stairs of Fig. 1.21 lead to the beautifully decorated twelfth-century Armenian Chapel, see Fig. 1.22. I have always experienced a profound silence down here. The place is not frequented by pilgrims and tourists. It is illuminated by magni icent chandeliers and is called Helena or Krikor Chapel. The Armenians call it the Chapel of San Krikor. This means “Gregory the Illuminator”, which even before the time of the Emperor Constantine in 301, made Christianity the state religion in Armenia. Armenia was thus the irst country on earth to have Christianity declared the state religion. He also reported a “Holy Light” experience in Jerusalem on Holy Saturday, when an oil lamp he had placed on Christ’s tomb lit by itself after an intimate prayer [Skarlakidis, p. 25].

Figure 1.22 St. Helen Chapel (G. Fanti).

The crosses, see Fig. 1.23, on the walls of the steps of the Armenian Chapel were sculpted by the crusaders who conquered Jerusalem in 1099 under the leadership of Godfrey of Bouillon.

The Miracle of the Holy Fire Seen by a Tourist

Figure 1.23 Crosses on the walls of the steps of the Armenian Chapel (C. Schrader).

Another staircase leads further down to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. Here we ind a statue of St. Helen with the cross in the Chapel of the Cross, see Fig. 1.24. We are now deep under the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in the rocks on which it was built, see Fig. 1.25.

Figure 1.24 The Chapel of the Finding of the Cross (C. Schrader).

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Figure 1.25 The rock under the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher, the place where the cross was found (G. Fanti).

On Easter night of the Western Churches 2011, I walked for hours in the church, I went down all the stairs, I visited all the chapels and the altars. Since the church is mainly Orthodox and the Orthodox Easter holiday was a week later, it was empty at this time between 3 and 6 in the morning. I was even able to kneel undisturbed at the tomb for a while. Surprisingly, there was no Easter Vigil service. There were hardly any people in the church, except a pilgrim reading the Bible, and a woman who, like me, wandered around the church. All this amazed me! After all, these were the hours of the night when the Bible says the Resurrection took place. In the morning at 6 there was a irst Catholic mass at the Golgotha Chapel. A thought has persisted since that night: are we really celebrating Easter at the right time in the West according to the Gregorian calendar? Or isn’t the time of orthodoxy according to the Julian calendar the most correct one? The Holy Fire appears exclusively for the holiday of Orthodox Easter.

The Miracle of the Holy Fire Seen by a Tourist

The Franciscans, who have a large chapel in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher, do not celebrate this feast. Their chapel is closed on Orthodox Holy Saturday. The Franciscans are absent. The Gregorian calendar was created in the late sixteenth century and is named after Pope Gregory XIII. The Catholic and Western Protestant Churches use the Gregorian calendar for calculating the date of Easter. The Jews calculate Passover in relation to their lunar calendar. The Orthodox Churches use the Julian calendar to date Easter based on the Jewish Passover, conforming with the Bible, that reports the Passover was imminent on the Saturday after the cruci ixion. This means the dates of Easter often vary between the Easter Orthodox and Western Christians. Skarlakidis [2017] calculated that in the 10-year reign of Pontius Pilate the day before Easter fell on a Friday only twice: on April 7, 30 AD and April 3, 33 AD. According to Skarlakidis [2017, note p. 9], it is likely that the day of the cruci ixion was April 3 of the year 33 AD. When I compare the Easter celebrations, which I have now been able to experience twice in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher, the Western Christian Easter Vigil I experienced in 2011 seems strangely lacking in energy. Of course, it is clear to me that 700 plus people who gather for the Holy Fire in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher on Orthodox Holy Saturday create a special energy. I’ll tell you about it later. Perhaps we should give more importance to the efforts of the various denominations for a common celebration of Easter. So much for my report on the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. This year I did not leave Jerusalem, see Fig. 1.26, as an interested tourist, like 30 years earlier, but as a pilgrim! When I got home, I phoned a priest who was a friend. He asked, “Have you experienced the Holy Fire?” My answer was, “What is that?” It was then that I irst heard about this ancient sacred ritual. And I said to my husband, “We have to go back to Jerusalem next year, at the time of Orthodox Easter. Jerusalem and the Holy Fire await us! “ We have always lodged in Jerusalem in the immediate vicinity of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in the Christian quarter. When we were invited to the Holy Fire, we met at the Zion Gate, behind which is the Armenian quarter.

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Figure 1.26 The old city of Jerusalem (Creative Commons).

1.1.9 The Journey to the Holy Light Now we are back at the invitation to Jerusalem on Holy Thursday 2013 and the meeting with Haris Skarlakidis. We are in fact punctually at 4 p.m. in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. Haris is a younger man, an educated Greek who speaks excellent English. He is an architect by profession. We go to a bar in the bazaar and talk about the Holy Fire. Our irst question is why the light always appears on Holy Saturday at 2 p.m. The Bible does not indicate the exact time of the actual Resurrection, but it reports about the irst experience of the two disciples reporting the empty tomb and the meeting with Mary Magdalene on Easter morning. Haris reports that there is a different calculation of the third day, the day of the Resurrection for Jews according to the lunar calendar. A new day begins after sunset, so that the evening of Holy Saturday is the third day after the cruci ixion.

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Haris indicates the connection between Christ’s descent into hell, see Fig. 1.27, and the appearance of the Holy Light. The descent of Christ’s soul after the cruci ixion is recorded in the Acts of Pilate, an apocryphal Gospel.

Figure 1.27 Bronze icon of the 12 Feasts; in the center, Christ’s Descent into Hell, nineteenth century (G. Fanti).

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It tells of the liberation of all the dead, following the example of Adam and Eve, from the underworld through the encounter with the Risen One. The Fathers of the Church have written a lot about it and in the Eastern Church it is an important and central theme for the understanding of the Holy Fire. Medieval art represented Christ’s descent into hell in many ways. In the ecumenical brotherhood of Taizé, in Burgundy, a festival of lights is celebrated every Saturday evening, during which an icon with the descent into hell is specially placed and venerated. In the words of Haris, the Holy Fire is a symbol for “becoming light” in the underworld and at the same time for the Resurrection. Our next question, of course, is how we can manage to be in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher at the time of the rite. Then Haris shows us two places of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate, from which we might be able to reach the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher via side entrances. He himself has an appointment with a monk inside the church, with whom he will spend the night. Contacts and relationships are needed to be able to participate in the ritual. In previous years it was customary to spend the night before Holy Saturday in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. This is no longer possible after the increase in attacks in Israel. At midnight the Israeli police appear and require that everyone leave the Church. We will not see Haris again for the time being. In fact, I will meet him again at a time that was extremely unlikely and very touching. He will then let me know that he spent the night with the monk in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. One day I go to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of ices to solicit passes for us. In fact, you need a pass to be admitted to the historic Old City center on Saturday morning and then also to enter the Holy Sepulcher. After 2 hours of waiting my request for the pass is denied. I am told, “try to ask for it tomorrow.” It is not an easy feat to access the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher (on Orthodox Holy Saturday), but I keep trying. In reality my back is not improving, and there are also signi icant stomach problems. How can I get over it all in this bad state? Also, I have to go for hours early on Saturday morning and I have to wait

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and stand, even during the whole ceremony. The bathrooms of the church are also closed days in advance. My feeling is that not even this year will I be able to experience the Holy Fire ceremony. I begin to fast, eventually it will prove to be the best preparation for the ritual. Every morning I go to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher for the irst mass at the Edicule. There inside, I walk to the Tomb and I receive Holy Communion. But we still don’t know how we can organize ourselves to be in the church on Holy Saturday for the Holy Fire ceremony at 2 p.m. We participate in the ceremony on Holy Thursday afternoon, the washing of the feet, in front of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher, performed by Greek Orthodox Patriarch Theophilus III, see Fig. 1.28.

Figure 1.28 Patriarch Theophilus III in the crowd in 2019 (G. Fanti).

On Good Friday morning we meet for the Holy Mass and organize a meeting with my friends at 2 p.m. in the ancient Cathedral of St. James in the Armenian quarter. Maybe George can help us. Eventually George will actually allow us to go to the Cathedral of the Holy Sepulcher (on Orthodox Holy Saturday).

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1.1.10 With the Armenians My friends take me to meet George. He furnishes the precious access badges, see Fig. 1.29, and so we get the long-awaited passes that tomorrow will allow us to pass the barriers at the gates of the historic center of Jerusalem.

Figure 1.29 Access badge for the ceremony (C. Schrader).

Figure 1.30 The Cathedral of St. James (C. Schrader).

In the Armenian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem, we enter a strange and fascinating world, the Cathedral of St. James, see Fig. 1.30, which dates back to the twelfth century and houses

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Relics of James the cousin of the Lord. It is very dark and richly decorated. Many lamps hang from the ceilings and there are many candles. You can’t go anywhere to sit down, services are celebrated on your feet for hours. “We will meet at Zion Gate tomorrow morning at 10 a.m.,” says George. In the evening we are excited and full of anticipation. I’m still sick and fasting. I don’t care about anything, but tomorrow I’ll be all awake. Take me: pain, hunger and thirst, everything will no longer be important. We will be guests of the Armenian Patriarchate to enter the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher!

1.1.11 The Way to the Holy Sepulcher

We meet at Zion Gate exactly at 10:00 o’clock. George is coming towards us from the inside. We show our access badges and we easily pass through the police cordon at the gate. Now we are in the historic center of the Old City and we have overcome the biggest obstacle: the Israeli police checks. With George we travel the short way to the Cathedral of St. James. He asks us where our interest in the Holy Fire comes from. We talk to him about the Shroud of Christ and about my interest in Christian spirituality. The next 2 hours we will be waiting at the gates of the Cathedral of St. James. We sit on the walls where we recite the rosary in groups. The Armenian Patriarch will be in charge of his of ice around noon when the Congregation goes to the Holy Sepulcher. We will take the bundles of candles with which we will receive the Holy Fire. There are 33 thin, soldered candles, one for each year of Jesus Christ’s life, see Fig. 1.31. A special perfume emanates from them: Incense? Nardo? Stearin?

Figure 1.31 Cornelia Schrader’s bundle of candles (C. Schrader).

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All seems to be in place, but can we really get to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher? I wanted it so much for so long! George calms me down, saying, “It’s all very simple!” George says we will be in the courtyard in front of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. The queue of people will stop. It will start moving again and then stop again a few meters in front of the Church portal. Then all of a sudden, we will be let in I still know what I think: now we have come this far, and if it doesn’t work out at the last moment, then I will wait there, outside the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. I have lost track of time now. At 12:00 o’clock the Armenian Patriarch and his entourage leave the Cathedral of St. James. We proceed toward the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. The road to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher is not far, usually maybe ten (10) minutes, but the corridors of the Old City and the bazaar are full of people, so it is slow to proceed. Our Armenian group alone comprises several hundred people, see Fig. 1.32.

Figure 1.32 The Armenian priests enter the square of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher (C. Schrader).

I keep thinking: can I still do it now or does something turn up? We are so close! And all of a sudden, we are let into the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher!!!

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We are a bit outside the rotunda, where the Edicule is located, but we can look towards the tomb. We stay there crammed. It will take over an hour. It is dark in the church. Not a single candle burns. Electric light illuminates the scene. From the openings the sunlight penetrates high into the dome. Anyone who thinks now that the people in the church are in silent meditative devotion to celebrate this event, is wrong! We are in the East; the people here are Oriental. They are used to expressing their emotions loud and clear. Thus, it is very noisy in the church, a loud babble of voices, shouts, and songs! It particularly gets very noisy when the Syrians enter with drums and singing. The young people are already celebrating and men carry each other on their backs. To be honest, it’s a “party!” I can’t describe it any other way. They call out with loud phrases, with clapping and rhythmic screams accompanied by the sound of drums and loud whistles! They wave their bundles of candles in the air, waiting for the Holy Fire to come. The excitement of the people is incredibly contagious. For me, the heart beats up to the neck.

1.1.12 The Ritual

The real ritual begins at the door of the Edicule which is sealed with a large mass of wax, see Fig. 1.33. In the chapel itself, as well as throughout the Church, all the lights and candle ires have been extinguished. Police of icers and guards look for hidden sources of ire. The closing of the door symbolizes the sealing of the Sepulcher of Christ, but it is also a clear indication that no one is present in the tomb at the time. The Patriarch will enter with a robe without the worldly signs of power and without a pocket to put a lighter in; for this he has already been searched in advance. An Armenian archpriest stands on the left at the door of the Sepulcher and on the right an Orthodox priest, see Fig. 1.34. This is the rule that has been in place for millennia.

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Figure 1.33 The Armenian and Greek priests at the sealed tomb in 2020 during the pandemic (C. Schrader).

Figure 1.34 The Armenian and Greek priests at the sealed tomb (C. Schrader).

Now comes the Orthodox Patriarch Theophilus III. There are also three other important men standing next to the Edicule: The Mayor of Jerusalem and the two men who have the task of locking the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. The two men come from Muslim families. Two such Muslim men have been assigned for generations the task of suppressing arguments between various Christian religious groups. They are also assigned the task of closing the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in the evening and reopening it in the morning. This tradition dates back to the seventh century, see Fig. 1.35.

The Miracle of the Holy Fire Seen by a Tourist

Figure 1.35 Opening of the Saint Sepulcher door (G. Fanti).

The Patriarch is accompanied by a row of many priests who carry lags and sing “Your Resurrection, Christ the Savior, the angels sing praises in heaven, make us also worthy on earth to praise.” The procession thus formed with the Patriarch at the head goes around the Edicule three times singing the hymn “Friendly light” [Thiermeyer 2020, p. 4]. Then the Patriarch arrives in front of the door of the Edicule. The crown, the stole and the chasuble are removed from him. He now wears only the white robe, as a sign of “Humility” [Hvidt, 2009]. After the wax seal is removed, the Patriarch enters the Edicule carrying two large unlit candles. An Israeli policeman also enters with him to check that everything is regular without counterfeiting.

1.1.13 The Appearance of the Holy Fire

It is now dark in the church; the light still penetrates only from the openings in the dome above. Just as the last arti icial light goes out, a phenomenon like a deep sigh passes through the Basilica. People have become silent; a tense silence is in the air. It is about 2 p.m., the time when the Holy Light has appeared for close to 2000 years.

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I can hardly describe the tension; my heart is rapidly beating and I realize that I can no longer speak. I just want to feel the very tense atmosphere. My hands hold my bundle of candles. Then suddenly a woman screams, and seconds later a bell starts ringing loud and fast right above our heads. And then the Holy Fire is already penetrating from the side of the Angel’s Chapel! I see an Armenian who lights his candle and takes it at the speed of light to a side chapel on our side of the Edicule to give it to his Patriarch. On the other side of the Edicule, an Arab Christian has received the ire, and suddenly the Holy Fire is lit on an in inite number of bundles of candles! Now people scream with joy, shouts, and whistles. Incredible noise arises as the people pass the Holy Fire on to each other, candle by candle. See Fig. 1.36. The Basilica is already lit by hundreds of lighted candles before the Patriarch emerges from the Sepulcher of Christ with his two lighted candles. People press him to get the light from him to such an extent that he has to be supported by more men in order not to fall. He then brings the light to the Katholikon.

Figure 1.36 The Holy Fire spreads in seconds. (In the center of the photo, C. Shrader with her husband) (C. Schrader).

The Miracle of the Holy Fire Seen by a Tourist

A woman next to me hands me her lighted candles and I light my bundle of candles. Tears roll down my face, I am deeply shaken. I am still touched today when I think of this moment. I have the Holy Fire on my candles, the ire of the holy place of the Resurrection of Christ! Your light, Lord, I think. Over 33 candles for 33 bright years of life! And now I touch the center of the lame and feel nothing! Just the touch of a gentle movement, no pain! This ire does not burn, it is a different light from the ire we know. I see other people approaching their newly lit candle ires and I see how they guide them across their faces. I also see an Orthodox nun touching the ire to her robes and I see happy, animated faces; bright faces! “Christos anesti! ” People shout. “Christ is risen! ”, see Fig. 1.37.

Figure 1.37 The Holy Fire is not burning (C. Schrader).

At the time of the rite there are always about 700 people crowded in the rotunda, and in the other areas of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher there are hundreds more, all densely packed together. Almost all of them hold a bundle of 33 candles, although some have a different kind of candle. The Holy Fire is quickly passed from candle to candle. The rotunda is now a seething sea of ire. I am not aware of any person being burned in the closely packed crowd. The church ills quickly with smoke, which slowly

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rises into the rotunda. All the while the bell rings loud and bright with quick blows above our heads. This seems to increase the excitement among the people. Outside the great dark bells of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher ring, which cannot be heard inside. They seem to want to announce the Resurrection of Christ in Jerusalem and on the earth. A tremor passes through Jerusalem for an hour after the appearance of the Holy Light. It goes through your marrow and your bones and goes deep into your soul.

1.1.14 The Way Back

I am still enchanted in my place and I look at the light of my candles, I hear the bells, the voices of excited people, their songs and I notice the scent of candles and smoke, see Fig. 1.38. In the meantime, the Orthodox Easter liturgy has begun in the Katholikon.

Figure 1.38 The Edicule in the empty church due to the pandemic on April 18, 2020 (C. Schrader).

The celebration will last several hours and will continue into the middle of the night. A hymn is sung, which I now know well: “Agios o Theos, agios ischyros, agios athanatos, eleison imas.” (“Holy God, Holy Strong, Holy Immortal, have mercy on us”).

The Miracle of the Holy Fire Seen by a Tourist

The church portal was opened soon after the appearance of the Holy Fire, and now people are going out of the church in droves, others are still pushing. Everyone has their bundles of lighted candles with them. There are more people waiting outside with their candles to have the Holy Fire passed to them. I can no longer see my husband and my friends, even George has disappeared. I am all alone with the light among these many people. I go slowly to the exit and blow out the candles outside. I am still completely dissolved. I am not looking for my friends, but I slowly return to my quarters through the still full corridors of the bazaar. A Greek Orthodox procession crosses my path, led by one of the bishops. We have to step aside to let them pass. And in the midst of this crowd, I suddenly ind Haris standing right in front of me. Haris, to whom I owe all this and who I haven’t seen since Holy Thursday. It is almost impossible to grasp! But here he is, I can hardly believe it. I fall around his neck and tell him: “I was in the church, I saw the Holy Fire!” He looks at me in silence for a while and then says, “Yes, I saw you were there.” He also tells me that he saw the ire from the Church from his position high up in the dome. A young man next to him saw a blue light penetrate the burial chamber of the Edicule. Haris didn’t see it himself. I know from him that it takes a certain constitution to be able to see this light, some people can see it sometimes and others not. I thank him for everything and we say goodbye. We never saw each other again, but we stayed in touch for a while. I corrected a new edition of his book on the Miracle of the Holy Fire. I also ind his web site very interesting (Skarlakidis 2022). I am walking slowly towards my neighborhood. In the meantime, I observed that I had not had anything to eat or drink since the early hours of the morning. I remembered my back pain previously was very severe I stood for hours. I didn’t think about any of this in the hours before the rite in the Church. There is a lot of garbage in the alleys, but I discover a closed bottle of water in the mess at my feet. Thankfully, I take this little miracle and drink greedily. I inally arrive at the hotel and go to bed immediately. I am completely exhausted!

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At one point my husband comes back and tells me that he ate with George and our friends. We fall asleep soundly. When we wake up after a few hours, something has changed in my back and I notice that the pain is gone! I can move freely, the memory of the painful area is still there, but the pain has passed. I can eat again in the evening. My body is free from all ailments. The Holy Fire has returned to shine like a sign from Heaven. It is the promise: “…And look, I am with you always; yes, to the end of time.” [Mt 28:20]. At every Holy Fire service, He will always be visible to the whole world in this place with His light. It is an experience of the present, the presence of the Risen One.

1.2 The First Author at the Miracle of the Holy Fire

The detailed description of the Holy Fire made by Cornelia Schrader is con irmed in this section through the personal experience of the irst author of this book.

1.2.1 The Antecedents

I heard about the Holy Fire more than a dozen years ago as a strange phenomenon that occurred every year in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem: at Easter some ires were formed that luttered inside the main dome of the Basilica. Intrigued, I took a quick look on the web and found something that con irmed the strange presence of these ires that formed inside the walls of the dome that covers the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher, but nothing more. Talking about this phenomenon with friends it was received as very doubtful and, therefore, not to be taken into serious consideration. The thing ended there for the moment, but the topic was resumed in 2012 when I wrote the book with the journalist Saverio Gaeta entitled The Mystery of the Shroud: The Surprising Scienti ic Discoveries on the Enigma of the Cloth of Jesus that was published in 2013 [Fanti & Gaeta 2013]. With him I dealt with the topic of the Holy Fire because I had the idea of a possible correlation between this ire that develops in the Sepulcher of

The First Author at the Miracle of the Holy Fire

Jesus Christ and the formation of the body image of the Holy Shroud. We talked about it for a while but even Saverio appeared quite doubtful, stating that before writing something in a book, you need to make sure of it, possibly even do on-site research. I immediately had the idea of going to Jerusalem to see the ire in person, but the book was about to be completed and sent to the editor just before the Easter season. There would be no time to organize a trip to Jerusalem, do the necessary research and put the results in the book that was soon to go to editing. Above all, by then I had learned that it was not easy to get permission to attend the Holy Fire ceremony. Precisely due to the fact that it is not easy to be admitted inside the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher, especially if you are not Orthodox, the desire to go in person to Jerusalem to observe the Miracle, and perhaps to perform some experiments, remained frozen for a few years until an act of Providence guided me. It was on February 9, 2018 that doctor Ihsan Salama of Turan, (see Fig. 1.39), who lives in Israel halfway between Nazareth and Tiberias, unexpectedly contacted me via e-mail asking for information on the Holy Shroud and the Holy Fire. Here is his e-mail: “Prof. Fanti, many greetings from the Holy Land. My name is IHSAN SALAMA, I am an Israeli citizen (Arab-Christian Catholic). I speak Italian, because I studied medicine in Italy. I am following your research on the Holy Shroud. The question came to mind about the similarity between the Light of the Resurrection (which you are researching) and the Light that comes out of the Tomb after the prayer that the Greek Patriarch makes in the Church of the Resurrection in Jerusalem every year in Easter time (Holy Saturday). The Light that does not burn for 33 minutes (age of Jesus). I would like to be in contact with you.” In retrospect, Ihsan himself stated to me that it was the Holy Spirit who caused the contact. This message from Ihsan reopened my interest in the Holy Fire and motivated me to work to organize a plan for actual experimentation. Since April 7, 2018, Orthodox Holy Saturday, was too close to organize a trip with scienti ic experiments, we agreed to meet the following year, in 2019. In the meantime,

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Ihsan agreed to undertake a small initial experiment in the Holy Sepulcher on Orthodox Holy Saturday in 2018.

Figure 1.39 Dr. Ihsan Salama with his 33 candles lit with the 2019 Holy Fire (G. Fanti).

1.2.2 The First Contact with the Holy Fire in 2018 After thinking a few days about what a simple, but at the same time signi icant test might be for 2018, I asked Ihsan to conduct the following experiment. “Expose a handkerchief or a similar sheet of cloth to the lames of two identical candles, one lit with the Holy Fire, the other lit by a lighter.” The goal of the simple experiment was to check to see if the Holy Fire and the common ire might actually produce different results. I certainly did not expect the test to be as signi icant as a laboratory test, because a different distance of the lames from the fabric would have produced a different result by itself. Nevertheless, because of the impossibility of being personally present, I wanted at least to have a irst rough check made to help justify any future trip and experimentation that I might plan. It turned out that Ihsan himself was unable to go to Jerusalem for Orthodox Holy Saturday in 2018. However, he was able to arrange for one of his friends, Ramsi Abumane, a local merchant, to perform the test that I proposed (see Fig. 1.40).

The First Author at the Miracle of the Holy Fire

Figure 1.40 Ramsi Abumane with his candle lighted with the Holy Fire in 2018 (G. Fanti).

Ramsi Abumane diligently carried out and ilmed the experiment, that I proposed. He then sent me all the material from the experiment for my examination including the video. Apart from the possible problem of the different distance between the two lames from the cloth, the results were remarkable. The lame of the candle lit by the lighter (common ire) de initely burned the fabric. The Holy Fire lame did not! The lame of the candle lit by the Holy Fire left just a very super icial trace of scorching on the surface of the fabric (see Fig. 1.41). Very encouraged by these results, I immediately began to organize tests and experiments for the following year’s ceremony of the Holy Fire on Orthodox Holy Saturday, April 27, 2019. I also began working on the logistics for the trip to Jerusalem. My irst step was to try to obtain the necessary access badge or pass for the ceremony. I contacted several potential sources. Some of these contacts simply told me that they could not provide me with the badge or pass. Others did not even respond to my request. However, Dr. Ihsan reassured me that we would still be able to participate in the ceremony, as he had already done in the past, by joining a group of Orthodox pilgrims who would have access. He told me he could take me with him without any problem. I trusted his judgement, and committed myself irmly to work to attend the 2019 Orthodox Holy Saturday Service in the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem!

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Figure 1.41 Results of the first experiment performed by Ramsi Abumane during the Holy Saturday 2018 ceremony. On the left all the threads of the sheet are burned by a common fire; on the right, only the topmost fibers of the same cloth are barely singed by the Holy Fire (G. Fanti).

1.2.3 Preparation of the Trip My irst step in preparation for the experiments to be conducted during the 2019 Holy Fire ceremony in Jerusalem was to secure the help of my friend and colleague Professor Roberto Basso. He would help with the experimental planning and execution. Then, to be sure that there would be no problems with airline lights, in December 2018, we booked airline tickets to Tel Aviv for the following April. Then, In January 2019, we started looking for lodging inside the Old City during late April 2019 to help avoid any problems with queues and security checks, that generally the Israeli police place at all entrances to the Old City at the time of the Holy Fire ceremony. Unfortunately, the search for lodging seemed to be in vain I was turned away again and again and told several times that the rooms in the few hotels within the Old City are generally booked by pilgrims at least a year in advance of the Holy Fire ceremony. Apparently, there was nothing I could do to get a room at this late date! Then providentially, after all my efforts to ind lodging seemed to be done in vain, only a little more than a week before our scheduled departure for Jerusalem, friends in Jerusalem came to our assistance in inding the lodging we sought! A nice room for myself and one for Professor Roberto Basso, were found at the

The First Author at the Miracle of the Holy Fire

Custodian Terrae Sanctae, a religious Order in the Catholic Church, the Order of Friars Minor, the Franciscans.

1.2.4 What and How to Measure?

Now to the consideration and planning of the experiments and measurements to be taken during the ceremony of the Holy Fire in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in April 2019. The question “what and how to measure” might seem trivial if addressed to a university teacher of mechanical and thermal measurements, such as the author, especially if addressed to a simple candle lame. Chapter 3 describes some physicochemical aspects of a generic candle lame, and from this information already something about how and what to measure is evident. But this is a very particular case subjected to the following very stringent constraints which heavily affect the objectives to be achieved and the procedures to be followed. 1. To measure something, one must start from previous knowledge on the phenomenon in question. In this case very little was known about the phenomenon which was described as out of the ordinary (“cold ire”) and which the previous year had given a rough indication of the difference in the effects on a fabric compared to a common ire, see Fig. 1.41. It was therefore necessary to perform basic measurements to characterize the possible physical difference between a common ire and the Holy Fire. 2. Normally, to perform laboratory measurements you need to use sophisticated instruments, often bulky, and powered by connection to an electric circuit, not battery power. All this was practically impossible when, as will be seen, the analyses were carried out on the loor for lack of a table and an electric current supply.

3. Given the considerable dif iculty in participating in the phenomenon, due to travel problems, access permits and police controls, it is necessary to consider the measurement opportunity as unique. As such, the de ined measurement cannot fail. A parallel to this problem comes to mind here, when at the beginning of my university career I was

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designing and studying instruments for space missions. Even in that case, the mission, because it was unique, could not fail. With this constraint, the measurements must be as unsophisticated as possible, and simple to carry out, while remaining accurate in the results obtained. 4. Only information deriving from non-certi ied sources (including videos seen on the web) were obtainable. It appeared that the particular characteristic of the Holy Fire lasts for not more than 33 minutes as many pilgrims have af irmed. Considering also the time elapsing between the ignition of the Holy Fire in the Edicule and the instant the experiments start, the maximum duration of all the experiments to be performed had to be around 10 minutes, not more. These few minutes in unfavorable conditions further limit the type, quality and quantity of tests to be planned.

Before proceeding with the instrumental and procedural choices for the measurements to be performed in the Holy Sepulcher, it is always good to ask for advice from experts in the sector. I, therefore, contacted the physicist Dr. Giuseppe Baldacchini from ENEA in Frascati, Rome, for some advice on what to measure. In addition to the temperature measurement performed with thermocouple thermometers that I had already considered, he advised me to perform a spectral analysis of the lame. To this temperature measurement relative to a point, I thought to include the temperature measurement of the whole area of the lames by means of a thermo-camera. He recommended a number of sophisticated and expensive instruments that were not suitable because of Constraint 2 mentioned above. Another friend, Prof. Giuseppe Zagotto of Pharmacology at the University of Padua, solved my problem by lending me a pocket spectroscope. Subsequently, I built an appropriate interface system between the spectroscope and my camera to record the spectra obtained, see Fig. 1.42. As for the candles, in addition to the bundle of 33 candles that I bought upon arrival in Jerusalem, I brought two nominally identical candles from Padua which, among other things, were

The First Author at the Miracle of the Holy Fire

blessed the previous Saturday, during the Catholic Holy Saturday ceremony.

Figure 1.42 Pocket spectroscope with its interface for the camera (G. Fanti).

Obviously, the test of the burning of the cloth samples conducted the year before by Ramsi Abumane was critically important and had to be reproduced. For this, two types of fabric were chosen: irst, a Shroud-like fabric manufactured on the basis of direct measurements performed on the Holy Shroud by Piero Vercelli [2010] and second, a raw linen fabric. As already mentioned, for the temperature measurements, a two-channel, portable, battery-powered K-type thermocouple thermometer, see Fig. 1.43, was chosen so that the temperature of the lames of the two candles could be measured at the same time. Because the Russian scientist Andrei Volkow, at a previous ceremony of the Holy Fire, detected the presence of strong electric ields in the Holy Sepulcher, a portable battery-operated

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ionometer (air ionization degree meter) was added to check for any variations in the percentage of negative ions in the air. We inally decided on a clear experimental protocol that could be carried out in the designated ten minutes, that could be varied depending on possible unforeseen contingencies.

1. Put the Holy Fire under my beard to verify if it produces or not a sense of pain or ignition of the beard itself. 2. Study the spectrum of the light emitted by the two candle lames. 3. Measure the areal variation of the temperature of the lames by means of a thermo-camera. 4. Measure the point temperature of the lames with the thermocouple thermometer, see Fig. 1.43. 5. Perform a series of experiments of burning various linen cloths.

Figure 1.43 Thermocouple thermometer on the left and ionometer on the right used for the experiments (G. Fanti).

The First Author at the Miracle of the Holy Fire

At the same time, my colleague Roberto was entrusted with the following tasks:

1a. To document the experiments with videos and photographs. 2a. To detect any possible variations indicated by the ionometer, see Fig. 1.43.

1.2.5 The Trip

Everything was ready for departure the next day when on the evening of Tuesday April 23, 2019, I fell ill with a strong lu with a rising fever. I spent a bad night with strong doubts whether, after all the efforts made, it was the case to cancel the trip or to risk starting a trip that would certainly have worsened my physical condition. Would I then be able, with a rising fever that already exceeded 38 °C (101 °F), to endure the fatigue of the journey? I suddenly realized that all my preparations for months might have been in vain and, above all, that all the results that I could have obtained by analyzing the Holy Fire with scienti ic instruments might be lost. With hindsight I realize that that would have been my only opportunity for several years to perform some direct analysis on the Holy Fire because from 2020, as we know, there were restrictions on access to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher due to the spread of the COVID-19 virus. In the very early hours of Wednesday morning I made my decision. I turned to Jesus and told Him: ” I try to come and study the Holy Fire for You and Your Holy Shroud, you do with me what you think best.” I illed myself with antipyretic pills and left with a cough and cold. On Wednesday April 24, I drove to pick up my friend Roberto who fell silent, and was astonished when I told him what had happened. Perhaps he still was thinking of the possibility of a trip failure. Obviously, as a university lecturer who participates in various congresses around the world, it was not the irst time I went to the airport. Well, I must observe that I have never had such a detailed baggage check at the Venice airport.

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I am not talking about the spectrometer that I had with me for the analysis of the Holy Fire of which I had to explain in detail the functioning and purpose. Fortunately, the written invitation I had for a scheduled conference on the Holy Shroud in Jerusalem on Friday April 26, justi ied the scienti ic material I was carrying with me. I speak instead of the personal objects which were scrutinized one by one; even my toothbrush was scanned to see if it contained I don’t know what! We arrived in Tel Aviv on time. Roberto and I took a taxi to Jerusalem and stuffed with antipyretic pills, I arrived at my room in the Old City. At night, always with fever but not very high (I decided not to measure it for the whole trip) I did not sleep peacefully but I also had a dream with a religious background. I seem to remember it was about the Resurrection. On the morning of Thursday April 25, strangely I already felt a little better, and we organized ourselves for the following days and for the conference on the Holy Shroud that I would attend and speak at, both in English and in Italian, at the Notre Dame Center, see Fig. 1.44.

Figure 1.44 The first author at the Notre Dame Center in Jerusalem (G. Fanti).

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Immediately after our arrival in Jerusalem, Roberto and I began to focus on the task of acquiring access badges or permits to attend the ceremony of the Holy Fire, but no one we talked to was able to help us. A policeman questioned on this subject warned us of the extreme dif iculty of obtaining such a badge or permit.

1.2.6 Discovering the Secrets of the Basilica

In the afternoon we joined a group of Italian friends visiting the Holy Sepulcher at the location of the Armenian Chapel of St. Vartan, see Fig. 1.45. adjacent to that of St. Helen, where the oldest Christian ex-voto (religious offering) in Jerusalem is kept.

Figure 1.45 Chapel of St. Vartan in the Holy Sepulcher (G. Fanti).

The chapel is little known because it is not accessible, except on request, but it is interesting for the ancient ex-voto consisting of a painting of a ship with an underlying inscription discovered in 1971, see Fig. 1.46. The image is on a 65 cm × 31 cm polished stone slab that belonged to a wall of the temple of Jupiter, built by the emperor Hadrian, when, after the second Jewish revolt in 135 AD, Jerusalem was transformed into the Roman city of Aelia Capitolina. At that

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time the Christian religious sites were demolished and Calvary and the Holy Sepulcher were covered with an embankment that served as the basis of a pagan temple.

Figure 1.46 Ancient ex-voto consisting of a painting of a ship with an underlying inscription (G. Fanti).

The drawing represents a Roman cargo ship with two steering rudders at the stern. The mast may appear to be broken by the wind and the superstructures torn or lowered. Under the boat are written the Latin words “Domine ivimus” – that is, “Lord we have come.” All this suggests an “ex voto” following a stormy journey. It can therefore be thought that the text and design were drawn by a pilgrim who came from afar by sea from a Western country (since the writings are in Latin rather than Greek). It is likely that the pilgrim was in Jerusalem when the retaining walls of the illing made to build the platform on which the temple of Jupiter was erected were still uncovered. The location of the drawing in this remote corner suggests that the author acted in a hidden way, perhaps fearing being discovered by pagan priests when Christian worship was forbidden. These considerations lead to date the boat and the inscription to the second century. It would therefore be the most ancient

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testimony of a Christian pilgrimage by one who arrived at the place of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of Jesus to meet his Lord. How courageous it was for a Christian pilgrim to visit this site, a practice that had been forbidden by the Roman emperor. [Gervasi, 2015]. Our tour in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher continued with seeing some places already described by Cornelia Schrader in Section 1.1; in addition, the niches (wall space for a single burial) were interesting, see Fig. 1.47.

Figure 1.47 Tombs in the Holy Sepulcher (G. Fanti).

1.2.7 Conferences on the Holy Shroud Friday was dedicated to the two conferences on the Holy Shroud; in the morning for the organization and in the afternoon for two conferences, one in English and one in Italian at the Ponti ical Institute Notre Dame of Jerusalem Center, see Fig. 1.48. In the morning I also had several telephone contacts with Ihsan to de ine which scienti ic instruments it would be possible to introduce into the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher without the Israeli police blocking the entrance, not only to the scienti ic instruments, but also to me.

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Strangely, I had no problem speaking during the Shroud conferences and answering questions from the public despite the effects of my illness. Even after the lectures I was always stuffed with medication so as not to risk getting sicker during the Holy Saturday ceremony. I already felt better despite the strain of the trip.

Figure 1.48 Conference on the Holy Shroud at the Pontifical Institute Notre Dame of Jerusalem Center (G. Fanti).

1.2.8 Odyssey towards the Holy Sepulcher On Saturday morning the lu seemed to be over and we met with Ihsan, Ramsi and his group around 9 a.m. in the Old City near Se’adya Street between the Damascus Gate and the Lions’ Gate. We exchanged greetings and I expressed thanks for their invaluable help. We then reviewed the scienti ic material for the experiments to con irm the possibility of bringing it inside the Basilica. Then, we began to proceed towards the Holy Sepulcher. Ramsi brought with him one of my bags containing the instruments so that I would not attract too much attention. He asked me and Roberto to each put on a necklace with an Orthodox cross that is typical of what priests wear around their necks. I gladly accepted the proposal and I still keep that cross on display in my study in memory of that day, see Fig. 1.49.

The First Author at the Miracle of the Holy Fire

Figure 1.49 Necklace with an Orthodox cross typical of priests (G. Fanti).

As soon as we started, we arrived at an Israeli police checkpoint where we were asked for documents. Ramsi explained that we were in the group ahead, but a policeman still asked me for my documents in good English. After showing it, the policeman said that my Italian card and Roberto’s were not enough to pass.

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A very long discussion then broke out between Ramsi and the policeman in which Ihsan also participated, but in the end, extremely sorry, Ihsan told me that my colleague and I could not go to the Holy Sepulcher. To console me, he asked me for some instruments to be able to do some analysis himself and told me that he would bring me the Holy Fire of his candle lit in the Holy Sepulcher as soon as possible. I later learned from Ihsan that the extremely determined policeman declared to Ramsi that they would not let us through even if the Israeli Prime Minister himself came to ask him! But I had to be present at the ceremony to study the Holy Fire and to compare the results with the body image of the Holy Shroud: nothing is impossible for God and therefore the Holy Spirit intervened (this is what Ihsan and I are convinced of). I was still putting away my bag with the instruments that I had not given to Ihsan, embittered and incredulous for what had happened, thinking about how much travel preparation work had unnecessarily been thrown away. Then my cell phone rang. It is very strange because when I am abroad it rings very rarely. I look at the phone and it is Ihsan calling. I wonder if he is calling to say goodbye. I answer and in an excited voice he tells me: “Giulio please wait there a few minutes at the police checkpoint, don’t go to the hotel!” A distant hope returns and happily I approach the policeman who had stopped me with Roberto. The policeman looks at me with a grin and says something in English like: “It’s useless for you to stay here, you won’t be passing this way!” At this point I answer, “we’ll see” and wait about two interminable minutes. From the corner of the street, Ihsan reappears and at the same time the policeman’s cell phone rings and he says a few words to someone. Ihsan arrives and the dumb founded policeman signals me that I can go with Roberto! Ihsan tells me that Ramsi, immediately after leaving us, turned the corner and found in a bar along the road a friend of his, Cesare, a high-ranking of icer of the Israeli government. Cesare, after hearing that two Italian professors, who had come to Jerusalem speci ically to study the Holy Fire, had been blocked by the police, made a telephone call to the police and imposed our passage.

The First Author at the Miracle of the Holy Fire

No more than 50 m after the checkpoint, Ihsan introduces me to Cesare who was still drinking his coffee. I exchanged a quick word of thanks before proceeding along the road to the Holy Sepulcher. But all was not right. In retrospect, it occurs to me that if the thing is very important, it is countered in every way. Not even 100 m further on the narrow and crowded streets of the Old City, immediately after a corner, on a very steep downhill road, there is another checkpoint. Same procedure: We are asked for our documents and we are refused access. A very animated discussion arises between Ramsi and the policeman which lasts a few interminable minutes. At one point the policeman turns to another group of people. At that moment, Ramsi, from under a low wall about half a meter high, gives me his hand, silently beckoning me to jump the checkpoint with Roberto. We jump ahead into the crowd and the policeman “does not see us pass!” I prefer not to comment further on this fact that speaks for itself. Past this checkpoint, we walked for a few tens of meters until we reached the square of the Holy Sepulcher. There I found myself practically crushed by a crowd of people waiting to enter the Basilica. The entry way was controlled by other Israeli policemen. Their task was not to further control the access of people based on a badge or pass, but to simply regulate the low of entry once the door of the Basilica was opened. Nevertheless, I did not know this and compressed by people, I waited for another half hour at least, still fearing to be sent home.

1.2.9 In the Holy Sepulcher

Once the gates had been opened, inally with my companions, we were able to enter the Basilica, positioning ourselves at the point indicated in Figs. 1.50 and 1.51. After a short time, the Basilica was illed with people, see Fig. 1.52. Many aggressively shoved ahead to reach a more suitable place for observation. It was about 11 a.m. and we had to wait like this: standing up and compressed by the crowd for at least 3 hours.

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Figure 1.50 Plan of the Holy Sepulcher in correspondence of the Edicule [Corbo 1982] showing where the first author received the Holy Fire (Position 1) and where the experiments have been performed (Position 2) (G. Fanti).

Figure 1.51 View of the Basilica from our place (G. Fanti).

The outlook was not the best, but knowing these problems, I brought a portable “ϔisherman’s” seat which proved extremely useful. After a while, we decided to take turns among all the members of our group for about ten minutes each. This brought

The First Author at the Miracle of the Holy Fire

considerable relief to the legs of all of us, even if it was not easy to find the space in the crowd to sit down. I do not dwell on the description of the events of these 3 hours which has already been well described by Cornelia Schrader in Section 1.1.

Figure 1.52 Crowd of people in the Holy Sepulcher at the arrival of the Patriarch (G. Fanti).

1.2.10 And Here Is the Holy Fire Some tens of seconds before the emergence of the Holy Fire from the Edicule, around 2 p.m., I noticed various series of flashes like lightning in the area surrounding the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher that immediately left an unforgettable impression on me. They were in fact trains of flashes that developed at regular intervals. At that moment, since my view was not perfect, given my position, I thought they were photographers’ flashes. As we will see in the Chapter 3, more detailed analyses of videos acquired from other positions made me understand that those series of flashes were not generated by cameras!

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Then suddenly the loud cries and excitement that spontaneously emerged in the Basilica made me understand that the Miracle of the Holy Fire had happened again this year. Shortly afterwards the Patriarch came out of the Edicule with his lighted candles and the Holy Fire spread rapidly all over the Basilica, with people passing the ire from candle to candle. The Holy Fire reached me shortly, and after sharing it with my neighbors, I immediately went to look for a less crowded place to perform my experiments. Knowing that after a few minutes the Holy Fire would lose its very particular characteristics, I hastened to bring my bundle of 33 lit candles to the area of my instrumentation on the loor near a column of the Basilica where not many people had gathered. I had previously asked in vain for the possibility of having a small table on which to place my instruments, but obviously the answer was negative; I therefore adapted to work on the loor of the Basilica, see Fig. 1.53.

Figure 1.53 Temperature experiments on the candles put on the floor near a column (G. Fanti).

I began to take out of the bags the necessary equipment for the experiments when a guard from the Holy Sepulcher arrived

The First Author at the Miracle of the Holy Fire

telling me that I could not stay there because I was too close to the wall of the building and I could cause some ire! At that point, after all the hardships just experienced, I did not abandon my intentions. I took the candles and moved them about 20 cm from the wall and continued my experiments without paying attention to the guard. I later learned—thank God—that Ihsan and his friends placed themselves in a semicircle around me to prevent someone else from disturbing me. I then continued undisturbed to perform my experiments which I describe in Section 3, but the adversities were not over. An important experiment consisted in comparing the lame produced by the Holy Fire with that produced by an identical candle lit with a common lighter. Taking the two candles, one was immediately lit by the lame of the 33 candles lit by the Holy Fire, but the other had to be lit by a lighter. Obviously, I had a new and tested lighter, but where was it in the bag? Did moving the instrumentation when I gave Ramsi some equipment before passing the irst checkpoint mean that the lighter fell to the ground and was never picked up? I asked my friends if anyone had a lighter to lend me, but not one was provided. I quickly looked again in all the pockets of the bags and inally the lighter was found! This fortuitously allowed me to continue the experiments, but more than a precious minute was wasted! I went on beyond the scheduled ten minutes continuing to do linen burn tests, but I noticed that something was changing because, in the last few minutes, the lame of the Holy Fire candle began to produce effects similar to that of common ire. I then understood that something was changing and stopped the experiments. I placed the instruments in the bags and I began to go with the group to the exit of the Basilica, but something else had changed. I no longer felt the lu that had accompanied me all these days. I felt completely healed, thank God! Thanks both for the recovery, but above all for allowing me to perform the experiments despite all of the obstacles. It is clear that many readers at the end of this story may think that I have invented or at least exaggerated something to

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make the story more compelling. The truth is, I have tried to be as objective as possible in my memories. Therefore, with the Evangelist John I must say, “This is the evidence of one who saw it — true evidence, and he gives it so that you may believe as well. “ [John 19:35]. Before ending this chapter, it seems interesting to take a look at other phenomena that could in some way be related to the Holy Fire.

1.3 Phenomena Possibly Related to the Holy Fire

Here are treated some interesting facts that in some way could be connected to the Holy Fire and that could be better studied in the future. A mention will be made of (a) the ire of the Holy Spirit, (b) the perspiration of myrrh from the slab of the Holy Tomb in the interior of the Edicule and (c) the possible body image imprinted on the slab on which the lifeless body of Jesus Christ was placed.

1.3.1 The Fire of the Holy Spirit

The manifestation of the Holy Fire and related phenomena are not only typical of the Holy Sepulcher of Jerusalem, but also occur in different places of Orthodox worship and it is called “Uncreated Light” or “Fire of the Holy Spirit.” Architect Daniela Bragoli of Vicenza (Italy) suggested to the irst author a video [Papaboys 2022], still under scienti ic evaluation, recorded by a night camera that captures the chalice of the Eucharist resting on the altar of an Orthodox Church. Without any external intervention, this chalice begins to emanate a ire which after almost three minutes over lows and spreads on the linen tablecloth. After a few tens of seconds, it dies out without leaving any trace of burn, even on the white linen tablecloth, see Fig. 1.54. In agreement with what is reported in Section 3.2, someone could perhaps af irm that this is the result of white phosphorus dissolved in a suitable organic solvent which produces self-

Phenomena Possibly Related to the Holy Fire

ignition when the solvent evaporates. Nevertheless, if the ire was due to ignition of the phosphorus, we should observe here some burnings in the white lax of the tablecloth that instead are not visible. The miracle seems therefore con irmed.

Figure 1.54 From the top left to the bottom right, various frames taken during the four-minutes video showing a chalice emanating fire which overflows and spreads on the altar cloth and then dies out without leaving any trace of burn, even on the white linen tablecloth [Papaboys 2022]. The fire overflows after the fourth frame and the sixth frame shows something like an explosion. It is interesting to observe the tenth frame at time 3:30 that shows one flame on the chalice and three flames on the altar cloth perhaps in reference to the Triune God (post-processed by G. Fanti).

Other phenomena linked to the Holy Fire are also evident outside Jerusalem. For example, Section 3.2.3.B describes trains of lightning strikes appearing at regular time intervals outside the Edicule. Haris Skarlakidis kindly sent to the irst author a video showing similar trains of lightning strikes appeared in 2020 in the Church of Alexander Nevsky at Beograd (Serbia).

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1.3.2 Perspiration of Myrrh We read in the Gospel of John [19:39] that “Nicodemus brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about seventy-ϔive pounds” for the burial of Jesus Christ in the sepulcher. In memory of the spices brought by Nicodemus, sometimes in conjunction with the appearance of Holy Fire, effusions of liquid myrrh appear from the sepulchral stone inside the Edicule; here are two testimonials. Bishop Christodoulos in 1998 described this perspiration [Skarlakidis 2015, p. 242] af irming what follows. “I Immediately began reading the special prayer and when that was ϔinished, I noticed that the tombstone had started to ‘perspire’. As time went on the phenomenon became all the more intense and it was as if it was completely covered by liquid myrrh that came out of its interior. At the same time, along with the liquid myrrh, a very intense blue light appeared which covered the entire tombstone.” We will see in Section 3.2.1.F that Simeon Lehatsi, an Armenian, chronicles in 1617 AD reported the perspiration of drops of liquid over the slab of the Holy Tomb in the interior of the Edicule that became reddish and warm. The fact that together with the manifestation of Holy Fire in some cases this effusion of myrrh occurs, as well as being in itself very particular and compelling, is a con irmation of the veracity of what is reported in the Gospel of John.

1.3.3 Imprint on the Holy Burial Bed Rock

In March 2017, a group of scientists carried out restoration operations on the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher and on that occasion the Holy Burial Bed Rock was brought to light. It is covered by an ancient somewhat deteriorated marble slab on which an Amber Hued Marble Plate is now placed to seal all, see Ref. [Moroupolou et al., 2018]. Figure 4 of that paper, which partially highlights this Holy Burial Bed Rock, aroused interest to the authors of this book who sought in vain to contact the authors of the paper to get more detailed information possibly accompanied by more signi icant photographs.

Phenomena Possibly Related to the Holy Fire

The igure in question, reported here in Fig. 1.55, shows some hollows that could be traced back to the position of the head, shoulder and gluteus of the lifeless Body of Christ put there.

Figure 1.55 Holy Burial Bed Rock from Fig. 4 of Ref. [Moroupolou et al., where hollows possibly produced by the lifeless Body of Christ resting there are evidenced by arrows in correspondence of head, shoulder and gluteus (post-processed by G. Fanti).

2018]

It is known that in several cases the bodies of saints in contact with marble or stone slabs give imprints of hands and feet by digging the stone themselves in a scienti ically inexplicable way, as if the rocks had suddenly become plastic as they passed. An example of this is the imprint of St. Cristina’s feet on the stone in Bolsena (Italy), see Fig. 1.56. It is said that the Saint was thrown into the lake with this stone tied around her neck, but that she miraculously returned to land sailing on that stone.

Figure 1.56 St. Cristina’s feet imprint on the rock at Bolsena lake (Italy) (G. Fanti).

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In Jerusalem there are alleged footprints and handprints in the rock which are attributed to Jesus too. Figure 1.57 shows the alleged handprint of Jesus along the Via Dolorosa at the fourth station when Jesus was helped by the Cyrene. It is possible in fact that on that occasion Jesus had to lean against the stone wall. Figure 1.58 shows instead the alleged feet print of Jesus Christ during His Ascension into Heaven on a rise above the Mount of Olives.

Figure 1.57 Alleged hand imprint of Jesus Christ on a stone of the wall of the Via Dolorosa. The arrow shows the position on the street (G. Fanti).

Figure 1.58 Alleged feet imprint on the rock during the Ascension of Jesus Christ (on the right) and the Edicule of the Ascension (on the left) (G. Fanti).

Phenomena Possibly Related to the Holy Fire

It would be interesting to analyze the entire Holy Burial Bed Rock because, if the presence of a body imprint is con irmed that can be correlated to human body of Jesus Christ. It would be then very important to analyze some possible correlation with the Holy Fire and to detect if the intense electric ield connected to this could have had some effect on the stone.

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Chapter 2

Miracle of the Holy Fire, History and Religious Significance This chapter is focused on the fascinating history of the otherworldly phenomenon known as the Miracle of the Holy Fire. For roughly the last 1,700 years this phenomenon has manifested itself on one speci ic date: Orthodox Holy Saturday, and at one speci ic location: the site of Jesus of Nazareth’s tomb located within the structure known as the Edicule of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. If you are a Jew, or a Muslim living in the Levant, that is, the present-day countries of Israel, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and the southern part of Turkey you might know about this phenomenon in some detail, or at least have heard about it. If you are an Orthodox Christian living anywhere in the world the phenomenon is not only known, but also revered as a recurring and certain miracle—the manifestation of God’s “Uncreated Light” that testi ies to the reality and certainty of the Resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. For Orthodox Christians the Holy Fire is integral to their faith. For Roman Catholic Christians and other Western Christians, the phenomenon of the Miracle of the Holy Fire is essentially unknown! Here in this chapter, for both groups, the knowing The Holy Fire and the Divine Photography: The Image of the Holy Shroud of Christ Giulio Fanti and Robert Siefker Copyright © 2024 Jenny Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4968-91-1 (Hardcover), 978-1-003-45444-1 (eBook) www.jennystanford.com

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and the previous unknowing, we will review some of the key historical information and traditions related to the Miracle of the Holy Fire.

2.1 What Happens Every Year in the Holy Sepulcher?

The service for the invocation of the Holy Fire is conducted every year on Orthodox Holy Saturday, the eve of Easter, see Fig. 2.1. The Holy Fire does not appear at an exact time every Holy Saturday, but the appearance of the Holy Fire generally occurs around 2:00 p.m. in the afternoon. There are many steps in the service format as it is practiced today that build up to the ultimate appearance of the Holy Fire and these begin earlier in the morning, as outlined below.

Figure 2.1 Holy Fire ceremony in Jerusalem 2022 (Creative Commons).

1. The irst activity on Holy Saturday morning is the preparation for the ceremony in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. This preparation includes extinguishing all the vigil lamps in the Edicule as well as in the surrounding

What Happens Every Year in the Holy Sepulcher?

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

areas of the Holy Sepulcher Church, including the overlooking gallery areas. This usually occurs before 10 a.m. in the morning. Next, the Edicule is inspected three different times by a Moslem guard assigned to the Holy Sepulcher Church who is accompanied by Armenian, Coptic, and Jacobite clergy. The purpose of the inspection is to verify that there is nothing in either chamber of the Edicule that might be used to light a lame and to see that every lamp in the Edicule is extinguished. The search starts around 10 a.m. and lasts for about an hour [Auxentios 1991, p. 163]. At 11 a.m., after the thorough search of the Edicule is completed, the door of the Edicule is sealed by the Moslem guard, who according to traditional practice places and knots a white ribbon around the two handles of the entrance door of the Edicule and seals the knot of the ribbon with wax. Also, around 11 a.m. Christian Arabs who are part of the large crowd in the Holy Sepulcher Church surrounding the Edicule begin singing traditional songs. It is often a raucous event where there is the hoisting of young men up on shoulders and the shouting of religious slogans. At noon the Greek Orthodox Patriarch who will conduct the Holy Fire service enters the Orthodox Chapel of the Resurrection and is seated on the Patriarchal Throne. The Armenian, Coptic and Jacobite clerical representatives then present themselves to the Patriarch, kiss his hand, and ask his permission to receive the Holy Fire when the Patriarch brings the Holy Fire out of the burial chamber. At approximately 12:30 p.m., the Patriarch, now fully vested in his ceremonial attire, approaches the outside of the Edicule and begins a procession that will go around the Edicule three times. The Patriarch is followed by his Bishops and other participating clergy. During the procession around the Edicule, songs are sung by a choir. After completing the procession, the Patriarch stops in front of the Edicule and the other clergy continue ahead leaving the Patriarch alone to approach the entrance to the Holy Sepulcher, where he is joined by the Armenian bishop and various secular of icials. The Patriarch then removes

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his ornate vestments and mitre, being left wearing only a simple and humble white tunic and then submits to being searched by the secular authorities. These of icials generally include a chief city of icial of Jerusalem and the Jerusalem Chief of Police. They verify that the Patriarch is not carrying any matches or devices which might be used to light a candle. 8. Next, after being handed four new and unlit bundles of 33 candles which will be used to distribute the Holy Fire to the attending faithful, the Patriarch enters the Tomb. He is followed by the Armenian representative, who has the traditional right to be present, but only in the antechamber. From there he can observe the patriarch praying and receiving the Holy Fire [Skarlakidis 2015, p. 30]. It is also at approximately this time that pilgrims attending the service report seeing electromagnetic phenomenon, often described as series of “trains of lightning” outside of the Edicule. In Section 3.2.3 these electromagnetic phenomena will be discussed in detail. 9. Finally, now alone within the tomb chamber, the Patriarch recites the traditional prayer beseeching the coming of the Holy Fire ... and then he waits! “Master, Lord Jesus Christ, the light-originating Wisdom of the Unoriginate Father, Who abidest in unapproachable light, Who commanded light to shine forth from darkness, Who said, ‘Let there be light,’ and there was light; Lord, the provider of light, Who leddest us forth out of the darkness of delusion, and leddest us into the wondrous light of thy (full) knowledge, Who iledst with light and joy all the earth by Thine incarnate presence therein, and the things below the earth by Thy descent into hades, whereafter Thou didst proclaim light to all the nations through Thine holy Apostles; we thank Thee that through the pious faith Thou didst lead us out of darkness toward [the] light, and that we have become sons of light through holy Baptism, and beheld Thy glory, full of grace and truth (John 1:14). But, O Lightbestowing Lord, Who art the Light seen by the people who have sat in darkness; Master lord, the True Light which enlighteneth every man that cometh into the world (John 1:9), the only Light of the world and the Light of the life of men, with Whose glory is illed all the universe, for Thou art come as Light into the world

What Happens Every Year in the Holy Sepulcher?

through Thy dispensation in the lesh, although men have loved darkness more than the light. Do Thou, lord, Light-giver, hearken unto us sinners and thine unworthy servants, who at this hour stand about this Thine All-Holy and Light-bearing Tomb, and receive us who honor Thine immaculate Passions [sic], Thine All-Holy Cruci ixion, Thy voluntary death, and the deposition and burial of Thy lifeless body in this All-Venerable Tomb, and Thy Rising on the third day; already beginning to celebrate which joyously, we commemorate Thy descent into hades, whereby as Master Thou didst liberate, by the lightning of Thy Divinity, the souls of the righteous held therein, illing the nether regions with light. Wherefore, indeed, with rejoicing heart and spiritual joy on this most blessed Sabbath, celebrating Thy most salvi ic mysteries, accomplished in a godly manner be itting Thee on the earth and below the earth, and calling to mind Thee, the truly gladsome and desirable Light, which divinely shone upon these in the nether regions and in a godly wise manner did shine forth from the Grave, we make manifest the Light, representing Thy Theophany, which came to pass compassionately for our sake. Forasmuch as on this salvi ic and radiant night all things are illed with light, heaven and earth, and the nether regions through the felicitous mystery of Thy descent into hades, and Thy thirdday Resurrection from the Grave, those who piously receive of the perpetually kindled and ever-radiant Fire pass it on to those who believe on Thee, the True Light, and we call upon and beseech Thee, O All -Holy Master, that Thou wilt show forth this gift of sancti ication, illed full of all Thy divine grace through the grace of thine All-Holy and Light-bearing Tomb, and that Thou bless and sanctify those who piously touch it, delivering [them] from the darkness of passions, and that Thou deem us worthy of ’ Thy most radiant habitations, where shineth the unwaning light of ’ Thy Divinity. Grant unto them, O lord, health and good life, and ill their houses with every good thing. Yea, Light-bestowing Master, hearken unto me a sinner at this hour and grant unto us and unto them to walk in Thy light and to abide therein for as long as we have the light of this present life. Grant us, O Lord, that the light of our good works may shine before men, that they may glorify Thee with Thine Unoriginate Father and the Holy Spirit; for Thou hast established us for a light unto the nations, that we may shine unto those who walk in darkness; but. working evil, we have loved darkness more than the light, for everyone who doeth evil hateth the light, according

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to Thy word which cannot lie; wherefore, sinning, we stumble daily, since we walk in darkness, but vouchsafe unto us to live the remainder of our lives having the eyes of our mind enlightened. Grant us that we may walk as children of light in the light of Thy commandments; make white the radiant garment of holy Baptism, which we have blackened by our works, as One who putteth on light as it were a garment. Grant us to put on the armor of light, that we may turn away the prince of darkness, who transformed himself into an angel of light. Yea, O Lord, like as on this day Thou didst shine light upon those that sit in darkness and the shadow of death, likewise shine today in our hearts Thine unde iled light that radiant with this light and fervent in the Faith, we may glorify Thee, the only gladsome Light of the only light-originating Light, unto the endless ages. Amen.” [Auxentios pp. 167–169].

During Holy Week in 1998 the Danish scholar Niels Christian Hvidt [2001] conducted an interview with the then Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, Diodorus, see Fig. 2.2, about his experience conducting the rite of the Holy Fire. Diodorus served as the Patriarch from 1980 until 2000, so at the time of the interview Diodorus had conducted the service of the Holy Fire for well over a decade and a half. Here are the words of Patriarch Diodorus of Jerusalem concerning his experience of conducting the Holy Fire service: “After all the lights are extinguished, I bow down and enter the irst chamber of the tomb. From here I ind my way through the darkness to the inner room of the tomb where Christ was buried. Here, I kneel in holy fear and ... I say certain prayers that have been handed down to us through the centuries and, having said them, I wait.

Sometimes I may wait a few minutes, but normally the miracle happens immediately after I have said the prayers. From the core of the very stone on which Jesus lay an inde inable light pours forth. It usually has a blue tint, but the color may change and assume many different hues. It cannot be described in human terms. The light rises out of the stone as mist rises out of a lake; it almost looks as if the stone is covered by a moist cloud, but it is light. This light each year behaves differently. Sometimes it covers just the stone, while other times it gives light to the whole sepulcher, so that people who stand outside the tomb and look into it (through the side portals of the Edicule (see Figs. 3.13 and 3.14) will see it illed with light.

What Happens Every Year in the Holy Sepulcher?

The light does not burn; I have never had my beard burnt in all the sixteen years I have been patriarch in Jerusalem and have received the Holy Fire. The light is of a different consistency from normal ire that burns in an oil lamp. At a certain point the light rises and forms a column in which the ire is of a different nature, so that I am able to light my candles from it. When I thus have received the lame on my candles, I go out and give the ire irst to the Armenian patriarch and then to the Coptic. Thereafter, I give the lame to all people present in the church ... We experience many miracles in our churches, and miracles are nothing strange to us ... But none of these miracles have such a penetrating and symbolic meaning for us as the miracle of the Holy Fire. The miracle is almost like a sacrament. It makes the Resurrection of Christ as real to us as if it occurred just a few years ago ... I have been in Jerusalem since 1939 when I came to the city at the age of ifteen. I have attended the ceremony of the Holy Fire for all these years, and have thus been a witness to the miracle sixty-one times. For me it is not a question of whether I believe in the miracle or not. I know it is true.”

Figure 2.2 Historic image from 1941 showing Patriarch Timotheus I exiting the Edicule with candles ignited with Holy Fire. The future Patriarch Diodorus would have been present at this ceremony and he would have been just 17 years old (Public domain).

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2.2 Important Background and Contextual Information 2.2.1 Scriptural References to Holy Fire There are many references to what is referred to as “Holy Light” or non-consuming “Holy Fire” in scripture, both in the Old Testament and in the New Testament. For example, in the Old Testament there is the well-known story in the Book of Exodus where it is reported, “The angel of the Lord appeared to him in a lame blazing from the middle of a bush. Moses looked; there was the bush blazing, but the bush was not being burnt up. Moses said, ‘I must go over and see this strange sight, and why the bush is not being burnt up.’ When the Lord saw him going over to look, God called to him from the middle of the bush, saying, ‘Moses. Moses!’ He answered, ‘Here I am!’ Then he said, ‘Come no nearer! Remove the sandals from your feet, for the place where you are standing is holy ground.” [Exodus 3:2–50] Another remarkable story of non-consuming ire is found in the book of Daniel where the Babylonian King, Nebuchadnezzar, sought to execute three young Jewish men, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, who had refused to worship the Babylonian idolic golden image that Nebuchadnezzar had constructed. For this offence Nebuchadnezzar had them thrown into a burning furnace. Daniel reports that, miraculously, the ire did not consume them, not even their clothes: “Then King Nebuchadnezzar sprang to his feet in amazement. He said to his advisers, ‘Did we not have these three men thrown bound into the ire?’ They answered the king, ‘Yes, indeed, Your Majesty.’ He replied, ‘But I can see four men walking free in the heart of the ire and quite unharmed! And the fourth looks like a child of the gods!” [Daniel 3:91–92] In the New Testament, an astonishing reference to “Holy Light” comes in the description of the “Trans iguration of Jesus.” The Gospel of Matthew relates the story as follows: “Six days later, Jesus took with him Peter and James and his brother John and led them up a high mountain on their own. In their presence he was trans igured: his face shone like the sun and his clothes became as dazzling as light.” [Matthew 17:1–7]

Important Background and Contextual Information

In both the Old and New Testament, all the reported occurrences of “Holy Light” are unique and occur just once. There were no repeat occurrences—each reported occurrence of “Holy Light” was a one-time “miracle.” Accepting the literal truth of these reported one-time miracles has become progressively more and more dif icult in our modern “scienti ic” age. This is also true for the central tenant of Christianity itself—the reported Resurrection of Jesus Christ. In this case, the testimony supporting the Resurrection of Jesus, the very foundational belief of Christianity, continues to be accepted broadly but the trends are negative. Scripture itself reports that there were many witnesses to the Resurrection. In the Bible [1 Corinthians 15: 3–8] Paul provides a list of people who saw the Resurrected Jesus on multiple occasions, including the Apostle Peter and James. Most interesting, a group of more than 500 people are reported to have seen the Resurrected Jesus at the same time. Nevertheless, in our secularizing age belief in the literal truth of the Resurrection is declining. Gallup Inc. [2021], an American analytics company, and publisher of the Gallup Poll, reported that in the United States membership of Christian Churches fell below the majority of the population for the irst time in Gallup’s eight-decade trend. Similar trends are reported around the world especially among younger generations [Pew Research Center, 2018]. Losing faith in the literal truth of the Resurrection of Jesus among previously faithful Christians is at the center of this decline in Christian church af iliation. This negative result can be attributed to a philosophy of rationalism that does not believe in miracles when they are shown to exist and are even scienti ically documented!

2.2.2 Jesus’s Promise of a Sign

Over the course of Jesus’s three-year ministry that is recorded in the Gospels there were multiple miraculous healings that were reportedly seen and testi ied to by many. There were also other miracles, besides healing miracles, but these all had a special speci ic purpose such as demonstrating His divine identity to

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His disciples (walking on the water and the Trans iguration) or responding to a speci ic need (feeding of the 5,000). Also, Jesus is reported to have changed water into wine in response to a speci ic request for help from His Mother. Yet only once is it recorded that Jesus was asked to perform a miracle simply to provide a “sign.” Jesus had a very pointed and critical response to this request. His emphatic response is recorded in the Gospel of Matthew: “Then some of the scribes and Pharisees answered him, saying, ‘Teacher, we would like to see a sign from you.’ But he replied to them, ‘An evil and unfaithful generation asks for a sign! The only sign it will be given is the sign of the prophet Jonah. For as Jonah was in the belly of the sea monster for three days and three nights, so will the Son of man be in the heart of the earth for three days and three nights. At the judgement the people of Nineveh will take their stand against this generation and condemn it, because they repented at Jonah’s proclamation; and look, there is something greater than Jonah here. At the judgement the Queen of the South will appear against this generation and condemn it, because she came from the ends of the earth to hear the wisdom of Solomon; and look, there is something greater than Solomon here.” [Mt 12:38–42] The sign of Jonah was to become the sign given by Jesus to all of mankind for all time—a portion of three consecutive days lifeless in the tomb and then release—the Resurrection. But as the title of this book makes clear, there is powerful new evidence besides the testimony by early witnesses to the reality of the Resurrection. There is new powerful, and indeed startling evidence, that points to the fact that Jesus has given mankind two profound material signs that each in its own way points to the sign of Jonah and the Resurrection. But beyond that, new research and evidence shows how these two actual material signs link up in a way that is startling and even, as the evidence becomes more broadly known, world changing. First, there is the phenomenon known today as the “Miracle of the Holy Fire.” Second, there is “Christ’s burial Shroud.” Most remarkable of all is that these two material signs can now be shown to be integrated, or united, in a way that profoundly

Important Background and Contextual Information

strengthens each as a pointer to the sign of Jonah. In our presentation in this book the Holy Fire comes irst. The Shroud comes second. As stand-alone signs there is a stark contrast between the Holy Fire and the Shroud. The Shroud is a silent witness that is extremely complex. The phenomenon of the Holy Fire, on the other hand, is binary. It is or it is not. Furthermore, it certainly is not a silent witness. It is active and dynamic and dramatically presents itself. It is a phenomenon that is either a miracle or it is not—and this question has now been examined empirically, as you will see in Chapter 3. If it is a miracle, then the Shroud’s other-worldly image also has an empirically based explanation—the phenomenon of God’s Holy Miraculous Light in the Tomb of Jesus in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. The other startling fact about the phenomenon of the Holy Fire is that it is not a one-time occurrence as was the burning bush encountered by Moses, and the Trans iguration of Jesus. Witness testimony to the phenomenon of the Holy Fire goes back to the time of Jesus’s empty tomb. Also, the phenomenon of the Holy Fire has been observed and attested to by tens of thousands of witnesses through time. The phenomenon occurs in one very speci ic place—the burial tomb of Christ in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. Moreover, the phenomenon occurs at one speci ic time. On Holy Saturday, the eve of the Resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. In this Section we will be reviewing key and informative history concerning the Holy Fire. First however, we must look at one special moment in time—the date of Jesus’s cruci ixion, death and reported Resurrection and brie ly introduce the issue of calendars in use in Jerusalem at that time.

2.2.3 The Calendars in Use in Jerusalem at the Time of Jesus

The calendar used by the Roman Empire at the time of Jesus’s passion and death was the Julian calendar. This calendar had been established by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and was subsequently named after him. There were two types of years in the Julian

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calendar—a normal year of 365 days and a leap year, every fourth year, of 366 days, giving an average year that is 365.25 days long which is longer than an exact solar year by approximately 11 minutes a year. Thus, the Julian calendar drifts out of synchronization with an actual solar year at a rate of roughly 1 day every 128 years. We will be discussing the implications for this problem in Section 2.4.12 where the Gregorian calendar reform that came in the year 1582 will be discussed. Nevertheless, the dating for important historical events that occurred in relation to the time that Jesus lived, which was less than one hundred years after the institution of the Julian calendar, come down to us with a great deal of precision from Roman records based on the Julian calendar. The Jews of Israel at the time of Jesus of Nazareth, although under Roman rule, had their own of icial lunar calendar that was overseen by the Jewish Sanhedrin, the Jewish judicial and administrative body in Jerusalem that was headed by the Jewish high priest. Without going into a deep discussion of the Jewish Calendar, there are three details related to the Jewish Calendar that must be mentioned here because they are important for understanding the timing of events during the day of Jesus’s cruci ixion and death.

1. The celebration of Jewish Passover must fall after the spring equinox. 2. The start of a new day according to the Jewish calendar system begins at dusk each day shortly after sunset when the irst “three stars” can be detected in the evening sky. 3. The Jewish Calendar divides nighttime into 12 equal hours and daytime into 12 equal hours. Thus, only at the time of the spring and fall equinox are night hours essentially of the same duration as day hours. Jewish hours are thus referred to as “relative hours.”

We know that Jesus was cruci ied not long after the spring equinox, so hours quoted in scripture related to events on the day of Jesus’s cruci ixion can be approximated as follows: • Jewish “third hour” equals approximately 9 a.m. Julian time.

Important Background and Contextual Information

• Jewish “sixth hour” equals approximately 12:00 noon Julian time. • Jewish “ninth hour” equals approximately 3:00 p.m. Julian time. • Jewish “twelfth hour” equals approximately 6:00 p.m. Julian time.

2.2.4 The Date of Jesus’s Death and Resurrec on and the Da ng of the First Appearance of Holy Light

Two important sets of information that we possess today support the ability to zero in on the date and time of Jesus’s cruci ixion, death, and Resurrection. First, we have important irst-century historical dates revealed to us by the Julian calendar. Second, we also now have the scienti ic ability to precisely date important solar events at the time of the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth such as determining the date of Passover (Pesach), the precise date and time of the Spring Equinox, new moons, full moons, the times of sunrise and sunset as well as the occurrence of lunar eclipses. Here is a summary of the information that that we possess: 1. Jesus died on the day of preparation for the Jewish Sabbath which is observed every week beginning at sunset on Friday evening and ending after dark on Saturday evening. This means Jesus died on a Friday. 2. The historian Tacitus wrote that Jesus died during the reign of Tiberius Caesar who reigned from AD 14–37. 3. Jesus died during the 10 years that Pontius Pilate was the procurator of Judea between AD 26–36. 4. The cruci ixion was at the time of Passover, with the slaughtering of the lambs for Passover occurring between 3 p.m. and 5 p.m. on the 14th day of the Jewish month of Nisan. The Passover meal would have commenced after sunset that same evening. Thus, the Passover meal would have been a Friday evening after the cruci ixion of Jesus and would also coincide with the beginning of the Jewish Sabbath.

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5. During the reign of Pontius Pilate there were only two Fridays that fell on Nisan 14. These years were AD 30 and AD 33. Calculations have been employed to determine the day and date of Nisan 14 based on the earliest possible sighting of the new waxing crescent moon in Jerusalem between the years 26–36 that would determine the irst day of the month of Nisan in the Jewish Calendar. Between those years there were only two days that were Fridays: April 7, 30 AD, and Friday April 3, 33 AD.

6. The ministry of Jesus started after that of John the Baptist and Luke in his Gospel speci ies that John the Baptist started his ministry in the ifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius, and it can be shown that the earliest possible date for this was autumn AD 28. John the Evangelist records in his Gospel three different Passovers occurring during the ministry of Jesus, including the one at the cruci ixion. The earliest possible date for the irst Passover of Jesus’s ministry is spring AD 29, the second is spring AD 30, and the third is spring AD 31. Hence the cruci ixion could not have been in AD 30, leaving April 3, AD 33 as the only possible year for the cruci ixion [Humphreys, 2011].

We also have two key Gospel passages that give us a window into the timing of the events of the day of the cruci ixion of Jesus. “And it was the third hour (9 a.m.) when they cruci ied him.” [Mark 15:25]

“It was now about the sixth hour (Noon), and there was darkness over the whole land until the ninth hour (3 p.m.), while the sun’s light failed. And the curtain of the temple was torn in two. Then Jesus, calling out with a loud voice, said, “Father, into your hands I commit my spirit!” And having said this he breathed his last.” [Luke 23:44–46]

The irst-century Romano-Jewish historian Flavius Josephus tells us that in the irst century AD the Passover lambs were slain between 3 p.m. and 5 p.m. on Nisan 14 in the Jerusalem temple. We can thus deduce that Jesus died on the same day, Nisan 14, and the Gospels tell us that he died at the ninth hour [Matthew 27:45–50, Mark 15:33–37, Luke 23:44–46], that is at 3 p.m., precisely at the time of the irst Passover lambs were being sacri iced.

Important Background and Contextual Information

There was one more signi icant event that occurred on the same day. On the day of the cruci ixion and death of Jesus, something else came to light. A lunar eclipse of a full moon occurred on the evening of Nisan 14 AD 33 at about 6:20 p.m., at the proximate time according to the Jewish calendar of the transition from Nisan 14 to Nisan 15, the start of the Jewish Sabbath and the start of Passover. Eclipses of the moon and sun are very precise astronomical events, in which the moon, sun and earth must be in exact alignment. It is only recently that means have been available to calculate with precision when eclipses have occurred in the past. Two English scientists have used highly advanced astronomical techniques, considering factors such as the varying rate of rotation of the earth as they calculated back in time to pinpoint all lunar eclipses visible from Jerusalem at Passover time in the period AD 26 through AD 36. The results of their calculations, with a precision estimated to be accurate to within three minutes, showed there was one such visible eclipse, and only one—on the evening of April 3, AD 33, the day of Jesus cruci ixion and death [Humphreys, 2011, p. 71]. They note that an observer would have seen about 60 percent of the moon’s disc as being in eclipse at moonrise. They estimate that the eclipse would have ended about 7:10 p.m. Jesus was well known and His message that “the Kingdom of God is near”, coupled with the talk about His “divine” healing of the sick and the disabled, had propelled his popularity throughout Jerusalem, Judea-Samaria and neighboring provinces and countries. Throughout Israel, people would have been looking for both sunset and the rise of a full moon to commence their Passover meal. What they saw instead of a normal and expected Paschal moon rising was an atypical moon with a reddish glow. In agreement with the Bible (Joel 3:4 and Acts 2:20): “The sun will be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the day comes, that great and terrible day.” Nevertheless, the effect on the population of Jerusalem would have likely been striking, and we might even say, another sign given to something even more dramatic and startling. Indeed, something even far more startling and dramatic is reported to have taken place two days later—the empty tomb. This would

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have been April 5, 33 AD The Gospel of John this report of the events of that Sunday morning:

[20:1,9]

provides

“Early on the irst day of the week when it was still dark, Mary of Magdala came to the tomb. She saw that the stone had been moved away from the tomb and came running to Simon Peter and the other disciple, the one whom Jesus loved, and said to them, ‘They have taken the Lord out of the tomb, and we do not know where they have put him.

So Peter set out with the other disciple to go to the tomb. The two ran together, but the other disciple, running faster than Peter, reached the tomb irst; he bent down and saw the linen cloths lying there, but did not go in Simon Peter, following him, also came up, went into the tomb, saw the linen cloths lying there and also the cloth that had been on his head; this was not with the linen cloths but rolled up in a place by itself. Then the other disciple who had reached the tomb irst also went in; he saw and he believed. Till this moment they had still not understood the scripture, that he must rise from the dead.”

The authors of this book believe the evidence overwhelmingly supports the conclusion that one of the linen cloths that Peter and John saw in the Tomb of Jesus is the same linen cloth known today as the “Holy Shroud” or “Shroud of Turin.” The Shroud carries an image of a scourged and cruci ied body as well as blood stains. In Chapter 4 we will be covering in detail the topic of the Holy Shroud and its impossible body image. Our conclusion will be that the very irst occurrence of the Miracle of the Holy Fire in the tomb of Jesus was responsible for the image on the Shroud: a “Divine Photography” (see Chapter 5) was etched on the cloth at the moment of Jesus’s Resurrection on April 3, 33 AD.

2.3 The Early Fate of Christ’s Tomb

Dangerous tension existed between Jewish leaders and the early followers of Jesus in Jerusalem after the cruci ixion and death of Jesus. Open preaching about the Resurrection of Jesus by His early Christian followers could even produce a deadly confrontation. The Acts of the Apostles reports that Steven, a

The Early Fate of Christ’s Tomb

deacon of the early church in Jerusalem, was simply arrested, questioned, and then stoned to death because of his teachings [Acts: 6: 8–15; Act 7; Acts 8:1–3]. During this time of persecution of Christians, right up to the time of the First Jewish-Roman War (66–70), there are no historical records that point to any planned Christian gatherings at the site of the cruci ixion or burial tomb of Jesus. Such action would have been very provocative and dangerous, not only from potential Jewish reaction, but also from a negative reaction by the Roman rulers of Jerusalem. When open con lict came in the year 66 between Roman forces and the forces of a major Jewish rebellion, things simply got worse for any Christians remaining in Jerusalem. In April of the year 70 a large army of Roman forces were deployed against the Jewish rebellion in Jerusalem and in other areas of Judea. The Roman forces were led by the future Roman emperor Titus and the city of Jerusalem was sacked. The Jewish Second Temple was destroyed, as was most of the rest of the city [Peters 1985, pp. 116–129]. Any Christians who remained in the city of Jerusalem at that time would have been caught up in the battle and would have been forced to lee for their lives. Jerusalem was subsequently transformed into a pagan city in the year 135 when the Roman emperor Hadrian renamed Jerusalem to be the Roman pagan city of Aelia Capitolina. Hadrian made a point of inding and desecrating any sites in the city considered to have been reverenced by either Jews or Christians. Pagan structures were routinely erected over such sites, with the area of the burial tomb of Jesus being a particular target. The tomb of Jesus was illed in with dirt and then the whole area of the tomb and adjacent cruci ixion area of Golgotha, or Calvary, was covered with a massive deep layer of ill. A pagan temple, on Hadrian’s order, was then erected over the area of the tomb of Jesus. Hadrian reigned as the Roman emperor from 117–138. He saw that there would be no devotional gatherings at the tomb of Jesus by any Christians! His successors saw likewise, up until the time of the Roman Emperor Constantine.

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2.3.1 The Roman Emperor Constantine The Roman Emperor Constantine (the Great) who reigned from 306 to 337 AD was the irst Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, see Fig. 2.3. In the year 313 Constantine issued the Edict of Milan. This edict, or pronouncement, made the open practice of Christianity legal in the territories of the Roman Empire. During the reign of Constantine, the number of Christians grew dramatically, especially in areas controlled by the Roman Empire. In the year 300 it has been estimated that there were worldwide between 2.5 million and 3.0 million people who could be identi ied as Christian. By the year 400 that number had grown to between 25.0 million and 35.0 million [Historica].

Figure 2.3 Statue of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great

(Crea ve

Commons).

At the beginning of Constantine’s reign however, there were no universal rules or practices for celebrating the Resurrection

The Early Fate of Christ’s Tomb

of Jesus, that is, for the dating of Easter. There were in fact many different practices and dates for celebrating the date of Easter, varying mostly by the region in which early Christians lived and practiced their faith.

2.3.2 The First Council of Nicaea

In the year 325 Constantine convened the First Council of Nicaea, see Fig. 2.4. By the time of the council there had been a broad conversion to Christianity not only within the Roman Empire but also well beyond the borders of the empire. It is estimated that at the time of the Council there were over 1,800 bishops of the Christian church. Of those invited, only about 300 were able to attend the council and participate, but they represented a healthy percentage of the Christian population.

Figure 2.4 The First Council of Nicaea May 325 AD (Public domain).

One of the major issues addressed by the council, at the expressed will of the emperor Constantine, was to ix the problem of nonuniform practices among Christian communities for celebrating the date of Easter, the day that Christians celebrate the Resurrection of Jesus. Constantine himself, writing to the churches after the close of the Council stated: “At this meeting the question concerning the most holy day of Easter was discussed, and it was resolved by the united judgment of all present that this feast ought to be kept by all and in every place on one and the same day.” [Catholic Encyclopedia]

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The Council adopted the rule that Easter shall be universally celebrated on a Sunday, but the Council did not adopt a detailed speci ication for the computation for determining the date of Easter. With the help of the Church of Alexandria the rules for the calculation of Easter were eventually formalized. The stabilized rule can best be expressed as follows: “the Sunday of Easter shall be the Sunday following the irst full moon after the Vernal Equinox.” It must be carefully noted that this rule states nothing explicit about anything related to the Jewish calendar or to traditional Jewish practices. Nevertheless, the effect of the rule as stated, would result in the date of Easter falling after, not before, the date of the Jewish Passover, which is historically accurate. As for the rule’s implementation, it would effectively become universally adopted within the boundaries of the Roman Empire over a period of several years. Over the period of a couple of decades the rule became essentially universal in Christian practice, with only a few localities not following the Roman rule. This stability lasted for more than 1,200 years, up to the time of the Gregorian reform of the Julian calendar promulgated in the year 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII.

2.3.3 Initial Construction of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher

The next major project undertaken by the Christian Roman emperor Constantine was the excavation and reclamation of the burial tomb of Jesus and the construction of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher over the burial site in Jerusalem. The construction work began in the year ca. 326. Eusebius of Caesarea, an early Christian historian, who was a contemporary of the emperor Constantine, wrote that he had seen with his own eyes how Jesus’s tomb had been desecrated by the Roman emperor Hadrian in the year ca. 135. First, the tomb itself had been illed in with dirt and then a large raised and leveled site above the tomb was prepared for the construction of an elaborate pagan temple that would be dedicated to the Roman Goddess Venus. The tomb of Jesus

The Early Fate of Christ’s Tomb

would be buried under this pagan temple until the year that the emperor Constantine ordered that the temple to Venus be torn down piece by piece and replaced with a new church that would enclose the rock tomb of Christ within its splendorous walls. Eusebius provides the following details: “This sacred cave, then, certain impious and godless persons had thought to remove entirely from the eyes of men, supposing in their folly that thus they should be able effectually to obscure the truth. Accordingly, they brought a quantity of earth from a distance with much labor, and covered the entire spot; then, having raised this to a moderate height, they paved it with stone, concealing the holy cave beneath this massive mound. …

Then, as though their purpose had been effectually accomplished, they prepared on this foundation a truly dreadful Sepulcher of souls, by building a gloomy shrine of lifeless idols to the impure spirit whom they call Venus and offering detestable oblations therein on profane and accursed altars. … Nevertheless, these devices of impious and wicked men against the truth had prevailed for a long time, nor had any one of the governors, or military commanders, or even the emperors themselves ever yet appeared, with ability to abolish these daring impieties, save only that one who enjoyed the favor of the King of kings. And now, acting as he (Constantine) did under the guidance of the divine Spirit, he could not consent to see the sacred spot of which we have spoken, thus buried, through the device of the adversaries, under every kind of impurity, and abandoned to forgetfulness and neglect; nor would he yield to the malice of those who had contracted this guilt, but calling on the divine aid, gave orders that the place should be thoroughly puri ied, thinking that the parts which had been most polluted by the enemy ought to receive special tokens, through his means, of the greatness of the divine favor. As soon, then, as his commands were issued, these engines of deceit were cast down from their proud eminence to the very ground and the dwelling-places of error, with the statues and the evil spirits which they represented, were overthrown, and utterly destroyed. … How Constantine commanded the Materials of the Idol Temple, and the Soil itself, to be removed at a Distance: Nor did the emperor’s zeal stop here; but he gave further orders that the

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materials of what was thus destroyed, both stone and timber, should be removed and thrown as far from the spot as possible; and this command also was speedily executed. The emperor, however, was not satis ied with having proceeded thus far: once more, ired with holy ardor, he directed that the ground itself should be dug up to a considerable depth, and the soil which had been polluted by the foul impurities of demon worship transported to a far distant place.” [Fordham University].

2.3.4 First Reported Appearance (ca. 330) of the Holy Fire The report comes from another contemporary of Constantine, the Christian Bishop Gregory the Illuminator. Gregory was from Armenia and is recognized as bringing the Christian faith to Armenia as well as subsequently serving as the irst Patriarch of Armenia (ca. 302–318). Today he is honored universally by all the eastern orthodox churches as a saint. The Armenian Church also holds to the tradition that Gregory in his old age went to Jerusalem for a period and devoted himself to prayer at a location close to where the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher was under construction by Constantine. Haris Skarlakidis [Skarlakidis 2015, p. 11] reports that the Arab historian al-Masudi and three Armenian historians—Kirakos, Symeon Lehatsi and Grigor Daranagetsi—all date the start of the Miracle of the Holy Fire that came after the time of the Resurrection itself, to a speci ic act by Gregory at the time that the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher was being built. The Armenian historian Kirakos wrote this description of what happened: “They say that St. Gregory placed a lamp over the tomb of Christ and beseeched God with his prayers that on the feast of Easter the place be lit with an immaterial light, something which occurs down to our own day.” [Skarlakidis 2015, p. 38]

The prayer of Gregory was reported to have been answered and the lamp was lit by a mysterious unworldly light. This reported miraculous lighting of a lamp placed on the tomb of Jesus of Nazareth by St. Gregory the Illuminator occurred almost one thousand seven hundred (1,700) years ago.

Historical Events Related to the Holy Fire

The tradition held today by the Armenian Apostolic Church, and by all the Eastern Orthodox Churches, including the Egyptian Copts, is that the phenomenon of the Miracle of the Holy Fire, since the time of Gregory, has continued to occur on the eve of Easter every year in which intercessory prayer has been able to be offered at the Tomb of Jesus. The reported phenomenon of the Holy Fire is unique to the Tomb of Christ in Jerusalem. There is no record of the Paschal lame ever appearing spontaneously elsewhere. Yet, bewilderingly, Western Christians, Catholic and Protestant, in general know nothing about the phenomenon of the Holy Fire. This is where we will go next to explore key evidence for the Miracle of the Holy Fire occurring on a regular basis on Orthodox Holy Saturday. We will also explore why Western Christians are mostly ignorant of the continuing miraculous event!

2.4 Historical Events Related to the Holy Fire

In this section we will undertake a journey through time from the irst appearance of the Holy Fire at the tomb of Christ, reported above, while the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher was being constructed up until our present time today and examine key historical events along the way.

2.4.1 The Report of the Pilgrim Egeria in the Year 384

Just a little more than 50 years after we hear about the construction of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher and the visit of Gregory the Illuminator to the tomb of Jesus, we hear about the pilgrimage of a remarkable woman by the name of Egeria. We hear about her experiences in a long letter she wrote, to a large group of women from Western Europe, believed to be a religious order of nuns who lived in Galicia (Northern Spain) or Aquitaine (Western France). Most scholars believe Egeria herself was a member of this same order of religious nuns. Of most interest in her long discourse related to her travels in the Holy Land and her extended threeyear stay in Jerusalem is an experience that took place during Holy Week in the year 384 [Auxentios 1999, p. 11].

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In that year she attended a service in the recently completed Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher, more speci ically, in the domed structure known as the Anastasis that surrounds the Tomb of Jesus located in the structure we know as the Edicule. Here are Egeria’s words: “At the tenth hour which is here called Lincinicon, or as we say, vespers, a great multitude assembled at the Anastasis. All the torches and candles are lighted, and this makes a tremendous light. The light, however, is not brought in from outside, but is taken from inside the grotto (Edicule) ...” [Auxentios 1999, p. 13].

Egeria does not mention the miraculous nature of the ignition of the Holy Fire that is passed to the pilgrim crowd but everything else is a near perfect three-sentence high level description of the format of the service held today.

2.4.2 The Appearance of the Holy Fire after the Fall of Jerusalem in the Year 617

The Sasanian Empire, also known historically as the Neo-Persian Empire, made war with the Byzantine Empire between 602 and 628. It was during this war, in the year ca. 614, that the Persians assaulted and captured the city of Jerusalem. It was an easy victory for the Persians, but a victory that resulted in thousands of Christians losing their lives. The Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher suffered great damage including major ire damage. Nevertheless, the Miracle of the Holy Fire is said to have persisted. Skarlakidis reports that the surviving Christians recorded that Holy Fire spontaneously appeared on “the irst Holy Saturday after the partial reconstruction of the Edicule of Jesus’s tomb ... the Holy Fire seemed to be emerging from the rubble and ashes of the burnt church.” [Skarkakidis 2015, p. 41]. Jerusalem itself would remain under the control of Sasanian forces for 15 years until it was recaptured in the year 629 by the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius. By the end of the year 630 Heraclius had completed overseeing the rebuilding of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. Nevertheless, Byzantine dominion over Jerusalem would not last for long.

Historical Events Related to the Holy Fire

Byzantine Jerusalem changed hands again in 638 AD when the famous Muslim leader Umar ibn al-Khattab recaptured the city from the Byzantines. A treaty was signed by Umar ibn al-Khattab allowing Christians to practice their faith and protection for Christian holy places, including the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. From this point forward, except for approximately two hundred years of Crusader rule, the city of Jerusalem would remain under Islamic control from the year 638 until 1917 when, because of the outcome of the irst World War, it was removed from the control of the Ottoman Empire and placed under the control of the British Mandate.

2.4.3 No Living Person in the Edicule from Mid-Ninth Century to the Mid-Fifteenth Century

We have read in Section 2.1 the details about how the service of the Holy Fire is conducted every year in our modern time on Orthodox Holy Saturday. But a thousand years ago the service was different and conducted under very different and even stricter Muslim control. For most of the period from the midninth century to the mid- ifteenth century, except for the time that European forces of the First Crusade controlled Jerusalem, instead of being allowed to enter the Edicule to offer prayer for the coming of God’s Holy Fire, the Patriarch, or other cleric in charge of the service, was required to remain outside of the Edicule to offer his prayer, see Fig. 2.5 [Skarkakidis 2015, pp. 26, 224]. The irst written source that we possess on this practice comes to us from Arethas of Caesarea (b. ca. 860 d. 939). He was the Archbishop of Caesarea Mazaca, which is today known as the city of Kayser, Turkey. Arethas records that the Edicule’s entrance was sealed with beeswax by Muslim guards and that no one, including the Patriarch who was overseeing the Holy Fire service, was allowed to enter the Edicule until after the Holy Fire appeared in the Edicule. When the Holy Fire did appear, the door of the Edicule was opened by a Muslim guard and the Patriarch was allowed to enter and light his candles and distribute the Holy Fire to other clergy and then to the people attending the service in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher.

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Figure 2.5 During the Middle Ages the Patriarch was required by Muslim authorities to remain outside the Edicule, in the area portrayed in the image above, while he offered his prayers for the descent of the Holy Fire (Public domain).

Con irming testimony is presented by Bishop Auxentios. The testimony is given in a document by an anonymous Muslim source, and reads as follows: “When the Pascha begins among the Christians, on the day of Great Saturday, the people come out from the place of the tomb to the place of the stone, around which is a gallery. From there they look on the place of the tomb, and all pray and bow down before the Most High God, from the time of the morning prayers until the setting of the sun. The Emir and Imam of the Mosque are present. A guard locks the door to the tomb and sits before it. They all remain thus, until they see a light, like a white ire, coming forth from within the tomb. The guard then opens the door to the tomb and enters within In his hands is a candle, which he lights from the ire and then carries outside. The candle, however, though it is lit, does not burn. He gives it to the Imam, who takes the candle and lights the lamps of the mosque. When this candle is passed on to a third person (indicating the passage of some period of time), it begins to burn and changes into ire.” [Auxentios 1999, p. 28].

Historical Events Related to the Holy Fire

2.4.4 The Letter of the Cleric Niketas in the Year 947 In the year 947, the Greek cleric Niketas arrived in the Muslim controlled city of Jerusalem as the representative of the Byzantine Emperor in Constantinople, Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. His assigned task was to deliver to the Patriarch Christodoulos a certain donation from the emperor. Niketas also had a personal goal—to be present at the ceremony of the Holy Fire at the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. Niketas was successful in his attempt to attend the ceremony of the Holy Fire and right after the ceremony he composed a letter to the emperor describing his experience. The letter is today preserved in a Greek manuscript located in the library of the Greek Patriarch of Jerusalem. According to the letter, on the morning of Holy Saturday, 7 April 947, a Muslim emir from Baghdad arrived in the Muslim controlled city of Jerusalem with the message that the ceremony of the Holy Fire was to be no longer allowed at the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. The reason? Because of the great negative impact, it was having on the Muslim population. The letter of Niketas records a statement from the emir to the effect that all of Syria had been illed with Christian converts. Niketas was in the presence of the Patriarch when the message from the emir was delivered. Here is what the letter records, starting with Niketas quoting the words of the emir: “You are not permitted, archbishop, to perform the celebration now; that is why I am here. Because by performing the legendary miracle with a magic ploy you have illed all of Syria with the religion of Christians, and you have nearly transformed it into a Romania (a Christian land), by overturning our customs.” But the archbishop, beloved of God, responded in a calm voice: “If you had only experienced this occurrence once or twice and had not been assured of it so many uncountable times by the events themselves, we would more easily suffer your words that the miracle supposedly takes place by way of some deceitful magic trick. Yet even during the time of the previous archbishop, you ordered a piece of iron instead of a wick to be placed in the vigil lamp adjacent to the Holy Sepulcher, and then we all saw how,

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by divine consent, it suddenly lit up like a candle. How long do you intend to tyrannize us on account of this supernatural marvel?” [Skarkakidis 2015, p. 66].

At the end of the day, it was money that would make the difference. The Christian clerks who worked in the of ice of the local emir of the city informed the emir from Baghdad that prohibiting the ceremony would make it impossible to collect the taxes that the Christians, particularly pilgrims, who came to the city speci ically to attend the Holy Saturday service, had to pay. Finally, after extended negotiations, the Patriarch and the emir agreed that the rite would be permitted in exchange for a payment of 7,000 gold coins. In his letter Niketas con irms that the ceremony of the Holy Fire that day was allowed to proceed. He reports in his letter to the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII the following. “The wise archbishop ... together with the sacrilegious Muslims sealed the Holy Sepulcher, and at once he lifted his arms to the East, together with the Christians, and at length implored the God of all. But about the sixth hour of the day, when he lifted his eyes to the sacred tomb of our Savior, he saw the appearance of the divine light; for an angel allowed him to enter the tomb. And while he was getting ready to impart that light to numerous lamps in the great church, sacred to God, as was the custom, and while he had not yet stood up from the tomb, he suddenly saw the entire church of God looded with an intangible divine light ... thus all were illed with astonishment on account of this unexpected appearance of light; and truly (he saw) those unbelievers, the Muslims full of wonderment and shame. Because it is said that from the Ascension of Christ until that day, the lighting of the Holy Fire took place every year in one of the lamps of the Holy Sepulcher, whereas this time the divine light looded the entire church.” [Skarkakidis 2015, p. 608].

There is one particularly important piece of subsidiary information in this letter that must be pointed out. This is to note carefully that the Patriarch’s words convey the fact that he was outside of the Edicule until after the Holy Fire appeared in the Edicule. This would of course prevent any “trickery” and is

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consistent with the Muslim rulers of Jerusalem being responsible for implementing such a rule. Other evidence can be found that supports this same interpretation. Here is another example from an anonymous Muslim source dated to the late nineth century. “The Emir and Imam of the Mosque are present. A guard locks the door to the tomb and sits before it. They all remain thus, until they see a light, similar to a white fire, coming forth from within the tomb. The guard then opens the door to the tomb and enters within In his hands is a candle, which he lights from the fire and then carries outside.” [Auxentios 1999, p. 27].

2.4.5 The Letter of the Muslim Doctor Al-Masihi in the Year ca. 990 Al-Masihi is considered one of the most prominent doctors of the tenth century. He wrote many medical research papers that have survived to our current day, and he is also known as a teacher of the famous doctor and philosopher Avicenna [Skarkakidis 2015, p. 72]. Al-Masihi is an example of the power of the Miracle of the Holy Fire to inspire conversions to the Christian faith, particularly for those who have attended the Holy Saturday service in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in person and witnessed the phenomenon, particularly of lightning like discharges, flashes of light and the spontaneous ignition of unlit candles firsthand. Here is such an eyewitness account attributed to Al-Masihi: “The story of this fire is that on the night in which God lifted Jesus up to heaven, the night of the 15th of Nisan, on that night every year fire comes down from the ether so that men see it and it lights the lamps of the Church of the Resurrection though there is no window or opening in the roof of this building. But the fire strikes the roof without igniting the timbers and then it lights the lamp and the torches.” [Skarkakidis 2015, p. 72].

Note that Al-Masihi infers that, at the moment of Jesus’s Resurrection, the Holy Fire must have made its first appearance in the tomb of Christ.

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2.4.6 The Destruction of the Basilica by the Caliph Al-Hakim in the Year 1009 Through most of the eleventh century Jerusalem and most of Palestine were in the possession of the Muslim Fatimid Dynasty whose capital city was Cairo, Egypt. In the year 1009 the Caliph of the Fatimid Dynasty was the 24-year-old Al-Hakim (b. 985–d. 1021). On 18 October of that year, 1009, he suddenly ordered the destruction of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. The Basilica, including the Edicule, was demolished “stone by stone.” In the mid-twelfth century, the Syrian historian ibn al-Qalanisi wrote the most detailed surviving account of the destruction. He wrote that Al-Hakim’s motivation for the destruction of the Holy Sepulcher was due to reports he received related to the Christian ceremony of the Holy Fire on Holy Saturday [Peters 1985, p. 259]. Auxentios [1999, p. 36] writes that “Al-Hakim’s destruction of the Church of the Resurrection was undeniably tied to the rite of the Holy Fire and attests to the fact that in his time it had become well-known as a Christian miracle.” Skarlakadis [2015, p. 79] states that the “Syriac historian Ibn al-Qalanisi, in his work History of Damascus, explains the reason that led al-Hakim to the destruction of the church in Jerusalem. He mentions that every year, during the period of Easter, thousands of Christians of Egypt formed large caravans with camels and traveled from Cairo to Jerusalem to attend the Holy Fire ceremony. The miracle’s fame had spread to the entire Muslim world and acted as a magnet that attracted thousands of Christians, but many Muslims as well.” Al-Hakim met his death at the young age of 35. He had many enemies among his subjects by whom he was known as the “mad Caliph” or the “Nero of Islam.” It is reported that he simply disappeared one day without a trace in the year 1021. Reconstruction of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher began ca. 1027–1028 and the church was essentially rebuilt by 1048 at the expense of the Byzantine emperor Constantine IX Monomachus. Skarlakidis includes in his book on the Holy Fire written testimony

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from two sources that local Christians and pilgrims continued to conduct the Holy Saturday service at the site of Jesus’s tomb while the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher was being rebuilt and that the Holy Fire continued to appear on Holy Saturday [Skarkakidis 2015, pp. 85–90].

2.4.7 The Break of Unity between the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches in the Year 1054

The split of the main body of Christianity into two divisions, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox came in the year 1054. The split is known as the “Great Schism”, or “Schism of 1054.” The split came about due to a complex mix of religious disagreements and political con licts. The tragedy of the Schism of 1054 is seen by some as even having its roots in the year 324 when Constantine moved the capital of the empire away from Rome to the eastern Mediterranean city then known as Byzantium and subsequently renamed as Constantinople (The modern Istanbul, Turkey). The eastern part of the Roman Empire was to be known as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of the western part of the Empire in 476. The Catholic Pope remained in Rome, the Patriarch of the eastern part of the Catholic Church was in Constantinople. There were naturally different Christian customs in the eastern and western parts of the Church, but nothing that should have risen to the level of Schism between the two branches. Politics and ego ended up playing the biggest role. In 1054 the Catholic Pope was Leo IX, situated in Rome, while Michael I Cerularius was the Greek Orthodox Patriarch located in Constantinople and they engaged in debate on a number of theological issues, not in person, but through letters. The Pope wrote in Latin, the Patriarch in Greek. Supposedly in one letter Michael addressed the Pope as “brother” rather than as “Father.” Unfortunately, Pope Leo IX died on 19 April 1054. His underlings, without authority, escalated the dispute with Michael and even issued a charter of excommunication against him personally. Michael reacted by excommunicating two of the Popes representatives in Constantinople.

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The unfortunate schism resulted and has remained to this day. If Pope Leo IX had not died in 1054 when he did, perhaps the outcome would have been very different. Nevertheless, it remained until 1965 for there to be a signi icant healing moment, but not a reuni ication. In 1965 Pope Paul VI and the Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras, while meeting in Jerusalem, rescinded the excommunications of 1054. The separation remains but today there is a path to healing, mutual support, and respect. Nevertheless, even though the churches were in schism, there remained a signi icant number of western pilgrims who continued to visit Jerusalem each year for the ceremony of the Holy Fire. Also, a general knowledge about the Miracle of the Holy ire remained after 1054 widespread among Catholics. The real separation, East, and West, with respect to the Miracle of the Holy Fire would not come until almost two hundred years later, in the year 1238. Up until that time the Roman Catholic Church continued to accept the authenticity of the phenomena of the Miracle of the Holy Fire and Catholic clergy solemnly participated in the ceremony of the Holy Fire in Jerusalem. After brie ly looking at two additional key historical events, we will discuss what happened in the year 1238 that has resulted in most Catholics and Protestant Christians in the west today never even hearing about the Miracle of the Holy Fire.

2.4.8 The First Crusade and the Holy Fire in the Years 1095–1101

The First Crusade (1095–1102) was a military campaign undertaken by Catholics from western Europe to recapture control of Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslim control. Pope Urban II, see Fig. 2.6, in late 1094 or early 1095 had received ambassadors from the Orthodox Christian Byzantine emperor, Alexos I Komnenos, asking for assistance from the Catholic west against the Muslim Seljuq Turks, who had seized

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the Holy Land as well as nearly all of Asia Minor from the Byzantine Empire.

Figure 2.6 Pope Urban II (Public domain).

This appeal from the Byzantine emperor came 40 years after the Great Schism between Eastern and Western Christians. Pope Urban saw the launching of a military crusade as a great opportunity not only to recapture Jerusalem and the Holy Land, but also as an opportunity to reunify the Christian Church. Pope Urban convened the Council of Clermont, see Fig. 2.7, in November 1095 to urge the launching of a crusade. There are ive surviving accounts of the speech by Pope Urban to the Council. The account written by the cleric Baldric of Dol uniquely contains a powerful reference to the Miracle of the Holy Fire.

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Figure 2.7 First Council of Clermont 17 to 27 November 1095 (Public domain).

Given below are key passages in the Pope’s appeal as recorded by Baldric. “…We have heard, most beloved brethren, and you have heard what we cannot recount without deep sorrow how, with great hurt and dire sufferings our Christian brothers, members in Christ, are scourged, oppressed, and injured in Jerusalem, in Antioch, and the other cities of the East ... Of the Lord’s Sepulcher we have refrained from speaking, since some of you with your own eyes have seen to what abominations it has been given over ... And yet in that place – I say only what you already know – rested the Lord; there he died for us; there he was buried. How precious would be the longed for, incomparable place of the Lord’s burial, even if God failed there to perform the yearly miracle! For in the days of His Passion all the lights in the Sepulcher and round about in the church, which have been extinguished, are relighted by divine command. Whose heart is so stony, brethren, that it is not touched by so great a miracle? Believe me, that man is bestial and senseless whose heart such divinely manifest grace does not move to faith! “[Fordham University 1].

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Figure 2.8 Map of First Crusade (Public domain).

Pope Urban II was successful in his promotion of the First Crusade, see Fig. 2.8. An estimated 60,000 knights and soldiers and an estimated 30,000 non-combatants responded to the call and in 1096 the crusaders set off on their quest to recapture Jerusalem. On the long march to Jerusalem the crusaders irst fought in Asia Minor and the Middle East. In the process the great cities of Nicaea and Antioch were recaptured. When the crusaders inally reached the walls of Jerusalem in June 1099 it is estimated that their ranks had diminished to approximately 12,500 infantry and 1,300 horse mounted knights. The inal assault on Jerusalem took place on 13 July 1099. It was a bloody battle. After breeching the walls and entering the

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city there was pandemonium and merciless deadly force used against Muslim defenders and even many Jewish residents of the city. A contemporary Muslim source (Ibn al-Arabi) estimated that more than 3,000 of the city’s probable population of 30,000, perished [World History Encyclopedia]. The relationship between the Orthodox clergy of Jerusalem and the Latin clergy, that had arrived in the city with the Crusader forces, was fraught with dif iculty from the start. Pope Urban II who had sincerely prayed that the Crusade might be an important instrument in helping to end the schism between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church died on July 29, 1099, just two weeks after the fall of Jerusalem to the Crusaders. Ironically, just a couple of days after Urban’s death, the leadership of the Crusade, on August 1, 1099, appointed Arnulf of Chocques to be the irst Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem replacing the Greek Patriarch Symeon who was forced to leave his post of Patriarch and was subsequently exiled from the city of Jerusalem. Contrary to Pope Urban’s hope that the crusade would help heal the Great Schism, in many ways it just added fresh fuel to the separation. Providentially, Urban II did not live to learn that truth. On Christmas day 1099 Arnulf was removed as the Latin Patriarch and succeeded by the Archbishop of Pisa, Daimbert. On the following Holy Saturday, April 21, 1100, Daimbert was thus the irst Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem to of iciate at the Holy Saturday ceremony. That year the Holy Fire did not appear at its normal hour. Haris Skarlakidis reports the following: “The Latin priests realized that their actions were not sanctioned by God and ordered the Crusaders to confess their sins, and above all the massacres they had committed during the capture of Jerusalem. After this long procedure, as we are informed by the French historian Guibert, and when night had nearly fallen, the Holy Fire appeared.” [Skarlakidis 2015, p. 104].

The next year on Holy Saturday, in the year 1101, the results were even more startling. The ceremony was again led by the Latin Patriarch Daimbert. Skarlakadis provides the testimony of nine (9) contemporary authors who documented what

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happened that day. One of these narratives, known as “Codex L,” written by a crusader, provides a very concise description of the remarkable occurrences that day. “On Holy Saturday, each year, when the Holy Light descends mysteriously upon the Sepulcher of our Lord, and manifests the Divine power by kindling the lamps that hang there, it is customary for those in the church to pass the day in watching, and in humble prayer to God, that he in his mercy might send down the light. The whole church is then illed with an innumerable crowd waiting for the divine act of grace ... Then, the ninth hour of the day being well passed, the patriarch, having for the third time called out “Kyrie Eleison” in a solemn tone, took the keys of the Holy Sepulcher, and, opening the door, went in; inding, however, that the light for which he had waited had not appeared, he prostrated himself in tears before the Holy Sepulcher, and besought the Almighty to hear the prayers of his people and send them the Holy Light as on previous occasions. … When, however, his fervent prayer and supplications were prolonged, and when with downcast face he at last came out of the Sepulcher without having obtained the grace he sought, a painful feeling of despair took possession of everyone present.” [Skarlakidis 2015, p. 106].

After his failure to invoke the descent of the Holy Fire on Holy Saturday, the Latin Patriarch and his retinue left the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher and went to pray at another church located on the Temple Mount. The narrative then continues. “Whilst the Latins thus prayed in the “Temple of the Lord,” the Greeks and Syrians who remained in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher went in procession round the tomb, offering up prayers to God, and in their despair cutting their faces, and tearing out their hair with loud lamentations. As the Latins were returning the patriarch was informed that the long-expected light had appeared in one of the lamps in the Holy Sepulcher and that those nearest could see the ruddy color; on hearing this he at once quickened his steps, and opening the door of the Sepulcher with the key that he held in his hand, he at once saw the long-desired light shining in the lamp [Skarlakidis 2015, p. 108].

After the events of 1101 that resulted with the Holy Fire not appearing on Holy Saturday, Baldwin the Crusader King,

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made two important decisions. First, he removed Daimbert from the patriarchal seat of Jerusalem. Then in a history changing decision he reinstated the head of the Greek Church in Jerusalem to head the Holy Saturday ceremony of the Miracle of the Holy Fire at the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. Steven Runciman [1952, p. 69] makes an important point regarding the timely action of Baldwin: “Baldwin took heed of the lesson. He insisted that the wrongs of the natives should be righted. The keys of the Sepulcher itself were restored to the Greeks. Thenceforward he seems to have enjoyed the support of all the Christians of Palestine. The higher clergy were all Franks, though there were Greek canons at the Holy Sepulcher.”

2.4.9 The Famous Muslim Leader Saladin before the Holy Fire in the Year 1192 Saladin (Salah al-Din), see Fig. 2.9, is perhaps the best-known Muslim military leader in history. At one time his span of rule included Egypt, Syria, upper Mesopotamia, western Arabia, Yemen as well as parts of western North Africa. For Christians he is remembered mostly for his conquest of Jerusalem on October 2, 1187, and his generous treatment of his vanquished Christian foes. Saladin’s conquest of the city of Jerusalem ended nearly nine decades of European Crusader rule of the Holy city after the First Crusade. The ight for Jerusalem was a bloody affair, but after a prolonged siege an agreement was reached to turn over the city to Saladin under the agreement that a ransom be paid for every resident of the city. Thousands of residents had no means to pay the ransom, but nevertheless Saladin did those citizens no harm. Also, after he and his forces took possession of the city, Saladin took the unexpected step of returning the custody of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher to the Greek Orthodox Patriarch and issued the following quite unexpected decree. “…I hereby order the patriarch of the Romaioi (Greeks), who is here in Jerusalem, to oversee all the races of Nazarenes (Christians),

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that is, all those who come here, Armenians, Copts, Syrians, Nestorians and Franks and all other nations who are Nazarenes. He shall oversee the Qumamah [Jerusalem Quarterly, 2012] (Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher) and the so-called tomb of Christ, he shall enter and receive the light from there and transfer it to all Nazarenes. And the Church shall hereafter remain untouched and none of the Muslims shall dare convert it to a mosque, whereas the Nazarenes shall freely enter it. That is what I command, and no Muslim shall dare to violate my command.”

Figure 2.9 The famous Muslim Leader Saladin

(Courtesy Dosseman; https://commons.

wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Damascus_statue_for_Saladin_0368.jpg).

The positive reputation of Saladin based on his noble actions continues into our current day. His Crusader foes, even in war, knew him to be a virtuous leader and even in their own terms a “Chivalrous Knight.” He was also a devoted Muslim who was a believer in God. Notice in his decree, given above, that he mentions the “Light” that appears in Jesus’s tomb. In the chronicle from the twelfth century known as the Itinararium regi, that is, The Itinerary of Richard, there is a recounting of Saladin’s visit to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher on Holy Saturday, 1192. It reads as follows:

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“On Easter Eve (4 April 1192), Saladin, surrounded by his retinue, went to the venerable Lord’s Sepulcher in Jerusalem. He went in order to discover the truth about the heavenly ire which customarily comes down by divine power on that day each year and lights a lamp. For some time Saladin and the other Turks attentively watched the devotion of many Christian captives in shackles, as they beseeched God’s mercy with tears. Suddenly, before their very eyes, the divine ire came and lit the lamp! At once it began to burn brightly. When they saw this the people were immensely moved. The Christians rejoiced and praised the greatness of God in loud voices, while the Saracens were stunned by such an obvious miracle, denying what they had seen and claiming that the ire was a crafty illusion contrived to fool them. Wishing to be certain on the matter, Saladin ordered the lamp which had been divinely lit to be put out. When it was put out, it was relit at once by divine action. The in idel ordered it to be put out a second time: again, a second time it was relit; a third time put out, a third time relighted. O great power of God. What can resist the invincible? No counsel avails against the Lord; no one can resist His Will. The Sultan was astonished and painfully moved by the sight of this miracle and the faith and devotion of the Christians. Inspired by a prophetic spirit, he declared irmly: “ Without doubt, either I will soon leave this life, or I will lose possession of this city.”” [Skarlakidis, p. 155].

Saladin was prescient. He died just a year later, on 4 March 1193 in Damascus of yellow fever. It is said that at the time of Saladin’s death his total private possessions consisted of 1 piece of gold and 40 pieces of silver. He had given his great wealth to his poor subjects. Saladin was indeed a “Chivalrous Knight.”

2.4.10 The Catholic Pope Gregory IX Declares False the Miracle of the Holy Fire in the Year 1238

Pope Gregory IX, see Fig. 2.10, took a totally different track regarding the Miracle of the Holy Fire than did the two remarkable leaders, Pope Urban II and the Muslim leader Saladin, who proceeded him. Pope Urban II had used the tradition of the appearance of the Miracle of the Holy Fire to help promote the First Crusade in the hope of reuniting Western and Eastern Christians.

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Figure 2.10 Pope Gregory IX (Public domain).

Saladin took the initiative to personally attend the ceremony of the Holy Fire to inform his judgement regarding the validity of the Miracle before he took any negative action regarding the tradition. Pope Gregory IX did neither. In fact, he did just the opposite. He stuck a inger in the eye of Orthodox Christians, unlike Urban II, and made a judgement about the reality of the appearance of Gods’ Holy Light in the tomb of Jesus on Holy Saturday without any serious investigation, unlike Saladin In a letter reported to have been signed by him, Pope Gregory IX drew a stark line between Eastern Orthodox believers and Western Catholic believers. Here are his reported words:

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“We understand that the canons of the Sepulcher in Jerusalem say that ire from heaven descends into the Sepulcher on Easter eve ... Indeed, because the Lord, as we told them does not need our lies, we order anyone who has presumed to believe this, by our authority, never to attend there again” [Skarlakidis 2015, p. 94].

After the action taken by Pope Gregory IX, memory of the miraculous phenomenon of the Holy Fire began to age out in the Western Church. Today the vast majority of Western Christians, both Catholic and Protestant, have never even heard of the Miracle of the Holy Fire! This fact will be the subject of Section 2.4.14.

2.4.11 Exterior Column of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher Fractured by the Holy Fire in the Year 1579

Near the end of the sixteenth century, in the year 1579 there was another disruption in the Orthodox control of the ceremony of the Holy Fire. This disruption was caused by the Armenians and again there was a dramatic result. The Miracle occurred at the time of the Patriarch of Jerusalem Sofronio, during the Holy Saturday of Easter, when the Holy Fire came out of the crack of a stone column which split vertically. The cause of this miracle was due to the Armenians who were on bad terms with the Orthodox. They promised the governor of Jerusalem a considerable sum of money for the Patriarch Sofronio to close to the Orthodox the Basilica of the Resurrection for the whole of Holy Saturday. The governor succumbed to the offer and so only the Armenians were allowed to enter the Sepulcher who hoped to receive the Holy Fire. The Orthodox with the Patriarch instead were closed outside in the courtyard of the Basilica and prayed to God with great pain for the impossibility to participate directly to the Miracle. However, the Armenians inside the Holy Sepulcher could not see the Miracle because the Holy Fire developed from the aforementioned column which split showing an evident vertical crack.

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Figure 2.11 Split Column at entrance to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher (Courtesy Haris Skarlakidis, Elea Publishing).

Here is a description of the event by Archimandrite Kallistos. [Auxentios 1999, p. 53]: “Seeing this the Patriarch quickly went up and with reverence lit the candles which were in his hand and distributed the ire to the Orthodox for their sancti ication. When they saw the miracle the Mohammedan gate-keepers immediately opened the gates of the church. The Patriarch and the vast multitude with him entered the church singing: “What God is as great as our God …” and the Liturgy was celebrated. As a consequence of this miracle, one of these gate-keepers of the church loudly confessed Christ to be the Son of God and believed in Him. But his (former) co-believers, when they heard this, waxed wroth and burned him in the sacred courtyard; in this manner he received a martyr’s death.” (This man is recognized by the Orthodox Church as a Saint, Saint Tounom the Emir.)

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The column that was involved in this event still stands today at the entrance to the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. The very unusual damage to this column, see Fig. 2.11, will be discussed further in Section 3.2.2 that explores the science of the phenomena of the Holy Fire.

2.4.12 The Gregorian Reform of 1582 and the Lack of Fire Appearance in 1970

As mentioned in Section 2.2.3, the Julian calendar misses the exact duration of a solar year, being off by approximately 11 minutes a year. This means that the Julian calendar continuously drifts out of synch with the actual solar calendar at a rate of roughly 1 day every 128 years. This problem would not be decisively addressed until the year 1582. By this time the Julian calendar had drifted out of synchronization with the actual solar year with the result that March 21, the traditional date for the spring equinox in the northern hemisphere, had migrated toward the summer. Among other problems this was judged to affect the integrity of the calculations used for determining the date of Easter, the date celebrating the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. The reform to the Julian calendar came in a papal bull issued by the Catholic Pope, Gregory XIII known as “Inter gravissimas” (English: “In the gravest concern ...” or “Among the most serious ...”). The bull was issued on 24 February 1582, and it decreed that ten days would be removed from the calendar following the date of 4 October 1582, with the next day skipping ahead to 15 October 1582. The continuity of the days of the week was preserved. That is, 4 October 1582 was a Thursday and 15 October was declared to be Friday. No changes were made to historical Julian dates. The new reformed calendar came to be known as the Gregorian calendar and it is today the most widely used civil calendar throughout the world. Instead of being out of synch by 1 day every 128 years, it is out of synch by approximately 1 day every 7,700 years. Even “leap second” adjustments are now used, in addition to leap days to keep the Gregorian calendar in synch within seconds of the exact solar (Tropical) year. When

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necessary, a “leap second” is now added either on June 30 or on December 31. This process is today managed by an international civil authority known as the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service. By almost any standard the institution of the Gregorian calendar was a needed and positive development. There is one very important relationship, however, that was broken by the arrival of the Gregorian calendar. This broken relationship was the relationship between the date of Easter and the beginning of the Jewish Passover. Although the First Council of Nicaea did not reference this relationship directly, the relationship was implicit in the Julian calendar. That is, the rule for the calculation of the date of Easter that emerged after the First Council of Nicaea was that Easter would be the irst Sunday after the irst full moon after the ecclesiastical Vernal equinox, being interpreted as March 21. The combination of this rule, and the fact that March 21 in the Julian calendar kept edging toward summer away from the true equinox, meant that Easter would consistently come after the start of the Jewish Passover, in conformity with the actual historical relationship between these two events. For the Catholic and Protestant Churches that adopted the Gregorian calendar, that relationship became broken with the result that in some years Easter comes before rather than after the start of the Jewish Passover. In the twentieth century, a new effort was made to work to unify the date of Easter for all Christians. Since 1965, the World Council of Churches has strongly promoted the adoption of a universal date for the celebration of Easter for all Christian Churches worldwide. Since that time, it has been the World Council of Churches’ position that: “By celebrating this feast of feasts (Easter) on different days, the churches give a divided witness to this fundamental aspect of the apostolic faith, compromising their credibility and effectiveness in bringing the Gospel to the world. This is a matter of concern for all Christians.” [World Council of Churches, 1997]. In response to this appeal for a uni ied Christian dating of Easter the Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, Benedict I, agreed to adopt the Gregorian calendar for the dating of Easter

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starting in 1971. The startling result was that the Holy Fire did not appear in 1971 in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem! The Patriarch, Benedict I, was shocked, and he immediately restored the dating of Easter for future years to be determined by the traditional method used by the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. That is, to use the Julian calendar [Auxentios 1999, pp. 94–95]. The issue is clear. The Miracle of the Holy Fire at the tomb of Jesus appears in conformance with the Orthodox tradition that honors the relationship between the timing of the beginning of Jewish Passover and the Resurrection of Jesus. The explanation seems to be that it is God’s will that His beloved chosen people, the Jewish people, be kept in sight when celebrating Easter, and that the phenomenon of the Holy Fire is a sign also for them. It must be recalled that it was indeed directly to Jewish scribes and Pharisees that the “Sign” of Jonah was promised. This is something to be kept in mind for all those working to unify the date of Easter, what is known as the Easter Controversy, especially by the World Council of Churches. It appears that the following sequence of events has divine implications. That is, Passover must be placed in its proper and true chronological position in progress to the Resurrection of Christ. First, the trial of Christ; second the cruci ixion of Christ; third, the death of Christ; fourth, the beginning of the Jewish Passover; ifth, the Resurrection of Christ. The current Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, Theophilos III, was interviewed by the Vatican newspaper L’Osservatore Romano [2021]. He was asked what his thinking was regarding the promotion of a uni ied date of Easter for all Christians. He af irmed that a universal date for the celebration of Easter is important. He recalled, however, that it was the Council of Nicaea in 325 that ixed the calculation of the date of Easter that the Orthodox Churches follow until today. Of course, he welcomed a common date for Easter, but he said that we have to consider the fact that the Bible is made up of both the Mosaic Law and the New Covenant and we cannot change the course of sacred history. Consequently, the Christian Easter must fall after the Jewish Passover.

Historical Events Related to the Holy Fire

2.4.13 Ceremony of the Holy Fire from 1582 up to our Current Time Witness testimony appears to con irm that from 1582 up until the year 1626 the Patriarch, or substitute cleric conducting the ceremony of the Holy Fire, was required to remain outside of an empty Edicule. The Edicule was locked, sealed, and guarded by Muslim guards until after the Holy Fire made its appearance. Only then was the Patriarch, or other of iciating cleric, allowed to enter the Edicule to retrieve the Holy Fire on his candles. Since 1626, up until our current time, the ceremony of the Holy Fire has been conducted essentially in the way described in Section 2.1. That is, with the Patriarch being inside the Edicule both to recite the prayer for the invocation of the Holy Fire as well as to receive the Holy Fire.

2.4.14 Criticism and Oppositions to the Miracle of the Holy Fire

When it comes to matters concerning religiously important relics and miraculous facts, there are sadly many detractors and even false witnesses trying to convince the inexperienced reader of their falsity. In our case, we saw in Section 2.4.6 that Caliph Al-Hakim in 1009 destroyed the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem “stone by stone” to erase any possible reference to the Holy Fire. In Section 2.4.9 we have seen that the famous Muslim leader Saladin personally attended the Holy Fire ceremony in 1192 to verify the credibility of the miracle, already much discussed at the time; since then he was convinced of the miracle and of icially allowed its celebration. In Section 2.4.10 we saw that Pope Gregory IX denounced the Holy Fire as a fraud and forbade the Franciscans to participate in the ceremony, so, from then until our day, many Christians have remained unconvinced of the miracle. The following are other facts contrary to the Holy Fire authenticity.

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1. The Ottoman traveler, Evliya Celebi (1611–1682), said that a hidden zinc pot of naphtha was dripped down a chain by a hidden monk [Monte iore 2011].

2. Edward Gibbon [1776], wrote harshly on the alleged phenomenon: “This pious fraud, irst devised in the ninth century, was devoutly cherished by the Latin crusaders, and is annually repeated by the clergy of the Greek, Armenian, and Coptic sects, who impose on the credulous spectators for their own bene it and that of their tyrants.”

3. Adamantios Korais in Ref. [Constant 2021] condemned what he considered a religious fraud; he de ined the event as “machinations of fraudulent priests” and to the “unholy” light of Jerusalem as “a pro iteers’ miracle.” 4. Michael Kalopoulos [2003 and 2017], immersed three candles in white phosphorus and they ignited spontaneously after about 20 minutes due to the self-igniting properties of white phosphorus in contact with air. Kalopoulos states that “If phosphorus is dissolved in an appropriate organic solvent, self-ignition is delayed until the solvent has almost completely evaporated.” He also says that chemical reactions of this nature were well known in antiquity, and states that phosphorus was used by the Chaldean magicians in the early ifth century BC, and by the ancient Greeks, in a way similar to its alleged use today by the Eastern Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem.

5. Wikipedia [2022] reports that in his book the journalist Dimitris Alikakos presented an interview with the skeuophylax archbishop Isidoros of the Patriarchate of Jerusalem, in which the former admits that the “Sleepless Candle”, which he himself places in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher during on the morning of Holy Saturday, it is lit by him with a lighter. The irst (1984–1988) skeuophylax archbishop Nikiforos makes the same acknowledgment, except that he was using matches. In the same book, Archbishop Gerason Theofanis states that the Holy Fire is lit not miraculously, but naturally, and is then blessed by the Patriarch. He adds: “we deceive the believers letting them believe that it is a miracle. This is unacceptable, and does not re lect well on us.” Finally, in his book, the journalist

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cited the chronicle of the cancellation of the word “miracle” from the of icial website of the Patriarchate on June 23, 2018, with the commandment of Patriarch Theophilus III. But at this point we must also consider the letter from the Patriarchate of Jerusalem which considers fraudulent what is written in the book by journalist Dimitris Alikakosa.

In addition to this it must be remembered that Dev Lunawat demonstrates, also with a video, that it is possible to produce a ire having cold plasma (see Section 3.1.3) in a proper laboratory and even, with this, to be able to freeze the water.

[2022]

aLetter

from the Secretariat-General of the Patriarchate of Jerusalem to ANT1 TV Station Regarding Mr. Alikakos’ Published Book Protoc. No: 133

Honorable Gentlemen, Regarding the issue that arose from the forthcoming publication by Ekkremes Publications of a book by the journalist Dimitris Alikakos with the title “Redemption – About the Holy Light”, we state the following:

1. The writer visited the Patriarchate of Jerusalem and met with its executives initially to meet his spiritual needs and then as part of a survey of the history of our Patriarchate. 2. Any videotaped interviews he claims to have at his disposal took place illegally, without the knowledge of his interlocutors, and of course without the necessary consent. 3. From the videos that have been seen, fraudulent stitching (editing) is evident, in order to extract the “desired” effect, an act which apart from being morally reprehensible, is also criminally veri iable. 4. All necessary legal action towards Google has already been launched in order to remove the videos in question from the internet as tampering, containing misleading and defamatory content, and defying people and Truths of our Faith. In any case, we expressly reserve our generally legitimate right to the necessary legal actions that will take place de facto. 5. What is written in the book in question is a product of fantastic inventive stories of the author with the obvious aim of triggering the believers and gaining economic bene its from the sales of the book. The choice of circulation of the book in question at the given time, amidst the Holy and Great Lent and as our Church is heading towards the Holy Pascha, proves beyond any doubt the deepest motives of the author and the publishing house. 6. The of icial position of the Patriarchate of Jerusalem for the Service of the Holy Light is that which is included in the program of the Holy Saturday of each year, at the Website of the Patriarchate, in the studies of the Hagiotaphite Fathers and especially of the late Hagiotaphite Kallistos Miliaras in the “Nea Sion” Journal and to what is deducted from the Holy Bible and the Fathers of the Church.

Jerusalem, 18 March 2019, Yours Sincerely, ARISTARCHOS Archbishop of Constantina Geronda Secretary-General From: https://en.jerusalem-patriarchate.info/blog/2019/03/?print=print-search

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In fact, to obtain a cold ire, it is necessary to keep the surrounding gas cold, but moving its energetic electrons. This can be achieved if you take away the thermal energy of a gas with the following characteristics: it ionizes quickly, it easily releases free electrons and it has a high thermal conductivity. He then answers the question: “How To Freeze Water Using Fire? ” af irming that “To achieve a “cold ire”, you need to keep the gas around it cold, while still maintaining the freely moving energetic electrons.” However, he also declares that these conditions cannot occur in a common environment, but particular technical laboratory conditions are required. Obviously, this statement makes it clear that in an environment such as that of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher it is impossible to physically obtain a ire with a cold plasma without applying to something supernatural. Parallel to the discredit that is still taking place today for the Holy Fire, as we will see in Section 4.2.9, also for the Holy Shroud, the skeptics present various historical documents against its authenticity and even statements of high prelates who claim to know that the Relic is a fake. However, serious science in both cases proves otherwise. For the Holy Fire, this is the case of the irst author who, as reported in Sections 1.2 and 3.2.4, personally had the occasion to verify with scienti ic experiments the miraculousness of the event. In fact, we believe that the experimental approach is the best to follow in these cases because sometimes the arguments (probably aimed at the goal) reported by people opposed to authenticity can appear very convincing to the inexperienced reader. Even the irst author of the book would be tempted to consider its veracity if he had not been present in 2019 at the Miracle of the Holy Fire and had not personally experienced in person this phenomenon. In fact, he detected a ire characterized in the irst minutes by cold plasma manifested and transmitted from pilgrim to pilgrim, in an environment without particular technical scienti ic devices (or the use of particular substances). The scienti ic experiments reported in Chapter 3 con irm this. Consequently, the irst author admits, but not concedes, that perhaps on some occasion over the centuries an Orthodox

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Patriarch used some means to arti icially light the ire of his candle, but he con irms that at least in 2019 a scienti ically unexplainable fact occurred in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher and therefore was miraculous: the distribution among the faithful of a ire that cannot be humanly reproduced in an environment similar to that of the Holy Sepulcher. So, the authors of this book from a scienti ic point of view feel compelled to name the Holy Fire event “miracle” or at least the event that occurred in 2019 because it is actually scienti ically unexplainable.

2.5 Religious Aspects of the Miracle of the Holy Fire

For the Orthodox Church, questions related to the authenticity of the Miracle of the Holy Fire have long been answered. The Miracle is seen as a profound and truly miraculous sign pointing directly to the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. It is valued by the Orthodox as the greatest miracle of Christianity. The Orthodox Church has lived with a positive answer to the question of authenticity for over a millennium and a half. Thus, it is the next question after a judgement of authenticity that has occupied the focus of the Orthodox Church. That is, a search for the answer to the question of what are we collectively seeing when we are gifted with this profound miracle? One individual stands out in the effort to sculpt an answer to that question. That individual is the Orthodox Saint Gregory Palamas (ca.1296–ca. 1358), see Fig. 2.12. St. Gregory Palamas was for many years a monk at Mt. Athos, in Greece, and later in his life he served as the archbishop of Thessaloniki. During the mid-fourteenth century Gregory became embroiled in a heated controversy that would become known as the Hesychast, or Hesychasm Controversy. The term Hesychasm is derived from the Greek word Hesykhia meaning quiet, rest, silence, and stillness. The word was applied to the Orthodox monastic practice of quiet withdrawal from the world along with focused, and often continuous prayer, a practice especially associated with the monks

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of Mt. Athos. Hesychasm is often described as being in obedience to Jesus’s injunction in the Gospel of Matthew [6:6]: “But whenever you pray, go to your private room, shut yourself in, and pray to your Father who is in that secret place, and your Father who sees in secret will reward you.”

Figure 2.12 St. Gregory Palamas (Wikimedia Commons).

One special prayer used by the monks of Mt. Athos in their practice of Hesychastic prayer is the “Jesus Prayer” [St. Vladimir’s Orthodox Theological Seminary, 2013]: “Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner.”

Religious Aspects of the Miracle of the Holy Fire

This short simple prayer is greatly valued by the whole Orthodox Church, sometimes even called the summation of all Orthodox spirituality [Hester, 2001]. In the 1340s a con lict arose when Barlaam the Calabrian, a southern Italian monk and Aristotelian scholar, rejected the practice of Hesychasm. Speci ically, he rejected the idea that such devotion could lead to a genuine experience of God’s presence and grace along with visions of God’s Holy Light, which many monks at Mt. Athos claimed to have experienced while engaged in Hesychastic prayer. Barlaam even suggested that the practice of Hesychasm could be considered heretical. Gregory responded forcefully in defense of his monastic brethren. He clari ied that while God could not be known in His essence, He could be experienced and thus humanly known through the manifestation of His energies. God’s energies, such as the appearance of God’s light at the Trans iguration of Jesus on Mt. Tabor and the appearance of the “Holy Fire” in the Edicule of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem on Orthodox Holy Saturday can, in fact, be humanly perceived and directly experienced. Palamas emphasized the fact that God’s essence, on the other hand, is transcendent. It is simply beyond human capability to know God’s full essence though we can indeed be physically and spiritually touched and blessed directly by God’s energies and come away knowing that we have been touched. Gregory’s argument prevailed in freeing the practice of Hesychasm in the Orthodox Church from any further accusation of being heretical. In his writings and teachings Gregory laid the foundation upon which Orthodox believers answer the question of “how approachable is God? ” The answer is that we can be intimately in touch with God and directly experience His grace. The perfect example is the Miracle of the Holy Fire. As the custodians of the Miracle of the Holy Fire Orthodox Christians know they are in possession of one of the greatest miracles of Christianity. And through this miracle they know they are invited, through God’s Grace, to hold fast to the knowledge that the Resurrection of Jesus Christ is a certainty and that all are invited into communion with Him. This fact is woven into the very fabric of Orthodox spiritual life!

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The Holy Fire that appears annually at the tomb of Jesus in the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem does not stay in the Holy Sepulcher. First it spreads from the candles of attending pilgrims to the candles of crowds outside of the Holy Sepulcher. The state of Israel also grants entry and provides escort to representatives from various Orthodox churches located in the middle east outside of Israel so they can transport the Holy Fire to their home countries by ground transportation. Also, for decades, votive candles bearing the Holy Fire have also been lown directly from Israel to various Orthodox Christian countries outside of the middle east, such as Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Armenia, Poland, Belarus, Serbia, Ukraine, Moldova, Russia, and Georgia, as well as to other countries with signi icant orthodox populations. In recent years the Holy Fire has also been lown to the United States where it is widely dispersed to Orthodox communities. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, the celebration of Easter (Pascha) begins at the time of midnight on Holy Saturday, that is, at the earliest moment of the beginning of Easter Sunday. At this moment of transition from Holy Saturday to Easter Sunday, Orthodox Churches around the world are illed with light from candles carried by the throngs of faithful in attendance. During the service the celebrant blaringly repeats the phrase “Christ is risen!” The faithful in attendance continually, at full volume, respond: “He is risen indeed!”

2.5.1 A Catholic Event Connected with the Holy Fire: The Explosion of the Florence’s Cart

Strangely, after Catholic Pope Gregory IX in 1238 denounced the Miracle of the Holy Fire, see Section 2.4.10, this miraculous phenomenon remains largely unknown in the West Catholic Church. However, there are in the world some rare reference to this important Miracle of the Holy Fire; for example, in Florence (Italy) the “Scoppio del Carro” (Explosion of the Cart), see Fig. 2.13, is a Florentine tradition that takes place every year on Easter morning in Dome Square in memory of what happens in Jerusalem.

Religious Aspects of the Miracle of the Holy Fire

Figure 2.13 The Explosion of the Cart in Florence (Bimbi, ABC).

The origin of the recurrence dates back to the times of the First Crusade, when the Florentine captain Pazzino dei Pazzi, returning from Jerusalem in 1101, brought back the tradition of the Holy Fire with, as relics, three stone lakes taken from the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. From then until today the three stones, currently kept in the small Church of the Holy Apostles, are exposed during the ceremony. The Paschal Candle, a symbol of the victory of life over death, is then lighted which in turn is used, as in Jerusalem, to light candles of all the faithful, as a sign of the Light of Christ’s Resurrection.

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At 11 o’clock, when the “Gloria in Excelsis Deo” is sung, the fuse of the “Colombina” (a mechanical dove) is set on ire which, from the high altar, lies to the chart and goes to set ire to the irecrackers and ireworks arranged on the “Brindellone” (the cart). Thus, began the Explosion of the Cart and, in a symbolic way, the distribution of the Holy Fire to the whole city.

2.5.2 Interview with Two Orthodox Priests in the United States

To help us better understand how a typical Orthodox Christian relates to the Miracle of the Holy Fire, two Orthodox priests in the United States agreed to be interviewed. The irst priest was Fr. Youhanna Salamah, pastor of St. Mary’s Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch located in Phoenix, AZ. He was interviewed in person. The second Priest was Greek Orthodox priest Fr. Jon Magoulias, pastor of the Greek Orthodox Church of the Annunciation in Modesto, California. He provided answers to our questions in writing. The key questions asked are listed below and then the answers follow: 1. How universal is the knowledge about the Holy Fire for faithful Orthodox Christians worldwide? 2. More speci ically, how widespread is the knowledge about the Holy Fire for Orthodox Christians in the USA? 3. Do Orthodox believers, in general, see the Miracle of the Holy Fire as a irm sign pointing to the certainty of Jesus’s Resurrection? What impact does this have? 4. Does belief in the authenticity of the Miracle of the Holy Fire in luence Eucharistic devotion and belief in the “Real Presence”? 5. What is the “Uncreated Light” for the Orthodox? 6. Is there a relationship for the Orthodox between “Uncreated Light” and the Holy Fire? 7. Do the bluish lames of the Holy Fire, described by various Patriarchs, that develop above the burial stone of the Holy Sepulcher have any theological explanation?

Religious Aspects of the Miracle of the Holy Fire

8. Is there any theological explanation for the fact that only during the irst few minutes the Holy Fire is relatively cold? 9. Are candles lit by the Holy Fire kept in individual Orthodox Churches and by individual families throughout the world? How prevalent is this in the USA? 10. What is the Shroud for the Orthodox? 11. Are there any other comments?

Here below are the answers.

1. How universal is the knowledge about the Holy Fire for faithful Orthodox Christians worldwide? Fr. Youhanna. Amongst Orthodox Christians knowledge about the Miracle of the Holy Fire I consider to be universal worldwide! I am originally from Syria and in Syria not only do all the Christians know about this miracle, but also the Muslim population also knows about this annual miraculous event. Fr. Magoulias. I would say that the Miracle of the Holy Fire is universally accepted by Orthodox Christians throughout the world. The experience an Orthodox Christian has on the night of the Resurrection traces its roots to that miracle.

2. More speci ically, how widespread is the knowledge about the Holy Fire for Orthodox Christians in the USA? Fr. Youhanna. Maybe a new convert might not fully know about this miracle, but after his or her irst Pascha they too certainly know of this miracle.

Fr. Magoulias. Once again, the passing of the Resurrection Light in every Orthodox Church throughout the world brings the knowledge of the Miracle of the Holy Fire to all. In addition, social media among Orthodox Christians is replete with this miracle at the time of Pascha.

3. Do Orthodox believers, in general, see the Miracle of the Holy Fire as a irm sign pointing to the certainty of Jesus’s Resurrection? What impact does this have?

Fr. Youhanna. This is a big point. There is an absolute connection for us Orthodox Christians. The Holy Fire is for

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us Orthodox a dramatic con irmation of the Resurrection. Our faith is rooted in that. Fr. Magoulias. Orthodox Christians do believe that the Miracle of the Holy Fire is a sign that con irms the Resurrection. It is a miraculous reminder of Christ’s triumph over death.

4. Does belief in the authenticity of the Miracle of the Holy Fire in luence Eucharistic devotion and belief in the “Real Presence”?

Fr. Youhanna. There is an indirect connection. But you are seeing how all of this is tied together for us Orthodox Christians. Fr. Magoulias. The Holy Fire is a phenomenon that takes place only once a year. One receives the Holy Eucharist, for the “remission of sins and life eternal.” To accept the truth that there is eternal life is to accept the Resurrection and the Miracle of the Holy Fire.

5. What is the “Uncreated Light” for the Orthodox?

Fr. Youhanna. The “Uncreated Light” and the knowledge of God in Orthodox tradition “illuminates every man that cometh into this world.” It is the same light that the Apostles saw on Mount Tabor that penetrates all of creation and transforms it, creating it anew.

We must know that the divine light is not a natural phenomenon, like other phenomenon our brain (more exactly our visual cortex) interprets as light. Also, the divine light is not like an emanation from God—it is God itself, more exactly His power. God is absolutely inaccessible in His nature (core) but perfectly communicable in His energies. That’s why this light it is called “Uncreated Light.” The main point in seeing the “Uncreated Light” isn’t the experience of the seeing of the light itself—even if this light is much more powerful than the light of the sun—routinely the saints said that it is “more powerful than 1,000 suns.”

According to the Orthodox Church’s concept God described as a being who dwelled from eternity in “Uncreated Light.” It is what Moses beheld on the slopes of Mt. Horeb, when he turned aside to see the bush that burned but was not

Religious Aspects of the Miracle of the Holy Fire

consumed. It was the light from heaven that blinded Saul of Tarsus, later to be known as St. Paul, on the road to Damascus. In addition, the Glory of God on the Mt. Tabor, in the Orthodox teaching, the feast of the Trans iguration considered as the small Epiphany, and the feast of the Holy Trinity. Because all the three persons of the Holy Trinity are presents at that moment, God the Father spoke from Heaven, God the Son was the one being trans igured, and God the Holy Spirit was present in the form of a cloud. The Holy Spirit descended on the Apostles like tongues of ire, which parted and came to rest on each one of them. The Apostles after were empowered by the Holy Spirit to continue Christ’s work on earth to preach in his name, to make disciples from all nations and to Baptize them in the name of the Father, Son and the Holy Spirit. The Apostles and those whom they sent forth went preaching the word and bringing men to the fellowship of the Church. “Uncreated Light” is the Holy Spirit when he descended as ire upon people and as a dove upon the Lord. The Holy Spirit appeared both as a dove and as ire, because He makes all those whom He encompasses both pure and ardent—pure as a dove and iery in their ardor. Such a combination of ardor and purity is the only one acceptable to God. Thus, since the Spirit teaches both righteousness and purity, He had to appear as a dove, so that every heart touched by His grace would be tranquil with meekness and iery with ardor for the truth. The internal effects of the Holy Spirit, which means the seven gifts, (Wisdom to know and love God, Understand of what he has done, and is doing, Counsel to know his will, Strength to carry it out, Knowledge to the true faith of the Church, Godliness in life and character, holy fear of grieving God by disobedience). The Holy Spirit that transformed the bread and the wine into the Body and the Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ. In our Syriac Liturgy before the substantial transformation of the bread and the wine into the Body and the Blood of our Lord, we have the special prayer named the invocation of the Holy Spirit. St. John Chrysostom said that: In a Mysterion, we see one thing and we believe another.

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“Uncreated Light” is invisible, and those who behold it do so not simply with their bodily eyes, but with eyes transformed by the power of the Holy Spirit. Jesus had taught that those who were pure in heart could see God. Similarly, Gregory Palamas (fourteenth century) advised those wishing to see the “Uncreated Light” of God to repent, purify themselves of their worldly passions and practice certain spiritual disciplines.

Fr. Magoulias. The “Uncreated Light” is a topic that cannot be completely expressed in a few sentences. It is the experience of the divine energies as we see on Mt. Tabor at the Trans iguration. It is not the divine essence but rather, the experience of theosis, the act of the likeness of God as expressed when one is united to our Lord. The best source for an explanation would be St. Gregory Palamas, but St. Seraphim of Sarov and St. Simeon the New Theologian speak beautifully on this subject.

6. Is there a relationship for the Orthodox between “Uncreated Light” and the Holy Fire?

Fr. Youhanna. According to my opinion as a Priest in the Syrian Orthodox Church, we can consider the Holy Fire as “Uncreated Light”, especially in the irst 30 minutes, which means when the ire was a supernatural ire. This ire unlike ordinary ire, this ire doesn’t harm the human skin and doesn’t af lict the pain of burning. This unbroken miracle and that phenomenon appears yearly on the Great Saturday before the Resurrection Sunday, according to the Orthodox Calendar. Moreover, that Holy Fire can be one of the conditions testifying on the Lord’s Resurrection and the Lord is the Light of the world, He came to save us, and burning our sins by that ire. In addition, that ire appears, probably because God wants us to inspire to be faithful to Christ and His Church. By the graces of the Holy Fire and the “Uncreated Light” can guide us, and showing us the true way to the kingdom of heaven. Therefore, the relationships between both lights are the graces and the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. I think that the “Uncreated Light” and the Holy Fire represent God’s own light as His Energy, which

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can be seen even in this life on earth if God pleases to manifest His glory.

Fr. Magoulias. I cannot remember any writings that connect the “Uncreated Light” and the Holy Fire. The irst is usually associated with the Trans iguration while the Holy Fire is solely recognized as an act of the Resurrection of Christ. I suppose that if one delves further into the Holy Fire experience, it may be considered as the divine energies that come from the Tomb of Jesus.

7. Do the bluish lames of the Holy Fire, described by various Patriarchs, that develop above the burial stone of the Holy Sepulcher have any theological explanation?

Fr. Youhanna. The testimony of the Russian abbot Daniel, in his itinerary written in the years 1106–07, presents the “Miracle of the Holy Light” and the ceremonies that frame it in a very detailed manner. Light proceeds from the core of the stone, a blue inde inable light, that after some time kindles unlit oil lamps as well as the Patriarch’s two candles, see the testimony of Patriarch of Jerusalem, Diodorus in Section 2.1. The Muslim historian Al-Biruni describes that the Christians have extinguished their lamps and torches already prior to this and wait, until they see a pure white ire, which causes a lamp to ignite. From this ire, the lamps in the mosques and in the churches are lit [Al-Biruni, 1991].

The Stone of Anointing marks an important part of the narrative of Jesus’ death, burial, and Resurrection. The fact that Jesus’ body needed to be prepared for burial shows that Jesus did in fact physically die. The miracle is almost like a sacrament. It makes the Resurrection of Christ present to us as if he had died only a few years ago.

Fr. Magoulias. The only explanation has to do with the Resurrection.

8. Is there any theological explanation for the fact that only during the irst few minutes the Holy Fire is relatively cold?

Fr. Youhanna. The Holy Shroud is arguably a relic of the Christian East. And just as sindonologists wrestle with the

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dif icult question of the theological signi icance of what appears to be a miraculous (Imprint) of Christ’s cruci ied body on the Holy Shroud, so any who take the manifestation of the Holy Fire in the Sepulcher in Jerusalem with any seriousness must account for its theological meaning. [Chrysostomos, 1980].

In his second Paschal homily, St. Gregory of Nyssa (394 BC) portrays the interior of the tomb of Christ as “ illed with light” after the Resurrection, a light which he contends was visible “both to the spirit and to the senses”. Moreover, St. Gregory the Theologian identi ies the light of the tomb with the “...heavenly light which illuminates the entire world with its beauty”. The idea of a visible light with supernatural attributes coming forth from the tomb of Christ and representing the light of heaven, therefore, is not a preposterous one. The eternal Pascha of the Resurrection of Christ might very well have an actual physical counterpart in the place where the Resurrection occurred, the manifestation of the Holy Fire. Theologically, the triumphant nature of the Resurrection as an event of historical and metaphysical preeminence is perfectly contained within this scenario

Nevertheless, interesting to note that the Holy Fire, both a physical and supernatural light presents us with an analog of the manifestation of “Uncreated Light” associated with theosis and the spiritual experiences of the Hesychasts. Certainly, one would not want to make a one-to-one equation of the Holy Light with the spiritual and physical manifestation known as “Uncreated light”, but the latter phenomenon proves beyond doubt that the veneration of a physical phenomenon with supernatural properties, such as the Holy Fire, is not outside the theological tradition of the Eastern Church. Indeed, the Holy Fire takes on greater signi icance when placed in the context of manifestations involving an interplay between the physical and spiritual an interplay that can be said to reach into the core of the Eastern Christian theological outlook.

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In our Liturgy book’s service, we start the Holy Mass with the following opening prayer. “In your light, we see the light, o Jesus full of light. For You are the true light that enlightens the whole creation. Enlighten us by Your glorious light, o Radiance of the heavenly Father”. Fr. Magoulias. There are certain things that God reveals that are beyond de inition and description in mere words. The Holy Fire, like the burning bush of the Old Testament, are experiences that may be realized in the words of the Evangelist John who said, “God is Light”. Could it be that the Holy Fire does not burn the faithful when it is irst experienced so that we may know of its divine nature?

9. Are candles lit by the Holy Fire kept in individual Orthodox Churches and by individual families throughout the world? How prevalent is this in the USA?

Fr. Youhanna. Yes, it is very common for Orthodox Christians to keep the Holy Fire lit in their homes. Our church (in Arizona) has received the Holy Fire via Canada and it is shared with the congregation. Fr. Magoulias. When Orthodox Christians receive the Holy Fire on Pascha, almost every one of them are careful about bringing it into their homes. Some light vigil lights and keep them burning all year round, some light pilot lights on the stove, some make signs of the cross with the lame over the entrances to the home. In addition, the Holy Fire is usually kept on the Holy Altar Table in the Church, so it is readily available to all parishioners the year round.

10. What is the Shroud for the Orthodox?

Fr. Youhanna. According to our Syrian Orthodox Church, unfortunately, we do not have any of icial letter, or of icial work about the Shroud. But our knowledge on it was built on the discussion between us, priests, bishops and the faithful. While some of the parishioners believes that the Shroud is the Relic of the Lord, some of them deny that, but, in general, they point to the fact that the Shroud is the Mandilion of King Abgar of Edessa (see Section 4.2.2).

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In general, we consider that the Shroud could be the very important Relic of the Lord and all of us we respect that by venerating and honoring that Relic. Equally we respect and venerate the other relics like the Girdle of the Virgin Mary, the Holy Girdle, also known as the Girdle of Thomas, Holy Zoonoro, and Holy Belt of Saint Mary; it is a relic of the Blessed Virgin Mary which is one of the important relics of Syrian Orthodox Church and venerated by Oriental Orthodox communion. It was discovered by His Holiness Mor Ignazio Ephraim the irst in the year 1953 at Homs city, Syria. [Bismarji, 1967].

In the Orthodox Church the Shroud appears to be a personal or localized practice of honoring it as an icon made without hands.

Fr. Magoulias. The Orthodox believe the Shroud is the burial cloth of Jesus Christ.

11. Are there any other comments?

Fr. Youhanna. The Divine Liturgy of St. James is used at our Syriac Orthodox Churchb. In our Syriac Orthodox Church, we also begin every Mass with the Prayer of St. James: In Your light, we see the Light, Jesus Christ full of Light,

By your Light you enlighten all the world. In addition, the Sanctuary Light in our Church carries the Holy Fire transported from the Holy Sanctuary in Jerusalem.

Fr. Magoulias. Regarding the Miracle of the Holy Fire and the Shroud of Turin, recent studies reveal an important connection. Scientists have stated that a “burst of light” created the image on the Shroud. That connection to the Miracle of the Holy Fire is very real and accepted.

2.5.3 Significance for the Relationship of Christianity East and West

Gregory Palamas has been venerated as a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church since 1368. Even within the Catholic Church, bThe

Divine Liturgy of St. James is among the oldest Eucharistic services in continuous use.

Religious Aspects of the Miracle of the Holy Fire

Gregory has often been called a saint, although he has never been of icially canonized by the Catholic Church. The Catholic saint, Pope John Paul II, on several occasions singled out Gregory as being a great theological writer.

Figure 2.14 Pope St. John Paul II (Public domain).

Pope St. John Paul II, see Fig. 2.14, also had the following to say about Orthodox traditions in general [St. John Paul II 1995]: “Since, in fact, we believe that the venerable and ancient tradition of the Eastern Churches is an integral part of the heritage of Christ’s Church, the irst need for Catholics is to be familiar with that tradition, so as to be nourished by it and to encourage the process of unity in the best way possible for each.

Our Eastern Catholic brothers and sisters are very conscious of being the living bearers of this tradition, together with our Orthodox brothers and sisters. The members of the Catholic Church of the Latin tradition must also be fully acquainted with this

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treasure and thus feel, with the Pope, a passionate longing that the full manifestation of the Church’s catholicity be restored to the Church and to the world, expressed not by a single tradition, and still less by one community in opposition to the other; and that we too may be granted a full taste of the divinely revealed and undivided heritage of the universal Church which is preserved and grows in the life of the Churches of the East as in those of the West.”

The miraculous phenomenon of the Holy Fire remains largely unknown in the West. Is this about to change? The Catholic Church has the Shroud of Turin as a sign of the death and Resurrection of Jesus. The Orthodox look to the Miracle of the Holy Fire as a foundational sign of their faith in the Resurrection. What is the linkage that binds these two realities? If there is a linkage, how may it fundamentally transform the relationship between all Christians East and West? And what startling message does it present to the world? Chapter 5 will describe such connection.

Chapter 3

Science Investigates the Holy Fire This chapter is focused on scientifically addressing the phenomenon of the Holy Fire that appears every year on Orthodox Holy Saturday in the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. We will explore the observations and measurements made on candles to which the Holy Fire is passed to pilgrims by the Orthodox Patriarch from candles reported to be spontaneously lit by Holy Fire inside the Edicule. We will also analyze other manifestations of the Holy Fire, aside from that of a candle flame, that have been observed in the Holy Sepulcher on Holy Saturday, such as corona discharge (CD) produced by electric fields, lightning trains, blue flashes and other electric phenomena. Before carrying out this analysis, however, it is necessary to start by describing a common candle flame from a physical-chemical point of view. This will lead the reader to a better understanding of the non-trivial nature of a candle flame and therefore to a better ability to grasp what can only be described as the scientifically inexplicable nature of a candle flame ignited by and carrying the Holy Fire. The analysis will then continue with the scientific description of the Holy Fire with other extraordinary phenomena related to it.

The Holy Fire and the Divine Photography: The Image of the Holy Shroud of Christ Giulio Fanti and Robert Siefker Copyright © 2024 Jenny Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4968-91-1 (Hardcover), 978-1-003-45444-1 (eBook) www.jennystanford.com

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3.1 What Is Chemically and Physically a Common Fire? A common fire may simply be defined as a combustion effect that takes place in the natural atmosphere of the earth, that sustains itself and that can be analyzed through the scientific disciplines of chemistry and physics. A fire, simply put, is the effect of combustion in which there is the manifestation of a brilliant glow called flame in conjunction with the release of a relatively large amount of heat and gas. During this process of an irreversible exothermic oxidation reaction, a fuel is converted into gaseous products, generally carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Combustion takes place in various regions distinguishable by the different colors of the flame. In the warmer blue region, hydrogen separates from the fuel and burns producing water vapor; in the brighter yellow region, the remaining carbon particles oxidize to form carbon dioxide. Nevertheless, there are other physical manifestations like an electric discharge, a CD or plasmas that can be seen as peculiar fires; these will be better analyzed in Section 3.1.3. Three things are required in proper combination before the ignition and combustion of a common fire can take place.

1. There must be fuel to burn. 2. There must be air to supply oxygen that is necessary to begin and sustain combustion. 3. There must be heat (ignition temperaturea) to start and enough continued heat of combustion to sustain the fire.

After ignition, a common fire will be sustained, provided that there is a continuous supply of heat furnished by the chemical reaction of combustion along with an atmospheric supply of oxygen, and remaining fuel. There is a well-known symbol used to represent this process that is known as the Fire Triangle, see Fig. 3.1.

aThe

ignition temperature of a substance is the lowest temperature at which the substance starts combustion.

What Is Chemically and Physically a Common Fire?

Figure 3.1 Fire Triangle of Michael Faraday from his famous lectures with the title “The Chemical History of a Candle” (Courtesy of https://boilersinfo.com/portablefire-extinguishers/).

Remove any one of the three elements of the Fire Triangle and the fire will fade away. Weaken any one of them, and the fire will also weaken. Increase any one or more of the elements and the fire will increase in intensity. There are many obvious examples of common fire. A complex example would be a forest fire, or a brush fire ignited by lightning. A simple example would be a piece of paper ignited by a lighter. Another example of common fire is a torch. A torch is a stick or pole with combustible material at one end which is ignited to be used as a source of light, and its use goes back as far as recorded human history. Then there is what the famous English scientist Michael Faraday pointed to as the most elegant and instructive example of common fire, a lit candle, as illustrated in Fig. 3.2, which shows the shapes and the different zones of the flame after the combustion process is stabilized, which takes about one minute after initial ignition.

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Figure 3.2 A sketched image of a candle with its different zones and functioning. The upwards dotted lines show the streams of air ascending because of the heat of the flame (Courtesy of William S. Hammack).

3.1.1 A Common Fire Described by an Expertb Dr. Giuseppe Baldacchinic describes below the chemicalphysical details of the flame of a candle to better understand the phenomenon related to the Holy Fire discussed in the sections to follow. bReaders

less interested in this insight can skip directly to section 3.1.3. Baldacchini, born in 1941 and graduated in Physics in 1965 in Rome, carried out his research activities mainly at the ENEA Research Center of Frascati, and the Universities of California, Berkeley, and in Salt Lake City in the USA. He is the author of several patents as well as publications in Solid State Physics. Since retirement in 2009, he has continued his scientific research work and cultivates medical, humanistic, historical, and archaeological disciplines. In particular, he deals with the Shroud of Turin and the dissemination of knowledge regarding this remarkable object.

cGiuseppe

What Is Chemically and Physically a Common Fire?

First, let us review key points made by Faraday regarding a burning candle as being the most elegant example of common fire. These points were outlined in a famous series of lectures given in December 1848, 1854, and 1860 to which he gave the title “The Chemical History of a Candle.” These lectures have stood tall for over a 160 years and contemporary books that focus on these lectures are still being printed.



• The famous Fire Triangle of Fig. 3.1 was at the center of Faraday’s presentation. A candle, once lit, takes oxygen from the air, combines it with the carbon in the candle wax, and these react chemically to give off heat and to form the by-products of combustion, carbon dioxide and water. • Candle wax, such as paraffin, is a mixture of long-chain hydrocarbonsd.



• The complete combustion of a candle can be represented by a specific chemical equatione.



• A typical wick is made from braided cotton, which is flammable and can be ignited by the flame of another candle, a match or a lighter.







dIt

• Solid candle wax itself will not burn, nor will liquid melted candle wax burn. Only the vaporous wax will ignite and burn. Thus, a candle needs a wick. • The wick has two functions. First, the wick, after being ignited, conducts heat from the flame to the solid wax below into which it is embedded. This heat melts the wax at the base of the wick. The second function of the wick is to transport the molten wax, via capillary action, to the flame above. The molten wax rises in the wick until it is engulfed by the flame of the candle and is vaporized.

• The flame burns the vaporized wax with oxygen supplied by the surrounding air. The chemical reaction between the vaporized wax and oxygen releases gases—mainly gaseous carbon dioxide and water vapor—along with light and heat.

can be represented by the chemical formula CnH2n+2. balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of a candle can be represented by the following chemical equation:

eThe



C25H52 + 38 O2 → 25 CO2 + 26 H2O.

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It is interesting to note that the shape of the flame is due to various concurrent phenomena, that is, diffusion, convection, and gravity, and the first two depend further on the original materials of the candles and their reaction temperatures, while the gravity is a constant during the burning process. Figure 3.3 shows an actual candle flame with the blue light at the bottom, yellow-white above the wick, and yellow-red around the wick, as described chemically in Fig. 3.2, see also Section 3.1.3.

Figure 3.3 The different zones of the flame, clearly visible because of different colors, correspond to different gas temperatures (G. Fanti).

Figure 3.4 A candle flame in microgravity environment aboard an orbiting spacecraft. The blue light shows a spherical symmetry broken only by the top of the candlestick (courtesy of NASA, Shuttle experiments in late 1990s).

What Is Chemically and Physically a Common Fire?

The situation is different when gravity is lacking, as in Fig. 3.4, where the blue area surrounds the whole flame, and a reddish flame covers the tip of the wick. This is due to the absence of any vertical convection, while only diffusion is working.

3.1.2 The Blue Light

The blue light that will be of interest in the next sections is generated by the burning of vaporized wax with full oxygen, while the other colors, white, red, yellow, are produced by burning wax with depleted oxygen, when also hot soot particles are formed, see also Section 3.1.3. This phenomenon is better displayed in Fig. 3.4, a case with scarcity of oxygen inside the flame boule, where convection is absent and only the much slower diffusion is at work. The temperature of the flame depends on the type of wax, amount of oxygen in that region of the flame, amount of soot particles, and thermal convection. Usually, the reddish color corresponds to 1000 °C (1832 °F) or less, the yellow-red or yellow-white to 1200 °C (2192 °F) or little more, and the blue to about 1400 °C (2552 °F). The highest temperature belongs to the tiny veil surrounding the yellow-white zone, where complete combustion happens, and the light is blue or invisible because of its thinness. However, because of thermal convection the temperature increases from the non-luminous zone at the base of the flame, just below the bluish zone, to the sides and top of the flame, from 600 °C (1112 °F) to 1400 °C (2252 °F). The previous temperatures are the thermodynamic temperaturesf of the molecules and soot that have been involved directly or indirectly with the chemical reactions with oxygen, and they correspond to the temperature measured with a thermocouple whose metallic tip is inserted in that zone of the flame. However, the metallic tip, should be much smaller than the dimensions of the zone to be measured, to not disrupt the fluid-dynamics of the flame as a whole or locally. Even more, the time required by the thermocouple f Thermodynamic

temperature is an absolute measure of the average total internal energy of objects and it corresponds to its mean average kinetic energy EK (being EK = 0.5 m v2, with m = mass and v = velocity) plus contributions from other factors. Therefore, particles with one unit of mass moving at one unit of velocity have the same kinetic energy, and the same temperature, as those with four times the mass but half the velocity.

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to measure the temperature depends strongly on thermal energy density. In the present case, it will take more time (temperature measurement) in the faint and peripheral blue areas than in the denser yellow-white or yellow-reddish inner zones. The same happens in the earth atmosphere with gains in altitude. Indeed, at 100 km (62 miles) and more the temperature increases up to 1000–2000 °C (1832–3632 °F), but its density is decreased 10,000 times, and air is partially ionized, which is one reason why even the temperature loses its classical definition. Indeed, the temperature is the physical parameter that regulates the transfer of energy between two or more bodies. But, when the density of matter is very low, the transfer of energy can take a much longer time. The previous comparison brings to light another property of the candle flame that, due to the involved high temperatures, is partially ionized, and therefore its dynamic shape changes further when subjected to an electric field. Indeed, the ions transfer their electric-forced motion to the atoms, molecules, and debris of the flame through collisions. However, a constant electric field applied to the flame moves positive and negative ions along the field vector to opposite directions. Hence, if the electric field is transverse, the flame widens and shortens, while in the longitudinal case the flame lengthens and narrows, see Fig. 3.5. These changes apply to any shape of the flame, as shown in Figs. 3.3 and 3.4. In case the electric field is not homogeneous the shape variation can be calculated point by point within the flame. Going back to the temperatures of the flame, where the gas density varies very little in comparison with the atmosphere, they correspond approximately to the emission of a Black Body as shown in Fig. 3.6. It is observed that the intensity of the emitted light increases with the temperature and the wavelength of the peak emission moves to shorter wavelengths, that is toward the blue color. In conclusion, the color of the flame indicates in the first instance the energy of the photons emitted, with the blue light related with the most energetic photons. Therefore, whenever a blue light is observed, energetic photons are in action, and even more when violet light is present.

What Is Chemically and Physically a Common Fire?

Figure 3.5 Flame of a candle placed near a turned off (left) and turned on (right) plasma sphere (see Section 3.1.3). The flame in the presence of a non-negligible electric field such as that generated by a plasma sphere expands horizontally and shortens in height (G. Fanti).

Figure 3.6 Intensity of light emitted by a Black Body at different temperatures as a function of the wavelength. The vertical ribbon shows the various colors seen by the human eyes, which is in practice the rainbow. The sun is a Black Body at ca 5777 K (corresponding to 5504 °C and 9939 °F, see Note g) and the emission maximum is in the visible light. Also, the human body can be simulated by a Black Body at ca 300 K (27 °C or 81 °F), but its emission is mainly in the medium-far infrared and the power is one million times weaker (© Wikimedia Commons user Sch, adapted by Sun.org). gKelvin

is the absolute temperature whose symbol is K. We have that K = °C + 273. An alternative measurement of the temperature can be made in electron volt (eV).

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Higher energy photons correspond to higher Black Body temperatures, but not necessarily to higher energy densities. Indeed, a molecular gas can emit in the violet, so high energy photons, but possesses a low energy density, because there are only a few molecules emitting for any reason. Referring to the lit candle, the blue region below and around the flame emits at high temperatures, usually more than 1000 °C (1832 °F), but its interaction with the matter is weak because of the low energy density of that region. On the contrary, the reddish region of the flame, very prominent in microgravity, emits at low temperatures, equal or less than 1000 °C (1832 °F), but with a consistent matter interaction because of the high energy density in that region. In other words, if hypothetically an experimenter put his finger in the flame, it would feel the heat immediately in the reddish zone, and with some delay in the blue zone. A lit candle is such a prototype for the common fire and light in general that the Bureau of Standards utilizes an ordinary wax candle as a standard one, cd, which emits in all directions about 20 mW of visible light and peaks at about 556 nm (greenyellow region of the optical spectrum). In addition, because the surface of an ordinary candle flame is about 2 cm2, the surface brightness (output power per unit area) of a candle is about 0.5 cd/cm2. All the other light sources are measured in comparison with the candle. However, the candle is a very inefficient light source, because only 0.05% of the produced energy turns into light, while the rest is dispersed as heat, which is felt by approaching a lit candle.

3.1.3 The Plasma in a Candle’s Flame

We have seen that the flame is a luminous mixture of high temperature gases derived from the combustion of solid, liquid or gaseous substances; light is due to phenomena of excitation of electrons, i.e., the outermost particles of atoms, which absorb energy in the form of heat and convert it into light energy. In the flame, there is a not-so-bright and very hot external area where there is complete combustion, a very bright intermediate with incomplete combustion, and an internal one where there is no combustion, but gas transport.

What Is Chemically and Physically a Common Fire?

The mixture that makes up the flame is mostly made up of highly reactive substances, free radicalsh. The elongated shape of the flame is due to the tendency of hot gases to rise upwards. As they move away from the point of combustion, they cool and the flame thins. Free radicals of the flame are named plasmai. It is the fourth fundamental state of matter (in addition to solid, liquid and gas) and consists of a gas composed of electrically charged ions which are atoms or molecules having either at least one orbital electron stripped or an extra electron attached. In this state of matter an ionized substance becomes highly electrically conductive to the point that long-range electric and magnetic fields dominate its behavior. Normally in the plasma, the overall charge is roughly zero because positive and negative particles are almost of the same quantity, but any movement of charged particles in a plasma produces electric fields; vice versa, an electric field produces a movement of the charged particles. Instead, a plasma with a significant excess of charge density, is called a non-neutral. Ionization is necessary for the existence of a plasma and its density is referred to the number of charge-contributing electrons per unit volume. The plasma temperature can be measured in kelvin and it defines the magnitude of thermal kinetic energy per particle. High temperature of thousands K (or °C and °F) is usually needed to have ionization while at low (ambient) temperatures, ions and electrons tend to recombine into bound states so the plasma becomes a common gas. There is not always the thermal equilibrium of the particles in a plasma because the mass of electrons is much smaller than that of protons and neutrons and therefore the former reach thermodynamic equilibrium between them much faster than ions or neutral atoms. Consequently, the so-called ion-temperature can be much lower than the electron-temperature. hIn

chemistry, an atom or a molecule made up of several atoms, which has an unpaired electron is defined as a free radical; it is a very reactive molecular entity with a very short average life because this electron makes the radical extremely reactive, able to bind to other radicals or to steal an electron from other nearby molecules. iSee also Section 2.4.14, where Dev Lunawat [2022] demonstrates that it is possible to produce a fire having cold plasma in a proper laboratory.

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The energy, temperature and ionic density of the plasma allow the subdivision into thermal plasmas and cold plasmas (non-equilibrium plasmas). In the former, the electrons and ions are at the same temperature and therefore in thermal equilibrium with each other, while in cold plasmas, the electrons have a higher thermal energy (temperatures even higher than 1000 K, 727 °C or 1340 °F) and the ions are close to ambient temperature. An example of cold plasma is the CD generated by the application of high voltage pointed electrodes used in ozone generators. While plasma is the most abundant form of ordinary matter in the universe, it is rarer on earth. Plasma can be artificially generated by heating a neutral gas or subjecting it to a strong electromagnetic field as it happens in neon lamps where the charged particles make plasma electrically conductive. Some examples of plasmas are the following.





A. In the universe. Plasmas are the most common phase of ordinary matter in the universe, both by mass and by volume. Examples are stars (plasmas heated by nuclear fusion), solar wind, space between planets, stars and galaxies and interstellar nebulae.

B. Above and on the earth. Above the earth’s surface, the ionosphere is a plasma, and the magnetosphere contains plasma. Within our Solar System, interplanetary space is filled with the plasma expelled via the solar wind. Examples on the earth are: lightning, polar aurorae, polar wind, St. Elmo’s fire, common candle’s fire. C. Artificially produced. Most artificial plasmas are generated by the application of electric and/or magnetic fields through a gas. One principle is common to plasma generation: there must be energy input to produce and sustain it. Plasma is generated when an electric current is applied through a gas or dielectric fluid. The potential difference and the resulting electric field attract bonded (negative) electrons to the anode (positive electrode). If the degree of ionization is high, an electric arc is formed between the electrodes that is bright (a continuous electric discharge similar

What Is Chemically and Physically a Common Fire?

to lightning). Some examples are: plasma displays including TV screens, inside fluorescent lamps, neon signs, the area in front of a spacecraft’s heat shield during re-entry into the atmosphere, inside a CD ozone generator, electric arc in an arc lamp, plasma ball, see Fig. 3.7, arcs produced by Tesla coils, and static electric sparks.

Let us consider for example a plasma ball. It consists of a sphere formed by a transparent glass globe containing low pressure (200–500 Pa) inert gases and a high voltage electrode in the center, see Fig. 3.7.

Figure 3.7 Examples of plasmas artificially produced. On the left a charged tip of a common needle posed in proximity of a grounded conductive plate produces bluish plasma in air. On the right a plasma ball produces bluish filaments of plasma. If the glass is touched by a hand covered by a linen sheet, a pink image of the hand due to plasma in air forms on the sheet (G. Fanti).

The device rests on an electrically insulated support, usually made of plastic. Inert gases consist of a mixture of noble gases such as argon, xenon, neon and krypton. The electrode in the center of the sphere is a small sphere made of steel and graphite alloy, to resist the rising temperature during the generation of the electric field. It is connected to a small oscillating electronic circuit, dimensioned to generate a

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frequency of about 35 kHz and an electric voltage of 12 V, raised by a small transformer up to about 10 kV. As the intensity of the electric current is very low (about 3 mA), the risk of a harmful electric shock is minimal. The high electric voltage therefore ionizes the inert gas contained in the glass bulb, to generate thin voltaic arcs consisting mainly of plasma (ionized gas) which manifest themselves through thin bluish filaments of electric discharges. Near the central spherical electrode, a thin luminous halo also appears, produced by an electrical phenomenon called the CD. These discharges of light end up adhering to the inner wall of the glass globe. The bluish and violet color of the filaments is attributable to argon, a gas that releases radiation on this electromagnetic frequency of the visible light spectrum. Towards the outside, the electric discharges collide on the internal wall of the glass which has zero electric potential. If the sphere is touched by other objects connected to earth such as the fingers of the hand, a part of the energy of the electric discharges is concentrated on the shortest way to the earth mass, passing through the whole body. However, since the intensity of electric current is very low, this will not cause damage to physical health. A very small percentage of ozone is also developed near the outer spherical surface of the glass, a gas that is relatively harmful to humans.

3.2 What Do We Know about the Holy Fire?

Having seen what is meant by common fires, let us now try to understand what the Holy Fire is. As we have seen in Section 1, it is not yet possible to describe this phenomenon in scientific details for two reasons. First, due to the Orthodox Authorities that up to now have not allowed official scientific research to be done on this phenomenon because, in accordance with their religion, it is not good to experience things and facts concerning the Savior materially. In fact, for them the Faith should be enough to believe these things.

What Do We Know about the Holy Fire?

Second, even in relation to the limited scienti ic data available, it is not possible to formulate detailed descriptions of a phenomenon that goes beyond traditional science and that, in fact, shows characteristics that cannot be explained based on current human knowledge. Someone has tried to provide a scienti ic explanation, albeit limited, to the phenomenon using materials that ignite spontaneously when in contact with air. Among these, white phosphorus has been proposed: if it is dissolved in a suitable organic solvent, self-ignition is delayed until the solvent evaporates and, from experimental tests, it appears that self-ignition can be delayed even more than 30 minutes. Of course, this limited explanation does not even address the facts that the ire produced must be cold, that there is the presence of blue lightning in the Holy Sepulcher and that there is the direct control of a policeman in the Edicule. Let us now try to see in more detail what can be determined from the above-mentioned limited scienti ic explanations and what can be determined through simple reasoning.

3.2.1 The Holy Fire and Related Phenomena

Before entering into the details, it is necessary to clarify what is meant by Holy Fire because at least three scienti ically different phenomena are frequently called by this same name. The readers could therefore ind a little confusion in the descriptions without a distinction between these three phenomena.

1. HF1 is the irst phenomenon of bluish light above the stone of the Holy Sepulcher which then spreads into the environment. According to the authors, this could be the real Holy Fire linked to the Easter phenomenon. From a scienti ic point of view, we can think that HF1 is a cold plasma, see Section 3.1.3, produced by an intense electric ield; the electrons of the plasma yield energy emitting photons which in turn make visible the bluish light observed by the Patriarch. Patriarch Diodorus I describes in detail the HF1 in Section 2.1, Point 9.

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Figure 3.8 Patriarch Theophilus III going out of the Edicule with the Holy Fire HF2.1 in 2020 (Courtesy of Studio Sami).

2. HF2. The Orthodox Patriarch enters the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher and, in front of the presence of the HF1 described in Point 1, under the control of the Israeli Police, he lights the candles he is holding, putting them in contact with HF1. The candles then light up and show a particular yellowish lame which will be named HF2.1. Once his candles are lit, the Patriarch leaves the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher, see Fig. 3.8, and, by contact with other candles of the people present, he distributes this Holy Fire which we shall designate HF2.n (with ‘n’ being the number of passages of HF2 through successive candles n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...., n) to the entire assembly of those present. Here we distinguish the Fire HF2.1 lit by a candle placed directly in contact with the HF1 from the ire HF2.n subsequently lit by the candles of the persons who reciprocally distribute the HF2.n initially received by the Patriarch. Compatibility tests have not been performed between the multiple candles lit with HF2.n with n different

What Do We Know about the Holy Fire?

each other, but the authors suppose that there are no substantial differences between them. The only difference between them is determined by the time elapsed since HF1 appeared.

3. HF3. After a certain period of time, reported to be about 33 minutes by some pilgrim sources who have attended the Holy Fire ceremony, or in no more than ten minutes from the beginning of the phenomenon, as measured by the irst author [Fanti 2019], and by Fr Gennady Zaridze [2016] the particular physical characteristics measured for HF2.n tend to change and the lame of the candles tend to take on the characteristics of a common ire described in Section 3.1.

This ire, which is also carried by pilgrims to their home locations and which is kept burning for several months, is here named HF3 with the symbol HF only used to designate that it was generated by a Holy Fire, but which no longer has the scienti ically inexplicable physical characteristics of Holy Fire, HF1. Since it has not been possible to analyze HF1 directly, the attention of the following description will be directed to the HF2.n which was passed to the irst author during the Celebration of Holy Saturday in 2019. For this lighted candle we will use the designation HF2.10 since the lame is estimated to have been passed about 10 times, starting with the Patriarch, before it reached the irst author. Besides the manifestation of the Holy Fire being the appearance of a bluish light above the stone of the Holy Sepulcher (HF1) there are other manifestations of the phenomenon of the Holy Fire that occur at the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher. Bishop Photiki [1999] lists the manifestations of the Holy Fire in Table 3.1; we see that, from the post-ninth-century manifestations there are 14 reports of Holy Light, 6 of white, blue or violet light and 4 of ire that we can classify as HF1. There are also listed other interesting phenomena, related to the manifestation of Holy Fire that deserve a comment based on the hypothesis of a source connected with an intense electric ield.

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They are A, flash of light or lightning (5 reports); B, rain, dew or snow (4 reports); C, loud noise or whistle, earthquake (3 reports); D, cloud or smoke (4 reports); E, miraculous lighting of lamps and candles (16 reports). In addition, labeled as class F, are grouped the following manifestations: cross or triangle of light, unconsuming flame, angel or dove, being in total 8 reports. Figure 3.9 shows a histogram of these manifestations.

Table 3.1 Manifestations of the Holy Fire or related to it, documented from the post-ninth-century [Photiki, 1999], subdivided in the classes discussed in the text Class

Manifestation

HF1

Light from Heaven or Holy Light

14

Flash of light or lightning

5

HF1 HF1 A B

White, blue or violet light Fire

Rain, dew or snow

Number of Reports 6 4

4

C

Loud noise or whistle

E

“Miraculous” lighting of lamps

13

F

Unconsuming flame

2

C

D E F F F

Earthquake

Cloud or smoke

“Miraculous” lighting of candles Cross or triangle of light Angel Dove

2 1

4 3 2 2 2

A.  Flash of light or lightningj (5 reports), see Fig. 3.10. The first author of this book was present in 2019 at the ceremony of the Holy Fire and videos confirm the strange phenomenon [Fanti 2019]. Outside the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher, various series of dozens of lightning bolts, emitted at regular intervals with a frequency ranging from 3 to 10 Hz, were observed just before the Patriarch came out of the Edicule with the HF2.1.

lightning bolt is a very powerful electric discharge; the flash of this discharge is named lightning and its sound thunder.

jA

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Figure 3.9 Histogram of the manifestations of the Holy Fire, or related to it, documented from the post-ninth century (Photiki, 1999), subdivided in the classes discussed in the text (G. Fanti).

Figure 3.10 Lightning (indicated by the black arrow) out of the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher verified in conjunction with HF1 ignition (Greek City Times 2020 of Sami Studio, time 2:41, processed by G. Fanti).

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B.

C.

D.

E.

These lightning bolts are not easy to explain because they are characterized by both lower frequencies than those typical of camera lashes, and with a greater number per sequence. However, we can hypothesize that there was a series of electric discharges caused by a very intense electric ield present at that moment in the Holy Sepulchre. Rain, dew or snow (4 reports). These phenomena likewise are not easy to explain, especially in a relatively mild period of the spring season. However, in the hypothesis of electrical phenomena connected with the generation of the Holy Fire, we can think of a phenomenon named in physics, the Peltier effectk. This cooling could have generated frost on the cold element and therefore snow which could have turned into rain in the relatively warm environment of the Holy Sepulcher. Loud noise or whistle, earthquake (3 reports). Even these relatively rare phenomena are not easy to explain directly. However, if we think of a source of intense energy, of an electromagnetic origin, it is not dif icult to suppose that this source can interact with the surrounding environment, causing loud noise and whistles in the air. The testimony of H. Skarlakidis [2015], presented in the following Point E, leads us to think that this loud noise or whistle can be the noise produced by a lightning crossing the surrounding air. It is not impossible to imagine that the hypothetical vibrations produced by the intense phenomenon in question can spread to the ground below the Holy Sepulcher, also triggering a local earthquake. Cloud of smoke (4 reports). Although strange, this phenomenon is easier to explain, in the hypothesis of an energy that produces electric discharges, by thinking on a smaller scale. For example, when we light a lame using a lighter, we often see that smoke appears along with the sparks. So even on a larger scale it is not dif icult to think to the formation of smoke clouds. “Miraculous” lighting of lamps and candles (16 reports). According to the authors of this book, it is not miraculous that

kPeltier

effect is a thermoelectric phenomenon in which an electric current lowing between two different conductors or semiconductors, placed in electrical contact with each other, produces a transfer of heat and therefore a cooling of even up to tens of degrees.

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lamps and candles are lit, assuming the presence of an intense electric field that also causes sparks and discharges. Instead, the presence of an electrical phenomenon of such intensity that it also produces sparks and discharges capable of illuminating these objects even outside the Basilica of Holy Sepulcher is to be considered miraculous. A direct testimony comes from H. Skarlakidis [2015 p. 223] who personally witnessed such a phenomenon on Holy Saturday of 2008. About ten minutes after the first manifestation of Holy Fire in the Holy Sepulcher, “… a bluish white ray of light resembling an electric discharge or lightning entered from a window of the church (authors’ note: Church of Sts. Constantine and Helena in the Greek Patriarchate of Jerusalem). The bright ray was straight and moved with lightning speed to an icon of the Virgin Mary and Christ exactly opposed the window, and then bounced off toward another area of the church. At the same time a loud whistling was heard. … the oil lamp hanging in front of it (authors’ note: the icon of the Virgin Mary) had been ignited by the bluish white ray. That particular lamp had previously been extinguished, as were all other lamps inside the church.” This fact shows that the Holy Fire also manifests itself outside the Holy Sepulcher. Bishop Photiki [1999, p. 99] documents the ignition of lamps suspended next to the doors of the Holy Kouvouklikon (Sepulchral Chamber) near the entrance of the Basilica of the Resurrection and outside the Church on a balcony near the Church of Saint Constantine that occurred in 1990. He has also documented the ignition of pilgrim’s candles in 1984 and in 1985 when “the Holy Fire … descended from the dome of the Church of the Resurrection as a cloud of a superb blue color.” F.  Cross or triangle of light (2 reports), unconsuming flame (2 reports), angel, dove (4 reports). These phenomena observed in concomitance of the Holy Fire are not easy to explain As these observations are not attributable to suggestion of the public because not rare, an explanation seems to require the hypothesis of a miracle related to the Resurrection of Christ. It is interesting the report of Simeon Lehatsi an Armenian chronicler [Skarlakidis, 2015, p. 211], who witnessed the Holy Fire

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in the year 1617. He wrote: “… a sheikh and a judge, along with the police chief, came and extinguished all the oil lamps … They sealed the tomb of Jesus and placed (Turkish) policemen so that there would be no case of deceit or trickery. … suddenly a THUNDER was heard, and CRACKS … Then some DOVES appeared, which ϔlow high towards the dome … The Holy Tomb RESONATED LOUDLY and began to VIBRATE …. The Tomb produced LOUD SOUNDS, and all of a sudden there was a most great rumble of THUNDER and the LIGHT radiated and came out from a window (of the Tomb). As soon as they saw the light, they removed the seals … The slab over the Holy Tomb was reddish and warm, and began to sweat, as drops rolled on top of it …” Some terms of Lehatsi’s description are written here in capital letters to facilitate the comparison with the points of HF1, from A to F described above, but something interesting is also added in reference to the slab of the Holy Tomb in the interior of the Edicule: the perspiration of drops of liquid over the stone became reddish and warm. These phenomena probably refer to what happened during Christ’s Resurrection when the hypothetical energy produced by the corpse of Christ heated the lower slab impregnated with liquid substances like aloe and myrrh. The vast majority of the phenomena listed of HF1, (from A to E) may seem very strange and therefore miraculous when considered individually. However, if these phenomena are considered globally, the presence of a single source capable of producing them seems to be quite clear: the presence of an intense electric ield. Consequently, all these phenomena seem to be clear evidence of the presence of an intense electric ield inside the Holy Sepulcher which, being at least for the moment impossible to explain scienti ically, can only be considered miraculous and related to the Resurrection of Christ. Also, the other phenomena listed (F), are not apparently attributable to electric ields and can therefore be considered miraculous in themselves. They in fact testify to the peculiarity of the event in question, the commemoration of the Resurrection of Christ.

What Do We Know about the Holy Fire?

3.2.2 Exceptions to the Formation of the Holy Fire in the Edicule As mentioned in Section 2.4, the manifestation of the Holy Fire is recorded for at least seventeen centuries [Skarlakidis, 2015], and according to both the Greek cleric Niketas (10th century) and the Persian physician Al-Masihi (10th century) Holy Fire began appearing immediately after the Ascension of Jesus Christ, every Holy Saturday without fail over the passage of the centuries. Nevertheless, there are important exceptions to the normal manifestation of the Holy Fire inside the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher recorded in the years 1101, 1579 and 1971. The exception of 1101 described in Section 2.4.8 seems strictly connected to the Western in luences of the internal life of the Orthodox Church. Bishop Photiki [1999] writes that in 1101 the Holy Fire did not appear at the appointed time and that Otto Meinardus summarizes the description of Fulcher de Chartres or Fulcherius in the following way: “… the Holy Fire did not descend as expected … and the Patriarch (which was the Latin Bishop in Jerusalem since the Greek Orthodox Patriarch was in exile in Cyprus) ordered everyone to leave the church. On the following day, on Easter Day, after much praying, the long-expected light did appear in one of the lamps of the Holy Sepulchre …” The non-appearance of the Holy Fire was therefore attributed to the fact that the Latin Christians excluded the Orthodox Greeks from the Holy Rite. As reported in Section 2.4.11 on the Holy Saturday 1579, the Turkish governors forbad the Patriarch Sophorius IV to enter the Basilica of Holy Sepulcher so the Patriarch with the crowd remained outside the church in the courtyard all day and into the evening, even after the sunset. Sophorius IV stood in prayer near a column of the Church but when it was getting dark a strange phenomenon happened: the column was conspicuously cracked, see Fig. 3.11, and the Holy Fire came out of it. The Patriarch then immediately lit his candle and passed the Holy Fire to the crowd that was surrounding him. The stunned Turkish guards then opened the church and allowed the faithful to enter.

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Figure 3.11 Court outside the Holy Sepulcher with details of the cracked column showing the effects of the Holy Fire of 1579 (G. Fanti).

According with two experts, Prof. Evgeny Morozov and Prof. George Papadopulos, who were interviewed by H. Skarlakidis [2015], the structure of the large fracture in the column highlighted by the larger arrow of Fig. 3.12 is such that could only be as a result of electric discharge. In agreement with the authors of this book, Prof. Papadopulos adds that the fracture of the column in question occurred with a seismic wave directed upwards. In particular, the column and the surrounding structure show the necessary presence of a strong torsional shear stress coupled with compression to generate such fractures inclined at about 30° with respect the vertical; see the three smaller arrows of Fig. 3.12. Therefore, the fracture of the column seems to be best explained due to the combination of a probable strong lightning bolt and large seismic wave. According to the authors of this book, there was the coupling of so-called S-waves with Love wavesl. lS-waves,

also known as secondary waves, are transverse waves where particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. Love waves cause instead horizontal shearing of the ground.

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Figure 3.12 Detail of the cracked column evidenced by the larger arrow with other minor cracks on the structure evidenced by the three smaller arrows (G. Fanti).

According to Dr. Iulian Rusu [2010], Editor-in-chief of the European Journal of Science and Theology, “The split column is made from limestone, an insulating material where the main component is calcium carbonate. The atoms in insulating materials have very tightly-bound electrons, being non-conductors for the electric current. … With enough voltage applied, any insulating material will eventually succumb to the electrical ‘pressure’ and electron ϔlow will occur. … Considering that in the above-mentioned case it was also a plasma phenomenon due to an electric discharge through an insulating material one can determine the applied voltage. …. we can determine a value for the voltage of at least several hundreds of kilovolts.”

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Other tests performed by the irst author are reported in Section 3.2.4 and they agree with the hypothesis that a cold ire was formed. Summing up, in 1579 the Holy Fire did not manifest itself in the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher because the Edicule was made inaccessible by the Turkish authorities. Instead, the Holy Fire manifested itself outside of the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher entirely with the concomitance of a bolt of lightning producing an electric discharge of several hundreds of kilovolts and an earthquake. The exception of 1971, see Section 2.4.12, seems strictly connected to the Western in luences of the Orthodox Church. The Bulgarian Archimandrite Sergius Iazadjiev refers that in 1971, under the pressure from the Geneva-based World Council of Churches, the Jerusalem Patriarchate introduced the Gregorian calendar for the liturgical cycle in substitution of the “Old” or Julian calendar [Photiki, 1999, p. 94–95], after years of resistance to Roman Catholic innovation. In the same year, on the Great Saturday, nevertheless the Holy Fire did not appear in the Holy Sepulcher. Shocked, the Patriarch Benedict of Jerusalem, restored immediately the “Old” or Julian calendar in the jurisdiction of this patriarchate. From this year, the Holy Fire continued to manifest in the Holy Sepulcher on Orthodox Holy Saturday. The exceptions of 1101 and of 1971 highlight how the manifestation of the Holy Fire is closely related to the Eastern Orthodox Faith symbolized in one case by the exile of the Greek Patriarch and in the other case by the Old, or Julian calendar which is still followed by the Orthodox Churches. Therefore, we can think that these three exceptions found over the centuries con irm the established rule that on Holy Saturday of Orthodox Easter the Orthodox Patriarch enters the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher with unlit candles and exits with miraculously lit candles. Some phenomena like lashes and electric discharges also are so important in the understanding of the Holy Fire that are they treated more in the details in the next Section 3.2.3.

What Do We Know about the Holy Fire?

3.2.3 Flashes and Electric Discharges Probably some of the most important manifestations of HF1 are those related to electrical phenomena of high intensity such as flashes and electric discharges which are the cause of direct ignition of candles. This section attempts to study these phenomena in more detail.

A. Blue Flashes outside the Edicule

Bishop Photiki [1999, p. 98] wrote that Russian professor of chemistry Eugene Zavarin was present in 1985 at the rite of the Holy Fire and that, when the Patriarch brought the Holy Fire out of the Edicule, he saw: “flashes of blue-colored light bouncing off the walls of the dome of the Church and through the galleries, almost like static electricity.”



Haris Skarlakidis [2015] confirms this: “… the Holy Fire is diffused in the church in the form of bluish white incandescence.” adding that “The Holy Sepulcher frequently appears as if completely engulfed by flames, or as emitting light …”





From a physical point of view, flashes are phenomena that can be easily correlated to high intensity electric discharges. The fact that, as reported by Eugene Zavarin, they bounce off the walls of the Holy Sepulcher, suggests lightning that strikes the walls of the Basilica which are made of partially insulating material and therefore unable to discharge the electrical energy of the lightning to the ground. It should be noted that all observers of these flashes and lights reported their bluish characteristic, unlike the more common lights which are more yellowish. As reported in Section 3.1.2, the blue color corresponds to a temperature of about 1400 °C (2552 °F), higher than that of the yellowish flames at about 1200 °C (2192 °F).

B. Trains of Lightning Strikes outside the Edicule

There are several videos [Lamprotes1 2011 p. 10, ChristIsRisenGR which highlight the presence of trains of lightning strikes outside the Edicule, but inside the Basilica of the

2011]

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Holy Sepulcher. The first author also testifies [Fanti 2019] to the presence of multiple associative yet disconnected trains of lightning strikes that occur at regular frequencies. Indeed, various series of tens of strikes of lightning were emitted at regular intervals at a frequency variable from 3 to 10 Hz just before the Patriarch goes out of the Edicule with the HF2.1. These strikes of lightning are not easy to explain from a physical point of view because they are characterized by lower frequencies than those typical of camera flashes produced by photographers and with a greater number per sequence.

The fact that several flashes are formed at regular intervals could be related to hypothetical discharges generated by the very intense electric field acting in that moment. These discharges cannot be completely dissipated by the ground at one time because it manifests a certain electrical resistance. Consequently, these electric discharges are dissipated in “packets” of equal quantities of electrons which generate flashes of equal light intensity at regular time intervals. Such discharges can be related to a possible autoignition of a candle because a strike of lightning can produce a fire in the candle’s wick.

C. Blue Flashes inside the Edicule



Access to the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher, which is immediately closed after the Patriarch enters, is allowed only to the Patriarch with very few high prelates and to the police officer in charge of checking that no one lights unlit candles by traditional means. As a result, the public is not allowed to see what happens in the inside. However, in the two walls at the sides of the pre-chamber of the Edicule two oval holes allow you to glimpse what is happening inside. Normally there are so many people outside of these holes in the walls that it is impossible to approach them and not even the cameramen filming the event for various media are able to film what is going on inside. A very special case occurred in 2020, when due to the COVID-19 infection the Basilica was closed to the public. On

What Do We Know about the Holy Fire?

this occasion a camera operator from Studio Sami was able to approach one of the holes. He then pointed his camera right at one of these holes of the pre-chamber and ilmed the inside of the Edicule, just a few moments before the Patriarch came out with the candles lit by the Holy Fire HF2.1 (see Section 3.2.1).

Even though the camera operator calibrated the camera for the brightness outside the Edicule and therefore everything appears black inside, the ilm allowed us to perceive some bluish luminescence corresponding to HF1 that wandered inside the Edicule. This luminescence was irst detected by Prof. Fabio Crosilla who immediately informed the irst author. For example, Fig. 3.13 shows one of the frames extracted from the ilm where a blue light, supposed to be HF1, is seen.

Figure 3.13 Example of blue flash appearing in the Edicule’s pre-chamber few moments before the exit of the Patriarch with the candles lit by the HF2.1. The blue light visible through the hole, is enlarged and contrast enhanced in the square indicated by the arrow. Father Farah Baddour, on front of the hole, looks at these blue lights of HF1, waiting to light the candles he has in his hand (Greek City Times 2020 of Sami Studio, time 2:41, processed by G. Fanti).

Figure 3.14 shows a complete series of blue lashes, supposed to be HF1, appearing in the Edicule’s pre-chamber just a few

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moments before the Patriarch left the Edicule with the candles lit by HF2.1 (see Fig. 3.8). The entire duration of the phenomenon lasts less than half a second and there are at least three different light sources of HF1 with different intensity and duration. It is interesting to observe how the three HF1 bluish points of light, visible on the frames at the center of the sequence, are generated in different instants in the center of the luminous cloud and how they are always extinguished inside it: this absolutely appears to be a phenomenon not easy to be reproduced arti icially.

Figure 3.14 Blue flashes sequence of HF1 appearing in the Edicule’s pre-chamber at time 2:41:05 of the registration of the 2020 Ceremony (Greek City Times 2020 of Sami Studio, Ɵme 2:41, processed by G. Fanti).

On the top of Fig. 3.14 is the entire succession of frames (from the left to the right), each lasting 1/25 s; at the bottom (on two rows) are enlarged the frames relative to the central part of the recording where the lashes are more evident. We must note that the entire duration of the phenomenon lasts about half a second and that there are at least three different light sources with different intensity and duration, see Fig. 3.15.

Figure 3.15 compares the blue lash of HF1 shown in Fig. 3.14 with those obtained from an experiment where a CD was produced by a conducting body placed near a grounded conductive plate, at room temperature, in air and subjected to a voltage of 300 kV.

What Do We Know about the Holy Fire?

Figure 3.15 Above on the left is a frame of the blue flash of HF1 shown in Fig. 3.14 (Greek City Times 2020 of Sami Studio, Ɵme 2:41:05, processed by G. Fanti). From that frame, the isochromatic lines have been highlighted on the right to show the different levels of light intensity of the light sources of the HF1 flash. For comparison, on the bottom (G. Fanti), we can see the similarity of the blue flashes in question with those obtained from an experiment where a CD was obtained from a conducƟng body placed near a grounded conductive plate, at room temperature, in air and subjected to a voltage of 300 kV. The blue flashes have sizes of the order of one decimeter (4 in), comparable with those of Fig. 3.14.

The similitude of the blue lashes produced by the experiment with those detected in the Holy Sepulcher is evident thus con irming the hypothesis that HF1 is strictly related to intense electric ields. The irst author contacted Father Farah Baddour by telephone to ascertain through an eyewitness that those blue spots

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visible in the ilm actually corresponded to lashes of light and not to any re lections of light produced for example by the policeman’s blue shirt. Indeed, Father Baddour con irmed that he had observed these blue lashes inside the pre-chamber of the Edicule af irming that these lashes were the Holy Fire, HF1 according to the classi ication of Section 3.2.1. Haris Skarlakidis, who is in contact with the irst author, asked him for telephone contact to ascertain in person and on July 15, 2020, Father Baddour, repeated to him that he saw blue-white lightning (αστραπές in Greek), adding that the pre-chamber’s inner space was illuminated by them.

D. Bright Spheres

Among the peculiar phenomena detected, we must remember the luminous spheres sometimes observed by the faithful and more rarely recorded on ilm. For example, Fig. 3.16 shows a succession of four frames where we observe a yellowish luminous sphere that moves over the heads of the crowd at a speed of the order of several meters per second (about a dozen feet per second). In the ilm recording the Holy Fire ceremony of 1994 it is interesting to observe that a similar sphere hits the arms of several persons, changing momentarily its shape but without producing any injury to them. According to Haris Skarlakidis [2022], “This bright yellow sphere is the lame of a bundle of 33 candles of the representative of the Arabs Orthodox who just received the Holy Fire from the small circular window of the Edicule in the year 1994. As this man runs through the north corridor with his bundle on high, it seems like a moving lame above the heads of the people. Some Greek Orthodox priests in Jerusalem, although they accept the authenticity of the miracle of the Holy Fire, they have explained that there is nothing miraculous in this incident.” However, the authors of this book disagree with the above interpretation for the following reasons. First of all, a bundle of candles simply cannot produce a circular lame like the one shown in Photogram 4 of Fig. 3.16. If we then refer to the shape assumed by the sphere in Frame 3 and observing that the phenomenon lasts less than a tenth of a second, it is not

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easy to think that a person during that short interval of time could rotate his bundle of lighted candles making him perform more than one full turn.

Figure 3.16 Four frames taken from the film by Stylianakis Antonios (2016, during the Miracle of the Holy Fire in 1994 at time 6:40 (Frame 1) - 6: 44 (Frame 4) where a luminous sphere is photographed. In the time interval 6:43 (Frame 2) - 6: 44 (Frame 2) of just over a second, the sphere crosses the crowd at the height of their heads, also hitting the raised arm of a person. It is interesƟng to observe that the sphere in Frame 3 hits a person’s raised arm, visibly changing its spherical shape into a kind of ring with a lower protuberance and then resuming its initial shape. In Frame 4 you can see the spherical shape when the object passes close to the camera.

processed by G. Fanti)

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Instead, according to the authors, the sphere of light in question seems independent of a hypothetical beam of lighted candles and is rather to be attributed to an electrical phenomenon linked to ball lightingm, even if very dif icult if not impossible to be scienti ically explained as occurring in that place inside the Holy Sepulcher. The phenomenon of luminous spheres, also named ball lightning, has not yet been studied in detail by physics because they are very rare phenomena in nature. Notwithstanding this, at least one scienti ic paper describes them [Jianyong et al., 2014] as related to intense electric ields.

To con irm this hypothesis, Fig. 3.17 shows a second example of a bright sphere, where in this case it appears also brighter than that of Fig. 3.16 and clearly bigger than the lames produced by the bundles of burning candles visible in the same frame. Probably referring to similar phenomena the same Haris Skarlakidis [2015] in his interesting book con irms: “… at other times a bright sphere appears, which resembles the sun and stirs above the tomb.”

Therefore, various and relatively different bright spheres, for size and dimensions are present during the ceremony and future studies might better identify and compare them with lightning from a scienti ic point of view. Browsing the web, you will also ind other ilms relating to luminous spheres called ORB, but these phenomena are not yet scienti ically ascertained as they could be arti icially produced, for example, by acquiring the images of dust grains near the objective, illuminated by the lash during photographic shooting. mA

ball lightning is a rare and particular luminous phenomenon of the atmosphere. It is a small luminous globe, almost spherical in shape and of variable diameter, stationary or, more frequently, in rapid and apparently casual movement. It can be seen both in the presence and in the absence of thunderstorms and can be related to intense electric ields.

What Do We Know about the Holy Fire?

Figure 3.17 Two frames taken from a film recorded by ChristIsRisenGR [1996] during the Miracle of the Holy Fire in 1996. On the top, for comparison, the frame is taken in proximity of the Edicule when no evident phenomena were visible; on the boƩom the frame evidences a light sphere bigger and brighter than that shown in Fig. 3.16.

3.2.4 Experimental Results We have already seen at the beginning of Section 3.2 that up to now it has not been possible to carry out scienti ic experiments on the HF1. The study of HF3, on the other hand, seems to be of minimal signi icance because the peculiar characteristics of the HF2.n seem to die out before its transformation in HF3.

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The following are the published results the authors of this book have found that were performed based on scientific analyses on HF2.10 and are compared with other results previously obtained from HF2.n by other scientists (assuming the independence of n from the measured results.)

A. Electric Discharges





Section 3.2.3 has presented various phenomena that can easily be related to electric discharges, but very few measurements other than photos and videos have been performed using technical scientific instrumentation.

A case of indirect measurement of the presence of probable phenomena of electrical interference was reported on the occasion of the restoration of the Edicule which took place on 26, 27 and 28 October 2016, when a group of scientists and religious authorities removed the marble slab covering the tomb of Christ. On that occasion electric field measuring instruments recorded electromagnetic disturbances; in particular, when placed vertically on the stone on which the body of Christ rested, the instrumentation software stopped working or malfunctioned. The director of the operations, Prof. Antonia Moropoulou [2016], affirmed that it is difficult to imagine that someone has risked their reputation for an advertising trick.

It is therefore easy to think that these detected disturbances were produced by an electromagnetic field present near the marble slab, perhaps the same field that produces the HF1 on each Holy Saturday.

On Holy Saturday of Orthodox Easter 2008, Russian physicist Andrey Alexandrovich Volkov, associated professor in mechanics and materials, led a scientific expedition organized by Professor Alexander Moskovsky. For the measurements of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation at certain frequencies, he used a digital oscilloscope connected to a laptop on which special software was installed, see Fig. 3.18. Volkov was about ten meters from the entrance to the Holy Sepulcher.

What Do We Know about the Holy Fire?







The results of the measurements came out a year later, on April 21, 2009 [Volkov 2014]. In an interview with the daily newspaper Vera, Volkov stated that the measured presence of plasma inside the Holy Sepulcher is scientifically inexplicable and unreasonable. The main result was achieved with the recording of an unexpected impulse during the manifestation of the Holy Light, when the Patriarch was inside the Tomb at 14:04; about two minutes later, the Patriarch left the Edicule with the Holy Light. Volkov [2012] declared that

“the appearance of Light is an inseparable part of all these incredible, inexplicable phenomena that have the same electrical nature. • First, the inexplicable appearance of plasma, which, according to him, is a miracle in itself.

• Secondly, inexplicable and unreasonable electric charge of the air in combination with a powerful difference in electric potentials. • Thirdly, the appearance of an electric discharge at the moment of the Holy Light descending.”







Volkov added that: “the Holy Light is accompanied by the appearance of plasma, which looks very similar to lowtemperature plasma.” and he explains that during the descent of the Holy Fire, the electric charge of the air is felt by many people when the hairs on their arms stand up. In agreement with him, this phenomenon is possible in the presence of a large difference in electric potential. To give an example, this phenomenon could occur between the roof and the floor of a house made of pure quartz in the presence of a humid environment and a thunderstorm outside. But at Easter in Jerusalem there are normally no thunderstorms, the air is dry and the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher does not contain quartz materials. Consequently, it seems absurd to hypothesize the Holy Sepulcher as a gigantic resonator, rectifier and capacitor, necessary for the accumulation of electric charge and the subsequent discharge.

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Figure 3.18 Scientist Andrey Volkov [2012] (on the left) with the digital oscilloscope (on the center) used for the electrical measurements (on the right). On the top is registered a normal environmental condition and, on the bottom, the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation at certain frequencies acquired at the moment of the Holy Light descending. The red point indicates the first resonant frequency of the electric discharge and the successive minor peaks (at frequencies multiple of the first one) give an indication of the rectangular-like shape of the signal.

From these results it is actually dif icult to deal with the phenomena found by Volkov without having to resort to the hypothesis of a miracle, and more particularly a miracle strictly connected to electrical phenomena of high intensity.

B. Cold Plasma: Temperature Measurements

Section 3.1.2 reports that the yellowish color of a lame corresponds to a temperature of about 1200 °C (2192 °F) but Point A of this section reports the inding of Prof. A. Volkov that plasma of the Holy Light looks very similar to lowtemperature plasma, meaning temperatures below 100 °C (212 °F). The irst author of this book, in agreement with Prof. Volkov, con irms the relatively low temperature of the HF2.10 (see Section 3.2.1, Point 2) which does not burn the beard, nor give a sense of pain, see Fig. 3.19.

Ref. [Fanti 2019] reports that “Archpriest Gennady Zaridze of the Russian Association of Orthodox scientists, rector of the Church of the Intercession of the Holy Virgin in the Voronezh

What Do We Know about the Holy Fire?

region, used an infrared pyrometer in 2016 to measure the temperature of the HF … The temperature was measured on a silver plate (because silver is one of the most heat-conducting metals) ive millimeters wide and one millimeter thick, put on the lame.”

Figure 3.19 The HF2.10 (see Section 3.2.1, Point 2) produced by a bundle of 33 candles, taken by the first author about aŌer five minutes from the initial ignition, does not burn the beard, nor give a sense of pain (G. Fanti).

In reference to the results obtained by Zaridze, Victor Khroul [2016] reports that “The temperature immediately after we received the ire from the Patriarch of Jerusalem … around 2:34 p.m. Jerusalem time on Saturday, April 30 was 42 °C [107.6 °F], but 15 minutes later, at 2:49 p.m., it was 320 °C [608 °F].”

The silver plate on which the temperature was measured by G. Zaridze represents the temperature perceived by an object placed inside the lame like the beard of the irst author.

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Instead, the color of the lame represents the thermodynamic temperature of the molecules it contains.

Since the temperature perceived by the lame of HF2.n (with n varying from 5 to 20 in the irst few minutes) was measured at 42 °C (107.6 °F) and the thermodynamic temperature of the yellow lame is about 1200 °C (2192 °F), we must assume, in agreement with what is reported in Section 3.1.3, the presence of a thermal imbalance between the electrons having much higher thermal energy and the colder protons and neutrons in the plasma of the HF2.n; we therefore have in the HF2.n a cold plasma or imbalance plasma in the same environment (see also Section 3.2.5).

The presence of cold plasma in the HF2.n is con irmed by the experiment performed by the irst author [2019] addressed to compare the effects of the HF2.10 with the lame of a common ire independently lit by a lighter.

A bleached linen fabric was posed about 3 cm over the lames of the two candles used for the experiment and the study consisted in the analysis of the browning/charring produced on linen fabrics exposed to the two lames for a period of about 30 s. This experiment was performed about 10 minutes from the HF2.1 presented by the Patriarch.

The linen fabric clearly shows a different effect of the two ires under analysis: while the common ire burned the fabric, the HF2.10 produced only a browning of the linen ibers (singeing), see Fig. 3.20.

This is the experimental demonstration that while the common ire burns the fabric, having a perceived temperature higher than 230–250 °C (446–482 °F), necessary to burn a linen fabric, and lower than about 500 °C (932 °F) typical of the common lame’s periphery, the HF2.10 has a lower temperature of about 180–200 °C (356–392 °F), necessary to singe the fabric. In agreement with the results of G. Zaridze, after about 10 minutes the HF2.10 was still colder than a common ire. The irst author also performed other temperature measurements which are described below.

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A K-thermocouple thermometer was used in which the junction between the two metals was left uncovered in order to signi icantly reduce the time constantn to measure the instantaneous temperature of the incandescent wick.

Figure 3.20 Experiment of bleached linen fabric exposed to fires for about 30 s; while the common fire (on the top left) burns the linen, the HF2.10 (on the top right) only singes it (G. Fanti).

As Fig. 3.21 indicates, the two candles, one lit with a common ire and one lit with HF2.10 show similar temperatures to the wick in the range of 800 °C–900 °C (1472 °F–1652 °F). In fact, as it is shown in Fig. 3.22, no apparent differences are evident in the infrared image, while the other temperature experiment (of the wick excluded) evidenced a colder plasma for the HF2.10.

nTime

constant is an engineering term that de ines the readiness of response of the instrument under calibration.

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Figure 3.21 Temperature measurement by means of a K-thermocouple: the two values of 892.2 °C (1637.96 °F) and 846.2 °C (1555.16 °F) refer to measurements performed in proximity of the wick of both the HF2.10 (on the right) and a common fire (on the left) (G. Fanti).

From these results concerning the temperature measurements, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. The comparison between a candle lit with HF2.10 and one lit with a common ire evidenced that the HF2.10 is made up of a colder plasma that only singes a fabric placed about 3 cm above the lame, when a common ire causes the fabric to catch ire. This result agrees with the measurements performed by G. Zaridze, who detected a plasma temperature varying from 42 °C to 320 °C in the irst 15 minutes. 2. The wicks of the candles lit both with HF2.10 and a common ire, measured with a thermocouple thermometer, always maintain a temperature between 800 °C and 900 °C (1472 °F and 1652 °F), but it will be necessary to clarify in the future why the infrared analysis does not show appreciable differences between the two lames.

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Figure 3.22 Set-up of the experiment on the left and, on the right, infrared photo of the two flames where no evident temperature difference appears (G. Fanti).

C. Other Experiments on the Holy Fire The irst author [Fanti 2019] performed additional tests during the event of the Holy Fire of 2019 in Jerusalem. In particular, the spectrum of light produced by HF2.10 was compared with that of a common candle lame and the ionization of the air inside the Basilica was measured.

The measurement of the spectrum of light was performed by means of a hand-spectroscope (Kruss) connected to a video camera, see Fig. 3.23 which compares the result of the HF2.10 with that of a common ire independently lit by a lighter. Almost no blue light is observed in the two spectra because in a common ire the lame temperature varies from 1400 °C (2552 °F) at its base to 500 °C (932 °F) in the periphery, so that the blue light is very weak, in agreement with the curve of the Black Body of Fig. 3.6. For the rest the two spectra are typical of a low-temperature black body. The only minimal difference between the two spectra is that of HF2.10 seems to show a bit lower temperature because the yellow band seems less intense, in agreement with the previous results regarding the cold plasma of HF2.10. Instead the slight shift of the HF2.10 spectrum to the right is simply the result of optical and not physical effect.

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Figure 3.23 Spectra of the HF2.10 (1) compared with that of a common fire (2): no evident differences are evident (G. Fanti).

Figure 3.24 Air ion counter used to detect the ions concentration in air. It measured 140 negative ions/cm2 before the HF1 ignition, while the reading raised up to 6040 negative ions/cm2 during the HF2 (G. Fanti).

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The state of ionization of the environment inside the Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher was also measured because any increase in ions in the air is correlated to the effect of a possible intense electric ield or other similar phenomena present in the environment.

This ionization has been measured using an air ion counter before and after the ignition of the HF1, see Fig. 3.24. The measurements show a clear increasing of negative ions in the environment from 140 to 6040 negative ions/cm2.

This result, which seems striking for demonstrating the presence of intense electrical phenomena in the environment, must however consider the fact that the hundreds of lit candles also cause an increase in the ionization of the environment.

D. Experiments on the Cracked Column of the Holy Sepulcher

The irst author performed the following experimental analyses to verify at least partially what is reported in Sections 2.4.11 and 3.2.2 about the historical news of the Holy Fire which appeared on the external column of the entrance of the Holy Sepulcher, with consequent fracturing of the column itself.

While considering that from 1579 to today more than four centuries have passed during which the many pilgrims that visited the Holy Sepulcher contaminated the surface of this column in various ways, including engraving various crosses (see Fig. 2.11), the irst author analyzed the surface samples taken from this column as follows. Dr. Ihsan Salama (see Fig. 1.39), took the surface deposit of the column by sampling with adhesive tapes, while Prof. Crisitian Sorsoli of Udine (Italy) took a very small sample of dust using a metal ile. In Ihsan Salama’s sticky tapes, see Fig. 3.25, the presence of traces of carbonaceous agglomerates typical of combustion fume residues (soot or carbon black) was found. Such microparticles are generally produced during combustion when the amount of oxygen is insuf icient to completely burn the hydrocarbons into carbon dioxide and water, or when the lame temperature is relatively low.

The dust sampled by Cristian Sorsoli, see Fig. 3.26, are almost totally composed of calcium carbonate constituting the marble

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of the column. In polarized light, they show the presence of crystalline fragments which are typical of exposure to heat sources below 900 °C (1652 °F).

The presence of carbonaceous agglomerates on the surface of the column in question suggests its exposure to a ire, while the presence of calcium carbonate crystals suggests a relatively cold ire compared to a common ire, which can also exceed 2000 °C (3632 °F). Consequently, even if these results have a relative and partial signi icance for the possible external contamination that occurred over the centuries, they are in agreement with what is reported by historical documents: the appearance of a relatively cold ire such as HF1 or HF2 in correspondence with the cracked column under examination.

Figure 3.25 On the left, carbonaceous agglomerates found in the sticky tapes that Dr. Ihsan Salama placed in contact with the surface of the cracked column; on the right the EDX spectrum of a particle shows the very high percentage of carbon with traces of other elements due to the support of the sample (G. Fanti).

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Figure 3.26 On the left, particles of calcium carbonate, seen in polarized light, constituting the powders obtained by Prof. Cristian Sorsoli in correspondence with the cracked column. On the right the EDX spectrum of a parƟcle shows the very high percentage of carbon, oxygen and calcium with traces of other elements due to the sample support (G. Fanti).

3.2.5 Initial Hypotheses to Explain the Coldness of the Holy Fire Given the environmental conditions in the Holy Sepulcher apparently dominated by an intense electric ield, two working hypotheses can be formulated: the irst one works in the realm of science, the second one instead also considers possible theological aspects. The irst hypothesis tries to explain the fact that HF2.10, and more generally HF2.n, contain cold plasma, see also Section 3.2.4. The intense electric ield transforms an initially neutral gas into an ionized gas by passing an electric current through it. The electrons of the ionized gas are then excited until they emit photons at high temperatures; for a plasma tending to blue, as shown in Section 3.1.2, the dynamic temperature is around 1400 °C (2552 °F). In agreement with the experiment of Dev Lunawat [2022] reported in Section 2.4.14, the much lower mass of the electrons, compared to the other particles of the plasma, is not able to excite too much particles of greater mass and therefore we are in the presence of a cold plasma with electrons and photons at relatively

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high temperature (and therefore kinetic energy), but with the other heavier particles at a lower temperature (close to room temperature and therefore also with lower kinetic energy). This is what happens in the very irst minutes when the HF2.n is composed of cold plasma at a temperature of about 40 °C. As the minutes pass (about 15 according to G. Zaridze) the energetic collisions of the electrons with the other heavier particles in the plasma continuously transfer their kinetic energy and then their higher velocity to the latter, thus increasing kinetic energy and dynamic temperature of the other heavier particles. After a certain period of time, of the order of ten minutes, the kinetic energy of the electrons is transferred to the other surrounding heavier particles thus making the plasma hotter until the normal equilibrium condition of the common hot plasma is reached. To verify the trustworthiness of the hypothesis formulated, the irst author asked Dr. Giuseppe Baldacchini for a comment (see Note f. Dr. Giuseppe Baldacchini thus replied: “What you write in general is true, but I remind you that plasma is a very complex state of matter. In our case where there are atmospheric pressure and intense electric ϔields, when we talk about plasma, we must necessarily say that this condition concerns small volumes of atmosphere in a large environment, otherwise the environment itself would be unlivable even for a relatively short time, about a few minutes. In these small volumes, a few cubic centimeters, the electrons can be excited by intense local electric ϔields, higher than 1 kV/m, at temperatures up to 10,000 K, while the atoms/ions (positive and negative) essentially remain at room temperature. The large kinetic energy of the electrons produces light by braking of the electrons themselves (bremsstrahlungo) when they impact and/or are quasi-captured by the atoms/ions, and by the emission of atomic lines of the atoms/ions excited by the same electrons oBremsstrahlung,

from German bremsen “to brake” and Strahlung “radiation” is electromagnetic radiation produced by the deceleration of a charged particle when de lected by another charged particle, typically an electron by an atomic nucleus. The moving particle loses kinetic energy, which is converted into radiation (photons), thus satisfying the law of conservation of energy.

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colliding inelastically (the electronic temperature of the plasma is measured essentially from the light of the bremsstrahlung). This state can last for a few seconds or minutes in small volumes, but then as the atoms/ions heat up, the temperature quickly spreads to the rest of the atmosphere, especially upward. For instance, the mushroom cloud that rises upwards after a nuclear explosion is a good example albeit at a grand scale. Thus, a state of equilibrium is never reached in a large environment that contains small volumes of atmospheric plasma, but only within the small volumes if there is an autonomous internal energy that self-sustains their loss of energy. For instance, the ϔlame, a plasma to a good approximation, of the candle is self-sustaining through the combustion of the oily material, and it stabilizes in a few minutes, but is never in equilibrium with the rest of the atmosphere. In fact, the latter essentially remains at room temperature, although it heats up around the ϔlame and especially above it. In my opinion, before speaking of a state of equilibrium it is necessary to spatially deϔine the plasma in the atmosphere, which has local and extended volumes different as far as physical plasma parameters are concerned. I therefore conϔirm that, overall, the situation is rather complicated, because too many factors are playing important and critical roles. It is not for nothing that it is still impossible to control the fusion in the plasmas to obtain the energy of the Sun on the Earth, and this after 70 years of intense and very expensive studies all over the world.”

The second hypothesis, which goes beyond science because it also includes theological and spiritual aspects, is a little more complex and is based on the following observations. Figure 3.20 indicates that, unlike a common ire, HF2.10 is made up of cold plasma as it can only singe a linen cloth placed over the lame. On the other hand, however, Fig. 3.21 shows that the measurement of the temperature of the incandescent wick of the candle lit by HF2.10 is very similar to the temperature of a common candle lit by a lighter. The irst author was able to con irm this result when he lit candles with the HF2.10 and candles with a simple lighter, inding a similar ease of ignition and therefore similar ignition times of the two lames.

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This suggests that the ignition temperatures of the two different lames were comparable to each other. In fact, the wick of an extinguished candle catches ire if it is exposed to the ignition temperature, which, depending on the constituent materials, is higher than 200–400 °C (392–752 °F). This would con irm that the lames of the HF2.10 and the common ire are physically similar to each other. It is also important to note that the possible presence of intense electric ields, supposed to explain some phenomena related to HF1, does not affect the results of HF2.n transmitted by the faithful. This deduction derives from the fact that, if some environmental effects such as the presence of an electric ield were actually responsible for the different behavior of HF2.n, compared to a common ire, even the ire lit on a candle by a lighter should show some peculiarity similar to that found for the HF2.n, which was not the case. It is therefore deduced that both a common ire and an HF2.n are transmitted in a very similar way by heating the wick beyond the ignition temperatures. From these observations, the authors tend to conclude that HF2.n is a lame that shows the natural characteristics of a common candle lame to which, however, something intangible, spiritual is added; this “Something” physically manifests itself by producing a cold plasma in HF2.n. It is important to note here that this intangible “Something” is transmitted from lame to lame when pilgrims pass the HF2.n from candle to candle. This intangible “Something” could just be what Orthodox Catholics call “Uncreated Light” or “Light of the Holy Spirit” which, inexplicably associated with the common candle lame, during the irst minutes after the manifestation of HF1, is transmitted as HF2.n from candle to candle along with the tangible lame, having common physical and chemical characteristics. We can perhaps obtain a deepening of this hypothesis on the real nature of HF2.n, if con irmed by some theologian, after having considered the following three examples for comparison. The irst example concerns the union of two human gametes during conception, when a material human being is formed with an immortal soul is inexplicably associated spiritually and that will accompany him throughout his life. The lash of light emitted by the union from the two gametes could be the physical manifestation of this union. So, the newly conceived human being

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is endowed with a material part, the human body, indelibly regulated by a spiritual part, the soul. A second example is Jesus Christ; we know that He had all the characteristics of an ordinary man, but He was also God consisting of pure Spirit. Therefore, in this case, it can be thought that the spiritual part of God is joined to the common man made up of body and soul. The third example concerns the consecrated Holy Host. We know that the bread of the host is transformed during the consecration through transubstantiation, into the Body, Blood, Soul and Divinity of Jesus Christ. However, according to St. Thomas Aquinasp, the accidentsq (appearances) of the bread do not change with the consecration, but their substances change from bread to the Body of Christ. Therefore, differently from the hypothesis of Double Truthr, while we take on the consecrated Holy Host in the physical form of bread, we actually take on the Body, Blood, Soul and Divinity of Jesus Christ. Normally we therefore perceive the Holy Host as simple bread even knowing that this is instead part of Jesus Christ. Nevertheless, there are some exceptions assuming the Holy Host in which the faithful also perceives “Something” transcendent. For example, the faithful manifests tears of joy, which sends him back to Jesus Christ. pSt.

Thomas Aquinas used Aristotelian concepts of substance and accident in articulating the theological doctrine relating to the Eucharist, in particular for the concept of transubstantiation. In short, the accidents (appearances) of the bread and wine (especially the Eucharistic ones) do not change with the consecration, but their substances change from bread and wine to the Body, Blood, Soul and Divinity of Christ. qAccident is a philosophical term, coined by Aristotle in the Topics, which indicates what belongs to an entity in a non-substantial way. Accident is therefore something “added” to the thing, not belonging to the essence of that thing. Being opposed to substance or essence, the accident is a fact of becoming and is not inherent in being. An accidental ownership of the entity therefore does not have a necessary connection with the essence of the entity to which it refers. For example, it is an essential property of celibates that they are not married, but it is an accidental property of celibates that they have black hair. In fact, it is impossible to find a married celibate. rDouble-truth hypothesis supposes that religion and philosophy, as separate sources of knowledge, might arrive at contradictory truths without detriment to either.

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Similarly, for the case of the Holy Fire, in particular for the HF2.n, the substance, that is the intangible or spiritual part, would be what is called “Uncreated Light” or “Light of the Holy Spirit”, while the accidents, the materially measurable part, place the Holy Fire similar to a common fire. However, as also for the consecrated Holy Host one can sometimes see “Something” transcendent. Such is true for the HF2.n too. One can see the coldness of the plasma that does not burn the hand of the faithful who touches it. The spiritual part therefore of HF2.n, the purely spiritual “Uncreated Light” or “Light of the Holy Spirit” is transmitted from candle to candle through the accidents which in this case consist of a common candle fire, see also Section 2.5.2, Point 5.

3.2.6 Localization of the Holy Fire in the Edicule

Before ending this chapter, as reported in Section 3.2.3.C, concerning the appearance of blue flashes of light in the Edicule, a very special case occurred in 2020, when due to the COVID-19 infection the Basilica was closed to the public and thus only very few people had the opportunity to attend the Holy Saturday service of the Holy Fire. On this occasion it was possible to see, in the film produced by the Greek TV Studio Sami, see Fig. 3.27, a flame inside the Edicule which according to the authors could be classified as HF2.1, see Section 3.2.1, Point 2.

Figure 3.27 On the left, frame taken from Studio Sami showing a flame through the door slot, on the right, the arrow shows the position of the Angel’s Stone in a plant of the Edicule.

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Fabio Crosilla, professor of photogrammetry at the University of Udine (Italy), thought that the direction of this fire would correspond with the alignment joining the video camera and the Angel’s Stone. He asked his colleague Domenico Visintini, professor of photogrammetry at the same University, to study the film and provide an analysis. Here is what professor Visintini wrote: “The positioning of the Holy Fire ignition with respect to the Holy Edicule involves Photogrammetry, that is, the discipline allowing the 3D-positioning of objects depicted on 2D-images. This analysis was possible through a video sequence acquired by the Greek TV Studio Sami, namely a succession of 25 fps digital images 1.920×1080 pixel (HD resolution), from a position exactly in front of the entrance of the Edicule. The fundamental photogrammetric principle, expressed by the Collinearity equationss, requires that a 3D-point has to be visible on at least two 2D-images acquired from different points of shot. In truth, a second camera has acquired frames from an oblique direction in the broadcasted video (at Edicule right), but this position and orientation was not sufficiently detected to be used in the calculations. Let us consider the frames from time 2h 40’ 53” and four seconds later: these are the first frames where the Holy Fire (HF2.1 according to the authors) is visible in the small slit between the two leaves of the entrance door. From the photogrammetrical point of view, all the frames acquired by means of such camera are characterized from the same exterior position parameters, since the camera is fixed while the taken scene is dynamic. It means that the sequence

Collinearity equations expressed in terms of the image coordinates x, y of generic point P are the following:

sThe

x c

y c

( X P  X C )r11 ( yP YC )r12 ( Z P  Z C )r13 ( X P  X C )r31 ( yP YC )r32 ( Z P  Z C )r33

( X P  X C )r21 ( yP YC )r22 ( Z P  Z C )r23 ( X P  X C )r31 ( yP YC )r32 ( Z P  Z C )r33

where c is calibrated focal length of the camera objective, XP, YP, ZP are coordinates of the generic point P with respect a given reference frame, Xc, Yc, Zc are coordinates of the camera objective center C, with respect the same reference frame and r11, …, r33: 3 × 3 coefficients of the R matrix containing the three angles ω, φ, κ of the camera rotation.

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corresponds to only one 2D-representation of 3D-space, generating an algebraic deficiency in the geometrical solution. Assuming an arbitrary reference system with X-axes along the Edicule entrance façade (horizontal, positive towards right, North direction), Y-axes in the vertical direction (positive towards high), Z-axes so to compose a right triad (coming out from the Edicule), XYZ positioning of the depicted objects is impossible, because only paired relationships are obtainable and, anyway, the Z-coordinate is the worse estimable value. Focusing our attention on the small area where first little flames appears, these pixels have a 2D-position 862 (from right), 520 (from down), around in the image center (960, 540). Considering that xy-frame of the camera frame is pseudo-parallel with XY-axes, Z cannot be estimated, while X and Y are predictable with enough accuracy. In simplest words, the position of the flames in question is obviously behind the door, but exploiting the processed images, is scientifically evidenced that such position falls is the narrow area intersecting the Angel’s Stone (where a remnant of the stone that closed the tomb of Christ is placed, see Fig. 1.13) situated in the center of the Chapel of the Angel. Each image can be modelled as the consequence of a perspective process (the same of our eyes) projecting the 3D-scene into a 2D-image exploiting millions of optical rays. Considering the reverse path in our case, namely starting from the objective center, the rays intersect each flame pixel and project them as an extremely narrow prism inside the Edicule, falling over Angel’s Stone. Since the “fire pixel” are a sort a restricted oval with semidiameters of 4–6 and 12–16 pixels, each prism fuses with the adjacent ones, so composing a larger volume. The width of the global prism, theoretically with infinite length, augments with the distance from the camera, as can be felt; nevertheless, the width is consequence of the image quality and the estimation process. For the same distance from the camera, e.g. 10 m as can be assumed in our case, the horizontal width (X-direction) corresponding to the central light pixels has been estimated around 10 cm. Regarding instead vertical Y-direction, where the number of lighted pixels is greater, the uncertainty grows to around 30 cm. Hence, by exploiting one frontal video, only a 2D positioning is achievable. From the available image sequence of the Holy Fire

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inside the Holy Edicule, we can photogrammetrically state that they come from a position in the area of the Angel’s Stone in the center of the Chapel of the Angel.”

From this result, new information emerges. It would seem that once the Patriarch has lit his candles with HF2.1 by putting them in direct contact with HF1, he places them on the Stone (where a remnant of the stone that closed the tomb of Christ is placed, see Fig. 1.13, for a while probably for the lighting of other candles with HF2.n.

3.2.7 The Miracle of the Holy Fire

We have seen that there is undoubtedly a series of scientifically unexplainable phenomena related to the Holy Fire and in particular to the HF1 that occurs every year in the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem at around 2:00 p.m. of Orthodox Holy Saturday, that is Holy Saturday using the Julian calendar. HF1 cannot therefore be defined as anything other than a miracle! But before attributing the term miracle to this phenomenon, it is appropriate to define what is meant by this term. A miracle is a phenomenon not explainable by known laws of nature or that uses them in a way that cannot be scientifically explained and that goes beyond the possibilities of human action. In theology, it is an extraordinary event that is considered to be performed by God directly or through His creatures. Non-physical events such as so-called spiritual miracles are also considered miracles, such as the sudden conversion to the faith of unbelievers as the conversion of Saul on the road to Damascus. Miracles are signs of God oriented to the Faith, even if they do not generate it automatically, but which can help it to grow. In the present case we can affirm that HF1 and in general the Holy Fire are a set of natural laws based on the presence of a high voltage electrical field, used in a way that goes beyond the possibilities of human action and which occur regularly as a result of an intervention independent of human factors. According to Dr. DiPuccio [2018] of Akron, Ohio, USA, see Fig. 3.28, there are no physical conditions or technologies, even the more advanced, for the development of electrical plasma

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in a basilica. Even less are the conditions for: 1) electric discharges to occur in a 2) building constructed with various materials, 3) in a relatively dry environment; 4) these conditions occur for centuries on a specific day and at a particular time, that is when the Patriarch enters to pray in the Edicule, the very burial tomb of Jesus Christ, of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem.

Figure 3.28 Frame from a demonstration of the scientific impossibility to reproduce the Holy Fire in a laboratory (DiPuccio 2018).

According to Bishop Photiki [1999, p. 162] the Holy Fire, also called “Uncreated Light” by the Orthodox, is the symbol of the Resurrection. The authors agree with this definition, but they add that if the Holy Fire is the symbol of the Resurrection, the Holy Shroud, that we will see in detail in the next chapters, is the scientific proof of the Resurrection. The Holy Shroud, the most important Relic of Christianity now preserved in Turin (Italy), shows a double body image of a human body that the authors have identified with certainty as that of Jesus Christ placed in the Holy Sepulcher of Jerusalem. The close relationship consists in fact in the hypothesis that the HF1, during the Resurrection of Jesus, contributed in an important way to produce the body image imprinted on the Relic. Lublink wrote [2019]: “Given that a possible explanation of the image of the Shroud is that is the result of a low heat scorch and

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given that the Holy Fire was possibly identified as low heat plasma, then the relationship is clear. The phenomenon known as the Holy Fire of Jerusalem could and would have been the means by which the image of the Shroud of Turin was created. “ By combining the extraordinary information relating to the Holy Fire with that of the Holy Shroud, the reader will therefore have a clearer overview of what happened on Easter Sunday about 2000 years ago in the Jerusalem Sepulcher. Jesus’s sign, the sign of Jonah (Mt 12,39), that is, being in the tomb for three days, seems to be given annually to humanity.

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Chapter 4

The Holy Shroud and the Impossible Image The so-called “Shroud of Christ”, “Holy Shroud”, “Shroud of Turin” or more simply the Shroud, is the most studied and debated artifact in the world. Hundreds of books in many different languages have been published about this artifact as well as a great many scienti ic papers, pages on the internet and every-day articles have been written in newspapers and magazines. The great scienti ic interest in the Shroud is not only due to the failure of science to explain the mysterious double body image on the front and back of the Shroud cloth, but also due to the failure of anyone to reproduce the Shroud image itself with all its unique qualities. The Great religious interest in the Shroud is because, according to Christian tradition, it was Jesus’ burial sheet, and the image represents evidence of Jesus Christ’s Resurrection after His death by cruci ixion. Science continues to fail to disprove the evidence which is the basis for this belief. Even though the Shroud is the most talked-about, debated, studied and venerated Relic in the world, the Catholic Church has often, but not always, maintained an of icial position which does not profess whether the Shroud is authentic or not. Nevertheless, because both authors are irmly convinced by the evidence from multi-disciplinary sources that the Shroud is, indeed, the burial The Holy Fire and the Divine Photography: The Image of the Holy Shroud of Christ Giulio Fanti and Robert Siefker Copyright © 2024 Jenny Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4968-91-1 (Hardcover), 978-1-003-45444-1 (eBook) www.jennystanford.com

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cloth of Jesus Christ, we will not be coy and will refer to the Man of the Shroud by His name: Jesus Christ. This chapter shortly presents the Shrouda evidencing the many mysteries hidden in it.

4.1 What Is the Shroud?

There are about 50 shrouds in the world with body images on them. Many are in Italy and Spain; however, these are documented and sancti ied copies of the Shroud, not random, ambitious forgeries meant to deceive anyone. These copies were made because of the great interest in this Relic, especially during the seventeenth century. Since photography had not yet been discovered, many painters produced those copies of the Relic with the aim to allow people to look at the mysterious and magni icent image of Christ. Two examples are the shrouds of Arquata and of Palma di Montechiaro in Italy. The Italian term Sindone (Shroud), from the ancient Greek sindon ( ), means a sheet or piece of cloth for a speci ic use. Even in modern Greek, the word is still commonly used to mean a bed sheet. It is believed by many that the Shroud is the burial cloth of Jesus Christ and the double body image on it was probably produced when He was resurrected from death. The Shroud is, therefore, tangible proof of His Resurrection. From a scienti ic point of view, the Shroud is an ancient linen cloth, 4.4 m (14.4 ft) long and 1.1 m (3.6 ft) wide, which wrapped the corpse of a tortured man, scourged, crowned with thorns, cruci ied and pierced by a spear in the chest. The corpse was in rigor mortis (death rigidity) and was wrapped in the Shroud for not more than 40 hours. The double (front and back) body image is not reproducible and cannot be explained scienti ically. Among the many hypotheses of body image formation, those which are related to a phenomenon acting at a distance to the aThe

most important notes about the Shroud are reported here, but they are obviously not complete; for additional information, the reader can refer to a recent book published in the same Series [Fanti & Mal i 2020].

What Is the Shroud?

cloth, such as a form of electromagnetic energy, seem to be the most widely accepted. On the Shroud, we can observe stained areas of various kind and importance that might not be easily distinguishable at irst glance, because their partial superposition can make identi ication dif icult. The most important items are the double body image, front and back, of a corpse (Fig. 4.1), with bloodstains that correspond with the wounds that Jesus Christ suffered from as described in the Gospels (Fig. 4.2).

Figure 4.1 The Shroud before it was refurbished in 2002 er (on the right, Archdiocese of Turin).

A. Guerreschi) and a

(on the le ,

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Figure 4.2 Bloodstains on the wrist and the left arm. In the frame on the top-right corner, the position of the detail on the cloth is shown (G. Fanti).

While other marks found on the cloth, like water stains, scorch marks and burn holes may seem to be of minor importance when compared to the body image, they must not be neglected, because they frequently interfere or are superimposed with other more important marks. In addition, they have relevance with respect to our understanding of this mysterious Cloth. The larger water stains like those in Fig. 4.3 were produced by an ancient, poorly understood accident, when the Shroud was probably hidden away for safekeeping in a jar in Edessa [Guerreschi & Salcito 2002, 2005]. Instead, the smaller water stains visible along the scorch lines were produced along with these lines during the AD 1532 Chambéry ire when the Shroud was kept in that city in France.

What Is the Shroud?

Figure 4.3 Example of three larger water stains. In the picture are also evident four patches sewn onto the cloth by Poor Clare nuns to repair the damages caused by the Chambéry fire and removed during the 2002 refurbishment (G. Fanti).

The larger burn holes were also produced by the Chambéry ire while the smaller ones that are often called “poker holes” were produced by an unknown older accident. As shown in Fig. 4.4, these poker holes are present in four sets of four holes.

Figure 4.4 Example of holes preceding the Chambéry fire and some little stains probably caused by the water used for extinguishing the fire (G. Fanti).

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Before the Shroud was refurbished in June 2002, it was possible to observe the patches sewn by the Poor Clare nuns in 1534 to repair the damage produced by the Chambéry ire. Now, however, these patches have been removed, and the holes due to ire are evident [Ghiberti 2002]. The faint yellow linen sheet is still in good condition, because it has been kept in a relatively dry environment for the past two millennia. The body image is darker but now has a lower contrast with the background due to the yellowing of the sheet caused by the aging process. Since the human body that was wrapped in the Shroud formed the image, the image is right/left reversed. For example, the right arm in Fig. 4.2 is actually the left arm of Jesus. The red stains have been independently identi ied and con irmed to be blood by A. Adler [1996] and human blood by P. Baima Bollone [1982]. The irst author of this book discovered blood particles among the dust vacuumed from the Shroud [Fanti & Zagotto 2017, Fanti 2022a]. Indirect weight measurements on the Relic carried out also by the irst author on small parts of the cloth lead to a total weight of 1.05 kg (2.31 lb), and thus a mass per unit area of 0.22 kg/m2 (0.045 lb/ft2). The cloth is about 0.34 mm (0.013 in) in thickness and the average diameter of linen yarns is 0.25 mm (0.0098 in). The traditional dimensions of 436 cm (14.30 ft) long by 110 cm (3.61 ft) wide [Baima Bollone 1998] were increased by centimeters (inches) when the Shroud was refurbished in 2002, because the patches and some of the folds were removed and the Sheet stretched out [Ghiberti 2002]. Every yarn is composed of about 200 ibers. The diameters of the linen ibers vary from 0.007 mm (0.00027 in) to 0.020 mm (0.00079 in) [Baima Bollone 1982, Raes 1976 & 1995, Vial 1995, Fanti & Mal i 2020].

4.2 The Historical Route

The journey of the Shroud is not easy to retrace during all of its 2000-year history. In fact, while it is relatively simple to ind documents related to the Shroud’s exhibition, travels, and preservation in the centuries closer to the present, it is obviously

The Historical Route

more dif icult to trace it back to the remote past when documents are rarer and reliable information are dif icult to distinguish with legends. This chapter begins with a brief description of this darker period related to its irst centuries.

4.2.1 Spun in India

Where did the Shroud come from? What was its historical path over the millennia? Unfortunately, we cannot provide sure answers to these questions, and several scholars have provided somewhat different hypotheses, but the most reliable information according to the authors is given below.

Figure 4.5 DNA distribution resulting from the dusts vacuumed from the Shroud. 38.7% of the DNA comes from Indian ethnic groups, 55.7% comes from Middle Eastern ethnic groups and only 5.6% comes from European groups (Barcaccia 2019).

Certainly, the Shroud was in Jerusalem around the year 33 AD, when it was used as a burial cloth to wrap the body of Jesus Christ in the sepulcher, but was it woven in the Middle East?

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It seems not, both because the particular 3:1 twill texture is not typical of that geographical area, and, even more so, because a recent DNA analysis of the vacuumed dusts vacuumed from the Shroud suggests it comes from India [Barcaccia 2019]. In fact, human DNA from contact contamination was extracted from the dusts, and the following result emerged, see Fig. 4.5: 38.7% of the DNA comes from Indian ethnic groups, 55.7% comes from Middle Eastern ethnic groups, as it is easy to think it is, and only 5.6% comes from European groups. Two hypotheses can therefore be formulated: the irst that the Shroud was spun and perhaps also woven in India, while the second, very unlikely, that in the past a very large group of pilgrims from India somehow contaminated the Relic by touching it repeatedly. It is also interesting to observe the very low percentage of DNA coming from European groups thus also indicating a very improbable origin from anywhere in Europe.

4.2.2 Traces from the Remote Past

According to the Canonic Gospels, probably on Friday, April 3, in the year AD 33 or, as alternatively suggested, on Friday, April 7, in the year AD 30, Jesus’ corpse was wrapped in a clean white linen, the Shroud. John the Apostle, who supervised Jesus’ burial, reports that the Shroud, a sudarium, and the spices were used for the burial. On Easter morning this linen sheet was found empty by him, and he “saw and believed” [Jn 20: 8–9] in the Resurrection of Christ. The Apocryphal Gospels talk about the burial cloths of Jesus; Jerome reportsb a passage written in the Gospel of the Hebrews (second century) stating that Jesus gave a linen cloth to the servant of the priest preceding his appearance to James. During the early centuries after Christ, direct references related to the Shroud are fragmentary and often history merges with legends. An interesting one is related to the Mandylion, a bDe

Viris Illustribus (On illustrious men) is a collection of short biographies of characters of the New Testament and of the early centuries of Christianity, written in Latin by Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus (Saint Jerome). He completed his work in Bethlehem around 392–393.

The Historical Route

cloth on which the face of Jesus was reproduced. The image was considered acheropoietos, that is “not made by human hand.” A legend reports that King Abgar of Edessa asked Jesus to come and cure him of an illness. Jesus declined the invitation, but He promised a future visit by his disciple Thaddeus of Edessa who went bearing the words of Jesus and the Mandylion that miraculously healed the king. In the beginning of the history of the Church, Jesus’s burial sheet was probably kept hidden for several reasons: irst, it was a very precious “memory,” having enveloped the One who sacri iced Himself on the Cross. Furthermore, Christians feared that someone could seize and destroy it since Hebrews, in compliance with Mosaic Law, would consider anything that had touched a corpse to be impure. Nino, who evangelized Georgia under the Constantine Empire (306–337), inquired after the Shroud to Christian scholars in Jerusalem. He learned that the burial cloths, and then the Shroud, had been for some time in possession of Pilate’s wife. At some point afterwards, Luke the evangelist took possession of them and stored them in a safe place known only to himself.

4.2.3 The Shroud’s Route to Constantinople

The weekly exhibition of the Shroud during its stay in Constantinople [Fanti & Furlan 2019] is attested by the testimony of the crusader knight Robert de Clari, chronicler of the 4th Crusade [Dufournet 2004]. He wrote about the wonders that could be seen before the fall of the city (April 12, 1204): “Among these there was a church called St. Mary of the Blachernae, where the Shroud (Sydoines) was kept in which Our Lord was wrapped. Every Friday it was elevated all straight, so that it was possible to easily see the image of Our Lord.” [Savio 1957, 1965]. About the year 589 the Visigoth Church of Spain began to recite in their version of the liturgy (the Mozarabic or Rite of Toledo) the following statement as part of the Offertory for the irst Saturday after Easter: “Peter ran with John to the tomb and saw the recent imprints (vestigia) of the dead and risen man on the linens” [Oxley 2011, Jackson et al. 2017]. This is a written

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reference known to imply the existence of a full-length body image of Christ. Many historians and experts [Guscin 2009, Wilson 2010, Antonacci 2016], by identifying the Shroud as the Mandylion, believe the Relic was in Edessa (currently named Sanliurfa in Turkey), around 200 AD (see Fig. 4.6) and hidden there for a period within the city walls to preserve it from the iconoclasts.

Figure 4.6 Probable historical route of the Shroud (G. Fanti).

Other scholars [Barta et al. 2020, De Caro et al. 2022] have proposed that the Shroud traveled from Jerusalem to Constantinople through Beirut, not Edessa because the Shroud could be related to the Icon of Beirut rather than to the Mandylion of Edessa. Numismatics (see Section 4.2.7) con irm that the Shroud was taken as a model for Byzantine coins in 692 AD (Fanti 2022). However, according to some historians, the Shroud remained in Edessa until 944 AD when it was triumphantly brought to Constantinople. It remained in the capital of the Byzantine Empire until the fall of Constantinople in 1204 AD when it was probably taken as spoils of war.

The Historical Route

Others think that the Shroud and the Mandylion are two different relics and report that the Mandylion appeared in France where it remained in the Imperial Treasure until 1238 when Baldwin sent it to Louis IX. Nevertheless, they do not specify if the Mandylion in question was the original one or a copy. The irst author agrees with the hypothesis sustained by many historians [Guscin 2009, Wilson 2010] that the Shroud and the Mandylion are one and the same, the so-called MandylionShroud for the following reasons. Like the Shroud, the Mandylion showed not only the face but the full body.

The Mandylion was also called Tetradiplon which means doubly folded four times; when folding the Shroud eight times, only a face is visible like in the description of the Mandylion. Like the Shroud, the Mandylion showed imprints of sweat and blood.

In addition to this, the Mandylion-Shroud of Edessa [Caccese belonged in the irst centuries to the Orthodox Melkite Church. The Codex Vossianus [Zaninotto 1995] reports that it was in Mesopotamia (now Syria.) During festivities, the cloth was pulled out of a golden casket and venerated. A cloth with an image of Christ that was said to have been created by God existed in Edessa in the sixth century. A tenthcentury codex, named Codex Vossianus Latinus 69 [Zaninotto 1988] contains an eighth century account, coming from the Syriac area and translated by Smira archiater, saying that an imprint of Christ’s whole body was left on a canvas kept in the cathedral of Saint Sophie at Edessa. During the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, there are various talks about the Image of Edessa not being made by human hands. et al. 2017]

4.2.4 The Constantinople Period

In the Narratio de Imagine Edessena [Guscin 2009], attributed to Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, Emperor of Constantinople from 912 to 959, we read that King Abgar gave the order to

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destroy the statue of a pagan deity that was above the city door and to replace it with the Image of Edessa “ϔixed to a wooden board and adorned with gold …” Byzantine Emperor Romanus I Lecapenus, in 943, wanted to take possession of the Shroud, and he sent the army under the command of Armenian General Ioannis Curcuas to acquire it. Some Islamic sources [Boubakeur 1992] report both the permanence of the image in Edessa, the bargaining engaged in to give it to Byzantium, as well as how it was transferred to Constantinople. To receive the Relic with great honor, the emperor sent dignitaries out to carry candles decorated with gold. The image was extracted from the reliquary and was venerated with great devotion [Guscin 2009]. The Shroud arrived in Constantinople on the evening of August 15, 944, and it was placed in the upper chapel of the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae. The image did not have the characteristics of a traditional painting, but, instead, it appeared as an ethereal imprint [Zaninotto 1995]. The reliquary that contained the Shroud could have been opened during its long stay in Constantinople. John Jackson noticed on the Shroud folds consistent with the use of a mechanism used in Constantinople to lift the Relic, so that the entire frontal igure was progressively visible to the faithful [Jackson et al 2000]. The general existence of machinery and mechanical devices in the city of Constantinople is known [Brubaker 2016]. The Relic was then placed in the Sacred Imperial Palace in one of the main rooms for exhibition, called the Chrysotriklinos (literally Golden Bed). Machines were used to lift the throne of the Emperor. The scenery surrounding every emperor’s public appearance was made even more impressive by the use of gold covered mechanical devices that were moved by hydraulic pumps. Such a mechanism could have also been used to impressively display the Shroud. Jan Wilson [2010] argues that a possible exhibition of it, raised from a reliquary, can be inferred from the presence of a miniature in a Georgian manuscript of 1054 where it is possible to see a golden drape raised from a reliquary and on it, the Shroud decorated with red crosses.

The Historical Route

A con irmation is given by the image painted by John Skylitzesc in his homonymous codex in which is depicted the arrival of the Relic in Constantinople in 944 (Fig. 4.7).

Figure 4.7 The arrival of the Shroud to Constan nople in AD 944 (Madrid Skylitzes, Biblioteca Nacional de Madrid).

In Constantinople, the Shroud was probably opened and folded in four layers, showing not only the face but also part of the chest. Hence the birth, during the twelfth century, of Imago Pietatisd (Fig. 4.8), the representation of Christ, dead and at half-length, standing upright with crossed hands, protruding from its box [Coppini & Cavazzuti 2000, Pfeiffer 1986]. Among the historical information of the Relic in Constantinople is that Louis VII, King of France, during his visit, venerated it in 1147, and that in 1171 Manuel I Comnenus showed to Amalric, King of Jerusalem, the relics of the Passion. Among these Passion Relics was the Shroud. cBiblioteca

Nacional de Madrid (codex 26,2), the page came from a copy of the Chronicles of John Skylitzes, a Byzantine historian who lived under the reign of Alexius I Comnenius (1081–1118). dImage of Pity, the Representation of Pity.

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Figure 4.8 Russian icon of Imago Pietatis covered with metal riza, the nineteenth century (G. Fanti).

A speech ascribed to Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus Byzantine Emperor from 912 to 959 and an expert at painting, gives information about the Shroud, suggesting a new explanation of the image due to a “liquid secretion” without colors or painte. In support of the identi ication of the Image of Edessa with the Shroud, Gino Zaninotto [1995] found in the Vatican Archive Codex Vatican Graecus 511 (tenth century) a report declaring that an image of Christ was brought from Edessa in

[Loconsole 1999],

eHow

the form of a face could be imparted onto the linen cloth from a moist secretion with no paint or artistic craft, and how something made from such a perishable material was not destroyed with time and whatever else the supposed investigator of natural causes is wont to enquire into with curiosity: these questions he should yield to God’s inscrutable wisdom.

The Historical Route

944f. This codex lists the colors used for drawing icon’s facesg and states that the image has not been reproduced with arti icial colors, as it is only “reϔlection.” Gregory explains the image as follows. “This reϔlection, however—let everyone be inspired with the explanation—has been imprinted only by the sweat from the face of the originator of life, falling like drops of blood, and by the ϔinger of God. For these are the beauties that have made up the true imprint of Christ, since after the drops fell, it was embellished by drops from his own side. Both are highly instructive— blood and water there, here sweat and image. Oh, equality of happenings, since both have their origin in the same person.” Zaninotto underlines the unexpected element in this work: the detail of the side wound. The Image of Edessa actually did not depict only a face but also a part of the breast at least up to the chest. As such, the evidence points to the image described by Gregory the Referendarius as being the same as the Relic and not a common depiction of Christ, otherwise the side wound detail would have no reason to be mentioned.

4.2.5 The Icons of Pantocrator

The manner of depicting Jesus was not uniform in the sixth century. In particular, two kinds of depictions of Jesus’ faces were circulated. The irst one, a “Syrian” or “Semitic” form, showed a short-bearded Jesus with short, frizzy hair depicted by those who probably had not yet had the opportunity to observe the image of the Shroud’s face. The second one shows a face very similar to the Shroud with some asymmetrical and irregular features that would strain credulity to think that an artist would have added these particular features. In particular, we can observe: is the text: “A sermon by Gregory the Archdeacon and Referendarius of the great church at Constantinople, about how incredible things are not subject to the laws of praise, and about how three patriarchs have declared that there is an image of Christ which was brought from Edessa 919 years afterwards by the zeal of a pious emperor, Romanus I Lecapenus, in the year 944. Lord bless us.” Translation from Greek by Marc Guscin [2009]. gIt shows a suf icient knowledge of painting art and a discrete ability in discovering a potential fake. f This

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long, parted, and often asymmetrical hair along the face; a lock of short hair, with different ends on the forehead; pronounced eyebrow arches; a V-shaped mark on the bridge of the nose; big, deep wide-open eyes, and big orbits; a long and straight nose; pronounced cheekbones;

a little mouth, not hidden by His mustache, which is often droopy; a hairless area between the lower lip and the beard; an asymmetrical beard that was not very long.

The irst example of this kind of iconography is the Pantocrator, conserved in Saint Catherine’s Monastery, which was painted in the sixth century at the foot of Mount Sinai, Egypt, see Fig. 4.9.

Figure 4.9 On the left, Christ Pantocrator conserved in Saint Catherine’s Monastery, painted in the sixth century compared with the Shroud image on the right (G. Fanti).

The Historical Route

Recently, the irst author [Fanti & Mal i 2020] discovered while observing the eyebrows of the Pantocrator of Saint Catherine, there is a noticeable difference between the right and the left one, very similar to the Shroud face, that contributes to a diversi ication in the facial expression, see Fig. 4.10. Some scholars commented on this dissimilarity, af irming that the iconographer wanted to represent two faces of the Lord in the same icon, one gentler (the left half) and one more severe (the half on the right).

Figure 4.10 Face of Christ on the Shroud Christ (above) and Christ Pantocrator in Saint Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai (below). In the center are the original images; on the sides the symmetrical images of the right and left side of the face, mirrored, highlighting the asymmetry of the face (G. Fanti).

Actually, this asymmetry of the left eyebrow exactly corresponds to the same irregularity of the Shroud face; it has, in fact, a more raised left eyebrow with the same sharp outline due to a swelling caused by one of the many blows that He was subjected to.

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4.2.6

The Orthodox Cross

The Orthodox Cross, depicts the lowest of the three horizontal crossbeams slanted, see Figs. 4.11 and 4.12. Probably it was thought that Jesus was lame [Cazzola and Fusina, 1983] and it is likely that this belief is derived from the fact that the body image of the Shroud shows the feet of Jesus as deformed. The feet remained ixed in that position because of rigor mortis (death rigidity), after Jesus Christ was removed from the Cross.

Figure 4.11 On the left, a typical Byzantine cross with the third crossbeam slanted (G. Fanti). On the right, is a gilded silver cross 12 cm × 9 cm (4.7 in × 3.54 in) ascribed to Charlemagne, twel h century from Aachen Cathedral Treasury, Germany, Ref. [Bildindex, 1929]. It shows the right foot tilted and thinner than the left one.

In fact, in the Shroud image, the left footh is in an anomalous position, which can wrongly lead one to think He was a lame man if no references are made to Him being nailed to a cross, and then afterward wrapped in a sheet with the feet extended and partially overlapped. This anomaly of the right foot being hApparently,

the right foot, since the Shroud image is specular. The knowledge about the image formation in that age was insuf icient, and probably not so many people thought that the Shroud image was specular, being consistent with the corpse wrapping; so, the left foot seemed the right. In this way it is represented in many iconographic depictions.

The Historical Route

tilted and thinner than the left one is depicted in Byzantine coins and is very common in Eastern iconography.

Figure 4.12 On the left, a Russian icon of the nineteenth century showing a brass Byzantine cross with the lowest of the two horizontal beams slanted. On the right, a detail of the icon showing the deposi on of Jesus Christ wrapped in the Shroud (G. Fanti).

Figure 4.13 Examples of coins showing the right foot tilted and smaller than the left one: from the top left, gold solidi of Basil I and Constantine VII (867–886), of Leo VI and Constantine VII (886–912) and of Constantine VII and Romanus I (921–931), gold histamena of Constantine IX (1042–1055) and of Constantine IX (1042–1055) and electrum aspron trachyi Manuel I (1143–1180) (G. Fanti). solidi, histamena and electrum aspron thrachy are the names of the coins circulating in the Byzantine Empire. Electrum is a peculiar alloy of gold and silver with traces of copper used during so-called “debasement” when appeared an economic crisis in Byzantine Empire.

iGold

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The twelfth-century cross ascribed to Charlemagne and conserved in the Aachen Cathedral Treasury in Germany, seems to con irm this, too, see Fig. 4.11. In fact, even if the third slanted crossbeam is not represented, the right foot is tilted without any logical explanation if the Byzantine tradition recalling the Shroud is not taken into consideration. From a numismatic point of view, the depiction of “Jesus lame” with His right foot tilted and smaller than the left one, is frequent on coins starting from Emperor Basil I (867–886), who irst represented Christ on the throne, see Fig. 4.13, see also the following Section 4.2.7.

4.2.7 The Voice of Numismatics

The Byzantine coins are very important to document the presence of the Shroud in the Middle East during the irst millennium. In fact, Byzantine people took great care to assure that the image on their coins represented reality as closely as possible. The images had to portray the real features and had to avoid any kind of alteration by the engraver from reality. Thus, the details of the numismatic depictions should be considered as historical evidence of events that truly happened, and not a result of the artist’s fantasies. Many centuries passed from the death of Jesus Christ until there was an indication of Him on any coin The Ethiopian Axumite Empire was the irst one in the fourth century that minted a coin with a cross remembering Jesus’ death, see Fig. 4.14. The irst indirect numismatic reference to the Shroud appears around 420 when the Byzantine emperors minted in Constantinople gold solidi showing Victory standing holding a jeweled mensural cross in her handj, see Fig. 4.15, which is a cross as tall as Jesus Christ’s stature and as wide as His shoulders; it is, therefore, a cross with a shorter horizontal arm than normal. The depiction of this kind of cross on coins continued for a century and a half up to the emperor Justinian I (527–565 AD). jThe

term “mensural cross” means a cross as tall as Jesus Christ’s stature and as wide as His shoulders.

The Historical Route

Figure 4.14 Coin of Axum, Ethiopia (circa 370 AD) (G. Fanti).

A marble copy, erected in 1627 and restored in 1890, is still on display in the Exarchic Monastery of Grottaferrata, Italy. The Grottaferrata’s cross is 178.4 cm (70.2 in) tall and 48.7 cm (19.2 in) wide with a height/width ratio of 3.7. The monks of the monastery report that according to an unwritten tradition, this mensural cross shows the dimensions of the body of Jesus Christ as they result from the Shroud. The height/width ratio of about 3.7 of the Grottaferrata’s mensural cross is very different from that of about 1.4 of a traditional Byzantine cross. It is instead more similar to the ratios of 2.5 and 4.4 of the gold solidi shown in Fig. 4.15. Obviously, starting from the irst coins of the early 400s, to build a mensural cross it was necessary to have at least the measurement of the height of Jesus Christ, and what was the way to catch this information if not to measure the length of Christ on the Shroud directly from the Relic? The authors do not know of any alternative method to catch this information. Therefore, the mensural cross reported on the coins seems an interesting con irmation about the presence of the Shroud during that period. The irst images attributed to Christ [Breckenridge 1959] have been discovered on Roman coins dating back to the irst half of the ifth century and are ceremonial gold solidi. Two of them are the following: one related to the Licinia Eudoxia and Valentinian III wedding celebrated on October 29, 437 AD, and the other commemorating the marriage between Saint Pulcheria and Marcian on July 28, 450 AD.

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Figure 4.15 On the top, gold solidus of Theodosius II (420–423 AD) and on the center, gold solidus of Leo I (462–466 AD). On both, the obverse shows the bust of the Emperor while the reverse shows the Victory supporting a jeweled mensural cross. On the bottom a typical Byzantine cross (on the left) very different to that of the Grottaferrata’s mensural cross of 3.7 (on the right) (G. Fanti).

The Historical Route

The reverse side of both coins show the standing igures of the emperor and the empress united by the igure between them identi ied as Christ. These coins depict Christ with a beardless face and short curly hair. This was typical of the irst pictorial and iconographical images of that age. The absence of elements similar to the image on the Shroud suggests that the image of Christ on the Shroud was not known at that time in the Roman Empire. The Byzantine Empire was the irst government in the world to of icially mint coins containing the image of Jesus Christ. Some, however, have suggested that Christ’s image was on earlier coins, such as those during the Merovingian reign (around 625 AD) or of the Visigoths (from 680 AD) [Fanti 2022]. In 692 AD, canon number 82 of the Council in Trullo (or uinisextum) decreed that Christ had to be exhibited in images in human form instead of as the ancient Lamb, as the custom was at that time. Simultaneously, Emperor Justinian II Rinotmetus (685–695 AD) minted the irst of icial images depicting Jesus Christ [Breckenridge 1959]. The coin of Fig. 4.16 shows the bust of Christ in a frontal position with a cross behind His head. He has long, wavy hair, a beard, and a mustache. Written around His head is “IhS CHRISTOS REX REGNANTIUM” (“Jesus Christ King of the Rulers.”)

Figure 4.16 Gold solidus of Justinian II, First Period (692–695), reproducing the bust of the blessing Christ on the obverse side (G. Fanti).

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Observing the image of Christ, we ind ourselves in front of a Shroud-like face of Christ. The irst engravers who could directly observe the Relic did the most faithful depictions, whereas others just copied the previously minted coins or some then-available images painted from the Shroud, making the human features more similar to a perfect man but decreasing the peculiar features that made the face unique. Regarding the direct observation of the Shroud by the initial engravers, it is hypothesized that they were sent to Edessa, a friendly city of the Byzantine Empire, to copy the image that was preserved there. During the years from 867 to 944 when the Shroud was triumphantly brought to Constantinople, there was a numismatic innovation. Instead of minting just the bust of Christ, Byzantine emperors minted coins with the image of “Christ on the throne,” consistent with the Third Canon of the Fourth Council of Constantinople which imposed image veneration. It must be observed that, in agreement with Breckenridge [1959], the attributes of the Christ igure are of the greatest importance in the imperial symbolism; therefore, no details, even if at irst sight seem insigni icant, should be ignored. The detail of the enthroned Christ’s right foot, smaller and almost right-angle tilted, is therefore noteworthy. This is consistent with the tradition of the “Jesus Lame.” The irst emperor in this period was Basil I the Macedonian (867–886 AD), who introduced the Savior as a full igure with this writing: “IHS-XPSREX REGNANTIUM” (“Jesus Christ, King of Those Who Rule”). The image appeared on the gold solidus (Fig. 4.17) showing Christ Pantocrator sitting on the throne raising His right hand in benediction and holding the book of the Gospels in His left hand. The detail of the enthroned Christ’s right foot, smaller and almost right-angle rotated, is therefore noteworthy. This is consistent with the tradition of the “lame Christ.” Theodora Porphyrogenita reigned for only one and a half years (1055–1056 AD), but this reign seems signi icant from a numismatic point of view. She was an avid coin collector [Suarez 2010], and she introduced an interesting image of Christ on the gold histamenon (Fig. 4.18).

The Historical Route

Figure 4.17 Gold solidus of Basil I (867–886 AD) reproducing the blessing Christ on the throne on the obverse (G. Fanti).

Figure 4.18 Gold histamenon nomisma of Theodora (1055–1056) showing a new depiction of Jesus: “Christ standing facing forward on a footstool” (according to numismatic experts, see Ref. [Sear 1987, Grierson 1999], or Christ resurrected from the sepulcher (according with Fanti [2022].) Noteworthy is the fact that the dress/Shroud is so important that, instead of blessing as usual, the right hand of Christ holds it (G. Fan ).

This image appears very important regarding the Shroud. In contrast to the description given by Sear [1987], Grierson [1999] and other experts, Fanti [2022] proposes another interpretation of what some have described as a mere “footstool” (or the “square souppedion”) under Christ’s feet. After all, why would Christ need to stand on a footstool? What would such a purpose be for? Instead, the irst author thinks that this box is a Byzantine

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representation of the sepulcher which Christ is standing on in triumph over Death. As such the depiction is not simply “Christ standing,” but the Resurrected Christ. In fact, this image is very similar to the Orthodox icon of the Resurrected Christ shown in Fig. 4.19. This depiction of the Resurrected Christ is important, because it shows the Shroud wrapped around the glorious body of Christ coming out from the sepulcher.

Figure 4.19 Russian icon of the eighteenth century representing the Resurrected Christ. It is interesting to observe the shape of the sepulcher (the box under the feet of Christ) which is similar to the image in Fig. 4.18 (G. Fanti).

The Historical Route

Manuel I Comnenus (1143–1180) coined many different images of Christ. Among them are the three Electrum scyphate aspron trachea of Fig. 4.20, which show interesting images of Christ, because of the different positions in which the Shroud is wrapped around Christ in relation to his right blessing hand.

Figure 4.20 On the top, two images of the blessing Christ seated on the throne and one (on the right) of the Resurrected Christ, all wrapped by a sheet that could be the Shroud; on the bo om the same images which evidence the sheet in ques on (G. Fan ).

On the left, we see an extended right blessing hand with the Shroud laying on the shoulder. In the center, we see Christ on the throne with His blessing hand partially wrapped by the Shroud.

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On the right, we see the Resurrected Christ wrapped by the Shroud in a different manner, with His right hand tightly holding the Shroud. Incidentally, in reference to this last coin, Sear [1987] gives evidence that strangely, “Christ’s right hand is not uplifted” in this last depiction. Now we will focus our attention on the face of Christ depicted on Byzantine coins, performing a comparison with the face visible on the Shroud which shows a tortured man. A list of the most signi icant details of the face of Christ which are present on some Byzantine coins follows, see Fig. 4.21, which evidences a similarity to the peculiar details of the face on the Shroud [Fanti 2022]: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Tuft of hair on the forehead Tufts of hair all around the head Reversed “V” shape of the swollen right eyebrow Swelling on the right cheekbone Long left hair Ringlet in the lower left hair Detached hair Lack of ears “T” shaped nose-eyebrows Closed and large eyes Long mustache Nose longer than the normal and asymmetric Crooked nose Protruding lower lip and gap in the beard below it Beard divided into two parts Right side of beard sparse Tears and right eyelid.

We must acknowledge the practical impossibility for these engravers to reproduce all these details on each coin showing an image of the face generally which can vary from 6 to 10 mm (0.24–0.39 in) in height. The consequence of this is that we ind all the Byzantine coins showing somewhat different faces of Christ each evidencing a restricted number of details coming from the face of Christ on the Shroud and varying with the subjective choices of each engraver as to what features to portray.

The Historical Route

Figure 4.21 Face of Christ visible on the Shroud with numbers corresponding to the details hereafter discussed (G. Fanti).

The impossibility for the Byzantine engravers to reproduce all of the peculiar features of the facial image on the Shroud on only one coin is also obviously against the following hypothesis: that someone (perhaps during the Middle Ages!) used the facial image of Christ from the Byzantine coins as a model from which to base the facial features on the Shroud. If so, how was the hypothetical artist capable of doing so, if the Byzantine engravers were unable to reproduce all of the peculiar details present on the Shroud on one of their coins? The answer is obvious: the Shroud was the model for the

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Byzantine coins, not the reverse. As such, the Shroud had to have already been in existence at least in 692 AD. On the basis of the results discussed in Ref. [Fanti 2022], we can here summarize the main results obtained from a numismatic analysis of the Byzantine coins:



1. It is evident that there is a very close correlation between the images on the Byzantine coins and the image on the Shroud. 2. The first indirect numismatic reference to the Shroud appears around 420 when the Byzantine emperors minted a mensural cross. 3. The first image of Jesus Christ on a coin is the one produced under Emperor Justinian II in 692. The probability that the engraver, in making the mold for the coin, was inspired by the image on the Shroud is calculated to be 99.99999999999999999% [Fanti 2022]. 4. An aesthetic investigation [Fanti 2022] coupled with specific experiments shows that the Shroud was the original model used to make the images of Christ on the Byzantine coins.

4.2.8 After the Fall of Constantinople

In 1204, Robert de Clari, a chronicler of the Fourth Crusade, wrote in his work La conquete de Constantinople that before the fall of Constantinople (April 14, 1204), a Sydoine (the Shroud) was exhibited every Friday. Moreover, he wrote that it was the figure of Christ which was clearly visible, but nobody knew what happened to that Relic after the conquest of the city. There is evidence which indicates that the Shroud was brought to Europe and, perhaps, kept by the Templars for about one and a half centuries. Some additional evidence indicates that before it was exhibited in Europe it passed through Greece. In France, in 1307, the Templars, who were thought to possess the Shroud, were arrested and persecuted by Philip the Handsome, who confiscated all of their wealth. The face venerated by the Templars (Fig. 4.22) shares similarities with the face of the Shroud: a bearded face with

The Historical Route

blurred outlines. This face was painted on an oak table, which has been dated to between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries. To sum up, referring to Fig. 4.6, the currently most accepted historical route of the Shroud is the following:

From year AD 30 or 33 the Shroud was in Jerusalem in the Holy Sepulcher. Between approximately AD 200 and 944, it was exhibited several times and then hidden for decades in the city walls of Edessa. From 944 to 1204, it was exhibited in Constantinople, but after its fall it was brought to Europe. It was shown in Lirey, France, in 1353. It was kept in Chambéry, France, in 1502. In 1578, it was brought to Turin, Italy, where it remains today.

Figure 4.22 The face venerated by the Templars, Templecombe (England), twelfth–fourteenth century (Wilson 2010).

4.2.9 Documents from the Recent Past Thanks to a dispute that happened in the second half of the fourteenth century between Geoffroy de Charney who owned the Shroud, the canons of Lirey, Pierre d’Arcis, Bishop of Troyes, King Charles VI, and Antipope Clement VII, we have the irst recognized historical documents related to the Shroud.

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In 1389, the Bishop Pierre d’Arcis stated that the Shroud had been publicly displayed around 1355. He was irritated by the loss of patronage to his church by the pilgrims who were, instead, going to the Lirey to see the Shroud. In this letter it is claimedk that the Bishop wrote a long letter to Antipope Clement VII in which he assured him that the Shroud of Lirey was not authentic. This is because, if an image had been visible on Jesus’ burial cloth, the Gospels would have certainly mentioned itl. In the letter it is reported that the Bishop also claimed that a man had confessed to painting it. However, the bishop did not have documents or evidence corroborating his claims. In his defense, de Charney complained to the Antipope about the Bishop’s behavior. Clement VII, fed up with the controversy, on January 6, 1390, issued a bull and two additional letters discussing the Shroud. In these documents, he authorized the Shroud display and forbade any opposition by d’Arcis. It is meaningful that the expression “pictura seu tabula” (painted table) written in the January 6, 1390 bull was replaced with the phrase “ϔigura seu rapresentacio” ( igure or representation) because the term “paint” implicitly refers to something produced by an artist, while the terms “ϔigure” or “image” do not foreclose the possibility of the image having supernatural origins. This documentation certi ies that the Shroud was in France in the second half of the fourteenth century, but there was no other mention about the Shroud until 1418. On that date, Count Humbert de La Roche issued a receipt to the canons of Lirey listing the Shroud among the relics he took to Calabria (a region in Southern Italy) for safekeeping because of the disorders happening in the region of Lirey. He, married to Marguerite, granddaughter of de Charny, became Lord of Lirey. kSince

the memo was unsigned and undated, we do not know whether D’Arcis wrote the letter or if a scribe did. lIt is likely that the Gospels did not mention the two body images on the Shroud because they were not visible at that time. Based on the hypothesis that the image was formed by an intense electric ield (called Corona Discharge), experiments indicate that the image would have become visible over a period of months to years. As a result, the Evangelists may have seen only the blood marks but not the image on the Shroud. About 30 years after Christ’s burial, probably Paul had the opportunity to venerate the body image already developed on the Shroud because he wrote in his Letter to the Galatians (3: 1, 55–57 AD): “Before your very eyes Jesus Christ was clearly portrayed as cruciϔied.”

The Historical Route

He died without returning the relics, among which was “a cloth, on which is a ϔigure or representation of the Shroud of our Lord Jesus Christ.” When the canons wanted to have their relics back from the widow Marguerite, they had to ight her through the court. Because she had no children of her own to inherit the Shroud, Marguerite gave the Shroud to her dear friends Anna of Lusignano-Chatillon (also known as Anna of Cyprus), and her husband (who was also a dear friend) Louis, Duke of Savoy, on March 22, 1453. She knew that they would have the means to take, protect and preserve the Shroud. Marguerite was given some property as well as some income as a result of the exchange. In 1502, Philibert II stored the Relic in Saint Chapelle of Chambéry castle. In 1506 Pope Julius II granted a speci ic liturgy for the Shroud [Garello 1984] on May 4,m with its proper Mass and of ice. During the night of December 3–4, 1532, a ire burned the Saint Chapelle and seriously damaged the Relic, but, thank God, most of the double body image of Jesus remained unharmed. Probably a iery wooden beam from the roof of the church fell onto the reliquary, breaking through it and thus piercing the 48 layers in which the Shroud was folded. In 1534 the Poor Clares nuns of Chambéry patiently restored the precious sheet. From then on, the Relic, except for short pauses imposed by extraordinary events, stayed in Chambéry until 1578, when Saint Charles Borromeo, archbishop of Milan, wanted to make a pilgrimage to Chambéry to venerate the Shroud in ful illment of a vow. To spare him the rigorous trip over the Alps, Emmanuel Filbert Duke of Savoy, brought the Holy Linen to Turin. On June 1, 1694, the Shroud was placed in the chapel built by the architect Guarino Guarini, adjacent to the Turin Cathedral and it has since been exhibited to the public on various occasions (Fig. 4.23). That year, Blessed Sebastian Valfré strengthened its patches. From then on, no other refurbishment was undertaken until 2002, when all the sixteenth-century patches were removed mIt

is noteworthy that Pope Julius II approved of not only the veneration of the Relic, but also its adoration. This was done because it is believed to contain Jesus’ blood, which then makes it part of the body of Jesus Christ.

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and the supporting Holland cloth was replaced. The Shroud is now kept in the Turin Cathedral in a reliquary (Fig. 4.24).

Figure 4.23 The Shroud during the exhibition of 1722 on the stage built in front of Palazzo Madama on the occasion of the wedding between Carlo Emanuele III of Savoy with the princess Anna Cristina Sulzbach (beniculturali.it).

Figure 4.24 The Shroud in its present reliquary. On the removable fabric that covers the case, the traditional prayer: “TUAM SINDONEM VENERAMUR, DOMINE ET TUA RECOLIMUS PASSIONEM” (“We revere Your Shroud, Lord, and [through it] we meditate on Your Passion”) (Archdiocese of Turin).

The irst of icial photograph taken by Secondo Pia in 1898 (Fig. 4.25) provoked an intense development of scienti ic research

The Historical Route

that continues up to now. The detailed photographs allowed scientists to carry out their studies in their own laboratories since the Shroud is not typically available for view, much less close inspection.

Figure 4.25 The first official photos of the Shroud were taken in 1898 by Secondo Pia who discovered that the photographic negative of the image is far more understandable by the human eye-brain system that perceives the light parts as prominent instead of the dark ones, as shown in the positive image. Below, the negative photo better highlights the features of the human figure imprinted in the Relic.

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On October 8, 1978, scientists from the STuRP teamn spent 120 continuous hours conducting a multi-disciplinary investigation which involved collecting data directly from the Shroud as well as collecting specimens from the Shroud for extensive chemical testing to be performed in the United States. From these studies came an of icial report in 1981, which precluded that the images on the Shroud were produced from paint, pigment, stain or dye and which veri ied that the blood images on the Shroud are, in fact, genuine blood [Schwalbe & Rogers 1982, Jumper 1984]. From that date until today, the Shroud has remained in Turin except for some temporary transport to various Italian cities, in order to preserve it from the numerous wars that took place in those centuries. For example, during the last World War, the Relic was hidden in the Sanctuary of Montevergine (Avellino, Italy). Now, the Shroud is kept in the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist in Turin in a special case with controlled atmosphere, and it is exhibited to the public on particular occasions; it was recently exhibited to the public in 1978, 1998, 2000, 2010 and 2015 as well as other private exhibitions or exhibitions aimed at speci ic groups of young people. A great number of scienti ic analyses have been done on the Shroud. Most of them are discussed in private internet groups called the Shroud Science Group and Shroud Science Group 1o. The many scienti ic conferences and symposia on this theme, which cannot be listed in a few pages, show the strong, ongoing interest of scholars in the Relic. nThe

STuRP (Shroud of Turin Research Project) team [www.shroud.com/78team. htm] is of icially composed of 33 American researchers, carried out in a

methodical and detailed way various analyses on the Shroud, opening wide study and research opportunities in several scienti ic ields. The main purpose of this research was summarized in the following three questions: “What is the Shroud body image composed of? How was the image produced? Is there blood on the Shroud?౶” Different hypotheses about the body image formation have been articulated, but it was observed that hypotheses reliable from the chemical point of view were unreliable from the physical point of view and vice versa [Fanti & Mal i 2020]. oShroud-Science Group was established in 2002 while Shroud-Science Group 1 was established in 2021, both are coordinated by the irst author. These groups are formed by about 100 scientists, mostly American (www.shroud.com/pdfs/doclist.pdf).

The Body Image

4.3 The Body Image The most interesting feature of the Shroud consists of the front and back head-to-head images of a full-size human body separated by an image free space (Fig. 4.26). This image reveals such peculiar characteristics that science cannot reproduce all these characteristics on a single cloth. The image is more visible in the negative than in its natural sepia color. Since the image lacks a sharp outline, observers must be at least one meter away from the cloth to see the image. The image shows a man that was about 30 years old with a beard and long hair who was wrapped in the Shroud (Fig. 4.27) after his death. That he was dead is indicated by evidence of rigor mortis [Fanti & Marinelli 2001]. The rigid corpse was laid out on half of the Shroud, while the other half was then drawn over the head to cover the body. Two images were left, one dorsal and one frontal (Figs. 4.25 and 4.26). By means of a computer analysis, it has been veri ied that the frontal and dorsal imprints of Jesus of the Shroud are anatomically superimposable on a manikin and the Man’s racial features correspond to the Semitic race. [Fanti et al. 2010a].

Figure 4.26 Negative body image and visible signs on the Shroud. (1) Scourge wounds on the legs. (2) Water stains caused by an accident prior to 1532. (3) Chest wound. (4) Fabric creases. (5) Scourge marks on the back. (6) Nail injury to right foot. (7) Charred lines due to the Chambéry fire in 1532. (8) Patches sewn by the Poor Clare nuns after the Chambéry fire. (9) Bruises perhaps derived from body rubbing on the Cross. (10) Head wounds consistent with a crown of thorns. (11) “ ” or “reversed 3”-shaped forehead wound. (12) Nail injury to the left wrist (G. Fanti).

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Figure 4.27 Computer representation of the position of Jesus of the Shroud (G. Fanti).

4.3.1 Typical Features in General In 2005, 24 scientists of the Shroud Science Group described 187 peculiar characteristics [Fanti et al. 2005] of the Shroud image; some of the most important features, from the chemical, physical, and optical points of view are summarized below: Chemical point of view. The body image is due to a molecular modi ication of the surface of the linen iber that is made up of polysaccharides (chains of glucose). These polysaccharides underwent an alteration because of a phenomenon which, from a distance, caused the linen cloth to become dehydrated, oxidized and conjugated. The body image is therefore not composed of paint, pigments, stain or dye. Physical point of view. The body image has two levels of super iciality. The irst is that the coloration, that makes the image, resides on the outermost layer of the linen ibers.

The Body Image

Only the polysaccharide outer layer in a iber is colored. This outer layer is approximately 0.2 thousandth of a millimeter (about 0.000008 in) thick. The inside of the iber is not colored. The second level of super iciality is that this coloration that forms the image is only in the top two or three ibers in a thread (Fig. 4.28). In the image, where one thread passes over another thread in the weave, the bottom thread is not colored where the top thread passes ov er it. In addition to this double level of super iciality of the Shroud image, there is another surprising aspect. There are, it seems, also faint images of the face and the hands on the backside of the cloth. This means that the images on the side of the cloth that faced the body are more faintly reproduced on the back side. Between the two sides, in the Shroud thickness, there is no coloration of the ibers, and thus no image [Fanti & Maggiolo 2004]. To make an analogy, you can imagine a book with the face of Jesus of the Shroud on the cover; on the back, another, even fainter, image of the face, and in the middle, only blank pages, without any sign of the image. Another peculiarity of the image is that the image ibers are equally colored in the circumferential direction, but they can have some color variation longitudinally [Fanti 2011].

Figure 4.28 Macro model of the linen thread using drinking straws. This is equivalent to a magnification of about 300 times. Left: only the top two or three fibers in a thread are colored. Right: a fiber is only colored in the outer layer. The inside of the fiber is not colored (G. Fanti).

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Optical point of view. The body image has three-dimensional features (Fig. 4.29), in the sense that a mathematical relationship can be de ined between the body–cloth distance and the degree of coloration in the image. It looks like a photographic negative (Fig. 4.30) and it is not luorescent.

Figure 4.29 Three-dimensional processing of the face of Jesus of the Shroud based on the degree of coloration in the image (Mario Azevedo).

General point of view. The following evidences can be highlighted. The image corresponds to a body wrapped in a sheet, in which there are noncontact areas, such as those between the nose and cheeks. The bloodstain formation process has different characteristics compared to that of

The Body Image

the body image; bloodstains went onto the fabric that absorbed it and then the body image formed on the linen sheet. The image does not show any sign of decomposition, implying that Jesus was wrapped in the sheet for a short time, according to specialists, for no longer than about 40 hours. This fact is supported also by the signs of rigor mortis, which usually disappear after this lapse of time. Detailed studies of a human body [Fanti et al. 2010] show that, apart from the arms that were repositioned so as to place Jesus’ body in a proper and respectful position for burial, the physical con iguration of Jesus of the Shroud is consistent with someone that has had rigor mortis set in while hanging on a cross after his death.

Figure 4.30 Front and back images of Jesus of the Shroud in the photographic negative (G. Enrie).

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4.3.2

Typical Features in the Details

The following 24 features have been extracted from Ref. [Fanti 2011] which are useful to test the most important body image formation hypotheses of the Shroud. They will be discussed before formulating a new hypothesis based on the effects of the HF.

Body Image

F1. The body image is due to chemical reactions of the polysaccharides composing the linen ibers: oxidationp, dehydrationq and conjugationr, and therefore it is not compatible with being a painted image. F2. The body image has the tones of light and dark reversed, which gives it many features of a photographic negative. F3. The frontal body image has almost the same brownish color intensity of the back image. F4. The luminance distribution of both front and back body images can be correlated to the clearances between the body surface and the covering cloth thus producing a 3D effect. F5. The protruding parts of the face, like eyeballs and tip of the nose, are better represented than the hollows. F6. The body image is present in body-sheet noncontact zones, for example, between the nose and the cheek. F7. The frontal image, at least in correspondence with the face and probably of the hands, is doubly super icial. This means that the fabric presents in its thickness a super icial image on one side, no image in the middle, and another super icial image on the opposite side. F8. Ultraviolet radiation produces no luorescence of the body image. pOxidation,

in chemistry is when a chemical element undergoes a subtraction of electrons, which results in the increase of its oxidation number. qDehydration is a reaction resulting from a process that leads to the elimination of a water molecule from the reactant molecule. rConjugation is a redistribution of electron density similar to induction but occurring through -bonds. The bond- is a covalent chemical bond formed by superposition of two orbitals of appropriate symmetry and thus exhibits maximum electronic density in the space located above and below the plane of the two nuclei in question.

The Body Image

F9. The body image has a resolution of 4.9 mm ± 0.5 mm (0.19 in±0.02 in), but no well-defined contours. So, while details such as nose and lips are visible, the body image seems to disappear when looking at it from a distance less than about 1 m (3 ft).

Human Body

F10. The rigor mortis of the body is detectable in particular on the back image near the glutei. F11. Putrefaction sign are absent on the body image. F12. The Shroud show signs of wrapping a man. F13. The wrapping sheet shows image distortions in correspondence of hands, calves and torso. F14. The hair appears soft, not matted (hard and crusty), as the result of soaking with blood or aromatic substances.

Colored Fibers of the Linen Fabric

F15. On a thread, the colored fibers are concentrated only on the uppermost portions. F16. The colored fibers are absent on the threads crossing in the cloth’s weave. F17. The image fibers are adjacent to non-image fibers: striations are evident on the threads. F18. In the crevices where threads cross each other there is a concentration of color intensity. F19. The color is uniform around the cylindrical fibers’ surface, whereas intensity variations appear along the fiber’s axis. F20. While the cellulose of the lumens is colorless, the color is evident on the 0.2 µm (about 0.000008 in) thin layer that can be recognized as the primary cell wall of the fibers. F21. No cementation between fibers or signs of capillary flow appear in the image areas while it can be detected in the bloodstains area.

Bloodstains

F22. The red stains are predominantly composed of blood and frequently surrounded by serum aloe. A transposition of sSTuRP

and other scientists talked about medullas, but lumen is more correct.

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blood clots by ibrinolysist is supposed for many of these stains. F23. As no image appears under the bloodstains, we must suppose that these formed before the body image. F24. Some blood dripped from the corpse to the fabric in correspondence of the elbows where it traced rivulets outside the body image.

Because of the above-mentioned peculiar characteristics of the Shroud body image and many others not listed here for brevityu, it is impossible to reproduce a copy of the Shroud. Several researchers proposed different hypotheses of body image formation that are interesting but capable of only partially reproducing these characteristics. Hypotheses can be grouped in artistic production, gas diffusion, direct contact, radiation mechanisms, HF effects, Divine Photography and simple photography. A critical analysis is performed here below.

4.3.3 Artistic Reproduction Hypothesis

Some researchers assert that the body image on the Shroud could have been produced by an artist who could have painted it or produced it from a bas relief, or through the use of more elaborate techniques such as using acids, as claimed by Luigi Garlaschelli [2010]. To understand the huge dif iculties that a hypothetical artist would have run into in order to obtain results similar to the Shroud, especially at the microscopic level, let us see the model in Fig. 4.28. If ideally, we extract a thread of the body image of the Shroud, whose diameter is 0.25 mm (0.0098 in), and if we magnify it by about 300 times, we can think of it as analogous to a bundle of drinking straws. Each straw is, in this case, a linen iber with a diameter of 0.015 mm (0.00059 in). From one side of the bundle we can see a dozen colored straws, side-by-side, with uncolored straws. If we remove the colored ilm of the linen iber, we can observe that the cellulose in the inner side is uncolored. tMore uFor

recent studies evidenced that aloe could have contributed to dissolve blood. a more complete list of peculiar characteristics see Ref. [Fanti et al. 2010].

The Body Image

Now, let us think of a hypothetical artist who tries to reproduce these characteristics on a linen cloth using a simple painting technique: the dif iculties seem insurmountable. First, the artist should dip the brush, not in the color, because there are not pigments on the threads, but in an acid capable of shading the linen chemically. However, the artist has to see what he is painting, so the acid (usually transparent) must irst be colored. And when the work is completed, he would have to eliminate any evidence of pigment, because on the Shroud there is no pigment capable of creating the image that we see. Since colored ibers are next to uncolored ones, the brush must have only one bristle with a diameter not greater than 0.01 mm (0.00039 in). Since the color is uniformly distributed around the circumference of the iber, the artist must be able to color the part of the straw on the inner side of the bundle without coloring the adjacent straws. Then, the acid must be placed on the iber just for a split second, because it must have no time to color the cellulose on the inside of the iber. Also, the acid must be uniformly spread along all the circumference of the straw. Finally, the artist would have to paint in the same way all of the million straw- ibers that constitute the image using a microscope (which was nonexistent during the Middle Ages). He would have to do this work while observing his artwork from at least a meter away. This distance corresponds to about 300 m (984 ft) from the straws in the analogous model of the drinking straws. This is because, when we get closer to the Shroud, the body image cannot be seen. Since these problems have proven themselves to be insurmountable even with current technology, these problems would be all the more insurmountable for an artist during medieval times.

4.3.4 Direct Contact Hypothesis

Other scholars, among whom was J. Volckringer [1991], proposed the body–cloth direct contact mechanism as an explanation of the image formation. This hypothesis is based on the veri ication that after leaves are kept in a herbarium for several years, they leave a footprint on the paper they are in touch with. What is more, this footprint is negative.

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However, this fails to consider that the Shroud image exists even where the cloth would not have been in contact with the body, like, for example, the space between the nose and cheeks. This evidence indicates that the correct image formation hypotheses must be based on a mechanism that acts at a distance, which suggests some type of radiation mechanism.

4.3.5 Gas Diffusion Hypothesis

Paul Vignon [1938] irst, and others later, proposed the diffusion mechanism in order to explain the formation of the body image. Speci ically, they proposed that decomposition gases (ammonia vapor) developed between the corpse and the sheet which could have reacted with the cloth, triggering the typical chemical reaction of the linen. Raymond Rogers [Rogers & Arnoldi 2003] proposed a mechanism based on the Maillard reactionv produced by decomposition gases, but did not take into consideration that there were no signs of decomposition on the Shroud. Starting from this hypothesis that furnished poor results, Raymond Rogers [2002, 2008] and with Anna Arnoldi [2003] hypothesized that the interaction of amines (generated by the body during decomposition) with a polysaccharide layer (produced all around the external linen ibers of a thread in the hypothesis), was necessary to start the chemical reaction in an environment with a temperature higher than about 40 C (104 F). The supposed Maillard reaction is similar to caramelizationw and results from a reaction between an amino acid and a reducing sugarx. vMaillard

reaction occurs, for example, by heating sugar until a brownish caramel is obtained. wCaramelization is a phenomenon of browning of the sugar fraction of the liquid subjected to heat treatment, which imparts an amber color to it, thus turning it into caramel. It involves sugars such as, for example, glucose. xReduction is a chemical reaction consisting on organic oxidations that takes place with organic compounds. In reduction we have the gain of electrons or a decrease in the oxidation state of a chemical compound. The reactive carbonyl group of the polysaccharide reacts with the nucleophilic amino group of the amino acid thus forming the double bonded C C and C O chromophores [Bruhns et al. 2019].

The Body Image

To explain the presence of the polysaccharide layer, R. Rogers supposed that a thin layer formed during the retting process of the linen, when it was dried in the air after being washed in something like Saponaria officinalis. As this hypothesis will be part of the new Divine Photography Hypothesis (DPH, see Section 4.3.8 and Chapter 5), it is necessary to critically analyze it in detail considering what is written in Ref. [Rogers and Arnoldi, 2003]. It states that a color in the linen fabric can be produced by the Maillard (amino-carbonyl) Reaction (thus forming the double bonded C=C and C=O chromophores responsible for the Shroud image) between reducing sugars and gaseous diffusion of amines deriving from the decomposition of a corpse. The authors add that the hypothesis that “the warp treads were protected with starch during the weaving process, making the cloth stiff. The final cloth was washed in a solution made from Saponaria Officinalis. Saponaria produces four glycosidic saponins, and all hydrolise to produce sugar chains.” and that “Saponaria Officinalis … reduces the surface tension of water making it a good wetting agent.” They explain also that “materials that are in solution or suspension in the wash water will concentrate at the drying surface. We hypothesize that evaporation/concentration can explain the superficial nature of the image.” In that paper the authors present some experimental results of the exposition of a linen fabric coated with sugars and exposed to amines, but that they declare that “…The sample was then treated for 10 minutes with ammonia vapour: a very light colour could be observed … after standing 24 hours at room temperature. To increase the reaction rate, a sample was treated at 66 °C [151 °F] for few minutes. In these conditions the development of the colour is very clear.” Rogers & Arnoldi [2003] in their Discussion Section evidence that “The amino reactants required to develop color may derive from a corpse. In fact, decomposing bodies start producing ammonia and amines, e.g. cadaverine … and putrescine … and they rapidly undergo Maillard reactions with any reducing saccharides they contact. … Melanoidins, the brown polymeric materials coming from the Maillard reaction … have certainly a highly unsaturated structure …”

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They then arrive to conclude that “[S]uch sugar-amine reactions may offer a simple naturalistic explanation for the colour on the shroud,” but they are forced to admit that “[t]he chemistry of the colour does not answer all the questions about how the 'photographic' image formed,” because such imaging system is not able to minimally reproduce the amount of details present in the Shroud body image, see Figs. 4.31 and 4.32.

Figure 4.31 Experiment of gas diffusion by means of the Maillard reaction: a hand made of paper and impregnated with amines was covered with a linen fabric impregnated with polysaccharides. The double bonded C=C and C=O chromophore that was formed from the reaction resulted in the poor image on the left (Courtesy of Raymond Rogers).

They also comment in reference to the temperature employed in their experiments to color a linen fabric of 66 C (151 F) that, even if it is much higher than that supposed for the environment of the sepulcher, that “[p]ostmortem body temperature can reach 41 °C [106 °F].” Therefore, they think that the chemical reaction temperature of 25 Cy (45 F) lower than that of their experiments, could still have produced the Maillard reaction necessary to color the linen fabric. y25

C 66 C–41 C (45 F 151 F–106 F).

The Body Image

Figure 4.32 Experiment performed by R. Rogers to test the features of images produced by the Maillard reaction. Three cords impregnated with amines and three screws placed on them were covered by a linen fabric that was impregnated with polysaccharides. The image on the le shows the photo of the experiment layout which is superimposed onto the photo of the resulting stains. The image in the center shows a 50% superimposition of the two photos to clarify the position of cords and screws on the photo of the resulting stains shown on the bottom. The poor quality of the stains/ images obtained is evident (Courtesy of Raymond Rogers).

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First of all, it must be pointed out that the authors hypothesize that the sugars necessary for the reaction were left on the Shroud from the manufacturing process, but this hypothesis leaves the authors of this book somewhat perplexed for the following reason. We know that the color is uniformly distributed around the external circumference of the single linen iber (see Features F19, color cylindrically uniform, and F20, thin layer.) However, since there is contact between the surface ibers of the wire, precisely in this contact area and in the adjacent areas, the thickness of the iller material, hypothetically deposited during processing, should be greater. This is due because cohesion (the force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance) is superior to capillarity, (a set of phenomena between the molecules of a liquid and a solid on their separating surface) and consequently the luid is not able to distribute itself uniformly along the entire circumference of the ibers. However, since there is contact between iber and iber within the thread, precisely in this contact area, the thickness of the iller material, hypothetically deposited during the manufacturing procedure, should greater for capillarity. Secondly, Rogers & Arnoldi [2003] suppose that the amines were produced by the decomposition of the corpse, but this goes against the evidence of the Shroud (Feature F11, no putrefaction) as the corpse was wrapped with antiputrid substances for no more than 40 hours, thus not allowing the formation of putrefaction gases. Third problem to be faced is gaseous diffusion which, as we know, in the absence of external environmental factors, does not spread in a directional way as it would be necessary to produce a certain resolution (detailed de inition) of the resulting body image (see Feature F9). For example, the experiment shown in Fig. 4.31 indicates the poor resulting image of a Maillard reaction. It consists of a hand made of paper impregnated with amines and covered with a linen fabric impregnated with polysaccharides which produced a spot instead of an image of the hand. A second example, see Fig. 4.32, shows an experiment performed by R. Rogers to test the features of images produced

The Body Image

by the Maillard reaction. Three separate cords impregnated with amines and three screws placed on them were covered by a linen fabric that was impregnated with polysaccharides. The resulting stains/images show the poor quality obtained from this process. The fourth problem pertains to the temperature in which the Maillard reaction develops because from experimental results a temperature of 66 C (151 F) was needed to properly color a linen fabric while the corpse temperature does not exceed 25 C (77 F) or less. If we want to include Maillard’s reaction on the DPH, our problem is that of looking for a possible solution to the four aforementioned evidences which are incompatible with the body image of the Shroud. In other words, we must respect the following points. 1. Uniform thickness of the layer of sugar (F19 color cylindrically uniform) hypothesized as coming from the manufacturing procedure. 2. Amines’ production from a non-decaying corpse.

3. Directionality of diffusion and, therefore, reproduction of details on the fabric (see F9 about resolution). 4. Temperature needed for the reaction is at least 25 C higher than that which would typically occur in a corpse.

In addition to this, we must not forget the following problems.

5. Experimental results are not in agreement with F4 (3-D effect).

6. Experimental results are not in agreement with F7 (double super iciality).

7. Experimental results are not in agreement with other minor problems such as F5 (protruding parts), F14 (soft hair), F17 (striations), and F18 (crevices) which are typical of images produced by electric ields such as CD.

We have seen that R. Rogers, and A. Arnoldi [2003], have developed an interesting hypothesis of body image formation based upon the Maillard reaction. However, as this hypothesis was formulated, it highlighted several problems, both for the

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results obtained and for the hypotheses that then had to be added to explain the ways in which this chemical reaction can take place. For example, for sugars, R. Rogers and A. Arnoldi hypothesized the presence of Saponaria Ofϔicinalis; however, it was not detected on the Shroud. For amines, they considered the decomposition gases of a corpse; evidence of such decomposition gases is not seen on the Shroudz. However, the hypothesis regarding the occurrence of a Maillard reaction with respect to the image formation process is not, necessarily, invalid. Instead, both (1) the hypothesis formulated by R. Rogers and A. Arnoldi concerning which materials may have provided the reaction between amines and sugars and (2) the possible environmental factors in which the reaction would have occurred does not seem to be scienti ically tenable. A thorough review of this hypothesis, according to the authors of this book, could lead to interesting results if coupled with the effects produced by the HF. This is the topic that will be developed in Chapter 5.

4.3.6 Radiation Hypothesis

One prominent Shroud researcher, John Jackson, who has a PhD in physics and who led the Shroud of Turin Research Project (STuRP) in 1978, and who today serves as the president of the Turin Shroud Center of Colorado (USA), disagreed with the aforementioned hypothesis by Rogers and Arnoldi. After years of studying the image characteristics of the Shroud, Jackson developed a new image formation process that must be supported by a miracle, naming it the “Fall-Through Hypothesis.” The hypothesis is that the body wrapped in the Shroud became radiant with energy, predominantly of vacuum ultraviolet range (VUV) and visible light, and, at the same time, the body became mechanically transparent which allowed the Shroud to fall through the radiant body as a result of gravity. zThe

presence of decomposition gases must be excluded on the Shroud because these gases would have stained the body image. Since the putrefaction gases begin to come out of the ori ices such as nose and mouth, we would have in correspondence with these areas dark spots on the linen fabric, where instead a very well-de ined image of the face results.

The Body Image

Jackson’s hypothesis [1990] appears to be congruent with many body image characteristics, but he clearly adds two miracles: irst, that the body gave off radiant energy and, second, that the body became mechanically transparent. In inal remarks at the end of his hypothesis Jackson writes: “I have endeavored to show that this hypothesis arises strictly from considerations of speciϔic image characteristics. The major problem with the hypothesis is, of course, to explain why a human body would behave in such a manner. It is beyond the scope of this paper to address this question and it is unclear how physics would have to be modiϔied in order to accommodate the thesis presented here. But in spite of the unconventional nature of the hypothesis, I think there exist sufϔicient reasons to seriously consider it as per standard practices of the Scientiϔic method.” Therefore, the doubly super icial image (F7) was produced on the Shroud when passing through the radiating human body. The hypothesis of J. Jackson presents some problems in testing the effects of a mechanically transparent human body. It seems to also have some problems in reproducing features F4 (3D effect of the dorsal image) F14 (soft hair) and F17-F20 (striations, crevices, uniform color, thin layer) of Section 4.3.2, but worth of note is the fact that Jackson [1998] predicted feature F7 (double super iciality) detected some years later in Ref. [Fanti and R. Maggiolo, 2004]. Ref. [Jackson et al. 2017] makes a detailed explanation of this hypothesis comparing its results with those of the most important ones. The “Fall-Through Hypothesis” will be considered as the basis of a new hypothesis, the DPH, that will be developed in the Chapter 5. A group of scientists of ENEA of Frascati (Italy) initially led by Giuseppe Baldacchini [Baldacchini et al. 2008, Di Lazzaro et al. 2010] used excimer lasers to test part of Jackson’s hypothesis. However, this laser was unable to color both the front and back surfaces of the linen fabric to produce a doubly super icial image (F7) or the 0.2 mm (0.008 in) thick layer of the linen ibers without coloring the cellulose (F20.) Moreover, it only colored a small area of a few square centimeters (about a square in).

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Various hypotheses based on a radiative source have been proposed by different scholars, but all of them, excluding those related to electric fields and related to the “Fall Through” hypothesis, seem unable to satisfy the features F7 (double superficiality) and F15 (superficiality) and therefore are not considered here.

4.3.7 Corona Discharge Hypothesis

A particular radiation hypothesis related with the CD hypothesis produced by an intense electric field was first hypothesized by Arthur Loth [1900] proposing a bolt of lightning to explain the body image; various researchers [Fanti 2008, 2008a, 2010, Fanti et al.

2011, Judica Cordiglia 1986, Lattarulo 1998, Scheuermann 2007, Whanger 1998]

later hypothesized that a CD could explain the Shroud body image. Francesco Lattarulo [1998] and Giovanna De Liso [2000] proposed a natural radiation mechanism derived from strong electromagnetic fields.aa They think that the body image could have been caused by an electrostatic field, perhaps related to an earthquake that could have generated a peculiar phenomenon called CDab that caused the production of the image. aaA

field refers to a force that varies from one point to another in space, for example, according to the gravitational field a man has a certain weight on Earth’s surface that progressively decreases as the distance from Earth increases. abCorona Discharge (CD) is an electric discharge brought on by a high electric charge difference in a neutral fluid, usually air. It is caused by ionization of a fluid surrounding a conductor, and it occurs when the potential gradient exceeds a threshold in situations where sparking is not favored; in other words, it is insufficient to generate an electric arch (lightning). For a CD to occur, a current must develop between two high-voltage electrodes in a dielectric fluid, usually air, so that the fluid is ionized and generates plasma around one electrode. This causes the collection of ions formed by electrons being stripped from atoms; the electrons are then emitted from the negatively polarized electrode. The resulting ions are used as charge carriers to the other electrode. CD usually involves two asymmetric electrodes; it consists of a partial discharge, and thus differs from lightning, which is a total discharge. UV radiation, heating, ozone (O3) and other reactive substances, acoustic effects, and electromagnetic interference are all products of CD, but only UV and heating (40–150 °C, or 104–302 °F) seem to be the radiation sources of interest in this context, because they may be responsible for oxidation, dehydration, and conjugation of polysaccharides in the linen fabric. Although electrons are the medium which triggers the process,

The Body Image

Osvald Scheuermann [2003, 2007], Giovanni Battista Judica Cordiglia [1986], Jean Baptiste Rinaudo [1998], and Eberhard Lindner [2002] supposed that when the corpse was wrapped in the Shroud, radiation was emitted from the inner body in order to create the body image. However, they had no success in explaining the physical cause of the radiation. Different types of radiations have also been proposed. For example, Rinaudo experimented on the effects of nuclear radiation (in reference to the Resurrection of Jesus Christ described in the Gospels). According to Lindner, the image formed after electron radiation was emitted from the surface of the human body. He stated that the electrons and neutrons which were released during the “singularity” of the Resurrection must have interacted with the Shroud, and that this happened in accordance with laws of both nuclear physics and chemistry. The American scholar and chemist Alan Adler [1996], backing the image formation as a cause of the CD, supposed the presence of a ball lightning in the sepulcher, referring to a one-of-a-kind phenomenon. Alan Whanger [1998] and Oswald Scheuermann [2007] postulated an energy source of an electric type emanating from the body of Jesus during the Resurrection, and the irst author of this book has described it in more detail in Ref. [Fanti 2010]. Going beyond the realm of science, as we have been forced to do with some aspects of the Holy Fire, we propose that the electric energy involved may have been due to the Resurrection [Fanti, 2010] and in particular to ionization phenomena not only detected in the Holy Sepulcher, but also similar to those measured at Medjugorje by E. Mor and P. Ameglio [1986] during the apparitions of the Holy Virgin. the image is actually produced by UV rays and heating. The UV rays react with the linen ibers, which breaks their C C and C O chemical bonds and produces free radicals which, like aging, result in color. A commercially available plasma ball, see Fig. 3.7, can generate a corona glow if touched by a portion of the body such as a hand covered by a cloth which will cause the ingers to glow. A similar apparatus can be used to generate images on a linen cloth.

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In all cases, the CD hypothesis is that partial electric discharges produced by the charged human body, interacted with the Shroud viewed as a dielectric,ac thus forming the body image. Obviously, the hypothesis of Resurrection is beyond the realm of science, and, as such, it cannot be tested in a laboratory. However, the effects of CD on linen fabrics can be analyzed scientifically as reported in Refs. [Fanti 2008, 2008a, 2011, Fanti et al. 2005, Judica Cordiglia 1986, Lattarulo 1998, Scheuermann 2007, Whanger 1998]. This is where the electric discharges measured in the Holy Sepulcher that produce HF come into play. What cannot be reproduced in the laboratory can be observed every year in Jerusalem. It is precisely this fundamental point that binds the phenomenon, or rather Miracle, of the HF to the Shroud, and to its body image which has, heretofore, been impossible to reproduce by human means. Although almost all of the characteristics of the Shroud’s body image seem to comply at microscopical level with the results from the CD experiment shown in Fig. 4.33, the result at macroscopic level still appears poor, because it evidences exaggerated distortions. Additionally, the details reproduced on the face are not yet satisfactory. We note, too, that F7 (double superficiality) is precisely a feature of images produced by CD. Also, it is quite simple to explain C13 (soft hair) as the additional effect of an ion wind generated by a relatively high electric field acting on hair which spreads it out inside the wrapping cloth. According to the authors [Fanti 2010], CD was, up to now, the best hypothesis to explain several peculiar features of the Shroud image, see Fig. 4.33, but it is not sufficient to explain all that we see in the Relic. Therefore, they are considering other factors, better explained in Chapter 5, probably connected with the body fluids and the spices used during the burial, that could acA

dielectric in electromagnetics is an electrical insulator such as, for example, a linen fabric that can be polarized when immersed in an electric field. Unlike in an electrical conductor, charges do not flow through the material, but move slightly from their equilibrium position, causing the dielectric to become polarized. Thus, positive charges move in the direction of the field and negative charges move in the opposite direction.

The Body Image

have produced the so-called “photographic emulsion” that worked as “substrate” for the hypothesized DPH [Fanti & Mal i 2020].

Figure 4.33 On the left, a 1:2 scale manikin built based on numeric experimental studies on the Shroud. On the right, the negative frontal body image obtained from a Shroud-like sheet enveloping a similar manikin covered with conductive paint and put through a 300,000 V electric field. The negative pole has been, in this case, directly connected to the foot on the manikin. The ground consisted of a plate posed over the manikin; CD developd in correspondence with the linen sheet (G. Fanti).

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Therefore, up to now, the hypothesis of CD triggered by an intense electric ield seems to be one of the most reliable explanations, because it produces characteristics that are close to the peculiar features of the Shroud even if other factors should be considered to reach a more complete reproduction of the “impossible image” [Marinelli 1996]. In particular, the new analysis of the colored lumens, discussed below, show that this hypothesis needs to be re ined as it will be done in Chapter 5.

Colored Lumens of the Linen Fibers

After performing a conformance comparison between the results obtained through CD experiments with the features of the Shroud, it was found that all features are veri ied except the following which is discussed in detail. During the Third Dallas International Conference on the Shroud of Turin [Fanti 2005], the irst author published the photo of Fig. 4.34 which shows an image iber of the Shroud from the calf area of the dorsal human body image (taken from sticky tape STuRP-1EB. On this photo of the image iber, the area of the non-colored lumen of the linen iber is highlighted by an arrow and agrees with feature F20 (thin layer). Also, experiments performed with CD like that shown in Fig. 4.35 (presented at the International Conference on the Shroud of Turin in Columbus, Ohio) [Fanti 2008a] seemed to show a behavior similar to that of Fig. 4.34. In addition, the colored iber of Fig. 4.36 shows a color only on the thin external layer, and the non-colored cellulose layer (lumen) in the area indicated by the arrow.

Figure 4.34 Image fiber of the Shroud (taken from sticky tape STuRP-1EB) where the arrow highlights the area of its non-colored lumen composed of cellulose (G. Fanti).

The Body Image

Figure 4.35 Example of image produced on a linen fabric by means of CD: the superficial image on both the surfaces of a watch wheel (on the left) is imprinted. On the center, image A corresponds to the side of the fabric touching the wheel; on the right, image B corresponds to the opposite side (G. Fanti).

Figure 4.36 Image fiber taken from an experiment where a linen fabric was colored by exposing it to CD. The arrow highlights the area of its non-colored cellulose layer (G. Fanti).

However, a further veri ication was found to be appropriate. We extracted a thread from a linen fabric, that was colored using CD, and we analyzed its end with an optical microscope. It was evident that the thread is partially colored (as only some bundles of ibers show a visible color) leaving the rest unchanged as we see in the case of the Shroud. A further enlargement of the interested parts of the colored thread shows that the colored ibers have an almost uniform coloring within their entire volume contrary to what has been assumed up until now. In fact, in this case, the coloring of the ibers is not super icial but it effects the entire iber. Figure 4.37

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shows on the left the end of the thread in question and, on the right, enlargements of a section of both un linen ibers (above) and colored ones (below).

Figure 4.37 Photomicrograph of the end of a thread colored by means of CD (on the left) and (on the right) enlargements of a section of an unstained linen fiber (above) and a colored fiber (below). It is evident that the color is pervasive throughout the entire fiber (G. Fanti).

Therefore, the colored lumens, which differ from feature F20 (not colored) and which were not previously observed, puts into question the hypothesis that the simple CD, without any additional factors, can produce a color compatible with that of the Shroud. From this result it is necessary to change in some way the hypothesis held up to now of the formation of the body image according to a simple exposure of the linen fabric to the effects of an intense electrical ield (CD).

4.3.8 Initial Hypothesis of Divine Photography

In 2019, the irst author [Fanti 2019], after analyzing in person the effects of HF2.10 on linen fabrics, formulated an initial hypothesis which assumed that HF2.10, itself, was capable of producing an image similar to that of the Shroud. Now, before proceeding to the formulation of the new hypothesis that will be described in Chapter 5, it is necessary to study in more detail what was reported in the initial hypothesis

The Body Image

by checking whether all the typical features of the Shroud body image are reproduced in the results obtained from HF2.10. The irst author published [Fanti 2019] the initial hypothesis on the Divine Photography in a book that reports what follows: “Some recent studies [Fanti 2011, Jackson et al. 2017] show that the most reliable hypothesis is based on a radiation coming out of the corpse and we think that the best solution is probably connected to a corona discharge. In fact, the radiation hypothesis, and in particular that based on a corona discharge triggered by an intense electric ϔield, is the most reliable because it allows one to obtain a result that gets close to many peculiar features of the Shroud.” Nevertheless “the corona discharge alone was probably not sufϔicient to produce the result we see on the Shroud; the body image was more probably produced by a set of phenomena perfectly correlated to each other.”

A subsequent Italian version of the same book adds that “Among these phenomena would also be included the corona discharge, but assisted by the presence of particular materials like body ϔluids and antiputride substances contained in the linen sheet.” Ref. [Fanti & Mal i 2020] then explains that the DPH “is formulated in a preliminary form, but some connections with a common photo, just printed according to the techniques used at the beginning of the XX Century, when Secondo Pia made the ϔirst photograph of the Shroud … can be evidenced….” Table 4.1 compares the DPH with both the photographic technique of beginning of the twentieth century and of the twenty- irst century. Perhaps the main problem with the initial DPH is the explanation concerning where the hypothesized intense energy could have come from, because a corpse does not normally emit energy, apart from the minimal thermal energy due to the difference in temperature of its body (30–40 C, 86–104 F) and that environment [around 20 C (68 F) for a tomb in the Jerusalem area]. The presence of a ball lightning has also been hypothesized to explain this energy source, but it is not easy to explain how this lightning, already very rare in nature, may have been produced inside a tomb excavated into the rock, while mostly sealed from the outside with a large stone.

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Table 4.1 Connections between the initial DPH and a common photography produced at the beginning of the twen eth century or produced in the twenty-first century

1. Support 2. Energy

3. Reaction

DPH

Photography of the 20th Century

Photography of the 21st Century

Linen fabric.

Glass plate

Monitor’s pixels/paper

Burst of energy, including CD and visible light produced by the corpse.

The Shroud linen ibers are wet in a reagent.

4. Development A latent image produced on the Shroud linen slowly develops in time (possible acceleration by ironing). In other words, the invisible defects produced by the energy on the polysaccharides of the linen, oxidizes with the time passing, thus producing a visible image.

Flash of light or relatively long exposition of the subject to common light.

Silver bromide contained in the gelatin ilm.

Treatment of the ilm by means of the detector, which makes the image visible, by reducing the silver halide exposed to metallic silver. Immersion of the plate in a slightly acidic stop-bath, which terminates the action of the detector. A successive ixing bath makes the image permanent.

Flash of light or relatively long exposition of the subject to common light.

Each pixel converts light intensity in electric signal.

The electric signals coming from each pixel of the sensor’s matrix are digitalized in image’s matrix and stored in a digital memory ready both for reading by a computer and printing on paper.

The solution to the problem appeared clear to the irst author when he had the opportunity to witnessing the annual Holy Fire phenomena in 2019 and when he had the possibility to perform the experiments described in Section 3.2.4 and reported in Ref. [Fanti 2019]. At the end of the descriptions of these experiments, the same Ref. evidenced a possible strict relation between the HF (in particular, the HF2.10 of Section 3.2.1, without considering

The Body Image

the HF1) and the Shroud [Fanti 2011], while summarizing them in the following Table 4.2, particularly with the Shroud body image formation that Christian tradition relates to Christ’s Resurrection. Table 4.2 Some relations between the HF and the Shroud Facts relative to the HF (See HF2.10 of Section 3.2.1) 1. Related energy

2. Source of Energy

Ref. [Skarlakidis 2015] detected an electric discharge, and Refs. [Fanti 2019] report on various series of ten lightning strikes that were emitted outside the Edicule at regular intervals before the appearance of the HF.

The hypothesis of lightning (an electric discharge) [Fanti 2011], has been formulated by various scholars to try to explain the body image formation of the Shroud.

Ref. [Skarlakidis 2015] reports: “… the appearance of the Holy Fire is accompanied by the appearance of plasma that is a highly ionized gas very rare to form in nature.”

To explain, at least partially, the body image formation, the authors refer to the CD that is strictly connected with the formation of plasma [Fanti 2010, 2011].

During the HF formation, Bishop Christodoulos [Skarlakidis 2015] noticed the tombstone perspiring liquid myrrh out of its interior.

According to many authors

3. Energy During the HF formation, manifestation Bishop Christodoulos [Skarlakidis 2015] noticed a very intense blue light.

4. Reagents

Facts relative to the Shroud

The CD produces blue light (and non-visible ultraviolet radiation) [Fanti 2010].

[Baima Bollone & Gaglio 1984, Antonacci 2016, Fanti & Malfi

2015] and to the Gospel of

John, the body of Jesus was wrapped in the Shroud and sprinkled with spices like aloe and myrrh.

(Continued)

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Table 4.2 (Continued)

5. Effects on linen fabric

6. Energy source distance

7a. Effects on linen fabric

7b. Effects on linen fabric

Facts relative to the HF (See HF2.10 of Section 3.2.1)

Facts relative to the Shroud

During the irst minutes, the HF does not burn linen fabrics but only singes it. [Fanti 2019].

The Shroud body image is not composed of burn marks but only singeing [Fanti 2011].

The HF produces a yellow-brownish color by a temperature of not more than few hundreds C (or F) [Fanti 2019].

The color of the Shroud body image [Schwalbe &

The lame of the HF produces a browning color on linen fabric when at a distance of a few centimeters [Fanti 2019].

The result to an exposition to the HF is an oxidation, dehydration and conjugation of the linen ibers [Fanti 2019].

A phenomenon acting at a distance from the corpse produced the Shroud body image [Fanti 2011, Jackson et al. 2017].

Rogers 1982, Jackson 2017, Fanti 2011] is a yellow-brownish

typical of a singeing. It must be subjected to a temperature of not greater than 250 C (482 F) for a few minutes.

The Shroud body image is chemically oxidation, dehydration and conjugation of the linen ibers [Fanti 2010, Fanti & Mal i 2015].

These results and comparisons between what is necessary for obtaining an image similar to the Shroud and what happens in the Holy Sepulcher of Jerusalem on Holy Saturday every year, suggested that there is a close correlation between the body image of the Shroud and HF which supports the DPH hypothesis. We are therefore pushed to think that the DPH is a hypothesis to be better explored and that the body image of the Shroud was formed in the environmental conditions that miraculously manifest themselves on Holy Saturday in the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher. In particular, it is easy to think that the miraculous conditions that are reproduced on Holy Saturday of each year in the Edicule

The Body Image

of the Holy Sepulcher are very similar to those that developed during the Resurrection of Jesus. According to this thinking, the following hypothesis was formulated: the corpse wrapped in the Shroud was, at a certain moment, raised while simultaneously emitting an intense energy that also included light, mainly bluish light, and an intense electric ield capable of generating lightning and CD. The CD emitted by the human body interacted with the linen fabric and the body luids exuded by the corpse, thereby forming a body image on it, capable of encoding its distance between the emitting surface (the skin). The CD in question was very similar to what every year appears in the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher as HF1. This is just the hypothesis that will be better developed in Chapter 5. Now instead, in the next section we highlight some problems that arose after the formulation of this initial hypothesis.

4.3.9 Critical Comments on the Ini al Hypothesis of Divine Photography

We have seen in Chapter 3 that the HF needs to be better detailed by de ining the different features of HF1 from HF2.n, and therefore, for the purpose of de ining the hypothesis in Chapter 5, we need here below to understand whether it is necessary to refer only to HF1 to formulate this hypothesis, or whether it is suf icient to consider HF2.n as being a representative of the effects of HF on the probable formation of the body image. From a general, macroscopic point of view, we have seen that the miraculous conditions (because they cannot be explained from a scienti ic point of view) that occur in the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher could be those that could have reproduced the image of the Shroud in agreement with the DPH (Divine Photography Hypothesis). However, it does not seem scienti ically correct to reach such a conclusion so hastily and without having carried out further investigations. The studies of the irst author concerning these phenomena have already been published, see Ref. [Fanti 2019], and, as years have passed since the publishing of these indings, no criticisms

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or negative comments have been made towards what has been described and proposed. Consequently, the irst author, himself, tries here to develop a self-criticism of the results obtained in Fig. 3.20 in order to con irm or try to improve the proposed hypothesis of DPH. To do this, it is worth starting with an analysis of the 24 particular conditions of the body image described in Section 4.3.2. The F1–F9 body image features do not appear to be problematic when referring to an energy source connected to electric ields; in fact, these have the intrinsic characteristic of generating doubly super icial images (F7), without coloring the internal part of the fabric. Nevertheless, these characteristics should also be veri ied for the image obtained from the experiment referenced in Fig. 3.20. The F10–F14 characteristics concerning the human body do not seem problematic, either, when referring to the Shroud wrapping a rigid body; only the soft hair (F14) needs some special explanation like that of a corpse immersed in a strong electric ield. The F15–F21 characteristics concerning the colored ibers can present some problems. For example, it is not demonstrated that the colored ibers are concentrated only on the uppermost portions of the threads (F15), that striations are evident on the threads (F17), that a concentration of color exists on the crevices (F18), and that the color is evident on the 0.2 mm (about 0.000008 in) thick layer (F20). Instead, there are no problems in the present case for the F22–F24 features relative to the bloodstains. Here below, the irst author critiques himself about what was published in Ref. [Fanti 2019] showing that only HF1 can be considered in the new body image formation hypothesis described in Chapter 5.

A. Experimental Analysis of a Thread Colored by the Holy Fire

From what has been analyzed, the main problem for the reproduction of the body image seems to, mainly, be focused at the microscopic level on the thickness of the colored layer both at the thread and iber level.

The Body Image

It is, therefore, necessary to investigate the experimental results obtained in Fig. 3.20 by analyzing the resulting features pertaining to color at the microscopic level on the basis of what has been previously commented on in Section 4.3.2, see Fig. 4.38.

Figure 4.38 Details of Fig. 3.20 showing an experiment of bleached linen fabric exposed to fires for about 30 seconds; while the common fire (on the top) burns the linen, the HF2.10 (on the bo om) only singes it (G. Fanti).

Carrying out this study is not simple, because cutting a colored thread perpendicular to its axis causes the more than one hundred linen ibers to open radially which complicates an analysis of them under a microscope.

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The procedure described below was, therefore, followed. Under stereomicroscope, a singed thread was chosen from the linen fabric exposed to the HF2.10; it was cut and removed by placing it on a microscope slide. A few drops of wax from a lit candle placed above the thread were then dropped onto this thread, and the wax was expected to solidify. Once a stiff volume of solid wax containing the wire to be analyzed was formed, this was removed and sectioned perpendicularly to the axis of the wire using a razor blade. The portion of cut wax containing a section of the singed wire to be analyzed was mounted on a new microscope slide and analyzed. Figure 4.39 shows the thread taken from the singed fabric, a section of it embedded in wax, and a singed iber having a more brownish color than a common linen iber.

Figure 4.39 On the top left, the singed thread chosen from the linen fabric exposed to the HF2.10; on the top right, section of this thread mounted in a vax support; on the bottom a single linen fiber taken from the singed thread showing a brownish color (G. Fanti).

It is evident that the whole thread is colored along its thickness and, therefore, at least F15 (color on the uppermost

The Body Image

ibers) and F20 (thin ibers layer) are not reproduced in the linen thread exposed to HF2.10.

Even the striations (F17) produced by colored linen ibers side-by-side with non-colored linen ibers, typical of the Shroud image, are not evident in the colored thread exposed to HF2.10, while they are evident in the experimentally colored threads with CD. Finally, even the concentration of color present in the crevices of the fabric (F18) does not seem evident in the thread exposed to HF2.10.

All these differences in the features of the linen fabric colored by exposure to HF2.10 from the body image of the Shroud, but typical of the CD, show that HF2.10 is not suitable for the new formulation of the DPH hypothesis reported in Chapter 5 which needs, instead, HF1.

B. New Result on the Spot Obtained by the Holy Fire

We also consider it to be appropriate to analyze in greater detail from a macroscopic point of view the spot obtained on linen subjected to HF2.10. From the analyses performed, a further inconsistency was found in reference to the feature F8 (Ultraviolet radiation produces no luorescence of the body image) of Section 4.3.2. In fact, Figs. 3.20 and 4.40 on the left, show the darker spot on the linen fabric exposed to the HF2.10 for about 30 seconds in visible light. Under ultraviolet rays, see Fig. 4.40 on the center (image enhanced on the right), the orange luorescence is well evident.

This information, although at a irst sight negative in reference to the compatibility of the result with the features of the Shroud’s body image, is a new con irmation of the results of the experiments described in Fanti [2019]. In fact, the luorescence of the linen fabric occurs when it is exposed to temperatures above 200 C (392 F); the experiment was performed about 10 minutes after the beginning of the HF1, and as shown in Fig. 5 of the same paper, at that time the temperature of the HF2.10 had already reached about 350 C

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(662 F). This experiment, therefore, con irms the results discussed in Section 3.2.4(B): that the plasma of HF2 remains cold for no more than 10 minutes, and that, afterwards, it tends to heat up like a common ire from a candle.

Figure 4.40 On the le , is a darker spot on the bleached linen fabric exposed to the HF2.10 seen in visible light; on the center, the same spot photographed in ultraviolet and, on the right, the same image highly contrasted, evidencing the orange fl uorescence which is not typical on the Shroud image (G. Fanti).

This con irms, therefore, that the image of the Shroud was not exposed to a HF2 type ire like what was analyzed in the present experiment. Instead, it was exposed to the mainly bluish lights of the initial phenomenon of HF1 which occurs within the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher.

4.3.10 Hypothesis of Medieval Photography

N. Allen [1993] to explain the Shroud body image irst hypothesized a permanent photographic negative on linen made in the Middle Ages. According to him, a person can produce a negative photographic image on linen impregnated with chemicals known in the Middle Ages as silver nitrate, ammonia solution and an optical quality natural quartz magni ier (biconvex lens). Indeed, if an object is placed in front of a darkroom and illuminated by sunlight for a few days, a purplish-brown negative image will form on a linen cloth impregnated with a silver nitrate solution. The resulting image can then be ixed by dipping the cloth in a mild ammonia solution which makes it a light straw yellow colour.

The Blood Marks

The most illuminated parts of the body, such as the nose and cheeks, are produced more intensely into the fabric than others such as the neck and sides of the head. In about two days, therefore, a body image can be obtained. Nevertheless, in addition to the fact that a photograph of this type is incompatible with the wrapping distortions found inthe HS image (features F12 and F13), this hypothesis does not satisfy features F1 (kind of chemical reaction), F4 (luminance distribution of the image), F7 (double superficiality), F17 (striations), 18 (concentration of color in the crevices), F20 (thin image layer), F22 (serum aloe) and F23 (blood formed before the image) of Section 4.3.2 and therefore the hypothesis cannot be considered reliable. But the positive fact remains that N. Allen was the first to suppose that the body image of the Shroud was produced by a primordial photograph; Chapter 5 will take up again this initial concept by developing the DPH.

4.4 The Blood Marks

While the body image is very similar to a photographic negative, the bloodstains are positives (Fig. 4.41) as they formed through direct contact with the corpse. UV fluorescence photographs show a pale aura of serum around some of these stains. The human blood marks match with the position of the wounds on the body, taking into consideration the manner in which the cloth was draped onto the corpse. Many of these blood and serum stains are not easy to be reproduced artificially, because this blood first coagulated on a wound in the skin and then dissolved again either by fibrinolysisad or by interactionae with aloe after contact with the moist cloth [Malantrucco 1992, Brillante 1983, Brillante et al. 2002]. The following description of the bloodstains proves useful for the identification of Jesus as the person whose image has been adFibrinolysis

is a process that counterbalances blood coagulation and is in dynamic balance with it. Fibrinolysis breaks down fibrin and contrasts the platelet plug formation. aeThe first author discovered that aloe in gel dissolves blood crusts in a few hours.

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reproduced onto the Shroud. In fact, the particular blood marks that appear on the Shroud correspond to the description in the Gospels of the sufferings Jesus Christ underwent in His Passionaf.

Figure 4.41 Face of Jesus of the Shroud: on the left it is shown the original image while on the right the image is photonegative with superimposed the photopositive bloodstains (G. Fanti).

On the Shroud, there are many blood clots due to laceration of skin and contusion which are distributed all over the body (the irst author counted more than 370 wounds of this kind [Fanti & Mal i 2020]). It is probable that they were caused by the lagrum, the Roman whip, con irming the account of the afThe

Four Gospels describe the Passion, the Death, and the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. He, betrayed by his apostle, Judas, was arrested by Romans and condemned to lagellation by the prefect of the province of Judaea, Pontius Pilate, on a Friday, the Good Friday probably in AD 30 or better 33. Immediately after, the crowd asked for and obtained from Pilate the condemnation of Jesus to cruci ixion. He, then, was forced to carry on His shoulder the heavy cross on the way to Calvary, immediately outside Jerusalem’s walls. There, He was cruci ied with nails through His hands and feet, and He died shortly afterward. A Roman centurion, to verify Jesus’ death, pierced His chest with a lance. “Blood and water” [Jn 19,34] came out from the chest, that is, blood and serum, which appears transparent like water. He was carried to and placed into a sepulcher near Calvary during the evening of Good Friday, and there He remained until the following Sunday, when He was rised from the dead, reappearing alive to many people.

The Blood Marks

scourging (“…after he had Jesus scourged, he handed him over to be cruciϔied,” [Mt 27,26]). The following blood marks are evident on the face. On the forehead, the scalp, and the back of the head are several teardrop-shaped and round shaped stains that are consistent with wounds that would have been produced by a crown of thorns, con irming the account of the mock coronation (“And the soldiers wove a crown out of thorns and placed it on his head,” [Jh 19,2]). On both sides of the forehead, blood formed two rivulets that lowed downward. Between these lows is one in the shape of the Greek letter epsilon (ε) or a reversed “3,” (Fig. 4.41). According to the opinion of some physicians, it is consistent with the blood crossing the forehead wrinkles caused by frowning under intense stress [Barbet 1953, 1963, Rodante 1994] or, according to others, caused by a blunt object [Picciocchi & Picciocchi 1979]. Some blood marks in the area of the hair could correspond to the cheek zone, if we consider that the Shroud wrapped the face during the blood mark formation, whereas it took a latter con iguration during the image formation [Lavoie 2000]. Other bloodstains include serious injuries associated with nail punctures that are on the left wrist and on the feet. On the left forearm, there is evidence of slight blood low trailing down the elbow; on the right forearm, a similar blood low can be distinguished, probably related to a wrist injury produced by a nail (covered by the left hand) like that on the left forearm. On the right side of the chest,ag a large oval wound can be seen. It was probably produced with a lance tip, which con irms the account that the Roman centurion veri ied in that way that Jesus was actually dead by cruci ixion (“…one soldier thrust his lance into his side, and immediately blood and water ϔlowed out,” [Jn 19,34]). As typical of corpses, the chest wound margins remained enlarged and well outlined: the injury must have happened postmortem [Baima Bollone 1998]. Another wound is the so-called “bloody belt,” see Fig. 4.42, referring to the blood low across the lower part of the man’s back on the dorsal image. A number of scholars [Barbet 1953, 1963, agRemember

that on the Shroud imprint, it is the left side, since the image is right-toleft reversed.

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The Holy Shroud and the Impossible Image Vignon 1938] associate this blood low with blood running down from the chest wound while the body was on the cross.

Figure 4.42 “Bloody belt” of Jesus of the Shroud (G. Fan ).

This issue has been called into question [Fanti & Mal i and some researchers [Zugibe 2005, König 2022] think that the blood low on the dorsal image occurred when the corpse was laying down in the sepulcher. In moving the body to put it down on the bench in the tomb, the position of some limbs could have changed, causing the runoff of some blood that was not coagulated yet. In this perspective, the “bloody belt” formation is explained as due to the blood low that occurred after the body was moved. Experiments, carried out by the irst author too, highlighted that this blood low could come from the forearms, which would have dripped from the elbows. According to another explanation, this blood low could be caused by a serious injury in the kidneys area. On the Shroud, because of its peculiar wrapping, these kinds of injuries cannot be seen, but Jesus Christ could have been seriously injured in the kidneys during the heavy scourging He underwent. 2020],

4.5 Dating the Shroud

The scienti ic research carried out up to now on the Shroud gives undeniably strong evidence that the Shroud wrapped the corpse of Jesus Christ, however, the scientists performing the radiocarbon testing in 1988 on a sample from the Shroud, produced a date that was in direct con lict with other evidence.

Dating the Shroud

This section describes this test showing why these results are not statistically and scienti ically reliable. Consequently, other alternative dating methods are, therefore, presented with their relative results which determine the age of the Relic.

4.5.1 The 1988 Radiocarbon Dating

A strip 81 mm × 21 mm (3.19 in × 0.83 in) weighing 447.5 mg (0.01579 oz) was cut from the Shroud in 1988 and radiocarbon dated [Salatino & Dubini, 2005]. About a half of it was taken by the Archdiocese of Turin for further analysis; the other half, was divided into three parts and given to the laboratory at the University of Oxford, to the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich and to the Tucson Laboratory of the University of Arizona. The samples were burned as part of the C-14 dating process; the ratio between isotopesah C14 and C12 in each linen sample was calculated and compared with previously determined plot in which an age corresponds to the calculated ratio. The outcome had been announced of icially, by the director of the Vatican Press Of ice, M. D. Joaquin Navarro Valls, on October 13th, 1988 stating that “[t]he calibrated calendar age range assigned to the Shroud cloth with 95% conϔidence level is from 1260 to 1390 AD, … [but] at the same time, the problems about the origin of the image still remain … unsolved and will require further research and study. …” The unexpected result is contradictory to all other scienti ic evidence in favor of the authenticity already discovered. Someone observed that the Shroud is not the only fabric that could be contaminated by external environmental effects. For example, the radiocarbon dating of the Egyptian mummy n. 1770 kept in the Manchester Museum [David 1978] provided different ages for the bones and the bandages; the bandages were 800–1000 years “younger” than the bones. Therefore, if the radiocarbon dates were trustworthy, it would lead to the absurd ahAn

isotope is an atom of any chemical element which has the same atomic number but a different mass number and therefore a different atomic mass. The difference in mass number is due to the number of neutrons, present in the nucleus of the atom, with the same atomic number.

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conclusion that the corpse would have been mummi ied and wrapped in the bandages 800–1000 years after his death! Statistical calculations of the Shroud radiocarbon testing results published by Nature [Damon et al. 1989] have been closely scrutinized, and serious mistakes have been found. For example, engineer Ernesto Brunati [1993, 1997] observed that the statistical parameter of the signi icance level,ai published is not 5% but 4.17%; therefore, the results should not have been combined with each other, and they need to be carefully reexamined. According to Remi Van Haelst [2000], the correct conclusion, which should replace the existing one [Damon et al. 1989], should be that the results yield a calibrated date with a signi icance level of only 1.2%. These results, therefore, furnish the conclusive evidence that the samples used by the three labs are not homogeneousaj in C-14 content. As such, the dates in [Damon et al. 1989] should not be trusted to inform us as to the true age of the Shroud. A group of professors of statistics headed by Marco Riani, more recently demonstrated that the 1988 radiocarbon dating results are not reliable but rather are scienti ically meaningless aiIn

statistical hypothesis testing, a result has statistical signi icance when it is very unlikely to have occurred given the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is that two possibilities are equal, so the observed difference is due to chance alone. The de ined signi icance level of a study is the probability that the study rejects the null hypothesis. ajIn statistics, the independent t-test, also called the two-sample t-test for homogeneity, can be used to draw a conclusion about whether two unrelated populations, such as two independent sets of measurements, have a statistically signi icant difference between their means. The null hypothesis (what is assumed to be true) for the independent test is that the population means for the two unrelated groups are equal. In most cases, we are attempting to determine whether we can reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis, which is that the population means are not equal. To do this, we need to set a signi icance level that allows us to either reject or accept the alternative hypothesis. Most commonly, the acceptance criterion is a signi icance level greater or equal to 0.05. In the present case for the 1988 carbon dating of the Shroud, since the signi icance level of 0.012 is less than the acceptance criterion of 0.05, we conclude that the radiocarbon dates measured by the laboratories for the three samples have statistically signi icant differences between their means. Thus, the three samples cannot be representative of the entire Shroud. So, the average of the ages for the three samples can be signi icantly different from the age for the Shroud.

Dating the Shroud [Riani et al. 2013]. This statistical analysis shows a clear heterogeneity of the Shroud samples tested in 1988. According to Bob Rucker [2020], “the fact that the samples are heterogeneous indicates they are basically different from each other in their date, which should not be the case since they were cut from next to each other on the Shroud. Something strange is going on as though an unidentiϔied factor, such as contamination, invisible reweave, or neutron absorption, was affecting the measurements to produce a systematic error in the measurements. This factor could change the dates of all the samples by an unknown amount, so that the only thing that can be done is to reject the conclusion that 1260–1390 is the true date of the Shroud. Thus, the dates published in Nature [Damon, et al. 1988] tell us nothing about the true date of the Shroud.”

4.5.2 Alternative Dating Methods If you declare that the radiocarbon dating method is not applicable to a certain historical sample, you should indicate an alternative. After proper preliminary studies, two chemical methods based on vibrational spectroscopy and a mechanical multi-parametric method have been developed in response to the 1988/C-14 result. Some photochemical properties of the cellulose contained in lax ibers can be highlighted through the so-called vibrational spectroscopy based on FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) and Raman analysis, which use a laser beam to excite the various energy levels of the molecules present in the sample under examination. In the lax ibers, which are mostly made of polysaccharides, cellulose is the main component. These components of the ibers deteriorate over time which modify their chemical structure. FTIR and Raman spectroscopy allow analysis of the chemical substances present as the lax ibers age. To understand what spectroscopy is, we can refer to a well-known example: the rainbow visible in the sky when an observer sees the sun’s rays illuminating an area of the sky where it is still raining and these rays are refracted by the drops of water. Sunlight pass through raindrops in the atmosphere

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and separates into different colors of light to form the rainbow that is characterized by seven colors, from red to violet. In physics, it is called the visible spectrum. A spectrometer such as FTIR works in a similar way, but the spectrum shows characteristic peaks of the chemical substances present in the tested material. Professors Pietro Baraldi of the Modena University and Anna Tinti of Bologna University in Italy carried out a study with the author [Fanti et al. 2013] on the samples of the Shroud. After correction of the FTIR result by 452 years (due to exposure of the Shroud to the Chambéry ire), the FTIR analysis indicates an age of 300 BC±400 years at a con idence level of 95%. The same authors performed a Raman analysis on the same samples. In this experiment, a laser beam can either pass through a sample or can be absorbed by it. In the latter case, part of the beam is scattered and the amplitudes of the different wavelengths of the beam are reported in Raman spectra. These amplitudes can be related to the chemical composition of the sample in question. These tests, which are focused on the molecular groups C–O–C and C–OH, furnished the Raman dating of the Shroud as 200 BC±500 years with a 95% con idence level. A further improvement of this method is reported in Ref. [Kowalski 2023] where we read: “… Giulio Fanti has recently produced a new, improved and as yet unpublished Raman age calculation ... The position of the line [of the Shroud] corresponds to a date of 59 AD, with an estimated measurement uncertainty of ±400 years for a 95% conϔidence level.” The Raman age of the Shroud is therefore improved from 200 BC±500 years to 59 AD±400 years. A mechanical dating method [Fanti & Mal i 2015] was performed at Padua University in Italy. This involved designing and calibrating, a new machine with engineer Pierandrea Mal i that could measure the tensile strength of single textile ibers, see Fig. 4.43. The following mechanical parameters have been measured for each single lax iber: breaking strength, inal elastic modulus, decreasing elastic modulus, loss factor and inverse cycle loss factor. The multi-parametric mechanical method gave an age of the Shroud of AD 372±400 that was rounded to AD 400±400 years with a 95% con idence level [Fanti et a. 2015].

Dating the Shroud

Figure 4.43 Photo (above) and sketch of the micro-cycling machine: (1) frame horizontally regulated by screws (2); (3) and (4) clamping blocks for the displacement reducer cantilever beam (5); (6) micrometer screw gauge, mounted on a coupling plate (7), which moves the beam (5). To one of the hooks (8) a polyester mask (9) is hung, containing the fiber under testing. The lower part of the mask is glued with two iron blocks (10) that lie on the plate of the analytical balance (11) (G. Fanti).

4.5.3 The Age of the Shroud The unreliability of the radiocarbon dating carried out in 1988 which wrongly furnished an age from 1260 AD and 1390 AD, has been experimentally demonstrated by several alternative dating methods: two chemicals, FTIR and Raman, based on vibrational spectroscopy, a multi-parametric mechanical method and a numismatic dating method. The FTIR vibrational spectroscopy determined an age for the Shroud of 300 BC±400 years (after correction by +452 years to account for the Chambéry ire); the dating of the Relic from

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Raman vibrational analysis resulted in 60 AD±400 years (59 was rounded to 60), the mechanical dating led to an age for the Relic of AD 400±400 years. For all these three methods, the uncertainty of ±230 years was evaluated at a con idence level of 95%. In addition, a numismatic analysis showed that the Shroud has been in existence at least since 692 AD [Fanti 2022]. More recently, a new study based on X-Rays con irmed the age of the Shroud: irst century AD [DeCaro et al. 2022]. The mean of the values from the two chemical dating methods and the mechanical method indicate that the most likely date of the Shroud is 53 AD±230 years with a con idence level of 95%. The lower uncertainty assigned to the inal result comes from directly applying the statistical rules recommended by the current international standard [BPIM 2008].

Figure 4.44 Age of the Shroud based on three types of analysis: Raman, FT-IR and mechanical methods. The combined date from the three results is 53 AD±230 years at a confidence level of 95%. This age is consistent with a numismatic analysis that indicates a period before 692 but contradicts the 1988 radiocarbon da ng of the Shroud in the range from 1260 to 1390 (G. Fanti).

We should observe in Fig. 4.44 that there is a common time interval among these dating methods, which is precisely the irst century AD. Hence the inal result is compatible with the era in which Jesus Christ lived in Palestine.

4.6 Authors’ Opinion

Outside of science, there is another aspect to consider. There are many indications in favor of the hypothesis that the Man of

Authors’ Opinion

the Shroud is Jesus Christ, and none against it, but there is no undebatable scienti ic evidence of it. Usually, when you study something deeply enough, some kind of sure evidence is discovered. Why is there no indisputable evidence in this case? The authors consider this fact the best demonstration that the image of the Shroud comes from God. God proposes Himself but does not impose Himself; therefore, everyone decide according to their own free will. There is powerful evidence supporting the hypothesis that the Man of the Shroud is Jesus Christ, but in the end, everyone is required to take the last step alone.

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Chapter 5

The Divine Photography In Section 4.3, we saw that the body image on the Shroud is still not reproducible today, and it is not even possible to formulate a confident hypothesis as to how it could have been formed. Some of the best-known hypotheses have already been listed in Chapter 4, and the most reliable ones have been highlighted, which refer to the hypothesis that a supernatural phenomenon such as the Resurrection could explain many of the very peculiar characteristics which must be present in order to obtain the image seen on the Shroud. We also saw that one of the most reliable hypotheses for the formation of the Shroud’s body image is one which is based upon CD. However, this hypothesis fails to explain all the peculiar characteristics of the body image and is based on a high intensity electrical phenomenon which does not lend itself to a natural explanation for how such an electrical phenomenon could have occurred within a 2000-year-old sepulcher when the electric current had not yet been discovered. To complete the explanation of the formation of the body image, the hypothesis of a chemical (Maillard) reaction based upon the contact between sugars and amines is added to the hypothesis of CD. The Holy Fire and the Divine Photography: The Image of the Holy Shroud of Christ Giulio Fanti and Robert Siefker Copyright © 2024 Jenny Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4968-91-1 (Hardcover), 978-1-003-45444-1 (eBook) www.jennystanford.com

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Starting from Chapter 1, we have seen that the Holy Fire is a very particular energetic phenomenon that is scientifically unexplainable in a natural environment free of particular gases. It is generated on Holy Saturday in the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem precisely in memory of the supernatural phenomenon of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. To explain the presence of a high intensity electrical phenomena which would be necessary for the hypothesis of the Shroud body image, reference is made to what happens every year on Holy Saturday in the Holy Sepulcher of Jerusalem. So, why not think of associating the energetic phenomenon of an electrical type, necessary to reproduce the image of the Shroud, with the energy of the Holy Fire so as to arrive at a more complete explanation of the body image? And why not to consider the positive aspects of the Maillard reaction to explain the lack of body features emerged in the CD hypothesis? The first author has recently formulated an initial Hypothesis of Divine Photography (DPH) in Ref. [Fanti & Malfi 2020] which has now been revised, improved and detailed by him to satisfy other conditions which need to be met to create the body image on the Shroud. This new DPH, conceived, and improved, by the first author (see Ref. [Fanti 2023]), is shared by the second author, who greatly appreciates the close connection between the Shroud, the world’s most important Christian Relic, and the symbolic reminder, performed yearly through supernatural means, of the world’s most important Christian miracle: the Resurrection of Jesus Christ! This Chapter now focuses on the formulation of the DPH, which is able to explain all of the peculiar features of the image of Jesus Christ on the Shroud.

5.1 Summary of the Body Image Features

In Section 4.3, the extremely peculiar features of the Shroud body image were extensively described, focusing attention on the 24 features related to the hypothesis. The following is a summary of them which is useful in understanding why and how the new DPH developed.

Summary of the Body Image Features

In the same Section 4.3, some features not fulfilled by the proposed hypotheses are also evidenced and discussed. From them, it resulted in the need necessary to adjust the CD hypothesis by adding some additional factors which result in the specifications of the body image that is on the Shroud. Let us examine the features of the body image reported in Sections 4.3.1 and 4.3.2 and, in particular, let us remember the following information which will be useful to the formulation of a new hypothesis. – Even if it is not necessary to explain the body image formation, the authors rely on the “Fall-Through Hypothesis “formulated by J. Jackson [1990]. Although the mechanism of image formation hypothesized by the authors is different, they accept the basic idea, that Jesus became mechanically transparent with respect to the Shroud during the Resurrection.

– The body image is extremely superficial and resides only in a 0.2 µm (about 0.000008 in) thick layer around the flax fiber having a diameter of about 15 micrometers (0.00059 in, F19, F20).

– Around the thread, there are image fibers posed side-by-side with non-image fibers, therefore striations are evident (F17). – To obtain the resolution of the Shroud image of 4.9 mm ± 0.5 mm, knowing that the linen sheet must have a certain distance from the corpse (at least in some area of the wrapped body when the image formed), a directionality of the radiative phenomenon responsible for the image is necessary. This directionality is easily explained by the hypothesis of a very directional radiation caused by an intense energy emanating from inside the human body (F9). – The double superficiality can be scientifically explained only in reference to the CD (F7).

– It is not easy, even if possible in particular environmental conditions, to produce an image on a linen fabric using the CD alone. The chemical reaction (oxidation, dehydration and conjugation) necessary to produce the body image

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would be easier to obtain through a reaction based on two compounds that react with each other suitably; for example, amines also react at relatively low temperatures (around 60 °C, 140 °F) with sugars (Maillard reaction, see Ref. [Rogers & Arnoldi 2003]) to obtain a browning that is very similar to that which is found on the body image of the Shroud.

– It should be borne in mind that this phenomenon occurred about 2000 years ago [Fanti & Malfi, Kowalski 2023] when various energy sources such as electricity were not available, unless referring to a natural phenomenon such as lightning that develops during a storm. To better explain what is found on the Shroud, someone [Adler 1996] has even thought of a kind of ball lightning hypothesis which is a very rare natural phenomenon. Furthermore, it is even more difficult to make a plausible hypothesis when considering that the corpse in question was buried in a tomb carved into the rock and sealed on the outside by a large stone [John 19:42, Marc 15:46].

5.1.1 Comments on Gas Diffusion Hypothesis

According to what is reported in Section 4.3.5, Raymond Rogers [2002, 2008] with Anna Arnoldi [2003] referred to the Maillard reaction as being responsible for the formation of the body image on the Shroud. They hypothesized that the interaction of amines (generated by the body during decomposition) with a polysaccharide layer produced the color which is seen all around the external linen fibers of a thread, and that for the commencement of this chemical reaction an environment with a temperature of about 40 °C (104 °F) or higher is required. The Maillard reaction is similar to caramelization which results from a reaction between an amino acid and a reducing sugar. Nevertheless, the experiments reveal the poor imagemaking results of the Maillard reaction. In particular, the following features of the Shroud image are not satisfied: F4 (3-D effect), F9 (resolution), F7 (double superficiality) and F19 (color

Summary of the Body Image Features

cylindrically uniform) F11 (lack of putrefaction) F5 (protruding parts), F14 (soft hair), F17 (striations), and F18 (crevices).

5.1.2 Comments on Radiation Hypothesis

In agreement with what is reported in Section 4.3.6, various scholars proposed hypotheses based on radiation, among them John Jackson, who developed a new image formation process and named it the “Fall-Through Hypothesis”. This hypothesis presents some problems in testing the effects of a mechanically transparent human body, and it seems to also have some problems in reproducing features F4 (3-D effect of the dorsal image), F14 (soft hair) and F17-F20 of (striations, crevices, uniform color, thin layer and colorless lumen), but it is noteworthy that Jackson [1998] predicted feature F7 (double superficiality, see Fig. 5.1) which was actually detected some years later in Ref. [Fanti and R. Maggiolo, 2004, Jackson et al. 2017].

Figure 5.1 Double superficiality of the body image in correspondence of the face of Christ [Fanti and R. Maggiolo, 2004]. On the left the superficial image on the front side of the Shroud, on the right the less detailed superficial image of the back side (G. Fanti).

5.1.3 Comments on Corona Discharge Hypothesis In agreement with Section 4.3.7, the hypothesis of CD that was produced by an intense electric field is a particular radiation hypothesis that was first hypothesized by Arthur Loth [1900].

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Loth proposed that a bolt of lightning could have produced the body image. Various researchers [Fanti 2008, 2008a, 2010, Fanti et al.

2005, 2011, Judica Cordiglia 1986, Lattarulo 1998, Scheuermann 2007, Jackson et al.

later hypothesized that a CD could explain the Shroud body image. Many of those researchers postulated that an electrical type of energy source emanated from the body of Jesus during the Resurrection; however, this postulate pushes the hypothesis out of the realm of science because an important component of the hypothesis is unable to be reproduced: the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. This is where the electric discharges measured in the Holy Sepulcher that produce HF come into play. What cannot be reproduced in the laboratorya can be observed every year in Jerusalem. It is precisely this fundamental point that binds the phenomenon, or rather Miracle, of the HF to the Shroud and to its body image which has, thus far, not been reproducible by human means. Almost all the characteristics at microscopical level of the Shroud body image seem to comply with results from CD experiment, but Section 4.3.7 shows that Feature F20 (uncolored lumens) is not satisfied. At a macroscopic level, Fig. 4.33 shows a poor result, also, because it evidences exaggerated distortions in the body image.

2017, Whanger 1998]

5.1.4 Comments on the Results Produced by the Holy Fire

In agreement with what is reported in Section 4.3.8, we have seen that the miraculous conditions that occur in the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher could be those which produced the image of the Shroud in agreement with the initial DPH. However, further critical investigations were performed by the first author in order to improve the proposed initial DPH. In particular, up to now, it was implicitly supposed that the results obtained by HF1 correspond to those of HF2.10, but this aWhile

a cold fire can be reproduced in the laboratory by the use of special gases under particular thermal conditions [Lunawatt 2022], it is not possible to reproduce a cold fire in an environment similar to that of an ordinary church in the presence of common air.

Summary of the Body Image Features

additional hypothesis must be revised. In fact, we have already seen that the blue flame of HF1 considered in the DPH is different to the flame of HF2.10 which was employed by the first author when performing some initial tests. From the experimental results that were obtained in Section 4.3.9 by using HF2.10, it was discovered that the whole thread is colored along its thickness. Thus F15 (color on the uppermost fibers) and F20 (thin fibers layer) are not reproduced in the linen thread exposed to HF2.10. Even the striations (F17), typical of the Shroud image, are not evident in the experiment with HF2.10, while they are evident in the experimentally colored threads with CD. Finally, the concentration of color present in the crevices of the fabric (F18) does not seem evident in the thread exposed to HF2.10, and a fluorescence was detected in contrast with feature F8 (ultraviolet radiation produces no fluorescence of the body image). All these features (F8, F15, F17, F18 and F20), both typical of the CD and of the body image of the Shroud differ from those of the linen fabric experiments which were colored by exposure to HF2.10, will be considered in the new formulation of the DPH hypothesis reported in Section 5.2. In fact, this result demonstrates that there should be differences in the spot produced by the blue flames of HF1 and the yellowish flame typical of HF2.10. At this point we have a look at the initial formulation of DPH.

5.1.5 Comments on the Initial Formulation of Divine Photography Hypothesis

In agreement with what is reported in Section 4.3.8, the first author detected the interesting connection between the environment that would have been needed for the Shroud body image to have formed, and the manifestations related to the HF, already in 2019 [Fanti 2019]. He then published his initial hypothesis on the DPH which led to a first formulation of the DPH hypothesis that can be here summarized: the corpse wrapped in the Shroud at a certain moment became mechanically transparent with

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respect to the Shroud and the Resurrection emitted an intense energy that also included light, mainly bluish light, and an intense electric field capable of generating lightning and CD. The CD emitted by the human body interfered with the linen fabric and, thereby, formed a body image capable of encoding the distance between the emitting surface (the skin) and the receiving surface (the linen fabric). The linen browned in a manner proportional to the distance of between the two surfaces. This is the early stage of the hypothesis that will be better developed in Section 5.2. In agreement with the problems evidenced in Section 5.1.4 the hypothesis will refer to HF1 instead of HF2.10.

5.2 The Improved Divine Photography Hypothesis

In accordance with Section 5.1, we have seen that none of the hypotheses of body image formation so far meet the particular characteristics listed in Section 4.3.2. Consequently, a considerable improvement of the DPH described in Section 4.3.8 is given below so as to satisfy all the features analyzed. To achieve this goal, the Maillard reaction hypothesis described in Section 4.3.5 is incorporated into the initial DPH without directly referring to gas diffusion. Instead, it considers a more complex diffusive phenomenon based on urea having been exuded from the cadaver. We have developed the new hypothesis based on DPH being capable of satisfying all the conditions evidenced for the body image on the Shroud.

5.2.1 Assumptions Adopted for the Hypothesis Improvement

Before improving the new DPH, it is helpful to go more in depth about something, especially with regard to the possible materials that may have become part of the complex chemical-physical reaction which occurred in correspondence with the Shroud linen, which was responsible for the formation of the body image. It is good to remember here that the authors, as has already been written about in the previous chapters and which is based on

The Improved Divine Photography Hypothesis

the results that they have seen over decades of research, (that is not only limited to the scientific field) have recognized with certainty that the Man reproduced in the Shroud is Jesus Christ. Consequently, the hypotheses that will be formulated will be based on the following assumptions. 1. The Shroud wrapped the body of Jesus Christ when He was laid in the rock-cut Sepulcher now enclosed by the Edicule of the Holy Sepulcher of Jerusalem.

2. The Holy Bible, especially the Synoptic Gospels, provides us with realistic indications on how the events relating to the Passion, Death and Resurrection of Jesus Christ took place.

3. Even some mystics such as St. Brigitte of Sweden, Therese Neumann, Catherine Emmerich, Maria Valtorta, Maria d’Agreda and others can provide us with clues, even if not as certain and certified by the Church as is the Holy Bible, on how some facts may have unfolded and on which materials may have been used to result in the formation of the body imageb. The following hypotheses can therefore be formulated:

A. From the Gospel of John [19:39] it appears that “Nicodemus, who had first come to Jesus at night, also came, bringing with him a mixture of myrrh and aloes weighing about one hundred pounds (about 30 kg).” The Psalm of David [22.15], in describing the Passion and Death of Jesus indicates that at least part of the mixture of aloe and myrrh must have been in powder probably positioned between the tombstone and the Shroud: “... you lay me in the dust of death.” Some scholars (Baima Bollone & Gaglio 1984, Kohlbeck & Nitowski 1986) have also detected the presence of aloe and myrrh to confirm what is reported in the Bible and it is therefore possible to think that these substances, which are also composed of sugars, were used for the burial of Jesus.

is known that information from private revelations cannot be considered as absolute truth, but they assume a greater degree of truthfulness if these revelations coincide, as in the present case, with those provided by mystics thousands of kilometers and hundreds of years away from each other.

bIt

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B. Some mystics (Valtorta 2010) then describe in detail how aloe and myrrh were employed together with other oils commonly used by the Jews to form a particular amalgam (“manteca”) of anti-putrid substances to be spread around the whole corpse before wrapping it in the Shroud, see Fig. 5.2.

Figure 5.2 Substances used for first author’s experiments. On the left grains of urea; on the center grains of myrrh; on the right, aloe and myrrh mixed with urea in alcoholic solution, which crystallized after evaporation of alcohol (G. Fanti).

cThe

C. According to the authors of this book, this amalgam of antiputrid substances could be very interesting, because it could have played a very important role in the formation of the body image; this could, in fact, have been a means of transmission between the cadaver and the sheet also of the post-mortal fluids exuded from the cadaver such as ureac. This presence of abundant urea is a fundamental hypothesis for

urea is always present in human blood and sweat, and this is filtered by the kidneys. The concentration of urea in sweat is elevated in people with end-stage renal disease, and these levels are even higher when the kidneys are shutting down due to torture. Some mystics [Valtorta 2010] emphasize that in the corpse of Jesus the concentration of urea was very high, certainly much higher than normal levels, due to the damage of the kidneys whose function was blocked after the scourging which was particularly severe in that area. In agreement with this hypothesis, Section 4.4 reports that the so-called “bloody-belt”, which is clearly visible on the dorsal image of the Shroud, “could be caused by a serious injury in the kidneys area.”

The Improved Divine Photography Hypothesis

the DPH. In this case, therefore, we would avoid the problems related to the diffusion between the corpse and linen sheet hypothesized by Rogers & Arnoldi [2003] and then move on to a phenomenon either of direct skin-fabric contact in areas such as the tip of the nose where the Shroud touched it, or of transfer from the skin to the linen sheet through the amalgam interposed between them. Obviously, it will be necessary to additionally hypothesize—as we will actually do—the presence of an external directional phenomenon (CD) capable of transferring the information of the body features to the linen fabric, the Shroud.

5.2.2 Divine Photography Hypothesis

We saw in Section 4.3.7 that, according to the first author [Fanti 2010], CD was up to now the best hypothesis to explain several peculiar features of the Shroud image, but it is not sufficient to explain all that we see there. Therefore, other factors, such as body fluids, should be considered in addition to the CD that might have produced the so-called photographic emulsion that worked as a substrate for the hypothesized Divine Photography [Fanti & Malfi 2020]. Section 4.3.8 reported the initial formulation of the DPH and Section 4.3.9 highlighted some additional inconsistencies between the results of the experiments performed applying a CD and the typical characteristics of the HS body image; in particular, it pointed out that it is necessary to hypothesize an additional explanation that can account for the superficiality of the image on the linen’s fibers at the 200 nm (0.00008 in) level. Section 4.3.5 has highlighted some problems related to the hypothesis of the Maillard reaction, but, at this point, we combine the positive part of the CD with that of the Maillard reaction to arrive at an improvement of the DPH that can be formulated in the following way, see Ref. [Fanti 2023]. Since this hypothesis is complex, it is divided into the sections and points, shown in Table 5.1.

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A. Support and initial conditions B. Substrate reagents C. Energy

D. Image transfer

E. 3-D effect

F. Reaction

G. Development

New DPH

Photography of the 20th Century

Photography of the 21st Century

Linen fabric, presence of “manteca” with spices and body fluids with urea.

Glass plate

Monitor’s pixels/Paper

HF1 (blue flames and electric discharges produced in the corpse).

Flash of light or relatively long exposition of the subject to common light.

Flash of light or relatively long exposition of the subject to common light.

Amines from urea, and sugars from aloe, myrrh and linen.

The directionality of the lines of force of the electric field allowed the image transfer to the linen fabric.

Silver bromide and light

A proper lens (objective) focalizes the image on the glass plate

Light and pixel substrate

A proper lens (objective) focalizes the image on the sensor.

The image intensity principally depends None on the electric field that follows an inverse square law with distance.

None

A latent image produced on the Shroud linen slowly develops in time. The invisible defects produced on the polysaccharides of the linen, oxidizes, thus producing a visible image.

The electric signals coming from each pixel of the sensor’s matrix are digitalized in image’s matrix and stored in a digital memory ready both for reading by a computer and printing on paper.

The Shroud linen fibers are wet in reagents useful for Maillard reaction triggered by the HF1.

Silver bromide contained in the gelatin film.

Treatment of the film by means of the detector, which makes the image visible, by reducing the silver halide exposed to metallic silver. Immersion of the plate in a slightly acidic stop-bath, which terminates the action of the detector. A successive fixing bath makes the image permanent.

Each pixel converts light intensity in electric signal.

The Divine Photography

Table 5.1 Connections between the new DPH and common photography produced at the beginning of the twentieth century or produced in the 21st century

The Improved Divine Photography Hypothesis

A. Support and Initial Conditions A1. The image was imprinted on a linen fabric probably previously treated to make it softer. A2. As also evidenced by the “bloody belt” visible on the dorsal image of the Shroud and at Point C of Section 5.2.1, the kidneys of Jesus, during the scourging, were seriously compromised and practically ceased their blood filtering functions which consequently produced a severe uremia. This pathology was added to the others produced by the Passion causing a considerable excess of urea in the blood. A3. The corpse of Jesus unnailed and removed from the cross was then carried to the tomb where it was cleansed and smeared with an amalgam (“manteca”) of anti-putrid substances including aloe, myrrh and essential oils in agreement with Point B of Section 5.2.1. This amalgam was very thick and sticky and filled all the empty space between the corpse and the Shroud that wrapped it. The Shroud too was then imbibed of aloe and myrrh in agreement with Point A of Section 5.2.1. A chin strap was placed around the head of Jesus to close the mouth. Then, the corpse spread with this amalgam and wrapped in the Shroud was placed on the stone bed previously covered with a layer of powdered aloe and myrrh. His face was also covered with a sudarium soaked in anti-putrid substances. A4. The corpse remained wrapped in the Shroud for 30–40 hours placed in the humid environment of the tomb. In this period of time, the corpse exuded a fluid rich in urea which came to impregnate the amalgam previously spread on the body and the Shroud that wrapped it. A5. The urea exuded from the corpse was absorbed by the amalgam which moistened the Shroud and then impregnated the linen fabric. Depending upon the thickness of the amalgam, and, correspondingly, the distance between the human body and the sheet, the concentration of urea varied from one area to another. Depends precisely on this concentration of urea, see Point E2, the formation of the body image imprinted on the Shroud and its three-dimensionality.

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B. Substrate Reagents B1. The amines from uread formed the first part of the substrate for the DPH all around the linen fibers.

B2. Urea hydrolyzede by electric discharges, which also heated the environment to temperatures around 50–100 °C, (122–212 °F), produced amines. Here is how the HF1 comes into play, the “non-burning” Fire, because it is made of cold plasma which, according to the authors, is composed only of electrons at high thermodynamic temperatures (see Section 3.1.2, above a thousand degrees) while the protons and neutrons are still at relatively low thermodynamic temperatures. Therefore, they are the highly energetic electrons that produce the electric field responsible of the discharges that trigger the reaction just described.

B3. Sugarsf from the aloe and myrrh contained in the amalgam (“manteca”) are absorbed in the thin uniform outer layer of polysaccharides of the flax fibers forming the second part of the substrate layer for the DPH. dThe

hypothesis supported by R. Rogers that the presence of Saponaria Officinalis contributed to the production of a layer of sugars around the single flax fiber is contrary to Feature F19. (“The color is uniform around the cylindrical fibers’ surface”) of Section 4.3.2, because the layer would not be uniform due to fiber-tofiber contact and therefore is not considered. eUrea (NH CONH ) in a wet environment is partially hydrolyzed in an intermediate 2 2 (weakly exothermic) reaction, which generates ammonium carbamate (NH2CO2 NH4): NH2CONH2 + H2O → NH2CO2NH4 – 27,63 kJ/mol. Next, ammonium carbamate decomposes, producing ammonia and carbon dioxide: NH2CO2NH4 → 2NH3 + CO2 + 161,21 kJ/mol

The endothermic process provides controlled release of ammonia based on the overall reaction: NH2CONH2 + H2O → 2NH3 + CO2 + 133,58 kJ/mol. fFree aldehydes in the chains of reducing sugars are necessary for the chemical reaction with amines of next Point F2. In organic chemistry, an aldehyde is an organic compound containing a functional carbonyl group having the structure O C

R−CH=O in which R is the generic residual. R H It is a bivalent functional group consisting of a carbon atom and an oxygen atom linked by a double bond C=O. The carbonyl carbon of the sugar is oxidized to a carboxyl group. A reducing sugar is a carbohydrate that is oxidized by a weak oxidizing agent capable of oxidizing aldehydes in basic aqueous solution. It reduces another compound and is itself oxidized. In our case, it reduces the amino groups of amino acids in the Maillard reaction and is itself oxidized.

The Improved Divine Photography Hypothesis

C. Energy C1. During the Resurrection, there was a flash of light (a miracle involving HF1) whereby the body of Jesus developed an intense electric field that generated a CD (see also previous Point B2) which manifested itself in a similar way to the blue flames shown in Fig. 3.14 and to what was described by Patriarch Diodoro I, in Section 2.1, Point 9. Instantaneously, the body of Jesus became the Glorious Body and became mechanically transparent with respect to the Shroud. The Shroud cloth then simply collapsed under the force of gravity onto the sepulchral stone.

C2. The electric discharge connected with the blue lightning of the HF1 produced light or energy necessary for the photography to form.

Figure 5.3 Experiment performed by the first author to test the features of images produced from a CD experiment: striations along the threads are evident (G. Fanti).

C3. The electric field produced electrons which were concentrated mainly at the tips and protuberances of the linen fibers of the threads of the Shroud’s fabric. The fibers, thus hit by the electron beam, produced selectively localized chemical reactions on the fibers closest to the emitting human body;

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therefore, striations due to the selective reaction along the charged fibers are produced, see Fig. 5.3. The chemical reaction took place circumferentially to the affected fibers, because the electrons are distributed along the whole surface of the most charged fibers.

D. Image Transfer

D1. The directionality of the electric fieldg (like CD, having the lines of forces perpendicular to the emitting body, the human skin) allowed information relating to the human body to be encoded on the Shroud with sufficient resolution to be able to distinguish the two main parts of the frontal and dorsal body images.

E. 3_D Effect

E1. The image intensity principally depends upon that of the electric field that follows an inverse square law with distance. Therefore, the parts of the body in contact with the linen sheet undergo a greater number of chemical reactions that tend to darken the fibers. The chemical reactions of the linen are reduced as the body-sheet separation increases, thus, encoding the three-dimensional information related to the body–cloth distance. E2. Second, the urea emitted by the human body and absorbed by the amalgam (“manteca”) placed between the body and the sheet, which is the prime reactant of the Maillard reaction, reduces its concentration as the body–cloth distance increases, thereby, decreasing the browning of the linen fibers.

F. Reaction

F1. The cold plasma in the Holy Sepulcher (HF1) which contains negative ions, produces CD which causes amines and sugars gThe

electric field at each point in space is the force per unit charge experienced by a small positive charge if held stationary at that point. Being defined as a force, that is a vector; an electric field is a vector field. The electric field, that can be visualized with a set of lines, acts between two charged points like the gravitational field acts between two masses, as they both follow an inverse-square law with distance (Coulomb’s law).

The Improved Divine Photography Hypothesis

to react at low temperature (