The Hare Indians and Their World (Hareskin, Great Bear Lake, Sahtu Dene, Dene) 9781772822250

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National Museum of Man National Museums of Canada

Musée national de l'Homme Musées nationaux du Canada

Board of Trustees

Conseil d'Administration

Dr. Sean B. Murphy Juge René J . Marin M. Roger B. Hamel Mme Ginette Gadoury Mr. Michael C.D. Hobbs Mr. Gower Markle M. Paul H. Leman Mr. Richard M.H. Alway Mr. Robert G. MacLeod

Chairman Vice-président Membre Membre Member Member

Membre Member Member

Secretary General

Mr. Ian C. Clark Secrétaire général

Director National Museum of Man

Dr. William E. Taylor, J r . Directeur Musée national de l'Harrme

A. McFadyen Clark Chief Chef Canadian Ethnology Service Service canadien d'Ethnologie Dr. David W. Zimmerly Editeur général General Edito] Canadian Ethnology Service Service canadien d'Ethnologie

Crown Copyright Reserved

©

Droits réservés au nom de l a Couronne

NATIONAL MUSEUM OF MAN MERCURY SERIES

MUSÉE NATIONAL DE L'HOMME COLLECTION MERCURE

CANADIAN ETHNOLOGY SERVICE

LE SERVICE CANADIEN

PAPER No. 63

DOSSIER No. 63

D'ETHNOLOGIE

ISSN 0316-1854 A

DIAMOND

MEMORIAL

JENNESS

VOLUME

VOLUME

DU

COMMEMORATIF

DIAMOND

JENNESS

ISSN 0316-1862

THE HARE INDIANS AND THEIR HIROKO

WORLD

SUE HARA

NATIONAL

MUSEUMS OF

CANADA

MUSEES NATIONAUX OTTAWA

1980

DU

CANADA

OBJECT OF THE MERCURY SERIES The Mercury Series i s a p u b l i c a t i o n o f the N a t i o n a l Museum o f Man, N a t i o n a l Museums o f Canada, designed t o permit the r a p i d dissemination o f information p e r t a i n i n g t o those d i s c i p l i n e s f o r which the National Museum o f Man i s responsible. In the i n t e r e s t s o f making information a v a i l a b l e q u i c k l y , normal production procedures have been abbreviated. As a r e s u l t , e d i t o r i a l e r r o r s may occur. Should that be the case, your i n dulgence i s requested, bearing i n mind the object o f the S e r i e s . The opinions expressed by the authors do not n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t those o f the N a t i o n a l Museum o f Man o r the Federal Government o f Canada.

BUT EE LA COLLECTION MERCURE La c o l l e c t i o n Mercure, publiée par l e Musée n a t i o n a l de l'Homme, Musées nationaux du Canada, a pour but de d i f f u s e r rapidement l e résultat de travaux q u i ont rapport aux d i s c i p l i n e s pour l e s q u e l l e s l e Musée n a t i o n a l de l'Homme e s t responsable. Pour assurer l a prompte d i s t r i b u t i o n des exemplaires imprimés, on a abrégé l e s étapes de l'édition. En conséquence, c e r t a i n e s erreurs de rédaction peuvent s u b s i s t e r dans l e s exemplaires imprimés. S i c e l a se présentait dans l e s pages q u i suivent, l e s éditeurs réclament v o t r e indulgence étant donné l e s o b j e c t i f s de l a c o l l e c t i o n . Les opinions exprimées par l e s auteurs ne reflètent pas nécessairement c e l l e s du Musée n a t i o n a l de l'Homme ou du gouvernement fédéral du Canada.

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Un homme très modeste, un savant et un gentleman modéré e t d i s c r e t , voilà ce qu'on pouvait percevoir de c e t homme d'une i n t e l l i g e n c e b r i l l a n t e , à l ' e s p r i t v i f , d'une résistance physique e t d'un courage à toute épreuve q u i , au surplus, a eu une i n f l u e n c e déterminante sur l e s études anthropologiques poursuivies au Canada et à l'étranger; voilà, en q u e l ques mots, ce que f u t Diamond Jenness.

A very modest man, a scholar and a gentleman quiet-spoken and s e l f e f f a c i n g : that was the outward expression o f a man o f i n t e l l e c t u a l b r i l l i a n c e , p h y s i c a l courage and sharp w i t who had a strong influence on anthropological studies i n Canada and beyond— Diamond Jenness. Canada's most distinguished anthropologist was born i n New Zealand, graduated a t Oxford, d i d h i s f i r s t ethnographic f i e l d work i n the P a c i f i c Islands, and then joined the Canadian Arctic Expedition i n 1913 f o r three years i n the A r c t i c . A f t e r overseas war service he became c h i e f o f the Anthropology Division o f the National Museum. Besides proving himself a great eskimologist, Dr. Jenness conducted f i e l d work among various Indian Peoples, d i d archaeological work i n Newfoundland and Alaska and wrote many books and papers. H i s book, "The Indians o f Canada", published i n 1932 i s s t i l l the c l a s s i c s t a t e ment on Canadian Ethnology and h i s volumes on Eskimo adrninistration

L'anthropologue l e p l u s éminent du Canada naquit en Nouvelle-Zélande et était diplomé d'Oxford. I l e f f e c t u a ses premiers travaux d'ethnographie sur l e t e r r a i n dans l e s îles du P a c i f i q u e e t se j o i g n i t par l a s u i t e à l'Expédit i o n canadienne de l ' A r c t i q u e en 1913, e t passa l e s t r o i s années suivantes dans l e s régions p o l a i res boréales. Après a v o i r s e r v i outre-mer durant l a guerre, i l devint Chef de l a d i v i s i o n d'Anthropologie du Musée n a t i o n a l . Spécialiste des c u l t u r e s esquimaudes, Jenness f i t a u s s i des recherches sur l e t e r r a i n au s e i n

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are masterly studies which a s c i e n t i s t made absorbing t o the layman.

de nombreuses populations i n d i e n nes e t se l i v r a à des travaux d'archéologie à Terre-Neuve e t en Alaska. I l e s t l'auteur d'un grand nombre d'articles et d'ouvrages dont, "The Indians o f Canada", édité en 1932, q u i demeure une oeuvre c l a s s i q u e de l'ethnologie canadienne. Ses écrits sur l a gestion des a f f a i r e s études esquimaudes sont des savantes que l e u r auteur a su rendre passionnantes même pour l e l e c t e u r non a v e r t i .

The p o r t r a i t above, painted by Robert Hyndman, was presented t o Diamond Jenness on h i s 80th birthday i n 1966 by f r i e n d s and colleagues who h e l d him i n high esteem.

Le p o r t r a i t ci-dessus, oeuvre de Robert Hyndman, f u t o f f e r t à Diamond Jenness en 1966, à l'occasion de son 8 0 annivers a i r e de naissance, par un groupe d'amis e t de collègues q u i l e tenaient en haute estime. e

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CARIBOU BORDER MOTIF

BORDURE A MOTIF DE CARIBOU

A Dorset Culture motif was thought appropriate t o t h i s s e r i e s since Diamond Jenness f i r s t named and defined t h i s c u l t u r e i n 1925. Two-dimensional design appropriate t o a repeat motif are rare i n Dorset c o l l e c t i o n s . I t was therefore a stroke o f good luck that Father G.M. Rousseliére, an A r c t i c archaeologist on contract with the Archaeological Survey o f Canada, The National Museum o f Man, appeared a t the appropriate moment with the example i l l u s t r a t e d . The f i n d , a p o r t i o n o f a composite bone box, discovered by a young I n u i t g i r l , Martina Nubviak, a t H a l l Beach, i s assigned t o Late Dorset w i t h a date about A.D. 1000.

Nous avons c r u q u ' i l conviendrait d ' i d e n t i f i e r l a présente c o l l e c t i o n par un motif décoratif propre à l a c u l t u r e de Dorset, puisque Diamond Jenness a été l e premier à nommer e t décrire c e t t e c u l t u r e en 1925. Les décorations bi-dimens i o n n e l l e s se prêtant à un motif répétitif sont r a r e s parmi l e s c o l l e c t i o n s de Dorset. I l conv i e n t donc de se réjouir de ce que l e Père G.M. Rousselière, archéologue de l ' A r c t i q u e , e t c o l l a b o r a t e u r à f o r f a i t de l a Commission archéologique du Canada, Musée n a t i o n a l de l'Homme, a i t f a i t s u r g i r à p o i n t l e dessin reproduit. I l s ' a g i t d'une portion de l a décoration d'un a i g u i l l i e r en o s , découvert par une jeune f i l l e i n u i t , Martina Nubviak, à H a l l Beach, e t attribué au Corset récent, vers l ' a n 1000 de notre ère.

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This p u b l i c a t i o n i s co-sponsored by the MARGARET HESS CANADIAN STUDIES FUND of the N a t i o n a l Museum o f Man

La p u b l i c a t i o n de c e t ouvrage a été coparrainée par LE MARGARET HESS CANADIAN STUDIES FUND du Musée n a t i o n a l de l'Homme

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ABSTRACT This ethnographic r e p o r t , The Hare Indians and Their World, describes the l i f e o f the Hare Indians, a group o f Northern Athapaskan speakers hunting and gathering i n the F o r t Good Hope Game area i n the Mackenzie R i v e r b a s i n o f northern Canada. The data were c o l l e c t e d during fieldwork c a r r i e d out between June and September, 1961, and between June, 1962 and January, 1963, and a l s o through l i b r a r y research o f the documented l i t e r a t u r e . I t i s my i n t e n t i o n t o c l a r i f y how the Hare Indians themselves view t h e i r own world and what i t i s t o be a Hare person. This r e p o r t was w r i t t e n i n the years o f 1963 and 1964 as my d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n presented t o Bryn Mawr C o l l e g e , Pennsylvania. Since then, ethnographic and l i n g u i s t i c researches on the Hare Indians have been undertaken by J o e l S. Savishinsky and others. Since t h e i r f i n d i n g s are not incorporated i n t h i s monograph, i t should be read as one o f the h i s t o r i c a l documents d e p i c t i n g the people i n the e a r l y 1960s.

RESUME Le présent rapport ethnographique, The Hare Indians and Their World, décrit l e mode de v i e des Lièvres, groupe d'Athabascans du Nord q u i chassent e t se regroupent dans l a réserve faunique de F o r t Good Hope, située dans l e b a s s i n du Mackenzie. Des données du rapport ont été r e c u e i l l i e s sur place entre j u i n e t septembre 1961 e t entre j u i n 1962 e t j a n v i e r 1963; d'autres proviennent de recherches effectuées dans l e s ouvrages de référence cités. Le rapport entend c l a r i f i e r l a perception qu'ont l e s Lièvres de l e u r propre univers e t définir ce que représente l'appartenance à ce groupe. Rédigé en 1963 e t 1964, l e rapport c o n s t i t u e également l a thèse de doctorat que j ' a i présentée au Bryn Mawr College de Pennsylvanie. Depuis, des recherches ethnographiques e t l i n g u i s t i q u e s s u r l e s Lièvres ont été entreprises par J o e l S. Savishinsky e t d'autres spécialistes. Puisque l e u r s découvertes ne f i g u r e n t pas dans c e t t e monographie, l e rapport d o i t être considéré comme une p a r t i e seulement des documents h i s t o r i q u e s consacrés a ce peuple au début des années 1960. Les personnes désireuses de r e c e v o i r en français de p l u s amples r e n s e i gnements sur c e t t e p u b l i c a t i o n sont priées d'adresser l e u r s demandes à: Service canadien d'Ethnologie Musée n a t i o n a l de l'Homme Musées nationaux du Canada Ottawa, Ontario K l A OM8

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CONTENTS ABSTRACT/RESUME

v i i

MAPS

x i i

FIGURES

x i i

PLATES

xiii

TABLES

xiii

PREFACE CHAPTER

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

xv I : INTRODUCTION The People and Their Legal Status The Country Transportation and Communication Population Language I I : THE HARE WAYS OF IDENTIFYING THEMSELVES Ethnic I d e n t i t y Sub-Group o f the Hare Self-Identification of Individuals I I I : HISTORY Introductory Comments Before 1806: Time o f F i r s t European Contacts 1806-1859: Introduction o f the Fur Trade and European M a t e r i a l Culture 1859-1921: Establishment o f the Roman C a t h o l i c Mission and Increase o f the Fur Trade 1921-1945: Signing o f the Treaty and the G r a v i t a t i o n Towards the Trading Post 1945-1962: Impact o f the Northern Development P o l i c y o f the Government Summary IV: THE SETTLEMENTS Town o f F o r t Good Hope Settlement o f C o l v i l l e Lake V:

YEARLY CYCLE Calendar Yearly A c t i v i t i e s o f the People

V I : THE BUSH Introductory Comments Fauna Animals f o r Fur Trading Beaver Marten viii

1 1 8 12 12 14 20 20 21 27 29 29 30 32 35 39 44 50 52 52 55 56 56 58 64 64 67 69 76 83

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

Mink Muskrat Fox Lynx Otter Squirrel Weasel Wolf Wolverine Animals f o r Native Subsistence Rabbit Moose Bear Porcupine Birds Fish Flora Spruce Willow Birch Edible Berries Moss ... Bushmen

87 89 92 92 92 93 94 94 94 95 95 107 112 117 117 122 135 135 137 138 138 141 141

V I I : NECESSITIES FOR EVERYDAY LIFE Introductory Comments Food C l o t h i n g and Personal Appearance H i s t o r i c a l Review Processing o f Moose and Caribou Hides Moccasins Mukluks Mittens Snowshoes Shelter H i s t o r i c a l Review Tents Cabins Transportation General Comments Canoes Toboggans Dog Packs and Walking Dogs Summary: Ownership and Sharing

143 143 143 146 146 151 157 159 159 162 163 163 165 169 178 178 179 182 188 188 192

VIII:

PASTIME ACTIVITIES Introductory Comments Games Dancing Story T e l l i n g Movies, Records, Radios and Songs Reading V i s i t i n g and P i c n i c k i n g ix

195 195 195 198 199 200 201 201

Feasting and Drinking CHAPTER

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

IX: CHRISTIANITY AND NATIVE BELIEFS The C a t h o l i c Church Anglicans and Evangelists Death P r a c t i c e s and Mourning B e l i e f i n Ghosts B e l i e f i n Reincarnation Dreaming Medicine Men Magical P r a c t i c e s X:

RESIDENTIAL GROUPS Introductory Comments Household o r Tent Group C o n s t i t u t i o n o f the Hare household Household changes during one's l i f e t i m e Types o f household The i d e a l household A white man's evaluation o f Hare households Camp Groups o r Temporary R e s i d e n t i a l Groups C o n s t i t u t i o n o f the camp group L i f e i n the summer f i s h camp L i f e i n the winter camp Camping companions

X I : KINSHIP AND FRIENDSHIP Terms o f Relationship Closeness o f R e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h K i n and Non-Kin Marriage Adoption X I I : GROWING UP AMONG THE HARE Introductory Comments Birth Pregnancy Delivery Infancy: The F i r s t Two Years Names Care o f babies E a r l y Childhood: Between the Second and S i x t h Birthday P h y s i c a l care and growth Learning the language Play and play groups Learning what t o do and how t o do i t Taking care o f themselves Late Childhood: Between S i x and Thirteen Play and play groups Helping a d u l t s and t a k i n g care o f themselves Going t o school x

202 209 209 212 213 217 219 220 223 228 229 229 230 230 230 231 232 233 234 234 236 237 240 244 244 250 252 259 261 261 263 263 263 266 266 267 269 269 271 272 275 277 278 278 279 281

Adolescence Education Participating i n the subsistence economy Former puberty customs Free time activities for adolescents CONCLUSION: FACING THE FUTURE Individual Differences i n the Degree of Acculturation The Modern Dilemma

284 284 285 287 287 289 289 291

FOOTNOTES

293

BIBLIOGRAPHY

295

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MAPS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Lower Mackenzie River V a l l e y D i s t r i b u t i o n o f the Northern Athabaskan Indians (Osgood 1936a) Ethnographic Map o f Great Bear Lake Region (Osgood 1932) Diagram Map o f F o r t Good Hope Diagram Map o f C o l v i l l e Lake Settlement

2 3 5 11 13

FIGURES 1. 2. 3. 4,5,6. 7,8. 9,10. 11. 12,13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

Beaver Trap Beaver Skin on the S t r e t c h e r Marten D e a d f a l l Based on an Informant's Drawing Rabbit Snare C a r r i e r , Type A Trigger S t i c k o f Rabbit Snare Mounting a Snare Cord on a C a r r i e r , Type A Snare C a r r i e r w i t h Rabbit Snares, Type A Rabbit Snare C a r r i e r , Type B Rabbit Snare C a r r i e r , Type C S e t t i n g the Snare D e t a i l Showing the T i p o f Spring Pole D e t a i l Showing Noose and Trigger Tossing Pole Rabbit Snare D e t a i l Showing Wire Snare S e t t i n g the Snare F u'i - Moose Pound w i t h Snares (based on an informant's drawing) 22. Bear Snare 23. F i s h Net w i t h Net Cord 24. N e t t i n g S h u t t l e w i t h Net S t r i n g 25. Backing the Net 26. Net Attached t o a B i r c h Pole 27. Net Attached t o an Anchor Stone 28. Net Attached t o a Willow Tree 29,30,31. S e t t i n g the Net Under the Ice 32. F i s h Weir (based on a drawing by an Indian informant) 33. Birchbark Container (k'i tene) 34. Frame o f Shaving Moose H a i r 35. Hide Hung t o be Scraped 36. C u t t i n g the Edge o f the Tanned Hide 37. Smoking the Hide 38. S l i p p e r Type Moccasins 39. Embroidered Mukluks 40. Long M i t t e n 41. Tent Groups Sharing a F i r e 42. P i t c h i n g a Tent (based on a drawing by a 15 year o l d g i r l )

80 81 84 97 98 100 100 101 101 102 102 102 104 105 105

w

n

xii

108 113 124 124 124 126 126 126 128 131 139 153 153 153 158 160 160 161 166 168

43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55.

Inside Arrangement o f a Tent Plan o f a Cabin Elevated Cache Box Shaped Cache S h i f t i n Cabin Ownership - Case 1 S h i f t i n Cabin Ownership - Case 2 S h i f t i n Cabin Ownership - Case 3 S h i f t i n Cabin Ownership - Case 4 Small Hunting Canoe Canoe Paddle Packsack f o r a Man o r Woman, ò šu Households i n a Winter Camp Group Arrangement o f A c t i v i t i e s Among a Winter Camp Group n

170 172 175 175 176 177 177 177 181 181 189 239 239

PLATES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Skinning Marten (Mary C. Bernaby and three year o l d daughter, L u c i e ) , November 1962 S t r e t c h i n g Muskrat (Lucie Jackson) , June 1962 C h a r l i e Masuzumi F i s h i n g Through the Lake Ice ( C o l v i l l e Lake, November 1962) Taking F i s h from the Net (Mackenzie R i v e r , J u l y 1962) Ms Lecou C u t t i n g F i s h (July 1962) Drying F i s h on the Rack (Mackenzie R i v e r , August 1962) Moose Hide Wringing i n Front Mr. Lecou Tying the Dry F i s h Bale i n Front o f a Smoke House (August 1962) Mrs. Leonie A r l i a s Wringing a Moose Hide (August 1961) Mrs. Shae Smoking a Raw Hide (September 1961) A Loaded Tobbogan (October 1962) C h a r l i e Masuzumi and Luke Tinachi discuss a troubled auto-tobbogan (November 1962) A Dog w i t h a Pack (October 1962) C h a r l i e Kochon w i t h h i s Packsack and Dog (October 1962) Ms Kochon Ready t o Walk on the T r a i l (October 1962)

88 91 130 133 133 134 134 154 155 183 186 186 187 187

TABLES 1A. B. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Numbers o f People who H a b i t u a l l y Reside i n the F o r t Good Hope Area Population According t o Age and Sex L i s t o f Hare Phonemes Sub-Groupings o f the Hare Indians L i s t e d by D i f f e r e n t Authors Indian Population o f the F o r t Good Hope Area, 1829-30 Hare Names o f the Months

xiii

15 16 18 22 34 57

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Grading o f Animals: R e l a t i v e Smartness and S t u p i d i t y Number o f P e l t s Traded and P r i c e s Received, 1961-62 Comparison o f the Fur P r i c e s f o r 1961-62 V a r i a t i o n i n Fur P r i c e s i n Various Years, F o r t Good Hope Beaver Catches by the Good Hope Licence Holders, 1961-62 Marten Catches i n the F o r t Good Hope Game Area I n d i v i d u a l Marten Catches f o r 1961-62: Good Hope Licence Holders I n d i v i d u a l Mink Catches f o r 1961-62: Good Hope Licence Holders I n d i v i d u a l Muskrat Catches f o r 1961-62: Good Hope Licence Holders The Reported Numbers o f Moose and Caribou K i l l s B i r d s Known t o the Hare Indians Number o f Game B i r d s Reported Caught i n 1958-59 and 1961-62 Grading o f Households by a White Person Hare Terms o f Relationship K i n Relationship o f a Hare Man K i n R e l a t i o n s h i p o f a Hare Woman Ages o f Marriage and Type o f Household Married o r Single I n d i v i d u a l s (1962) B i r t h s and S u r v i v a l Rates o f the Hare Hare C h i l d r e n Attending Schools

xiv

68 71 72 73 78 85 85 90 90 108 118 121 235 245 248 249 255 258 262 282

PREFACE This ethnographie report i s based upon f i e l d work c a r r i e d out between June and September, 1961, and between June, 1962, and January, 1963, among the Hare Indians of the F o r t Good Hope area i n the Mackenzie River basin o f northwestern Canada. During the summer of 1960, Dr. Ronald Cohen, then o f the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, made a f i e l d survey to c l a s s i f y the Mackenzie River communities i n t o types. These he designated as "Urban," "Fort Town o r Trading Post," and "Local Groups," according to "the kinds of groupings i n t o which people congregate" (Cohen, 1962:108-110). F o r t Good Hope was chosen f o r i n t e n s i v e research as representative of what he had c a l l e d a "Fort Town" type o f community w i t h long but not very i n t e n s i v e , Euro-Canadian contact. Miss Janice Hurlbert, then a student of Dr. Cohen, c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h me i n j o i n t research among the Hare Indians i n the summer of 1961. A t the town of F o r t Good Hope, we l i v e d i n a two-room cabin which a Hare widow l e n t t o us. As soon as we moved i n t o the cabin, the people s t a r t e d to drop i n f o r c h a t t i n g and we began to l e a r n the names and faces of the people as w e l l as some words o f the n a t i v e language. In August, we spent ten days a t a f i s h camp on the Mackenzie River ten miles south of the t r a d i n g post where we had a glimpse of the summer l i f e o f four Hare f a m i l i e s . For ten days, we v i s i t e d Inuvik, where the Indian Agent i n charge of the Hare Indians, and other a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e r s , are stationed, and where the Hare people go to the h o s p i t a l and to the Federal R e s i d e n t i a l school. A large part of the information c o l l e c t e d i n the summer o f 1961 has been published by Janice Hurlbert i n Age as a Factor in the Social Organization of the Hare Indians of Fort Good Hope, N.W.T. (1962). In the course of t h i s general ethnographic survey i n 1961, we became con­ vinced that an ethnographer should see the winter l i f e o f the people i n order t o understand what i t i s to be a Hare Indian. Fortunately I was able to r e t u r n to the F o r t Good Hope area f o r seven months to spend the f i r s t h a l f of the long winter. During the second f i e l d t r i p , I l i v e d most of the time i n a t e n t i n order t o secure the freedom o f m o b i l i t y t o f o l l o w the migratory l i f e o f the Hare people. During t h i s second t r i p , I spent my time mainly a t four l o c a t i o n s : a t the F o r t Good Hope t r a d i n g post i n the beginning of the summer when the people were gath­ ered f o r a vacation and a l s o during the Christmas - New Year period when the people came i n f o r c e l e b r a t i n g and t r a d i n g ; a t two f i s h camps on the Mackenzie R i v e r between J u l y and August when the people were scattered f o r f i s h i n g , and a t C o l v i l l e Lake, about 100 a i r miles northwest of the town o f F o r t Good Hope, betwen September and December when the people were engaged i n winter trapping and hunting. In November and December, there were very few people camping a t C o l v i l l e Lake. However, trappers i n the adjacent trapping s i t e s o f t e n v i s i t e d the small store and passed by q u i t e frequently, when they would v i s i t my t e n t f o r l e i s u r l y c h a t t i n g . At C o l v i l l e Lake I shared a t e n t w i t h a Hare woman and her three year o l d daughter, who were good company and teachers. Towards the end of my stay among the people, I had learned enough of the

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n a t i v e language t o be able t o c a r r y on a conversation about hunting o r t o r e c i t e a short Hare f o l k t a l e i n the Hare d i a l e c t . My p r o f i c i e n c y i n Hare speech, how­ ever, was s t i l l f a r from s u f f i c i e n t f o r an ethnographic i n t e r v i e w . F o r t u n a t e l y , most o f the Hare Indians between the ages o f 7 and 45 can understand and speak E n g l i s h w e l l . When I conducted interviews w i t h informants who d i d not under­ stand E n g l i s h , I asked f o r the help of a t h i r d person who was a v a i l a b l e and capable o f i n t e r p r e t i n g . Most o f the information was c o l l e c t e d i n the course o f casual conversation w h i l e "making dry f i s h " i n the summer f i s h camp, o r w h i l e on the t r a i l f o r berry p i c k i n g , and f o r v i s i t i n g r a b b i t snares and marten t r a p s . To record f o l k t a l e s or t o c o l l e c t information on such t o p i c s as genealogies and c h i l d t r a i n i n g prac­ t i c e s , I would make appointments w i t h informants f o r an hour o r so a t a time so t h a t the people would know I would keep asking many questions during the i n t e r ­ view. People o f a l l ages used t o v i s i t my quarters, and when only one t o two v i s i t o r s were present, I was able to l e a r n about Hare l i f e i n a f a i r l y sys­ tematic manner. I a l s o v i s i t e d a l l the cabins a t the t r a d i n g post and t a l k e d t o p r a c t i c a l l y a l l the i n d i v i d u a l s , i n c l u d i n g the small c h i l d r e n . My most important Indian informants were Mrs. P a u l i n a Lecou, Mrs. A l i c e Erutse, Mr. Maurice K o t c h i l e y , Mr. and Mrs. Gregorie Shae, Mr. G a b r i e l K o c h i l e y , Mr. Joshua Manuel, Mr. and Mrs. Noel Kakfwi, Mr. A l b e r t L a f f e r t y , Mr. and Mrs. Cassien Edgi, Mr. Paul Voudrach, Mr. and Mrs. C h a r l i e Masuzumi, Mrs. Mary Bernaby, Mr. A l f r e d Thaidene, Mr. and Mrs. Edward Cook, Miss V i c t o r i n a P i e r r o t , Miss A l i n e K o t c h i l e y , and Miss Margaret F r a n c i s . The white persons who were s t a t i o n e d at F o r t Good Hope, Inuvik, and F o r t Smith a l s o generously answered my questions, which I formulated i n more o r l e s s organized manner. A l l o f the informants' names are replaced by pseudonyms i n t h i s r e p o r t . Various kinds of documented records were c o l l e c t e d a t F o r t Good Hope, Inuvik, Y e l l o w k n i f e , F o r t Smith, Edmonton, and Ottawa during the course o f the two f i e l d t r i p s . P r i o r t o Dr. Cohen's v i s i t t o F o r t Good Hope i n 1961, Dr. Cornelius B. Osgood v i s i t e d the people f o r two weeks i n 1929 on h i s way back from h i s stay among the Satudene around Great Bear Lake (Osgood 1932); Dr. Fang-Kwei L i conducted l i n g u i s t i c research among the Hare i n the summer o f 1929; and Dr. June Helm MacNeish i n v e s t i g a t e d k i n terms (MacNeish 1960) and other t o p i c s during the summer o f 1957 i n the area. I n t h i s r e p o r t , I would l i k e to describe the l i f e o f the Hare Indians i n h i s t o r i c a l perspective on the b a s i s of my f i e l d research and o f the documented l i t e r a t u r e . I n the f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n , I hope to c l a r i f y how the people themselves view t h e i r own world, how the s o - c a l l e d l o o s e l y organized s o c i e t y o f the Hare i s s t r u c t u r e d , and what kinds of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s are d e s i r a b l e f o r f u t u r e research. I would l i k e t o express my deep g r a t i t u d e t o Dr. F r e d e r i c a de Laguna f o r her constant i n t e r e s t and assistance i n compiling t h i s r e p o r t .

xvi

INTRODUCTION The People and T h e i r Legal Status In t h i s monograph, we are concerned w i t h the Athasbaskan-speaking Hare Indians o f the northern Mackenzie R i v e r . They r e s i d e and hunt i n the F o r t Good Hope Game Area (see Map 1) which extends eastwards t o the edge o f Great Bear Lake, and t o the headwaters o f the Anderson R i v e r north o f the l a k e ; t o the west, i t reaches the border between the Northwest and Yukon T e r r i t o r i e s . The A r c t i c C i r c l e cuts across the Game Area almost i n the middle between the northernmost boundary along the 68th p a r a l l e l and the southernmost p o i n t o f 65°N l a t i t u d e . As shown i n Osgood's map (see Map 2 ) , the Hare Indians are almost surrounded by Athabaskan-speaking neighbors: the Bear Lake Indians toward the southeast, the Mountain Indians t o the south, the Tutchone a t the south­ west, and Kutchin o r Loucheux i n the northwest. Immediately t o the north and northeast however, are the Mackenzie and Copper Eskimo. While the Hare have intermarried w i t h t h e i r Indian neighbors, they have r a r e l y done so w i t h the Eskimo, although they have sometimes met them f o r trade. T h e i r c u l t u r a l con­ t a c t s w i t h the l a t t e r have not been as intense as those between the Loucheux and the Eskimo, f o r example. Thus i n the l i t e r a t u r e , the Hare Indians have o f t e n been described as a very t i m i d people. They were s a i d t o have been e s p e c i a l l y a f r a i d o f the Eskimo, even a f t e r they themselves s t a r t e d t o use firearms while the l a t t e r were f i g h t i n g w i t h bows and arrows (Franklin 1824:261; Richardson 1852:131, 136; Morice n.d.:29, 102; Jenness 1960:394), There are s e v e r a l legends o f the war between the Hare and the Eskimo i n the memory o f my informants and recordings o f such i n the l i t e r a t u r e . For ex­ ample, Richardson (1852:161) mentions t h a t "some years ago they [ t h e Hare] f e l l i n w i t h a party o f Eskimos who were hunting on i t s banks, and a q u a r r e l ensuing, s e v e r a l o f the l a t t e r were k i l l e d . " My informants say t h a t t h e i r ancestors fought the Eskimo w i t h bows and arrows, l a t e r w i t h firearms, and a l s o w i t h "medicine." I t i s a l s o q u i t e c l e a r t h a t only a very small f r a c t i o n o f the Hare were i n v o l v e d i n each "war" o r feud, and there i s no record t h a t a l l o f the Hare ever u n i t e d t h e i r forces t o f i g h t against the o u t s i d e r s . Nevertheless, i t seems t h a t during the 19th century the Hare, i n the area o f the Anderson and Horton R i v e r s , o c c a s i o n a l l y had peaceful i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h the Eskimo i n t r a d i n g goods, as i s mentioned i n the Hudson's Bay Company records (MS n.d.:55). Before the l e g a l boundaries o f the above mentioned Game Area were es­ t a b l i s h e d i n 1950, the Hare Indians extended t h e i r hunting a c t i v i t i e s i n t o the general areas shared by the neighboring " t r i b e s . " Thus, they used t o camp southward along the shores o f Great Bear Lake among the Bear Lake Indians; they went west beyond the headwaters o f the Mountain and A r c t i c Red R i v e r s , meeting w i t h the Mountain, the Kutchin and probably the Northern Tutchone Indians across the d i v i d e o f the Rockies; they hunted f o r muskrats to the north i n the Mackenzie d e l t a where the Kutchin and Eskimo were a l s o hunting; and t r a v e l i n g beyond the Horton R i v e r i n the east, encountered the Eskimo on the Barren Grounds. I n the same manner, the neighboring peoples a l s o came i n t o the area g e n e r a l l y occupied by the Hare. I n s h o r t , the Hare d i d not have t r a d i t i o n a l l y a s t r i c t l y defined t e r r i t o r i a l boundary.

1

2

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125

Inuvik

ARCTIC CIRCLE

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Fort Franklin,

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Map 1.

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K0YUK0N

INGALIK

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NABESN ANTENA TUTCHONE

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MOUNTAIN DOGRIB

KASKA

90 • TAHLTAN

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TSETASUT

CHIPE WYAN SEKANI BEAVER

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BOUNDARY B E T W E E N THE PACIFIC AND T H E ARCTIC DRAINAGE CULTURES

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Map 2. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f the Northern Athabaskan Indians (Osgood 1936a).

GM.

4 This f a c t seems t o be responsible f o r the confusion i n the l i t e r a t u r e over the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the various e t h n i c groupings i n the area. The Mountain Indians and the Bear Lake Indians have been o c c a s i o n a l l y included among o r confused w i t h the Hare. I t seems t h a t a p a r t o f the Mountain Indians, a f t e r the establishment o f the F o r t Good Hope t r a d i n g post, s t a r t e d t o trade here and they, even a f t e r F o r t Norman was b u i l t , kept t r a d i n g a t F o r t Good Hope, w i t h the r e s u l t t h a t t h i s subgroup became a p a r t o f the Hare. (For example, see F r a n k l i n 1824:262; Simpson 1843:193; and Richardson 1852:112, 245, 247). The confusion concerning the Hare and Bear Lake Indians seems t o have been caused mostly by the f a c t t h a t both groups used t o extend t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s q u i t e o f t e n i n t o each other's customary t e r r i t o r y . This w i l l be discussed i n greater d e t a i l i n the f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n , but here i t may be mentioned t h a t Osgood (1932:33) assumes t h a t the Bear Lake Indians could have been a p a r t o f the Hare o r i g i n a l l y and t h a t the former e v e n t u a l l y became a separate " t r i b e " from the l a t t e r . The present boundary o f the F o r t Good Hope Game Area (see Map 1) was defined, a f t e r a few r e v i s i o n s , i n March 1950. I n t h i s r e p o r t t h i s area w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o sometimes as the Game Area o f the people, the Group Area, o r simply as the Game Area. The r e s i d e n t s o f the Game Area who are q u a l i f i e d t o receive hunting and trapping l i c e n s e s according t o the Government game regul a t i o n s are allowed t o hunt and t r a p w i t h i n the Game Area. These r e g u l a t i o n s are made i n order t o p r o t e c t the Indians' hunting and trapping a c t i v i t i e s from the excessive encroachment o f white trappers and a l s o t o promote the more economical and c o n t r o l l e d harvesting o f the f u r , avoiding the e x t i n c t i o n o f the f u r - b e a r i n g animals. Although the present Game Area i s s l i g h t l y smaller, i t s boundaries correspond q u i t e w e l l w i t h the borders drawn by Osgood (Map 3) to show the t e r r i t o r y u t i l i z e d mainly by the Hare i n 1929. Whereas there were formerly no c l e a r cut boundaries between " t r i b e s , " such as the Hare, Mountain, Kutchin, e t c . , the establishment o f the Game Areas has r e s u l t e d i n the separ a t i o n o f these groups, since each tends t o remain e n t i r e l y w i t h i n i t s own t e r r i t o r y f o r hunting and trapping. 1

The Indians, however, are f r e e t o t r a v e l i n and out o f the Game Area f o r v i s i t i n g o r f o r wage l a b o r o p p o r t u n i t i e s . On the other hand, i f an Indian wants t o hunt o r t r a p outside o f h i s " t r i b a l " Game Area, he has t o apply f o r hunting and trapping l i c e n s e s f o r the area he wishes t o e x p l o i t ; these are issued upon the consent o f the l i c e n s e holder o f the area i n question and o f the Canadian Government O f f i c e r f o r t h a t area. The Hare Indians c a l l themselves k'à-šó-gò-t'ine i n t h e i r own language. Various names have been used t o designate the k'à-šó-gò-t'ine by t r a v e l l e r s , e x p l o r e r s , m i s s i o n a r i e s , e t c . The Handbook o f American Indians North o f Mexico l i s t s the f o l l o w i n g : kacho-'dtinnè, kah-cho t i n n e , kancho, kat°a-gottiné, k'a-t'agottiné, kawchodinneh, k'at'a-ottiné, khatpa-Gottine, kkpayttchore-ottine (Chippewyan), tana-tinne, Nonga (Eskimo), Peau-de-Lièvre, Peaux-de-Lièvres, Rabbit-Skins, Harefcot Indians, Hare Indians, and Slave (Anon, in Hodge 1907:1, 667) Osgood adopted the E n g l i s h , "Hare Indians," f o r the reason t h a t i t was "unquestionably the most widely known name, although g r a t u i t o u s " (Osgood 1936a:12). I t has been used i n most o f the e t h n o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e w r i t t e n

5

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Map 3. Ethnographic Map o f Great Bear Lake Region (Osgood 1932).

Fort, Resolution

GM

6 i n E n g l i s h . The n a t i v e Indians, however, were not too f a m i l i a r w i t h the word "Hare Indians," but responded more r e a d i l y t o the expression "Rabbit-skin," which i s o f t e n used by the C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s i n the area as the t r a n s l a t i o n o f the French Feau-de-Lièvve. The d e s i g n a t i o n o f the t r i b e i n the n a t i v e language, k'á-šó-gò-t'ine, which I t r a n s c r i b e d from the utterance of my informants, corresponds phoneti c a l l y q u i t e c l o s e l y w i t h k'a too go t'ine, as recorded by Osgood (1932:33). He a l s o uses the form Kawohodinne (1936a:12). In regard t o the meaning o f k'a too go f i n e , Osgood a s s e r t s : Trading out o f Good Hope on Mackenzie r i v e r i s a t r i b e c a l l e d Hare Indians (k'a too go t ' i n e — b i g w i l l o w people). The name i s not l i t e r a l l y Hare people (Ga too go t ' i n e — b i g r a b b i t people) as might be expected because o f t h e i r common a p p e l l a t i o n . The s i m i l a r i t y of the roots f o r 'rabbit [ g ' a ] ' , 'arrow [ k ' i ] ' , and 'willow [ k ' a i ] ' have l e d people i n t o confusion over the terminology. (Osgood, 1932:33). n

When I asked my informants the meaning of k'á-šó-gòt'ine, they s a i d t h a t i t was not c l e a r t o them. In 1921, as a r e s u l t o f the v i s i t o f the No. 11 Treaty Team o f the Canadian Government, the Hare, Slave, Dogrib, "and other Indians" surrendered t h e i r l e g a l i n t e r e s t i n the lands i n the "Northwest T e r r i t o r i e s north o f Great Slave Lake" t o the B r i t i s h Crown (The Canadian Indian 1959:10-11). Since then Hare i n d i v i d u a l s have been a s c r i b e d the l e g a l s t a t u s o f "Indian" (see below), according t o the d e f i n i t i o n i n the Indian A c t (1876, r e v i s e d i n 1951), which i s executed by the Indian A f f a i r s Branch o f the Department o f C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration and l o c a l l y administered by the Royal Canadian Mounted P o l i c e O f f i c e r a t F o r t Good Hope. 2

According to the Treaty, a c h i e f and three c o u n c i l o r s are e l e c t e d from among the men over 21 years o f age i n the Hare Band No. 5. The tenure o f the c h i e f and three c o u n c i l o r s i s o r d i n a r i l y f o r 2 years and r e - e l e c t i o n o f the same person i s permitted. Since 1951 women a l s o have become e l i g i b l e t o vote and f o r candidacy i n these o f f i c e s and f o r v o t i n g . As of 1963, though, no women have occupied these o f f i c e s whereas they have been p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n v o t i n g . The c h i e f r e c e i v e s $20 per year and the c o u n c i l o r s $10 each f o r t h e i r s e r v i c e s . I n general, the c h i e f a c t s a l i n k between the white a u t h o r i t i e s and the people. The c h i e f t a l k s w i t h the Indian Agents t o intercede f o r the people when they need help and he negotiates on t h e i r behalf w i t h white people i n F o r t Good Hope. The c h i e f would take an intermediary o r c o n c i l i a t i n g r o l e i n case o f t r o u b l e . I n recent years, a t the suggestion o f the p r i e s t , the c h i e f organizes and supervises a l l l a b o r needed a t n a t i v e f u n e r a l s , such as making c o f f i n s and d i g g i n g graves. I t seems t h a t the c h i e f i s f a i r l y w e l l informed as t o what i s going on among the people, f o r whenever he came t o town from h i s hunting o r f i s h i n g camp, the three c o u n c i l o r s and other o l d men would squat on the porch o f h i s cabin and exchange news w h i l e they smoked tobacco. The people recognize t h a t the c h i e f performs a u s e f u l f u n c t i o n i n the present l i f e o f the Hare, but f e e l almost no awe o f h i s a u t h o r i t y . We o f t e n heard the people say: "We don't l i k e a bossy guy." This p o i n t agrees very w e l l w i t h the f i n d i n g s made by J.H. MacNeish (1956:154), Honigmann (1946:84) and Mason (1946:43) i n regard t o the l e a d e r s h i p p a t t e r n o f the other Northern Athabaskan groups o f the A r c t i c drainage. The question of l e a d e r s h i p among the Hare w i l l

7 be discussed later in the section on Residence Groups. The legal status of Indians, as defined i n the Indian Act, originally meant that they were exempted from property taxes; that they were not allowed to vote i n federal elections, and that they were prohibited from buying, making, or possessing any kind of intoxicant. They were not, however, "minors" or "wards," since i t has always been the case that "Indians may sue and be sued and may enter freely into contractual obligations i n ordinary business transactions" (The Department of Citizenship and Immigration, 1959:12). Since June 27, 1958, Indians i n Northwest Territories have been given the right to drink intoxicants i n public places. Then, i n November, 1959, the total liquor prohibition was removed for the Indians i n the Northwest Territories. Today, an adult Indian with his liquor license i s allowed to buy alcoholic beverages at the Territorial Liquor Store, the closest to Fort Good Hope being at Norman Wells. It i s s t i l l i l l e g a l , however, to make home brew. A l l Indians of Canada acquired the right to vote at federal as well as local elections on the same basis as other Canadian citizens on July 1, 1960. A l l the Indians, regardless of age, receive $5.00 per person a year as the annuity locally called "treaty money." The Federal Government takes the re­ sponsibility for the education of Indian children. Today the Hare children are studying at the Federal Day School i n the town of Fort Good Hope, and at the Residential Schools i n Inuvik and Yellowknife. Children and other pa­ tients at the hospitals i n Inuvik or i n Edmonton also receive schooling with the guidance of the doctors i n charge. The welfare program i s one of the biggest concerns to the Government and to the Indians, but for different reasons. Indians are paid a Family Allow­ ance which i s called "the ration," as well as sums for Old Age Security, Old Age Assistance, and Disability and Blind Persons' Allowance. From the Government o f f i c i a l s ' point of view, i t i s very d i f f i c u l t to administer the program without encouraging the Indians to become lazy and dependent on the "ration," while some Indians feel very proud of themselves i f they succeed i n convincing the policeman or Indian Agent to issue rations to them The Canadian law distinguishes between persons with native, i.e. "Indian" or "Eskimo," status and those with the f u l l status of citizens. The latter category includes enfranchised or "Non-Treaty Indians" and also white Canadians. In cases of marriage between individuals with "Indian" and "white" sta­ tuses, the wife i s registered according to the legal status of her husband. Thus a white woman married to an Indian i s legally an "Indian," although such a case i s extremely rare i n the Northwest Territories and i s unheard of among the Hare. A child from a mixed marriage i s assigned to the legal status of the father or, i n the case of an illegitimate child, of the mother (see Section II of Indian Act as of 1961). When an Eskimo or Indian child reaches 21 years of age, he or she may be entitled to register as a citizen i f his or her application for enfranchise­ ment i s approved. The condition for enfranchisement i s stated i n subsection (1) of Section 108 of the Indian Act as follows:

8 On the r e p o r t o f the M i n i s t e r t h a t an Indian has a p p l i e d f o r enfranchisement and t h a t i n h i s opinion the Indian (a) i s o f the f u l l age o f twenty-one years, (b) i s capable o f assuming the d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f c i t i z e n s h i p , and (c) when enfranchised, w i l l be capable o f supporting himself and h i s dependants, the Governor i n C o u n c i l may by order declare t h a t the Indian and h i s w i f e and minor unmarried c h i l d r e n are enfranchised. There are 4 men among the Hare Indians who have been enfranchised, along w i t h t h e i r wives and c h i l d r e n . Most o f them a p p l i e d f o r enfranchisement i n the e a r l y 1950s because they wanted t o have l i q u o r l i c e n s e s which were then s t i l l t o t a l l y p r o h i b i t e d t o the Indians. Now, o f course, they have t o pay the annual fee o f $5.00 f o r a hunting l i c e n s e as "Non-Treaty Indians" and are no longer under the j u r i s d i c t i o n o f the Indian A f f a i r s Branch o f the Department of C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration. Their educational and welfare problems are handled by the Federal Department o f Northern A f f a i r s . Thus, i f there i s a c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t administered by the Indian A f f a i r s Branch, the "Treaty Indians" are given p r i o r i t y f o r the job over the "Non-Treaty Indians." I n t h i s r e p o r t , the expressions "Indian s t a t u s " o r "white s t a t u s " w i l l be used t o r e f e r t o the l e g a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s . When I w r i t e "the Hare," "the Hare Indians" o r "the people" without any s p e c i f i c a t i o n , I am employing the n a t i v e category o f k'à-šó-gò'ine. The Country F l y i n g by Cesna over the F o r t Good Hope Game Area, (see Map 1) we continue to see, on both sides o f the Mackenzie R i v e r , numerous lakes o f v a r i o u s s i z e s and meandering streams d r a i n i n g from them o r connecting them w i t h each other. There are s e v e r a l low mountain ranges and h i l l s w i t h i n the area but mostly i t i s a f l a t country, except f o r the western edge o f the Game Area which touches the mountainous border o f Yukon T e r r i t o r y . The land i s t h i n l y covered by the b o r e a l f o r e s t o f white spruce, black spruce, w i l l o w s , a l d e r s , white b i r c h , e t c . (Rowe 1959:28). The t r e e l i n e runs very c l o s e (20 - 30 miles) t o the eastern border o f the Game Area, and the timber around C o l v i l l e Lake already tends t o y i e l d more and more shrubby bushes. The most d e t a i l e d map o f the area i s p r i n t e d by the Department o f Mines and Topographical Surveys i n a s c a l e o f 1:250,000 and i s based on a i r photographs taken i n 1950 and 1954. Among the animals i n t h i s region are moose, caribou, v a r y i n g hare, marten, mink, muskrat, beaver, wolverine, wolf, fox, l y n x , black bear, o t t e r , s q u i r r e l , weasel, lenming, and r a t . We see various b i r d s , such as ducks, widgeons, t e a l , geese, loons, grouse, ptarmigans, g u l l s , owls, herons, sparrows, e t c . F i s h commonly found i n the Mackenzie R i v e r and various l a k e s are w h i t e f i s h , j a c k f i s h (northern p i k e ) , inconnu, a r c t i c g r e y l i n g , l a k e t r o u t and others. Among the i n s e c t s notorious i n the region are the mosquitos and f l i e s which appear d u r i n g the summer.

9 Since the A r c t i c C i r c l e runs across the Game Area, throughout a good p a r t of i t the midnight sun shines m a g n i f i c e n t l y over the s t r a i g h t h o r i z o n f o r a few days around the summer s o l s t i c e . S i m i l a r l y i n winter, there are few days a t w i n t e r s o l s t i c e when the sun does not r i s e . N a t u r a l l y the number o f the days o f midnight sun i n the summer and o f dark days i n the w i n t e r v a r i e s according t o the l a t i t u d e and the height above sea l e v e l o f the spot w i t h i n the area. The climate shows the features c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f northwestern i n t e r i o r North America. Meteorological observations, i n c l u d i n g the recording o f d a i l y maximum and rninimum temperature and p r e c i p i t a t i o n , have been c a r r i e d out a t F o r t Good Hope since May 1955 by the Engineering D i v i s i o n o f the Army, and they were taken over by the Department o f Transport since A p r i l 1 s t , 1959 u n t i l the present. The highest temperature so f a r recorded i s 90.2°F. on June 25, 1955. Almost every year, temperatures i n the 80°'s F. are observed f o r several days between the middle o f June and the middle o f August. The tem­ perature, however, s h i f t s q u i c k l y w i t h i n a day. Sometimes, even i n J u l y , the h o t t e s t month o f the year, temperatures below f r e e z i n g are recorded, (e.g., 29°F. on J u l y 27, 1960) . January and February are the c o l d e s t months: the d a i l y maximum temperature u s u a l l y stays below 20°F. and the minimum temper­ ature f a l l s down as low as -58°F. The dates o f break-up and freeze-up o f the Mackenzie River a t F o r t Good Hope have been recorded by the Roman C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n since 1868. U s u a l l y the r i v e r breaks up i n the l a t t e r h a l f o f May, and freezes up during the f i r s t h a l f o f November. Occasionally, the r i v e r water becomes very high a t the time o f break-up and p a r t o f the town o f F o r t Good Hope and Indian camp s i t e s get flooded. The i c e comes e a r l i e r and disappears l a t e r i n the year on the t r i b ­ utary streams. The times f o r freeze-up and break-up o f i c e on the lakes depend upon l o c a l i t y and depth o f water. The b i g deep lakes i n the southern p a r t o f the area freeze up and melt i n the slowest manner, w h i l e the small shallow l a k e s , a l s o i n the southern p a r t , freeze l a s t but melt q u i c k l y . A f t e r break-up, the patches o f snow on the ground melt away, and pink w i l d roses and other p l a n t s s t a r t t o flower i n the middle o f June. The depth o f unfrozen s o i l above the permafrost v a r i e s from one foot t o ten f e e t , depending upon the g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e and the amount o f sunshine f a l l i n g on the spot, and other f a c t o r s . I n J u l y , i t i s cloudy o r r a i n y f o r more than two t h i r d s o f the month, the t o t a l r a i n f a l l ranging from 1 t o 4 inches. Since the unfrozen s o i l i s s h a l ­ low, the unabsorbed r a i n water remains on the surface, keeping the roads i n town very muddy and a l s o producing a ground cover i n the bush o f wet moss. The f i r s t snowfall o f w i n t e r u s u a l l y comes i n the middle o f September. By the e a r l i e r p a r t o f November, the snow on the ground becomes deep enough f o r snowshoes; i t stays t i l l the end o f May, ranging between 5 t o 20 inches i n depth depending upon the l o c a t i o n . The snowdrifts i n windy places may p i l e up to 45 inches o r more. The Game Area (see Map 1) i s sub-divided geographically by the people i n t o two p a r t s : eastern and western; and the d i v i d i n g l i n e runs approximately along the meridian o f 127°W. longitude, although the border i s not a t a l l a c l e a r - c u t one. The western p a r t l i e s along the Mackenzie R i v e r , and i s more

10 mountainous and t h i c k l y f o r e s t e d than the eastern p a r t . I n the l a t t e r , there are s e v e r a l lakes w i t h a continuous supply o f b i g w h i t e f i s h and t r o u t , and i t i s c u r r e n t l y more abundant i n f u r - b e a r i n g animals. There are no corresponding n a t i v e words, however, which designate these two d i v i s i o n s . C e r t a i n sections o f the Game Area w i t h i n each p a r t have p a r t i c u l a r names. For example, the mountainous r e g i o n a t the headwaters o f the Hume and Ramparts R i v e r s i s c a l l e d Ši t'a 'Among the Mountains,' o r 'In the Mountains' and the v a l l e y o f the lower Ramparts R i v e r w i t h i t s thousands o f small lakes and ponds i s c a l l e d Tuyata 'Among the L i t t l e Lakes.' Another place w i t h the same name, Tuyata, a c t u a l l y l i e s outside o f the present Game Area; i t i s n o r t h o f Great Bear Lake, along the Haldane River where are a l s o numerous l a k e s . The former Tuyata i s v i s i t e d today by the Hare q u i t e i n t e n s i v e l y f o r t r a p p i n g and hunting beaver, muskrat, and mink, w h i l e the l a t t e r , which i s n o r t h of Great Bear Lake, has not been occupied by the people f o r a long time — according t o my informants, not s i n c e the l a s t p a r t o f the 19th century. The r e g i o n known as — Šint'a, o r "Down the R i v e r , " covers both s i d e s o f the Mackenzie R i v e r w i t h i n the western p a r t o f the Game Area, north o f F o r t Good Hope. W i t h i n the eastern p a r t , the regions are o f t e n designated by the names o f l a k e s , as f o l l o w s : t h e ' C o l v i l l e Lake Area,' 'Lac de Bois Area," 'Tanago Lake Area,' etc. n

Each l a k e , stream, o r h i l l has i t s own name. Furthermore, the bands o f the streams, the bays and p o i n t s along the shore l i n e s o f l a k e s , rocky places i n the h i l l s , w a t e r f a l l s , and many other spots have t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r d e s i g nations. For example, K'ài-hó'à 'Willow P o i n t , ' and O kài fwètl'á 'Bird's Beak Corner.' n

The Hare Indians migrate around w i t h i n the Game Area from camp t o camp a l l through the year i n search o f f u r - b e a r i n g animals and food. These camps have only a temporary nature and nobody w i t h i n the group has a permanent c l a i m t o a p a r t i c u l a r spot. The Game O f f i c e r s f o r the Good Hope Area t r i e d i n the 1950s t o e s t a b l i s h l e g a l f a m i l y hunting t e r r i t o r i e s w i t h i n the area, but the idea d i d not appeal t o the Hare. Most o f them f e l t : "We l i k e t o be able t o go any place we l i k e i n our country and we don't want t o get stuck a t one p l a c e . " Today, there are two permanent settlements i n the Game Area: the town o f F o r t Good Hope a t 66°16'N., 128°38'W., j u s t n o r t h o f the Ramparts c l i f f along the Mackenzie R i v e r ; and the t r a d i n g post o f C o l v i l l e Lake a t 67°2'N., 216°5'W., on the southernmost shore o f C o l v i l l e Lake. I n the town o f F o r t Good Hope, there are the Royal Canadian Mounted P o l i c e S t a t i o n , the Nursing S t a t i o n , Federal School, and Department o f Transport S t a t i o n o f the Canadian Government as w e l l as a Hudson's Bay Company Store, and the Roman C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n and a Pentacostal white preacher's residence. The personnel a t these establishments and t h e i r f a m i l i e s c o n s t i t u t e the t r a n s i e n t white r e s i d e n t s i n the area. Besides the b u i l d i n g s and homes o f these white people, there are some f i f t y wooden, cabins belonging t o the Indians who stay i n them when they come back from "the bush" f o r t r a d i n g , church s e r v i c e s , and r e c r e a t i o n (see Map 4 ) . The new t r a d i n g post o f C o l v i l l e Lake was opened i n 1960; i t i s owned by an i n d i v i d u a l white t r a d e r and managed by a half-breed man born i n F o r t Good Hope. I n 1962, a Roman C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s t a r t e d t o b u i l d a church and mission residence. There are a t the C o l v i l l e Lake settlement as o f 1962, seven Indian

11

Gravel Pit Federal School

Free Trader

Department of T r a n s p o r t

N

HBC S c a l e of Nurse RCMP

Mission

500

Feet

0

500

LEGEND Buildings o c c u p i e d by white people Indian cabins Buildings under construction Tents Rood Path Embankment

G.M.

Map 4.

Diagram flap o f F o r t Good Hope.

12 cabins used as home base by some o f the Indians who hunt and t r a p i n the e a s t ­ ern h a l f o f the Game Area. More than three quarters o f the hunters who camp i n the eastern p a r t o f the area were t r a d i n g a t the C o l v i l l e Lake s t o r e (see Map 5 ) . Transportation and Communication Transportation i n t o the F o r t Good Hope Area from outside i s by a i r p l a n e and by boat along the Mackenzie R i v e r . The Canadian P a c i f i c A i r l i n e s have l o c a l s e r v i c e from Edmonton v i a Norman Wells i n t o F o r t Good Hope t o b r i n g pas­ sengers and m a i l by f l o a t - p l a n e i n summer and by s k i - l a n d i n g plane i n winter. This operates twice a month except during the freeze-up p e r i o d from October through November and during the break-up p e r i o d o f i c e i n May and June. Dur­ i n g the p e r i o d i n which the area i s f r e e o f i c e , a chartered plane may land on lakes both i n winter and summer. Between the end o f June and the end of August, s e v e r a l boats belonging t o the Northern Transportation Company, Yellowknife Transportation Company and other p r i v a t e persons, navigate up and down the Mackenzie R i v e r . The s t a p l e s u p p l i e s , food and gas f o r the Government departments, C a t h o l i c missions and the t r a d e r s , and the m a i l orders f o r the Indians and the white personnel are brought i n t o the town o f F o r t Good Hope on the barges pushed o r towed by these boats. For the short distances w i t h i n and outside the Game Area, s k i f f s w i t h outboard motors are used on the Mackenzie R i v e r and C o l v i l l e Lake during the p e r i o d when the water i s f r e e o f i c e ; i n winter, a f t e r the snow f a l l s , dog teams and the newly introduced "skidoos" (snowmobiles) are the major means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n ; and a l l through the year the people walk on f o o t q u i t e ex­ t e n s i v e l y . The Hare Indians o f t e n go i n s k i f f s t o v i s i t Norman Wells which i s 125 m i l e s by water from the town o f F o r t Good Hope, e s p e c i a l l y t o look f o r wage l a b o r , t o buy l i q u o r a t the T e r r i t o r i a l Liquor Store o r t o see f r i e n d s . A few Indian i n d i v i d u a l s o r f a m i l i e s charter a Cesna o r Beaver t o f l y t h e i r camping equipment i n t o t h e i r hunting and trapping s i t e from town, although t h i s i s r a t h e r e x c e p t i o n a l . The a i r p l a n e fees f o r school c h i l d r e n and f o r p a t i e n t s i n serious cases t o be sent t o the h o s p i t a l s outside o f F o r t Good Hope are taken care o f by the Government. The people send and r e c e i v e greetings and messages w i t h i n the Mackenzie d e l t a area through the r a d i o broadcasts from Inuvik. The Hare p a t i e n t s a t the Inuvik General H o s p i t a l send messages t o t h e i r f a m i l i e s over the r a d i o once a week. These messages are heard on the t r a n s i s t o r radios owned by the Indians. Indians a l s o w r i t e t o each other i n and out o f the Game Area through the Government Post O f f i c e and t r a v e l l e r s o f t e n c a r r y l e t t e r s and messages w i t h i n the Area. L e t t e r s are w r i t t e n e i t h e r i n E n g l i s h o r i n the s y l l a b a r y which was invented by Reverend James Evans i n the f i r s t h a l f o f the 19th century and taught t o the Indians by the C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s . The o f f i c i a l s o f the Department o f Transport handle telegrams a t F o r t Good Hope, although very few Indians u t i l i z e t h i s s e r v i c e . 3

Population The a v a i l a b l e data on the number o f people who h a b i t u a l l y r e s i d e i n the

13

N

R.C. Mission LEGEND Old buildings B u i l d i n g s constructed after Buildings

1961 under

construction Tent Path Embankment

Store

Pentacostal Minister

G.M Map 5. Diagram Map o f C o l v i l l e Lake Settlement.

14

F o r t Good Hope Area are shown i n Table 1. I n the o f f i c i a l t r e a t y books are recorded the numbers o f the Indians who came t o receive the t r e a t y money i n d i f f e r e n t years. I f they were not present a t the t r a d i n g post on the t r e a t y day when the money was d i s t r i b u t e d , they were not counted. I t i s l i k e l y t h a t , by 1928, almost a l l the Indians had become accustomed t o gather on the t r e a t y day, so t h a t we can almost c e r t a i n l y r e l y upon the population records i n the Treaty Books since t h a t year. The f a c t o r s which a f f e c t the f l u c t u a t i o n of population are the food supply and epidemics. F i r s t i n importance, a t l e a s t i n the past, has been death by s t a r v a t i o n because o f bad luck i n hunting. In the nineteenth century accord­ ing t o church records, a year o f s t a r v a t i o n seems t o have occurred about every s i x years on an average. This c y c l e appears t o be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h population c y c l e s o f the animals. For example, the v a r y i n g hare, which has been the na­ t i v e s ' major source o f food, i s subject t o great f l u c t u a t i o n over about a 10 year p e r i o d (Rand 1945:74). Secondly, there have been deaths by epidemics. S c a r l e t fever epidemics i n 1865-66, Spanish f l u i n 1918, i n f l u e n z a and cholera i n 1928, and t u b e r c u l o s i s , which has spread, e s p e c i a l l y since 1940, have taken away many l i v e s o f young and o l d Indians. The numbers o f Indians h o s p i t a l i z e d because o f t u b e r c u l o s i s i n i n s t i t u ­ t i o n s a t A k l a v i k , a t F o r t Simpson, a t F o r t Smith, and a t Edmonton, were a t l e a s t 24 i n 1954-55, 33 i n 1955-56, 36 i n 1956-57, and 31 i n 1957-58. By 1959, s e r i o u s l y i l l p a t i e n t s had e i t h e r d i e d a t the h o s p i t a l s , o r had r e ­ covered and returned home. Since 1958, there has been an average of about 10 people i n the h o s p i t a l s . In 1948, the Canadian government e s t a b l i s h e d a nursing s t a t i o n a t F o r t Good Hope. The a c t i v i t i e s o f the nurse and other governmental h e a l t h per­ sonnel are l e a d i n g towards a decrease i n death r a t e , which we can glimpse i n the population f i g u r e s f o r 1962 as compared w i t h those o f the previous de­ cade. Language The Hare Indians c a l l t h e i r language dene-k'é, o r dene-k'é , 'people's speech, ' o r "Rabbit-skin" o r "Slavey" when speaking E n g l i s h . The word "Slavey" as used by the Indians i s not, however, t o be confused w i t h the t r i b e o f the same name who l i v e southwest o f Great Slave Lake and who speak a d i f f e r e n t Athabaskan language designated by ethnographers and l i n g u i s t s as "Slave." Those Hare Indians who o f t e n camp and hunt i n the eastern h a l f o f the F o r t Good Hope Game Area speak w i t h a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t pronunciation from those who mainly r e s i d e i n the western h a l f o f the area (see Table 3). n

Some o f the Hare people can communicate very w e l l w i t h the Bear Lake, Mountain, Slave, Dogrib, and Loucheux (Kutchin) Indians. The degree o f mutual i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y i n conversation between d i a l e c t s of the Hare and t h e i r Athabaskan neighbors f o l l o w s the above enumerated order according t o i n f o r ­ mants. Very few Hare can understand the Eskimo language. H o i j e r (1963:1-29) has s t u d i e d the 20 northern Athabaskan languages o f

15 TABLE 1

A.

NUMBERS OF PEOPLE WHO HABITUALLY RESIDE IN THE FORT GOOD HOPE AREA

Year

Men

Women

Total

Sources

1827

Ind.

177

124

301

Hudson Bay Company record (n.d.)

1829-30

Ind.

191

144

235

Hudson Bay Company record (n.d.)

1858

Ind.

-

364

Ross (see Hodge 1907:667)

1871

Ind.

244

276

520

Church Record

1893

Ind.

259

288

547

Russel (1898:160)

1921

Ind.

103

105

208

Treaty Book

1922

Ind.

162

162

324

Treaty Book

1923

Ind.

176

183

359

Treaty Book

1928

Ind.

179

171

350

Treaty Book

1929

Ind.

164

150

314

Treaty Book

1934

Ind.

172

158

330

Treaty Book

1951

Ind. Whi.

257 28

1951 Census

1954

Ind.

146

129

275

1954 Census

1955

Ind.

158

134

292

Church Record

1957

Ind.

156

145

301

Church Record

1958

Ind.

170

157

327

Church Record

1959

Ind. Whi.

175

159

334 21

Church Record

1961

Ind. Whi.

170

165

335 17

Hurlbert & Sué

1962

Ind. Whi.

174 14

175 12

349 26

Sue

Year

1957

Gender

1959

M

1962

M

F

F

F

M

90

Age Group

80 70

Cholera 8 Flu

C h o l e r a 8 Flu

60

Flu 8 T B

50 40

Flu

8

Flu

8

TB

TB

30 2 0

Sub Total Total

145 301

175

159

334

174

50

40

20

30

10

10

20

30

40

50

50

40

30

20

10

10

20

30

50

40

50

30

40

10

156

20

10

20

30

40

Population

50

10

175 349 G.F.M.

TABLE 1 B. POPULATION ACCORDING TO AGE AND SEX.

17

i n t e r i o r A l a s k a and northwestern Canada. These do not, however, form a s i n g l e substock l i k e the eleven languages o f the P a c i f i c Coast o r the 7 Apachean languages. Although they are d i f f i c u l t t o c l a s s i f y , H o i j e r has t e n t a t i v e l y proposed the f o l l o w i n g 7 groupings o r substocks: 1. 2. 3a. 3b. 3c. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Tanaina Koyukon Tanana, Slave, Chipewyan Carrier Nabesna, Tutchone I n g a l i k , Kutchin, Han Antena (Atna), Tahltan, Kaska, Sekani, S a r s i , Beaver Hare, Dogrib Tagish

The f o l l o w i n g could not be c l a s s i f i e d f o r l a c k o f data: Tsetsaut, C h i l o o t i n , Mountain, Bear Lake, and Yellowknife. Note that the Indians c l a s s i f y Dogrib and Slave as almost e q u a l l y d i s t a n t from Hare, while H o i j e r puts Dogrib i n t o the same substock w i t h Hare b u t assigns Slave t o a very d i f f e r e n t one, as unrelated as Kutchin. Mason (1946:14) a l s o mentions that "the consensus i s that they most resemble the Dogrib i n l a n guage, b u t they were a l s o classed by some informants w i t h the Slave o r Loucheux." On t h i s p o i n t , however, we may have t o d i s c r i m i n a t e the h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f languages from the degrees o f t h e i r mutual i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y i n conversation. This caution i s a l s o required, although I f e e l t h a t probably Mountain and Bear Lake w i l l prove t o be d i a l e c t s o f Hare o r languages w i t h i n the Hare-Dogrib substock. A f t e r l e a r n i n g the d i a l e c t o f the western Hare, I had an opportunity a t the Norman Wells A i r p o r t , t o t a l k t o a few Mountain o r Bear Lake Indians from F o r t Norman. They s a i d t h a t I t a l k e d l i k e the k'á-šó-gòt'ine (the Hare) and I was able t o understand t h e i r speech enough t o c a r r y out conversation on t r a p ping and hunting as w e l l as our t r a v e l l i n g on the planes. I f e l t the d i f f e r ences between the Hare and t h e i r speech i n pronunciation and rhythm o f speech. Among the Hare Indians, I made an attempt t o u t i l i z e P e t i t o t ' s Dictionnaire de la langue Dènè-Dindj'ié (1876), but several informants d i d not r e c ognize the words o r expression which I t r i e d t o pronounce f o l l o w i n g P e t i t o t ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n . Therefore I decided not t o depend upon the d i c t i o n a r y b u t t o l e a r n the Hare language d i r e c t l y from the informants' speech. L a t e r , I t a l k e d about t h i s problem w i t h several people i n the area who are f a m i l i a r w i t h P e t i t o t ' s d i c t i o n a r y and heard from them that the words i n the d i c t i o n a r y are b e t t e r preserved among the Mountain and Bear Lake Indians than among the F o r t Good Hope Hare. This i s an i n t e r e s t i n g problem which requires an i n v e s t i g a t i o n made by l i n g u i s t s t r a i n e d i n comparative l i n g u i s t i c s and g l o t t o c h r o n o l ogy. I n Hare, there are a considerable number o f borrowed words from French and E n g l i s h . A Cree half-breed who speaks f l u e n t Hare and other adjacent l a n guages s a i d t h a t d i r e c t borrowing o f f o r e i g n words i s more common among the Mackenzie Athabaskans than among the Cree who w i l l invent t h e i r own terms f o r newly introduced objects and post-contact phenomena.

18 TABLE 2 LIST OF HARE PHONEMES

Stops and A f f r i c a t e s VD lenes unasp.

VL fortes asp,

f

z

s

-

Z

s

-

-

y

-

y'

g

X

x-

i

1

1'

-

h

-

Alveolar

d

t

Blade A l v e o l a r

-

Prepalatal

gW

k

k'

-

f

Glottalised

w

b

g

Voiced

Voice­ less

b'

Bilabial

Velar

Glottalized

Spirants and S i b i l a n t s

fw

w' s'

z'

Lateral

-

Faucal

-

a-Affricates

-

ts

ts'

-

-

-

s-Affricates

-

&

c

-

-

-

1-Affricates

-

tl

-

-

-

Nasal

m ( b i l a b i a l , voiced) n ( a l v e o l a r , voiceless)

t l '

r(alveolar)

Trill

Tones

Vowels Un-nasalized

Nasalized in

(upwards)

e (as i n met)

en

(downwards)

o (as i n law)

o

i

(as i n s i t )

no s i g n ( s t r a i g h t forward)

n

u (as i n book, but more center)

u

a (as i n pot)

a

n

n

19 Proficiency in English i s higher among the southwestern than among the northeastern Hare (see Table 3). Most of the southwestern people between the ages of 7 and 45 can understand and speak English well. Since the native language i s mostly spoken at home, children do not learn English until they start to go to school. A few individuals between the ages of 45 and 70 can understand French, or both French and English. Almost a l l the people above 70 understand neither French nor English. When I went to the f i e l d , Professor Hoijer supplied me with a tentative l i s t of Hare phonemes drawn up from data collected by Dr. F.K. L i in 1929. The transcription of the native words are mainly based on this l i s t with a minor change i n typography (see Table 2).

THE HARE WAYS OF IDENTIFYING THEMSELVES Ethnic Identity In the minds o f the present day Hare, i t seems t h a t human beings a r e c l a s s i f i e d f i r s t i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s : lisawa and mo'la. Since the former category includes dene ('Indians' o r 'people') and avak'e 'Eskimos,' the word lisawa, which c o u l d w e l l have been derived from French, les sauvages, may be t r a n s l a t e d as 'natives' i n E n g l i s h . The l a t t e r category "mo'la" c o r responds p r i m a r i l y t o 'white man,' but extends t o i n c l u d e non-Caucasians such as Negroes, Chinese, Japanese, e t c . , w h i l e n a t u r a l l y excluding "dene" and "arake." Secondly, among the "dene", besides the Hare o r k'á-šó-gòt'ine themselves, are i n c l u d e d i n a mutually e x c l u s i v e manner, such neighbouring Athapaskan ' t r i b e s ' : f i r s t , é 'ta-gò-t'ine , o r 'Mountain Indians' who a r e considered t o be most c l o s e l y r e l a t e d by the Hare through k i n s h i p t i e s and l i n g u i s t i c proximity; second, sà-tu-šo-gò-t'ine o r dilili -gò-t'ine, 'Great Bear Lake Indians' w i t h whom the Hare f e e l f r i e n d l y because o f intermarriage; and de'keu-gò-t'ine, o r 'Loucheux Indians' w i t h whom the Hare a l s o intermarry, b u t w i t h whom i t seems, they a l s o f e e l a l i t t l e b i t uneasy. Furthermore, under the category o f dene, there a r e li -sa-go-t'ine, o r 'Dogrib Indians' who l i v e south o f 'the Great Bear Lake Indians', and other Athapaskan " t r i b e s " corresponding t o the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n made by Osgood o f A r c t i c Drainage C u l t u r e s (Osgood 1936a:4). The American Indians who appear i n the western movies a r e a l s o c a l l e d "dene". n

n

4

The Hare Indians seem t o have a consciousness o f themselves as an i n dependent e n t i t y i n c o n t r a s t t o the r e s t o f the "dene" t r i b e s , as w e l l as the avak'e and the mo 'la. The b a s i s o f t h i s "we-feeling," I assuma, i s the f a c t t h a t the Hare i n d i v i d u a l s share i n common a geographical area, c e r t a i n c u l t u r a l t r a i t s , and a language which a r e not shared t o the same degree by any other people, and which therefore d i s t i n g u i s h them from other categories o f human beings. The Hare have t h i s f e e l i n g o f " t r i b a l i d e n t i t y , even though they have n o t fought as a u n i f i e d group against t h e i r neighbours nor have they had a c h i e f who i s authorized t o make formal d e c i s i o n s f o r o r give orders t o a l l the Hare. When an i n d i v i d u a l Hare i s conversing w i t h non-Hare persons, i n t e l l i n g about the Hare Indians, he would use the expression, sa-go-t'ine 'my people' o r 'my f e l l o w tribesmen.' This word, sa-go-t'ine, a l s o designates a category o f one's r e l a t i v e s which may be t r a n s l a t e d as 'my c l o s e r e l a t i v e s , ' as I s h a l l e x p l a i n more f u l l y i n the l a t e r s e c t i o n on k i n s h i p . Here i t should s u f f i c e t o mention t h a t sà-gò-t'ine means 'my c l o s e r e l a t i v e s ' e x c l u s i v e l y when j u s t the Hare a r e t a l k i n g t o each other. F i n a l l y , according t o n a t i v e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n , i f an i n d i v i d u a l i s born o f Indian parents, he i s "dene" regardless o f h i s l e g a l s t a t u s . I f an i n d i v i d u a l i s born o f mo'la f a t h e r and dene mother, and i f he leads a hunting and gathering l i f e , he i s designated as dene, w h i l e he may be c a l l e d mo 'la i f he l i v e s l i k e a white man who " u s u a l l y has money, dresses w e l l , a c t s bossy, and eats r e g u l a r l y three times a day." There has been no Hare man married t o a mo'la woman. Although two o l d men c l a i m they have some Eskimo blood w i t h a s l i g h t p r i d e , no case has been found i n my geneological recordings o f marr i a g e between the Hare and the Eskimo. The l a t t e r are s a i d t o be people who 20

21

"have strong medicine, eat whale blubber and raw f i s h , and are always laughing." The two o l d men i n question are considered t o be dene because they have been c a r r y i n g on Hare ways o f l i f e . In the case o f a mixed marriage between a Hare and a Loucheux, a Mountain, o r a Great Slave Lake Indian, the c h i l d ' s a f f i l i a t i o n i s i n f l u e n c e d by the parents' residence, h i s own residence, and how he i d e n t i f i e s himself. The Canadian expression f o r ' h a l f breed,' metis appears t o have no corresponding word i n the Hare language. I n the minds o f Hare, I suspect, a c h i l d from a mixed marriage has t o be categorized e i t h e r as "dene" o r "mo'la." A "mo'la" man who i s married t o a Hare woman i s u s u a l l y given a nickname by the people and h i s son sometimes may be c a l l e d šali-be-ya, 'Charles son,' dene-deze -be-ya, 'Negro's son,' o r ya'pa -be-ya, 'Japanese son.' n

n

Here i t may be added t h a t the Hare Indians grade each i n d i v i d u a l according to h i s degree o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n . Namely, there i s a l i n e o f i n d i v i d u a l s from the most dene t o the most mo'la i n way o f l i f e . I n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, intra-group marriages among the Hare show a strong tendency f o r the l e s s acc u l t u r a t e d woman t o marry the more a c c u l t u r a t e d man as measured along t h i s s c a l e j u s t as i t i s the dene woman who may marry a white man (mo'la). Sub-group o f the Hare The i d e n t i t y o f v a r i o u s sub-groupings among the Hare presents an i n t e r e s t i n g problem. Table 3 gives a compilation o f the v a r i o u s names o f subgroupings o r bands recorded by P e t i t o t and Osgood, as w e l l as by H u r l b e r t and myself. The inconsistency among the v a r i o u s l i s t s i s s t r i k i n g . Osgood i s aware o f t h i s p o i n t and r i g h t l y comments: My s u b d i v i s i o n (Osgood 1932a:23ff.) o f the Hare does not c o r r e l a t e w i t h P e t i t o t ' s which f a c t leads me t o a d i s cussion o f the Northern Athapaskan groups as g e n e r a l l y set f o r t h . P e t i t o t ' s Eta-tcho-Gottinè, o r People o f B i g P o i n t , r e f e r s t o a group o f Indians on Great Bear Lake. These people may be Hare by a r b i t r a r y d e f i n i t i o n (although they consider themselves Bear Lake Indians [Satudene], but the p o i n t i s t h a t the term i s o n l y a place name and a p p l i c a b l e t o anyone who happens t o be f o r the time l i v i n g a t B i g P o i n t . From d e f i n i t e statements o f the Eta-tcho-Gottine themselves, the term i s not comparable t o such as Kawchodinne (Hare), Satudene (Bear Lake), and Thlinchadinne (Dogrib), the l a t t e r a l l being mutually e x c l u s i v e and unchangeable i n a p p l i c a t i o n t o a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l . The frequent l a c k o f correspondence i n l i s t s which designate d i v i s i o n s sometimes c a l l e d bands, such as e x i s t s between mine and P e t i t o t ' s , o r the i n c o n s i s tencies o f P e t i t o t ' s s e v e r a l l i s t s , o r the i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s of my own informants, a l l these l e a d me t o suspect t h a t the reason l i e s i n the m u t a b i l i t y o f these s o - c a l l e d bands (1936a:12). The reasons f o r the c h a n g e a b i l i t y o f these s o - c a l l e d bands became i n t e l l i g i b l e to me d u r i n g my second f i e l d t r i p . Among the Hare, there i s a tendency f o r an i n d i v i d u a l t o t r a v e l along more o r l e s s r e g u l a r routes and t o camp w i t h i n a

22 TABLE 3 SUB-GROUPINGS OF THE HARE INDIANS LISTED BY DIFFERENT AUTHORS

Authors

Kutchin o r Loucheux?

P e t i t o t , 1875a

Bâtards-Loucheux ou Nné-lla-gottiné

P e t i t o t , 1876a

Bâtards-Loucheux ou Nné-la-gottinê (gens du bout du monde), l e s p l u s proches v o i s i n s des Esquimaux dans l e nord du continent.

P e t i t o t , 1891

Enê-lla-Gottiné (gens du Bout-du-Monde), ou Tpa-pa-Gottiné (gens de l a Mer, Vieux de l a Mer. Bâtards-Loucheux), Des r i v a g e s esquimaux au l a c Simpson, l e long du fleuve Anderson.

Osgood, 1932

[ S o - c a l l e d band I I ] ne la go t'ine (endof-the-earth people), hunt n o r t h and e a s t of band I t o Lockhart and Anderson R i v e r s . Ten men were l e f t i n 1913, e x t i n c t i n 1928.

H u r l b e r t & Sué, 1961

Not e x i s t e n t .

Authors

Northeastern Hare

P e t i t o t , 1875a

Kha-tchâ-gottiné

P e t i t o t , 1876a

K'a-tohô-gottiné (gens parmi l e s gros lièvres), q u i chassent dans l'intérieur entre l e Mackenzie e t l a mer G l a c i a l e .

P e t i t o t , 1891

Kha-tcho-Gottiné (gens parmi l e s Lièvres, gens du Large), ou Nati'e-tpa-Gottine (gens parmi l e s Petits-Rennes), parmi l e s grands l a c s de l'intérieur, à* l ' e s t du Mackenzie.

Osgood, 1932

[ S o - c a l l e d band I I I ] 'a la go t'in (meaning u n c e r t a i n ) , southeast o f the second [band] and extends t o the edge o f t h e timber a few m i l e s beyond Anderson River. North o f N i w e l i n Lake. Occasionally t o Horton River. [ S o - c a l l e d band IV] du ta go t'ine (amongt h e - i s l a n d s people), extends t o the Hare Indian River [and t o the Anderson River

23 covering Lac Manoir, Aubrey Lake, Colville Lake, and Lac Belot]. [So-called band V] ta toi ne go t'ine (meaning uncertain), [Lac des Bois and Hare Indian River]. Occasionally to the Horton River. Hurlbert & Sué, 1961 with revision by Sué, 1962

da-la-go-t'ine or Large People, or Colville Lake People, hunts i n the northeastern half of the Fort Good Hope Game Area, to the east of 127° W. This includes people who often camp or used to camp the following spots: (1)

take-gon-gò-t'ine or in-betweenpeople, two men formerly camped in Simpson Lake.

(2)

k'a-so-šò-t'ine or ta-la-ši gò-t'ine near Niwelin Lake. n

( among-the-island(3) du-tawo-ti people), three men at the northwestern corner of Colville Lake to Anderson River i n the early 1900's. n

(4) kapa-mi-gò-t'ine or ptarmigan net people, around Colville Lake.

Authors

(5)

luge-ta-gò-t'ine or among-fishpeople, formerly around Lac Manoir.

(6)

tási gò-t'ine or táši Lake people, around Lac des Bois. n

n

Southwestern Hare

Petitot, 1875a

Khat'a gottiné

Petitot, 1876a

K'a-t'a gottiné (gens parmi les lièvres), le long de fleuve.

Petitot, 1891

Tehin-tpa-Gottiné (gens du Bois) ou Khatpa-Gottine (gens du Poil), gens parmi les Lapins, le long du Bas-Mackenzie, au nord de Good Hope. Kfwetpa Gottiné (gens des Montagnes), le long du Bas-Mackenzie au sud de Good Hope.

24 Osgood, 1932

[ s o - c a l l e d band I ] k'a' too go t'ine (big-arrow-people), e a s t o f Mackenzie River. P a r t o f t h i s group hunts t o the west o f Good Hope up t o the Great D i v i d e and i n l a t e years has crossed over by two t r a i l s to the Lansing Creek t r a d i n g post on Stewart River. This i s probably the band t h a t traded under the same name a t F o r t F r a n k l i n , at the west o f Great Bear Lake, i n 1812 (see K e i t h , G., par L.R. Masson, 1890, I I , p. 1 1 7 f f ) .

Osgood, 1936a

[ L i s t e d as Mountain Indians] Ehta-Gottine (gens l ' a i r , gens de l a Montagne), [ a f t e r P e t i t o t , 1891], the drainage o f t h e Keele (Gravel) River.

H u r l b e r t & Sué, 1961 w i t h r e v i s i o n by Sue, 1962

No n a t i v e heading (around Town people), hunting i n the southwestern h a l f o f the F o r t Good Hope Game Area, t o the west o f 127° W. These includes "sub-bands," o r people who o f t e n go t o t h e f o l l o w i n g regions: A. šin-t'á-gò-t'ine o r r i v e r people, or duhoka-gò-t'ine o r Mackenzie River people who i n c l u d e : (1) šikago-gò-t'ine who used t o hunt near L i t t l e Chicago.

B.

(2)

duala-inge-gò-t'ine who s t i l l camp around G i l l i s River and west o f t h e Mackenzie River.

(3)

others

tu-ya-t 'a-gò-t'ine, o r amongsmall-lakes-people, who s t i l l winter along t h e Ramparts River.

C. ši t'a-gò-t'ine, o r among-mountainpeople, who formerly hunted from Hume and Mountain R i v e r s towards Yukon. n

D.

koi -gò-t'ine, o r town people, who mostly w i n t e r and summer i n town. n

25 Authors Petitot, 1875a

Bear Lake Indians Etteha-Ottiné Sa-tchô t'u gottiné

Petitot, 1876a

Nni-ottiné (gens de l a mousse), qui habitent l e long du déversoir du grand lac des Ours. Satohôt'u-gottiné (gens du grand lac des Ours), dont le nom indique le territoire.

Petitot, 1891

Eta-tohô-Gottiné (gens de l a grosse Pointe, ou Poil), au nord et à l'ouest du grand lac des Ours. Nni-Gottiné (gens de l a Mouse), l e long du déversoir du lac des Ours.

Osgood, 1936a

[Listed as Bear Lake Indians] Eta-too-gotini (the people who live on Big Point, between Keith and Smith Bays [of Bear Lake]. [Also listed as Bear Lake Indians] Belini-go-tini (the people who live around the head of Great Bear River.

Hurlbert & Sué, 1961 with revision by Sué, 1962

Excluded from the Hare

26

c e r t a i n geographical area, due t o the choices he has made i n the course o f h i s l i f e . Consequently he becomes associated i n the minds o f h i s f e l l o w tribesmen w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a l i t y w i t h i n the general Hare hunting ground. Thus, such a statement may be made i n conversation: "Antoine i s a River People (duhok'a-gò-t'ine)," [ s i c ] , meaning "Antoine i s a R i v e r man," since the Athabaskan designation i s used f o r both one person o r s e v e r a l and the Indians r e g u l a r l y t r a n s l a t e i t as "People." Or, they may say "Joe i s a Mountain People ši tà-gò-t'ine." Joe would s t i l l be c a l l e d a man o f the Mountain People even though he went t o the River People's region l a s t year because h i s f a v o r i t e hunting companion w i t h whom he used t o hunt i n the Mountain area was h o s p i t a l i z e d f o r TB, and he found another hunting companion among the R i v e r People. I n such a case, however, when they say: "duhok'a-gò-t'ine-ke a r e g e t t i n g l o t s o f moose and they are not hungry," Joe i s included among the duhok'a-gò-t'ine-ke, because t h i s means those who a r e c u r r e n t l y camping i n the River People's r e g i o n . n

Since s e v e r a l i n d i v i d u a l s tend t o favor the same camping and hunting s i t e , there a r e s e v e r a l who are c a l l e d Mountain People o r R i v e r People. Such a c l u s t e r o f i n d i v i d u a l s has been described as a "band" i n the l i t e r a t u r e . Some of my informants were aware o f the E n g l i s h expression "band" which i s sometimes used a t the C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n , but d i d not f i n d any corresponding express i o n i n the n a t i v e language. Furthermore an i n d i v i d u a l may be associated w i t h s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t geog r a p h i c a l names, depending upon how the speaker i s c a t e g o r i z i n g these geog r a p h i c a l areas. I t i s as i f we might say t h a t Mr. Brown i s an Easterner, a person from Pennsylvania, o r a P h i l a d e l p h i a n , depending upon how p r e c i s e l y we want t o place him i n a given context o f conversation. Thus, Antoine can be described as dala-gò-t'ine, showing the audience t h a t he migrates and camps mostly i n the eastern h a l f o f the present Hare Hunting Area; as tù-sò-gó-t 'ine (Man o f Aubrey Lake), Aubrey Lake being h i s most f a v o r i t e r e g i o n ; o r tu-ho-ta-deli -gb-t'ine (man o f the spot c a l l e d tu-ho-tadeli where he i s c u r r e n t l y camping.) Sometimes the choice o f designation used by d i f f e r e n t informants f o r the same i n d i v i d u a l may seem a r b i t r a r y and confusing t o an ethnographer o r o u t s i d e r . n

n

In a d d i t i o n , one i n d i v i d u a l may s h i f t h i s f a v o r i t e spot during h i s l i f e time, so t h a t he might formerly have been c a l l e d a man o f the Mountain People and then l a t e r considered as one o f the R i v e r People, o r be given any other l o c a l designation w i t h i n the Hare Hunting Area. The i n d i v i d u a l ' s choice and d e c i s i o n concerning h i s camping and hunting spot seems t o be i n f l u e n c e d by e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s , such as a v a i l a b i l i t y o f game and other n a t u r a l resources, as w e l l as by h i s t i e s o f k i n s h i p and f r i e n d s h i p t o those who a l s o camp here. S i m i l a r l y , the designation o f women may change i n the course o f t h e i r l i v e s according t o the d e c i s i o n s made by t h e i r parents, husbands, and other r e l a t i v e s . These p o i n t s w i l l be described i n l a t e r s e c t i o n s o f t h i s r e p o r t . F i n a l l y , a "band" i n the usual sense o f the word, may disappear, permanently o r temporarily, i f no one happens t o camp a t a given spot o r area f o r s e v e r a l years o r decades, because o f l a c k o f game o r because o f a d e c l i n e i n population. Thus, there may be no persons t o be designated as 'people o f t h a t p l a c e . I n t h i s way, f o r example, P e t i t o t ' s kfwetpa Gottinè may drop from the l i s t o f "bands," but would again be r e v i v e d i f some f a m i l i e s began

27

to u t i l i z e the Kfwetpa region. The sharing o f a common "band" name, however, n e i t h e r i n d i c a t e s group s o l i d a r i t y nor i m p l i e s r e c o g n i t i o n o f mutual r i g h t s and d u t i e s b i n d i n g together the members, such as the r u l e s t h a t apply temporarily t o persons a c t u a l l y camping a t the same p l a c e . On the c o n t r a r y , the i n d i v i d u a l s and f a m i l i e s who share a s i n g l e band name are simply those who favor the same area f o r camping and hunting, i r r e s p e c t i v e o f whether they camp together a t the same place a t the same time, o r whether they v i s i t i t separately a t d i f f e r e n t times. I n deed, there may be two i n d i v i d u a l s who l i k e the same spot but who t r y t o avoid each other by camping there o n l y when the other i s absent. Such behavior i s r a r e . Nevertheless, i n such a case both would have the same "band" name. Self-identification of Individuals Since these s o - c a l l e d "bands" a r e so unstable and mutable, as Osgood has pointed out, we may ask: Why do the Hare say t h a t Antoine i s a River man and t h a t Joe i s a Mountain man? I t i s my impression t h a t such a statement i s q u i t e important t o each i n d i v i d u a l f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g h i s own i d e n t i t y among the Hare. For a Hare hunter there i s no spot a l l o t e d t o him by b i r t h as h i s camping and hunting ground. When he becomes a hunter, he has, a t each season, t o make h i s own d e c i s i o n s concerning h i s camping s i t e , and choose among the v a r ious a l t e r n a t i v e s . We o f t e n hear, e s p e c i a l l y among the young hunters, " I d i d not know which way t o go, b u t I took a chance and went t o Tušo. Gee whiz, I was l u c k y , l o t s o f meat and f i s h there." The o l d people say they f o l l o w what t h e i r dreams t e l l them. Married women share o r c o n t r i b u t e t o the d e c i s i o n s made by t h e i r husbands, but a widow makes her own. Each camping and hunting spot i s more abundant i n p a r t i c u l a r animals than i n o t h e r s , and has i t s unique geographical features w i t h s u b t l e appealing nuances which are s i g n i f i c a n t t o each hunter. Guided by h i s own experiences i n the bush and fortunate i n the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f congenial camping mates, an i n d i v i d u a l may f i n d h i s f a v o r i t e spots and a migration route w i t h which he i s content. On the other hand, there are other i n d i v i d u a l s who keep seeking f o r a more appealing spot a l l through t h e i r l i v e s . This seems t o be the u s u a l p a t t e r n today, e s p e c i a l l y among the western d i v i s i o n o f the people near t o the town. Such people cannot hope t o be more than o r d i n a r y hunters and sometimes are very poor ones. I t i s my impression t h a t , u n t i l around 1920, however, most f a m i l i e s stuck t o t h e i r f a v o r i t e spots and routes and t h i s i s s t i l l the tendency among the more " o l d fashioned dala-gò-t'ine" t o the east. These people can l i v e a "happy l i f e , " and have the respect o f being good hunters and wise persons. But among them there are a l s o mediocre hunters o r others who are considered s t u p i d . I t may be added here t h a t , although one i s "content and happy" i f he has c e r t a i n stable camping routes and f a v o r i t e hunting places where he manages t o go along r e g u l a r l y , he would be "a wise person" i f he knows v a r i o u s p a r t s o f the "country" i n and out o f the Good Hope Game Area. The people describe i n d i v i d u a l s i n the f o l l o w i n g manner: "Peter l i k e s t o hunt f o x t h a t ' s why he goes there"; o r "Louis i s proud o f h i s mink trapping and beaver shooting. He was born i n C o l v i l l e Lake, but he became tuyata-gò-t'ine because there are l o t s o f mink and beaver i n tuyata." There might be an a d d i t i o n a l reason f o r L o u i s ' choice, such as t h a t he wanted t o avoid c l o s e encounters w i t h c e r t a i n C o l v i l l e Lake People o r p r e f e r r e d t o a s s o c i a t e w i t h h i s f r i e n d who camps i n Tuyata. One might a l s o hear t h a t

28

" C h a r l i e always l i k e s t o go t o places w i t h l o t s o f r a b b i t s . Even though he i s young, he i s l i k e a woman o r an o l d person going a f t e r r a b b i t s . He i s scared to hunt moose. He i s s t u p i d , too. He s t a r t s t o c r y when he does n o t know what t o do." These remarks suggest that the c u l t u r a l expression o f i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y , e s p e c i a l l y o f men, may be discovered through an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f each i n d i v i d u a l ' s l i f e h i s t o r y i n terms o f h i s choices o f camping s i t e s and f a v o r i t e spots and the game he prefers t o hunt and trap. Inferences drawn from such data might be considered i n conjunction w i t h some appropriate psy­ c h o l o g i c a l t e s t i n g t o r e v e a l the psychological dynamics o f i n d i v i d u a l person­ ality. I t i s very i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e l a t i o n t o l o c a l i t y and t o animals are e x p l i c i t l y expressed here by the Indians w h i l e the i n d i ­ v i d u a l ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o other Hare, e s p e c i a l l y t o h i s camping and hunting mates, seems t o be a secondary consideration i n d e f i n i n g h i s i d e n t i t y . From an o u t s i d e r ' s p o i n t o f view, however, i t i s equally obvious t h a t there tend t o be more frequent contacts between i n d i v i d u a l s who use the same l o c a l i t y , and i n consequence share the same l o c a l designation, than between i n d i v i d u a l s who do n o t and so a r e i d e n t i f i e d by d i f f e r e n t place names. A c t u a l l y , f a c t o r s o f s o c i a l intercourse w i t h c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s o f t e n guide the hunter i n h i s choice o f camp s i t e although t h i s i s not v e r b a l l y expressed. Even though the i n d i v i d u a l s themselves may o r may n o t be f u l l y aware o f membership i n groups on the l e v e l s o f the s o - c a l l e d " t r i b e , " "band," and other s u b d i v i s i o n s , and have l i t t l e o r no conscious f e e l i n g s o f s o l i d a r i t y , we might be able t o d i s c o v e r group c h a r a c t e r i s t i c behavior patterns and a t t i t u d e s pecu­ l i a r t o each set o f i n d i v i d u a l s who share a comnon geographical i d e n t i t y . I f such l o c a l p e c u l i a r i t e s e x i s t , a r e the people themselves aware o f them? Would an a n a l y s i s r e v e a l s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n behavior and f e e l i n g that could be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the d i v i s i o n s and subdivisions o f the Hare country and i t s inhabitants which the Hare themselves make? Would t h i s somehow cor­ r e l a t e w i t h processes o f acculturation? I s h a l l r e t u r n t o these questions i n a l a t e r section. x

HISTORY Introductory Comments According to the Hare notion, there was a time i n the beginning of the world when a l l the animals and the people spoke a common language. For some reason which I was not able to clarify in the f i e l d , the animals stopped talking like men. The Handbook of American Indian mentions a legend of the formation of the earth by the muskrat and beaver (Anon, in Hodge 1907:1, 667). According to a migration story of the Hare as told by an informant: "The peo­ ple travelled, once upon a time, a long way from the direction of the Japan Sea through Alaska and crossed the mountains. These people had dogs and bea­ vers with them. When this bunch were i n the mountains, they f e l t that the team had to break. The dogs said they would like to go to the country where the Loucheux live today. These dogs became the Loucheux. The beaver who wanted to go towards the shore became the Eskimos. Us, the Hare, then were an old woman and she said that she was going to live on rabbits along the Mackenzie River. The men decided to go further and they became Dogribs, Chippewyan, and Cree." 5

Since the Hare started to live i n this area, many years and generations passed until the white men came, according to the informants. "There were no metal tools and the old timers made a l l the tools from the things around here. There were lots of caribou those days and the old timers were good hunters. Some men could feed 30, 60 or 100 people. They were strong and wise. They had wars with the Eskimos, Dogribs, Chippewyans, and Loucheux. Both men and women were strong magicians. They were really wise and could fight with mag­ ics. Since the priests (the Catholic Mission) came, the people's magic does not work well. In old days, many people died from starvation. Nowadays, we don't hear guys starving to death, although I never know I might die from hunger next month i f I run out of the grub i n the bush. Old timers did not know that good home brew and liquor. They did not have parties but just feasts. Since the white men came, we started to use iron ax, guns, kickers, radios and cameras. We spend money on them, though. Old timers sometimes had two or three wives. Some women had two husbands, too. Since we are Catholic now, we are supposed to have only one wife and one husband. Things were quite different i n the old timers' day, you know." Although the above mentioned native view of Hare history seems to indicate quite well the basic changes in the Hare l i f e during the past 200 years, for a sound ethnohistoric reconstruction i t i s desirable to incorporate c r i t i c a l l y the information available i n archaeology, folktales, faunal and f l o r a l changes, and the documented accounts of the Hare by travellers, explorers, and missionaries. Archaeological information i s almost n i l concerning the geo­ graphical area occupied by the Hare Indians except for the excavations carried out by R.S. MacNeish (1951, 1953) near Fort Norman where the fringe of the Hare Indians might have had some contact. In regard to folkloristic data, my knowledge, I feel, covers only a fragment of the very rich cultural activities of the people. Story telling i s s t i l l a major pastime and recreation of the people, especially when they are i n the bush camp i n winter, and a f r u i t f u l research project could be undertaken i f the folktales were collected i n the native language. Such an investigation should yield good insight not only into the f i e l d of Hare ethnohistory, but also into the present-day Hare l i f e . 29

30

The Hare Indians i n general seem to l i k e t o l i s t e n to other peoples' s t o r i e s and when an i n d i v i d u a l narrates a s t o r y t o the audience i n the t e n t , he enjoys making a new v e r s i o n o f the b a s i c theme by corrbining s e v e r a l s t o r i e s which he has heard and by adding the inventions o f h i s whimsical imagination t o i t . Through h i s t o r i c a l contacts, the Hare Indians have been exposed t o the s t o r i e s o f the Eskimo, Loucheux, Dogrib, Chippewyan, Cree, and the European t r a d i t i o n . They are aware o f the sources o f the s t o r i e s they t e l l . For example, Robinson Crusoe i s one o f the f a v o r i t e s t o r i e s which they s a i d they heard from the C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s . Therefore, i n u t i l i z i n g f o l k t a l e s f o r an e t h n o h i s t o r i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , s c r u t i n i z i n g caution should be a p p l i e d , together w i t h a knowledge o f comparative f o l k l o r e , a t l e a s t from n a t i v e northern North American and white sources. Information on faunal and f l o r a l changes a l s o s u f f e r s from my so f a r l i m ­ i t e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Since the end o f the 18th century, various t r a v e l l e r s and explorers have reported fragmentary observations on the subject. I n the middle o f the 19th century, Roderick MacFarlane, a Chief Factor o f the Hudson's Bay Company a t F o r t Good Hope and F o r t Anderson supplied r i c h i n ­ formation on geography, fauna and f l o r a i n the F o r t Good Hope area t o the Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n , accompanied by a considerable number o f specimens. Since the beginning o f the 20th century, the N a t i o n a l Museum of Canada, the Game Branch o f the Northern A f f a i r s Department and other agencies o f the Canadian Government have been making e f f o r t s t o c o l l e c t e c o l o g i c a l data. These sources w i l l be u t i l i z e d i n my d e s c r i p t i o n o f the Bush. On the b a s i s o f my l i b r a r y research and observations on the current Hare l i f e i n the f i e l d , the h i s t o r y o f the Hare Indians may be d i v i d e d i n t o the f o l l o w i n g 5 periods: Before 1806: Time o f F i r s t European Contacts; 18061859: I n t r o d u c t i o n o f the f u r trade and European m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e ; 1859-1921: Establishment o f the Roman C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n and increase o f the f u r trade; 1921-1940: Signing o f the Treaty and the g r a v i t a t i o n toward the t r a d i n g post; and 1940-Present: Impact o f the Northern Development p o l i c y o f the Government. Before 1806:

Time o f F i r s t European Contacts

I n the 18th century, the only European who t r a v e l l e d through the area occupied by the Hare Indians was S i r Alexander Mackenzie. On J u l y 8, 1789, the day a f t e r h i s team had passed a r a p i d which I presume was the "Sans S a u l t " Rapid (65°42"N., 128°47"W.) on the r i v e r which now bears h i s name, Mackenzie describes h i s encounter w i t h a summer encampment o f the Hare Indians: ...we observed s e v e r a l smokes beneath an h i l l , on the north shore, and on our approach we perceived the n a t i v e s climbing the ascent t o gain the woods. The Indians, however, i n the two small canoes which were ahead o f us, having assured them of our f r i e n d l y i n t e n t i o n s , they returned t o t h e i r f i r e s , and we disembarked. Several o f them were c l a d i n hare-skins, but i n every other circumstance they resembled those whom we had already seen. We were, however, informed that they were o f a d i f f e r e n t t r i b e , c a l l e d the Hare Indians, as hares and f i s h are t h e i r p r i n c i p a l support, from the s c a r c i t y o f rein-deer and beaver, which are the only animals

31

of the larger kind that frequent this part of the country. They were twenty five i n number; and among them was a woman who was afflicted with an abcess i n the belly, and reduced, in consequence, to a mere skeleton: at the same time several old women were singing and howling around her; but whether these noises were to operate as a charm for her cure, or merely to amuse or console her, I do not pretend to determine. A small quantity of our usual presents [beads, knives, awls, etc. ] were received by them with the greatest satisfaction. (Mackenzie 1927:173) On the next day, July 9, before he entered the Ramparts section near the site of the present Fort Good Hope trading post, he reports his meeting with the Deguthee Dinees, or the Quarrellers (Mackenzie 1927:179). I t seems that these Deguthee Dinees belonged to a branch of Loucheux Indians who then extended their encampments to the Fort Good Hope area intermingled with the camps of the K'à-šó-gòt'ine. It i s very d i f f i c u l t to ascertain how the Hare Indians were distributed i n the interior land on both sides of the Mackenzie River. From Mackenzie's account, we may assume that the Hare shared a considerable range of cultural traits with the adjacent Slave and Dogrib Indians, as well as with the Loucheux. On July 9, 1789, before Mackenzie encountered the Deguthee Dinees, he stopped at a camp of 15 Indians whose a f f i l i a t i o n he does not identify, but where he noted that iron knives and Eskimo-type bows were used by these Indians. I presume these were Hare. He describes these objects as follows: Their arms and utensils differ but l i t t l e from those which have been described i n a former chapter [the previous citation]. The only iron they have i s i n small pieces, which serve them for knives. They obtain this metal from the Esquimaux Indians. Their arrows are made of very light wood, and are winged only with two feathers; their bows differed from any which we had seen, and we understood that they were furnished by the Esquimaux, who are their neighbours: they consist of two pieces, with a very strong cord of sinews along the back, which i s tied i n several places, to preserve i t s shape; when this cord becomes wet, i t requires a strong bowstring, and powerful arm to draw i t . (Mackenzie 1927:176) Sir John Franklin who travelled through the Coppermine River i n 1821 narrates that "These people [the Kawcho-dinneh, or Hare Indians] report that i n their hunting excursions to the northward of Great Bear Lake they meet small parties of Esquimaux" (Franklin 1824:261). Richardson also writes some 25 years later: It i s supposed that formerly the Eskimos were i n the habit of ascending the river to the Ramparts, to collect fragments of f l i n t y slate for lance and arrow-points; but they have been only once so far up, since the trading posts were established [Ft. Good Hope i n 1806, and Peel River Post in 1840]. (1852:131)

32 1806-1859:

I n t r o d u c t i o n o f the Fur Trade and European M a t e r i a l Culture

I n 1805, Alexander Mackenzie, a nephew of the former explorer o f the same name, descended the Mackenzie River as an agent of the Northwest Company, and i n 1806, s t a r t e d to b u i l d F o r t Good Hope a t the mouth of B l u e f i s h R i v e r (66°27'N.). This f o r t , then the northernmost t r a d i n g post on the r i v e r , was e s t a b l i s h e d t o deal w i t h the Hare, the Loucheux and the Mackenzie Eskimo. I n 1821, the Northwest Company j o i n e d the Hudson's Bay Company, and F o r t Good Hope became under the l a t t e r ' s j u r i s d i c t i o n . I n 1823, the F o r t was moved two days journey down the r i v e r t o the i n t e r s e c t i o n o f the Mackenzie and T r a v a i l l a n t Rivers (67°29'N. and 130°54'W. according t o the map i n Russel, 1898) . This movement was made upon the request of the Loucheux Indians a f t e r a post was e s t a b l i s h e d a t "Old F o r t Norman" upstream on the Mackenzie R i v e r . Slcbodin (1962:19) f u r t h e r assumes: " I t i s probable t h a t two other consid­ e r a t i o n s a l s o played a p a r t i n t h i s move. One was anxiety about Russian competition, the other, hope f o r contact w i t h the Eskimo." Owing t o the inconvenience i n procuring p r o v i s i o n s , however, the post was moved back southward again i n 1827 t o Manitou I s l a n d across from the s i t e o f the present F o r t Good Hope. Due t o the bad floods during the s e v e r a l break­ ups o f i c e , the Factor John B e l l , i n 1836 t r a n s f e r r e d the post t o i t s present l o c a t i o n (66°16'N., 128°38'W.) (Bryce 1904:391). The traders exchanged axes, i c e c h i s e l s , k e t t l e s , f i l e s , knives, beads, blankets, e t c . , f o r the f u r brought i n t o the F o r t by the Indians. A l a r g e beaver s k i n was the standard o f exchange (Hooper 1853:272; I n n i s 1956:319). When the Indians came to the post, they p i t c h e d t h e i r t i p i s around the f o r t and h e l d dances and f e a s t s . They a l s o received i n s t r u c t i o n s from the traders i n trapping, preparing p e l t s , and t r a d i n g (Slobodan 1962; I n n i s 1956:327-8): In 1826, the K e i t h system of equipping Indians was adopted i n various posts and a r e g u l a r and f i x e d standard o f debts given t o the Indians was a p p l i e d . . . The Indians' hunt v a r i e d from 50 t o 200 beaver... Goods were given t o the Indian to the extent of a c e r t a i n number o f s k i n s depen­ dent on h i s a b i l i t i e s as a hunter. The f u r s caught were brought i n t o cancel the debt. An excess i n the value o f the f u r s over the debt was p a i d by the company i n goods which the Indian demanded according t o the f i x e d t a r i f f . I n a d d i t i o n , rewards were given t o hunters as g r a t u i t i e s — such commodities as beads, knives, gun f l i n t s , gun worms, hooks, needles, thread, awls, g a r t e r i n g ribbons, and so on. (Innis 1956:320) A few Indians were employed by the traders t o f i s h and hunt f o r food t o supply the F o r t . I n conjunction w i t h the Company's p o l i c y o f encouraging the employees a t the various posts to procure t h e i r own food l o c a l l y , an attempt was made i n v a i n i n 1828 t o grow b a r l e y , potatoes, t u r n i p s and radishes a t F o r t Good Hope. Again i n 1837 gardening was t r i e d and eventually potatoes and t u r n i p s proved to be most successful (H.B.C. MS:16,21; Richardson 1852:132; Lefroy in Wallace 1938:89).

33

Although F o r t Good Hope was o r i g i n a l l y b u i l t w i t h the aim o f t r a d i n g w i t h the Hare, Loucheux, and the Mackenzie Eskimos, the traders d i d not succeed i n e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s w i t h the Eskimos because o f the o l d standing h o s t i l i t y between the Eskimos and Indians (H.B.C. MS:12,17; Richardson in F r a n k l i n 1828:204; Simpson 1843:104; Hooper 1853:272-273; P e t i t o t 1889:91; Slobodin 1960:76-94). F o r t Good Hope was the only t r a d i n g post d e a l i n g w i t h the eastern Loucheux hunters i n the Mackenzie area u n t i l the Peel River Post was founded by the Hudson's Bay Company i n 1840. I n the report of the Hudson's Bay Company f o r 1824-25, Edward Smith remarked t h a t "About 60 o f them [the Loucheux] v i s i t the Establishment [ F o r t Good Hope] r e g u l a r l y . . . Their lands are on both sides of Mackenzie R i v e r . . . They do not molest the Hare Indians" (H.B.C. MS:9). A f t e r 1840, we may assume t h a t some of the Loucheux hunters s t a r t e d t o trade a t the P e e l R i v e r Post i n s t e a d of F o r t Good Hope, although others s t i l l v i s i t e d the l a t t e r f o r t r a d i n g , as i n d i c a t e d by I n n i s (1956:320) that the "Peel River [post] complained of the d e s e r t i o n o f Indians t o Good Hope." I t i s u n c e r t a i n to what extent the f a c t that the Loucheux and the Hare shared a t r a d i n g post may have increased intermarriage between these two groups. 6

The Chief t r a d e r , Joseph M c G i l l i v r a y , and John B e l l , c l e r k , who managed the F o r t Good Hope Post during 1829-30 reported the Indians' population i n the F o r t Good Hope a r e a during that p e r i o d as i n Table 4. (Hudson's Bay Co. n.d.) 7

The geographical extention and general boundaries o f the "Rapid Indians" and the "Outer Hare Indians" are not c l e a r . I suspect t h a t the Rapid Indians were the people who l i v e d around the Sans S a u l t Rapid on the Mackenzie and who p o s s i b l y hunted towards the western mountains. They might have been a p a r t of the s o - c a l l e d Mountain Indians. The Outer Hare Indians, I assume, should have been the group who l i v e d downstream around the Ramparts, next t o the Rapid Indians. Whether the t o t a l number o f 187 includes those who hunted north o f Great Bear Lake i s not c e r t a i n . The mention o f "Leaders and C h i e f s " i n Table 5 a l s o requires some comment. These "leaders and c h i e f s " seem t o have assumed t h e i r a u t h o r i t y only during the t r a d i n g t r i p s t o the F o r t , and when they returned t o t h e i r hunting and camping ground they seem t o have l o s t t h e i r a u t h o r i t y over the l a r g e number of people who might be hunting or camping i n different places and no longer exercised t h e i r decision-making power. The nature of the " t r a d i n g c h i e f " among the Northeastern Athabaskans has been discussed by MacNeish (1956:140143) who has drawn her data on the b a s i s o f d e s c r i p t i o n s given by Hearne (1958:186-187), Russel (1898:155), Richardson (1852:27,28), P e t i t o t (1891: 3 2 4 f f . ) , F r a n k l i n (1828:42), Mason (1946:34), McLean (in Wallace 1932:341), K e i t h (in Masson 1890:2, 114), Wentzel (in Masson 1889:1, 89), and Osgood (1932:74). MacNeish a s s e r t s : The t r a d i n g c h i e f was a d e l i b e r a t e i n v e n t i o n o f the f u r t r a d e r s . . . We may i n f e r from Hearn's statement that the c h i e f ' s t r a d i n g "gang" of t h a t p e r i o d , a t l e a s t , was a macro-assemblage and d i d not represent j u s t the c h i e f ' s band a s s o c i a t e s . . . By s t i m u l a t i n g greed or. arrogance, the European-made i n s t i t u t i o n of t r a d i n g c h i e f on occasion encouraged high-handed behavior by t h a t c h i e f . . . The f a c t that a t r a d i n g c h i e f might use the White man's e v a l u a t i o n o f

34 TABLE 4 INDIAN POPULATION OF THE FORT GOOD HOPE AREA, 1829-30

Leaders £ Chiefs

Men

Children o f both Women T o t a l Sexes

Remarks

Hunters

Boys

Girls

1

51

32

28

39

151

McKenzie River Indians o r Rapid Indians

2

57

51

33

44

187

McKenzie R i v e r Indians o r Outer Hare Indians

1

43

43

14

30

131

McKenzie R i v e r Indians, Lower o r Bastard Loucheux

1

33

10

18

16

78

McKenzie R i v e r Indians Upper Loucheux

1

30

-

-

25

93

McKenzie R i v e r Indians o r Lower Rat Hunters Loucheux

37

Information from Hudson's Bay Company, n.d.

35

h i s status as an argument f o r the i m p o s i t i o n o f h i s d e s i r e s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n a f i r s t hand account by P e t i t o t o f a c l a s h between a Slave c h i e f and h i s band... The f u r t r a d e r s a t ­ tempted to enhance the a u t h o r i t y o f t r a d i n g c h i e f s by g i v i n g them c l o t h i n g and medals and according them gun s a l u t e s . . . And, i n l i n e w i t h t h i s concern i n having as t r a d i n g c h i e f s men o f a u t h o r i t y , they endeavored t o appoint as c h i e f s those men who already enjoyed e s p e c i a l s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e and respect among t h e i r countrymen (1956:140-143). McLean's account i l l u s t r a t e s the above-mentioned p o i n t s very w e l l : None of the Indians who frequent the posts on McKenzie's River have h e r e d i t a r y c h i e f s ; the d i g n i t y i s conferred by the gentlemen i n charge o f posts on the best hunters. On these occasions a s u i t o f c l o t h e s i s bestowed, the most valued a r ­ t i c l e o f which i s a coat o f coarse red c l o t h , decorated w i t h l a c e ; and, as the reward o f extraordinary m e r i t , a f e l t hat i s added, ornamented i n the same manner, w i t h a feather stuck i n the s i d e o f i t . Thus equipped, the new-made c h i e f s a l l i e s f o r t h to r e c e i v e the g r a t u l a t i o n s o f h i s admiring f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s , among whom the coat i s u l t i m a t e l y d i v i d e d , and probably f i n i s h e s i t s course i n the shape o f a tobacco-pouch. In course of time, the i n d i v i d u a l s thus d i s t i n g u i s h e d o b t a i n some weight i n the c o u n c i l s o f t h e i r people, but t h e i r i n f l u ­ ence i s very l i m i t e d (in Wallace 1932:341). The traders i n general have reported t h a t the Indians frequently s u f f e r e d from s t a r v a t i o n caused by the c y c l i c decrease o f the v a r y i n g hare and by the i n s u f f i c i e n t f i s h catch. There are s e v e r a l mentions by explorers among the Hare and t h e i r neighbors of cannibalism which r e s u l t e d from s t a r v a t i o n (Lefroy in Wallace 1938:88; Hooper 1853:303-4). McLean (in Wallace 1932: 343) comments t h a t "Cannibalism i s more f r e q u e n t l y known among the Slaves and Rabbitskins than any other of the kindred t r i b e s ; and i t i s s a i d t h a t women are g e n e r a l l y the perpetrators of the crime; i t i s a l s o s a i d , t h a t when once they have t a s t e d of t h i s unhallowed food they p r e f e r i t t o every other." I t i s a l s o mentioned i n the Handbook of American Indians t h a t "a great many i n d i ­ viduals died from starvation i n 1841, at vrtiich time numerólas acts of canni­ balism are s a i d t o have occurred" (Anon, in Hodge 1907:1, 667) . According t o the Handbook, Ross i n 1858, l i s t e d a population o f 364 r e s o r t i n g t o F o r t Good Hope (Anon, in Hodge 1907:1, 667). 1859-1921: Fur Trade

Establishment of the Roman C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n and Increase o f the

I n 1859, Father G r o l l i e r , Order o f the Oblates of Mary Immaculate, a r r i v e d a t Good Hope i n a supply boat o f the Hudson's Bay Company and s a i d the f i r s t mass on September 2. I n 1866, the Church of Our Lady of Good Hope was com­ p l e t e d a t the present s i t e . The w a l l murals of the church painted mainly by Father P e t i t o t and by other pioneering p r i e s t s w i t h n a t i v e pigments and f i s h o i l s have preserved t h e i r v i t a l beauty t o t h i s day. Abbe Emile P e t i t o t , the author o f various accounts on the languages and customs o f the Northern Indians o f Canada served here during the l a t t e r p a r t o f the 19th century.

36

The records o f the missionary a c t i v i t i e s o f t h i s p e r i o d are found i n Duchaussois (1923) and i n Breton (1962). The C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n h i r e d a few Indians f o r hunting and f i s h i n g . By 1921, almost a l l the Hare Indians were nominally C a t h o l i c through baptism and confirmation, and mostly monogamous. The f u r trade f l o u r i s h e d and the Northern Trading Company o r "Northern Trader," entered F o r t Good Hope i n the 1890s and the Hudson's Bay Company expanded i t s post. Between 1858 and 1866, an attempt was made t o undertake trade w i t h the Eskimo a t F o r t Anderson (68°30'N., 128°W.) on the Anderson River n o r t h o f C o l v i l l e Lake. The Hudson's Bay c l e r k , Roderick MacFarlane, who was i n charge o f t h i s e n t e r p r i s e , c o l l e c t e d v a r i o u s ethnographic and zool o g i c a l specimens f o r the Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n . He reported i n i m i c a l r e l a t i o n s and t e n s i o n between h i s Loucheux Indian i n t e r p r e t e r s and the Eskimo. During the 1865-66 o u t f i t year, s c a r l e t fever and measles took many l i v e s away. H a r d i s t y (H.B.C. MS:54-55) w r i t e s , t h a t i t was: ...the more t o be deplored t h a t i t was p a r t l y occasioned by the ignorance and obstinacy o f the Indians themselves. The f a c t i s , they were f r i g h t e n e d out o f t h e i r senses, and gave themselves up t o d e s p a i r , fancied the end o f the World was come, and t h a t they were a l l going t o d i e , which prevented them from t a k i n g the necessary precautions during the c r i s i s o f fever... A rumor had a l s o reached Good Hope, t h a t the Esquimaux [near F o r t Anderson] were exasperated against the Whites, on account o f the number o f t h e i r people who d i e d o f the measles, which they imagined was caused by 'bad medicine' o f the whites. Upon t h i s i n c i d e n t , the Anderson post was c l o s e d . The Hare Indians during t h i s p e r i o d extended t h e i r movements t o the barren lands i n the east and t o Lansing Creek and Mayo Lake o f the Yukon drainage i n the west. The Hare Indians o r k'àšo-gò-t'ine were then roughly d i v i d e d i n t o three geographical groups f o r t h e i r hunting a c t i v i t y : ši -ta-gò-t'ine (the Mountain People), ši -tá-gò-t'ine (the R i v e r People), and dala-gò-t'ine (the Large People). n

n

The people used t o go i n t o the bush w i t h t e a , tobacco, t e n t , stove, k e t t l e s , t r a p s and gun powder. They d i d not take much f l o u r y e t . During t h i s p e r i o d , the Indians were s t i l l s u f f e r i n g from c y c l i c a l s t a r v a t i o n . I n 1904, 20 people who were hunting i n the Mountain area d i e d from hunger. Cannibalism and i n f a n t i c i d e e s p e c i a l l y a t the time o f famine i s recorded by Father Séguin o f the C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n : God grant t h a t the day o f s a l v a t i o n may yet dawn f o r our poor people here] ... By my m i n i s t r y , there has j u s t been born again o f water and the Holy Ghost an i n f a n t whom h i s mother had thrown upon the dung-heap as soon as born. Fathers o f f a m i l i e s here e a t t h e i r own c h i l d r e n . An Old man has j u s t been here w i t h me, who t h i s morning ate the l a s t morsel remaining o f h i s own murdered c h i l d . He was coming along t o t h i s f o r t i n company o f s e v e r a l other Indians. But he dropped behind, s e t up h i s t e n t , k i l l e d h i s son and

37

daughter, and feasted on their flesh while i t lasted. When I expressed my horror, and tried to teach him to be horrified, he said to me, "Our forefathers have told us that seme people saved their own lives by eating their own children. Why should not I save my l i f e i n the same way?" (Duchaussois 1923:279) Some Indians who went towards the Yukon seem to have had some contact with the Dawson people during the gold rush between about 1898 and 1914. Whether the Hare hunters supplied meat to Dawson i s not certain. However, there were several women who married white people. The Japanese cook of a Pacific Ocean steamer, after the shipwreck of his boat, went to Dawson for gold and married a Hare woman. When the gold rush was over, he came to Good Hope with his wife and children and was considered by the people as a good fisherman and swimmer, until he drowned i n the Mackenzie River i n 1949 while attempting to rescue other drowning friends. The staff of the Hudson's Bay post increased i n number, both of local Indians and of adventurous white men. Some whites started to marry Hare women. Many Hare claim, i n genealogical interviews, that they have some white blood through a grandparent or a great-grandparent who was alive during this period. Through the white residents i n Fori: Good Hope, the Indians started to learn to speak French and a l i t t l e English. After 1900, 5 boys and 5 girls born between 1900 and 1915 were sent to Fort Providence Mission Bearding School , their ages ranging from 6 to 10 years. They stayed away from home for 5 to 10 years, and since the school was conducted i n French, when they returned home they had to relearn their mother tongue and bush ways of l i f e . For example, a man recollects his experience: 8

I went to Fort Providence school when I was 5 years old. I think that was around 1910. I came back here i n 1919. I went there i n the Old Mackenzie, the stern wheeler. Besides that, I do not remember much about the time when I was 5. At Fort Providence, we talked i n French. It was fine. Out there, there were not much grub. We had butter and lard. Beans once i n a while, sometimes rice. No cream, no milk, no coffee. We had tea, flour bread, f i s h and bull ox. The mission got meat [caribou or moose] once i n a while. Sisters [the Grey Nuns] taught us. I t was just for learning a l l year. I was sick about Mom and Dad. If we cry, the Sisters won't like i t , so we never cry. When I came home, I forgot how to talk Slavey, after a week I started to talk a l i t t l e bit. When I came home, snaring was the f i r s t thing I did. I used to do a l i t t l e bit of snaring at Providence. When I got home, they told me to go to snare the rabbit. When I was strong, I learned how to fish, set traps, and to shoot. My dad died early, but Roy Miller, a white guy, used to teach me how to trap and how to talk English. Roy Miller had his place way down the river around 35 miles. My mom was with him. Roy Miller died after 2 years since I came back. Then I travelled with my brother Deya. When I got married, my brother Deya also got married an we brothers separated.

38 In 1908, the Hudson's Bay Company s t a r t e d t o operate i t s s t e r n wheeler, the Mackenzie River, which stopped a t F o r t Good Hope each summer w i t h f r e i g h t and passengers. This i s the boat mentioned i n the above account. Semi-annual m a i l d e l i v e r y was a l s o begun since 1908 i n summer by boat and i n winter by dog team, o r human portage. The o l d e s t informant of mine (b. 1879 -) proudly s a i d , w i t h some aura o f exaggeration: When I was young, I used t o I walked through many c o u n t r i e s . countries l i k e F o r t Norman, F o r t Simpson, A k l a v i k , and McPherson. F r a n k l i n Wells.

c a r r y m a i l on the back. So I know l o t s o f Rae, Wrigley, F o r t I know some people i n

By 1921 there were one o r two p r i v a t e traders besides the Hudson's Bay Company and the Northern Traders. For example, by 1921, the Lamson Hubbard Company had entered F o r t Good Hope as a competitor. I n n i s (1956:365-366) i n t e r p r e t s the d e c l i n e o f the t r a d i n g monopoly o f the Hudson's Bay Company and the increase o f competition among the v a r i o u s companies i n the Mackenzie area as caused by the improvement o f water t r a n s p o r t a t i o n on the r i v e r and by the high p r i c e s , as c i t e d below, e x i s t i n g i n F o r t Good Hope: ...The Company [Hudson's Bay] was not s u c c e s s f u l c h i e f l y as a r e s u l t o f competition. G r a t u i t i e s are given to the best hunter by the Company and these g r a t u i t i e s are increased by the competitors. "Departures" and " a r r i v a l s , " m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f the g r a t u i t y by which the Indian ccming i n during the winter was given f l o u r and bacon or "grub" f o r himself and dogs while a t the posts, were increased by competitors. F i n a l l y the Indian brings i n h i s f u r t o pay f o r -the debt and i n d i r e c t l y the g r a t u i t i e s . The Indian p e r s i s t s i n regarding a s k i n as a s k i n and refuses to permit grading o f h i s catch. U n s k i l l e d f u r buyers are consequently not a t a disadvantage and competition becomes more s e r i o u s . Moreover, the Indian i s a ward o f the Crown and cannot be sued i f he does not pay h i s debt. Repayment o f h i s debt depends on " h i s good heart." Instead o f paying the debt the Indian may s e l l h i s f u r s t o a competitor. This game has l i m i t a t i o n s but i t i s not unknown. To p r o t e c t them­ selves against these contingencies as w e l l as against a f a l l i n p r i c e i n outside markets and against l o s s on f u r s the Company must take a wide margin on the p r i c e o f the goods. P r o t e c t i o n can o n l y be gained by "whipsawing" the Indian on h i s c r e d i t and the r e s u l t s are i n e v i t a b l e . Under conditions o f competition the debt i s by no means t o t a l l y recovered. Indeed 75 per cent o f the t o t a l i s regarded as a very favorable recovery. Further p r o t e c t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l i n higher p r i c e s and the good hunter i s forced t o pay the poor hunter's debts. Fur t r a d i n g becomes a game o f poker. Large c r e d i t i s given representing i n many cases a small q u a n t i t y of goods. With the a r r i v a l o f f u r s l a r g e g r a t u i t i e s are given. This "gen­ e r o s i t y " i s i n many cases rewarded w i t h the trade. Under these circumstances accounting c o n t r o l i s impossible. The c o s t o f f u r i s d i f f i c u l t t o determine. (Innis 1956:374-375)

39 Innis a l s o mentions t h a t "Competition i n the Mackenzie R i v e r D i s t r i c t from the missions i s l i m i t e d . The Roman C a t h o l i c missions are apparently regarded w i t h s u s p i c i o n as f u r s coming i n t o t h e i r possession by g i f t s o r otherwise are s o l d outside." (Innis 1956:367) A t F o r t Good Hope, however, the Gaudet f a m i l y o f the Hudson's Bay Company who were s t a t i o n e d there from 1857 almost t o 1915 were very cooperative w i t h the C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n , according t o various sources (Breton 1962; and my informants). A t the settlement o f F o r t Good Hope, a few Indians b u i l t l o g cabins f o r t h e i r own quarters by 1912. These were the good hunters h i r e d by the t r a d i n g companies and the C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n . During t h i s p e r i o d the good hunters were Old T s e l i e employed by the Hudson's Bay Company, Old R i t i a s h i r e d by the Northern Traders, and Jean B a p t i s t e Charney who worked f o r the M i s s i o n . Ac­ cording t o a C a t h o l i c P r i e s t : the people around 1910 used t o gather i n the town a t the end o f June, and f o r a few days before Christmas. Some came i n a t Easter time. While the people were i n town, they v i s i t e d each other, v i s i t i n g a few nets and some snares o c c a s i o n a l l y . They danced, played poker and u ' z i , a t r a d i t i o n a l gambling game, f o r s e v e r a l days i n a row. They were p l a y i n g t r i c k s , too. [The medicine men h e l d seances i n which they e x h i b i t e d t h e i r powers.] They were doing the chicken dance, too [ i . e . , probably the o r d i n a r y drum dance]. The people were more content than today. The traders o c c a s i o n a l l y gave a t a s t e o f whisky, but the people never got drunk and nobody made home-brew those days. As shown i n Table 9 under the s e c t i o n on the bush, the f u r p r i c e s were q u i t e high from 1919 t o 1921. According t o Mr. Angus Sherwood and Father Biname the p r i c e s o f major s t o r e goods around 1921 i n the Lower Mackenzie River area were as f o l l o w s : Lard Beef Fat Tea Flour Tobacco Ammunition Gun 30-30 Rabbit Snare Twine F i s h Net Twine

(3 pounds) (1 pound) (1 pound) (100 pounds) (a t i n o f pound) (a box o f 20 s h e l l s ) (a bundle) (a bundle)

$ 3.00 $ 1.00 $ 1.00 $20.00 $ 1.00 $ 3.00 $75.00 $ 3.00 $ 3.00

*

**

* (a bundle made 1,000 snares) ** (a bundle i s 150 fathoms long) 1921-1945:

Signing o f the Treaty and the G r a v i t a t i o n towards the Trading Post

On J u l y 21, 1921, the Hare Indians signed the "Treaty" t o surrender t h e i r land t o the B r i t i s h Crown as mentioned i n the Introduction. A Roman C a t h o l i c P r i e s t who was present a t F o r t Good Hope described the f i r s t " t r e a t y time":

40

When the treaty team came, the government did not have much trouble. At f i r s t , they said, that they won't take the treaty. But they discussed the matter among themselves and decided to accept i t . In the 1921 'treaty time,* the Colville Lake people were also here i n town and got money. We [the Catholic Priests] used to record the names and keep the money from then on for the people who did not appear for Treaty Day. Everybody got $5.00; the Chief got $20.00 and $5.00; and the three councilors each got $10.00 and $5.00. Besides the cash, they received flour, tea, ammunition and balls of twine. The people were happy about i t . . . In 1922, the people gathered 'for the treaty,' received money and then played cards. In those years the fur prices were very good. After 1921, every year i n late June or i n early July, the Indian Agent who was stationed i n Aklavik or, at certain periods i n Fort Norman, has been com­ ing to Fort Good Hope to distribute the annuities to the Hare Indians. Treaty Day has become a time when almost a l l the Hare gather i n town and have fun: feasts, dances and gambling games. In 1923, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police established a station i n Fort Good Hope and started to build a house with milled lumber which was brought i n by boat. This building was the f i r s t lumber building which the Indians had ever seen. The Catholic Missionaries acquired land i n Aklavik for a Mission School and a Hospital i n 1923, and the school was opened i n 1926. That year, several children from Good Hope were sent there, and after that, no Hare children went to Fort Providence as they formerly did. In Aklavik, English was used i n the school, instead of French as was the case i n Fort Providence. Aklavik i s 370 miles down the river by boat; nevertheless the children stayed at the r e s i ­ dential school for a stretch of 5 or 6 years without returning home. But since many Hare patients were hospitalized i n the Aklavik Mission Hospital and scene of the male patients' wives and young daughters were working at the kitch­ ens of the hospital and school, the children at Aklavik were able to meet with the people from home. When the children went back to Fort Good Hope, however, they s t i l l had to relearn the Hare language and the bush l i f e . Among the f i r s t students at the Aklavik school was one Hare boy who later completed his high school education in Edmonton under the sponsorship of the Catholic Mission, and when an adult, worked as an assistant to the Indian Agent at Inuvik until the summer of 1962. Now he i s back i n Fort Good Hope. Another former student i s a janitor at the Fort Good Hope Federal Day School; he also acts as an inter­ preter on various occasions, one of which i s for the election speeches of the Congressional candidates. In 1929, the f i r s t airplane came to Good Hope. Some of the Hare were so surprised and afraid that they took off into the bush and hid themselves be­ hind the trees, according to informants. In that year monthly mail service was started. In the summer of 1928 there was a severe epidemic of influenza and cholera which took nearly 30 lives, some of which had been already suffering from TB. The Hare Indians had been accustomed to dispose of the dead by placing the

41

corpse on an elevated rack. But so many people were dying w i t h i n such a short time t h a t the n a t i v e c h i e f himself s t a r t e d t o complain about the bad smell around the s c a f f o l d s . Thus, they s t a r t e d ground b u r i a l and the o l d custom scon disappeared. During the 1930s, many Hare Indians became v i c t i m s o f t u b e r c u l o s i s . Some p a t i e n t s d i e d a t home, some were sent t o a small c l i n i c a t F o r t Norman when already hopeless, and l a t e r many were sent t o the C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n H o s p i t a l i n A k l a v i k . More than h a l f o f the a d u l t Hare have been h o s p i t a l i z e d f o r TB. One man r e c o l l e c t s h i s experience a t the A k l a v i k M i s s i o n H o s p i t a l : In the h o s p i t a l f o r TB, we j u s t l i e down. We played jig-saw p u z z l e , crazy game, and cribbage. There are l o t s o f shows [movies]. I used t o run the p r o j e c t o r . Lots o f fun. But I wouldn't l i k e t o go back. I n the beginning a f t e r I went i n , I used t o count the time by days; then I s t a r t e d t o count by weeks; and a f t e r a w h i l e the people around roe laughed a t me "Gee, you are s t i l l counting the time by weeks." F i n a l l y , I counted the time by the month. One woman a l s o described: I stayed i n the H o s p i t a l f o r 2 years... I n H o s p i t a l we don't stay i n the same room w i t h Eskimos. We don't l i k e them. We are not supposed t o worry when we have TB. Doctor sure don't l i k e i t i f we worry. So anything we t e l l them and they w i l l j u s t do i t f o r us. I stayed [ i n the same room] w i t h a Loucheux g i r l . She sure l i k e me. Her name was Therese. We p l a y w i t h balcon, j u s t l y i n g down. One day we l o c k the door and fought [wrestled] each other and I f e l l down from the bed. S i s t e r came t o our room but the door was locked. I go back t o bed. My f r i e n d opened the door. S i s t e r asked us what was the matter. We s a i d , "Nothing. J u s t some magazine dropped from our bed." Then S i s t e r s a i d , "Oh, no, I heard you were f i g h t i n g and Martha f e l l down." The next day, the doctor took my temperature and X-ray. He t o l d me, my chest was g e t t i n g b e t t e r but again now water i s coming out. Gee my chest was sore f o r a w h i l e . He t o l d me, t h a t I should behave myself i f I want to go home. Next week, my f r i e n d (Therese) go home. Then I stay w i t h Florence and E l i z a b e t h [both from F o r t Good Hope], Gee Gee we had fun w i t h E l i z a b e t h . She i s always funny. We k i d her. Sometimes when she i s i n a good mood, she would t e l l us the s t o r y . We say, e'ê , e'é [ s i g n o f l i s t e n i n g ] . But sometimes we say ò'ó , ò'ó . Then E l i z a b e t h gets mad and stops t e l l i n g the s t o r y . A f t e r a while she s t a r t s t o t a l k again. And I say again, ò 'ó , ò 'ó . Then she gets mad. We laugh. We tease her. Since we tease her, we are good t o her. Even now, I t r y t o be good t o her. She d i d not have moose hide, no s i l k . I gave her some s i l k and she made several uppers [mukluks]. Then I gave her some moose hide and she made a p a i r o f man's shoes. And she s o l d i t a t the Hudson's Bay store i n A k l a v i k . This was what we pay her back [ f o r our t e a s i n g ] . n

n

n

n

n

She continued:

n

42 On Sundays and e s p e c i a l l y a t Christmas time, l o t s of people came t o v i s i t us a t the H o s p i t a l . Some boys i n A k l a v i k were drunk and bother us. S i s t e r s sure d i d not l i k e i t . The boys s a i d , "Gee, n i c e l o o k i n g g i r l . " They came and t r i e d t o k i s s me. I scream. Then S i s t e r came, and he ran away. These times E l i z a b e t h would go to sleep, and s a i d nothing j u s t l i k e being mad. But some boys were r e a l n i c e t o me. Some g i r l s , too. They brought me a good Christmas present. A t Christmas day, when we go t o sleep, S i s t e r s put present on the bed near our f e e t . When we wake up i n the morning, we f i n d a b i g p a r c e l . Nice things i n i t , l i p s t i c k s , combs and many other things. We put l i p s t i c k every day. We buy them a t the store i n the h o s p i t a l . Sometimes S i s t e r gave one t o me. I f we don't put i t , S i s t e r d i d not l i k e t h a t . One day they going t o go on a p i c n i c . S i s t e r came t o each room and t o l d "Yes, you w i l l go t o the p i c n i c . " So I waited what she would t e l l me. Then, S i s t e r came t o my bed and t o l d me. "Oh, not Martha. You have t o stay i n bed." ... Everybody dressed up and looked n i c e t o go out. I stayed i n my room. S i s t e r came and t a l k e d t o me w h i l e every­ body was gone. We played cards and puzzle together. A t the H o s p i t a l , I made l o t s o f small shoes. I s o l d them one d o l l a r [ a p a i r ] . I s t a r t e d them myself. F i r s t I made small shoes j u s t f o r fun, and hang them on the bed. The S i s t e r saw them and s a i d , "Gee, i t i s n i c e , can I have one?" So I t o l d her, " I don't want t o give them away f o r nothing; I want t o have one d o l l a r f o r a p a i r . " Then they asked me t o make more and other women a l s o s t a r t e d t o make these small shoes, too. When I was i n the H o s p i t a l , gee, I want t o go home a l l the time. The doctor took my X-ray, one day. The next day, he came t o me and s a i d , "You can go home a f t e r s i x months." Gee, I was mad, "Six months more and the doctor t e l l s me I can go home!" Then S i s t e r t o l d me "Six months i s not long." F i n a l l y I came home on the February 30th. Then I don't l i k e i t . I walk i n town [ F o r t Good Hope] and I f e e l funny. A f t e r one week I became r e a l l y s i c k . I sweat, throw up and do every t h i n g . . . C h i l d r e n , too, they don't l i k e i t when they come back from the h o s p i t a l . They c r y f o r h o s p i t a l . My son was l i k e t h a t . He c r i e d , " I want t o go back t o my room!" Although the Indians were s u f f e r i n g from TB and other contagious diseases, there has been no r e c o r d o f death from s t a r v a t i o n since 1921. But the t r a ­ d i t i o n a l way o f n e g l e c t i n g the p h y s i c a l welfare o f the o l d and the h e l p l e s s young seems t o have continued. During t h i s p e r i o d between 1921 and 1945, the people were enjoying r e l a ­ t i v e l y good incomes from f u r t r a d i n g (see Table 9 i n the s e c t i o n on animals

43 f o r f u r t r a d i n g ) . Competition among the traders became i n c r e a s i n g l y severe. Besides the Hudson's Bay Company and the Northern Trading Company, s e v e r a l p r i v a t e traders kept stores f o r d i f f e r e n t lengths o f time. For example, Bud A. operated h i s store a t Good Hope between 1938 and 1946; a Hare Indian, G a b r i e l Kakfwi ran a store sponsored by the Edmonton Fur Auction Company since the l a t e 1930s u n t i l about 1956; and another Hare Indian, André Lecou, had a small store f o r 4 or 5 years i n the middle o f the 1940s. The n a t i v e traders' businesses were not s u c c e s s f u l because o f t h e i r ignorance i n bookkeeping and l a c k o f firmness i n handling the c r e d i t system w i t h t h e i r f e l l o w tribesmen, and because of the r a p i d d e c l i n e i n f u r p r i c e s , which began i n the mid-1940s. Many cabins were b u i l t i n the town o f F o r t Good Hope during the f u r boom. Some o f them were l o c a t e d across the J a c k f i s h Creek from the present s i t e o f the settlement, although no cabins remain there today. Several people a l s o b u i l t cabins i n the bush along the Mackenzie Paver and a t the southern shore o f C o l v i l l e Lake t o serve as bases f o r t h e i r trapping a c t i v i t i e s . The suc­ c e s s f u l trappers and hunters managed t o buy men's wool s u i t s and women's dresses and to have t r a v e l l i n g photographers take p i c t u r e s of t h e i r f a m i l i e s . The outboard motor was introduced i n the 1920s. The use o f various kinds of f i r e a r m s , sewing machines, and kerosene lamps became more and more prev­ a l e n t between 1921 and 1945. A t Norman Wells, the o i l f i e l d was discovered i n 1920 and during World War I I the o i l d r i l l i n g p r o j e c t was g r e a t l y expanded, i n c l u d i n g the Canol p i p e l i n e p r o j e c t t o t r a n s f e r the o i l w i t h pipes from Norman Wells v i a Whitehorse, Yukon, through the Rockies to Alaska. During the war the United States Army Engineering D i v i s i o n was i n charge and s e v e r a l of the Hare men were employed at Norman Wells as wage l a b o r e r s . A f t e r the war, the Canadian Imperial O i l Company took over the d r i l l i n g and r e f i n e r y establishment a t Norman Wells and provides o i l and gas f o r the whole Mackenzie V a l l e y . In 1944, the Royal Canadian S i g n a l Engineering D i v i s i o n o f the Canadian Army e s t a b l i s h e d a s t a t i o n a t F o r t Good Hope f o r communication purposes and h i r e d Hare men f o r the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the b u i l d i n g s . This operation has been managed by the Canadian Department o f Transport since 1959. Due t o the i n c r e a s i n g demand f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n during the War, the Canadian P a c i f i c A i r l i n e s opened t h e i r route between Edmonton and A k l a v i k . Although F o r t Good Hope was not l o c a t e d on t h e i r flyway, more small planes were coining i n t o F o r t Good Hope. This was the way the Hare Indians f e l t the war time atmosphere, while no one was d r a f t e d . During t h i s p e r i o d , between 1921 and 1945, we f i n d the emergence o f p a r t time s p e c i a l i s t s , i n a d d i t i o n t o the t r a d i t i o n a l medicine man, good s i n g e r s , good s t o r y - t e l l e r s or good moose—hide workers. Some o f these were t r a d e r s , although unsuccessful; others were the good carpenters who f i r s t showed t h e i r a b i l i t y w h i l e b u i l d i n g t h e i r cabins i n town and then s t a r t e d t o b u i l d f o r t h e i r f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s . S t i l l others were those who had learned E n g l i s h at the A k l a v i k M i s s i o n and could be i n t e r p r e t e r s f o r the traders and the Government o f f i c i a l s . There were a l s o the good cooks who had learned how t o bake bread and p i e a t the A k l a v i k H o s p i t a l kitchens from the C a t h o l i c Nuns, etc. These i n d i v i d u a l s s t a r t e d t o spend more time i n "town," earning cash income, and l e s s time i n the "bush." On the other hand, the people were q u i t e a c t i v e i n t h e i r hunting and

44 trapping a c t i v i t i e s . The Hare extended t h e i r camps o c c a s i o n a l l y beyond the tree l i n e i n the east, and to the mountains i n the west across the Yukon border. E s p e c i a l l y , due t o the r i s e of muskrat p r i c e s , many Hare f a m i l i e s went down to the r i v e r towards the Mackenzie d e l t a area f o r muskrat. Some of them were d e a l i n g w i t h the traders i n A k l a v i k as w e l l as i n Good Hope. 1945-1962:

Impact o f the Northern Development P o l i c y o f the Government

A f t e r the World War was over, the Canadian Government s t a r t e d to develop a strong i n t e r e s t i n u t i l i z i n g p o t e n t i a l resources i n the north and i n promoting the welfare of the Indians and Eskimos. As a r e s u l t , various c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s i n northern settlements have been undertaken by the Government, such as the b u i l d i n g of roads, a i r p l a n e landing s t r i p s , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s and housing f o r the personnel a t F o r t MacPherson and A k l a v i k , and e r e c t i n g the new a d m i n i s t r a t i v e center a t Inuvik. During the 1950s, these p r o j e c t s provided wage employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r the Hare Indians o f F o r t Good Hope. Concerning the l i f e o f the Indians, the Government d i r e c t e d e f f o r t s t o im­ prove t h e i r h e a l t h and education. Because of the r a p i d d e c l i n e o f f u r p r i c e s during the 1950s, s o c i a l welfare f o r the d e s t i t u t e , developing new v o c a t i o n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r the Indians, and c o n t r o l l e d harvesting of the game a l s o be­ came matters o f concern f o r the Government. These problems have been admin­ i s t e r e d by various departments o f the Federal Government i n Ottawa through t h e i r extension o f f i c e s i n F o r t Smith (the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e headquarters o f the Northwest T e r r i t o r i e s ) , i n Inuvik (the new a d m i n i s t r a t i v e center i n the n o r t h ­ ern Mackenzie area), and f i n a l l y , a t F o r t Good Hope. Here, the school teacher represents the S o c i a l Welfare Branch o f the Department o f Northern A f f a i r s ; the Royal Canadian Mounted Policeman i s the representative o f the Indian agent of the Department of C i t i z e n s h i p and Immigration, and holds a d d i t i o n a l respon­ s i b i l i t y as the Game Warden of the Department o f Northern A f f a i r s ; the nurse works s o l e l y f o r the Department o f N a t i o n a l Health and Welfare; and l a s t l y , two men work f o r the Department o f Transport. In a d d i t i o n , the Department o f P u b l i c Work participates i n various construction projects i n the North. In the 1940s, t u b e r c u l o s i s decimated the n a t i v e population. The mission­ ary h o s p i t a l was n e i t h e r l a r g e enough nor equipped w e l l enough t o cope w i t h the s i t u a t i o n . In 1946, the Charles Camsell H o s p i t a l i n Edmonton, A l b e r t a , Was acquired by the Federal Government and began to f u n c t i o n i n the treatment of cases which might r e q u i r e surgery. P a t i e n t s were sent i n from various com­ munities, mostly i n the Mackenzie River area, w i t h a few from the Yukon T e r r i t o r i e s and the adjacent Provinces. Since the opening o f the Charles Camsell H o s p i t a l i n Edmonton, up u n t i l June, 1962, 48 Hare i n d i v i d u a l s were t r e a t e d f o r TB and other diseases a t l e a s t once; among these, 4 persons d i e d and were buried i n Edmonton. Several cases were sent to a h o s p i t a l i n F o r t Smith and r e c e n t l y to Inuvik a f t e r the A k l a v i k Mission H o s p i t a l was c l o s e d and treatment was taken over by the Government Inuvik General H o s p i t a l i n 1961. As another aspect of the Indian Health P r o j e c t , the Department o f N a t i o n a l Health and Welfare s t a r t e d i n 1947 the préfabrication o f a nursing s t a t i o n a t F o r t Good Hope which s t a r t e d operations i n 1948 w i t h a nurse i n charge. She i s a Registered Nurse and h o l d a c e r t i f i c a t e f o r midwifery. She can r e s i g n a f t e r one year's s e r v i c e but i s encouraged to stay f o r two years. Once a

45 year, u s u a l l y i n summer, an X-ray survey team from the Department O f f i c e i n Edmonton, an eye doctor, and a d e n t a l team v i s i t F o r t Good Hope f o r d i a g n o s i s and treatment. O c c a s i o n a l l y , general p r a c t i o n e r s are sent from Inuvik. Other­ wise, the nurse i s i n f u l l charge, and cares f o r such cases as cuts w i t h axes, d e l i v e r y of babies, e x t r a c t i o n o f t e e t h , and other complaints. I f the case i s severe and beyond the c a p a c i t y o f the nursing s t a t i o n , the p a t i e n t i s t r a n s ­ f e r r e d t o Inuvik or t o Edmonton by plane a t Government cost. Sometimes the nurse sends a telegram through the o f f i c e r of the Department o f Transport t o ask the Inuvik General H o s p i t a l f o r advice on the treatment o f a case. When many people are s t a y i n g i n town, the nurse may handle 20 o r 30 p a t i e n t s a day. An Indian man i s working as a j a n i t o r a t the nursing s t a t i o n and a g i r l serves as an aide as w e l l as i n t e r p r e t e r . In 1956, the f i r s t d e l i v e r y occurred i n the n u r s i n g s t a t i o n , and the baby g i r l was named "Ima" a f t e r the nurse. Now a l l the pregnant women are reg­ i s t e r e d a t the n u r s i n g s t a t i o n and almost a l l o f them give b i r t h w i t h the a i d of the nurse. I t i s s a i d t h a t some o f the "magician men," shamans among the people, were the l a s t t o ask f o r medical a i d from the nurses and doctors. But one c h e e r f u l "magician man" who i s famous f o r h i s a b i l i t y i n c o n j u r i n g and t r i c k s , spent four months a t the Charles Camsell H o s p i t a l f o r treatment of TB and he spoke o f h i s experiences i n Edmonton w i t h some r e l i s h : I n Edmonton, I met so many people, I know many white men, there were l o t s o f p r e t t y g i r l s , too. I made f r i e n d s w i t h Eskimos and Cree Indians. They sang t h e i r songs. I learned many Eskimo and Cree song. Operation was hard. But I had good time. Before going on camping t r i p s , many Indians come t o the n u r s i n g s t a t i o n f o r f i r s t - a i d supplies i n c l u d i n g bandaids, a n t i s e p t i c s , a s p i r i n , and ointment. They seem t o b e l i e v e i n the power o f "white men's medicine." When the nurse i s not a c c e s s i b l e , however, a s i c k person i n the t r a p p i n g camp o r on the t r a i l i s o f t e n t r e a t e d according to the t r a d i t i o n a l f o l k medicine which u t i l i z e s l o c a l herbs, s i n g i n g and touching by the "magician man." I f the p a t i e n t i s s e r i o u s l y i l l , the people would r e s o r t t o the nurse f o r t e c h n i c a l a i d , and t o the magician man or the C a t h o l i c p r i e s t f o r s p i r i t u a l a i d . On the whole, i n the minds o f Hare, i t seems t h a t European medicine i s not incompatible w i t h n a t i v e medicine, whereas the C h r i s t i a n i t y i s considered responsible f o r the d e c l i n e o f "magician's" power. Besides the problem o f h e a l t h , the Federal Government has been t r y i n g t o promote the standard of education f o r Indian c h i l d r e n . In 1949, the Federal Day School was b u i l t i n F o r t Good Hope. One teacher i s assigned t o teach from the f i r s t t o s i x t h grades f o l l o w i n g the c u r r i c u l u m o f Province o f A l b e r t a . He o r she has t o be a Roman C a t h o l i c since F o r t Good Hope i s "a C a t h o l i c commu­ n i t y . '' Those c h i l d r e n who attend a t the Day School i n F o r t Good Hope come from the f a m i l y i n which the parents stay i n town most of the year. In 196162 academic year, 15 c h i l d r e n whose parents were away i n trapping and hunting camps were provided f o s t e r homes by the Indian and white f a m i l i e s i n the town o f F o r t Good Hope, and the Government p a i d the fees f o r room and board $1.50 a day per c h i l d t o the f o s t e r homes. I f the parents stay out o f town i n the bush more than 120 days d u r i n g the

46

school year period, their children between the f i r s t to sixth grades are qualified to attend Federal residential school i n Inuvik which was opened i n September, 1959. The personnel of the school consists of Catholic people, i n ­ cluding priests and nuns. Prior to 1959, the Oblate Fathers were operating a mission school i n Aklavik u n t i l the Government took over administrative re­ sponsibility f o r the Indians and Eskimos. At the Inuvik Federal School they provide education from the sixth to the ninth grade. Therefore, the Hare children who have completed sixth grade ed­ ucation at Fort Good Hope Federal School also go to Inuvik. I f a Hare c h i l d wants to continue further on to High School, then he may go to Yellowknife to attend the S i r John Franklin High School through twelfth grade. At these schools i n Inuvik and Yellowknife, Eskimo, Indian and white children share class rooms and dormitory rooms. By December, 1962, two Hare g i r l s had grad­ uated from the Yellowknife High School and had gone into nursing training, and one boy had just been enrolled at the University of Alberta for premedical courses. During the academic year, 1962-63, two boys and one g i r l were study­ ing at the High School i n Yellowknife. Moreover, three boys were attending school at Fort Smith. These boys are considering becoming Catholic priests and are l i v i n g at the residential quarters operated by the Catholic church. Attitudes and feeling of the Hare people towards schooling w i l l be described i n a l a t e r section. The decline of fur prices since the l a t t e r part of the 1940s has increased the people's dependency on the Welfare Programs of the government, which i n ­ clude Family Allowances, D i s a b i l i t y and Blind Person's Allowances, Old Age Assistance and Old Age Security. A l l individuals, regardless of legal status, are e l i g i b l e for these programs. Those who are of Indian status, however, are handled by the Indian A f f a i r s Branch while those of White status (or ordinary citizens) by the Department of Northern A f f a i r s . A person between 65 and 69 years of age invariably receives $55.00 a month from the T e r r i t o r i a l Government. When a person reaches 70, the Federal Government pays $65.00 a month, also by check, as Old Age Security. These "pensions" have changed the attitude towards o l d age i n the mind of the Hare. Formerly, o l d people were useless burdens to the t r a v e l l i n g young people, un­ less the old man was a good storyteller and an o l d woman was a good seam­ stress. Now the younger people look forward to the time when their parents and grandparents start to receive these "pensions," because t h i s "pension money" i s a good sum of cash upon which they can d e f i n i t e l y count upon every month, regardless of luck i n hunting or fishing. D i s a b i l i t y and Blind Person's Allowances are open to those who are not capable of normal hunting and gathering a c t i v i t i e s due to bad health. In addition to b l i n d or crippled persons, one who has just been discharged from the hospital, and i s s t i l l i n convalescence at home under the nurse's super­ v i s i o n , i s also e l i g i b l e f o r this Allowance. I f the head of a household i s i n the hospital or i s a recipient of the D i s a b i l i t y and Blind Person's Allowance, h i s or her family i s q u a l i f i e d to have a Family Allowance. Widows and unwed mothers, including their children, also receive Family Allowances. The parents who have children attending Fort Good Hope Federal Day School also receive Family Allowances because "these children do not have enough time to help the family, since they are spending

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time a t the School." From the Government's p o i n t o f view, t h i s i s , o f course, one way t o encourage parents t o send t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o school. Since school c h i l d r e n who go t o the r e s i d e n t i a l schools outside o f F o r t Good Hope are pro­ vided w i t h food and c l o t h i n g by the government, the Family Allowance i s not p a i d f o r such c h i l d r e n . Under the Family Allowance and the D i s a b i l i t y and B l i n d Person's Allow­ ance, the amounts o f monthly payments are: $25.00 f o r the head o f a house­ hold; $17.00 f o r each member o f the household over 17; and $15.00 f o r each o f those who are under 16. The money i s given i n "food value" which means t h a t the people may buy only food w i t h these Allowances, which excludes c i g a r e t t e s and a l c o h o l i c beverages. Here a "household" i s defined as c o n s i s t i n g o f i n ­ d i v i d u a l s who share the same "Treaty Number" o f the Hare Band No. 5. But i f a married couple i s temporarily separated, the government o f f i c i a l s judging the s i t u a t i o n may consider the w i f e as an independent head o f a "household" d i f ­ f e r e n t from her husband's. Besides a l l the a i d mentioned above, the Indian A f f a i r s Branch has a spe­ c i a l budget f o r r e l i e f programs f o r d e s t i t u t e cases t o supply b u f f a l o meat, f i s h n e t s , twine f o r f i s h nets and r a b b i t snares, blankets, s h e l l s , firewood, p a i n t and b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s , e t c . The policeman as a representative o f the Indian A f f a i r s Branch has t o decide t o whom and when these r e l i e f goods are t o be d i s t r i b u t e d . From the Indians' p o i n t o f view, t h i s i s the area i n which they can " t a l k t o the p o l i c e and ask f o r help." I f the policeman refuses t o give r e l i e f goods, the Indian a p p l i c a n t may say afterwards, "The p o l i c e [man] i s here i n town t o help people. But t h a t damn p o l i c e , he i s j u s t mean. He j u s t l i k e s t o look f o r people making brew and put them i n j a i l . " There has been no o f f i c i a l record o f murder o r s u i c i d e among the Hare since the Royal Canadian Mounted P o l i c e was f i r s t s t a t i o n e d a t F o r t Good Hope i n 1923. To the people, the P o l i c e O f f i c e r i s a white roan t o whom they go f o r hunting and trapping l i c e n c e s , f o r " r a t i o n s , " f o r jobs, and f o r help when the people get i n t o f i g h t s . The people a l s o t h i n k t h a t "the p o l i c e [man] w i l l f i n e the Indians o r put them i n j a i l i f he f i n d s out somebody i s making brew, d r i n k i n g brew, o r breaking the Game Laws made by the tough Game Warden." I t i s not a moral problem f o r most o f the people whether o r not they obey the Government's laws, i f the a c t i o n i s t o t h e i r advantage o f the moment, as long as the p o l i c e know nothing about i t . I f they are caught, i t i s r e a l l y the " f a u l t " o f the Game Warden who made such harsh laws. A t the same time, i t ' s only " s t u p i d ones" who are caught. A Game Warden was s t a t i o n e d between 1949 and 1960 i n the town o f F o r t Good Hope i n order t o i n v e s t i g a t e the game c o n d i t i o n s and the hunting and trapping h a b i t s o f the Indians w i t h i n the Game Area. A f t e r the Game Warden S t a t i o n a t F o r t Good Hope was c l o s e d , the policeman has been representing the Game Warden, as w e l l as the Indian agent, i n a d d i t i o n t o h i s o r d i n a r y constabulary respon­ s i b i l i t i e s . The f a c t t h a t there was a Game Warden's S t a t i o n w i t h a Game Warden who p a t r o l l e d i n the area f o r a decade seems t o have convinced the Indians t h a t there are such things as game laws which they are supposed t o observe. I n general, among the v a r i o u s white persons w i t h whom the Hare have been i n contact, the Game Warden i s the most unwelcome one t o the Indians be­ cause "he sets a l l the dates f o r shooting and trapping animals, cuts the num­ ber o f beavers unreasonably low, and c l o s e s swans and cranes." I n other words, "The Game Warden bothers our bush too much." Very few Hare f u l l y understand

48 the philosophy of game conservation. During the past years several white people came as traders, Catholic priests, and government o f f i c i a l s to live among the Hare and thereby showed what i s the white roan's way of l i f e . Then, i n 1960, a Pentacostal Evangelical "preacher" came to town and pitched a tent by himself i n the woods. He i s very good in woodcraft and "knows how to live i n the bush although he does not hunt and trap." Following him, i n 1962, another Pentacostal "preacher" with his family started to l i v e i n Fort Good Hope. The people here started to realize that these "preachers" do not believe i n the Holy Trinity and the Virgin Mary. I would like to say more about the Pentacostal movement i n the later section on Religion. In May, 1962, the Department of Northern Affairs extended i t s Rehabili­ tation Home Industries project to the Fort Good Hope Area under the local administration of the teacher of the Fort Good Hope Federal Day School. This project aims to preserve native s k i l l s i n traditional handicrafts and to find a market for their sale i n order to increase the cash income of the people. A few Hare men made miniature snowshoes, and several women are making mooseskin slippers, gloves, mukluks, etc. i n their spare time under this project. The teacher judges the quality and prices the pieces accordingly. As of June, 1962, the wholesale pricing guide reads: 5 feet long 2 feet long 14 inches long Loucheux canoe 16 inches long Moccasins, mooseskin, f u l l y beaded uppers and with beaver trim mooseskin, f u l l y beaded uppers and with beaver cuff and beaver trim Mukluks, f u l l y beaded, with beaded cuff Moccasins with embroidered uppers Mukluks with embroidery but with plain cuffs Mittens, beaded mooseskin with beaver trim with beaded cuff and hand Beaded necklace, collar type ( 2 x 8 inches) Beaded belts Snowshoes, top quality

$25.00 $15.00 $10.00 $ 7.20 $ 7.50 up to $9.60 $ 7.50 $16.00 $ 5.60 $ 8.00 $16.50 $19.50 $ 2.00 $12.00

up or or or or or or or

to $12.00 below below below below below below below

During the past 10 or 15 years, the Indians' hunting and trapping activ­ i t i e s have been decreasing for various reasons: f i r s t , the loss of incentives for trapping due to the slump i n fur prices; second, the attraction of wage labor around the trading post, since job opportunities have been increasing, due to the Northern Development policy of the Government; and third, the inability to purchase or gain credit from the store for a large quantity of supplies to undertake hunting and trapping excursions to remote spots far from the trading post. Because of these limited supplies, most of the people who were out camping for furs remained near the trading post where the furbearing animals seldom appear. Furthermore, this meant that such families obtained l i t t l e wild food for themselves and their dogs, thus, as of 1959, the Game Warden estimated that "approximately 60% of the income of the Hare Indians was spent on prepared dog meal" (miscellaneous records supplied by the Northern Co-ordination and Research Centre), whereas there were plenty of fish i n Colville Lake, 100 miles northeast of the town. There were several exceptional

49 families who usually camped i n the Colville Lake area and they travelled a l l the way on foot or with dog team to town three times a year, i.e., after break­ up, at Christmas, and at Easter, i n order to trade their furs, to purchase supplies, and to attend the church. This trip from Colville Lake took at least 5 f u l l days of dog team travelling by a couple of young men. According to a suggestion made to the Indians, who responded with a formal request, the Canadian Government has started a project to encourage the people to go trapping and hunting towards the Colville Lake area where fish and game are abundant. In the f a l l of 1959, a winter road was cut through the woods between Fort Good Hope and Colville Lake at the cost of $5,000, to facilitate easier and faster travelling for trappers. In 1960, a private trader opened an outpost at the southern shore of Colville Lake which saved several indi­ viduals long trips to town for supplies. The construction of a Roman Catholic Mission and Church at Colville Lake was started i n the summer of 1962, u t i l i z i n g the labor of the Indians before they went out for trapping. Mass was said every day at the construction site. In the same year, a Pentacostal preacher also started to live i n a tent at the Colville Lake trading post. The Indian Affairs Branch of the Canadian Federal Government sent lumber, doors, windows, roof materials, etc., for the construc­ tion of four one-room cabins for the Indians who intended to continue trapping in the vicinity of Colville Lake. These cabins were also b u i l t i n the f a l l of 1962. By December, 1962, the Catholic Mission was i n radio communication with other mission posts. Thus, very recently, there are two trading posts i n the Fort Good Hope area. The people who camp west of Lac a Jacques (about 127°30'W) mainly shop at Fort Good Hope and those who camp east of the lake v i s i t the Colville Lake post for supplies and fur trading. The people restrict the expression "town" to the Fort Good Hope trading post and settlement on the Mackenzie and I would like to follow their usage. The word, "trading post," may refer to Fort Good Hope and to the Colville Lake settlement. At the present time, a handful of Indians i n the settlement of Fort Good Hope work as janitors for the school and the nursing station, as interpreters for the nurse and for the police, and one, as a caretaker of the jailed women. These jobs are open a l l through the year, and those who hold them earn the highest cash income among the Indians. As of 1961, several people were working outside of the community, as o i l barrel haulers at Norman Wells, as cooks at Norman Wells and Fort Smith, and as construction workers i n Inuvik; one was a sailor on the steamer on the Mackenzie River. Some people had been working outside for nearly a year, a l ­ though this was exceptional. Ordinarily, after working outside of Fort Good Hope for a while, three months or so, the Indians become terribly homesick and suddenly leave the job and come home. Moreover, the family at Fort Good Hope starts to miss the person and writes him to come back. The family also ex­ pects to share the cash earned by the member who works away from home. If one takes the total amount of income obtained i n 1960 by the Hare Indians from sales of furs and wage labor, and divides this sum by the number

50 of n a t i v e "households" (85 according t o the Government l i s t ) i n the area, the average cash income per household was about $550. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s earned income, p a i d i n cash o r i n goods, money and supplies come i n t o the community i n the form of r e l i e f from the Government. This probably amounts t o the equivalent o f $350 t o $400 per household f o r a year. I t seems t o c o s t from $80 t o $100 a month o r i n c r e d i t a t the store f o r a n a t i v e couple t o l i v e on a niinimum s c a l e . I n c o n t r a s t , a white carpenter who i s s t r i c t l y dependent on store foods, spends a t l e a s t $6.00 a day j u s t on food. Summary As shown i n the foregoing d e s c r i p t i o n s , the Hare Indians have been going through changes i n t h e i r way o f l i f e since the beginning o f the 19th century. These changes are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the f o l l o w i n g two f a c t o r s : the various aspects o f Euro-Canadian c u l t u r e t o which the Hare have been exposed since the v i s i t of S i r Alexander Mackenzie; and the ways i n which the Hare have met these e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s and have managed t o l i v e i n the area as an e t h n i c entity. The establishment o f the t r a d i n g post and the government's p o l i c i e s f o l lowing the Treaty, have ceased the k'à-šó-gò-t'ine t o have " i n t e r - t r i b a l " p o l i t i c a l dealings w i t h the neighboring Athabaskan " t r i b e s " and w i t h the Eskimo. On the other hand, the c a t e g o r i c a l contrast between the domineering white and the lisawa o r 'natives' has become very evident t o the people and t h i s phenomenon seems t o have produced a p s y c h o l o g i c a l sense o f intimacy and u n i t y among the a b o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s o f the lower Mackenzie area, i n c l u d i n g the Hare Indians. Today, except f o r o c c a s i o n a l v i s i t s by the n a t i v e s between F o r t Good Hope and F o r t Norman, the Hare Indians meet i n d i v i d u a l s from the neighboring " t r i b e s " mainly through white i n s t i t u t i o n s , such as the r e s i d e n t i a l schools, h o s p i t a l s , and j a i l i n Inuvik, and c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s i n A k l a v i k , F o r t McPherson, Inuvik, Norman Wells, e t c . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , the economic and s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between the r i c h and poor among the Hare seems t o have been very s m a l l . Today, however, the " r i c h " white people w i t h i n the Game Area are l e a d i n g a very d i f f e r e n t l i f e from t h a t o f the Hare, and one which seems unattainable t o an Indian. "When a white man i s walking, we step back 4 o r 5 steps and w a i t u n t i l he goes by." Trapping a c t i v i t i e s o f small fur-bearing animals seem t o have urged the trappers t o s c a t t e r away from each other's t r a p l i n e s i n winter. Formerly, when the people were more dependent on caribou herds, the hunting o f caribou sometimes r e q u i r e d co-operation o f s e v e r a l hunters and the s i z e o f each camp group must have been l a r g e r . When the people were h e l p i n g each other, the "magician man's work" and p u b l i c opinion functioned as s o c i a l c o n t r o l s . Today, s o c i a l c o n t r o l i s handled i n a smaller degree by the people themselves. Instead, the policeman has a strong power (on the matter) because he can put people i n j a i l and decide about the " r a t i o n s . " This phenomenon has a negative e f f e c t o f undermining the o l d e r patterns o f co-operation among the Hare. Now, even i f a man camps alone without a hunting mate and i s not s u c c e s s f u l i n hunting, he may go t o the p o l i c e and ask f o r a r e l i e f i s s u e , which was imp o s s i b l e i n t r a d i t i o n a l days when each hunter o f t e n counted on h i s f r i e n d s ' generosity i n times o f need.

51

The M i s s i o n a r i e s have weakened the "magician man's" power, and the dream quest by boys and young men has consequently become l e s s important i n t h e i r lives. From the Hare p o i n t o f view, the nurse and doctors o f t e n seem t o take r e l ­ a t i v e l y able husbands and sons away suddenly f o r a long time. This i s i n ­ e v i t a b l e and there i s no way t o r e s i s t i t , j u s t as the animals disappear suddenly. To the Hare, the white people seem t o have endless s u p p l i e s o f advanced t e c h n o l o g i c a l knowledge, and a few i n d i v i d u a l s want t o master t h i s knowledge as much as they can. However, there i s a c o n v i c t i o n among the people t h a t i t i s very hard f o r the white people t o understand the Indians, f o r example, "The way we think by dreams, white men don't understand," and "The way we know an­ imals i n the bush, no white man i s smart l i k e us." From another viewpoint, the white man i n "town" i s a new environmental f a c t o r i n a d d i t i o n t o the bush resources, f o r the Hare t o manipulate and o f which they t r y t o take most advantage p o s s i b l e . I n the f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s , I would l i k e t o describe how changes have oc­ curred i n d i f f e r e n t aspects o f Hare l i f e , bearing the h i s t o r i c a l episodes which the Hare have experienced as described i n t h i s s e c t i o n .

THE SETTLEMENTS A settlement or "town" where there are many houses or cabins i s called k'oi in the native language. K'oi also means 'house' or 'cabin.' In contrast to k'oi i s dešin-t'aor 'among the standing trees' which i s expressed as "the bush" in English by the people, and designates the area outside of "town." n

n

n

It seems that k'oi or "town" i s the place to the Hare where they rest from the hardworking bush l i f e , and where they go to movies and dances. Here, they have business of several kinds with the white people and they have to watch out for the policeman. "The bush" or deši -t 'a i s the place about which the white man does not know much, and where the Hare have more or less their own world. In the bush, the people work and travel looking for food and furs. n

n

Town o f F o r t Good Hope The town o f F o r t Good Hope i s l o c a t e d a t 66°16'N. and 128°38'W. near the j u n c t i o n o f the Mackenzie and Hare Indian Rivers w i t h i n the Game Area. F l y i n g northward from Norman W e l l s , a t a p o i n t 14 m i l e s southwest o f F o r t Good Hope, one obtains a grand view o f the Mackenzie (only about 500 yards wide), where i t cuts the high s t r a i g h t white c l i f f s c a l l e d "the Ramparts." The Ramparts Formation i s o f Middle Devonian age and i s composed mainly o f limestone con­ t a i n i n g f o s s i l s h e l l s i n c l u d i n g c o r a l s (Hume 1954:67-68). For about seven miles from the p o i n t , the r i v e r runs through these almost v e r t i c a l c l i f f s which are 125 f e e t t o 250 f e e t high. A t the summer s o l s t i c e , the midnight sun shines m a g n i f i c e n t l y over the Ramparts across the r i v e r , although F o r t Good Hope i s a l i t t l e b i t south o f the A r c t i c C i r c l e . The town i t s e l f i s b u i l t on the top o f a c l i f f , 40 t o 60 f e e t high (see Map 4). At the southern t i p o f the settlement, J a c k f i s h Creek j o i n s the Mackenzie River. Along the edge o f the c l i f f c u t t i n g i n t o the Mackenzie, from south t o n o r t h , are the b r i g h t l y painted b u i l d i n g s o f the Roman C a t h o l i c Mission, Royal Canadian Mounted P o l i c e , Nursing S t a t i o n , Hudson's Bay Company, Department of Transport, Game Warden's uninhabited S t a t i o n , and the Federal School. J u s t north o f the Hudson's Bay Company's s i t e , there are four newly b u i l t Indian cabins which were completed i n 1960 under the housing p r o j e c t o f the Indian A f f a i r s Branch. To the east o f the b u i l d i n g s belonging t o the Department o f Transport are s i x Indian cabins made as the second p a r t o f the p r o j e c t by the Indian A f f a i r s Branch, four o f them being completed and two under c o n s t r u c t i o n as o f January, 1963. The i n t e r i o r p a r t of the settlement, back from the r i v e r , i s occupied by the l i n e s o f some 50 grey-looking wooden cabins and s e v e r a l canvas t e n t s , be­ longing t o 340 Indians. They are the permanent r e s i d e n t s o f the area who spend the most of the time away from town, t r a v e l l i n g from one camp s i t e t o another. The Indian cabins are b u i l t so c l o s e t o each other t h a t the s i n g i n g of next door neighbors i s e a s i l y heard i n the adjacent d w e l l i n g s . I n the mornings and evenings, the sound o f the church b e l l from the chapel a t the southern end of the town reaches a l l the cabins. D e t a i l e d surveys w i t h i n the town have been made only o f the p r o p e r t i e s o f 52

53 the Hudson's Bay Company, the Roman C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n , and o f the v a r i o u s Government departments. We, H u r l b e r t and Sue, made our sketch map o f the town, designating the roads and paths, and the l o c a t i o n s o f t e n t s , houses, and other b u i l d i n g s , as o f J u l y , 1961. The map i s drawn on the b a s i s o f t h i s sketch, w i t h a s l i g h t r e v i s i o n t o show the s i t u a t i o n i n January, 1963. There are few t r e e s i n town, but the r i v e r banks and the uninhabited por­ t i o n s o f the settlement are covered by weeds and low bushes o f w i l l o w and b e r r i e s . Within two t o three m i l e s o f town, the good timber f o r f u e l has been almost a l l cut down, and the people i n town have a hard time t o get firewood, e s p e c i a l l y during the winter. I n order t o set r a b b i t snares they have t o walk at l e a s t 30 minutes t o two hours from town. During the summer f i s h n e t s may be set f a i r l y c l o s e to the settlement, while i n w i n t e r , f i s h i n g i s impossible i f a person stays i n town. Game animals may approach q u i t e c l o s e t o the s e t t l e ­ ment, but t h i s i s very r a r e . Successful gardens are now grown i n the town by the Roman C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n , Hudson's Bay Company, Nursing S t a t i o n , P o l i c e S t a t i o n , School, the p r i v a t e t r a d e r , and four Indian f a m i l i e s . The crops i n c l u d e l e t t u c e , pota­ toes, cabbages, c a r r o t s , t u r n i p s , e t c . Some of them are s t a r t e d i n May i n greenhouses and the seeds of others are planted i n the middle of June a f t e r the surface o f the ground has become f r e e o f i c e . These vegetables are har­ vested by the middle o f September; some are s o l d o r d i s t r i b u t e d t o the n a t i v e s who say they t a s t e as d e l i c i o u s as f r u i t s . Gardening a t F o r t Good Hope has been c a r r i e d out f o r more than 100 years, as I mentioned p r e v i o u s l y i n the section on H i s t o r y . E l e c t r i c i t y i s generated w i t h gas a t the s t a t i o n o f the Department o f Transport and i s supplied t o the white people's establishments and t o the s t r e e t l i g h t s . Telephone l i n e s connect a l l the white people's o f f i c e s and the p r i v a t e trader's residence. The Indian cabins have o n l y gas lamps and can­ dles. Each white establishment obtains water from the creek above the town by means o f a wayjack pump and a long hose t h a t runs t o a water tank i n each b u i l d i n g . Each Indian cabin has a painted 50 g a l l o n gas drum f o r water. This i s f i l l e d once a week i n summer by means o f the long hose and wayjack pump run by the Nursing S t a t i o n j a n i t o r . For washing and c l e a n i n g , women o f t e n go down the slope from t h e i r cabin t o the creek w i t h buckets. During winter, they chop i c e from the creek o r from the Mackenzie R i v e r f o r a l l water consumption. Since 1961, every cabin a l s o has another painted gas b a r r e l f o r empty t i n cans and other l i t t e r . This use o f a l i t t e r b a r r e l was s t a r t e d by the p o l i c e ­ man and the Hudson's Bay Company c l e r k as a p a r t o f a campaign f o r c l e a n i n g the town. The empty b a r r e l was given t o the household by the p o l i c e , and the people took o f f the metal top and painted the drum a s i l v e r c o l o r . Two young boys are o c c a s i o n a l l y h i r e d by the policeman t o c o l l e c t the refuse from the b a r r e l s and throw i t i n the community dump area. The Indians are encouraged by the Nurse and the Policeman t o wash the empty t i n cans before p u t t i n g them i n t o the b a r r e l and t o use c h l o r i d e o f lime e s p e c i a l l y during the summer, a l ­ though t h i s i s seldom observed. A l l the white people o f each establishment are responsible f o r burning the garbage. Indians throw d i r t y water i n back of t h e i r cabins.

Upon the recommendation

54 o f the nurses, almost a l l the Indian cabins have p r i v i e s c l o s e by. The white people's residences have f l u s h i n g t o i l e t s except f o r the school which uses honey buckets; the whites a l s o have bathtubs w i t h running water, and e l e c t r i c r e f r i g e r a t o r s . A l l the d i r t y water goes i n t o the Mackenzie River. In the mid-1950s the Indian A f f a i r s Branch b u i l t a huge ten-ton f r e e z i n g house on the Hudson's Bay Company s i t e near the nursing s t a t i o n . Every day a t one o'clock, the policeman opens the door f o r anyone, white o r Indian, who may want t o s t o r e meat, f i s h , bread, e t c . o r t o take these foods out. This f r e e z ­ er i s used e x t e n s i v e l y by the people. There are f i r e e x t i n g u i s h e r s a t each white people's b u i l d i n g and a few on the s t r e e t l i g h t p o l e s , although few people know how t o use them. Every year, we hear of one or two small f i r e s i n the Indian cabins which u s u a l l y get e x t i n ­ guished by the Indians themselves before they get serious. The Pentacostal m i n i s t e r ' s residence does not enjoy the f a c i l i t i e s which the r e s t o f the white r e s i d e n t s have i n town. Since the f a l l of 1962, the Hudson's Bay Company store has been the only store i n town. I t opens d a i l y from 9 A.M. t o 5 P.M., except f o r Wednesday afternoons, Sundays and Federal h o l i d a y s . I t s s t o r e goods i n c l u d e : b a s i c t o o l s , food, c l o t h e s , yard goods, toys, g u i t a r s , cameras, r a d i o s , cosmetics, e t c . The cheques are cashed here. The Hudson's Bay s t o r e manager operates the Post O f f i c e a t the same time. Young boys o f t e n pass time a t the corner o f the s t o r e or i n f r o n t o f i t , standing i n a group. A p r i v a t e t r a d e r who came t o l i v e i n F o r t Good Hope w i t h h i s f a m i l y i n 1956 had a store i n the town u n t i l the summer of 1962. He e s t a b l i s h e d a branch s t o r e i n C o l v i l l e Lake i n 1960 and then c l o s e d the one i n town, a l ­ though he was s t i l l l i v i n g i n F o r t Good Hope i n January, 1963. In the 1960s, a F u l l e r Brush man and other t r a v e l l i n g salesmen s t a r t e d t o v i s i t the town o f F o r t Good Hope i n a s m a l l motor boat during the sunmer. The customers are mainly wives o f the white r e s i d e n t s and a few young Indian g i r l s . Mass and benediction are celebrated a t the Church every day. Sometimes Indians v i s i t the p r i e s t a t the M i s s i o n and l i s t e n t o records, read magazines and p l a y d a r t s or cards. A t F o r t Good Hope there i s a community c l u b to which a l l the Hare Indians and white r e s i d e n t s can belong. The major a c t i v i t i e s of the c l u b are weekly movie shows h e l d a t the school, the o r g a n i z a t i o n of Sports Day on J u l y 1 s t , and other r e c r e a t i o n a l entertainment. The movie fees of 50c are saved t o pay f o r f i l m s and f o r the p r i z e s given on Sports Day. The managing committee o f the community c l u b i s composed mainly o f white people and one o r two young Indian men. A c t i v i t i e s o f the community c l u b o f f e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r the Indians and white people t o c u l t i v a t e mutual f r i e n d s h i p , although l a t e n t h o s t i l i t i e s become overt on some occasions. 9

Every year, a t Christmas, Easter and the Summer Treaty Day, most o f the people gather i n town t o attend church s e r v i c e s , t o purchase p r o v i s i o n s and t o have a good time among themselves. During the v a c a t i o n time o f the summer, drum dance and square dance p a r t i e s are h e l d i n town. These common a c t i v i t i e s seem to keep a l i v e the sense o f t r i b a l i d e n t i t y among the people.

55

Settlement o f C o l v i l l e Lake The settlement of C o l v i l l e Lake i s l o c a t e d a t 67°2*N. and 126°5'W. on the southernmost shore o f C o l v i l l e Lake. In 1954, there were e i g h t cabins a t t h i s p o i n t b u i l t w i t h l o c a l logs by the Indians who trapped e x t e n s i v e l y i n the neighborhood. During the summer o f 1962, about 15 men worked as wage laborers f o r the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n b u i l d i n g . They were h i r e d on a d a i l y b a s i s . Each man earned $100 t o $300 between August and September. This income enabled the Indians t o buy new toboggans, t e n t s , stoves and c l o t h e s , etc. without depending on Government r e l i e f programs. As mentioned i n the s e c t i o n on H i s t o r y , by the end of 1962 there were three o l d Indian cabins standing, four new cabins constructed under the sponsorship o f the Indian A f f a i r s branch, as w e l l as a new C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n House, a p r i v a t e s t o r e and i t s storekeeper's residence, and a t e n t o f the Pentacostal preacher (see Map 5 ) . Wood has t o be hauled from the f o r e s t two o r three miles away from the settlement and the people consider t h a t t h i s i s hard, and t h a t i t w i l l get harder, s i n c e the people are going t o stay i n " t h i s new town" and w i l l consume wood f o r f u e l . Water i n C o l v i l l e Lake i s very c l e a r and the people c a r r y d r i n k i n g and washing water from the lake i n buckets. B i g w h i t e f i s h and t r o u t are abundant i n the l a k e . Both i n winter and summer, i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r the O t t e r type a i r p l a n e to land on C o l v i l l e Lake near the settlement. On the l a k e there are two motor boats, one belonging t o the M i s s i o n and the other t o the t r a d e r . The C a t h o l i c p r i e s t has a r a d i o communication s e t a t the M i s s i o n which i s on the a i r once a day. Any emergency message concerning the settlement i s braodcast through t h i s r a d i o so t h a t necessary help may be sent t o C o l v i l l e Lake. Mass i s celebrated once a day a t the M i s s i o n . I n the evenings, the people o c c a s i o n a l l y v i s i t the p r i e s t f o r chats and card games. The people sometimes v i s i t the Pentacostal preacher, too. A t the end of September, 1962, there were 19 men, 12 women and 4 c h i l d r e n under 15 years o l d i n ten cooking household u n i t s . I n a d d i t i o n , there were a C a t h o l i c p r i e s t and two American boys out of high school who were h e l p i n g i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the church; a Pentacostal preacher, and myself as ethno­ grapher. A t t h i s time the new cabins were not completed and most people were l i v i n g i n t e n t s , except f o r those who had o l d cabins. Two young Indians were away i n the h o s p i t a l and four c h i l d r e n were a t the h o s t e l s i n Inuvik and F o r t Smith. By the beginning o f November, a l l the Indian f a m i l i e s had l e f t the s e t ­ tlement and s c a t t e r e d i n t h e i r trapping camps. Thus, a t the settlement, there were o n l y people a t the C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n , the Storekeeper and h i s w i f e , the Pentacostal m i n i s t e r and one Indian woman and her daughter who l i v e d w i t h me. Those who went t o trapping camps o c c a s i o n a l l y v i s i t e d the settlement f o r supplies.

YEARLY CYCLE Calendar (sanitl'e "sun-paper") The seasonal changes of the area are s i g n a l l e d by the frees, g-up and breaking-up o f the i c e on r i v e r s and lakes. According t o the Hare n o t i o n , x'ai, which means 'after freeze-up,' l a s t s from the l a t t e r p a r t o f September to the middle o f May; uyalele, which i s t r a n s l a t e d as 'the time when i c e s t a r t s melting,' covers the period between l a t e May and e a r l y June; summer, i pe, which means 'the time when i t gets warmer,' s t a r t s i n the middle o f June and l a s t s u n t i l e a r l y August; and autumn, k'at'a , comes i n the middle o f August and ends a t the time of freeze-up. Dates o f breaking-up and f r e e z i n g up vary from year to year. For example, according t o the C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n records, between 1868 and 1962, the e a r l i e s t date o f break-up o f the i c e on the Mackenzie r i v e r a t F o r t Good Hope town was on May 5, and the l a t e s t was on May 29; and the e a r l i e s t date o f freeze-up a t the same spot was October 23 and the l a t e s t was on November 27. n

n

P e t i t o t (1876b:34) mentions that the Hare Indians began the year i n March a t the s p r i n g equinox. When Osgood was among the people i n 1929, he found out t h a t "the younger generation claims t o have forgotten these t h i n g s " (Osgood 1932:67). My informants were not c l e a r about t h i s p o i n t e i t h e r . When the people r e c o l l e c t the past, they use the expression, 'two summers ago,' o r ' f i v e winters ago,' e t c . There i s no n a t i v e word which corresponds t o "year" i n E n g l i s h . Therefore, i n interviews about h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n , f o r example, I would ask f i r s t : "Did you come home from the h o s p i t a l i n summer or w i n t e r ? " Then I would f u r t h e r ask the question: "How many winters (or summers) ago?" Honigmann (1949:214) a l s o mentions "the e a r l i e r ignorance o f years" among the Kaska Indians p r i o r to about 1914. I n conducting f i e l d work among the Hare, I t r i e d t o acquire absolute dates f o r b i r t h s and deaths among the people from the M i s s i o n records, and f o r various events from documents and white i n ­ formants. Then, I would use t h i s information as guides i n interviews w i t h the Indians concerning their memories of the past. Today, the Hare use the ordinary Gregorian calendar o f the whites. The Hudson's Bay Company and the C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n d i s t r i b u t e t h e i r p r i n t e d c a l ­ endars among the people. I n every cabin and t e n t , one o f such calendars i s hung. Every day, i n almost every home the head o f the household crosses out the number o f the date. Table 5 shows the n a t i v e names f o r the twelve months as l i s t e d i n P e t i t o t ' s Dictionnaire (1876a), mentioned i n Osgood (1932:66) and as c o l ­ l e c t e d by H u r l b e r t and Sue. I n t h i s Table, the i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s among the three l i s t i n g s are n o t i c e a b l e . There may be several reasons to account f o r t h i s . F i r s t , the Northern Athabaskan people, i n general, seem t r a d i t i o n a l l y to have followed the changes i n the moon, as suggested by Osgood (1936b:91; 1959:55), by Honigmann (1949: 214), and by McKennan (1959:111). Although I have not been able t o f i n d i n the l i t e r a t u r e a d i r e c t mention o f a lunar calendar among the Hare, we may assume t h a t the Hare a l s o had a lunar system before they adopted the d i v i s i o n of the year i n t o 12 months. I n a d j u s t i n g the n a t i v e terminology t o the 56

57 TABLE 5 HARE NAMES OF THE MONTHS

Petitot

Osgood

Hurlbert & Sué

January

TV i tche-téwè (la longue gueue du chien, c.a.d. que sa queue s'allonge devant le feu)

li sed'ewe (dog with the burnt tail)

February

Ni ttsi-vatoho grand)

(rent-son-

e 'nava'ai (back to back)

March

Bemen t l ' i nat'ié (mois ou le chien souffre)

April

Nafwin-naté (l'ophtalmieles-yeux-dévore)

May

n

n

n

vaxonvase 'le (hardly get snow blindness)

n

Nafwin-enllu est prise)

(l'ophtalmie

ya xo ya se le

(Lesser snow blind month) ya xo ya de '

(Greater snow blind month)

vaxo vate (time one gets strong snow blindness) n

i'žego sa (egg's month) n

June

Ep'ie gunsa (soleil des oeufs, i.e. de l a ponte)

bemme te g Q xv bewet ' e-go xi (Melting month) (starting to melt)

July

Ettóhiw gurisa (soleil de la mue)

e ye go sa (Egg month)

e 'šu-go sa (ducks and other birds change feathers)

August

Bédzi-xo dé-in'a gun-sa (grands rennes-retournentqui est lune ou mois du retour des rennes)

e ou go sa (Moulting month)

taya 'aigo sa (everything going back to the homeland)

September

L'uge gunsa (lune du poisson, i.e. de l a pèche)

e 'se go sa (everything start to get wild)

October

Etsen-gunsa (lune de l a viande puante)

avaoo ai (animals separates)

November

Tape-tten dé"a gunsa (lune pendant laquelle [le renne] remonte [de l a mer] sur les hauts [plateaux])

li raxti go sa (dog barks)

December

Té-en"a gunsa (les rennes approchent l a lune)

so tiyesa, or teoyat'i sa (happy month)

n

(

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

58 Gregorian calendar months, there i s confusion and n o t i c e a b l e i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n . Honigmann, on t h i s p o i n t , gives an example among the Kaska: ...the new moon around August 12, 1945 was r e f e r r e d t o as "August moon" by one man but as "September moon" by another. (Honigmann 1949:214) Secondly, the t r a d i t i o n a l moon names among the Northern Athabaskans seem to have been only d e s c r i p t i v e o f occurrences i n the n a t u r a l environment and did not designate d i v i s i o n s of absolute time as do the names f o r the months i n the European calendar. This p o i n t i s very c l e a r l y i n t e r p r e t e d by McKennan f o r the Upper Tanana Indians: The n a t i v e s recognize t h i r t e e n lunar months, t h e i r year beginning i n October w i t h the r u t t i n g season of the moose. Since the year i s non-astronomical the discrepancy between a s o l a r year and t h i r t e e n lunar months i s o f no œnsequence; and since a l l the months are described i n terms o f n a t u r a l phenomena the calendar i s constantly a d j u s t i n g i t s e l f . Such a system can make f o r confusion, since i t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e f o r one f a m i l y t o consider the time as of one month, w h i l e t h e i r neighbors reckon i t as o f the f o l l o w i n g month, but since the moon names are only d e s c r i p t i v e ones anyway, the calendar r e a l l y works n i c e l y . Such a d e s c r i p t i v e system does not r e q u i r e uniform terminology, a r e s u l t which i s apparent i n my data. I obtained calendars from three o l d men. These calendars, while taken a t d i f f e r e n t time o f the year, a l l s t a r t e d w i t h October; and they agreed i n the sequence o f the months and i n most o f the names, but not i n all... (McKennan 1959:111) Such f a c t o r s as mentioned by McKennan might be responsible f o r the v a r i a t i o n s of the Hare terminology f o r the months as l i s t e d i n Table 5. Yearly a c t i v i t i e s o f the people Although hunting and trapping a c t i v i t i e s are decreasing today among the Hare, as mentioned i n previous s e c t i o n s , most a d u l t s are always t h i n k i n g about where t o go next f o r camping and w i t h whom t o camp. Their d e c i s i o n s are based upon e c o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l f a c t o r s . Among the e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s , the seasona l changes which i n f l u e n c e the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f animals, f i s h and other n a t u r a l resources are very important. As b r i e f l y explained already, a few Hare hunters today have a more o r l e s s r e g u l a r y e a r l y route and r e g u l a r camping places for t h e i r migratory hunting and trapping l i f e . A 63 year o l d w i f e of one o f these few fortunate hunters t o l d about her migration: This summer, we [the speaker and her husband] came back from the bush t o town on June 10. T i l l then, we were hunting for r a t s [muskrats] and beaver a t Tuyat'a [40 t o 50 m i l e s from town]. We u s u a l l y come back from Tuyat'a every year on June 10th or on 12th. Then u s u a l l y we move t o f i s h camp [up along the Mackenzie R i v e r ] on J u l y 10 or 14. I n the middle of September we come back t o town. That time i t o f t e n snows a

59 l i t t l e bit. I n the end o f September, we go t o the Loon River [20 m i l e s down from town] f o r white f i s h . My hus­ band w i l l come back t o town once o r w h i l e w i t h f i s h . We keep these f i s h i n the town p o l i c e freezer f o r Christmas time. On October 8th we go t o the f i s h [30 miles north northwest o f the Loon R i v e r f i s h camp]. By t h i s time the lakes are frozen. We f i s h f o r dogs [ i . e . , t o feed our dogs] through the i c e and we t r a p martens. I n December, one o r two weeks before Christmas, we come back t o town. I n the middle o f January, o r i n the l a t t e r p a r t o f January, we go to the Ramparts River [the above mentioned Tuyat'a area]. There are l o t s o f mink, moose and marten. Good place f o r beaver and r a t s , too. We move from one place t o another i n Tuyat'a. On March 1 s t , we take a l l the s t u f f back t o town. We stay i n town f o r a week o r two before Easter. And then we go back t o the bush i n Tuyat 'a again. And we stay there t i l l June, hunting r a t s . A f t e r the i c e on the Mackenzie R i v e r breaks up, the people who have been to the bush f o r the spring hunt gather i n town, coning about June 10 from the areas along the Mackenzie River, w i t h another group o f people a r r i v i n g from the C o l v i l l e Lake area around June 26. A f t e r the t r a d i n g post o f C o l v i l l e was e s t a b l i s h e d , several f a m i l i e s remained near C o l v i l l e Lake without coming i n t o town. The hunters take t h e i r p e l t s t o the store and buy f r u i t s and other foods which have j u s t been flown i n by the f i r s t a i r p l a n e a f t e r the break-up. Their wives c l e a n the cabins and unpack t h e i r k i t c h e n u t e n s i l s and c l o t h i n g . Around June 30, the school c h i l d r e n who had been sent t o the Inuvik and Yellowknife r e s i d e n t i a l schools come home by plane a f t e r an absence o f 10 months from home. The F o r t Good Hope Federal Day School begins the summer vacation a t the end o f June. On J u l y 1 s t , when a l l the c h i l d r e n o f the people are together i n town, the