The history and development of tagmemics 9783111348919, 9783110995015

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JANUA LINGUARUM STUDIA MEMORIAE N I C O L A I VAN WIJK D E D I C A T A

Series Critica, 16 edenda curai WERNER WINTER

THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF TAGMEMICS

by VIOLA G. WATERHOUSE Summer Institute of

Linguistics

1974 MOUTON THE HAGUE • PARIS

© Copyright 1974 Mouton & Co. N. V., Publishers, The Hague. No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publishers.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 73-77745

Printed in Hungary

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface

ix

PART I: INTRODUCTION

1 Introductory preview 1.1 Language as behavior 1.2 The nature of structure 1.3 Particle, wave, and field 1.4 Etic versus emic 1.5 The tagmeme 1.6 Matrix 1.7 Recent developments 1.8 Application of mathematical group theory 2 Historical introduction 2.1 The linguistic climate 2.2 Background 2.3 The tagmeme unit 2.4 Tagmemic notation 2.5 The syntagmeme 2.6 Other types of notation 2.7 Trimodal structure 2.8 The three hierarchies 2.9 Stages of development

5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 9 10 11 11 12 12 13

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

2.10 Verbal and nonverbal behavior 2.11 General reports 3 Development via scholars 3.1 The contribution of Pike 3.2 Longacre's contribution 3.3 Other SIL contributions 3.4 Other scholars 3.5 Critics

15 16 18 18 19 22 23 23

PART II: DEVELOPMENT OF HIERARCHIES

4 The basis 4.1 The theoretical base 4.2 Textbooks

27 27 28

5 Development in the grammatical hierarchy—stage 1 . . . . 5.1 From artificial to actual languages 5.1.1 Languagettes 5.2 First articles on actual languages 5.2.1 Candoshi 5.2.2 Pocomchi 5.2.3 Cashibo 5.2.4 Amuzgo 5.2.5 Amuesha 5.3 Development via full grammars—1 5.3.1 Chontal 5.3.2 Zaparo 5.4 Development via full grammars—2 5.4.1 Zapotec 5.4.1.1 Order of presentation 5.4.1.2 Independent and dependent 5.4.1.3 Nucleus and satellite 5.4.1.4 Diagnostic criteria for levels 5.5 Crawford's suggested restructuring

30 30 30 31 31 31 32 32 33 33 33 35 36 36 36 37 37 38 38

TABLE OF CONTENTS

vil

6 Stage 2—Matrix theory 6.0 Pike's basic article on matrix 6.1 Beginnings in Peru 6.2 Advance in the Pacific 6.3 Application to African languages 6.4 Other subjects 6.5 Articles by Pike 6.6 Articles by Longacre 6.7 Other authors

40 40 41 41 42 42 43 44 44

7 Stage 3—Higher levels of discourse 7.1 Beginnings 7.2 Paragraph studies 7.3 Discourse in lower-level analysis 7.4 Studies of various higher levels 7.4.1 Totonac 7.4.2 Philippine languages 7.4.3 Central Bontoc

47 47 47 48 48 48 48 49

8 Development in the lexemic hierarchy 8.1 Grammatical and situational roles 8.2 Deep and surface structure

51 51 52

9 Development in the phonological hierarchy 9.1 Phoneme classes 9.2 Phonotagmemes 9.3 Phonological levels

54 54 54 55

PART III: DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL

10 Books and articles 10.1 Bibliographies 10.2 Monographs of single languages 10.3 Other monographs 10.4 Articles on grammar 10.5 Articles on phonology

59 59 59 62 65 69

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

11 Application to English 11.1 The teaching of English composition 11.2 Other items on English

73 73 74

12 Relation to other models 12.1 Tagmemics and transformational grammar 12.2 Tagmemics and stratificational grammar 12.3 Tagmemics and case grammar 12.4 Tagmemics and syntagmatic grammar

76 76 77 78 78

13 Development via universities

79

14 Development via languages

81

PART IV: DEVELOPMENT BY YEARS

15 Chronological development 15.1 The year 15.2 The year 15.3 The year 15.4 The year 15.5 The year 15.6 The year 15.7 The year 15.8 The year 15.9 The year 15.10 The year 15.11 The year 15.12 The year 15.13 The year 15.14 The year 15.15 The year

1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

89 89 90 90 91 91 92 93 95 97 99 100 102 104 105 107

16 Bibliography

108

17 Author index

141

PREFACE

The basis for this book were the annotated bibliographies of K. PIKE (1966a) and BREND ( 1 9 7 0 ) to which were added the other items listed. The purpose has been to present the history and development of the theory of tagmemics, and its treatment and development in the field as well. Some of the items have more theoretical relevance than others; all have been considered important in one way or another. Undoubtedly there have been items missed or overlooked; for such the indulgence of the reader is asked. Some information has been repeated in more than one section. Such redundancy has been considered useful for communication, and to ease memory load as well as to cut necessity for cross-reference. I wish to express my thanks to Kenneth PIKE for his invaluable help in the initial stages, and to the Summer Institute of Linguistics, its Executive Director, Benjamin ELSON, and its Mexico field director, Frank ROBBINS, for the time allowed for the work and for help in other ways. My thanks also go to Ruth BREND and Alan WARES for their help and counsel and providing material; also to Robert LONGACRE, Edward BLANSITT, Howard M C K A U G H A N , Charles SCOTT, Peter FRIES, John BENDOR-SAMUEL, Irvine DAVIS, Helen A S H D O W N , Dorothy H U F F , Lila Wistrand ROBINSON, and Helen GEYTENBEEK, who provided books, reprints, and information for the project. Further thanks are due the English department and the Computer Center at Kansas State University for computerizing the initial bibliography ; to the library staff at the Center for Applied Linguistics in Washington, D.C., especially Alice

X

PREFACE

for their help; to my mother, Elsie DAVIS, to Lila Wistrand ROBINSON, and to the Arthur SAUNDERS, Derrick WALKER, Ronald HARTELL, and Harry WATERHOUSE families for their hospitality and their patience in putting up with stacks of books and papers and hangings of the typewriter at various stages of progress; to my colleague, Muriel PARROTT, for organizing and typing the first draft of the final bibliography; to Betty HARTELL, Karen ADAMS, and especially Olga ANSON, for expert typing help; to Ronald HARTELL, Harry WATERHOUSE, and Swantje KOCH for helpful editing and proofreading; to Elizabeth and Lois DAVIS, Ruth LUSTED, and Anne HOPKINS for chauffeuring help; and to Edward BOYER for finding most of these helpers for me.

EPPINK,

December, 1971 Viola Waterhouse

To Kenneth L. Pike

PART I

INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTORY PREVIEW

1.1 LANGUAGE AS BEHAVIOR

is the name now given to the linguistic and behavioral theory originated by Kenneth L. P I K E of the University of Michigan and the Summer Institute of Linguistics. It was first set forth in his book Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior (K. P I K E 1954, 1967a). The title of the book shows some of the major facets of the theory: (1) Language is viewed as a type of human behavior; (2) as such, it must be looked at in the context of and in relation to human behavior as a whole; (3) an adequate theory of language is applicable to other types of behavior as well, and to combinations of verbal and nonverbal behavior; thus, it is a unified theory; (4) human behavior is structured, not random. TAGMEMICS

1.2 THE NATURE OF STRUCTURE

Structure is HIERARCHICAL : smaller units are part of larger units, and are composed in turn of still smaller units. These units must be described in terms of the contrasts between them, of the variants each has, and of their distribution in larger units and as members of classes and systems of units. There are three simultaneous hierarchies in language: lexicon, phonology, and grammar.

6

INTRODUCTION

1.3 PARTICLE, WAVE AND FIELD

Structure may also be viewed from three complementary perspectives : static, dynamic, and functional. In the STATIC view, structure is composed of discrete particles. In the DYNAMIC view, structure is made up of waves, with nuclei and margins. In the FUNCTIONAL view, structure is seen as patterned system, or field.

1.4 ETIC VERSUS EMIC

Another factor in tagmemics is that of ETIC versus EMIC viewpoint. These terms are now in such common use that probably few recall that they were coined by K . PIKE from the endings of the words phonetic and phonemic. The etic view has to do with universals, with typology, with observation from outside a system, as well as with the nature of initial field data, and with variant forms of an emic unit. The emic view is concerned with the contrastive, patterned system of a specific language or culture or universe of discourse, with the way a participant in a system sees that system, as well as with distinctions between contrastive units.

1.5 THETAGMEME

The distinctive unit of tagmemics is the TAGMEME, primarily a unit of grammar: the correlation of a specific grammatical function (frequently called a slot) with the class of items which performs that function ( = fills that slot).

1.6 MATRIX

Another distinctive feature of tagmemics has been the development of MATRIX theory and techniques in relation to grammatical

INTRODUCTORY PREVIEW

7

structure. On the analogy of the phonetic chart with its intersecting axes for types and points of articulation, charts, or matrices, of clause or sentence or other structures can be made which show intersecting dimensions of contrastive structural features.

1.7 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

More recently, tagmemics has been concerned with the relationship of grammatical and situational ROLES, of the grammatical and lexical hierarchies, or of deep and surface structure. Further work is also being done on the nature of discourse and higher LEVELS of grammatical structure; on the use of tagmemic techniques in teaching English composition to college students, in language LEARNING, and in many other areas of research. At the same time, phonology has not been neglected. As field workers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics enter new languages, reports of the phonological systems are produced, including the higher levels found significant for each language.

1.8 APPLICATION OF MATHEMATICAL GROUP THEORY

Another recent development in tagmemics is that of applying mathematical GROUP THEORY to the analysis of pronominal reference in conversation and discourse. This is discussed in P I K E - L O W E (1969), LOWE (1969), K. PIKE (1971a: 90-6; 1971b), and in W I S E - L O W E (1972).

2 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

2.1 THE LINGUISTIC CLIMATE

Tagmemics appeared on the scene at a time when American linguists considered language structure to be composed primarily of separate boxes, labelled phonology (or phonemics), morphology, and syntax, which were to be studied and analyzed in that order. Each part was a separate compartment, distinct from the rest. Phonology was to be analyzed without any reference to grammar or meaning. Although in practice linguists sometimes admitted to allowing a knowledge of grammatical function or of the meaning of forms to influence or guide their phonemic analysis, this was considered an incorrect (though admittedly useful) shortcut, permitted only to save time, or for some other practical reason. Similarly, morphological analysis and description were to be completed before one began on syntax, and many grammars described only the phonemes and the morphology. Syntax analysis was made in terms of binary divisions into immediate constituents such as subject and predicate, with successive cuts until the ultimate level was reached. 2.2 BACKGROUND

K. PIKE had begun field work in 1935, working monolingually in a tonal Mixtec dialect of the mountains of Mexico. Here he found a language in which there was no clearcut distinction between

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

9

morphology and syntax. He saw that in language learning in a field situation, one must master grammatical patterns, meaningful units, and correct pronunciation of sounds all at the same time. Although the separate parts of the grammar might be written up as if distinct from each other, in analysis and in speech the understanding and use of all of them were carried on simultaneously. He felt that what was right and necessary in practice should be given a place also in the theory. He had begun also to train field linguists and missionaries at the Summer Institute of Linguistics. This caused him to focus on methodology for teaching, first of phonetics (K. PIKE 1943, E. V. PIKE 1946), then of phonemics (K. PIKE 1947), then of grammar (K. PIKE 1954). Contact with SAPIR had made him conscious of language design and pattern, of the importance of the reaction of native speakers to the writing and reading of their own language, and of the usefulness of artificial language material. His basic orientation to descriptive linguistics, like that of the rest of his linguistic generation in America, was in the tradition of BLOOM FIELD. As early as 1944, in his "Analysis of a Mixteco text" (K. PIKE 1944), he had begun to explore the idea of 'unit-in-position' rather than binary immediate constituents as away of handling grammatical data. In 1949, he presented the problem of the lack of a clearcut morphology-syntax division in some languages, which laid some of the groundwork for a three-hierarchy system (K. PIKE 1949).

2.3 THE TAGMEME UNIT

He then began to focus more directly on problems of the nature of language as behavior, the matter of hierarchy in language, and particularly on what there might be in grammar that could be considered a basic unit comparable to the phoneme and the morpheme. This basic unit he eventually conceived to be a functional

10

INTRODUCTION

slot in a grammatical construction correlated with the lexical item or class of items which could be said to fulfil that function. These of necessity occurred in a particular linear order in a language, but what was primary was the correlation of the function and the class that filled it. Thus, subject slot filled by noun phrase, or predicate slot filled by verb phrase, would be a type of basic grammatical unit. This unit he first called the GRAMEME as a unit of grammar. The term TAGMEME, which replaced Pike's term GRAMEME, comes from BLOOMFIELD (1933: 166, 264) but is used in a different sense from that of BLOOMFIELD. Other linguists confused the term GRAMEME with a unit for writing like GRAPHEME, so the term TAGMEME was proposed (K. PIKE 1958b), since BLOOMFIELD'S use had never really been well understood. His remarks as to the scope and usefulness of his tagmeme (BLOOMFIELD 1933: 276), however, apply equally to that of PIKE.

2.4 TAGMEMIC NOTATION

A TAGMEME, then, is the correlation of a functional slot on a specific level within a hierarchy with the class of items that fill the slot. Thus a class is said to fill a slot. A class may also be said to manifest a tagmeme, or a specific member of a class may be said to manifest the tagmeme. The slot is not viewed as a location in a linear sequence—although it may be that—but rather as a function in a construction type. Neither the slot nor the class that fills it is considered to be the tagmeme by itself. For this reason, the basic tagmemic notation is dual, with labels for both slot and class, and a colon inserted between them, without intervening space. The colon is to be read 'filled by'. Tagmemes may be obligatory, marked + . Optional tagmemes are marked + . The occurrence of an optional tagmeme does not thereby constitute it obligatory; hence it is still marked ± . The marking as either obligatory or optional is part of the notation

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

11

for the tagmemic unit itself; thus there is no intervening space between it and the slot label. A typical notation for a tagmeme would be +S:n (='obligatory subject slot filled by noun'), or +L:loc (='optional location slot filled by location word').

2.5 T H E S Y N T A G M E M E

A SYNTAGMEME is a construction on a given hierarchical level whose constituent parts are tagmemes. A transitive clause in English would be one type of syntagmeme. One typical notation for a transitive clause in English (like 'The boy has a book') would be +S:NP +TPred:TVP + 0:NP ( = 'obligatory subject slot filled by noun phrase, followed by transitive predicate slot filled by obligatory transitive verb phrase, followed by obligatory object slot filled by noun phrase').

2.6 OTHER TYPES OF N O T A T I O N

K. PIKE'S original notation for the tagmeme unit had the slot label on the line with the class label superscript following it as, for example, +iS w , that is, an obligatory subject slot ('that about which an affirmation is made') filled by a class of words (K. PIKE 1954, 1967a, section 7.742). An alternative notation was that of the slot followed by the filler in parentheses: S(N) 'subject slot filled by noun'. Professor Herbert PAPER of the University of Michigan suggested the use of the colon, which has now become standard notation. Some authors have preferred to use a longer abbreviation, or a full word notation, in order to lessen the memory load for the reader. LONGACRE has used the slot label alone; this does not, however, mean that the filler class is overlooked. Rather, the simpler notation is merely a convention for ease of transcription. Many

12

INTRODUCTION

tagmemic writeups are accompanied by a glossary of abbreviations; others spell out or explain the formulas.

2.7 TRIMODAL STRUCTURE

In PIKE'S original formulation, any unit was conceived of as structured simultaneously in three distinct but overlapping modes: t h e FEATURE m o d e , t h e MANIFESTATION m o d e , a n d t h e D I S T R I b-

UTION mode. This was symbolized as U= ^M. The feature mode was its contrastive-identificational component, that which distinguished it from all other units, and gave it its specific identity. The manifestation mode was its range of variants, the physical ways in which it appears in different contexts, the component which ties it down to real world events. The distribution mode included its membership in a class of related or similar units, its function in a larger unit, and its internal structure. Later, the first two terms were replaced by contrast and variation, with distribution retained as the third term. Any well-formed or well-described units were to be presented in these terms.

2.8 THE THREE HIERARCHIES

The three modes were seen to comprise three interlocking hierarchies, each with a minimum unit at the bottom, and with borders that partially coincided but sometimes did not. For language, the feature mode was considered to be the lexical hierarchy, with the morpheme as the basic unit. The manifestation mode was the phonological hierarchy, with the phoneme as the basic unit. The distribution mode was the grammatical hierarchy, with the tagmeme as the basic unit. The work of CRAWFORD on the phonological hierarchy brought in the concept of the phonotagmeme (CRAWFORD 1963). This, along with recent work of LONG ACRE (1964b) on the grammatical,

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

13

and WISE ( 1 9 6 8 ) on the lexical hierarchy, has brought about a change whereby the morpheme is now considered basic to the grammatical hierarchy, and a new lexemic hierarchy has been set up with the lexeme as its basic unit. This has now resulted in a "nine box" system which PIKE has been developing in classes in Michigan but which has not yet been discussed in print. According to this system, a syntagmeme is composed of the interlocking of a grammatical construction, a lexemic construction, and a phonological construction. Each type of construction has three phases: its function, its class and features, and the item which is its manifesting form. A tagmeme consists of the nine boxes of the functions, classes, and items of all three hierarchies. In this system, however, only specific tagmemes and syntagmemes can be viewed at one time.

2.9 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

first concern was a practical one of finding a basic grammatical unit. The most fruitful approach he found was to set up artificial language systems, following the example of SAPIR ( 1 9 2 5 ) . These were described in terms of contrastive uttereme types, with formulas for minimum and maximum of each type. The hierarchy also was described in terms of its basic unit and its top level, without specific differentiation of intermediate levels. Items written on this early model include those of SHELL ( 1 9 5 7 ) , WATERPIKE'S

HOUSE ( 1 9 5 8 ) , a n d PEEKE ( 1 9 5 8 ) . PICKETT'S grammar brought in two major contributions: the beginning of a focus on levels within the hierarchy, and on levels above the sentence (PICKETT 1959). She also brought in the concept of 'nucleus' and 'periphery' in tagmemic strings. LONGACRE had also had an influence in these emphases, although his written materials on them appeared later (LONGACRE 1964a). At the same time that PICKETT was developing these refinements of tagmemic grammar, CRAWFORD was working in tagmemic

14

INTRODUCTION

phonology. His concept of the phonotagmeme ( C R A W F O R D 1 9 5 9 ) and his suggested restructuring of the hierarchies had a profound influence on PIKE'S thinking PIKE'S article "Dimensions of grammatical constructions" (K. PIKE 1961C) brought in a new focus on the presentation of grammatical field structure and on the use of tagmemic matrices in that presentation. From then on, especially from 1963-68, many articles appeared applying matrix techniques to a wide variety of subjects and problems. Notable among these is the volume applying matrix to African languages (K. PIKE 1966b). * Problems of paragraph structure, especially in Peruvian languages, had begun to come to the fore with work by LORIOT (1958; see now LORIOT - H O L L E N B A C H 1970), Loos (1963), and POWLISON (1965). Further work on paragraph structure was done in BRIDGEMAN (1966) and POPOVICH (1967) for two Brazilian languages, and in BECKER (1965, 1966), Y O U N G - BECKER (1964, 1965), M O R GAN (1967), and K O E N - BECKER - Y O U N G (1967-68) for English. In 1968, attention had begun to focus on the structure of discourse, discourse types, and types of paragraphs found within discourse. Three monographs presented detailed structures on these levels: A . R E I D et alii ( 1 9 6 8 ) on Totonac from clause to discourse, LONGACRE ( 1 9 6 8 ) on Philippine languages, and L . R E I D ( 1 9 7 0 ) on Central Bontoc of the Philippines. WHEELER ( 1 9 6 7 ) had also pointed out the relevance of discourse analysis to the analysis of lower grammatical levels. With the emphasis on discourse, another area also came into focus, the distinction between lexical and grammatical roles, and the necessity of analyzing the lexical structure of a discourse as well as the grammatical structure. WISE'S dissertation (WISE 1 9 6 8 ) pointed out how participants are identified in Nomatsiguenga (Peru) discourse, and FORSTER - BARNARD ( 1 9 6 8 ) showed how both situational and grammatical role were relevant in the classification of Dibabawon (Philippines) verbs. Current studies (BALLARD et alii 1 9 7 1 , W I S E - G R E E N 1 9 7 1 ) focus on these in terms of deep and surface structures and their relations.

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

15

2.10 V E R B A L A N D N O N V E R B A L B E H A V I O R

One of the first points made by PIKE in his book Language (K. 1 9 5 4 - 6 0 ) was that language is verbal behavior. As such, it must be seen within the context of behavior. Also, verbal and nonverbal behavior must be considered together for a total picture of human communicative behavior. Thus far, the study of culture has not seemed in general to lend itself to the neat categorizations found so useful in language, nor has much been written regarding the relation between verbal and nonverbal behavior beyond that which Pike referred to in his first chapter. BOCK (1962, 1964, 1967), however, sought to develop a model for social structure with units comparable to the tagmeme. Also, a recent brief article by GUDSCHINSKY showed the interrelationship of verbal and nonverbal behavior in five Brazilian tribes, in such situations as greetings, community drinking, and specifying location ( G U D S C H I N S K Y 1968). REVILL (1966) discussed paralinguistic features of Mbembe of Nigeria, in which certain characteristics of speech style (pitch, speed, shift of vocal quality) were combined with various types of body movement to indicate different emotional states which tie in with speech situations. SCHEFLEN ( 1 9 6 5 ) described various kinds of communicative behavior: language, kinesics, posture, dress, and others, and set up a hierarchical system of form-meaning communicational units. K A K U M A S U (1968) described the system of sign language used among the deaf and dumb of the Urubu tribe of Brazil and showed how it is related to the spoken language. Along a different line, but possibly related, are the vocal—but nonverbal—systems of whistle speech reported in C O W A N ( 1 9 5 2 ) for Mazatec and Tepehua of Mexico, and the drum signals of African tribes, all methods of nonverbal communicative behavior in human societies. PIKE

16

INTRODUCTION

2.11 GENERAL REPORTS N o attempt has been made to present an exhaustive listing of references to tagmemics in general linguistics textbooks. A few are noted here. Brief references were made by SAMARIN (1967: 198) to the use of matrices; by FUDGE (1970: 84) to the phonological hierarchy; by MATTHEWS to the application of PIKE'S wave theory to morphology (MATTHEWS 1970: 104-5), to the usefulness of both the segmental and dynamic approach (MATTHEWS 1970 : 106), and to the work of PIKE (1965b) and CALLOW (1968) as extensions of the word-paradigm model (MATTHEWS 1970: 112); and by LYONS (1970: 118) to the use of both functional and categorical labels in K . PIKE (1954, 1967a), in ELSON - PICKETT (1960, 1962) and in LONGACRE (1964a). ROBINS (1967: 212) gave a good though brief presentation of tagmemics. BOLINGER presented the model in more detail (BOLINGER 1968: 74-7), discussing tagmemes as combinations of class and function in syntactical strings, and syntagmemes as syntactical patterns. He cited tagmemics as more or less the norm for what he termed American "structural linguistics" (BOLINGER 1968: 198), the successor to "descriptive linguistics", and the predecessor of "formal linguistics" ( = transformational grammar). LEON-PORTILLA (1967) discussed PIKE'S unified theory in relation to studies of language-in-culture and possible parallels between language and other aspects of culture. HALL, in his introductory textbook (HALL 1964) referred to K . PIKE (1954-60), LONGACRE (1960), ELSON - PICKETT (1962), and PICKETT (1960), but used the term tagmeme in a non-PIKE an sense as a unit of fixed relative position rather than as one which correlates function and class filler. H e did refer the terms etic and emic to PIKE, and considered that the task of the linguist was to determine structural units and their relations within a construction. A historical report by GRIMES described the contribution of PIKE and of the Summer Institutes of Linguistics in both phonology

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

17

and grammar (GRIMES 1 9 6 8 ) . A report on the Tenth International Congress of Linguists ( D I K - KOOIJ - UHLENBECK 1 9 6 8 ) spoke of the importance of the theory and the number and activity of its proponents. The most recent report of activities in tagmemics was that given by PIKE at the twenty-second annual Round Table Meeting at Georgetown University in the spring of 1971, and published in their fall report: "Crucial questions in the development of tagmemics—the sixties and seventies" (K. PIKE 1971a).

3 DEVELOPMENT VIA SCHOLARS

3.1 THE CONTRIBUTION OF PIKE

contribution to linguistic advance on many fronts, and especially to the development of tagmemics and of the study of grammar and discourse, is immeasurable. It comprises four types of impact. The first is the flow of book and articles from his pen, advancing and refining the theory and applying it to languages in all parts of the world. Of the extensive tagmemic bibliography, 36 items are his, plus ten others coauthored by him. The second is his influence on young scholars and beginning field workers at the Summer Institutes of Linguistics in the USA and abroad, and at the University of Michigan. It is impossible to trace how many of the other items in the bibliography were sparked by discussion with him at one of the schools or written at one of the workshops at the University of Oklahoma. Nor is it possible to estimate how many field workers received basic training and stimulus to linguistic research directly through contact with him. The field workers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics alone have now begun research in well over 500 languages. The third type of impact is the help given on language research and writeup at field workshops in many parts of the world and the training given to other consultants to serve in the same capacity. At this writing, K. PIKE (along with HALE and E. G. PIKE) is conducting a workshop on the grammar of languages of Nepal. Other field workshops are constantly in progress in various places, conducted by PIKE-trained personnel. PIKE'S

DEVELOPMENT VIA SCHOLARS

19

The fourth type of impact is the stimulus from his constant interest in new frontiers of research. Currently (1971), he is working on kinesics, especially gesture, in relation to groups of two or three persons; alternative mathematical models for handling English pronouns; several sets of postulates for tagmemics; further refinement of his nine-box system for tagmemes and syntagmemes; the teaching of semantics and lexemics to beginning students; the analysis of levels within discourse and their interrelationships; the distinction between lexemic and grammatical constructions on various levels and their separate characteristics; and the development of an etics of sentence and clause types.

3.2 LONGACRE'S CONTRIBUTION

Along with PIKE as the originator of tagmemics, many others have had a part in its development. One of the major contributors to the development of tagmemic theory and procedure is Robert LONGACRE. Probably next to PIKE, LONGACRE has had the greatest influence in the field of tagmemics. K. PIKE (1967) cites several specific contributions of LONGACRE to the development of tagmemics: (1) the insistence on levels of structure, (2) the necessity of two criteria to separate emic grammatical structure types, (3) emphasis on clause as a useful starting point for analysis, (4) specific criteria for separating phrase level from clause level. LONGACRE'S first tagmemic article, "String constituent analysis" (LONGACRE 1960), presented constructions as strings of units rather than as binary sets of immediate constituents as was the usual practice at the time. PIKE developed this by pointing out that binary cuts or sets of binary constituents are the end product in some cases but need not be taken as the starting point of analysis. In his article LONGACRE also first showed the need for two criteria to prove two constructions emically distinct, and the use-

20

INTRODUCTION

fulness of clause as a starting point for analysis. He next produced a pilot study applying tagmemic techniques to the analysis of Biblical Hebrew clauses. In 1963, he coauthored an article presenting syntactic matrices (of clause and sentence structures) for OstuacanZoque (Mexico) (ENGEL - LONGACRE 1963). His next major contribution was his field manual, Grammar discovery procedures (LONGACRE 1964a), presenting techniques for analysis of clauses, phrases, words, and sentences. That same year his "Prolegomena to lexical structure" (LONGACRE 1964b) appeared. This set up a nine-box matrix, with phonology, grammar, and lexicon as one dimension, and particle, wave, and field as the other. In this, he first suggested that morpheme be the basic unit of the grammatical hierarchy, and lexeme that of the lexical hierarchy. In his article "Some fundamental insights of tagmemics" (LONGACRE 1965a), he set forth some of the basic features of tagmemics. He used the terms function and set, for the slot and class terms used by PIKE. He illustrated the matter of function by suggesting that a predication clause could be compared to a miniature drama, in which the verb presents the plot, subjects and objects the dramatis personae, and other tagmemes of location, time, and so on give the setting and stage props. He pointed out the interest tagmemics has in functional relations within constructions, but that such relations are clearly tied to form as well as function. He defined the syntagmeme as a functionally contrastive string ( = construction) on a given level, with specific characteristics of closure and internal coherence; having a minimum structure comprised of a nucleus, and usually also an expanded form containing an optional periphery in addition to the nucleus; and exhibiting contrast, variants, and distribution. He distinguished between certain permutations which simply set up variants of a construction type, and other permutations, such as the English interrogative, which transform one syntagmeme type to another. He pointed out the relevance and importance of setting up levels of a hierarchy and their correlation with the syntagmemes which (LONGACRE 1961)

DEVELOPMENT VIA SCHOLARS

21

occur at that level. He showed how lower-level units are distributed in higher-level units, but that there can also be level-skipping and backlooping from a higher to a lower level, as well as recursive layerings within the same level. The final feature of tagmemics which he presented is that of relatedness in logical space, as shown in the use of matrices. He gave a diagram of the field structure of hierarchy in which he showed levels of discourse, of paragraph, sentence, clause, phrase, and word, with the tagmemes at each level. Another article is his "Transformational parameters in tagmemic field structures" (LONGACRE 1965b). This presented matrices of the clause structure of three Mexican languages: Ostuacan Zoque, Sierra Popoluca, and Tlahuitoltepec Mixe, and showed how the matrix method of presenting field structure is useful in formulating linguistic transformations. In 1966, his article on Trique clause and sentence was published, showing contrast, variation, and distribution of structural types on each of these levels (LONGACRE 1966). In 1967, several articles appeared. One was on the notion of sentence, discussing the differences between sentences and clauses, with illustrations from English (LONGACRE 1967a). Another, co-authored with A. WILLIAMS, dealt with clause types of Popoloca (Mexico) (WILLIAMS - LONGACRE 1967). A further article, coauthored with K. JACOBS is "Patterns and rules in Tzotzil grammar", which presented patterns ( = syntagmemes) and pattern points ( = tagmemes) in terms of formulas and ordered rules for generating clauses and phrases (JACOBS - LONGACRE 1967). 1968 saw the publication of two works connected with Longacre dealing with higher levels of discourse. The first was the monograph Totonac: from clause to discourse (REID et alii 1 9 6 8 ) , coauthored by LONGACRE, and including description of structures on clause, sentence, paragraph and discourse levels. The second was Discourse, paragraph, and sentence structure in selected Philippine languages (LONGACRE 1 9 6 8 - 6 9 ) . In 1 9 7 0 , his "Sentence structure as a statement calculus" appeared, presenting a theoretical frame-

22

INTRODUCTION

work for sentence structure in general, and a detailed classification of sentence types in English (LONGACRE 1970b). In 1971, another coauthored article was published, dealing with deep and surface grammar of inter-clausal relations of Inibaloi of the Philippines (BALLARD - CONRAD - LONGACRE 1971).

Like PIKE, LONGACRE'S contribution is not only through books and articles, but also in teaching linguistics at Summer Institutes of Linguistics and elsewhere, and in conducting field workshops in various parts of the world. The findings of his 1970 New Guinea workshops should be in print shortly. He has also contributed a number of reviews of tagmemic items.

3.3 OTHER SIL CONTRIBUTIONS

Others from the faculty of the Summer Institute of Linguistics who have made special contributions to the advancement of the theory areELSON and PICKETT, whose pedagogical volume (ELSON -PICKETT 1962) has been widely used. ELSON has also contributed through his editing of the early tagmemic volumes of the Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics and Related Fields (ELSON 1 9 6 1 , 1 9 6 2 , 1 9 6 3 , 1 9 6 4 ) , and PICKETT through her grammar of Zapotec (PICKETT 1959) and various reviews. WATERHOUSE has served as consultant at field workshops, and as subeditor of various works. She is also the author of the first tagmemic grammar (WATERHOUSE 1958), and of "Independent and dependent sentences" (WATERHOUSE 1963). GUDSCHINSKY has worked in the realms of higher-level phonology, literacy, and language learning. E . V . PIKE has contributed especially to field work and writeups in higher-level phonology. WISE has made contributions to the development of the lexical hierarchy, to the analysis of deep and surface structure, and to discourse analysis. HOLLENBACH has coauthored a number of articles, besides making a theoretical contribution (HOLLENBACH 19681. CRAWFORD'S work on the phonotagmeme (CRAWFORD 1959)

DEVELOPMENT VIA SCHOLARS

23

has been a major factor in the development of hierarchy. Others, both faculty and field workers, have contributed descriptions of aspects of one or more languages, as seen on these pages.

3.4 OTHER SCHOLARS

While tagmemic theory was the brainchild of Kenneth L. PIKE, and the major part of the articles and books based on the theory were written either by members of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, or by graduate students of PIKE at the University of Michigan, the application and development of the theory have not been restricted to these groups. The Georgetown University School of Languages and Linguistics has taken an active interest in promoting tagmemics. COOK of Georgetown has written a number of items, including On tagmemes and transforms (COOK 1964), A descriptive analysis of Mundari (COOK 1965), "The generative power of a tagmemic grammar" (COOK 1967), Introduction to tagmemic analysis (COOK 1969), and "Case grammar as a deep structure in tagmemic analysis" (COOK 1971). While some of COOK'S handling of tagmemics differs from that of PIKE and others of SIL, he has especially sought to utilize concepts of other systems in the furthering of tagmemics. Others who have shown interest in the development of tagmemics, and written articles on various aspects of it are BLANSITT, of the University of Texas (El Paso), and FRIES, recently of the University of Wisconsin. BECKER and YOUNG have been among those especially active in the field of tagmemic rhetoric.

3.5 CRITICS

Tagmemics has been criticized and dismissed as inadequate by POSTAL (1964: 32-51). The model he took exception to was primarily the formulation of ELSON - PICKETT (1960). Replying to this

24

INTRODUCTION

criticism were MATSON (1967) and HOLLENBACH (1968). In his review of LONGACRE'S Grammar discovery procedures (LONGACRE 1964a), POSTAL also cricicized tagmemics on various grounds (POSTAL 1966); LONGACRE (1967b) is a reply to this. The most recent criticism of tagmemics is that of HUDDLESTON (1971). The criticism that tagmemics does not handle deep structure may find an answer in WISE (1968), W I S E - G R E E N (1971), and BALLARD et alii (1971). The objection that tagmemics does not handle double function may be answered by FRIES (1970a).

PARTII

DEVELOPMENT OF HIERARCHIES

4 THE BASIS

4.1 THE THEORETICAL BASE

major work, Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior ( K . PIKE 1954-60, 1967a), is the definitive volume on tagmemics. Not the least of its contributions is the extensive comment on a wealth of bibliographical items found at the end of each chapter covering major phases of language, linguistics, and behavior. The book begins by showing how verbal and nonverbal behavior supplement each other. This is followed by a discussion of etic and emic viewpoints and the scope of each. Then the structure of behavior is illustrated by the example of a nonliturgical church service. Focus is next illustrated, by means of an American university football game, including the progress of the game itself, and the conduct and comments of spectators. The distinctive unit of behavior called the BEHAVIOREME, including the verbal behavioreme, or sentence, is then discussed, and exemplified by a breakfast scene from a middle-class American family. There follows the discussion in turn of the minimum unit of each of the three modes of the behavioreme. The FEATURE mode has as its minimum units the nonverbal emic motif, and the verbal morpheme. In language, this mode corresponds to the lexical hierarchy. The MANIFESTATION mode has as its minimum units the acteme and the phoneme. In language it corresponds to the phonological hierarchy. The DISTRIBUTION mode has as its minimum PIKE'S

28

DEVELOPMENT OF HIERARCHIES

units the motifemic-slot-class correlative, and the tagmeme. It corresponds to the grammatical hierarchy in language. Higherlevel units of these are then discussed in detail. Problems of the definition of hypertagmeme as originally set up and as now developed are discussed, as well as the relationship of tagmemics and transformational grammar, and their similarities and differences. The similarities and differences of tagmemics and HALLIDAY'S prosodic approach are also presented. Further chapters deal with restrictions imposed on the setting up of emic units by the trimodal approach and the analogy of particle, wave, and field: modelike emic units and systems, such as suprasegmental systems; fused units and the problem of segmentation; interlocking between the hierarchies. The next to the last chapter deals with problems related to meaning. The final chapter returns to nonverbal matters and discusses an American college football team as a sentence type within society, and the family as a societal syllable type.

4.2 TEXTBOOKS

Since PIKE was director of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, it was inevitable that textbooks should be produced to teach beginning field workers to apply the theory to the analysis of unwritten languages. The first such textbook was PICKETT (1956) and used at the Institute at the University of Oklahoma. A similar text (ELSON 1958; revised 1959) was used at the Institute at the University of Washington in Seattle. The two joined forces to produce a revised text, An introduction to morphology and syntax ( E L S O N - P I C K E T T 1960). A further revision (1962, 1964) is still the standard text of Summer Institutes of Linguistics beginning courses. Other theories are also taught, especially in the advanced courses, but particularly at the University of Oklahoma, and in the German Seminar fur Sprachmethodik, tagmemics is the main theory and technique presented. ELSON and PICKETT'S book begins with a section on morphemes

THE BASIS

29

and morpheme identification, allomorphs, morphophonemics, and special problems in morphemic analysis. Part 2 deals with tagmemes and constructions at clause, phrase, and word levels, below the word level, and at sentence level. It also discusses relationships between levels in the grammatical hierarchy, and special types of interrelationships between morphemes. Part 3 gives a survey of stem formation, word, phrase, clause, and sentence types, and a brief discussion of levels above the sentence. Part 4 presents principles and procedures for the discovery of tagmemes and other units and classes in the grammatical hierarchy. A final section deals with suggestions for field work and for presentation of material in various forms. Illustrative data are largely from Sierra Popoluca and Isthmus Zapotec of Mexico (which the authors have studied in depth), but are from a variety of other languages as well. A workbook (MERRIFIELD et alii 1962) containing homework problems for the student from a wide variety of languages supplements the text. LONGACRE'S Grammar discovery procedures (LONGACRE 1964a) is designed for the advanced student or field worker. The introduction to this volume presents grammar as one of three modes of linguistic structuring, taxonomic analysis as valid, and pattern ( = syntagmeme) and pattern point ( = tagmeme) as primitives of linguistic structure. He discusses the reasons for his insistence on the presence of two criteria in order to separate construction types, and explains and illustrates his operations of reading, permutation, and exponence. The chapters that follow deal in turn with clause, phrase, word, and then sentence level, giving preliminary procedures, analytical procedures for both syntagmemes and tagmemes, and concluding procedures for each level. C O O K has also written a textbook Introduction to tagmemic analysis ( C O O K 1969). He uses an eclectic approach, differing in a number of ways from the standard tagmemic texts. He discusses analysis from sentence level down.

5 DEVELOPMENT IN THE GRAMMATICAL HIERARCHY—STAGE 1

5.1 FROM ARTIFICIAL TO ACTUAL LANGUAGES

5.1.1 Languagettes In looking for his basic unit of grammatical structure, PIKE had used a technique learned from SAPIR: that of constructing artificial languages with real-language characteristics. These he called "languagettes" (K. PIKE 1954-60 [= 1967a] section 7.742). He set up three major types with sub-types of some of these (K. PIKE 1954-60 [= 1967a]: 7.3.13 (4), 7.742-6). Schematic Class-Type A had one emic distribution class of morphemes. Type A' had one major emic distribution class and one or more minor classes. Type B had two major emic distribution classes; B' had two major classes and one or more minor classes; and B" had within its major classes certain subclasses which operated grammatically like the minor classes of Type B'. Type C had two or more major classes of morphemes closely linked to one or more minor classes in such a way that the resulting hypermorpheme combinations also constituted major emic distribution classes. Each type (except B") had varying sized sets of data with translation and some items left untranslated. Type C, in addition, was set up with successive sets of data in multiple stages to simulate actual field procedure. The final stage was a brief narrative text. These "languagettes" were used as classroom exercises in grammatical analysis. PIKE'S solutions to them, with his minimum and maximum formulas, were given later in the text (sections 7.742-6).

DEVELOPMENT IN THE GRAMMATICAL HIERARCHY - STAGE 1

31

5.2 FIRST ARTICLES ON ACTUAL LANGUAGES

The first published treatment of actual language data was the July 1957 issue of the International journal of American linguistics, whose contents were devoted entirely to the application of tagmemics (then called grammemics) to various facets of the grammar of several Amerindian languages. 5.2.1 Candoshi Four of these were concerned with verbs: The first, "Grammemic theory in reference to restricted problems of morpheme classes" (K. PIKE 1957c), dealt with problems encountered in the analysis of Candoshi verbs, particularly in seeking to chart verb affixes in the traditional way from the stem outward. He pointed out the insights gained by charting from the end of the word inward, as well as by taking special account of obligatory versus optional categories, and by separating the affixes of independent verbs from those of dependent ones. The second article, Cox (1957), presented the end result obtained by the procedures elucidated by PIKE.

5.2.2 Pocomchi A third article, MAYERS (1957) gave a brief presentation of the verbs of Pocomchi, a Mayan language of Guatemala, as they occurred in predicate slots of utteremes, with formulas for minimum and expanded forms of utteremes. Formulas were in full word form; thus, the minimum formula for Uttereme I A was + Predicate transitive verb expression. The expanded formula was given with an example. Verbs as heads of verb expressions filling predicate "spots" were described, then verb stems as fillers of head spots in verbs, then verb roots as fillers of head spots in stems. Expansions of verbs by preposed and postposed particles were briefly mentioned, with examples.

32

DEVELOPMENT OF HIERARCHIES

5.2.3 Cashibo The final and most detailed of the verb articles was SHELL ( 1 9 5 7 ) on Cashibo of Peru. It had formulas for both simple and expanded forms of utteremes expressing action, imperative, and purpose, both directed and not directed toward goal. It also had formulas for principal and subordinate classes of both transitive and intransitive verbs, and detailed charts of verb bases and margins, along with examples of morpheme classes and alloclasses, and of grammemes, hypergrammemes, and expanded grammemes. The type of notation used was that of an abbreviation for the slot name, with the filler abbreviation superscript following it. VT was used for transitive verb as filler, and VI for intransitive, with a, b, or c between the two capital letters to indicate whether the root, core or base was referred to. Affixes occurring as fillers were referred to by decade and century numbers, following the numerical classification system developed by VOEGELIN. 5.2.4 Amuzgo A further article, by Helen Long H A R T , dealt with the structure of nouns in Amuzgo of Mexico, presented against a background of utteremic types, and types of grammemes; and with the structure of verbs and attributives, paralleling that of the nouns ( H A R T 1957). She noted that Amuzgo corresponded to PIKE'S Schematic Type B", in which subclasses of major distribution classes operated in similar fashion to minor classes (see K . PIKE 1967a: 214), and there was no sharp morphology-syntax division. She set up alloclasses of nouns, conditioned by the slot they occurred in, and two types of subclasses: emic subclasses which functioned like minor classes of other languages (e.g. functioned like prepositions), and division subclasses, which differ in terms of whether or not they could occur with modifier, pluralizer, or possessive.

DEVELOPMENT IN THE GRAMMATICAL HIERARCHY - STAGE 1

33

5.2.5 Amuesha A final article from the same volume was Martha D U F F ' S syntactic analysis of an Amuesha (Peru) text ( D U F F 1 9 5 7 ) . This did not use tagmemic terms, but referred instead to function and filler. Lists of abbreviations for word functions for word classes were followed by a list of functions with their possible fillers, e.g. Ap by D, N ( = appositive function filled by demonstrative or noun). The text was divided into sentences, each with its functions and fillers given first in parentheses, then the Amuesha sentence, then a literal translation in English. A free translation in numbered sentences was given at the end. Tagmemes were separated by semicolon; slots were separated from fillers by comma. No indication was given of obligatory versus optional categories, and there was no attempt to analyze units larger than the sentence.

5.3 DEVELOPMENT VIA FULL GRAMMARS - 1

5.3.1 Chontal The first full scale grammar on the tagmemic model was W A T E R HOUSE ( 1 9 5 8 ) on Lowland Chontal of Oaxaca (Mexico). It was first written as a doctoral dissertation at the University of Michigan in 1958, and published in 1962. The first chapter presented the system of syntagmeme ( = sentence) structure. Four classes of independent syntagmemes were described: affirmative, negative, interrogative, and exclamatory; and two classes of dependent syntagmemes: response, and sequence. Dependent types were incomplete in structure, and were dependent within the larger discourse structure of which they were a part. Independent types could initiate discourse. Formulas were given for each class, and spelled out. Then examples, with formulas, were given for simple, expanded and complex types of each class. A simple syntagmeme was composed of a single principal clause. A clause consisted of an

34

DEVELOPMENT OF HIERARCHIES

obligatory predicate. Non-exclamatory syntagmemes also included an obligatory item which accompanied the predicate, called the concomitant. This might be the subject but did not have to be. The concomitant was not obligatory in exclamatory syntagmemes. An expanded syntagmeme had more than one concomitant. A complex syntagmeme had more than one predicate. Each syntagmeme was accompanied by a final intonation contour. A chart was given of contrastive formulas for the different types of syntagmemes in each class. Affirmative syntagmemes were distinguished by type of predicate (manifested by intransitive, transitive, ditransitive [called recipient], or a fourth class called process verb; or by various types of nouns) and by concomitant set (i.e. whether direct object [called goal], or indirect object [called recipient] were included or excluded). Negative syntagmemes were distinguished from each other by the negative particle used, by specific intonation contours, and by distribution. Interrogative syntagmemes were also distinguished by intonation as well as by structure. Content questions (called interrogation for information), and yes-no questions (called interrogation for corroboration) were set up as distinct types. N o attempt was made to relate either negative or interrogative classes to the corresponding affirmative types; the negative and interrogative were considered basic types. Exclamatory syntagmemes were mainly imperative and hortatory types. The second chapter gave the classes of tagmemes and hypertagmemes which made up the syntagmemes. Tagmemes and hypertagmemes which constituted predicates were discussed first, followed by included tagmemes, such as base and margin of verbs and nouns. Since Chontal had no verb 'to be', nouns could also fill predicate functions in certain syntagmeme types. The description of predicate tagmemes was followed by that of concomitant tagmemes. Tagmemes were described in terms of their function in syntagmemes and in terms of the morpheme and hypermorpheme classes which manifested them. The third chapter dealt with the classes of morphemes and hyper-

DEVELOPMENT IN THE GRAMMATICAL HIERARCHY - STAGE 1

35

morphemes in terms of the tagmemes which they manifested, in terms of the combinations of morphemes which constituted hypermorphemes (or words), and in terms of the allomorphs of various morphemes and their distribution. Charts were given of bases and margins of both verbs and nouns. The grammatical structure which was presented was an essentially simple one, and there was no attempt to deal with specific levels of the hierarchy, nor to handle any structure above the sentence. Hypertagmemes were considered to be obligatorily complex— a position later abandoned by PIKE. 5.3.2 Zaparo Another grammatical sketch of the same period, and on the same "proto"-tagmemic model was PEEKE (1958) on Zaparo of Ecuador. PEEKE gave extensive formulas for syntagmemes, both minimum and expanded, and also presented both tagmeme and morpheme classes. She also treated the hypertagmeme as obligatorily complex. She divided syntagmeme types into active and stative, each with subtypes of indicative, imperative, and interrogative, but without any clearcut distinction between transitive and intransitive as was found in Chontal. Her treatment had more emphasis on variants than on contrastive distinctions of types. In the introduction to the volume in which it was published (ELSON 1 9 6 2 ) she states: A particular emphasis of that period of tagmemic development, and hence of the article cast in that mold, was subordination of included tagmemes to the sentence as a convenient threshold. Multi-dimensional relationship between sentence types was demonstrated by cross-cutting distribution of certain tagmemes in various sentence types. These emphases of early tagmemics overlap somewhat with concepts seen recently in transformational grammar, as does also the formulaic device for provision of alternate choices. In retrospect, the particular description is recognized as over-labelled and redundant, but it is presented without revision in order to point again to a priority of relevance and an extra dimension possibly obscured by present widespread acceptance by those

36

DEVELOPMENT O F HIERARCHIES

who wish to use the tagmemic model of the concept of levels and its consequent simplicity of statement. (PEEKE 1962: xi)

The similarity of presentation in these two grammars ( W A T E R HOUSE 1 9 5 8 , PEEKE 1 9 5 8 ) is striking, considering the fact that they were written completely separately, with no consultation between authors, and with only PIKE'S Language ( K . P I K E 1 9 5 4 - 6 0 ) and the July 1957 issue of the International journal of American linguistics as guides (cf. 5.2).

5.4 DEVELOPMENT VIA FULL GRAMMARS - 2

5.4.1 Zapotec The second tagmemic model for a full grammar was a level-oriented hierarchical one, presented by PICKETT for Isthmus Zapotec of Mexico ( P I C K E T T 1959). This was also a University of Michigan dissertation, written in 1959 and published the following year. Six hierarchical levels were described: discourse, utterance, sentence, clause, phrase, and word; with independent and dependent constructions and a contrast between nuclear and satellite tagmemes on each level. This is probably still the best and most complete grammar written on the tagmemic model. 5.4.1.1 Order of presentation In the initial stages of writing, the problem came up of which order to follow: to start at the top and work down (as was done by W A T E R H O U S E ) or to start at the bottom and work up (as was standard practice of the period). Each approach has its advantage and disadvantages. PICKETT (1959) solved the problem by presenting a descriptive preview of the whole hierarchy, beginning at the top level with discourse and describing the salient features of each level in turn, and then starting over at the bottom with the consti-

DEVELOPMENT IN THE GRAMMATICAL HIERARCHY - STAGE 1

37

tuent morphemes of word classes, and describing each level in detail. Each level was described in terms of the lower-level items of which it was composed, and the higher-level constructions in which it was distributed. Formulas and examples were given for structures on each level. 5 A A.2 Independent and dependent The notion of 'independent versus dependent' was well established for the distinction of free and bound morphemes, or of principal and subordinate clauses. PICKETT applied it on each level of the hierarchy. The idea that sentences could be dependent was not to be found in the literature at that time; the first application of it was at a workshop at the Summer Institute of Linguistics of the University of Oklahoma in 1958, in connection with materials from the Campa language of Peru (see L. K I N D B E R G 1 9 6 1 ) . The theoretical base was not published until January 1 9 6 3 (see W A T E R HOUSE 1 9 6 3 ) , but the notion was applied to a number of languages, and PICKETT explored it vigorously in Zapotec. 5.4.1.3

Nucleus and satellite

The notions of 'nucleus' and 'satellite' had not been used by WATERHOUSE or PEEKE. PICKETT found it a useful device in two ways: to present items which were diagnostic for a clause type (for example), but were not obligatory; and to cut redundancy of presentation. In the WATERHOUSE grammar, there was an approximation to presenting nucleus by setting up different concomitant sets. PICKETT handled the difference between intransitive and transitive clauses by considering goal as part of the nucleus for the transitive clause, even though only optionally present. In the WATERHOUSE grammar, it had been necessary to repeat the concomitants in each formula. PICKETT presented as optional periphery or satellite such tagmemes as time, location, means, manner, and the like, and described them once for all clause types. This

38

DEVELOPMENT OF HIERARCHIES

became standard practice for tagmemic grammars, as did that of setting up the contrastive levels within the grammatical hierarchy of a language. 5.4.1.4 Diagnostic criteria for levels Specific criteria were used to identify each of PICKETT'S hierarchical levels for Zapotec. Discourse was of two types: monologue, and conversation, each with openers, body, and closers. Utterance level was defined as a stretch of speech marked by change of speaker, and also had openers, body, and closers. It was not possible to identify a paragraph level for Zapotec, so sentence was the next level, defined as a potential complete utterance. It consisted of a base composed of clause or non-clause types, with satellite openers or closers that were often dependent clauses. Clause was defined as a unit of predication, which could fill slots on sentence, clause, or phrase level. It had a predicate as nucleus, with satellite preposed and postposed modifiers. Phrase was defined as a potential sequence of head and preposed and postposed modifiers, filling slots on sentence, clause, and phrase levels. Word was composed of a single morpheme, or of a stem plus affixes, and filled slots on phrase, clause or sentence level.

5.5 CRAWFORD'S SUGGESTED RESTRUCTURING

It was at this stage of the development of the theory that CRAWFORD (1959) brought in the notion of the phonotagmeme. At the same time, he proposed a restructuring of PIKE'S basic system into four hierarchies instead of the original three. The phonological hierarchy (which he renamed the phonemic hierarchy), and the lexical one were essentially the same as PIKE'S, with phoneme and morpheme as basic units. The third hierarchy he called the tagmemic hierarchy, with the tagmeme as the basic unit. The fourth was the phonotagmemic hierarchy with the phonotagmeme as basic.

DEVELOPMENT IN THE GRAMMATICAL HIERARCHY - STAGE 1

39

Each hierarchy had its own succession of higher levels within it, and each still had the three modes: feature, manifestation, and distribution. The feature mode of each basic unit, and of each higher level unit, consisted of its specific distinctive characteristics. The manifestation mode was its variant types of occurrences. The distribution mode consisted of its occurrence in higher level units within its own hierarchy. PIKE did not follow this particular type of restructuring, but it influenced his thinking, and he considered that with the later work of WISE, it brought about the ultimate change of putting the old lexical and grammatical hierarchies together and developing a new lexical one (about 1970).

6 STAGE 2—MATRIX THEORY

6.0 PIKE'S BASIC ARTICLE ON MATRIX

The next major development was that of tagmemic matrix theory. The theory was first presented formally in "Dimensions of grammatical constructions" ( K . PIKE 1961C), PIKE'S presidential address to the Linguistic Society of America in December 1961, later published in Language (1962). He demonstrated that matrix charts of the sort which had been so useful in presenting phonetic data were of equal value in presenting grammatical or syntactic material. They were especially helpful for handling crosscutting criteria for classes and types of structure for which other kinds of presentation had involved redundancy and unfruitful repetition. It was also seen as the theory developed that permutation and conflation of matrices often led to insights into aspects of a structure which had previously been opaque for one reason or another. A matrix is defined as a network of intersecting dimensions of contrastive features. Just as a phonetic chart shows the intersection of types and points of articulation, so a tagmemic matrix for clauses, for example, shows the intersection of series of clause types (such as intransitive, transitive, ditransitive, and descriptive) with orders (such as indicative, subordinate, interrogative, and imperative) (see ENGEL - LONGACRE 1963).

STAGE 2 - MATRIX THEORY

41

6.1 BEGINNINGS IN PERU

The approach was first tried in a field workshop of the Summer Institute of Linguistics in Peru conducted by PIKE in 1 9 6 0 - 6 1 . The first field worker to apply it successfully was Mildred LARSON, who produced matrices of clause types and verb classes for Aguaruna. This was later published in the Peru volume of the Summer Institute of Linguistics series (ELSON 1 9 6 3 ) along with others from the same workshop (ANDERSON - WISE 1 9 6 3 , Candoshi clauses; EASTMAN - EASTMAN 1 9 6 3 , Iquito syntax).

6.2 ADVANCE IN THE PACIFIC

A second major application of matrix theory to a number of languages was at a field workshop of the Summer Institute of Linguistics in the Philippines held by P I K E in the spring of 1963. Articles produced at the workshop were published in Oceanic linguistics 3 (1964). The first article was PIKE'S "Discourse structure and tagmeme matrices" (K. PIKE 1963d), discussing the relationship of situational and grammatical roles, and using a variety of matrices. Other articles utilizing matrices were LEE (1963) on nonfocus verbs in Maguindanao; SHAND (1963a) on tense, focus, and mode in verbs of Ilianen Manobo; M O R E Y (1963) on aspect and focus in Ata verbs and the relations of verbs to higher levels of discourse; SHAND (1963b) on introducer tagmemes on various structural levels in Ilianen Manobo; R E I D (1963) on case-marking particles in Bontoc; and two articles on ranking of personal pronouns: LUSTED et alii (1963) for Atta, and WEAVER - WEAVER (1963) for Agusan Manobo. A later workshop conducted by PIKE at the Summer Institute of Linguistics in New Guinea resulted in a volume of verb studies in five New Guinea languages (ELSON 1964), all of which present matrix displays of various aspects of verb structure. These include two articles with matrices showing interrelationships of person and

DEVELOPMENT OF HIERARCHIES

42

number of verbs in Awa: R . LOVING - M C K A U G H A N ( 1 9 6 4 ) on independent verbs, and A. LOVING - M C K A U G H A N ( 1 9 6 4 ) on dependent verbs; R . A. YOUNG ( 1 9 6 4 ) on the primary verb in BenaBena; FRANTZ - M C K A U G H A N ( 1 9 6 4 ) on independent verb affixes in Gadsup; K. FRANKLIN ( 1 9 6 4 ) on verb morphology of Kewa; and D . DAVIS ( 1 9 6 4 ) on stems and affixes in Wantoat.

6.3 APPLICATION TO A F R I C A N L A N G U A G E S

A further application of matrix theory on a wide front was at field workshops of the Summer Institute of Linguistics in Ghana and Nigeria conducted by PIKE in 1 9 6 5 - 6 6 . The results of these were published in his Tagmemic and matrix linguistics applied to selected African languages (K. PIKE 1 9 6 6 ) . Specific matrices included in the text are of clauses in Dagaari, Bariba, and Vagala; clause clusters in Bimoba and Dagaari; quotations and general conversational discourse in Bariba; vowel fusion in Igede nouns; patterns of vowel harmony in Kasem nominals; and Abua verb prefixes; as well as matrix restatements by RENSCH of Bobangi clauses (from GUTHRIE ( 1 9 6 1 ; Bantu material)), and by KAPPLER of Hausa pronoun formatives (from ABRAHAM 1 9 5 9 ) . In the 1 9 6 6 edition, matrices for Kasem nouns and verbs ( J . CALLOW 1 9 6 6 ) , and for Etung verbs (EDMONDSON 1 9 6 6 ) were included in appendices (along with other appended material); these were not included in the 1970 edition.

6.4 OTHER SUBJECTS

Matrix theory has been applied to a variety of other subjects. applied it extensively to the social structure of a Canadian Indian reserve. BECKER ( 1 9 6 4 ) applied it to the teaching of English verbs to non-English speakers, and BREND ( 1 9 6 7 ) and STAHLKE - BREND ( 1 9 6 7 ) applied it to other language teaching BOCK ( 1 9 6 2 )

STAGE 2 - MATRIX THEORY

43

materials.

P I K E suggested its use for teaching English composition 1964b) and for analysis of an English poem ( K . P I K E 1964c, 1965a). More recently it has been applied by S C H N I T Z E R (1971) to the analysis of formal argument in the philosophy of religion. (K.

PIKE

6.5 ARTICLES BY PIKE

has discussed the theoretical implications of matrix theory, and suggested procedures for applying it to a number of linguistic topics. "A syntactic paradigm" (K. P I K E 1963b) presented a special type of matrix which gave constructions as one dimension, with the other dimension composed of a citation paradigm of controlled data (with minimum changes of data to show contrast of types), or tagmemic or tagmetic formulas of the same data. "Theoretical implications of matrix permutation in Fore (New Guinea)" (K. P I K E 1963c) showed the resulting clarity of display of complex morphological structure gained by permutation of rows or columns in various matrix displays of object prefixes and of subject suffixes of Fore verbs. "Name fusions as high-level particles in matrix theory" (K. P I K E 1964d) applied matrix theory to the problem of the structure of special names resulting from a fusion of surnames, and also discussed the matter of a hierarchy of matrices in language. "On systems of grammatical structure" (K. P I K E 1964g) gave a brief resume of general matrix theory and tagmemics with illustration from the clause and verb structure of Kanite of New Guinea. "Non-linear order and anti-redundancy in German morphological matrices" (K. P I K E 1965b) discussed the usefulness of matrix techniques in analyzing the structure of the German verb 'to be', the definite article, and personal pronouns. PIKE

Other articles, coauthored by PIKE, presented problems for which matrix techniques have given good solutions, such as "Conflated field structures in Potawatomi and in Arabic" (K. P I K E - E R I C K S O N 1 9 6 4 ) "Progressive neutralization in dimensions of Navaho stem matrices" ( K . P I K E - BECKER 1 9 6 4 ) ; and "Matrix

44

DEVELOPMENT OF HIERARCHIES

permutation as a heuristic device in the analysis of the Bimoba verb" (K. PIKE - G . JACOBS 1968).

6.6 ARTICLES B Y L O N G A C R E

also used matrix displays in a number of his articles. In "Prolegomena to lexical structure" (LONGACRE 1964b), he gave a nine-box matrix with phonology, grammar, and lexicon as one dimension, and particle, wave, and field as the other. "Some fundamental insights of tagmemics" (LONGACRE 1965a) gave a matrix of Zoque clauses in terms of parameters of transitivity and transformation potential, as well as a matrix of the field structure of hierarchy. "Transformational parameters in tagmemic field structures" (LONGACRE 1965b) presented matrices of clause types in Zoque, Sierra Popoluca, and Mixe of Mexico. "Sentence structure as a statement calculus" (LONGACRE 1970b) gave matrices of some English sentence types. Also in his book on Philippine languages (LONGACRE 1968-69) matrix displays were given for systems of sentence types of eight languages and dialects. An article coauthored by LONGACRE (ENGEL - LONGACRE 1963) gave detailed matrices for both clause and sentence types in Ostuacan Zoque of Mexico. LONGACRE

6.7 OTHER A U T H O R S

Many other monographs and articles have made use of matrices to display various aspects of language structure. COOK in his grammar of Mundari (India), used matrices to show the relation of sentence to clause, and the interrelationships of clause elements (COOK 1965). TRYON included matrices in his grammars of Nengone (TRYON 1967a), Dehu (TRYON 1967b), and Iai (TRYON 1968). FRANTZ - FRANTZ (1967) applied matrix theory to the analysis of various levels of Blackfoot (Canada) structure, especially to formatives in person markers.

STAGE 2 - MATRIX THEORY

45

BOWER - ERICKSON ( 1 9 6 7 ) applied matrix to Tepehua (Mexico) sentences; and L I N D ( 1 9 6 4 ) to both sentences and clauses of Sierra Popoluca (Mexico). It has been used in dissertations on clause structure: by BREND ( 1 9 6 4 ) on Mexico Spanish; J . PENCE ( 1 9 6 7 ) on Pashto; and GLISSMEYER ( 1 9 7 0 ) on Hawaii English. It was used to present clause structure by POSADA in his analysis of a literary idiolect of Colombian Spanish (POSADA 1 9 6 9 ) . It has also been applied to clause structure in a variety of articles: by ORR (1962) for Ecuador Quichua; HAM (1965) for Apinaye (Brazil); M C K A U G H A N ( 1 9 6 6 ) for Tairora (New Guinea); BURTCH - WISE ( 1 9 6 8 ) for Murui (Peru); also by S. LYON ( 1 9 6 7 ) for Tlahuitoltepec Mixe, and EARL ( 1 9 6 8 ) for Rincon Zapotec, both of Mexico; and by LIEM ( 1 9 7 0 ) for Vietnamese. PICKETT also used a type of matrix in displaying the structure of clauses and phrases in Isthmus Zapotec of Mexico (PICKETT 1 9 5 9 ) . DEIBLER ( 1 9 6 4 ) presented matrices of kernel clause types and various facets of verb structure in Gahuku of New Guinea.

Matrices were also used by HUSSEY ( 1 9 6 6 ) to show marking of case, number, and person in nouns in Aborlan Tagbanwa (Philippines); by ERICKSON ( 1 9 6 5 ) to show the system of person and number reference in Potawatomi (USA); and by BEE ( 1 9 6 5 ) in her dissertation on Usarufa (New Guinea) to show relations of various kinds of affixes. Y O U N G - Y O U N G ( 1 9 6 5 ) used a three-dimensional matrix to show the structure of Bena-Bena (New Guinea) nouns. Other articles applied matrix technique to pronouns: S . WATSON ( 1 9 6 4 ) to personal pronouns of Pacoh (Vietnam); K . GLASGOW ( 1 9 6 4 ) to personal pronouns of Burera (Australia); SAYERS - KERR (1964) to locative, temporal, and demonstrative pronouns of Wik-Munkan (Australia); and KERR ( 1 9 6 4 ) to pronominal systems of several languages of Australia and New Guinea. Further articles deal with verb structure. LYMAN ( 1 9 6 4 ) gave a matrix of syntagmemes and one of prefixes in his article on verb syntagmemes of Choapan Zapotec of Mexico. GLASGOW - KERR ( 1 9 6 4 ) gave matrices of verb prefixes in Burera of Australia. PARLIER ( 1 9 5 4 ) showed how matrix permutation helped in the

46

DEVELOPMENT OF HIERARCHIES

analysis of verb structure of Managalasi (New Guinea). H E N R Y (1965) applied the same technique to classificatory verb stems of Koyukon of Alaska. J. B E N D O R - S A M U E L - MEIER (1967) presented a matrix display of active verbs in Izi (Nigeria). G. SCOTT (1968) showed the structure of Fore (New Guinea) final verbs via matrix. STAIRS - H O L L E N B A C H (1969) used matrix to show the relationship between verb types in Huave of Mexico. HENRY

7

STAGE 3—HIGHER LEVELS OF DISCOURSE

7.1 BEGINNINGS

While most grammars of the period did not go beyond the sentence, PIKE had early insisted that total structure should be analyzed. The WATERHOUSE (1958) grammar did not attempt to describe higher levels, but indicated their existence, and the need for their eventual analysis. Dependent sentences were stated to be distributed in higher level structures. PICKETT (1959) went further and described both utterance and discourse levels for Zapotec. She set up monologue and conversation as the two basic discourse types in Zapotec, and defined utterance as marked by change of speaker. P . HEALEY (1965a) also described discourse types for Telefol of New Guinea, but still not in great detail.

7.2 P A R A G R A P H STUDIES

As early as 1958, problems of paragraph structure had been studied by LORIOT for Shipibo of Peru (see LORIOT - HOLLENBACH 1 9 7 0 ) . Others also began to focus on paragraphs in other languages. Loos ( 1 9 6 3 ) gave special attention to narrative sentences within paragraphs in Capanahua (Peru). POWLISON ( 1 9 6 5 ) gave a paragraph analysis of a Yagua (Peru) folktale. BRIDGEMAN ( 1 9 6 6 ) , in a doctoral dissertation at Indiana University, explored in detail the structure of phonological, grammatical, and lexical paragraphs

48

DEVELOPMENT OF HIERARCHIES

in oral discourse of Kaiwa (Brazil). POPOVICH ( 1 9 6 7 ) discussed the space-time setting for paragraphs of Maxakali (Brazil). A number of scholars (cf. BECKER 1 9 6 5 , 1 9 6 6 ; Y O U N G - B E C K E R 1 9 6 4 , 1 9 6 5 ; M O R G A N 1 9 6 7 ; K O E N et alii 1 9 6 8 ) worked on the tagmemic analysis of paragraphs in English, especially from the standpoint of teaching college English composition.

7.3 D I S C O U R S E I N L O W E R - L E V E L A N A L Y S I S

WHEELER ( 1 9 6 7 ) explained how analysis of total discourse helped to account for the use of items of focus, speaker viewpoint, and grammatical roles on lower levels within discourse.

7.4 S T U D I E S O F V A R I O U S H I G H E R L E V E L S

7.4.1 Totonac L O N G A C R E was the pioneer in the analysis and description of higher levels of discourse on a wide scale. The first monograph to deal in detail with paragraph and discourse types was one he coauthored on a language of Mexico: Totonac: from clause to discourse (A. R E I D et alii 1 9 6 8 ) . In addition to the presentation of clause and sentence types, it described two types of paragraphs: narrative and colloquy, with various subtypes; and two types of narrative discourse: episodic and climactic, also with subtypes.

7.4.2 Philippine languages At workshops of the Summer Institute of Linguistics in the Philippines in 1 9 6 7 - 6 8 , L O N G A C R E began work on a broad front in a variety of languages. This resulted in a three-volume work ( L O N G A C R E 1 9 6 8 - 6 9 ) : Discourse, paragraph, and sentence structure in selected Philippine languages. He found four major types of dis-

STAGE 3 - HIGHER LEVELS OF DISCOURSE

49

course: narrative, procedural, expository, and hortatory. These occurred in most languages investigated. Narrative discourse was that which told some type of story. Procedural discourse told how something was done or made. Expository discourse expounded some subject. Hortatory discourse attempted to influence or change conduct or outlook. Each type of discourse was described in terms of its chronological and person orientation; its initiating, closing, and nuclear tagmemes; and the types of linkage of units within it. Other types of discourse found in some of the languages were: dramatic, involving dialogue, with a minimum of narration; activity, explaining what should be done (in contrast to procedural, which told how something was made); and epistolary, used for letters. Major paragraph types found were: narrative, procedural, explanatory, hortatory, and dialogue. The resemblance of paragraph to both sentence and discourse was discussed, then each type was described in detail, especially in reference to their constituent tagmemes. Other possible types were also discussed. The second volume of the work dealt entirely with sentence structure. It included the relation of grammatical sentences to phonological ones and to lexical ones, a detailed presentation of sentence peripheries, both outer and inner, then of nuclear structures. The sentence system of each of eight languages was described, with a matrix display of each. Finally, an etic system of universal sentence types was suggested, with a chart of similar types reminiscent of the chart of phonetic similarity found in PIKE'S Phonemics (K. PIKE 1947). The third volume gave text material examples of different types of discourse from the various languages. 7.4.3 Central Bontoc At the same workshop, L. REID produced a monograph (L. REID 1968), describing sentence, paragraph, and discourse structure for Central Bontoc. Sentence types were described in detail. Grammatical sentences

50

DEVELOPMENT OF HIERARCHIES

were distinguished from phonological ones, and rules were set up for mapping the phonological types onto the grammatical ones. The grammatical sentence system comprised eighteen sentence types in a three-parameter subsystem, eight further types in a two-parameter subsystem, and two extra-systemic types. The two subsystems were presented in a matrix array. Full tagmemic formulas were given for each type, with examples. Explanations of readings, exponence, and restrictions were also given where needed. The second section of the monograph gave notes on discourse and paragraph types. Four types of discourse were presented, with their identifying characteristics. These were: hortatory, narrative, procedural, and activity. Seven types of paragraphs were described with matrix charts for each types, and figures to portray the types of linkage between the sentences in specific paragraphs. Paragraph types were: hortatory, coordinate hortatory, explanatory, narrative, procedural, project, and dialogue. Two appendices were included, presenting texts to exemplify each type of discourse. The first appendix gave the analysis of the texts into paragraphs and sentences. The second gave tree diagrams for the same texts. In his foreword to the work, L O N G A C R E pointed out that R E I D had described the mutual dependence of the three levels in such a way as to suggest that perhaps sentence should be considered to belong with paragraph and discourse in the upper range of hierarchical structure, rather than with clause and phrase in the mid range.

8 DEVELOPMENT IN THE LEXEMIC HIERARCHY

The lexical (now lexemic) hierarchy had remained behind in development while work went forward vigorously in both grammar and phonology. Work on discourse, however, brought into focus both the relationships and differences between the lexical and grammatical hierarchies.

8.1 GRAMMATICAL AND SITUATIONAL ROLES

first presented the problem in his "Discourse analysis and tagmeme matrices" ( K . PIKE 1964a) in terms of the relation between situational and grammatical roles. The situational role was the actual role of the participant in relation to the real world event. This is more or less equivalent to what are now described as deep structure case relationships in case grammar (FILLMORE 1968, COOK 1970). The grammatical role would correspond to the surface structure. Various situational roles may be represented by the same grammatical role, or the same situational role may be represented by a variety of grammatical roles. An attempt was made to handle these matters by using a different notation for subject-as-actor from that for subject-as-goal, and the like. Refinements had earlier been made in the notation for predicate, as to whether it had a transitive or intransitive function. PIKE

52

DEVELOPMENT OF HIERARCHIES

FORSTER - B A R N A R D (1968) discussed the problem for Dibabawon (Philippines), and showed how it was necessary to reckon with both situational and grammatical strings in making an adequate description of active verbs. B A R N A R D - LONGACRE (1968) showed the relationship of lexical and grammatical discourse, paragraphs, and sentences for Dibabawon; and presented several types of lexical paragraphs and sentences in Dibabawon narrative and procedural narrative discourse. B A R N A R D and FORSTER also presented (in L O N G A C R E 1968-69 3 ) , tree diagrams of two Dibabawon texts which included a charting of both the lexical and grammatical hierarchies in each text. J. PENCE (1967) described situation ( = deep) structure and surface structure for clauses in Pashto. Meanwhile, BECKER (1967a) was grappling with the same sort of problem in relation to the English subject tagmeme, and discussed four components of a tagmeme: grammatical form (subject); grammatical meaning (agent); lexical form (noun phrase); and lexical meaning (single male human).

8.2 DEEP AND SURFACE STRUCTURE W I S E ( 1 9 6 8 ) equated the lexemic hierarchy with deep structure, and the grammatical hierarchy with surface structure, and showed the contribution of each to the identification of participants in Nomatsiguenga (Peru) narrative. In her modification of the tagmemic model, however, subject-as-actor and subject-as-goal were not regarded as separate tagmemes in the grammatical hierarchy, but as constituents of lexemic constructions on the clause level. She insisted on a form-meaning relationship in her lexemic units as well as in the grammatical ones, and also set up lexemic constructions on all hierarchical levels. KLAMMER - C O M P T O N ( 1 9 7 0 ) discussed the contribution both of LONGACRE'S Philippine work and that of W I S E to the analysis of discourse, along with those of various scholars in the field of tagmemic rhetoric.

DEVELOPMENT IN THE LEXEMIC HIERARCHY

53

FILLMORE (1968) had suggested that a case grammar diagram could easily be read as a tagmemic formula if it were specified which levels referred to function. He pointed out, however, that tagmemics at that time did not deal with the deepest level of deep structure. COOK (1970) has now suggested how case grammar can be utilized as a deep structure in tagmemics. PIKE (1971a: 86) considered that further study of the relations between the two systems should be a major topic of interest in the seventies, and that tagmemics should profit greatly from the work of the case grammarians. In a recent joint article (BALLARD et alii 1 9 7 1 ) , LONGACRE stated his preference for keeping deep structure as part of the grammar, rather than in the "lexicon", and gave reasons for this preference (BALLARD et alii 1 9 7 1 : 7 4 footnote). W I S E - G R E E N ( 1 9 7 1 ) , however, considered that the sentences which LONGACRE ( 1 9 7 0 ; e.g.) had set up as grammatical types should rather be treated as lexemic. They described sentences in Palikur (Brazil) as contrastive types in two systems: the system of deep structure relations between propositions, and the system of surface structure relations between clauses; and showed the relations of the two systems of structure to each other.

9

DEVELOPMENT IN THE PHONOLOGICAL HIERARCHY

While the main thrust of tagmemics was in the realm of grammar, phonology was not neglected. PIKE'S second (1955) volume of his first edition of his Language ( K . PIKE 1 9 5 4 - 6 0 ) was devoted primarily to discussion of phonology from the tagmemic point of view. Development in phonology was along three lines: that of phoneme classes, that of the phonotagmeme, and that of higher levels of phonology. 9.1 PHONEME CLASSES

The first presentation of emic classes of phonemes was done by for English ( K . PIKE 1 9 5 4 - 6 0 2 8.63). Others who discussed phoneme classes were: CLARK (1959) for Sayula Popoluca (Mexico); PIKE

F A U S T - E . G . P I K E ( 1 9 5 9 ) f o r C o c a m a ( P e r u ) ; a n d L . OATES (1964)

for Gugu-Yalanji (Australia). 9.2 PHONOTAGMEMES

The proponent of the phonotagmeme was CRAWFORD. PIKE had mentioned that a slot-class unit should be set up for phonology ( K . PIKE 1 9 5 4 - 6 0 2 8.66) but had not pursued the matter further. In his doctoral dissertation at the University of Michigan, CRAWFORD described phonotagmemes and a phonotagmemic hierarchy for Totontepec Mixe (Mexico) (CRAWFORD 1959).

DEVELOPMENT IN THE PHONOLOGICAL HIERARCHY

55

CRAWFORD considered that the phonotagmemic hierarchy should be on a par with the grammatical one, which he called the tagmemic hierarchy (CRAWFORD 1 9 6 3 : 186). He described the phoneme hierarchy for Totontepec Mixe as consisting of phonemes, syllables, phonemic-words, and phonemic-phrases. The phonotagmemic hierarchy was comprised of phonotagmemes, syllable-types, phonological-word-types, and phonological-phrase-types. Each level of each hierarchy had its particular distinguishing features, its manifesting variants, and its specific distribution in the next higher level of its hierarchy. He described three groups of phonotagmemes for Totontepec Mixe: onset, nucleus, and terminus phonotagmemes. These were distributed in syllable types, and manifested by classes of phonemes. The phonotagmeme level was distinguished from other levels by the fact that its slot components were specifically significant in syllable-types, and that filler classes of its slots were alloclasses of emicclasses of phonemes. Phonotagmemes were distinguished from each other on the basis of position in syllable-type structure, types of filler classes, and expandability. Each level of the two hierarchies, the phonemic and phonotagmemic, was described in turn, with feature mode, manifestation mode, and distribution mode, and the distinction shown between each hierarchy on each level. Other authors describing phonotagmemes include: LOCKWOOD ( 1 9 6 6 ) for Czech, Serbo-Croatian, and Russian; OLSON ( 1 9 6 7 ) for Chipaya (Bolivia); and ABRAHAMSON ( 1 9 6 8 ) for I?ua Tupi (Brazil).

9.3 PHONOLOGICAL LEVELS

A large number of articles have now been written presenting various levels of the phonological hierarchy for languages of all parts of the world. The most recent were those of languages of Nepal (HALE - PIKE 1970). Levels reported worldwide ranged from two to

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DEVELOPMENT OF HIERARCHIES

seven, with three as the most common number described. Typical descriptions include: P A N K R A T Z - E. V. PIKE (1967), four levels, for Ayutla Mixtec (Mexico); B R A U N - C R O F T S (1965), three levels (with mention of a fourth), for Munduruku (Brazil); W E S T (1962), three levels, for Mikasuki (USA); G U D S C H I N S K Y et alii (1970), three levels, for Maxakali (Brazil); A. PENCE (1964, 1966), four levels, for Kunimaipa (New Guinea); and M C M A H O N (1967), six levels, for Cora (Mexico).

PART III

DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL

10

BOOKS AND ARTICLES

10.1 BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Items written on the tagmemic model range from articles of a few pages to full-length monographs and books, and deal with a variety of subjects. Two annotated bibliographies have been published. The first (PIKE 1966a) covered the period 1954-64, and presents items topically, with an index by author. The second (BREND 1970) covered mainly the period 1964-68, and is listed alphabetically by author, with a topical index. The bibliography listed at the end of this volume incorporates all the items from both of these, plus additional works published since then (through mid1971), or not mentioned by them. Books and monographs are of three main types: theoretical and pedagogical works (already dealt with), monographs dealing with a single language (or with languages of a specific area written by a single author), and volumes of articles by several authors, either on aspects of the theory, or on a number of languages of a given area.

10.2 MONOGRAPHS OF SINGLE LANGUAGES

Monographs of single languages include the following: WATER(1958) on Lowland Chontal (Mexico); PICKETT (1959) Isthmus Zapotec (Mexico); LAW (1962) Isthmus Nahuat (Mexico);

HOUSE

60

DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL

( 1 9 6 4 ) on Tamil (India) of 5 5 0 A . D . ; C O O K ( 1 9 6 5 ) Mundari (India); HERRERO ( 1 9 6 5 ) Bolivian Quechua; BRANNEN (1966) Oomisima (Japan); T U R N E R (1966) Highland Chontal (Mexico); MEADER (1967) Iranxe (Brazil), written in both Portuguese and English; TRYON'S trilogy on Nengone (TRYON 1967a), Dehu (TRYON 1967b), and Iai (TRYON 1968) of the south Pacific; HIDALGO (1969) Ivatan (Philippines); TRAIL (1968) Lamani (India); HOOLEY (1970) Mapos Buang (New Guinea); WHEELER (1970) Siona (Colombia); KILLINGLEY (1971) Malayan Cantonese; ELKINS (1971) Western Bukidnon Manobo (Philippines); and BOHNHOFF (1968) on Duru of Nigeria. Some have been written on morphology only: KEY ( 1 9 6 3 ) Cayuvava (Bolivia); ROBINSON ( 1 9 6 6 ) Sierra Nahuat (Mexico). Others were on syntax: L . R E I D ( 1 9 6 6 ) Ivatan (Philippines); SOENJONO ( 1 9 6 7 ) Indonesian; PRIDE ( 1 9 6 9 ) Chatino (Mexico); and LIEM'S ( 1 9 6 7 ) contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese. Some deal only with clauses: FLORES ( 1 9 6 2 ) Cebuano (Philippines) and English; BREND ( 1 9 6 4 ) Mexican Spanish; L . REID ( 1 9 6 5 ) Central Bontoc (Philippines); U L L R I C H ( 1 9 6 8 ) Kannada (India); and GLISSMEYER ( 1 9 7 0 ) Hawaii English. Some included or focussed on higher levels of discourse: A. REID et alii ( 1 9 6 8 ) discussed structures from clause to discourse in Totonac (Mexico); BRIDGEMAN ( 1 9 6 6 ) presented phonological, grammatical, and lexical paragraphs found in oral discourse in Kaiwa (Brazil); and L . REID (1968)described sentence,paragraph, and discourse for Central Bontoc (Philippines). Some dealt with special aspects of grammar: BECKER ( 1 9 6 7 ) on the subject tagmeme in English; CONWAY ( 1 9 6 4 ) on order classes of adjectives in Spanish; BLANSITT ( 1 9 6 3 ) on the Spanish verb phrase; and M . OATES ( 1 9 7 0 ) on adverbial classification in French, following L A W ( 1 9 6 7 ) . Some were concerned with the relation of lexical, situational, or deep structure, and grammatical surface structure: J . PENCE (1967) on clauses in Pashto (India); WISE (1968) on identification of participants in discourse in Nomatsiguenga (Peru); J. PLATT (1970) on grammatical form and grammatical meaning; W I S E -

ZVELEBIL

BOOKS AND ARTICLES

61

propositions and surface sentences in Palikur (Brazil). Some were contrastive studies, such as FLORES (1962) on clauses in Cebuano (Philippines) and English; LIEM (1966) English and Vietnamese; H. PLATT (1970) German and English. Some have applied the theory to the study of literature: SCOTT

GREEN (1971)

(1963), to riddles in Persian and Arabic; HOULE (1968), the ima-

gery of Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness; DORFMAN (1969), the Romance epic narrative (narreme); or to English rhetoric: LAUER ( 1 9 6 7 ) ; ODELL (1970). The major work on tagmemic rhetoric is the textbook YOUNG - BECKER - PIKE (1970). Some monographs or dissertations dealt with phonology: A. HEALEY (1964) Telefol (New Guinea); LOCKWOOD (1966) on syllables and microsegments of several Slavic languages; SOMMER (1968) on Kunjen (Australia). The major work on tagmemic phonology was CRAWFORD (1959), a presentation of the phonotagmeme unit and its application to Totontepec Mixe (Mexico). Others with tagmemic base but without the terminology include: J. CALLOW (1962) Apinaye (Brazil); KRAFT (1963) H a u s a ; HESS

(1965) Mezquital Otomi (Mexico); MATTESON (1963) Piro (Peru); and several by P. HEALEY on Telefol (New Guinea). Some used a modified form of tagmemics: D . THOMAS (1967) on Chrau (Vietnam); COWAN (1969) on Tzotzil (Mexico); or used tagmemics for some part of the grammar only: I. DAVIS ( 1 9 6 4 ) on Santa Ana Pueblo (USA); BEE (1965) Usarufa (New Guinea), which were tagmemic for clause structure only. Some were based on a theory similar to, or related to, tagmemics: ALLEN (1962) on the English verb and CRYMES (1965) on English substitutes, both of which used sector analysis. D . BENDOR-SAMUEL (1966) on Guajajara (Brazil), and DAY (1966) on Tho (Vietnam)

incorporated features of, or showed influence from, both tagmemics and the syntagmatic or structure-function model of J. BENDORSAMUEL (1958, 1963). GUTHRIE (1961) on Bantu sentence structure, Joos (1964) on the English verb, FRANCIS (1965) on English structure, all used concepts of slot and filler. ROBBINS (1965) on Quiote-

62

DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL

pec Chinantec (Mexico) showed some peripheral influence of tagmemics. A final monograph which used some tagmemic terms but in a different sense from traditional tagmemics was that of FIRESTONE ( 1 9 6 5 ) on Siriono (Bolivia). 10.3 OTHER MONOGRAPHS

A monograph applying tagmemic and matrix techniques and insights to African languages was PIKE ( 1 9 6 6 ) . This is especially valuable in view of the fact that the theory had been previously applied only to languages of other parts of the world. At workshops held in Ghana and Nigeria, the following languages were investigated: Basari, Bimoba, Dagaari, Kasem, Sisala and Vagala of Ghana; and Abua, Agbo, Bariba, Bette, Degema, Engenni, Etung, Igede, Izi, Mbembe, and Yache of Nigeria. The monograph covered material on clauses, clause clusters, sentences, and sentence clusters in paragraphs, discourse (especially indirect versus direct discourse), nouns and noun phrases, noun concord, verbs, problems of phonology and tonal analysis, and the use of a matrix approach in language teaching and learning. The original volume also had appendices with specific discussion of clauses in Mbembe (BARNWELL 1966) and Degema (E. THOMAS 1966), serial constructions (clause clusters) in Kasem (K. CALLOW 1966), matrices for nominal and verbal groups also in Kasem (J. CALLOW 1966), Etung nouns and verbs (T. EDMONDSON), paralinguistics in Mbembe (REVILL) and Agbo phonology (SPREDA - SPREDA 1966). Another volume dealing with languages of a specific area was LONGACRE ( 1 9 6 8 - 6 9 ) : Discourse, paragraph, and sentence structure in selected Philippine languages. Discourse structure was described for Atta, Bontoc, Botolan Sambal, Manobo, Bilaan, Dibabawon, and Maranao; paragraph structure for these plus Binongan Itneg, Tagbanwa, and Tausug; and sentence structure in all these. Different kinds of discourse genres, paragraph and sentence types were treated, as well as the relation of grammatical and lexical structure in some of the languages, especially Dibabawon.

BOOKS AND ARTICLES

63

The first published volume of tagmemic articles was the July 1957 issue of the International journal of American linguistics, cx»edited by VOEGELIN and PIKE. Four articles were on verbs; Candoshi of Peru (K. PIKE 1 9 5 7 , Cox 1 9 5 7 ) , Pocomchi of Guatemala (MAYERS 1 9 5 7 ) , and Cashibo of Peru (SHELL 1 9 5 7 ) ; one was on Amuzgo (Mexico) grammar (HART 1 9 5 7 ) ; and one was a syntactical analysis of an Amuesha (Peru) text ( D U F F 1 9 5 7 ) . A volume arising out of a field workshop conducted by K. PIKE in the Philippines is Oceanic Linguistics 3 (1964). An introduction by WOLFENDEN gave resumes of some of the contents, their relation to various linguistic theories, and their value for further study of Philippine languages (WOLFENDEN 1964). The first article was K. PIKE (1963d) on discourse analysis and tagmeme matrices, followed by eleven other articles on ten different languages. Three were concerned with clauses: verbal clauses in Dibabawon (FORSTER 1963) and Mamanwa (J. MILLER 1963), and independent clauses in Ifugao (NEWELL 1963); three with verbs: Maguindanao nonfocus verbs (LEE 1963), aspect, focus, and concord on three levels in Ata Manobo (MOREY 1963), and problems of marking tense, focus, and mode in Ilianen Manobo (SHAND 1963a). Two dealt with problems of pronouns: segmentation in Atta (LUSTED et alii 1963), and ranking in Agusan Manobo (WEAVER 1963); one with case marking in substantive phrases of Bontoc ( L . REID 1963); one with introducer tagmemes in Ilianen Manobo (SHAND 1963b); and one with the obscuring of word accent and the relation of phonological and grammatical phrases in Balangao (SHETLER-FETZER 1963). Other monographs were in the Summer Institute of Linguistics series, edited by ELSON. Number 5 (1960), on Mayan studies, contained articles on clause structure of Ixil (ELLIOTT 1960), and the noun phrase in Jacaltec (CHURCH - CHURCH 1960), both of Guatemala, and on the verb phrase of San Andres Tzotzil of Mexico (C. DELGATY 1960). Number 7 (1962), on languages of Ecuador, had articles on the phonology of Auca (SAINT - K . PIKE 1962), Cayapa (LINDSKOOG - BREND 1962),Cofan (BORMAN 1962),

64

DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL

and Secoya (JOHNSON - P E E K E 1 9 6 2 ) ; on clause structure of Quichua and grammar of Zaparo (PEEKE 1 9 5 8 ) and Cayapa (ABRAHAMSON 1 9 6 2 ) . Number 9 ( 1 9 6 3 ) dealt with languages of Peru, with articles on clause stucture of Aguaruna (LARSON 1 9 6 3 ) , Candoshi (ANDERSON - WISE 1 9 6 3 ) , and Machiguenga (SNELL - WISE 1 9 6 3 ) ; on syntax of Witoto ( M I N O R - L O O S 1 9 6 3 ) , and Iquito (EASTMAN - EASTMAN 1 9 6 3 ) ; and on phonology of Arabela ( R I C H 1 9 6 3 ) and Cashinahua (KENSINGER 1 9 6 3 ) . Number 1 0 ( 1 9 6 4 ) presented verb studies from five New Guinea languages: Awa (ORR 1962),

( A . LOVING - M C K A U G H A N 1 9 6 4 , R . LOVING - M C K A U G H A N 1 9 6 4 ) ,

Bena-Bena (YOUNG 1 9 6 4 ) , Gadsup ( C . FRANTZ - M C K A U G H A N 1 9 6 4 ) , Kewa (FRANKLIN 1 9 6 4 ) , and Wantoat ( D . DAVIS 1 9 6 4 ) . Number 16, edited in two volumes (MATTESON 1 9 6 7 ) , dealt with the grammars often languages of Bolivia. Originally published in Spanish in three volumes under the title Gramáticas estructurales de lenguas bolivianas (MATTESON 1 9 6 5 ) , they included lists of sentence, clause, phrase, and word types, with some morphophonemic rules, some matrix charts, and paradigms. The Chacobo also included a brief presentation of paragraphs. The first volume had sketches of Baure (BAPTISTA - WALLIN 1 9 6 5 ) , Ignaciano ( O T T O T T 1 9 6 5 ) , Tacana (OTTAVIANO - OTTAVIANO 1965),Ese'ejja (SHOEMAKER-SHOEMAKER 1 9 6 5 ) , and Chacobo (PROST 1 9 6 5 ) . The second included Quechua (SPENST et alii 1 9 6 5 ) , Guarani (ROSBOTTOM 1965), Siriono (PRIEST-PRIEST 1965), Itonama ( C A M P - L I C C A R D I 1965), and Movima ( J U D Y - J U D Y 1965). Volume 20 in the Georgetown University monograph series (BLANSITT 1967C) presented tagmemic papers given at their eighteenth annual round table meeting. In addition to introductory and concluding remarks (BLANSITT 1967b), there was a paper (PIKE 1967C) on grammar as wave, illustrated by clause clusters from Kasem of Nigeria; one (COOK 1967) illustrating from Vietnamese how the maximum generation potential can be calculated for a construction; a refutation (MATSON 1967) of POSTAL'S criticism of tagmemics and a demonstration of how Spanish agreement is handled in tagmemics; and one (MERRIFIELD 1967) advo-

BOOKS A N D ARTICLES

65

eating an aberrant form of tagmemics which rejects the tagmeme. Others dealt with the application of tagmemics to English: LONGACRE (1967a) on the notion of sentence; LAW (1967) on the importance of using form, function, and position in the classification of English adverbials; BECKER (1967b) on conjoining, pointing out the need for providing for coordinate relations in a tagmemic model, also suggesting a need for differentiating between deep and surface structure in tagmemics; M O R G A N (1967) on the analysis of paragraphs, using both lexical and grammatical components; and A L L E N (1967) on sector analysis. This last showed the similarities and differences of the sector model compared to traditional tagmemics.

10.4 ARTICLES ON GRAMMAR

In addition to the monographs cited, a large number of individual articles have appeared which deal with various aspects of grammar. A few of these had to do with high levels of discourse: Loos (1963) discussed the contrast between narrative and conversation, and the relation of sentences within paragraphs in Capanahua of Peru. PIKE (1968a) discussed indirect and direct discourse in Bariba of Nigeria. WHEELER (1967) presented the importance of focus, speaker's viewpoint, and grammatical role in components of discourse in Siona of Colombia. LORIOT, in an early mimeographed paper of 1958, traced the manner in which participants were identified in paragraph structure of Shipibo of Peru; the article was recently revised and published (LORIOT - HOLLENBACH 1970). POWLISON (1965) presented a paragraph analysis of a folktale of Yagua of Peru, and POPOVICH (1967) discussed the use of space and time as setting for action in paragraphs in Maxakali of Brazil. GRIMES (1966) had a hierarchical description of intersentence relationships in Huichol of Mexico, focussing on a level he calls the "period" (GRIMES 1966: 73), but using neither tagmemic terms nor tagmemic units.

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DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL

Some dealt with several grammatical levels: DERBYSHIRE (1961) on the structure of words, phrases and sentences in Hishkaryana of Brazil gave nuclei and margins of construction types on each level; CLARK (1962) on morphosyntax of Sayula Popoluca of Mexico discussed levels from stem to discourse; GODFREY (1964) on Wik-Munkan of Australia, STRANGE (1965) on Upper Asaro, and COCHRAN (1968) on Yoliapi (both of New Guinea), all dealt with clauses, phrases, and words; the Upper Asaro was concerned especially with nominal elements on each level. LOEWEKE and MAY'S grammar of Fasu of New Guinea (LOEWEKE - MAY 1966) dealt with clauses and sentences, and with the verbs, pronouns, and phrases which fill clause level slots. ZVELEBIL (1962) on Tamil of India, and MERRIFIELD - STOUDT (1967) on Molinos Mixtec of Mexico dealt with word, phrase, clause, and sentence; with primary focus on clause structure. MORSE (1965) on Rawang of Burma discussed word, phrase, clause, and sentences, as syntactic frames for the consideration of verbs and verbal affixation. La. ANDERSON (1966)onTicuna clauses, and BURTCH - WISE (1966) on Murui Witoto clauses, of Peru, both dealt with verbs in relation to their function in clauses, and with sentences. The Ticuna also mentioned nouns and particles. The Witoto also mentioned narrative discourse. Sentence types have been described for Mansaka (THOMAS 1958) and Western Bukidnon Manobo (ELKINS 1971) of the Philippines, Telefol of New Guinea (P. HEALEY 1966); Gugu-Yalanji of Australia (R. HERSHBERGER 1970); Amuesha ( D U F F 1959) and Campa (L. KINDBERG 1961) of Peru; Siriono of Bolivia (PRIEST et alii 1961); Apache of the USA (EDGERTON 1963);Tepehua ( B O WER - E R I C K S O N 1967) and Highland Chontal (TURNER 1968b) of Mexico. The Amuesha, Campa, and Tepehua, as well as the Ticuna and Rawang papers mentioned above, utilized the notion of independent and dependent sentences developed in print by WATERHOUSE (1963), but first discussed and presented at a 1958 workshop at the Summer Institute of Linguistics at the University of Oklahoma. K . FRANKLIN (1967) for Kewa of New Guinea also

BOOKS AND ARTICLES

67

used the notion of independent and dependent sentences, but did not use tagmemic terminology. J. GLOVER (1969) also did not use tagmemic terms, but in distinguishing structure and function in Gurung (Nepal) interrogatives said that this distinction is inherent in tagmemic theory. Sentences and clauses were discussed for Waica of Brazil (BORGMAN - CUE 1963), Ostuacan Zoque (ENGEL - LONGACRE 1963), Sierra Popoluca (LIND 1964), and Chicahuaxtla Trique (LONGACRE 1 9 6 6 ) of Mexico; Mnong Rolom ( E . BLOOD 1966) and Pacoh (WATSON 1966) of Vietnam; and briefly in a text analysis of Agarabi of New Guinea (GODDARD 1967). Clause structure was the topic of articles on Biblical Hebrew (LONGACRE 1961), Telefol of New Guinea (P. HEALEY 1964, 1965c), Tzutujil of Guatemala (CARLIN 1970), Bororo (HUESTIS 1963), and Apinaye (HAM 1965) of Brazil; Mamanwa ( J . MILLER 1963, 1969), and Maranao (WARD - FORSTER 1967) of the Philippines; Vietnamese (LIEM 1970); and Lalana Chinantec (RENSCH 1963), Tlahuitoltepec Mixe (S. LYON 1967), Western Popoloca (WILLIAMSLONGACRE 1967), Highland Chontal (TURNER 1968a), Mezquital Otomi (LANIER 1968), Rincon Zapotec (EARL 1968), Michoacan (Pomaro) Nahual (ROBINSON - SISCHO 1969), and Tumbala Chol (V. WARKENTIN - WHITTAKER 1970), all of Mexico. The role of stress as a means of distinguishing clause types was discussed for Gugu-Yalanji (H. HERSHBERGER - E . V. PIKE 1970). Clause clusters, or chaining, were discussed for Kanite of New Guinea (MCCARTHY 1965), and for Kasem of Nigeria (K. CALLOW 1966), and the relations of clauses in sequence for Tairora of New Guinea (MCKAUGHAN 1966). The structure of phrases and clauses was presented for Hausa (KRAFT 1964) and Chamula Tzotzil of Mexico ( K . JACOBS LONGACRE 1967).

Phrase structure was discussed for Tagabili of the Philippines (FORSBERG 1966), and for Highland Chontal of Mexico (TURNER 1967a). Noun phrases were presented for Telefol of New Guinea (P.

68

DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL

HEALEY 1965d), Gugu-Yalanji of Australia ( H . HERSHBERGER 1964), Tagbanua of the Philippines (HUSSEY 1966), and Brou ( C . MILLER 1963) of Vietnam. Noun classifiers for Nung, also of Vietnam, were discussed by SAUL (1965); case marking particles for Casiguran Dumagat of the Philippines (HEADLAND 1966); noun affixation in Awa (LOVING 1962) and Gadsup (C. F R A N T Z 1962) and gender and structure of nouns and noun phrases of Baruya (LLOYD 1969), of New Guinea. Nouns in Tzotzil of Mexico (A. DELGATY 1961) were discussed without tagmemic terminology. Articles on verbs included studies of verb prefixes in Kiowa of the United States (MERRIFIELD 1959) and Burera of Australia (D. GLASGOW - K E R R 1964); the Barrow Eskimo verb complex (WEBSTER 1962) and classificatory verbs in Koyukon ( H E N R Y 1965) of Alaska (US); six levels of verb structure in Amuesha of Peru (WISE 1963); different level tense markers in Guarani (ROSBOTTOM 1961), transitive and intransitive verbs in Chacobo (PROST 1962), and independent verbs of Movima ( R . JUDY 1965), of Bolivia; verb morphology in Wik-Munkan of Australia (GODFREY 1970); verb inflection in Managalasi (PARLIER 1964) and verb phrases in Telefol (P. HEALEY 1965b), of New Guinea; active verbs in Dibabawon of the Philippines (FORSTER - BARNARD 1968); verb structure in Choapan Zapotec (LYMAN 1964); Tlahuitoltepec Mixe (D. LYON 1967), and Huave (STAIRS - HOLLENBACH 1969), of Mexico. A modified version of tagmemics, which rejects the tagmeme unit but utilizes various concepts of tagmemics as well as of other models, was used to describe the verb phrase of Huixtec Tzotzil of Mexico ( C O W A N - MERRIFIELD 1968). Most tagmemic articles combined aspects of both morphology and syntax; a few, however, focussed primarily on morphology, such as W. KINDBERG (1961) on Campa of Peru, and H. MILLER (1969) on Mamanwa of the Philippines. Several had to do with problems of morpheme fusion: K . PIKE (1961) on compound affixes in Ocaina of Peru, and K . PIKE (1963) on matrix permutation in Fore of New Guinea. The latter presented person affixes of Fore and showed how matrix techniques could be utilized to show the

BOOKS AND ARTICLES

69

components of a morphemically (or morphetically) complex system in which the parts were not clearly seen by ordinary kinds of segmentation. The former dealt with a similar problem in Ocaina without the insights later developed via matrix techniques. A similar problem was presented for numerals in Chatino of Mexico by PRIDE ( 1 9 6 1 ) , but without tagmemic terminology. Articles which dealt primarily with pronouns included the discussion of personal pronouns in Pacoh of Vietnam (S. WATSON 1964), and Burera of Australia (K. GLASGOW 1964); locational, temporal, and demonstrative pronouns of Wik-Munkan (SAYERS KERR 1964), pronouns functioning on sentence, clause and word level in Yanyula ( K I R T O N 1970), both of Australia; pronoun introducers in clauses of Movima of Bolivia ( R . JUDY 1965); the pronoun system of Weri of New Guinea (BOXWELL 1967); and a comparison of pronominal systems of several languages of Australia and New Guinea ( K E R R 1964), presenting specific and generic lexical contrasts by way of a variety of matrix charts. A further article dealing with the personal pronominal series in Lacandon of Mexico (BAER - MERRIFIELD 1967) was not specifically tagmemic but declared the necessity of taking into account both form and function in morphemic analysis. Further items described via tagmemic, or tagmemic-like formulas were number words in four languages of Mexico ( M E R R I FIELD 1 9 6 8 ) , and locational words in Koyukon of Alaska ( H E N R Y 1969).

10.5 ARTICLES ON PHONOLOGY

A large number of articles have appeared dealing with tagmemic phonology, especially those which present levels of phonology above the syllable. Two treated primarily of syllable dynamics, presenting ballistic and controlled types: Palantla Chinantec (MERRIFIELD 1963) and Amuzgo (BAUERNSCHMIDT 1965), of Mexico. Three presented phoneme classes: Sayula Popoluca of Mexico ( C L A R K

70

DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL

1959), Cocama of Peru ( F A U S T - E . V . PIKE 1959), and GuguYalanji of Australia ( L . OATES 1964). Some discussed the phonotagmeme (see CRAWFORD 1959): LOCKWOOD'S dissertation on microsegment and syllable construction in Czech, Serbo-Croatian, and Russian (LOCKWOOD 1966) presented syllable level phonotagmemes for each of the three languages; OLSON (1967) for Chipaya of Bolivia and ABRAHAMSON (1968) for Icjua Tupi of Brazil also presented syllable phonotagmemes. I . DAVIS (1962) set up function classes for Cheyenne of the United States, but not in specific tagmemic terms. Some presented problems of phonemic analysis: NICHOLSON - NICHOLSON (1962) in Fore of New Guinea, K. PIKE LARSON (1964) in Aguaruna of Peru, and ROBBINS (1961) in Quiotepec Chinantec of Mexico. ROBBINS interpreted syllables with syllabic nasal to consist phonemically of vowel plus nasal, but PIKE later discussed a possible need to set up a macrosyllable unit between syllable and stress group (K. PIKE 1966a: 377; 1967a: 412). ROBINSON (1969a) discussed Sierra Nahuat (Mexico) prosodies in terms of their distribution in various phonological syntagmemes. An article by E . V . PIKE described the phonological typology of over twenty languages of the New Guinea highlands area in terms of types of phonological words, in relation to stress, rhythm, and distribution of phonemes and allophones; types of tone systems, types of stress systems, and types of segmental systems ( E . V . PIKE 1964). Varying numbers of phonological levels were described or mentioned for different languages. The largest number presented was seven, for Highland Chontal of Mexico (TURNER 1967b). These included syllable, word, phrase, clause, sentence, paragraph, and discourse. Six of the same levels (minus that of paragraph, with the term foot substituted for word), were described for Cora of Mexico ( M C M A H O N 1967). MCMAHON'S presentation was more elaborate and gave a chart of contrastive criteria for all levels. Five levels were presented for Shiriana of Brazil (MIGLIAZZA GRIMES 1961): syllable, foot, contour, pause group, and conversation. Five also occurred in Sherpa (GORDON 1969) and Tamang

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71

et alii 1970), of Nepal: syllable, foot (Sherpa), or morpheme (not grammatical) (Tamang), word, phrase, and sentence. Sierra Nahuat of Mexico (ROBINSON 1969a) has syllable and micro-, meso-, macro-, and mega-segments. A number of languages were described as having four phonological levels. The first level was always the syllable. Levels above the syllable were stress group, breath group, and pause group for Sen of Mexico (MOSER 1965); word, group, and clause for Engenni of Nigeria (E. THOMAS 1969); word, phrase, and sentence for Kunimaipa of New Guinea (A. PENCE 1966), and foot, phrase, and sentence for Kewa of New Guinea (J. FRANKLIN 1965) and Gurung of Nepal ( W . GLOVER 1969). For Thakali (Nepal) it was morpheme (not grammatical), word, and sentence (HARI 1969). Three languages reported paragraph as a fourth level of the hierarchy, but the ones in between were word and sentence for Cayapa of Ecuador (LINDSKOOG - BREND 1962); word and pause group for Chuave of New Guinea (SWICK 1966); phrase and clause for Cashinahua of Peru (KENSINGER 1963). In Guajajara of Brazil ( D . BENDORSAMUEL 1966), the top level was the utterance, which was composed of spans (defined by intonation tune). Spans were composed of feet (defined by stress), and feet of syllables. The greatest number of languages were described in terms of three phonological levels. Several had word and phrase as the levels above the syllable: Fasu of New Guinea ( M A Y - LOEWEKE 1965); Kunjen of Australia (SOMMER 1968); and Ayutla Mixtec (PANKRATZ - E. V . PIKE 1967), Eastern Popoloca (KALSTROM - E . V . PIKE 1968), Mezquital Otomi (WALLIS 1968) and Tarahumara (BURGESS 1970), all of Mexico. Others had word and contour: Itonama of Bolivia ( L I C C A R D I - GRIMES 1968); word and clause: Marinahua of Peru (E. V. PIKE - E. SCOTT 1962); word and breath group: Tucano of Colombia (B. WEST - WELCH 1967); or word and utterance: Agbo of Nigeria (SPREDA 1966). Others had stress group and pause group: Aguaruna of Peru (K. P I K E - L A R S O N 1964), Guanano of Colombia (WALTZ 1967), Apinaye of Brazil (BURGESS - HAM 1968); or rhythm group and pause group: Mikasuki of the United States (WEST

(HARI

72

DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL

1 9 6 2 ) and Munduruku of Brazil (BRAUN - CROFTS 1 9 6 5 ) . Others had stress group and phrase: Cofan of Ecuador (BORMAN 1 9 6 2 ) ; stress group and utterance: Maxakali of Brazil (GUDSCHINSKY et alii 1 9 7 0 ) ; phrase and utterance: Sangir of the Philippines (K. MARRYOTT 1 9 6 1 ) ; pause group and sentence: Paresi of Brazil (ROWAN 1 9 6 7 ) (with pause group marked by stress, and sentence by intonation); foot and contour: Aykamteli of Brazil (ALBRIGHT 1965).

Somes languages dealt with one level above the syllable. This was usually the word, as seen in Kaingang of Brazil (WIESEMANN 1964), Telefol of New Guinea (A. HEALEY 1964), Balangao of the Philippines (SHETLER 1966), Gugu-Yalanji (L. OATES 1964) and Anyula [Yanyula] (KIRTON 1967) of Australia; and Palantla Chinantec (MERRIFIELD 1963) and Western Popoloca (WILLIAMSE. V . PIKE 1968), of Mexico; or the stress group, as in Secoya of Ecuador (JOHNSON - PEEKE 1962) and Siriono of Bolivia (PRIEST 1968). In Fore of New Guinea, it was the phrase (NICHOLSONNICHOLSON 1962).

11 APPLICATION TO ENGLISH

The complaint is sometimes heard that tagmemics has been applied only to exotic languages unknown to most scholars, and not to well-known languages like English. It is true that only one brief tagmemic grammar of English (LIEM 1966) has yet appeared. Nevertheless it is noteworthy that the bibliography of this volume contains no less than thirty-five items dealing with English in some way.

11.1 THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION

Among the items dealing with the English language are several which have to do with problems of teaching English composition or rhetoric, or teaching English as a foreign language. BECKER (1964) showed the use of matrix technique for differentiating verbal forms. PIKE (1964b) suggested the use of tagmemic matrix exercises in writing and analyzing compositions. ENGLISH (1964) reported on an experiment of this sort. Several items were concerned with problems of identifying and writing paragraphs: BECKER (1965, 1966), Y O U N G - B E C K E R (1964, 1965), and K O E N - B E C K E R YOUNG (1968). A dissertation by LAUER evaluated various procedures available for the teaching of rhetoric, including tagmemics (LAUER 1967). One by ODELL studied the usefulness of the tagmemic heuristic model in teaching composition (ODELL 1970). The major work using tagmemics as an approach to rhetoric

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DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL

is the volume Y O U N G - BECKER - PIKE ( 1 9 7 0 ) . This utilized a number of tagmemic concepts as basic to the teaching of rhetoric, and presented these in terms of six maxims: (1) the world is thought of in terms of units of experience that are repeatable (p. 26); (2) these units are part of a system which is hierarchically structured (p. 29); (3) the only way any unit can be adequately understood is if one knows its contrastive features, its range of possible variants, and its distribution in larger contexts (p. 56); (4) a unit may be looked at in static terms, as a particle, or in dynamic terms as a wave, or in terms of a field, i.e. a network of relationships or part of a larger network (p. 122); (5) there can be change between units only if there are shared features in common (p. 172); (6) linguistic choices are made in relation to linguistic and extralinguistic contexts, i.e. to what may be termed one's universe of discourse (p. 301). Other tagmemic concepts utilized include the matter of observer focus (tied in with the notion of hierarchy; p. 28 et passim), language as including both form and meaning (pp. 292-3), and the three hierarchies (pp. 294-6).

11.2 OTHER ITEMS ON ENGLISH

In addition to these which are concerned with the teaching of English composition are items concerned with various levels of English structure, or of various types of English, or of contrasts between the structure of English and that of another language. These include LIEM'S grammar of English (LIEM 1966) and his contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese (LIEM 1967); FLORES (1962) contrasting English and Cebuano (Philippines) clause structure; K . PIKE (1964d) on the grammar of English intonation; BECKER'S use of matrices for teaching English verbs

APPLICATION TO ENGLISH

75

1964), his discussion of the English subject tagmeme 1967a), and his article on conjoining (BECKER 1967b); several items by FRIES (1970a, 1970b, 1970c); L A W (1967) on adverbials; M O R G A N (1967) on paragraphs; LONGACRE (1967a, 1970b) on sentences and LONGACRE (1969b) on verb phrases; H O W E S (1964), H O L Z (1967), and HOULE (1968) on literature and literary criticism; A . HEALEY (1968) on idioms; and GLISSMEYER (1970) on clauses in Hawaiian English; N A G A R A (1969) on Hawaiian Pidgin English of Japanese immigrants. (BECKER (BECKER

12 RELATION TO OTHER

MODELS

12.1 T A G M E M I C S A N D T R A N S F O R M A T I O N A L G R A M M A R

As transformational grammar began to come to the fore in American linguistics, tagmemicists began to investigate how some of its insights and techniques might be utilized in tagmemics. C O O K in On tagmemes and transforms ( C O O K 1964) discussed points of similarity and difference in the two models and noted where transformational rules could be used in tagmemics. He suggested what he called the "tagmemic-transformational model" ( C O O K 1964: 40). This model was followed by himself for Mundari ( C O O K 1965); LIEM (1966) for English, andLiEM (1970) for Vietnamese clauses; by TRYON for Nengone (TRYON 1967a), Dehu (TRYON 1967b), and Iai (TRYON 1968); by HIDALGO (1969) for Ivatan; and a similar combined model by POSADA (1969) for a literary idiolect of Colombian Spanish. BELASCO ( 1 9 6 1 , 1 9 6 4 ) took a different tack — that of the use of tagmemics in transformational grammar. He suggested the usefulness of a solid tagmemic base, especially with the use of matrices, before attempting to set up transformational rules. ROULET (1969) discussed each model separately, and applied each to the analysis of French nuclear sentences. GRIMES ( 1 9 6 0 ) used transforms to relate clauses not yet described to those already described. MERRIFIELD ( 1 9 6 5 ) incorporated transformational concepts without actually formalizing transformational rules.

RELATION TO OTHER MODELS

77

LONGACRE ( 1 9 6 4 : 17) presented transform potential as one of his list of criteria for minimum dual contrast for separating syntagmemes. In "Transformational parameters in tagmemic field structures" (LONGACRE 1 9 6 5 ) , he suggested that transformations are one parameter among several for relating constructions, and that it is not necessary to set up a separate transformational level in language. He gave examples of various transformations in Zoque, Sierra Popoluca, and Tlahuitoltepec Mixe of Mexico, based on data from E N G E L - L O N G A C R E ( 1 9 6 3 ) , LIND ( 1 9 6 4 ) , and S. LYON ( 1 9 6 7 ) . Others using the notion of transformation from a kernel set are MORSE ( 1 9 6 5 ) for sentences in Rawang (Burma), and ELKINS ( 1 9 6 7 ) for clauses in Western Bukidnon Manobo (Philippines). LONGACRE ( 1 9 6 4 : 2 4 - 3 2 ) also presented tagmemic rewrite rules of READING, PERMUTATION, and EXPONENCE, and illustrated them from Trique of Mexico. JACOBS - LONGACRE ( 1 9 6 7 ) presented an extensive example of this model for Chamula Tzotzil (Mexico) phrases and clauses. ELKINS ( 1 9 7 1 ) used it for Western Bukidnon Manobo sentence structure. Others using various types of rewrite rules are CONWAY ( 1 9 6 4 ) for adjective classes in Spanish; BEE ( 1 9 6 5 ) for Usarufa of New Guinea; and WHEATLEY ( 1 9 6 9 ) for cooccurrence restrictions in Bakairi of Brazil. PEEKE (1968) explored for Auca (Ecuador) the generative potential of a modified tagmemic model with a transformational component, and presented tree diagrams with branches which specified function, and labelled nodes which specified manifesting sets of tagmemes.

12.2 TAGMEMICS A N D STRATIFICATIONAL G R A M M A R

Both tagmemics and stratificational grammar are hierarchical models, similar in some respects, and quite divergent in others. A comparison of the basic points, and the strengths and weaknesses of each was given by BIONDI ( 1 9 6 5 ) . CROMACK ( 1 9 6 8 ) used aspects

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DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL

of both models, as well as some from HALLIDAY. He used tagmemics to present clause structure. MERRI FIELD'S proposed tagmemic model (MERRIFIELD 1 9 6 7 ) seen also in M . COWAN - MERRIFIELD ( 1 9 6 8 ) , and COWAN ( 1 9 6 9 ) showed certain features of stratificational grammar.

12.3 T A G M E M I C S A N D CASE G R A M M A R

The concepts of case grammar are proving useful in tagmemics, especially in terms of formalizing lexemic relations in deep structure. COOK (1971) and PIKE (1971a) comment on this.

12.4 T A G M E M I C S A N D S Y N T A G M A T I C G R A M M A R

The syntagmatic model of J. BENDOR-SAMUEL (formerly called structure-function) is a hierarchical model similar in some ways to tagmemics, with influence from FIRTH and also from HALLIDAY (1961). The model was set forth in J. BENDOR-SAMUEL (1963), and exemplified in E. THOMAS (1966). D. BENDOR-SAMUEL (1966) showed features both of tagmemics and of syntagmatics.

13 DEVELOPMENT VIA UNIVERSITIES

Most items in the tagmemic framework have been written by field members of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, and produced in the field situation, or at a field workshop. Some have been written by SIL personnel while in residence at a university either in the USA or abroad. Others have been written by persons not connected with SIL. Some of these have been students of PIKE at Michigan. Others have been in residence elsewhere. No attempt has been made to trace the provenience of all items included in the bibliography, nor to check all possible tagmemic monographs. The following list is of universities which have come to my attention as having had one or more doctoral dissertations on a tagmemic or partially tagmemic model presented there. The date given is of the presentation of the dissertation, without indication of later publication elsewhere. There were 14 tagmemic dissertations produced at Michigan. Six of these were by members of SIL; WATERHOUSE (1958), PICKETT (1959),

CRAWFORD

WISE (1968).

(1959),

Others were

HESS

(1962),

BREND

(1964),

and

FLORES (1962), BRANNEN (1966), LOCK-

WOOD (1966), BECKER (1967), LAUER (1967), J . PENCE (1967), ULLRICH (1968), a n d ODELL (1970).

Of five produced at Texas, two were by SIL members: LAW and KEY ( 1 9 6 3 ) ; others were BLANSITT (1963), SCOTT (1963),

(1962)

a n d CONWAY (1964).

There werefive,all non

SIL,

at Georgetown : COOK

(1965), HER-

RERO (1965), SOENJONO (1966), HIDALGO (1969), a n d OATES (1970).

80

DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL

Of four at Indiana, three were SIL: BEE (1965), BRIDGEMAN (1966), and PEEKE (1968); the other was POSADA (1969). There were three at Hawaii, two of whom were S I L : L . REID ( 1 9 6 6 ) and ELKINS ( 1 9 6 7 ) ; the other was GLISSMEYER ( 1 9 7 0 ) . Three SIL personnel studied at Cornell, but their dissertations were only peripherally tagmemic: GRIMES ( 1 9 6 0 ) , MERRIFIELD (1965), and ROBBINS (1965). Of three at Hartford, two were S I L : ROBINSON ( 1 9 6 6 ) and CROMACK ( 1 9 6 8 ) ; the other was KRAFT ( 1 9 6 3 ) . CROMACK used tagmemic formulas for clause level only. K R A F T did not use tagmemic terminology. There were two SIL members at the University of California (Berkeley): MATTESON ( 1 9 6 3 ) and WHEELER ( 1 9 7 0 ) ; and two at Pennsylvania: THOMAS ( 1 9 6 7 ) and HOOLEY ( 1 9 7 0 ) . Of these, MATTESON did not use tagmemic terminology, and THOMAS used tagmemics only for clause level. Two at Columbia, nonSIL, used the related sector approach: ALLEN (1962) and CRYMES (1965). Other American universities, at which one tagmemic dissertation was produced are: Chicago, TURNER ( 1 9 6 6 ) SIL; Iowa, HOULE ( 1 9 6 8 ) nonSIL; and Wisconsin, NAGARA ( 1 9 6 9 ) nonSIL. I . DAVIS ( 1 9 6 0 ) SIL, at New Mexico, used tagmemic analysis for clause level only. BOCK ( 1 9 6 2 ) nonSIL at Harvard, used tagmemic-like matrices to show social structure. Of schools abroad, London University had one tagmemic dissertation by a nonSIL person: KILLINGLEY ( 1 9 7 1 ) ; and five by SIL members. Of the five, one was basically tagmemic without using the terminology: CALLOW ( 1 9 6 2 ) . The others were on other models but with some tagmemic influence of similar features: J . BENDOR-SAMUEL ( 1 9 5 8 ) , D . BENDOR-SAMUEL

(1966), C .

DAY

(1966), and E. THOMAS (1969). Monash University (Australia) had two: H. PLATT (1970) and J : PLATT (1970), both nonSIL.

14

DEVELOPMENT VIA LANGUAGES

The following listing is of languages of which at least part have been analyzed by tagmemic procedures or described in tagmemic terms. They are arranged alphabetically under continent and country. Authors' names are given in parentheses after the name of the language. If an author has written only on that language, his name is given only once, without dates, even though he may have written more than one item on the language. If he has written on more than one language or on some other topic, the date of the item relating to that language is given. Square brackets indicate that the model used is a modified tagmemic type, or only part of the material in the item is described tagmemically (as, for example, when a grammar is written on some other model, but the phonology is presented in terms of a phonological hierarchy as in tagmemics), or that the item is based on tagmemics but specific tagmemic terms have not been used. Items which have been included in tagmemic bibliographies (PIKE 1966, BREND 1970) but which are not considered to have been specifically influenced by the tagmemic model, have been excluded from this section, although they are discussed elsewhere in the book. AFRICA

Cameroun: Duru (BOHNHOFF) Ghana: Bimoba (G. JACOBS;

K . PIKE

— G.

JACOBS),

Kasem

(J.

CALLOW 1966, 1 9 6 8 ; K . CALLOW)

Nigeria: Agbo

( S P R E D A - S P R E D A ) , B a r i b a ( K . PIKE

1968b), Degema

82

DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL

(E. THOMAS), [Engenni (E. THOMAS)], Etung (EDMONDSON), [Hausa (KRAFT)], Izi (J. BENDOR-SAMUEL - MEIER), Mbembe (BARNWELL; REVILL), various ( K . PIKE 1966b) ASIA

Burma: Rawang (MORSE) India: Kannada (ULLRICH), Lamani (TRAIL), Mundari (COOK 1965), Pashto (J. PENCE), Tamil (ZVELEBIL) Indonesia: Indonesian (SOENJONO) Israel: Biblical Hebrew (LONGACRE 1961) Malaysia: Malayan Cantonese (KILLINGLEY) Nepal: Chepang (CAUGHLEY), Gurung (J. GLOVER; W. GLOVER), Newari (A. HALE; H A L E - H A L E ) , Sherpa (GORDON), Tamang (HARI et alii), Thakali (HARI) Philippines: Ata (MOREY), Atta (LUSTED et alii), Balangao (SHETLER; SHETLER - FETZER), Central Bontoc (L. REID 1965, 1968), Cebuano (FLORES), Dibabawon (FORSTER ; FORSTER - BARNARD), Dumagat (HEADLAND), Batad Ifugao (NEWELL), Inibaloi (BALLARD et alii), Ivatan (L. REID 1966; HIDALGO), Maguindanao (LEE), Mamanwa (H. MILLER; J. MILLER), Agusan Manobo (WEAVER - WEAVER), Western Bukidnon Manobo (ELKINS), [Cotabato Manobo (KERR)], Ilianen Manobo (SHAND), Mansaka (D. THOMAS 1958), Maranao (WARD - FORSTER), Sangir (A. MARRYOTT ; K . MARRYOTT), Siocon Subanon (W. HALL), Tagabili (FORSBERG), Tagbanua (HUSSEY), various (LONGACRE 1 9 6 8 - 6 9 ) Vietnam: Brou (C. MILLER), Cham (D. BLOOD), [Chrau (D. THOMAS 1967)], Mnong Rolom ( E . BLOOD), Nung (SAUL), Pacoh (R. WATSON; S. WATSON), Tho (DAY), Vietnamese (LIEM 1967, 1970) AUSTRALIA A N D OCEANIA

Australia: Burera (GLASGOW), Gugu-Yalanji ( [ H . HERSHBERGER]; H . HERSHBERGER-E. V . P I K E ; R.HERSHBERGER;L.OATES), K u n -

jen (SOMMER), Wik-Munkan (GODFREY; SAYERS), Yanyula (KIRTON), v a r i o u s (KERR 1964)

83

DEVELOPMENT VIA LANGUAGES

Loyalty Islands: Dehu

(TRYON

1967b), Nengone

(TRYON

1967a),

I a i (TRYON 1 9 6 8 )

New (A.

Guinea: Agarabi (GODDARD), Asaro LOVING-MCKAUGHAN;

Baruya

MCKAUGHAN), (SWICK),

Fasu

(LLOYD),

Bena-Bena

(LOEWEKE-MAY;

R.

Awa

LOVING-

(YOUNG),

MAY - LOEWEKE),

(NICHOLSON; K . PIKE 1 9 6 3 ; K . PIKE — G .

Gadsup

(STRANGE),

LOVING - LOVING ;

Chuave Fore

SCOTT; G . SCOTT),

Gahuku (DEIBLER 1964), Kanite ( M C C A R T H Y ; see also K. PIKE 1964), Kewa (J. FRANKLIN; K. FRANKLIN), Kunimaipa (A. PENCE), Managalasi (PARLIER), Mapos Buang (HOOLEY), Tairora ( M C K A U G H A N ) , Telefol/Teleefool (A. HEALEY; P.HEALEY), Usarufa ([BEE]; BEE - GLASGOW), Wantoat ( D . D A V I S ) , Weri (BOXWELL), Yoliapi(COCHRAN),various(E. V . (C.

FRANTZ),

PIKE) EUROPE

English (RAY), French (ROULET; M. OATES), Old French 1961), German ( K . PIKE 1965b), Slavic (LOCKWOOD)

(BELASCO

N O R T H A N D CENTRAL AMERICA

Canada: Blackfoot Guatemala: Achi

Cree (ELLIS) Aguacatec (McWILLIAMS), Ixil ( R .

( D . FRANTZ ; FRANTZ - FRANTZ), (SHAW-NEUENSWANDER),

ARTHUR - M C A R T H U R ) ,

Chuj

(WILLIAMS -

Jacaltec (CHURCH - CHURCH), Mam (SYWULKA), [Mopan Maya (ULRICH - U L R I C H ) ] , Pocomchi (M. K. MAYERS; [MAYERS - M A Y ERS]), Quiche (Fox), Tzutujil (CARLIN) Mexico: Amuzgo (BAUERNSCHMIDT; HART), Chatino (PRIDE), Lalana Chinantec (RENSCH), [Palantla Chinantec (MERRI FIELD 1963, 1965)], [Quiotepec Chinantec (ROBBINS)], Choi (V. WARKENTIN - WHITTAKER), Lowland Chontal (WATERHOUSE), Highland Chontal (TURNER), Cora (MCMAHON), Mazatec (E. V. PIKE), Huave (K. PIKE - M. WARKENTIN ; STAIRS - HOLLENBACH), [Huichol (GRIMES)], Lacandon Maya (BAER - MERRIFIELD), Tlahuitoltepec Mixe ( D . LYON ; S. LYON), Totontepec Mixe ( C R A W ELLIOTT;

Kekchi

[ELLIOTT - ELLIOTT]),

(EACHUS - CARLSON),

84

DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL FORD), Ayutla Mixtec (PANKRATZ - E. V. PIKE), Huajuapan Mixtec (E. Y. P I K E - J . COWAN), Molinos Mixtec ( H U N T E R - E . V. PIKE; MERRIFIELD - S T O U D T ) , Nahual (ROBINSON - SISCHO), Isthmus Nahuat ( L A W ) , Sierra Nahuat (ROBINSON), Otomi (HESS; LANIER; WALLIS), Eastern Popoloca (KALSTROM - E . V. PIKE), Western Popoloca (A. W I L L I A M S - E . Y. PIKE; A. WILLIAMSLONGACRE), Sayula Popoluca (CLARK), Sierra Popoluca (ELSON ; L I N D ) , Seri (MOSER - MOSER), Tarahumara (BURGESS), Tepehua (BOWER - ERICKSON), Totonac (A. REID et alii), Chicahuaxtla Trique (LONGACRE), Chamula Tzotzil ( K . JACOBS - LONGACRE), [Huixtec Tzotzil ( M . C O W A N ; M. COWAN-MERRIFIELD)], San Andres Tzotzil ([A. DELGATY], C. DELGATY), Choapan Zapotec (LYMAN), Isthmus Zapotec (PICKETT 1959, 1967), Rincon Zapotec (EARL), Zoque (ENGEL - LONGACRE)

United States: Apache (EDGERTON), Cheyenne ( I . DAVIS 1962), English ( L A W 1967; LIEM 1966; LONGACRE 1969b; and others), Hawaii English (GLISSMEYER), [Keres, Santa Ana Pueblo ( I . DAVIS 1964)], Kiowa (MERRIFIELD 1959), Koyukon ( H E N R Y HENRY), Mikasuki (WEST), Navaho (K. PIKE - BECKER), Hawaii Pidgin English (NAGARA), Potawatomi (ERICKSON; K. P I K E ERICKSON), Spanish (BLANSITT 1963; CONWAY) SOUTH AMERICA

Bolivia: Baure (BAPTISTA - W A L L I N ) , Cayuvava (KEY), Chacobo (PROST), Chipaya (OLSON), Ese'ejja (SHOEMAKER - SHOEMAKER), Guarani (ROSBOTTOM), Ignaciano ( O T T - O T T ) , Itonama (CAMP LICCARDI; LICCARDI - GRIMES), Movima ( J . J U D Y ; R . J U D Y ; J U D Y - J U D Y ) , Q u e c h u a ( H E R R E R O ; SPENST et alii),Siriono ([FIRESTONE]; P . PRIEST; PRIEST - PRIEST ; P . PRIEST et alii), Tacana (OTTAVIANO - OTTAVIANO)

Brazil: Apinaye (BURGESS - HAM ; [J. CALLOW 1 9 6 2 ] ; HAM), Aykamteli (ALBRIGHT), Bakairi (WHEATLEY), Bororo (HUESTIS), [Guajajara ( D . BENDOR-SAMUEL)], Hishkaryana (DERBYSHIRE), Iq:ua Tupi (ABRAHAMSON 1 9 6 8 ) , Iranxe (MEADER), Kaingang (WIESEMANN), KAIWA(BRIDGEMAN),

Maxakali(PopoviCH; GUDSCHINSKY

DEVELOPMENT VIA LANGUAGES

85

etalii), Munduruku (BRAUN - CROFTS), Paresi (ROWAN), Shiriana

Waica (BORGMAN - CUE), various ( G U D 1968a) Colombia: Guanano (WALTZ - WALTZ), Siona (WHEELER), literary Spanish (POSADA 1969), Tucano (B. W E S T - W E L C H ) Ecuador: Auca (PEEKE 1 9 6 8 ; K . P I K E 1 9 6 4 ; SAINT - K . PIKE), Cayapa (ABRAHAMSON 1 9 6 2 ; LINDSKOOG - BREND), Cofan (BORMAN), Quichua ( O R R ) , Secoya (JOHNSON - PEEKE), Zaparo (PEEKE (MIGLIAZZA - GRIMES),

SCHINSKY

1958)

Peru: Aguaruna (LARSON; K . PIKE - LARSON), Amuesha ( D U F F ; WISE), Arabela (RICH), Campa (L. KINDBERG; W. KINDBERG; K . P I K E - W . KINDBERG), Candoshi (L. D . A N D E R S O N - W I S E ; Cox; see also K . PIKE 1957), Capanahua (Loos), Cashibo (SHELL), Cashinahua (KENSINGER), Cocama ( F A U S T - E . G. PIKE), Iquito ( R . and E . EASTMAN), Machiguenga (SNELL - WISE), Marinahua ( E . V . PIKE - E . SCOTT), Murui (BURTCH - WISE), Nomatsiguenga (WISE), Ocaina ( K . PIKE 1961), Piro (MATTESON), Shipibo (LORIOT - HOLLENBACH), Ticuna (L. ANDERSON), Witoto (MINOR Loos), Yagua (POWLISON)

PART IV

DEVELOPMENT BY YEARS

15 CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

The first item dealing with tagmemics to appear in print was Part 1 of PIKE'S Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior (K. PIKE 1954-60) published in 1954. It was followed in 1955 by Part 2. In 1956, PIKE'S "Towards a theory of human behavior" was published, also the first textbook dealing with tagmemic techniques: PICKETT'S An introduction to the study of grammatical structure. An article by H. and L. M C A R T H U R dealing with phonemes in relation to the stress group in Aguacatec (Guatemala) also appeared ( M C A R T H U R - M C A R T H U R 1956).

15.1 T H E Y E A R 1957

In 1957, the first tagmemic articles dealing with aspects of the grammar of specific languages appeared. An entire issue of the International Journal of American Linguistics was devoted to this. It included articles on Candoshi ( P I K E , C O X ) , Cashibo (SHELL), and Amuesha ( D U F F ) of Peru; Pocomchi (MAYERS), of Guatemala; and Amuzgo ( H A R T ) of Mexico. Several additional articles by PIKE appeared. "Grammemic theory" (K. PIKE 1957b) dealt with the relation of the tagmeme (then called grammeme) to morpheme class and to the immediate constituent approach to grammatical analysis. "A stereoscopic window on the world" ( K . PIKE 1957d) discussed etic and emic grids in relation to religion. "A training device for translation theory and practice" presented the usefulness of the

90

DEVELOPMENT BY YEARS

new approach in text analysis in preparation for translation (K. PIKE 1957e). "Abdominal pulse types in some Peruvian languages" laid the groundwork further for higher level phonology ( K . PIKE 1957a). 15.2 T H E Y E A R 1958

In 1 9 5 8 PIKE announced the change of name of his basic grammatical unit from grammeme to tagmeme. LORIOT'S material on Shipibo paragraph structure appeared in mimeographed form (see now LORIOT - HOLLENBACH 1 9 7 0 ) . An article by D . THOMAS dealt with sentences and lower-level structures in Mansaka of the Philippines. The first tagmemic grammar was produced by WATERHOUSE, dealing with syntagmemes, tagmemes, and morphemes of Lowland Oaxaca Chontal. PEEKE'S Zaparo (Ecuador) grammar was also written at this time, but both it and the Chontal did not appear in print until 1 9 6 2 . ELSON'S first textbook, Beginning morphologysyntax, appeared, and was revised the following year. Along with PICKETT'S earlier volume (PICKETT 1 9 5 6 ) , it was the forerunner of the textbooks now used in the Summer Institutes of Linguistics and elsewhere for the beginning courses in grammar.

15.3 T H E Y E A R 1959

In 1959, articles appeared on the phonology of Sayula Popoluca of Mexico ( C L A R K ) , and Cocama of Peru ( F A U S T - E . G . P I K E ) , on sentence types of Amuesha of Peru (DUFF), and verb prefixes of Kiowa of the USA (MERRIFIELD). PIKE first presented his theory of particle, wave, and field in linguistics. PICKETT'S grammar of Isthmus Zapotec of Mexico was written, the second tagmemic grammar and still the most complete. C R A W F O R D presented his notion of the phono tagmeme in relation to Totontepec Mixe of Mexico. Both of these were doctoral dissertations at the University of Michigan.

CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

91

15.4 THE YEAR 1960

In 1960, PICKETT'S grammar was published in the Language Monograph series, the first tagmemic grammar to appear in print. Other publications were LONGACRE'S important article on string constituent analysis, the final volume of PIKE'S Language, an article by PIKE on language learning, and another on language change, a tagmemic analysis of a text in the Cree language of Canada (ELLIS), and a volume of studies of Mayan languages, edited by ELSON. This volume contained three tagmemic articles, one on verb phrases in Tzotzil of Mexico (DELGATY), and two others on Guatemalan languages: clause structure of Ixil (ELLIOTT), and the Jacaltec noun phrase (CHURCH - CHURCH). GRIMES' dissertation on Huichol (Mexico) syntax was presented. He did not use tagmemic terminology, but acknowledged PIKE'S influence in his analysis. Also, DAVIS' dissertation on Santa Ana Pueblo Keres (USA) appeared. He followed a tagmemic model for clause structure only. ELSON and PICKETT'S first joint textbook, Beginning morphology-syntax, was published.

15.5 THE YEAR 1961

In 1961, further tagmemic articles appeared. In a volume of studies dedicated to William Cameron TOWNSEND, two articles were specifically tagmemic: one by LONGACRE on Biblical Hebrew verb clause structure, and one by L . KINDBERG on independent and dependent sentence types in Campa of Peru. Others were related to tagmemics but did not use tagmemic terminology: one by W. KINDBERG on Campa morphology, and three on languages of Mexico. These dealt with a variety of subjects: independent and dependent nouns in Tsotsil (A. DELGATY), Huave syntactic tone with low lexical load (PIKE - WARKENTIN), and Quiotepec Chinantec words consisting phonetically of nasals plus tone (ROBBINS). Two articles on languages of Brazil were published, one on pho-

92

DEVELOPMENT BY YEARS

nological levels of Shiriana ( M I G L I A Z Z A - GRIMES), and one on sentence, phrase and word structure of Hishkaryana (DERBYSHIRE). Three others dealt with languages of the Guarani stock; one on the phonology of Kaiwa of Brazil (BRIDGEMAN), and two from Bolivia: "Different-level tense markers in Guarani" (ROSBOTTOM), and "Simultaneous orderings in Siriono" (PRIEST et alii). There also appeared an article on the phonology of Sangir of the Philippines ( K . M A R R Y O T T ) . There were two articles by P I K E : "Stimulating and resisting change", and "Compound affixes in Ocaina" (Peru). A further article on numerals in Chatino (Mexico) by PRIDE dealt with problems of recurring partials which seem not to be morphemic, later dealt with by PIKE (1963) for Fore of New Guinea via matrix. Two other articles by BELASCO, "The role of transformational grammar and tagmemics in the analysis of an Old French text" and the introduction to a book on applied linguistics, showed further the application of tagmemic theory and techniques.

15.6 T H E Y E A R 1962

1962 saw the publication of the Lowland Oaxaca Chontal grammar Five other doctoral dissertations were also presented, two on the syntax of languages of Mexico: Mezquital Otomi ( H E S S ) and Isthmus Nahuat (LAW); one comparing clause structure of Cebuano of the Philippines and English (FLORES), and one on Apinaye of Brazil (J. C A L L O W ) . This last was based on tagmemics but not written in tagmemic terms. The fifth saw tagmeme units used for the first time outside the sphere of linguistics : BOCK'S The social structure of a Canadian Indian reserve. Matrix theory in tagmemics was presented for the first time in print by the publication of PIKE'S "Dimensions of grammatical constructions". Besides the extension to social structure, tagmemics, or a comparable approach, was applied to the analysis of folktales ( D U N D E S ) (WATERHOUSE 1 9 5 8 ) .

CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

93

and the sentence structure of a fifteenth century text (RESKIEWICZ). Another step forward was the publication of ELSON and PICKETT'S revised and amplified elementary textbook An introduction to morphology and syntax, and the revised laboratory manual to accompany it (MERRIFIELD et alii). Two other volumes appeared containing a number of tagmemic articles. One was in the Summer Institute of Linguistics publications in linguistics and related fields series (no. 7), dealing with Ecuadorian Indian languages. This included articles on phonology of Auca (SAINT - K . PIKE), Cayapa (LINDSKOOG - B R E N D ) , Cofan ( B O R MAN), and Secoya (JOHNSON - P E E K E ) ; on clauses in Quichua ( O R R ) ; and grammatical sketches of Zaparo (PEEKE) and Cayapa ( A B R A HAMSON). The other was in the Oceania linguistic monographs series (no. 6), with articles on phonology of Fore ( N I C H O L S O N NICHOLSON) and Usarufa (BEE - K. G L A S G O W ) , and on noun affixes of Awa (LOVING - LOVING) and Gadsup (C. F R A N T Z ) , all languages of New Guinea. Several separate articles were published, one by PIKE on the practical phonetics of rhythm waves; three on phonology: Cheyenne (I. D A V I S ) and Mikasuki ( D . W E S T ) of the United States, and Marinahua of Peru (E. V . P I K E - E . SCOTT); and four on grammar: the Eskimo (Alaska, USA) verb complex (WEBSTER), morphosyntax of Sayula Popoluca of Mexico ( C L A R K ) , transitive and intransitive verbs of Chacobo of Bolivia ( P R O S T ) , and the structure of clauses and other levels in Tamil of India (ZVELEBIL).

15.7 T H E Y E A R 1963

In 1963, four doctoral dissertations applying tagmemic theory appeared. Two, K E Y on Cayuvava, and MATTESON on Piro, dealt with languages of Bolivia and Peru, respectively. Both were based on tagmemics but used a minimum of tagmemic terminology. BLANSITT was the first to apply tagmemics to an Indo-European language, in discussing the Spanish verb phrase. C. SCOTT applied

94

DEVELOPMENT BY YEARS

the theory to the analysis of Persian and Arabic riddles. In addition 1 9 5 9 dissertation on Totontepec Mixe (Mexico) phonotagmemics was published, making his theoretical concept of the 'phonotagmeme' available to more scholars. Further on the theoretical front, PIKE continued to develop matrix theory with his "Syntactic paradigm" and "Theoretical implications of matrix permutation in Fore (New Guinea)", and to explore the integration of verbal behavior (especially intonation) with the nonverbal social situation in "The hierarchical and social matrix of suprasegmentals". The theoretical basis for the concept of dependency on the sentence level was published in the article "Independent and dependent sentences" (WATERHOUSE). The concept had been presented earlier and applied by PICKETT ( 1 9 5 9 ) and L . KINDBERG ( 1 9 6 1 ) as well as by others. A volume of studies of Peruvian languages appeared (ELSON), with articles on the phonology of Arabela (F. RICH) and Cashinahua (KENSINGER), clause structure of Aguaruna (LARSON). Candoshi (ANDERSON - WISE), and Machiguenga (SNELL-WISE), and on the syntax of Witoto (MINOR - Loos) and Iquito (EASTMAN EASTMAN). The Aguaruna article was the first to apply the concept of matrix. A study of the syntax of Hausa (KRAFT) appeared, using notions of slot and filler and hierarchy, with references to PIKE and other tagmemicists, but without tagmemic terminology. Of single articles published, two were on phonology: one by MERRI FIELD on syllables of Palantla Chinantec (Mexico) and one by PIKE and G. SCOTT on pitch accent in Fore (New Guinea). Others were on grammar: verb structure of Amuesha (Peru) (WISE); clauses in Bororo (Brazil) (HUESTIS), and in Lalana Chinantec (RENSCH) and Ostuacan Zoque (ENGEL - LONGACRE) both of Mexico; on the substantive phrase of Brou (Vietnam) (C. MILLER) ; nuclear predications in Sangir (Philippines) (MARRYOTT) ; sentence and clause in Waica (Brazil) (BORGMAN - C U E ) ; sentences in Apache (USA) (EDGERTON); and narrative structure in Capanahua (Peru) (LOOS). CRAWFORD'S

CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

95

Other articles included further discussion of structural typology in North American folktales by D U N D E S and a hierarchical study of body parts in Kewa of New Guinea (K. F R A N K L I N ) . An article on stylistics ( K O C H ) presented a type of analysis somewhat similar to but not identical with PIKE'S trimodal structure.

15.8 T H E Y E A R 1964

In 1964, there were several articles by P I K E : "Discourse analysis and tagmeme matrices", dealing for the first time with the relationship of grammatical and situational roles; "On systems of grammatical structure", presenting matrices, paradigms and formulas for Kanite (New Guinea) clauses and verbs; "Name fusions as high-level particles in matrix theory"; and "On the grammar of intonation". This last presents a way in which American English intonation can be viewed as a grammatical system in its own right. LONGACRE'S "Prolegomena to lexical structure" and Grammar discovery procedures were published. Two items appeared dealing with the possibilities of combining tagmemics and transformational grammar: an article by BELASCO, and a book by C O O K . The problem of tagmemic zero was discussed in an article by HELLER. H O W E S applied the notion of particle, wave, and field to literary criticism. The application of tagmemics to the field of rhetoric was seen in two articles by PIKE (1964b, 1964c), and others by BECKER, Y O U N G - B E C K E R , and ENGLISH. Another article appeared by B O C K , setting up tagmeme-like units for social structure. Two tagmemic dissertations on Spanish appeared: BREND'S on Mexican Spanish clauses, and C O N W A Y ' S on order classes of adjectives. The latter was a combination of tagmemics with transformational rules. Two other dissertations were published: Huichol syntax (GRIMES 1 9 6 0 ) , and The language of Santa Ana Pueblo ( I . D A V I S 1 9 6 0 ) . Another volume dealt with the hierarchical structure of Tamil of 5 0 0 A . D . (ZVELEBIL). A volume of verb studies in five New Guinea languages was

96

DEVELOPMENT BY YEARS

published in the Summer Institute of Linguistics publications in linguistics and related fields series (no. 1 0 ) ( E L S O N ) . It contained two articles on Awa (R. LOVING - M C K A U G H A N ; A. L O V I N G M C K A U G H A N ) , and one each on Bena-Bena ( Y O U N G ) , Gadsup ( F R A N T Z - M C K A U G H A N ) , Kewa ( F R A N K L I N ) , and Wantoat ( D . DAVIS).

Another volume dedicated to tagmemic articles was Oceanic linguistics 3, dealing entirely with languages from the Philippines. In addition to the above-mentioned article by PIKE on "Discourse analysis and tagmeme matrices", it had articles on pronouns in Atta (LUSTED et alii) and Agusan Manobo ( W E A V E R - W E A V E R ) ; verbs in Maguindanao (LEE) and Ilianen Manobo ( S H A N D ) ; clauses in Dibabawon (FORSTER), Mamanwa (J. MILLER), and Batad Ifugao; and case-marking particles in Bontoc ( L . R E I D ) . There were two articles discussing various levels of discourse, one in terms of introducer tagmemes ( S H A N D ) , the other in terms of aspect and focus of verbs ( M O R E Y ) . A further article dealt with the obscuring of word accent in Balangao (SHETLER - FETZER). Several articles appeared on Australian languages in volumes published by the Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies (Canberra). Three dealt with pronouns: in Burera ( K . G L A S G O W ) , Wik-Munkan (SAYERS - K E R R ) , and several languages ( K E R R ) . TWO dealt with Gugu-Yalanji: one with noun phrases ( H . HERSHBERGER), the other with clauses (R. HERSHBERGER). An outline grammar of Wik-Munkan also appeared ( G O D F R E Y ) , and an article on Burera verb prefixes ( D . GLASGOW - K E R R ) . In other publications there appeared articles on phonology of Gugu-Yalanji of Australia ( L . OATES), Telefol of New Guinea (A. HEALEY), and Kaingang of Brazil (WIESEMANN); a typological classification of phonological characteristics of several New Guinea languages (E. V. P I K E ) ; stress trains in Auca of Ecuador (K. P I K E ) ; hyperphonemes and non-systematic features of Aguaruna (Peru) phonemics (K. PIKE - LARSON). Other grammar articles discussed pronouns of Pacoh of Vietnam ( W A T S O N ) ; verb inflection of Managalasi (PARLIER), verb and

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clause structure of Gahuku (DEIBLER), and quotative clauses of Telefol (P. HEALEY) of New Guinea; verb syntagmemes of Choapan Zapotec ( L Y M A N ) , and clause and sentence structure of Sierra Popoluca ( L I N D ) of Mexico. PIKE and BECKER suggested a use for matrices in historical reconstruction in "Progressive neutralization in dimensions of Navaho (US) stem matrices". PIKE and ERICKSON showed how superimposition (conflation) of matrices reveals pattern in Potawatomi (USA) and Arabic. A further article by K R A F T on Hausa syntax (see K R A F T 1963) showed the same use of slot and filler without other tagmemic terminology. Tagmemics was discussed at some length by POSTAL in his book Constituent structures, but the discussion was based only on the presentation of material for beginning students given by E L S O N PICKETT (1960). 15.9 T H E Y E A R 1965

In 1965, PIKE applied his matrix theory to the German verb 'to be' and German pronouns, and to the structure of an English poem. BECKER continued his work on English paragraph problems, and Y O U N G and BECKER showed how tagmemics could contribute to the solution of problems in rhetoric. LONGACRE continued to deal with matters of tagmemic theory in "Some fundamental insights of tagmemics", and "Transformational parameters in tagmemic field structures". POWLISON presented an analysis of paragraphs of a Yagua (Peru) folktale. SCHEFLEN worked out a hierarchical arrangement of form-meaning units of communicative behavior. A monograph on syntax of Chatino (Mexico) ( P R I D E ) appeared in the Summer Institute of Linguistics publications in linguistics and

related fields series (no. 12). Several dissertations were presented. Those by HERRERO on Bolivian Quechua and COOK on Mundari (India) were specifically tagmemic or "tagmemic-transformational". BEE'S on Usarufa (New Guinea) was semi-tagmemic. P. HEALEY'S Telefol (New Guinea) and MERRIFIELD'S on Palantla Chinantec

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(Mexico) were tagmemically based but did not use tagmemic terminology. CRYMES' on substitution in American English was based on ALLEN'S sector "subvariety" of tagmemics. ROBBINS' on Quiotepec Chinantec (Mexico) showed tagmemic influence but is basically more on the Hockett model. MATTESON'S grammar (1963) of Piro (Peru) was published. A master's thesis by BIONDI compared tagmemic and stratificational grammar. Three volumes of articles on the grammatical structure of Bolivian languages appeared in Spanish (MATTESON). They included Baure (BAPTISTA-WALLIN), Ignaciano ( O T T - O T T ) , Ese'ejja (SHOEMAKER - SHOEMAKER), Tacana (OTTAVIANO - OTTAVIANO), Chacobo (PROST), Movima ( J U D Y - J U D Y ) , I t o n a m a ( C A M P - L i c c A R D i ) , Quechua (H. SPENSTet alii), Guarani (ROSBOTTOM), and Siriono (PRIEST PRIEST).

Articles on phonology included Aykamteli (ALBRIGHT) and Munduruku (BRAUN - CROFTS) of Brazil, Kewa (J. FRANKLIN) and Fasu (MAY - LOEWEKE) of New Guinea, and Amuzgo (BAUERNSCHMIDT) and Seri (MOSER - MOSER) of Mexico. Grammar articles discussed person-number reference in Potawatomi of the United States (ERICKSON); independent verbs in Movima of Bolivia (J. JUDY); classificatory verbs of Koyukon of Alaska ( H E N R Y - H E N R Y ) ; noun classifiers of Nung of Vietnam (SAUL); clauses in Apinaye of Brazil (HAM), Movima of Bolivia (R. JUDY), Bontoc of the Philippines (L. REID), and Kanite of New Guinea (MCCARTHY). An article on syntactic frames for the Rawang (Burma) verb (MORSE) dealt with word, phrase, clause, and sentence. One on nominals in Upper Asaro of New Guinea (STRANGE) dealt with clause and phrase, as well. Another article by ZVELEBIL discussed Tamil grammar in terms of making it both taxonomic and generative. An article on Bena-Bena (New Guinea) nouns (YOUNG - YOUNG) presented a three-dimensional matrix. There were three articles on Telefol of New Guinea (P. HEALEY), dealing with clauses, noun phrases, and verb phrases, respectively. An introductory work on English composition by FRANCIS used a slot and filler approach.

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A volume on the description and classification of Siriono of Bolivia (FIRESTONE) was published which uses the terms tagmeme and syntagmeme in a different way from standard tagmemic usage. 15.10 T H E Y E A R 1966

In 1966 the single most important tagmemic publication was PIKE'S volume Tagmemic and matrix linguistics applied to selected African languages. In addition to the presentation by PIKE of crosslanguage features, appendices dealt with clauses in Mbembe (BARNWELL) and Degema ( E . THOMAS), serial constructions (clause clusters) in Kasem (K. CALLOW), nominal and verbal group matrices in Kasem (J. CALLOW), verbs in Etung (T. EDMONDSON), paralinguistics in Mbembe (REVILL), and a preliminary statement of phonology of Agbo (SPREDA-SPREDA). Another volume appeared of grammatical sketches of languages of Guatemala (MAYERS), with varying degrees of use of the tagmemic model. These dealt with Achi (SHAW - NEUENSWANDER), Quiche (Fox), Pocomchi (MAYERS - MAYERS), Kekchi (EACHUS CARLSON), Ixil (ELLIOTT - ELLIOTT), Aguacatec (MCARTHURM C ARTHUR), Mam (SYWULKA), Jacaltec (CHURCH - CHURCH), Chuj (WILLIAMS-WILLIAMS), and Mopan Maya ( U L R I C H - U L R I C H ) . A further item of theoretical and historical importance was PIKE'S " A guide to publications related to tagmemic theory", an annotated bibliography through 1964, with a few items from 1965. Dissertations were presented on a variety of languages and subjects : BRANNEN'S description of age-related dialects of Oomisima (Japan); BRIDGEMAN'S treatment of grammatical, lexical and phonological paragraphs in spoken Kaiwa (Brazil); TURNER'S Highland Chontal grammar, and ROBINSON'S Sierra Nahuat word structure, both of Mexico; LOCKWOOD'S comparison of microsegment and syllable construction in several Slavic languages. Two other dissertations show tagmemic influence, but are not specifically on a tagmemic model: D. BENDOR-SAMUEL'S of Guajajara (Brazil) and DAY'S on Tho (Vietnam).

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A monograph was published on English grammar by LIEM using a combined tagmemic and transformational approach. One by L . R E I D on Ivatan syntax (Philippines) followed LONGACRE'S ( 1 9 6 4 ) model. Single articles were on a variety of subjects. BECKER continued to present material on the application of tagmemics to paragraph analysis. Another article gave clues for paragraphing in Satereof Brazil (GRAHAM - GRAHAM) by charting character referent ties through narrative text. An article on intersentence relationships in Huichol of Mexico (GRIMES) discussed a level called the period. Levels above the clause were discussed for Telefol of New Guinea (P. HEALEY); clauses and sentences for Pacoh (WATSON), and Mnong Rolom (E. BLOOD) of Vietnam, Fasu of New Guinea (LOEWEKE - M A Y ) , and Trique of Mexico (LONGACRE); clauses in Ticuna of Peru (L. ANDERSON) and Bimoba of Ghana (G. JACOBS); sequences of clauses in Tairora of New Guinea (Mc K A U G H A N ) ; phrases in Tagabili (FORSBERG), case markers in Aborlan Tagbanwa (HUSSEY) and Casiguran Dumagat (HEADLAND) of the Philippines; and person indexing in Blackfoot ( F R A N T Z ) of Canada. Phonology articles dealt with Kunimaipa (A. PENCE), and Chuave ( S W I C K ) of New Guinea, and Balangao (SHETLER) of the Philippines. An article by R A Y presented matrices of JONES' analysis of his own dialect of English. A review of LONGACRE'S Grammar discovery procedures was published by POSTAL, to which LONGACRE replied later ( 1 9 6 7 ) .

15.11 T H E Y E A R 1967

In 1 9 6 7 , the second edition of PIKE'S Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior was published in a single volume, with the basic material unchanged but the bibliographical comments updated, and specific changes in terminology or theory noted. ROBINS, in his Short history of linguistics (ROBINS 1967: 212), gave a good summary of tagmemic method.

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The report of The Georgetown University Round Table Meeting on tagmemics was published (BLANSITT), as well as an article by BLANSITT on defining the tagmeme. The handbook of Middle American Indians 5 ( M C Q U O W N ) included several tagmemic articles on languages of Mexico: Sierra Popoluca (ELSON), Isthmus Zapotec (PICKETT), Huautla de Jimenez Mazatec ( E . V. PIKE), and Huamelultec Chontal (WATERHOUSE). Two other articles appeared by PIKE : "Suprasegmentals in reference to phonemes of item, of process, and of relation", and "Tongue root position in practical phonetics". Dissertations included BECKER'S on the English subject tagmeme; J . PENCE'S Pashto (India) clause structure; D. THOMAS on Chrau of Vietnam, which used a modified tagmemic model; LAUER'S on heuristic procedures for rhetoric, including tagmemics; SOENJONO'S Indonesian syntax and ELKINS on major grammatical patterns of Western Bukidnon Manobo (Philippines). The volume of studies of Bolivian Indian grammars (MATTESON 1965) was published in English. A grammar of Iranxe of Brazil (MEADER) appeared in Portuguese and English. Grammars of two Pacific languages, Nengone and Dehu (TRYON), were published. Several items dealt with language learning. One was a volume on how to learn an unwritten language by GUDSCHINSKY. Two were articles dealing with the use of paradigms (BREND), and matrices (STAHLKE - BREND). In the latter, the technique was especially applied to Yache of Nigeria. In a volume on field linguistics, SAMARIN noted some of the values and uses of tagmemic analysis and matrix techniques. LONGACRE replied to POSTAL'S criticism (POSTAL 1966) of his Grammar discovery procedures (LONGACRE 1964a). In other fields, BOCK presented three descriptive models of social structure, including his own which has been influenced by PIKE'S concept of the tagmeme. HOLZ sought to show the relevance of tagmemic theory to literary criticism, and KOCH used PIKE'S type of linguistic levels as a beginning framework to which he added other levels in working on the linguistic analysis of a satire.

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In the realm of discourse, HENDRICKS discussed the need of various approaches, including that of tagmemics, in the analysis of text. WHEELER showed the relevance of focus, speaker viewpoint and grammatical role relationship in the analysis of Siona (Colombia) discourse. POPOVICH presented the role of space and time setting in Maxakali (Brazil) paragraphs. LIEM followed up his 1966 study of English grammar with a contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese. Other articles on grammar dealt with various languages of Mexico: sentences in Tepehua (BOWER-ERICKSON); clauses (S. LYON) and verbs (D. LYON) in Tlahuitoltepec Mixe; clauses in Molinos Mixtec (MERRIFIELD - STOUDT), and Western Popoloca (WILLIAMS-LONGACRE); phrases in Highland Chontal (TURNER); and pronouns in Lacandon Maya (BAER - MERRIFIELD). There also appeared articles on redefining transitivity for Philippine languages (L. REID); clauses in Maranao of the Philippines ( W A R D FORSTER); verbs of Izi of Nigeria ( J . BENDOR-SAMUEL-MEIER); and pronouns of Weri of New Guinea (BOXWELL). A further article in a rather different format and presentation dealt with patterns and rules in Tzotzil of Mexico (JACOBS - LONGACRE). There were phonological articles on Cham of Vietnam (D. BLOOD) ; Yanyula of Australia (KIRTON) ; Paresi of Brazil (ROWAN) ; Chipaya of Bolivia (OLSON) ; Guanano (WALTZ - WALTZ) and Tucano (B. W E S T - W E L C H ) of Colombia; Cora ( M C M A H O N ) , Highland Chontal (TURNER), Ayutla Mixtec (PANKRATZ - E . V. PIKE), and Huajuapan Mixtec ( E . V. PIKE - J . COWAN), of Mexico. BREND presented a paper on contrastive features of high level phonological units at the Tenth International Congress of Linguists.

15.12 THE YEAR 1968

In 1968, the first two volumes of a work by LONGACRE appeared, dealing with discourse, paragraph, and sentence structure in Philippine languages. Another monograph, coauthored by LONGACRE

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(A. REID et alii) dealt with the structure of Totonac (Mexico) from clause to discourse. Two articles by PIKE appeared, both on African languages: "Indirect versus direct discourse in Bariba" and (with G. JACOBS) "Matrix permutation as a heuristic device in the analysis of the Bimoba verb". Dissertations included the grammar of Auca (Ecuador) by PEEKE ; clause structure of Northern Havyaka Kannada (Dravidian) by ULLRICH; the grammar of Lamani (India) by TRAIL. The identification of participants in Nomatsiguenga (Peru) discourse by WISE; and discourse in Cashinawa (Peru) by CROMACK. The dissertations HESS ( 1 9 6 2 ) , BREND ( 1 9 6 4 ) , MERRI FIELD ( 1 9 6 5 ) , ROBBINS ( 1 9 6 5 ) , and CRYMES ( 1 9 6 5 ) were published, as well as a grammar of Iai (Oceania) by TRYON. Further studies on the English paragraph and the teaching of rhetoric were published (KOEN et alii, YOUNG), and on the relationship of language study and linguistics to reading (GUDSCHINSKY). Tagmemics was also applied to English idioms (A. HEALEY); tc the imagery in a work of Joseph Conrad's (HOULE), to sign language in Urubu of Brazil (KAKUMASU); to number names in four languages of Mexico (MERRIFIELD); and along with other approaches, to Western Bukidnon Manobo (Philippines) kinship (ELKINS). An article by GUDSCHINSKY in Spanish described combinations of verbal and nonverbal behavior in five Brazilian tribes. BUGARSKI discussed the relationship of grammar and lexis, and applied matrix techniques to a small set of sentences. Theoretical problems were dealt with in articles on construction types as linguistic units (HOLLENBACH), trends in tagmemics (DEIBLER), and a volume on the handling of coordination ( D I K ) . Each proposed some sort of modification of present tagmemic theory. Articles on grammar included notes on Yoliapi (New Guinea) (COCHRAN); a hierarchical study of neutralization in Kasem (Ghana) verbs (J. CALLOW); sentence syntagmemes of Highland Chontal (Mexico) (TURNER); Fore (New Guinea) final verbs (G. SCOTT);

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several on clauses of Mexican languages: Rincon Zapotec (EARL), Mezquital Otomi (LANIER), Highland Chontal (TURNER); another on clauses of Murui (Peru) (BURTCH - WISE). Another, on the Huixtec Tzotzil (Mexico) verb phrase ( M . COWAN - MERRIFIELD), uses a combination of approaches including some notions of tagmemics but rejects the tagmeme unit. Articles on phonology dealt with I?ua Tupi (ABRAHAMSON) and Apinaye (E. BURGESS - HAM) of Brazil; Itonama (LICCARDI -GRIMES) and Siriono (PRIEST) of Bolivia; and Mezquital Otomi (WALLIS), Eastern Popoloca (KALSTROM - E. V. PIKE), and Western Popoloca (A. W I L L I A M S - E . V. PIKE), of Mexico. Two reviews of LIEM (1966) appeared, one by LONGACRE, the other by MCCAWLEY. A review of LAW (1962) by PICKETT was also published. BOLINGER in his Aspects of language presented tagmemics in some detail as a syntactical model. An article by GRIMES placed tagmemics and the work of PIKE and the Summer Institute of Linguistics in historical perspective. 15.13 THE YEAR 1969

In 1969, two articles appeared dealing with problems of pronominal reference and embedding of quoted material in English discourse, one by PIKE and LOWE, the other by LOWE. The third volume of LONGACRE'S work on Philippine languages was published. A volume by DORFMAN dealt with the narrative structure of the medieval Romance epic. COOK'S textbook Introduction to tagmemic analysis appeared and was reviewed by PITTMAN. Dissertations were presented on Ivatan (Philippines) grammar (HIDALGO); a literary idiolect of Colombian Spanish (POSADA); and the Pidgin English of Japanese immigrants in Hawaii (NAGARA). A dissertation on Engenni of Nigeria (E. THOMAS), written on a different model, followed a tagmemic approach in the description of the phonology. ROULET discussed tagmemics and transformational grammar in relation to the French nuclear sentence.

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There were contributions to tagmemic rhetoric by Y O U N G , and by BECKER and STANTON. BLANSITT discussed grammatical constituents. BLANSITT - ORNSTEIN compared tagmemics and the string grammar of HARRIS ( 1 9 6 2 ) . DEIBLER had an article on sememics and translation. KASTOVSKY discussed problems of morphemics. E . V . PIKE showed the relation of focus to language learning. There were reviews of PIKE'S Language by HYMES and SMITH. LONGACRE reviewed Parametric linguistics by HELLER - MACRIS. Articles on grammar dealt with Gurung (Nepal) interrogatives (J. GLOVER), Baruya (New Guinea) noun phrases ( L L O Y D ) , verbs in Siocon Subanon of the Philippines (HALL), Huave of Mexico (STAIRS - HOLLENBACH), and Bakairi of Brazil (WHEATLEY); verb phrases in English ( L O N G A C R E ) ; morphology (H. MILLER) and nonverbal clauses (J. MILLER) were described for Mamanwa (Philippines); clause structure for Michoacan Nahual of Mexico (ROBINSON - SISCHO).

Phonemic summaries were published of Chepang (CAUGHLEY), Gurung ( W . GLOVER), Newari ( H A L E - H A L E ) , Sherpa ( G O R D O N ) , and Thakali ( H A R I ) of Nepal. Phonology was also described for Molinos Mixtec ( H U N T E R - E. V. PIKE) and Sierra Nahuat ( R O B I N SON) of Mexico, and for Kunjen of Australia (SOMMER). A grammar of Huixteco Tzotzil language of Mexico (M. C O W A N ) appeared in the Summer Institute of Linguistics series (no. 18). It retained some elements of tagmemics but rejected others and did not use tagmemic terminology.

15.14 T H E Y E A R 1970

1970 saw the publication of the volume on tagmemic rhetoric by and PIKE. A volume of studies of tone and higher level phonology of languages of Nepal appeared, edited by H A L E and PIKE. The Summer Institute of Linguistics series published a monograph (no.27) dealing with sentence, paragraph, and discourse of Central Bontoc (Philippines) by L. R E I D , as well as the disserY O U N G , BECKER,

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tations ROBINSON (1966) and T R A I L (1968), and PIKE'S work on African languages (K. PIKE 1966). Doctoral dissertations included grammars of the Siona language of Colombia (WHEELER), and Mapos Buang of New Guinea ( H O O L E Y ) ; an analysis of Hawaii English clauses (GLISSMEYER); a comparison of German and English syntax (H. P L A T T ) ; a classification of French adverbs ( M . OATES); a discussion of grammatical form and meaning ( J . P L A T T ) ; and an evaluation of the usefulness of tagmemics in teaching rhetoric ( O D E L L ) . A number of articles dealt with problems of theory and practice: LONGACRE wrote on hierarchy in language, and on sentence structure as a statement calculus; BLANSITT discussed sentence and clause in universal grammar; and phonology, grammar, and semology. FRIES had articles on double function in tagmemic analysis; "pernicious recursion" in handling of multiple modifiers in noun phrases; and the difference between repeatability and reduplication of modifiers. TURNER discussed the need to take account of trimodal structure and of higher phonological levels. KLAMMER and COMPTON wrote of LONGACRE and WISE'S contributions to tagmemic analysis of discourse. The second annotated bibliography of items related to tagmemics (BREND) appeared, presenting data up to 1 9 6 9 . Various references to tagmemics appeared in articles ( F U D G E , MATTHEWS, LYONS) in a volume edited by LYONS. DUNDES presented a paper on the importance of being a participant-observer for a proper world view of folk speech. There were reviews of POSTAL'S Aspects of phonological theory (E. V. PIKE), DORFMAN'S The narreme in the medieval Romance epic (POSADA), and COOK'S Introduction to tagmemic analysis (HIDALGO). Articles dealing with specific languages included: the questionresponse system of Tzotzil (Mexico) (SARLES) ; sentence types ( R . HERSHBERGER), and stress in relation to clause types ( H . H E R S H B E R G E R - E . V. PIKE) in Gugu-Yalanji (Australia); clauses in Tumbala Choi (Mexico) (V. W A R K E N T I N - W H I T T A K E R ) , Tzutujil (Guatemala) (CARLIN), and Vietnamese (LIEM); verbs in Wik-Munkan

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and pronouns in Yanyula ( K I R T O N ) (Australia). LORIOT on Shipibo (Peru) paragraph structure was revised and published (LORIOT - HOLLENBACH). In addition to the articles in H A L E and PIKE'S volume on languages of Nepal: Chepang (CAUGHLEY), Gurung ( W . GLOVER), Sherpa ( G O R D O N ) , Tamang ( H A R I et alii), and Thakali ( H A R I ) ; there were articles on phonology of Tarahumara of Mexico (BURGESS), and Maxakali of Brazil (GUDSCHINSKY et alii). (GODFREY); (1958)

15.15 T H E Y E A R 1971 A 1 9 7 1 article by BALLARD, CONRAD, and LONGACRE on the deep and surface interclausal relations of Inibaloi (Philippines) explored the way that such relations should be handled in tagmemics. A similar article on Palikur (Brazil) sentences by WISE and GREEN discussed deep and surface structure, but without divorcing them from PIKE'S lexical hierarchy. C O O K looked into the place of case grammar as a deep structure in tagmemic analysis. A forthcoming article by WISE and L O W E on permutation groups in discourse deals with further matters of the lexical aspects of discourse. In view of these articles, HUDDLESTON'S criticism (in his article "The syntagmeme") that tagmemics does not distinguish deep and surface structure appears a bit outmoded. Also in 1 9 7 1 SCHNITZER applied the matrix approach to the analysis of a formal argument in the philosophy of religion, L I P K A discussed grammatical categories, lexical items and word formation, and KILLINGLEY presented a dissertation on the grammar of her native Malayan Cantonese. ELKINS ( 1 9 6 7 ) on Western Bukidnon Manobo was published; PIKE reported on current activities and trends in tagmemics, and presented a paper on English pronouns in conversation structure.

16 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abraham, R. C. *1959 The language of the Hausa people (London: University of London Press). Abrahamson, Arne 1962 "Cayapa: grammatical notes and texts", in ELSON (1962: 217-47). 1968 "Contrastive distribution of phoneme classes in Icua Tupi", Anthropological linguistics 10.6: 11-21. Albright, Sue 1965 "Aykamteli higher-level phonology", Anthropological linguistics 7.7: 16-22.

Allen, Robert L. °1962 The verb system of present-day American English (The Hague: Mouton 1966). [Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University] °1967 "Sector analysis: from sentence to morpheme in English", in BLANSITT (1967c: 159-74). Anderson, Lambert 1966 "The structure and distribution of Ticuna independent clauses", Linguistics 20: 5-30. Anderson, Lorrie - Mary Ruth Wise 1963 "Contrastive features of Candoshi clause types", in ELSON (1963: 67-102).

Baer, Phillip - William R. Merrifield 1967 "Restatement of the pronominal series in Maya (Lacandon)", International journal of American linguistics 33: 206-8. Ballard, D. Lee - Robert J. Conrad - Robert E. Longacre 1971 "Deep and surface grammar of interclausal relations", Foundations of language 7.1: 70-118. Baptista, Priscilla - Ruth Wallin 1965 "Baure", in MATTESON (1967 1: 27-83). [first published in MATTESON (1965 3: 1-98)] Barnard, Myra Lou - Jannette Forster 1969 "Tree diagrams of lexical and grammatical hierarchies of Dibabawon texts", in LONGACRE (1968-69 3: 301-2; plus charts).

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Barnwell, Katharine 1966 "Notes on the Mbembe clause system - a preliminary analysis", in [ = Appendix 1 of] K. PIKE (1966b: 156-81). Bauernschmidt, Amy 1965 "Amuzgo syllable dynamics", Language 41: 471-83. Becker, Alton L. 1964 "Item and field: a way into complexity", in: On teaching English to speakers of other languages (Ed. : Carol J. Kreidler) (National Council of Teachers of English 1965), pp. 132-8. 1965 "A tagmemic approach to paragraph analysis", College composition and communication 16: 237-42. 1966 "Symposium on the paragraph", College composition and communication 17: 67-72. 1967a A generative description of the English subject tagmeme (University of Michigan). [Ph.D. dissertation; Dissertation abstracts 28: 2662A] 1967b "Conjoining in a tagmemic grammar of English", in BLANSITT (1967c: 109-21). 1967c "Images of man and the persuasive style : writing in the elementary school", in: The craft of teaching and the schooling of teachers (Ed.: Paul Olson) (Denver: U.S. Office of Education Tri-University Project in Elementary Education). Becker, Alton L. - Sybil Stanton 1969 "Programmed instruction in sentence sequencing", in: Studies in language and behavior (February) (Ann Arbor : University of Michigan center for research in language and language behavior), pp. 621-34. Bee, Darlene L. 1965 Usarufa: a descriptive grammar (Indiana University). [Ph.D. dissertation]. Bee, Darlene L. - Kathleen Barker Glasgow 1962 "Usarufa tone and segmental phonemes", in: Studies in New Guinea linguistics by members of the Summer Institute of Linguistics ( = Oceania linguistic monographs 6) (Sydney: University of Sydney), pp. 111-27. Belasco, Simon 1960 "Introduction", in: Manual and anthology of applied linguistics for use in the NDEA Foreign Language Institutes 1 [French, German, Italian,Russian,Spanish] (Ed.: Simon Belasco) (Washington, D.C.: US Office of Education), pp. i-xlii. 1961 "The role of transformational grammar and tagmemics in the analysis of an Old French text", Lingua 10: 375-90. 1964 "Tagmemics and transformational grammar in linguistic analysis", Linguistics 10: 5-15. Bendor-Samuel, David H. 1966 Hierarchical structures in Guajajara (University of London). [Ph.D. dissertation]

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Samarin, William J. °1967 Field linguistics (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston). Sapir, Edward *1925 "Sound patterns in language", Language 1: 37-51. [reprinted in: Selected writings of Edward Sapir in language, culture, and personality (Ed.: D. G. Mandelbaum) (Berkeley - Los Angeles: University of California Press 1949), pp. 33-45] Sarles, Harvey B. 1970 "An examination of the question-response system in language", Semiotica 2.1: 79-101. Saul, Janice E. 1965 "Classifiers in Nung", Lingua 13: 275-90. Sayers, Barbara J. - Harland B. Kerr 1964 "Wik-Munkan locative, temporal, and demonstrative pronouns", in PITTMAN-KERR ( 1 9 6 6 : 1 - 1 2 ) .

Scheflen, Albert E. 1965 Stream and structure of communication behavior: content analysis of a psychotherapy session (Philadelphia : Eastern Pennsylvania Psychiatric Institute). Schnitzer, Marc L. 1971 "A note on tagmemic discourse analysis", Linguistics 67: 72-82. Scott, Charles T. 1963 A linguistic study of Persian and Arabic riddles: a language-centered approach to genre definition (= Publications of the research center in anthropology, folklore and linguistics 39) (Bloomington: Indiana University 1965). [Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas]

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Watson, 1966 Watson, 1964

" H u a m e l u l t e c C h o n t a l " , in MCQUOWN (1967: 349-67).

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" T h e p r i m a r y v e r b i n B e n a - B e n a " , in ELSON ( 1 9 6 4 : 4 5 - 8 3 ) .

Young, Robert A. - Rosemary Young 1965 "The three dimensional classification system of Bena-Bena nouns", Anthropological linguistics 7.5: 80-3. Zvelebil, Kamil 1962 "How to handle the structure of Tamil", Archiv orientalnl 30: 116-42. 1964 Tamil in 550 A.D.; an interpretation of early inscriptional Tamil (Praha). 1965 "Towards a taxonomic and generative grammar of Tamil", Archiv orientalni 33: 602-13.

17 AUTHOR INDEX

Borman, M. B. 63, 72, 85, 93 Bower, B. 44, 66, 84, 102 Boxwell, M. 69, 83, 102 Brannen, N. 60, 79, 99 Braun, I. 56, 72, 85, 98 Brend, R. ix, 42, 45, 59, 60, 63, 71, 79, 85, 93, 95, 101, 102, 103, 106 Bridgeman, L. 14, 47, 60, 80, 84, 92,99 Bugarski, R. 103 Burgess, D. 71, 84, 107 Burgess, E. 71, 84, 104 Burtch, B. 45, 66, 85, 104

Abraham, R. 42 Abrahamson, A. 55, 64, 70, 84, 85, 93, 104 Albright, S. 72, 84, 98 Allen, R. 61, 65, 80, 98 Anderson, L. 66, 85, 100 Anderson. L. D. 41, 64, 85, 94 Baer, P. 69, 83, 102 Ballard, L. 14, 22, 24, 53, 82, 107 Baptista, P. 64, 84, 98 Barnard, M. L. 14, 52, 68, 82 Barnwell, K. 62, 82, 99 Bauerschmidt, A. 69, 83, 98 Becker, A. L. 14, 23, 42, 43, 48, 52, 60, 61, 65, 73, 74, 75, 79, 84, 95, 97, 100, 101, 105 Bee, D. 45, 61, 77, 80, 83, 93, 97 Belasco, S. 76, 83, 92, 95 Bendor-Samuel, D. 61, 71, 78, 80, 84, 99 Bendor-Samuel, J. 46, 61, 78, 80,

Callow, J. 16, 42, 61, 62, 80, 81, 84, 92, 99, 103 Callow, K. 62, 67, 81, 99 Camp, E. 64, 84, 98 Carlin, R. 67, 83, 106 Carlson, R. 83, 99 Caughley, R. 82, 105, 107 Church, C. 63, 83, 91, 99 Church, K. 63, 83, 91, 99 Clark, L. 54, 66, 69, 84, 90, 93 Cochran, A. 66, 83, 103 Compton, C. 52, 106 Conrad, R. 22, 107 Conway, M. A. 60, 77, 79, 84, 95 Cook, W. 23, 29, 44, 51, 53, 60, 64, 76, 78, 79, 82, 95, 97, 104, 106, 107 Cowan, G. 15

82, 102

Biondi, L. 77, 98 Blansitt, E. 23, 60, 64, 79, 84, 93, 101, 105, 106 Blood, D. 82, 102 Blood, E. 67, 82, 100 Bloomfield, L. 9, 10 Bock, P. 15, 42, 80, 92, 95, 101 Bohnhoff, L. 60, 81 Bolinger, D. 16, 104 Borgman, D. 67, 85, 94 141

142

AUTHOR INDEX

Cowan, J. 84, 102 Cowan, M. 61,68,78,84,104, 105 Cox, D. 31,63,85, 89 Crawford, J. 12, 13, 22, 38, 54, 55, 61, 70, 79, 84, 90, 94 Crofts, M. 56, 72, 85, 98 Cromack, R. 77, 80, 103 Crymes, R. 61,80,98,103 Cue, S. 67, 85, 94 Davis, D. 42, 64, 83, 96 Davis, I. 6 1 , 7 0 , 8 0 , 8 4 , 9 1 , 9 3 , 9 5 Day, C. 61, 80, 82, 99 Deibler, E. 45, 83, 97, 103, 105 Delgaty, A. 68,84,91 Delgaty, C. 63, 84, 91 Derbyshire, D. 66, 84, 92 Dik, S. 17, 103 Dorfman, E. 61, 104, 106 Duff, M. 33, 63, 66, 85, 89, 90 Dundes, A. 92, 95, 106 Eachus, F. 83, 99 Earl, R. 45, 67, 84, 104 Eastman, E. 41, 64, 85, 94 Eastman, R. 41, 64, 85, 94 Edgerton, F. 66, 84, 94 Edmondson, T. 42, 62, 82, 99 Elkins, R. 60, 66, 77, 80, 82, 101, 103, 107 Elliott, H. 83, 99 Elliott, R. 63,83,91,99 Ellis, C. 83, 91 Elson.B. 16,22,23,28,35,41,63, 84, 90, 91, 93, 94, 96, 97, 101 Engel, R. 20, 40, 44, 67, 77, 84, 94 English, H. 73, 95 Erickson, B. see Hollenbach Faust, N. 54, 70, 85, 90 Fetzer, A. 63, 82, 96 Fillmore, C. 51, 53 Firestone, H. 62, 84, 99 Flores, F. 60, 61, 74, 79, 82, 92 Forsberg, V. 67, 82, 100

Forster, J. 14, 52, 63, 67, 68, 82, 96, 102 Fox, D. 83, 99 Francis, W . N . 61,98 Franklin, K. 42, 64, 66, 71, 83, 95, 96 Franklin, J. 83, 98 Frantz, C. 42, 64, 68, 83, 93, 96 Frantz, D. 44, 83, 100 Frantz, P. 44, 83 Fries, P. 23, 24, 75, 106 Fudge, E. 16, 106 Glasgow, D. 68, 82, 96 Glasgow, K. 45, 69, 82, 83, 93, 96 Glissmeyer, G. 45, 60, 75, 80, 84, 106 Glover, J. 67, 82, 105 Glover, W. 71,82,105,107 Goddard, J. 67, 83 Godfrey, M. 66, 68, 82, 96, 107 Gordon, K. 70, 82, 107 Graham, A. 100 Graham, S. 100 Green, H. 14, 24, 53, 61, 107 Grimes, J. 16, 17, 65, 70, 71, 76, 80, 83, 84, 85, 91, 95, 100, 104 Gudschinsky, S. 15, 22, 56, 72, 84, 85, 101, 103, 107 Guthrie, M. 42, 61 Hale, A. 18, 55, 82, 105, 107 Hale, M. 82, 105 Hall, R. 16 Hall, W. 82, 105 Halliday, M. A. K. 28, 78 Ham, P. 45, 67, 71, 84, 98, 104 Hari, M. 71, 82, 105, 107 Harris, Z. 105 Hart, H. 32, 63, 83, 89 Headland, J. 68, 82, 100 Healey, A. 61, 72, 75, 83, 96, 103 Healey, P. 47, 61, 66, 67, 68, 83, 97, 98, 100 Heller, L. 95, 105 Hendricks, W. 102

AUTHOR INDEX

Henry, D. 46, 68, 69, 84, 98 Henry, K. 46, 68, 69, 84, 98 Herrero, J. 60, 79, 84, 97 Hershberger, H. 67,68, 82,96,106 Hershberger, R. 66, 82, 96, 106 Hess, H. 61, 79, 84, 92, 103 Hidalgo, C. 60, 76,79, 82,104,106 Hollenbach (-Erickson), B. 14, 22, 24, 43, 45, 46, 47, 65, 66, 68, 83, 84, 85, 90, 97, 98, 102, 103, 105, 107 Holz, W. 75, 101 Hooley, B. 60, 80, 84, 106 Houle, M. S. 6 1 , 7 5 , 8 0 , 1 0 3 Howes, A. 75, 95 Huddleston, R. 24, 107 Huestis, G. 6 7 , 8 4 , 9 4 Hunter, G. 84, 105 Hussey, S. 45, 68, 82, 100 Hymes, D. 105 Jacobs, G. 44, 81, 100, 103 Jacobs, K. 2 1 , 6 7 , 7 7 , 8 4 , 1 0 2 Johnson, O. 64, 72, 85, 93 Jones, D. 100 Joos, M. 61 Judy, J. 64, 84, 98 Judy, R. 64, 88, 69, 84, 98 Kakumasu, J. 15, 103 Kaistrom, M. 7 1 , 8 4 , 1 0 4 Kappler, G. 42 Kastovsky, D. 105 Kensinger, K. 64, 71, 85, 94 Kerr, H. 45, 68, 69, 82, 96 Key, H. 60, 79, 84, 93 Killingley, S. Y. 60, 80, 82,107 Kindberg, L. 3 7 , 6 6 , 8 5 , 9 1 , 9 4 Kindberg, W. 68, 85, 91 Kirton, J. 69, 72, 82, 102, 107 Klammer, T. 52, 106 Koch, W. 95, 101 Koen, F. 14, 48, 73, 103 Kooij, G. 17 Kraft, C. 61. 67, 80, 82, 94, 97

143

Lanier, N. 67, 84, 104 Larson, M. 41,64,70,71,85,94,96 Lauer, J. M. 6 1 , 7 3 , 7 9 , 1 0 1 Law, H. 59, 60, 65, 75, 79, 84, 92, 104 Lee, E. 4 1 , 6 3 , 8 2 , 9 6 Leon-Portilla, M. 16 Liccardi, M. 64, 71, 84, 98, 104 Liem, N. D. 45, 60, 61, 67, 73, 74, 76, 82, 84, 100, 102, 104, 106 Lind, J. 4 5 , 6 7 , 7 7 , 8 4 , 9 7 Lindskoog, J. 6 3 , 7 1 , 9 3 Lipka, L. 107 Lloyd, R. 83, 105 Lockwood, D. 55, 61, 70, 79, 83, 99 Loeweke, E. 66, 71, 83, 98, 100 Longacre, R. 11,12, 13, 14, 16,19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 29, 40, 44, 48, 50, 52, 53, 62, 65, 67, 75, 77, 82, 84, 91,94, 95, 97, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107 Loos, E. 14, 47, 64, 85, 94 Loriot, J. 14, 47, 65, 95, 90, 107 Loving, A. 42, 64, 68, 83, 93, 96 Loving, R. 42, 64, 68, 83, 93, 96 Lowe, I. 7, 104, 107 Lusted, R. 41, 63,82, 96 Lyman, L. 45, 68, 84, 97 Lyon, D. 68, 83, 102 Lyon, S. 45, 67, 77, 83, 102 Lyons, J. 16, 106 Macris, J. 105 Marryott, A. 82, 94 Marryott, K. 72, 82, 92 Matson, D. 24, 64 Matteson, E. 61, 64, 80, 85,93,98, 101 Matthews, P. H. 16, 106 May, J. 66, 71, 83, 98, 100 Mayers, Marilyn 83, 99 Mayers, Marvin 31, 63, 83, 89, 99 McArthur, H. 83, 89, 99 McArthur, L. 83, 89, 99 McCarthy, J. 67, 83, 98

144

AUTHOR INDEX

McCawley, J. 104 McKaughan, H. 42, 45, 64,67, 83, 96, 100 McMahon, A. 56, 70, 83, 102 McQuown, N. 101 Meader, R. 60, 84, 101 Meier, I. 46, 82, 102 Merrifield, W. 29, 64, 66, 68, 69, 72, 76, 78, 80, 83, 84, 90, 93, 94, 97, 102, 103, 104 Migliazza, E. 70, 85, 92 Miller, C. 68, 82, 94 Miller, H. 68, 82, 102 Miller, J. 63, 67, 82, 96, 105 Minor, E. 64, 85, 94 Morey, V. 41,63,82,96 Morgan, J. 14, 48, 65, 75 Morse, R. 66, 77, 82, 98 Moser, E. 71, 84, 98 Moser, M. 71,84,98 Nagara, S. 75, 80, 84, 104 Neuenswander, H. 83, 99 Newell, L. 63, 82 Nicholson, Ray 70, 72, 93 Oates, L. 54, 70, 72, 82, 96 Oates, M. 60, 79, 83, 106 Odell, C. 61, 73, 79, 106 Olson, R. 55, 70, 84, 102 Ornstein, J. 105 Orr, C. 45, 64, 85, 93 Ott, R. 64, 84, 98 Ott, W. 64, 84, 98 Ottaviano, I. 64, 84, 98 Ottaviano, J. 64, 84, 98 Pankratz, L. 56, 71, 84, 102 Paper, H. 11 Parlier, J. 45,68,83, 96 Peeke, C. 13, 35, 36, 37, 64, 72, 77, 80, 85, 90, 93, 103 Pence, A. 56, 71, 83, 100 Pence, J. 45, 52, 60, 79, 82, 101

Picke«, V. 13, 16, 22, 23, 28, 36, 37, 38, 45, 47, 59, 79, 84, 90, 91, 93, 94, 97, 101, 104 Pike, E . G . 18,54,85,90 Pike, E. V. 9, 22, 56, 67, 70, 71, 82, 83, 84, 85, 93, 96, 101, 104, 105, 106 Pike, K. L. ix, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54, 55, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 68, 70, 73, 74, 78, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107 Pittman, R. 104 Platt, H. 61, 80, 106 Platt, J. 60, 80, 106 Popovich, H. 14, 48, 65, 84, 102, Posada, R. 45, 76, 80, 85, 104, 106 Postal, P. 23, 24, 64, 97, 100, 101, 106 Powlison, P. 14,47,65,85,97 Pride, K. 60, 69, 83, 92, 97 Priest, A. 64, 84, 98 Priest, P. 64,66, 72,84, 92,98,104 Prost, G. 68, 84, 93, 98 Ray, P. S. 83, 100 Reid, A. 14, 48, 60, 84, 103 Reid, L. 14, 41, 49, 50, 60, 63, 80, 82, 96, 98, 100, 102, 105 Rensch, C. 42, 67, 83, 94 Reskiewicz, A. 93 Revill, P. 15, 62, 82, 99 Rieh, F. 64, 85, 94 Robbins, F. 61,70,80,83,91,98, 103 Robins, R. 16, 100 Robinson, D. 60, 67, 70, 80, 84, 99, 105, 106 Rosbottom, H. 64, 68, 84, 92, 98 Roulet, E. 76, 83, 104 Rowan, O. 72, 85, 102

145

AUTHOR INDEX Saint, R . 63, 85, 93 Samarin, W. 16,101 Sapir, E. 9 , 1 3 , 3 0 Sarles, H. 106 Saul, J . 68, 82, 98 Sayers, B. 45, 69, 82, 96 Scheflen, A. 15,97 Schnitzer, M. 43, 107 Scott, C. 6 1 , 7 9 , 9 3 Scott, E. 7 1 , 8 5 , 9 3 Scott, G. 46, 83, 94, 103 Shand, J . 4 1 , 6 3 , 8 2 , 9 6 Shaw, M . 83, 99 Shell, O. 13, 32, 63, 85, 89 Shetler, J . 63, 72, 82, 96, 100 Shoemaker, J. 64, 84, 98 Shoemaker, N. 64, 84, 98 Sischo, W. 67, 84, 105 Smith, N . 105 Snell, B. 64, 85, 94 Soenjono, D. 60, 79, 82, 101 Sommer, B. 61, 82, 105 Spenst, H. 64, 84, 98 Spreda, J. 6 2 , 7 1 , 8 1 , 9 9 Spreda, K . 6 2 , 7 1 , 8 1 , 9 9 Stahlke, H. 42, 101 Stairs, E. 46, 68, 83, 105 Stanton, S. 105 Stoudt, B. 66, 84, 102 Strange, G . 66, 83, 98 Swick, J . 71, 83, 100 Sywulka, E. 83, 99 Thomas, D . 61, 66, 80, 82, 90, 101 Thomas, E. 62, 71, 78, 80, 82, 99, 104 Townsend, W. C. 91 Trail, R . 60, 82, 103, 106 Tryon, D. 44, 60, 76, 83, 101, 103 Turner, P. 60, 66, 67, 70, 80, 83, 99, 102, 103, 104, 106

Uhlenbeck, Ullrich, H. Ulrich, M. Ulrich, R . Voegelin, C.

E. 17 60, 79, 82, 103 83, 99 83, 99 32, 63

Wallin, R . 6 4 , 8 4 , 9 8 Wallis, E. 84, 94, 104 Waltz, C. 7 1 , 8 5 , 1 0 2 Waltz, N . 71, 85, 102 Ward, R . 67, 82, 102 Warkentin, M. 83, 91 Warkentin, V. 67, 83, 106 Waterhouse, V. 13,22, 3 3 , 3 6 , 3 7 , 47, 59, 66, 79, 83, 90, 92, 94, 101 Watson, R . 67, 82, 100 Watson, S. 4 5 , 6 9 , 8 2 , 9 6 Weaver, D . 4 1 , 6 3 , 8 2 , 9 6 Weaver, M. 41, 63, 82, 96 Webster, D. 68, 93 Welch, B. 71, 85, 102 West, B. 71, 85, 102 West, D. 56, 71, 84, 93 Wheatley, J . 77, 84, 105 Wheeler, A. 14, 48, 60, 65, 80, 85, 102, 106 Whittaker, A. 67, 83, 106 Wiesemann, U. 72, 84, 96 Williams, A. 21, 67, 72, 84, 102,104 Williams, B. 83, 99 Williams, K . 83, 99 Wise, M. 7, 13, 14, 22, 24, 39, 41, 45, 52, 53, 60, 64, 66, 68, 79, 85, 103, 104, 106, 107 Wolfenden, E. 63 Young, R . A. 42, 45, 64,83,96,98 Young, R . E. 14, 23, 48, 61, 73, 74, 95, 97, 103, 105 Zvelebil, K .

60, 66, 82, 93, 95, 98

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270,90,32,52,-

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Series Practica 106 d'Ans, A.-M.: Le Créole français d'Haïti 54,107 Tsuzaki, S.: English Influence on Mexican Spanish in Detroit 25,108 Steiner, R.J.: Two Centuries of Spanish and English Bilingual Lexicography, 1590-1800 23,109 Glover, B.R.: A History of Six Spanish Verbs Meaning "To Take, Seize, Grasp" 24,110 Binh, D.T.: A Tagmemic Comparison of the Structure of English and Vietnamese Sentences 68,111 Carlton, C.: Descriptive Syntax of the Old English Charters 48,112 Grady, M.: Syntax and Semantics of the English Verb Phrase 14,113 Isacenko, A. and H.-J.Schädlich: A Model of Standard German Intonation 21," 114 Nash, R.: Turkish Intonation 56,115 Haudricourt, A. et A.Juilland: Essai pour une histoire structurale du phonétisme français 38 FF/ 25,55 FF/ 36,116 Rosenberg, S.N. : Modem French Ce 119 Rallides, C.: The Tense Aspect System of the Spanish Verb as used in Cultivated Bogotâ Spanish 18>120 Redfern, J.: A Lexical Study of Raeto-Romance 28;and Contiguous Italian Dialect Areas 121 Newton, B.: Cypriot Greek 58,124 Millward, C.M.: Imperative Constructions in Old English 15,125 Nilsen, D.L.F.: English Adverbials 38,126 Hough, G.A., 3rd: Structures of Modification in Contemporary American English 22;127 Matteson, E. et al:'Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages 75,128 Abdel-Malek, Z.N.: The Closed-List Classes of Colloquial Egyptian Arabic 50,129 Sroka, K.A.: The Syntax of English Phrasal Verbs 42,130 Logan, H.M.: The Dialect of the Life of Saint Katherine 68,132 Seaman, P.D.: Modern Greek and American English in Contact 90,133 Wingo, E.O.: Latin Punctuation in the Classical Age 50,134 Benko, L. and S.Imre (eds.): The Hungarian Language 72,136 Wyatt, J.L.: A Computer Validated Portuguese 96,to English Transformational Grammar 13.7 Sotiropoulos, D.: Noun Morphology of Modern 38,Demotic Greek 138 Kelly, R.C.: A Descriptive Analysis of Gascon 92,50 FF/60,139 Bahnick, K.R.: The Determination of Stages in the Historical Development of the Germanic Languages by Morphological 48,Criteria 140 GardnerF.F.: An Analysis of Syntactic 22,Patterns of Old English

janua linguarum Dfl

141 Gething, T.W.: Aspects of Meaning in Thai Nominals 142 Sala, M.: Phonétique et phonologie du JudéoEspagnol de Bucarest 89 146 Bouma, L.: The Semantics of the Modal Auxiliaries in Contemporary German 147 Jochnowitz, G.: Dialect Boundaries and the Question of Franco-Provençal 77 148 Moessner, L.: Automatische syntaktische' Analyse englischer nominaler Gruppen 149 Sciarone, A.G.s La Place de l'adjectif en Italien moderne 46 150 F u m é e , E.J.: Die wichtigsten konsonantischen Erscheinungen des Vorgriechischen 153 Hemphill, G.: A Mathematical Grammar of English 154 Haugen, E. and T.L.Markey: The Scandinavian Languages 155 Plotkin, V.Y.: The Dynamics of the English Phonological System 158 Edmonson, M.S. (ed.): Meaning in Mayan Languages 160 Omar, M.K.: The Acquisition of Egyptian Arabic as a Native Language 162 Chayen, M.J.: The Phonetics of Modern Hebrew 163 Hodge, C.T. (ed.): Afroasiatic 164 Lupas, L.: Phonologie du Grec attique 74 165 Miko, F.: The Generative Structure of the Slovak Sentence 166 Hensey, F.G.: The Sociolinguistics of the Brazilian-Uruguayan Border 167 Wolf, P.de: The Noun-Class System of ProtoBenue-Congo 168 Atkinson, J.C.: The Two Forms of Subject Inversion in Modern French 37 170 Detering, K.: Automatische Erzeugung englischer Sätze 173 Schroten, J.: Concerning the Deep Structures of Spanish Reflexive Sentences 182 Jensen, F. and T.A.Lathrop: The Syntax of the Old Spanish Subjunctive 184 Iliescu, M.: Le Frioulan 129 185 Defromont, H.J.: Les Constructions perfectives du verbe anglais contemporain 65 189 Hayon, Y.: Rèlativization in Hebrew 194 Donaldson, W.D.: French Reflexive Verbs 58 195 Vasiliu, E. and S.Golopentia-Eretescu: The Transformational Syntax of Romanian 196 Wells, R.A.: Dictionaries and the Authoritarian Tradition 204 Gertner, M.H.: The Morphology of the Modern French Verb 68 211 Householder, F.W. and G.Nagy: Greek 221 Rensch, K.H.M.: Nordkalabrischer Sprachatlas anhand der Parabel vom verlorenen Sohn 227 Moody, M.D.: A Classification and Analysis of "Noun + De + Noun" Constructions in French 98

32, FF/ 58, 36, FF/ 50, 30, FF/ 30, 96, 24, 48, 20, 76, 64, 16, 25, FF/ 48, 38, 34, 58, FF/ 24, 32, 36, 28, FF/ 80, FF/ 42, 72, FF/ 38, 58, 32, FF/ 44, 30, 60, FF/ 64,

janua linguarum Series Minor

DI

Jakobson, R. and M.Halle: Fundamentals of Language 8 Chomsky, N.: Syntactic Structures 9 Rosetti, A.: Sur la théorie de la syllabe 15 FF/ 10 Bastide, R. (ed.): Sens et usages du terme "structure" dans les sciences humaines et sociales 39 FF/ 25 23 Levin, S.R.: Linguistic Structures in Poetry 10 24 Juilland, A. and J.Maoris: The English Verb System 15 30 .Garvin, P..L.: On Linguistic Method 24 33 Longacre, R.E*: Grammar Discovery Procedures 15 38 Chomsky, N.: Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 12 41 Saumjan, S.K.: Problems of Theoretical Phonology 30 56 Chomsky, N.: Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar 12 57 Haas, M.R.: The Prehistory of Languages 16 59 Greenberg, J.H.: Language Universals 14 60 Hockett, C.F.: Language, Mathematics, and Linguistics 28 68 Akhmanova, O. and G.Mikael'an: The Theory of Syntax in Modern Linguistics 20 71 Lieb, H.-H.: Communication Complexes and Their Stages 20 72 Jakobson, R.: Child Language, Aphasia and Phonological Universals 12 73 Hockett, C.F.: The State of the Art 18 74 Juilland, A. and H.-H. Lieb: 'Klasse1 und Klassifikation in der Sprachwissenschaft 14 75 Kramsky, J.: The Word as a Linguistic Unit 14 88 Sampson, G.: Stratificational Grammar 11 89 Weinreich, U.: Explorations in Semantic Theory 16 90 Pelc, J.: Studies in Functional Logical Semiotics of Natural Language 28 98 Houston, S.H.: A Survey of Psycholinguistics 28 99 Meyerstein, R.S.: Functional Load 19 101 Akhmanova, O.: Phonology, Morphonology, Morphology 18 105 Botha, R.P.: The Methodological Status of Grammatical Argumentation 11 106 Birnbaum, H.: Problems of Typological and Genetic Linguistics Viewed in a Generative Framework 16 107 Chomsky, N.: Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar 24 109 Ghosh, S.K. (ed.): Man, Language and Society 35 110 Bierwisch, M.: Modern Linguistics 12 112 Botha, R.: Methodological Aspects of Transformational Generative Phonology 25 114 Jakobson, R.: Studies on Child Language and Aphasia 16 115 Helbig, G. (ed.): Beiträge zur Valenztheorie 18 119 Parret, H.: Language and Discourse 32 1

4 9 16

janua linguarum Series Minor 123 Oiler, J.W.: Coding Information in Natural Languages 125 Kramsky, J.: The Article and the Concept of Definiteness in Language 128 Garvin, P.L.: On Machine Translation 130 Juilland, A. and A.Roceric: The Linguistic Concept of Word 133 Ohnesorg, K. (ed.): Colloquium Paedolinguisticum 134 Jakobson, R.: A Bibliography of His Writings 141 Gumb, R.D.: Rule-Governed Linguistic Behavior 143 Prucha, J.: Soviet Psycholinguistics 148 Lieberman, P.: The Speech of Primates 151 Khlebnikova, I.s Oppositions in Morphology 152 Nilsen, D.L.F.: Toward a Semantic Specification of Deep Case 153 Blumstein, S.A.: A Phonological Investigation of Aphasic Speech 154 Bloom, L.: One Word at a Time 155 Bolinger, D.: That's That 156 Nilsen, D.L.P.: The Instrumental Case in English 158 Prucha, J.: Information Sources of Psycholinguistics 165 Shands, H.C. and J.D.Meltzer: Language and Psychiatry 173 Stemmer, N.: An Empiricist Theory of Language Acquisition 182 Chomsky, N.: Strukturen der Syntax 192 Levelt, W.J.M.: Formal Grammars in Linguistics and Psycholinguistics (three volumes)

Dfl. 20,32,22,16,45,10,18,22,20,28,12,20,26,12,28,15,15,29,12,-