The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print: Creating Your Own Liquid Emulsions for Black & White Paper (Contemporary Practices in Alternative Process Photography) [1 ed.] 0815349904, 9780815349907

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THE HANDMADE SILVER GELATIN EMULSION PRINT Creating Your Own Liquid Emulsions for Black & White Paper The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print is a cookbook of simple, basic recipes for making black and white printing paper and paper negatives, along with creative options for printing, toning, and coloring. Author Denise Ross draws from photographic literature from the last 135 years, adapting old recipes to fit modern tools, materials, and work spaces and modern twists have been applied to traditional techniques. The book is divided into three sections: Section One lays the groundwork for this unique alternative process; Section Two provides the recipes; Section Three highlights contemporary silver gelatin artists. The book features over 200 full-color images and covers key topics including: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Vocabulary: a list of terms used by traditional photographers and emulsion makers Creating work spaces with the right tools and materials Basic emulsion chemistry and paper coating techniques Working with various negative options, analog and digital Gaslight chloride contact printing paper Kodabromide-type chlorobromide all-purpose paper Bromide enlarging paper Warm tone paper and developers Making and toning your own printing-out paper (POP) Matte surface and baryta coating surface paper Paper negatives and making hand-drawn and digital masks Toning handmade paper Gum printing over handmade paper Troubleshooting handmade paper Artists working with handmade paper

The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print is for photographers who love the look and creative potential of black and white traditional photography but who want more control over the process and the end product. It is written for the beginner to experienced photographer, with processes initially explained in such a way that anyone will feel comfortable getting started, as well as information in increasing levels of complexity so that experienced photographers who enjoy a challenge will also find one. Denise Ross has been a photographer for over 30 years. Ross grew up with interests in both the arts and sciences. Halfway through pursuing an MFA in photography she switched tracks and earned a master’s degree in botany with an emphasis in wetland ecology and restoration. In the late 1990s, Ross retired from botany and returned full-time to photography. Since 2003 Ross has been working with handmade silver gelatin emulsions; she has been at the forefront of the handmade silver gelatin renaissance. Combining her background in science, research, and love of traditional black and white photography, Ross has extensively researched and reverse-engineered historic emulsion formulas and techniques for contemporary use. Ross created The Light Farm in 2008, a teaching website devoted to the renaissance of handmade silver gelatin emulsions. She has shepherded the public conversation and understanding of this field, and authored a book The Light Farm, Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsions for Dry Plate, Paper, and Film, Volume 1: The Basics (2015). Ross’s work has been exhibited nationally and has appeared in publications such as Photo Techniques, Large Format Photography, The Book of Alternative Photographic Processes, and Jill Enfield’s Guide to Photographic Alternative Processes. To see her work, visit www.thelightfarm.com

Contemporary Practices in Alternative Process Photography Series Series Editor: Christina Z. Anderson The Contemporary Practices in Alternative Photographic Processes series focuses the lens on a variety of alternative, historical processes from the medium’s 180-year history. Each book outlines a step-by-step approach to a particular medium, and features contemporary artists who use that particular process regularly in their practice. The richly illustrated books in this series serve as guidebooks for those new to alternative processes, refresher courses for professionals already familiar with each medium, and a source of inspiration for all.

Titles in the Series Gum Printing: A Step-by-Step Manual Highlighting Artists and Their Creative Proctice, Christina Z. Anderson Salted Paper Printing: A Step-by-Step Manual Highlighting Contemporary Artists, Christina Z. Anderson Polymer Photogravure: A Step-by-Step Manual Highlighting Artists and Their Creative Practice, Clay Harmon

THE HANDMADE SILVER GELATIN EMULSION PRINT Creating Your Own Liquid Emulsions for Black & White Paper Denise Ross

First published 2019 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 Taylor & Francis The right of Denise Ross to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this title has been requested ISBN: 978-0-8153-4990-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-8153-4991-4 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-351-16400-9 (ebk) Typeset in Adobe Caslon Pro and Century Gothic by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon

Notice to readers: Exercise caution in the handling of all photographic chemicals. Use of any such chemicals constitutes some risk, and some are poisonous. The publisher and author accept no responsibility for injury or loss arising from the procedures or materials described in this book whether used properly or improperly. The workplace should be well ventilated. Chemicals should be mixed only in the manner described. Avoid contact between the chemicals and eyes, skin, clothing, and furniture. Do not eat or drink while using chemicals. Keep them away from pets and children. Wear protective eye wear and gloves if necessary. In short, be mindful of all safety procedures for yourself and others.

Contents

Acknowledgements

ix

SECTION ONE The Important Stuff Before the Recipes

1

Chapter 1

Introduction Chapter 2 Vocabulary

3 7

Chapter 3

The Darkroom Space Infrastructure Coating Table 16 A Sink (Or Two) 16 Ventilation 16 Lighting 18 Darkroom Heating and Cooling 18 Color 18 Floors 19 Clothes Lines, Clips, and Shelves 19 Equipment and Tools Thermometers 19 Scale 19 Glassware 20 Mixing and Heating 20 Water Baths 21 Filters 27 Mortar and Pestle 27 Lightproof Containers 27 “Addition” Tools 27 All the Little Miscellaneous Things. 27 Things for Paper Coating and Things for Processing 27

13 13 16

19

36

37

Chapter 5

The Basics Basic Emulsion Chemistry Safety 42 Silver Nitrate 42 Acids 43 Ammonia 43 Weighing and Measuring Eyedroppers 44 % (Percent) Solutions 44 The Recipes Waste Disposal Basic Emulsion Making Addressing Sources of Potential Confusion and Consternation The Basic Emulsion Components Silver 48 Halides 48 Gelatin 48 The Basic Formula The Steps of Emulsion Making Precipitation and Ripening 50 Setting and Washing 50 Digestion 50 Finals 51

41 41

43

45 45 46 46 48

48 50

Chapter 6

Chapter 4

Materials Paper Composition 33 Tint 34 Surface texture 34 Weight 34 Sizing, Buffering, and Optical Brighteners 34 Grain 34 Front Side vs. Screen Side 35 Wet strength 36

Chemicals Chemicals Used in Emulsion Making 36 Chemicals Required for Processing Chemistry 36 Commercial Formulas 36 For Toning 37 Gelatin

31 31

Coating Paper Infrastructure and Equipment Coating Table 54 Coating Guide Bars 55 Glass Coating Rods (a.k.a. Puddle Pushers) 57 Squeegee 57 Assorted Old Towels and Paper Towels 58 A Plastic Storage Box 58 Polyester (“Mylar”) Sheets 58 Metal Yardstick (Or, Meter Stick) 58 Watercolor Crayon 58

53 54

vi

Snap-Blade Utility Knife 58 Plastic Measuring Cups, Spoons, and Scoops, with Handles 58 Hanging Laundry Clips 58 Wood Strips 58 Spring Clamps 68 Materials Coating Techniques Wet Paper Coating with Guide Bars 60 Free-Form Coating on Wet Paper 63 Coating Dry Paper 66

Toning Drying Air Drying 108 Ferrotyping 110 Flattening Spotting 60 60

Chapter 7

Troubleshooting Coating The Art in the Process Selvages Spots A Catalog of Coating Boo-boos Microbubbles 76 Blisters 77 True Mysteries 77 Repellency Spots 78 Glyoxal Pox 79 Too Thick; Too Thin 79 Hot Emulsion 80 Uncovering the Hidden Potential of Flaws

73 73 75 75 76

81 83 83

Chapter 10

Toning and Other Ways to Add Color Selenium Toning Gold Toning Recipe: Blue Gold Toner Silvergum Hand-Coloring with Colored Pencils Hand-Coloring with Photo Oils Hand-Coloring with Photo Dyes

117 120 120 120 123 126 126 127

SECTION TWO The Recipes

129

Developers Metol-Based Developers Recipe: D23-Plus 132 Recipe: TLF All-Purpose Developer 132 Recipe: TLF Extra Oomph Developer (TLF-X, for Short) 132 Recipe: Ansco 120 Soft-Working Paper Developer 133 Metol/Hydroquinone (MQ) Developers Recipe: Ansco 125 Paper and Film Developer 133 Recipe: Ansco 135 Warm-Tone Paper Developer 133

131 132

133

Chapter 12

98

Baryta Coating Surface Recipe: Baryta Paper

135 138

Chapter 13

Chapter 9

Processing Tools and Materials Gloves 104 Bottles 104 Trays 104 Technique Develop Stop Fix Hypo-clear Wash

110 112

Chapter 11

Chapter 8

Printing Contact Printing Printing Frames 84 DIY Printing Frames 86 Printing 89 Hand-Drawn Masks with Graphite Pencil 89 Hand-Drawn Masks with Colored Pencil 95 Digital Inkjet Masks 96 Digital Negatives 97 Traditional Enlarging Enlarger Choice 98 Enlarging with Handmade Paper 98

108 108

103 104

104 106 107 107 108 108

Potassium Chloride (KCl) “Gaslight” Contact Printing Paper Chloride Emulsion Characteristics Paper Choices Printing Developers: Color and Contrast Control Selenium Toning The Recipe

141 143 144 148 150 152 154

Chapter 14

Three Salts Contact Printing Paper Emulsion Characteristics Toning The Recipe

159 161 166 167

vii

Three Salts Contact Printing Paper (Hand Stirring Variation) Variation: Three Salts Plus Copper Chloride Contact Printing Paper

171 171

Chapter 15

Chlorobromide (Kodabromide-Type) All-Purpose Paper Enlarging Speed ClBr Emulsions Homemade Developers for ClBr Emulsions Printing Controlling the Characteristic Curve Controlling Print Color Toning The Recipe Notes

175 176 177 177 177 184 185 185 188

Chapter 16

Bromide Paper for Enlarging and Contact Printing Paper Bromide Emulsions Toning The Recipe

191 192 198 199

Chapter 17

Gelatin-Chloride Printing-Out Paper (POP) The Basics The Recipe The Workflow The Right Negative Printing Overexposure 210 Underexposure 210 Dry-down 212 Fixing, or Fixing and Toning Recipe: Hypo & Gold POP Toner/Fixer 212 Recipe: Blue Gold POP Toner 213 Washing The Case for Digital Negatives for POP Color Variations Between Different Densities Recap

231

234 236 239

246 246

SECTION THREE The Contributors

253

Chapter 19

203 204 205 208 208 208

212

214 214 218 219

Chapter 18

Paper Negatives Paper Negative Emulsion Characteristics Paper Options Helix 100% Rag Vellum Paper 225 Bienfang Graphics 360 227 Rives BFK 227 Fabriano Artistico, HP, 90 lb 227 Photography with Paper Negatives Exposure 230 Reciprocity Failure 230

Processing Paper Negatives Developing 231 Stop 231 Fixing 233 Washing 233 Drying 234 Flattening 234 Developers for Paper Negatives Spotting Paper Negatives Printing with Paper Negatives Scanned Paper Negatives to Digital Print 239 Contact Print Made Directly with an Original Paper Negative 239 Contact Print Made with an Inkjet Digital Negative 241 Scanning for Digital Negatives, Inkjet Prints, and Screen Viewing 241 Coating Paper Negatives The Recipe

223 224 225

230

Ian Andvaag Biography

255 256

Chapter 20

Radoslaw Brzozowski Silver Gelatin Printing-Out Papers (POP) The Papers Used for Hand Coating Emulsion Recipes and Making Instructions Gelatin 260 Recipe POP Recipe by Beadle Recipe: POP Recipe by Valenta Preparing a Matte Emulsion Methods for Coating Paper Brush Coating 262 Transfer 262 Mayer Rod 264 Drying Coated Papers Storing POP Papers Exposing the Print Processing POP Paper Recipe: Gold Toner for POP Paper Recipe: Hardening Fixer for POP Papers (by Lumiere) 269 Drying POP Paper Developing POP Paper Recipe: Hydroquinone Developer for POP Recipe: Pyrogallol Developer for POP Biography and Mission Statement

259 259 259 259 262 262 262 262

265 265 265 266 269

269 269 271 271 274

viii

Chapter 21

Didier Derien Biography

277 277

Chapter 22

Edward Durrill Biography

283 283

Chapter 23

Cate Sampson Why Historic Processes Print and Process Information Biography

289 289 289

290

Chapter 24

George L. Smyth Biography

293 293

Recipe: Azo-Type Formula Silver Gelatin Paper, Grade 3

295

Bibliography General Emulsion Making Chloride Paper Chlorobromide Paper Bromide Paper POP Paper Negatives Miscellaneous

297 297 297 297 297 297 298 298

Index

299

Acknowledgements

I

t’s true. It’s almost impossible to thank everyone who helps any creative endeavor see the light of day. Thank you to Jill Enfield for nagging me until I submitted to Focal, and then helping get it done. Thank you to Christina Z. Anderson for making silver gelatin a part of her wonderful series of books. It’s very gratifying to finally see handmade silver gelatin find a home among the other historical processes.

Thank you to my family and friends who have heard, “I don’t have time!” far too often over the last half year, yet still seem to love me. Thank you!! Last, but not least: Ian, Radoslaw, Didier, Edward, Cate, and George. It has been my deep honor and pleasure getting to know you all through the making of our book. Thank you for sharing.

SECTION ONE

The Important Stuff Before the Recipes

Though this be madness, yet there is method in’t.

(Hamlet, Act 2, Scene 2)

Figure 1.0 Handmade 35mm Film Negative to Enlarged Digital Negative, on Three Salts Contact Printing Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 1

Introduction

Figure 1.1 Alder Pond #1, contact print on chlorobromide paper; coated on Fabriano Artistico Extra White HP, 140 lb watercolor paper; Pictorico OHP digital negatives from scanned 120 film, © Denise Ross

Within recent years, Kodak’s superb line of photographic papers for the professional has been greatly expanded. The brands supplied currently are available in a great variety of stock tints, textures, sheens, and contrasts. This completeness provides you an unexcelled opportunity to select the exact paper you need for any professional requirement. No matter for what purpose you deliver prints—as a portrait, commercial, news, police, or scientific photographer— among the many Kodak papers you will find those best suited to the subject and the intended purpose. (Kodak Photographic Papers, 1949)1

I

n 1949, Kodak offered a staggering variety of paper choices. It seems unlikely that anyone at the time anticipated the changes in photography that were to come, but in 2005, Kodak stopped making paper. Since then, different printing papers, manufactured by various companies around the world, have come and gone. The question that might fairly be asked is, “So what?” After all, nothing is guaranteed to last forever. I understand the sentiment. As photographers, we’re not only used to change, we often welcome it. I love my digital camera. I love contact printing using digital negatives. However . . .

There is, in the heart of an artist, a desire to master the craft, to establish and build upon a body of work over a rich and productive lifetime. For this to be achieved, the materials have to “stay put.” In an ever-changing world, this means an artist must be able to make his or her own materials. Silver gelatin photographic materials—paper and film—were the backbone of mainstream photography for over a century. Today, digital is the new mainstream, and silver gelatin is joining the family of alternative and historical processes. One difference that distinguishes “silver gelatin”

4

The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

from other historical processes is its enormous breadth and depth. It is, in fact, a multitude of individual processes. Paper making alone encompasses dozens of possibilities. Handmade silver gelatin is essentially a brand new old process. It keeps one foot in the past while being able to weave itself into today’s photographic tools and materials. Much has been written about the changes in photography since the turn of our current century. Many of the changes are fundamental and profound. Most are technical, or at least began as technical changes. Although change has always played a major role in the history of photography, the latest step in the evolution of photography is something not seen before. It is a giant leap away from a chemical-based system to an electronic one. We are now a full generation into the digital age of photography. What this means is that a person learning photography today likely has no darkroom experience. It probably wasn’t taught in school. It is unlikely a public darkroom is available anywhere nearby. If there is a local camera club, it is rare that anyone is still using film, or printing on traditional silver gelatin paper. This is a fundamental change that transcends technology. Photographers and artists who want to learn and experience darkroombased photography may have a hard time even knowing how to get started. This means that learning a historical process can be a challenge on top of challenge. It is beyond the scope of any one book to include everything about silver gelatin emulsions. Beginning in 1880, silver gelatin defined photography for well over one hundred years. Over that long and technologically fruitful period, silver gelatin photographic materials underwent profound changes. Modern materials are incredible technological achievements, but it is the emulsions from the early years of the medium from which we draw our inspiration. This doesn’t mean that we need turn our backs to the modern. The old and new inform each other. In this book, I try to tie together the

historical and the contemporary as related to silver gelatin emulsion making and printing. There is certainly a core of factual knowledge to learn, but art is more than theory. It is first a craft, and craft is as much about muscle memory as it is theory and facts. What this means is that the way to learn to make emulsions is to make emulsions. Learning to play a musical instrument is a perfect analogy. You would never expect to give a successful piano recital if you had never touched a keyboard, even if you had mastered music theory. Learning a new skill requires the student’s active participation in the teaching process. As you read— think. Ask yourself questions. What is this step trying to accomplish? Why is that ingredient in there? Why this tool? Do I have something that will work as well (or better!)? That said, the recipes in this book have been rigorously tested. Make them as closely as possible to the way they are written before you succumb to the urge to modify. If you are like me, this will be harder advice to take than you might expect! It seems that making a craft our own, by changing techniques and ingredients, is an essential facet of an artist’s personality. Don’t deny the impulse but do try to delay it until you have experienced a few successes with the recipes as they are written. Especially, do not greatly increase the volume of a recipe. Not only do you risk changing the emulsion characteristics, making a big batch of emulsion at one time defeats the single best way to learn to make emulsions: making lots and lots of batches of emulsion, and making them frequently. One more word of encouragement: as you begin to read this book, it may seem odd that the recipes come last. Isn’t this book about making emulsions? Yes, and no. The heartfelt goal of this book is teaching you how to make gorgeous handmade silver gelatin prints. The emulsions themselves are actually the least of it. It has been my experience that people want to jump right in with cooking, before learning how to coat paper. This is perfectly understandable, but it is also a

Introduction 5

recipe for disappointment. Take coating seriously and your prints will be everything you hope they can be. The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print is one in a series of books written by a diverse group of photographers, each with a personal vision for creating contemporary art with historical photographic processes. I am delighted that silver gelatin paper is being recognized as a historical process. I hope this book encourages photographers

to begin working with their own “black and white” paper. The artists who have contributed to this book wish you the very best of luck and fun! May the artist’s way be yours and may it bring you joy. Denise Ross Endnote 1. Kodak Photographic Papers, for Professional Use [paper sampler] (Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Company, 1949).

Figure 2.0 Handmade 5 × 7 inch Film Negative, on Three Salts Contact Printing Paper, Coated on a Handmade Baryta Base, © Denise Ross

Chapter 2

Vocabulary

Figure 2.1 Alders #4, © Denise Ross

E

ntire dictionaries of photographic terms have been written, beginning from the earliest years of photographic art and science. This list hits the highlights, but old dictionaries are fascinating reading, as well as educational. I highly recommend placing one or two wherever you do your reading-for-fun. Ag The periodic chart symbol for silver, from the Latin, argentum. In formulas, or as shorthand notation, a chemical compound is designated with the symbols of the components. AgCl is the chemical name of silver chloride (Cl). AgX designates a generic silver/halide compound. baryta (coating) An optional sizing layer, made with barium sulfate and gelatin, applied to paper before it is coated with emulsion. A baryta coating was originally added to protect emulsion from impurities in the paper stock that might negatively affect print quality. Its primary purpose in modern paper, both traditional and inkjet, is to increase the detail a print is capable of rendering.

bloom To swell gelatin in water, soaking long enough for complete hydration. Bloom number A measure of the hardness of a gelatin. Emulsion makers generally use 250 Bloom (“hard”/photographic) gelatin. A lower number is softer; a higher number is harder. A gelatin that is too soft won’t hold up to the rigors of processing; one that is too hard is brittle, rather than flexible. clean emulsion Emulsion that is free from fog or pepper, as well as from air-borne particulates. color With reference to photographic paper, “color” is the color of the underlying paper stock. The inherent color of the emulsion itself is called the image “tone.” contact printing Making a print from a film or glass plate negative by shining light through a negative that is in direct, tight contact with printing paper. The resulting print is identical in size to the negative. This is in contrast to enlarging, which makes a print larger than the original negative.

8

The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

develop The first step in the processing chain that turns an exposed sheet of paper (or film) into a visible print (or negative). See processing. developer A solution of one or more chemicals which converts the invisible (“latent”) image of exposed film or paper to a visible image. digestion See emulsion making stages. dry plate a.k.a. silver gelatin dry plate. A negative on glass instead of film; not to be confused with “wet plate,” a negative made with collodion by a completely different process. emulsion For our purposes, melted gelatin and one or more silver halides, along with any number of other specialized additions, coated and dried on paper, glass, or film. By convention, a mixture of silver halides and gelatin is called an emulsion, even though it is technically a suspension. Another common use of the word “emulsion” is to refer to a particular film (e.g. “Kodachrome was a great emulsion”) even though most modern films and papers are a mixture of more than one emulsion type. emulsion making stages: precipitation (also called emulsification). The first and main reaction of silver halide formation (the addition of silver nitrate to at least one salt). This step determines to a large degree the characteristics of the final emulsion. The gelatin used during the precipitation step is called the precipitation gelatin. In general, the less used, the larger the grains produced, and the faster the emulsion. Increasing the precipitation gelatin reduces the odds of “pepper” formation (aggregates of silver grains that spontaneously turn black without exposure to light). ripening (also called physical ripening or first ripening). The step that begins with the first moment of precipitation and then continues after precipitation. It determines, in part, whether the emulsion will be a fine grain, slow emulsion, or a larger grain, faster one. You will sometimes see the entire step referred

to as “Ostwald ripening,” although technically Ostwald is a subset type of ripening. setting and washing. “Washing” is not used for the unwashed paper recipes in this book. (Don’t you love it when vocabulary makes sense?!) Generally, washing is required only for emulsions made with ammonia, or when the emulsion is coated on glass or film. See unwashed emulsion. The “setting” step, by itself, can take place at various points in the emulsion making process. The main purpose is to allow you to break the emulsion making process into stages if you have limited time for any particular session. second gelatin (also called make-up gelatin). In emulsions that start with a small amount of precipitation gelatin, the extra gelatin that is added after precipitation to bring the viscosity of the emulsion up to coating weight. More gelatin can also be added after the washing step (if used.) This gelatin is commonly called make-up gelatin. digestion (also called chemical ripening, second ripening, or after-ripening). Additional time at elevated temperatures, often including the insertion of various additives primarily for influencing sensitivity, color and/or speed. Simple paper emulsions generally do not include sensitivity additives. enlarging Making a print larger than the negative being used. This requires a lens and light source attached to an enlarger. The process is sometimes called “blowing up a negative.” Everclear A drinkable, high-proof ethanol with no additives—more or less indispensable for many emulsion recipes. Although Everclear is a brand name, it is also the generic reference to similar alcohols, differing in % alcohol by volume. Unflavored vodka is essentially halfstrength Everclear, and as with “Everclear,” the alcohol by volume can differ among brands. Vodka can replace Everclear if the extra water is compensated for in a recipe. The final water-to-

Vocabulary

gelatin balance, as a percentage, is an important emulsion variable, but consistency from emulsion batch to batch is more important than the precise alcohol by volume. The recipes in this book assume 95% alcohol (190 proof). If the brand available to you contains less alcohol, you can leave the recipe as written, or reduce the water proportionally. Each recipe will note the best place to reduce water. Chlorobromide (Kodabromide-Type) All-Purpose Paper (Chapter 15) does not call for ethanol. This is an excellent, single recipe if obtaining “Everclear,” or adapting an alternative, is a hurdle. finals Anything that is added to the emulsion right before coating. Surfactants and hardeners are most the common finals in simple paper emulsions. fix A step in the processing work flow. The word “fix” originated from the need to arrest the progressive darkening of a silver halide emulsion after it had been exposed to light. The image was “fixed” as in the sense of the word “fixative.” Because the fixer sodium thiosulfate was more commonly known as “sodium hyposulphite”1 at the time, the step, or the chemistry involved, is sometimes called “hypo.” It is from the word “hypo” that the term “hypo-clear” was named. It means to clear (remove) the hypo (fix) from film or paper. See processing. fog A veil of gray over the surface of a negative (or, more rarely, a print). Fog can be a chemical reaction or a physical response to light. It can happen during the emulsion making process, from overdevelopment, or from light leaks at any time in the process of getting from chemicals to a finished print. Fog in paper emulsions is almost always from light leaks or from overdevelopment. Paper that is stored in high heat and humidity, or for a long time after making can deteriorate. This usually implies fog, but can also result in loss of contrast. This is yet another good reason to make smaller batches, and make them more often.

9

frilling Emulsion lifting or floating off the substrate, usually starting from the edges of the paper or glass plate, but also from bubbles anywhere on the surface. A little edge frilling is not uncommon with some papers. It’s best to leave enough margin around the print image area that the paper edges can be trimmed if necessary. The best prevention is keeping the temperatures of the processing solutions cool and the same. Handle the paper carefully when it is wet. If frilling becomes an issue with a particular batch of emulsion, a hardening fix will help. gaslight paper A variety of very slow photographic papers, usually AgCl. Because of their relative insensitivity to light (i.e. slow speed), gaslight papers are by definition contact printing papers. gelatin A miracle, as far as photography is concerned. It has unique properties that have not been synthetically replicated. “Active” gelatin is any gelatin, including food gelatin, that has not been deliberately purified to make it “inactive” or “inert.” Modern emulsion making (including ours) relies on hard Bloom, inactive/inert gelatin, also known as “photographic gelatin.” “Active” gelatin can be used if inert gelatin is not available (the first emulsion makers had no choice), but it can introduce unnecessary unknowns into the process. halide For photographic purposes, chloride (Cl), bromide (Br), and iodide (I). hardener A chemical used to toughen an emulsion and make it resistant to damage. Hardener can be added to an emulsion right before coating, and/or used during processing, most often during fixing. The most common hardeners include chrome or potassium alum, glyoxal, and formalin. hypo-clear An optional step in the washing process. Fix used to be called “hypo.” “Hypoclear” helps remove fix. Although “fix” is by far the more common name today, the name hypoclear didn’t change and therefore can be a source

10

The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

of confusion. Hypo-clear, or “washing aid,” speeds the removal of residual fix during washing. Its main use is with paper. It reduces wash time and conserves water, but the directions must be followed closely. See processing. pepper Silver grains that have spontaneously sensitized before exposure to light. When the negative or paper is developed, the emulsion can look like someone sprinkled pepper over the surface. If the particles are small, they may not be a problem. The degree (amount and size) of peppering can be influenced by developer choice. A vigorous developer is more likely to cause problems than one with lower activity. processing The post-exposure stages of develop, stop, fix, wash (and, optionally, hypo-clear and/or toning). Paper can be toned to increase its archival life and/or to change the emulsion’s inherent image color. ripening See emulsion making stages. safelight Any light by which it’s possible to handle a photographic emulsion without danger of exposure. Red LED light is safe for everything except panchromatic film. That said, always test a new safelight by leaving a small piece of sensitized material (in our case, coated paper) sitting out in the illumination of the safelight for a half hour, followed by normal processing, and then comparison with unexposed paper. Remember that “slow” paper is less sensitive than “fast” paper. See speed. to scale, scaling Increasing or decreasing the size of an emulsion recipe. sensitization The steps of adding one or more extra chemicals to an emulsion to enhance the basic properties of the silver halides, either to increase speed and/or to increase sensitivity to parts of the spectrum beyond UV and blueviolet light. Basic (non-variable contrast) black and white paper emulsions are rarely sensitized. Because of this, they can be handled without risk of unwanted exposure (“fog”) under dark amber and red safelights.

silver halides Light sensitive compounds of silver formed during emulsion making: silver chloride (AgCl), silver bromide (AgBr), and silver iodide (AgI). Generically, they are often designated as AgX. There are a number of halide compounds that can contribute the Cl, Br, or I parts of a silver halide. In photography, the “Ag” component is always from silver nitrate (AgNO3). speed Jargon for “emulsion sensitivity”—how much light is required to optimally expose a particular emulsion. Speed is not a constant. It is influenced by developer choice and use. stop (bath), sometimes called “short stop.” A processing step between the developer and fixing. The purpose is two-fold: to abruptly stop the development of the image, and to reduce developer carry-over into the fixing bath, thus extending the time the fixer is effective. soup Darkroom retro-jargon for processing chemistry (noun), or as a verb meaning processing, as in “to soup.” surface texture and sheen Two separate, but interrelated, characteristics of printing paper. Textures range from smooth to rough, and include so-called special textures such as silk, tweed, and suede.2 Sheen refers to the range of paper shininess from “gloss” to “matte.” Almost all combinations of surface texture and sheen have been manufactured at some time. surfactant a.k.a. wetting agent. The recipes in this book use Kodak Photo-Flo 200 and Everclear (ethanol). Surfactants discourage bubble formation during coating. tone Two meanings: (1) the inherent color of the silver in an emulsion. If it is brownish, a print is considered “warm-toned.” If it is blue-black, a print is considered “cool-toned.” (2) An additional processing step that increases the archival life of a print and/or changes the inherent image color (i.e. to “tone”). Developer choice influences both image tone and the color a print becomes with any given toner.

Vocabulary

unwashed emulsion An emulsion in which the unwanted by-products of the chemical reaction that formed the silver halide are not removed. When coated on paper, the by-products safely soak into the paper, rather than crystalizing on the surface of the emulsion, as they can do with emulsion coated on glass or film. washing This can refer to a stage in the processing chain (see processing), or to a step in emulsion making. See emulsion making stages.

11

X The generic shorthand symbol designating any of the halide components of a silver halide formula. AgX can be AgCl, AgBr, AgClBr, AgBrI, or AgClBrI. Endnotes 1. Wall, E. J., The Dictionary of Photography (9th edn) (London: Hazell, Watson & Viney, 1912). 2. Kodak Reference Handbook (Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Company, 1945).

Figure 3.0 Handmade Film Negative, © Denise Ross

Chapter 3

The Darkroom

Figure 3.1 Tyee Above, © Denise Ross

It is of course convenient to have a special dark-room adapted for all photographic work, but in some cases, it is impossible, we are well aware. If, however, the amateur will work after dark, there is no reason why a dressing room, a bath room, or any spare room should not answer the purpose without permanently disarranging them. (Abney, 1885)1

R

egardless of Captain Abney’s good advice, in short order many photographers actually did have dedicated darkrooms to work in. During the middle of last century, your own darkroom was worth serious bragging rights, so much so that to not have a darkroom marked you as decidedly unserious about your craft. Of course, that was nonsense. There were public darkrooms and excellent photofinishers, along with custom printers, in every town. Today, the formal, fully kitted-out darkroom, public or private, is rapidly becoming a thing of the past. That’s OK (at least for us) because emulsion making doesn’t require much space or equipment. As was true 130 years ago, any “darkable” space can serve the job. Old hands in the

traditional darkroom will understand this, but if you didn’t grow up in the days when home and public darkrooms were common, and every high school had a darkroom for use by anyone interested in photography, then the idea of setting up your own darkroom might seem a daunting task. It shouldn’t.

Space The first step in designing your darkroom is to stop fantasizing about the ultimate darkroom! Photographers are infamous for GAS (gear acquisition syndrome), but less known outside the traditional photography community is a related disorder involving darkroom space and equipment. You’ve probably seen pictures of Ansel Adams’s

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

last darkroom, or watched endless videos walking through someone else’s perfect darkroom. It’s all too easy to justify not getting started because we don’t have those kinds of work spaces or professional equipment. But, here’s what the owner of perhaps the most famous darkroom said: Book 1 of this series presents some basic plans for a noncommercial darkroom of moderate size. These plans are offered only as a suggestion: it is my conviction that the design of a darkroom (or any part of the photographic laboratory) should be suited to the individual person, and to his particular work. I have never seen any other basic laboratory design that is as satisfactory as mine—to me. But I know full well that I could not design an entirely satisfactory laboratory for any other photographer. (Adams, 1950)2 The second step in designing your darkroom is to promise yourself to be realistic. If you know you’re going to be starting small, each task becomes less of a perceived obstacle. The third step (and it may seem to contradict the second step) is to plan ahead. You absolutely do not need to have everything perfect starting from day one, although having your long-term goals in mind when you do get started might someday eliminate tearing down and starting over. If you think you might like to make dry plates or film, give some consideration to what might be involved. Unless you are the rare photographer who actually has an unlimited amount of space to dedicate to your craft, the third step in designing your darkable space is to “think modular.” Like the ship’s cook in a small galley kitchen, or the chef in a tiny Paris bistro, experienced darkroom workers understand that a small, modular space is every bit as useful as cavernous space. I am forever setting up or taking down—whatever the task at hand requires. It’s part of the fun. I know just what tools to have out, and how to organize my space. In the

beginning, I pondered and fussed and rearranged, and shopped for odds and ends. I still keep one eye open for anything emulsiony. A bathroom conversion is a classic. It’s wonderful if one bathroom or a half-bath in a house can be devoted to permanent darkroom space. Turning the master bedroom and attached bath into darkroom/studio space, after the kids had moved out of the house, was the goal of most of the older photographers I knew when I was starting photography. Another classic is a corner of a garage, especially if it has the good fortune to share a wall with household plumbing. There is a great deal of instructional material available on how to convert various spaces, both permanent and temporary, into darkrooms. You might run into an idea that would never have occurred to you (or me!) otherwise. Most contemporary advice, however, is primarily concerned with a place to process black and white film, and maybe even do some printing. We have additional and slightly different needs. Our primary requirement isn’t running water, although that certainly is handy. We need a coating table (see Chapter 6). Quarter-inch plate glass is the ideal surface. If a big piece of heavy plate glass is impractical, a flat piece of wood, painted with waterproof paint, will work as a surface for many smaller sheets of glass set up and taken down as needed. In my darkroom, I have a glass-covered table permanently in place, but I often add a temporary surface to a coating session. This is nothing more than a long flat board laid across open cabinet doors or on my print washer. The board supports 16″ × 20″ pieces of thick glass. Each sheet of glass supports one piece of paper. One of these days, I’ll get a small folding table for the supplementary coating glass. The ergonomics would be better, but the board works, and making paper is more fun than shopping. Your space doesn’t have to be all in one spot. Sometimes we employ every spare corner available,

The Darkroom 15

Figure 3.2 (top) Temporary processing space in a laundry room, © Denise Ross Figure 3.3 (bottom) Getting ready to coat paper, © Denise Ross

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

be it temporary or permanent. It’s often a combination of both. As long as you have a lightproof container to transport sensitive materials around the house, you can do different jobs in different rooms. Figure 3.3 is what one emulsion making darkroom (mine) looks like: barely controlled chaos, and it’s smaller than it looks. The space is only ten feet wide. There are shelves everywhere I can put them; the same with clip lines and hooks. A long string of red LED mini-lights is strung around the room. It usually stays in place, but it can easily be moved if necessary. Aside from a small corner in the garage where I store and weigh chemicals, and a dry area off the darkroom with my computer, books, and a table to cut and store paper, my small space does the job for making all my film and paper. I can’t pretend, however, it doesn’t at times take patience and the acceptance of my space limitations, together with the willingness to be flexible. The set-up changes with each job. For this one—wet paper coating—I have a tray of water for soaking paper on a folding tray stand in the middle of the room. There is paper, ready to coat, on the permanent glass-top table (simply a sheet of salvaged thick glass on a folding table), and also on glass sheets arranged on a board, which is resting on the print washer for the time required. A 24″ × 24″ corner of the sink is the only space dedicated to actual emulsion making. One big thing: Chaos is not the same thing as dirty. Spilled chemicals, and dust of any kind, are definitely not the friends of emulsions. Don’t mix dry chemicals in the darkroom; do wipe up spills the minute they happen. A couple of times a year, depending on how much work you’ve been doing, more or less empty the darkroom of the loose stuff and wipe down everything before you put the darkroom back together. No one enjoys this, but it is well worth the effort.

Infrastructure Coating Table

The single most important item that distinguishes an emulsion making darkroom from any other darkroom is a flat, level, and smooth working surface. A Sink (or Two)

Sinks can never be too big! (Fortunately, small works just fine.) If you’re converting a bathroom with a tub, and you don’t mind working down low, the tub can be your sink. Running water is very handy; hot water is a luxury. However, don’t reject a space just because it doesn’t have running water. I worked for over a year in a darkroom without plumbing. My kitchen had running water, and I had a bucket. My current darkroom doesn’t have a drain to my septic system. I sealed the drainage hole in my main sink and I collect my liquid darkroom waste to dispose of with my local garbage service. I have a second, smaller sink that drains with a hose to my garden outside. Only clean wash water goes down the drain. Ventilation

Most darkroom guide books talk about ventilation. It’s important, but not absolutely critical unless you are working with ammonia (and none of the emulsions in this book use ammonia), or if you have sensitive lungs. The important thing to remember about any ventilation system is that the fan should not pull fumes past your nose. That means that if the exhaust intake is in the ceiling in the center of the room (as is usually the case with converted bathrooms), the fan will draw fumes from the sink, up past your face on their way out the room. A ventilation intake over the back of your sink, below nose level, is ideal. Many years ago, I had a friend who worked in a converted bathroom. He ran a length of clothes drier hose between the fan in the middle of the ceiling, down

The Darkroom 17

Figure 3.4 (top) Darkroom flashlight: standard flashlight with red lithographic film, © Denise Ross Figure 3.5 (bottom) A household graduated shot glass and lab glassware graduated cylinders, © Denise Ross

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

the wall to over his sink and into a hood made from a cardboard box. Worked perfectly. I wish I’d taken a picture. If you are using a bathroom on a temporary, set up/take down basis, and you can’t convert the ventilation, you’re best off not using the ventilation fan while you’re in the room. As often as practical, step out of the darkroom and turn the ventilation fan on while you’re not in the room. It should only take a few minutes to clear the air before you go back in. Ventilation is greatly improved if you have a light-tight darkroom louver in your door. Doors are better than curtains. Curtains can get sucked into the darkroom by a strong ventilation fan. You can control dust by taping a piece of garden bugcontrol fabric (also called “floating row cover”) over the door louver and any forced-air registers in the room. If you have the space outside the door, it is very handy to construct a light trap by hanging a dark curtain on a rod set over the door frame. How tight up against the wall over the door the curtain needs to be depends on the amount and direction of ambient light directly outside the darkroom. If the curtain is closed when you open the darkroom door, it will be safe to come and go from the darkroom while light-sensitive materials are sitting out. Lighting

Strings of red, LED mini-lights are perfect. I don’t know how I worked in a darkroom for as long as I did without them. If you hang the strings from hooks placed around the room, you can move the lights to the best advantage for a particular task, or you can take them down completely if you are working in a temporary space. In addition to red lights (referred to as safelight because it is safe to handle most photographic materials under their illumination), you’ll also need white room light. If possible, have two lights: one low wattage to check on prints without blinding

yourself after a long time working in safelight illumination, and because it makes judging wet prints easier, and one much brighter light for all the activities in the darkroom made easier with good light. In addition to stationary lights, a red flashlight is invaluable, either red LED, or a standard flashlight with red lithographic film taped over the glass. Attach a hook to it and hang it where you always can reach it, because I promise, you will reach for it constantly. Darkroom Heating and Cooling

Everything is easier and more comfortable if you can control the temperature in your darkroom. The best general working temperature is 68°F/ 20°C. What it takes to achieve this varies with location. Because of where I live, I don’t need A/C, even in the summer. In fact, most mornings, the heat comes on for a bit. When I lived in Arizona, the situation was reversed. In addition, there was dust to deal with. When I lived in Texas, the summers were so humid I needed to run a dehumidifier in my darkroom. If you can’t keep the summer temperature down to processing-ideal, then set your processing trays in larger trays serving as a cool water bath. Keep a thermometer handy to monitor solution temperatures and add ice cubes to the water bath tray as needed. I find that coating, and processing, at a room temperature of 68°F/20°C, or cooler, works best. The cool glass helps the emulsion set up quickly. Once I hang the sheets of paper to dry, I turn up the heat on the electric oil-filled radiant portable space heater I have in the darkroom. The type of space heater with hot infrared coils and a fan is unsuitable. Color

Except for black enlarger cubicles, white is the best color for the walls and ceiling in a darkroom. It reflects safelight illumination, which greatly improves working visibility. Gloss or semi-gloss

The Darkroom 19

paint over smooth drywall works well, as do white, water-resistant laminate sheets. Any surface needs to hold up to regular cleaning, and it should be smooth so that it doesn’t collect dust. Floors

Easy to clean! Clothes Lines, Clips, and Shelves

Absolutely essential. As many as possible.

Equipment and Tools A comprehensive list of all the possible tools that we can use for emulsion making could easily turn into a catalog. Rather than lay out specifics, I think it is more useful to talk about the categories of tools and equipment and why we need them, along with how to use them. Emulsion making comes down to the same basic steps as cooking. You weigh and measure ingredients, mix them together, and then cook them. As with cooking, your equipment and workflow can be camp-kitchen, high-tech gastronomy, or anywhere in between. You will find what you need as often in the kitchen supply section of your grocery store as in a science supply store. Thrift shops are treasure troves. Thermometers

The easy availability of accurate thermometers, at affordable prices and missing the mercury hazard, is one of the advantages modern emulsion makers have over our predecessors. A good digital kitchen thermometer is fine. Whether or not you buy a kitchen style or a laboratory thermometer from a science supply company, you should buy at least three. Not only will you be using more than one at a time in the darkroom, having a number of thermometers lets you check them against each other for accuracy. They should all match within a degree or two. One exact temperature is almost never necessary for a recipe to be a success, but it is very important that your recipe temperatures are consistent from batch to batch.

Scale

Besides accurate thermometers, an excellent scale is the only precision tool absolutely required for emulsion making. The rule of thumb with scales is that they should display a decimal point more precision than you intend to use. The recipes in this book weigh out to 0.1 g; therefore, your scale should weigh and display to 0.01 g. For example, if a recipe calls for 5.2 g of X, then your scale should display 5.20 g. Scales that weigh to greater accuracy than 0.01 are much more expensive. A far better way to use chemicals in very small quantities is to make a “% solution” (see Chapter 5). Most affordable scales top out at a certain weight limit. Although it’s most convenient to weigh your ingredients directly into a beaker, rather than each ingredient separately, often the total weight of the ingredients, including water, will be heavier than your scale’s upper weight limit. The solution to this is to weigh the ingredients separately, and then add them together. If you do this, you can assign each chemical its own weighing/measuring container. Use that container each time you weigh out a chemical. A restaurant supply store is the perfect place to find all the kinds of small containers you could wish for. The little covered plastic cups that condiments often come in are perfect for small quantities of chemicals. You can buy a bag of a hundred for a few dollars. The larger cups that a fish and chips house might use to serve coleslaw are ideal for chemicals that weigh out in larger quantities, such as the sodium sulfite in most developer recipes. Another option, if you don’t need a lid, is small paper or plastic cups. Weighing ingredients separately is also a good idea if you have a tendency to weigh too much, too fast. If you overshoot the weight when you are weighing into a separate, dedicated container, you can return the excess to its original bottle. But, if you are weighing all the ingredients into one common beaker, when you over-weigh, you’ll have to throw out everything and start over. Chemical cross-contamination is fatal to any hope of successful emulsion making.

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

Note: Every digital scale and heating unit I’ve seen has red or amber display lights. These should be safe for everything except panchromatic film, but as with LED safelights, it’s always wise to test with the actual sensitized materials you are using. If the lights on your scale are blue, keep the displays covered while sensitized materials are out. Glassware

What’s cooler than genuine laboratory glassware?! The different pieces can make a lab rat’s heart go pitter-patter. Lab glassware was once hard to find and expensive, but with online shopping, almost any piece is easy to order and inexpensive. However, lab glassware isn’t necessary, especially beakers. You already may have all the glass containers you need in your kitchen. Canning jars work very well. Shot glasses are ideal for holding small quantities of chemicals or solutions. A set of glass kitchen measuring cups is invaluable. A marvelously cluttered thrift store can yield a treasure trove of suitable glassware for almost free. The recipes in this book list “beakers” among the required tools, but feel free to use whatever you have that’s suitable. One category of lab glassware that I do heartily recommend is the graduated cylinder (more commonly called a graduate). The 100 ml size is very handy, but if you only get one, make it a 10 ml size. A graduated shot glass with volume markings is good for larger quantities of liquid, but be sure to check the accuracy of the volume marks. Mixing and Heating

We live in fortunate times (at least for emulsion makers). Every other month or so, I run across yet another electric household gadget that could be used to make emulsions. When photographers first started making silver gelatin emulsions, electricity wasn’t widely available. Early emulsion work was done by gas or alcohol lamps. This is the origin of the name “gaslight paper.” The paper could be handled under a gas lamp set low, and then exposed under the same lamp turned up to bright. The

paper seems slow to us today, but at the time it was nearly miraculous. The papers that had been available up until then had required lengthy exposures under sunlight. A gaslight paper was practically instant photography. But, that was quite a while ago, and I’m a child of my times. I’m all for convenience. Time, silver nitrate, water, and watercolor paper are all valuable commodities. Tools that reduce resource waste deserve consideration when we are planning our workflow. That said, “convenient” is not even remotely the same thing as necessary, and owning extra stuff can be its own form of resource abuse. It is possible (actually: very easy) to make an emulsion without electricity. After all, that’s how things started out. The emulsion making constants remain the same. Only the tools we use to implement the steps change. We still need to weigh; a good two-pan balance beam scale is very accurate. We need to mix; a hand whisk and a strong arm are all that are required. We need to provide heat; a gas stove or Bunsen burner can heat a kettle of water. However, most of us will probably be employing electricity in at least part of our emulsion making. Putting together our equipment and tools is not “all or nothing.” At any time, you can replace any of the low-tech tools with more sophisticated versions, or you may choose to keep things simple. Peonies is an 8″ × 10″ contact print made with chloride “gaslight” paper. The only equipment used to make the emulsion is shown in Figure 3.6. There are a number of useful electric heating options for less than $25. Although technically, mixing and heating are separate steps; they overlap during the emulsion making process. The degree to which they overlap varies between recipes. Because of this, the equipment we can use runs a broad gamut of possibilities. A good example is the magnetic stirrer. It’s a useful tool for any darkroom. A magnetic stirrer takes the drudgery out of mixing up our own processing solutions. If you want to make the faster emulsions, either for enlarging speed papers or

The Darkroom 21

Figure 3.6 Peonies, “gaslight” contact printing paper (Chapter 13), © Denise Ross

for negatives, a magnetic stirring unit is highly recommended. More expensive, but very handy if you make a lot of emulsions, are units that heat as well as mix. If you go shopping for one online, they’re alternately called magnetic stirring hot plates, magnetic hot plate stirrers, or a hot plate with magnetic stirrer. There are models to fit most budgets. They all tend to be well made to stand up to the rigors of lab work. If you can find a used one in decent shape, it will very likely serve you well for years to come. In my opinion, the far more expensive ones that feature thermometer probes to automatically

control temperature are not worth the money. A probe cannot substitute for the emulsion maker monitoring the process and adjusting the water bath temperature with timely additions of hot or cold water. A water bath is one of the most valuable tools for perfect temperature control that we have at our disposal. Water Baths

A water bath (called a “waterbath” by some companies) is a system employed to hold emulsion at a specific temperature, with little variation in that temperature, for an extended period of time. It is a temperature buffering (stabilizing and

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

Figure 3.7 (top) The tools used to make Peonies (Figure 3.6), © Denise Ross Figure 3.8 (bottom) Three gadgets that all hold a temperature suitable for emulsion making: the bottom of a slow cooker, a desktop coffee mug warmer, and a scented candle heating base, © Denise Ross

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Figure 3.9 (top) Magnetic stirring hot plate, © Denise Ross Figure 3.10 (bottom) “Kitchen stuff” water bath system, © Denise Ross

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

moderating) aid. They are essential for emulsion making. There are many types of varying degrees of sophistication, from a simple passive temperature system to a laboratory-quality thermostatically controlled dedicated unit. Low-tech water baths can be made with stacked glass bowls or stacked glass measuring cups, with or without a direct heat source. Choose sturdy thick glass, ideally heat-tempered. One common brand is Pyrex. Two nested bowls or cups (bigger and smaller) can sit on a heat source as simple as a desktop coffee mug warmer. Or add a third bowl and eliminate the heating unit. Treat the third (largest) bowl as the heat source—with a little help from you. If you have a source of very hot water, for example, from an electric tea pot or a kettle on your stove, you only need to remove the cooling water from the bottom bowl and replace it with hot water as much and as often as required to maintain the correct temperature. Keep a few ice cubes handy in case you overshoot the temperature. If you maintain the right temperature in the bottom bowl (usually a few degrees warmer than the desired emulsion temperature), the bowl holding your container of emulsion will maintain a very constant temperature. The only drawback is the attention required. It is actually a very stable temperature buffering system. Sometimes beakers want to float in the water bath. A way to prevent this is to cut a snug hole in the plastic lid of a covered glass storage bowl (the bowl itself is an ideal water bath). To get the right size, trace the bottom of a beaker in the center of the lid. Cut out a round piece of the lid, inside the traced circle so that the hole is a little smaller than the bottom of the beaker. Now, cut little fins around the edge of the circle. Start cautiously! It’s a lot easier to make a hole larger than it is to make it smaller. (Can you hear the voice of sorry experience?) While you’re making holes in the plastic lid, add two more: a small one for a thermometer probe, and a slightly larger one for removing and adding water, if necessary to maintain the desired

temperature. A kitchen bulb baster (usually called a turkey baster) is the perfect tool for adding and removing water. Over time, the hole in the lid of my 400 ml beaker-size water bath got a little stretched and loose. Waterproof adhesive tape on two sides of the hole is just enough to snug up the fit again. I have water baths for 250 ml, 400 ml, and 600 ml beakers. One is a bowl with a mismatched lid from my favorite thrift store. Tip: The point of a water bath as a temperature buffering system is to ensure that no part of the emulsion has a different temperature than another. Practically, this requires preventing the bottom of a beaker from getting hotter than the water bath. This is almost impossible if the bottom of the beaker (or equivalent) sits in too close contact with the heating element. In other words, if the bottom of the beaker is sitting directly on whatever surface is on the heating element, you’re likely to overheat the emulsion at the bottom of the beaker. Examine your water bath setup and decide if you need to create space between your beaker and the bottom of the water bath component that is in direct contact with the heat. I use circles of silicone baking material that I cut out of a red silicone bread pan (the soft, spongy type of material). They are always in the bottom of the bowl that is sitting on the heating unit. Whatever water bath system you choose, high tech or low tech, get to know your tools. Play with them before you make your first emulsion. If your heat source is an electric unit of some type, put a cup of water with a thermometer in it on the cold surface. Turn on the heat. Start a timer. How long does it take for a given volume of water to reach a given temperature? How steady does the temperature hold? How closely do you need to monitor the temperature to feel confident it is holding? If you are using nested bowls as your water bath, establish the temperature and then monitor the temperature decline over time. Establish a general timetable for refreshing the hot water in the bottom water bath in order to maintain a constant

The Darkroom 25

Figure 3.11 (top) A water bath of nested containers, on a desktop coffee mug warmer, © Denise Ross Figure 3.12 (middle) Plastic bowl lid converted for emulsion making, © Denise Ross Figure 3.13 (bottom) Water bath lid “fins,” © Denise Ross

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

Figure 3.14 (top) Keurig K-Cup coffee filters, © Denise Ross Figure 3.15 (bottom) Hands-free filter holder, © Denise Ross

The Darkroom 27

temperature in the water bath actually holding the emulsion. This is the perfect time to start your first emulsion making notebook.

will do the trick, including the heavy black plastic bags that commercial printing paper usually comes packaged in. “Addition” Tools

Filters

Keurig K-cup filters have become one of my favorite tools. “Gold” mesh coffee filters are excellent, too, but the K-cup filters are a finer mesh. Equally important: they are small. When you run emulsion through them, very little is wasted clinging to the sides of the filter and inside the mesh empty spaces. Tip: At least one brand of generic K-cup filters has a decidedly inferior filter. It’s probably best to get the real deal. I don’t know how many times I’ve thought that having three hands would make everything easier. The second-best thing is work-arounds. If you set a K-cup filter in a funnel with its tail cut off, the funnel holds the filter while you’re using both hands.

There are a variety of methods for adding one solution to another during emulsion making. In large part, the methods are interchangeable, although for consistency’s sake, any particular recipe should be standardized to one method. Addition can be as simple as just pouring in a solution. Or, the rate can be controlled with a kitchen measuring spoon, a funnel, a syringe, or a stopcock burette. No method is necessarily superior to the others. Caution! Liquid is added to a burette by pouring it in at the top of the tube while the stopcock is closed. To do this, you need to use a small funnel. Make sure the funnel isn’t in the tube so tight that it creates a vacuum seal. If that happens, the solution will not flow into the burette. Rather, it will overflow the funnel and spill out. If the solution is silver nitrate, this would be a very bad thing.

Mortar and Pestle

This is invaluable for dealing with potassium bromide (KBr), which usually comes in lumps as hard as rocks. If the lumps aren’t ground into a fine powder before the KBr is added to a recipe, it can take forever to dissolve and that messes with timing (not to mention my patience). I have a set dedicated to KBr grinding only. It stays in a plastic bag between uses. Kitchen supply stores are the place to buy these. Choose ceramic, porcelain, or marble. Avoid the ones made with wood or rough stone.

All the Little Miscellaneous Things

This list could get pretty long. It includes hand mixing tools, plastic spoons and forks, scrapers, coffee filters, dropper bottles, wash bottles, spray bottles, plastic wrap/food film, plastic Ziploc bags, paper towels, latex or nitrile gloves, cleaning supplies, an apron, eye protection, tape, permanent markers, rubber bands, bottles for processing chemistry, and more, including the items needed for paper coating.

Lightproof Containers

Things for Paper Coating and Things for Processing

Emulsion is light sensitive. At least that’s the goal! Not all recipes require time in the refrigerator, but some do, and most can be held at a refrigerated temperature if something interrupts an emulsion making and coating session. Having a lightproof container always handy is just smart. Film processing canisters are perfect, but anything that excludes all light from your container of emulsion

The best way to approach tool collecting is to read each recipe with active visualization. Take notes. Record not only the objective facts, but also your subjective observations. Because every emulsion maker’s situation is different, the recipes do not come with a detailed list of each and every tool that could be used, but each recipe spells out in detail what steps are to be taken and how to take

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

Figure 3.16 (top) Mortar and pestle, © Denise Ross Figure 3.17 (bottom) Lightproof canisters, © Denise Ross

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Figure 3.18 (left) Addition tools, © Denise Ross Figure 3.19 (middle) Stopcock burette set up to add silver nitrate solution to salted gelatin, © Denise Ross Figure 3.20 (right) Funnel set in the top of a stopcock burette, © Denise Ross

them. Generate your own list of the tools used each time you make a batch of emulsion. You’ll be in the middle of a step and you’ll say to yourself: “Self! Why aren’t there some paper towels handy!?” Next time you’ll have paper towels handy. In a very short time, you’ll have the collection that works best for you, in your darkroom. (See also Chapter 6 on coating paper and Chapter 9 on processing.)

Endnotes 1. Abney, William De Wiveleslie, Photography with Emulsions (3rd edn) (London: Piper & Carter, 1885), 30. 2. Adams, Ansel, The Print: Contact Printing and Enlarging (Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1950), 27.

Figure 4.0 Three-Color Gum over Chlorobromide Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 4

Materials

Figure 4.1 Summer Storm, © Denise Ross

In photography, as in all other industrial and artistic pursuits, certain apparatus, or tools, are needed to produce a picture; some you can buy; others, with but little labor and ingenuity, you can make. This lesson is written to inform you of those tools which you must have, and leaves to your own judgement the purchase of those which, though not absolutely necessary, are, nevertheless, of considerable comfort in carrying forward the various operations through which you are to be led. (Adams, 1888)1

A

s is the case with equipment and tools, our materials list could get to be long. However, it could just as easily be very short and stay that way. This is a medium that obliges a personal approach to our art. In the instruction books and encyclopedias of traditional photography, “materials” almost always refers to film and paper—commercially made, of course. Discussions of materials include choosing the best type of film or printing paper for the intended purpose. We are no different, although our list expands to include components and ingredients—the materials for making our materials. It is almost certain that all of us bring some aspect of commercial products to our workflow.

By “commercial,” I mean off-the-shelf and ready to use. Personally, I’m very glad Kodak makes selenium toner. I don’t make my own watercolor paper. And, obviously, we are dependent on factories for most of our chemicals, including gelatin. That said, from the time I started down this path, I’ve tried to keep sustainability clearly in sight. We should be able to continue with some aspect of handmade silver gelatin, using materials that will likely remain available, for as long as the world looks anything like it does today.

Paper High quality watercolor paper is (quite literally) the foundation of our prints.

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

I’ll come right out and confess that I love watercolor paper. I’m one of those who will go into an artist supply store and must actively resist fondling the papers on the shelves. When I first started making silver gelatin paper, I think I tried at least half the available watercolor papers, so I stand on firm ground when I say that way lies madness (or at least an awful lot of time and money). In the beginning of the learning curve, obsessing over papers will only take time away from learning to make emulsions. All papers do not work for emulsion making; some component or characteristic is incompatible with some aspect of the process. Rather than list all the papers I’ve found that don’t work, I will advocate for the ones I’ve had the most luck with. Get a firm grounding in emulsion making, and printing on handmade silver gelatin paper, and then if the spirit moves you to test a bunch of watercolor papers, you’ll at least know what you should expect from a good paper. It might come as a surprise that the paper on which we coat our emulsions is actually one of the more fraught aspects of our craft. The recipe changes in commercial photographic printing paper and film, which have plagued photographers from the very beginning, are infamous but not unique. It would seem that watercolor paper manufacturers also change their formulations from time to time, usually without notifying their customers. OK, fair enough. Watercolor paper isn’t made with emulsion coating in mind. This means that seemingly out of the blue the most frustrating problems can rear their ugly heads. My personal solution is to stock up on favorite papers by lot number (batch) whenever possible. The added advantage to this is that bulk purchases are almost always less expensive per sheet of paper. When you are first getting started, and if you are unfamiliar with watercolor paper, I recommend that you order a few 22″ × 30″ sheets of: • Fabriano Artistico HP (Hot Press) 90 lb, traditional white • Arches HP (Hot Press) 90 lb, natural white

• Arches HP (Hot Press) 140 lb, natural white and/or bright white • Rives BFK, 250 gsm, white and/or cream-white • Arches CP (Cold Press), 140 lb and/or Fabriano Artistico CP, 140 lb, if you prefer a more textured paper • Somerset Printmaking Paper, white satin, 250 gsm, is also a lovely paper. It is very similar to Rives BFK, but the surface is perhaps a closer match to the Kodabromide “E” and “G” surfaces.2 This will give you an excellent overview of possibilities, along with a solid framework by which to judge other papers. If you only want to start with one type, my vote is for Rives BFK. I do most of my printing on it. If you are working with more than one paper, things can get confusing. I code each piece of paper as I cut it to the right size for coating—while I’m still sure which is the front side. I have a collection of paper punches, and each paper has its own punch. I make one punch in the bottom righthand corner. This not only identifies the paper, it guarantees I never coat a piece of paper upside down. When I lay a piece of paper on the coating table, the hole punch is always in the lower righthand corner. Figure 4.2 is a stack of different papers. Although they are all very close in color and weight, each contributes different, subtle characteristics to a print. The “star & bar” paper is Arches, natural white; the “heart” paper is Rives BFK; the “three dots” paper is Fabriano Artistico, traditional white. I keep a folder with all the papers I’ve tried, along with their punch code, grain direction, weight, and any other thing I learn about the paper. I refer to it constantly. When I first use a new package of a paper I’ve used before, if it has a different lot number I make sure to coat a couple of sheets of known paper along with the new stuff. If you run into bad paper and the coatings are a failure, it’s far too easy to assume the problem is with the emulsion. It’s seldom the case. Additionally, if you’ve only committed, say, half the batch of emulsion to the

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Figure 4.2 (left) Paper samples—ideal candidates for your research notebook, © Denise Ross Figure 4.3 (right) Different ID punches for each paper type help keep the research organized, © Denise Ross

new sheets of paper, you’ll still have a few good coated sheets to print with while you solve the problem. I try not to run too low on proven paper. One of the reasons most of my printing today is on either Rives BFK or Arches is that in twelve years of making silver gelatin paper, I’ve never run into an inconsistent batch of either. Almost as important, especially considering their consistently high quality, they are both reasonably priced papers and readily available. If you’ve never dabbled in watercolor painting, or worked in other handmade printing processes, you might find yourself amazed by the wealth of papers. Watercolor paper comes in different textures, colors, and weights, and those are just the characteristics that are obvious to the naked eye. The components of papers vary considerably. They include, among other things, the type of sizing (stiffening agent) and dyes or bleaching agents, the grain of the paper (the arrangement of the paper’s fibers), and wet strength, a measure of how well the paper will hold up to processing

abuse. Each characteristic exerts some influence on our prints. There is an enormous amount of available information about watercolor painting. There are books, websites, and online forums. Many communities have a watercolor painting group. Paper is nearly as often discussed as paint. Following one of the online communities or periodically checking a paper’s website will help keep you up-to-date on changes paper manufacturers may make from time to time. The following is a brief summary, together with how today’s paper options relate to us. A paper that is absolutely outstanding for painting may be totally unsuitable for silver gelatin printing paper. Composition

Look for “100% cotton” or “100% rag,” and “acidfree.” This is not to say that papers made from wood pulp are necessarily unsuitable for coating with silver gelatin emulsion. The potential problem is that they add an element of uncertainty to the process—both in the short term, and with the

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

ultimate longevity of a print. There’s a long list of chemicals used to make wood pulp paper. Any of them can (and, over the years, many have) interact unfavorably with silver gelatin emulsions.3 Tint

Paper comes in a variety of colors. The vocabulary of photographic paper refers to paper color as “tint.” (The color of the emulsion is referred to as its “tone.”) Each brand of watercolor paper may have a slightly different naming scheme, but in general, in a progression from white to cream, the colors are designated bright white, natural white, traditional white, cream-white, and cream. A good reason to buy by lot number is the periodic variations in paper color, often related to seasonal changes in water quality in the more traditional factories. Dissatisfaction with the reliability of the available raw paper stock led Eastman Kodak to build its first own paper mill in 1914.4 Surface Texture

The most common surface textures of watercolor paper are HP (hot press, or smooth), CP (cold press, semi-rough), and Rough. HP paper is not “smooth” in the same sense as high gloss inkjet paper, RC (resin coated) glossy photographic paper, or glossy plain baryta paper. It has a slight texture, or “tooth.” It is the easiest to coat using the wet-paper coating technique (see Chapter 6). Emulsion coated on HP watercolor paper ends up very close in appearance to many classic photographic papers. Weight

The thickness of watercolor paper is indicated by its weight, noted in lb (pounds per ream) and/or gsm (grams per square meter). There’s just enough difference in the two weight designations that the correlations may be different from brand to brand. Light weight Fabriano Artistico is listed as 90 lb (200 gsm), while light weight Arches is 90 lb (185 gsm). That’s OK. It’s the ballpark number that matters to us. Medium weight paper is in the

ballpark of 140 lb (300 gsm). Rives BFK weights are a bit different from other papers. The medium weight white 22″ × 30″ sheets are 250 gsm (no “lb” designation). It is difficult to assign a precise correlation between the weight of watercolor papers and photographic papers. For one thing, the weight designations were never consistent across paper types or among the different paper manufacturers. Also, photographic papers have coatings that are perceived as part of their weight, but in general, 90 lb paper is a little heavier than traditional “single weight” paper. Medium weight paper is similar to traditional “double weight” paper. By way of comparison that may be more familiar, high quality inkjet photographic artist paper runs in the range of about 300 to 350 gsm. Again, think “ballpark,” not absolutes. I use two different inkjet papers which both claim to be 310 gsm, yet they are quite obviously different thicknesses. The same is true for traditional paper. The qualitative characteristics of a paper are at least as important as the quantitative. Sizing, Buffering, and Optical Brighteners

Sizing is what is added to the paper pulp to give it strength and dimensional stability. Buffering is added to some papers to reduce their acidity. Buffering is usually only an issue with papers made from wood pulp. Few high quality watercolor papers employ optical brighteners. There is a certain degree of proprietary secrecy around the exact ingredients in any given paper. Arches paper is sized with gelatin. Fabriano paper is sized with a synthetic agent. Grain

Grain refers to the direction the fibers of a paper are arranged. For us, grain is an important consideration during coating. We want to run our coating with the grain of the paper. Grain direction is designated “long” or “short.” Long grain paper fibers are usually oriented along the length of the paper; short grain, along the width. However, it is

Materials

very wise to test each paper type you try for its grain direction. If you fold a piece of paper in two directions, one fold will be smooth, the other wrinkly. A wetting test is also informative. Most watercolor papers ripple when they get wet, some more than others. Papers cup along the grain direction. This is an important reason to coat along the direction of the grain, especially if using a dry paper coating technique (see Chapter 6). Paper that cups with the grain, also washboards against the grain. The washboard ripples form hills and valleys on the paper surface. The emulsion pools in the valleys and sheds the hills. When you

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first get a new type of paper and you don’t know the grain direction, cut two strips: one from the length of the paper; one from the width. Wet both strips. Lay them on a flat surface and see what they do. Front Side vs. Screen Side

High quality watercolor paper is made by drying a layer of pulp on a fine screen. The back of a sheet retains the barest imprint of the screen. The front side has the paper’s distinctive surface texture. That’s the side we’ll usually use, but interestingly, Kodak’s “linen” surface can be closely replicated by

Figures 4.4 (top) Wet paper showing its grain direction by washboarding and cupping, © Denise Ross Figures 4.5 (bottom) Paper samples with emulsion, exposed to light without processing, © Denise Ross

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

coating on the screen side of a paper. Some papers’ screen sides are almost indistinguishable from the front. If the paper has an embossed watermark, the front side of the paper is usually the side that reads the watermark correctly. Wet Strength

All good watercolor paper has excellent wet strength. The only time wet strength is necessarily an issue is with very thin paper negatives (see Chapter 18). If you start testing papers, be sure to follow the “known variable” rule: change one factor at a time and compare the new thing you’re testing with something you already know. Figure 4.5— I wanted to test two new papers, Winsor & Newton Professional and Blick Premier. They sounded promising. From the same batch of ClBr emulsion, I coated six different papers at the same time. They dried at the same time. I cut strips under safelight and brought them out into room light at the same time. Rives BFK, Arches, and Fabriano Artistico, slowly and at almost the same speed, darkened from exposure to the light. Because no developing chemistry was involved, the papers simply fogged to the expected dull, neutral gray. The Winsor & Newton and the Blick Premier darkened almost immediately with a definite blue color shift. My guess is that whatever is in their sizing acted almost like a developer. I decided not to use them. If their characteristics were especially important to me, I would pursue the matter further. But for now, the papers I know well are more than excellent. The take-home message, again, is to beware of rabbit holes. There is a time for chasing the multitude of beguiling possibilities—everything from papers to developers—once you have a solid understanding of the basics and what you should be able to expect.

should be sprinkled on your Cheerios, only silver nitrate and a few others require particularly careful handling. I leave it at “a few others” to discourage complacency with any chemical. With each and every chemical you purchase, read the MSDS (materials safety data sheet) before you even put the chemical on the shelf. If a chemical is redflagged, re-read the MSDS occasionally. Always practice responsible disposal. It is beyond the scope of this book to list the hazards and precautions for each chemical. Chemicals Used in Emulsion Making

• • • • • • • • • •

Distilled water Photographic gelatin Silver nitrate (AgNO3) Sodium chloride (NaCl) Potassium chloride (KCl) Potassium iodide (KI) Potassium bromide (KBr) Ammonium bromide (NH4Br) Citric acid Everclear-type grain alcohol (unadulterated ethanol, ~95% alcohol by volume) • Kodak Photo-Flo 200 • Glyoxal, 40% (optional) Not all the chemicals are required for each recipe.

Chemicals Required for Processing Chemistry

• • • • • • • •

Metol Sodium sulfite Borax Potassium bromide Sodium thiosulfate Sodium carbonate (optional) Hydroquinone (optional) Chrome alum (optional)

Commercial Formulas

Chemicals Chemicals are a much less complex issue than paper. The list is short, even if you make all the recipes in this book. Although none of them

[Optional, but recommended]: • Kodak HC110 developer • Kodak Kodafix or Professional Kodafix hardening fixer

Materials

For Toning

[Toning is optional, and not all toners appeal to all photographers. See Chapter 9 on processing, and Chapter 10 on toning adding color for more information.] • Kodak Rapid Selenium Toner • Gold chloride • Ammonium thiocyanate • Photographers’ Formulary Nelson Gold Toner • Balanced alkali (originally a proprietary blend made by Kodak (named “Kodalk”), and currently sold by Photographers’ Formulary. Sodium metaborate can be used as a substitute. Don’t believe that buying pre-made commercial developers and fixers will reduce the danger of careless chemical handling. Often, it’s quite the opposite. Commercial developers and fixers can have an extensive ingredient list. They are usually packaged in concentrated form, which increases any hazards. Many developing agents are very toxic to aquatic life. Responsible disposal is an ethical necessity. Read each and every word of recommendation and warning that comes with the product. Buy your chemicals from recognized photographic supply companies and you can’t go wrong. Plus, it’s easier all the way around. The companies keep on top of the shifting legal sands. Sometimes those sands shift fast. What was readily available one month, requires jumping through flaming hoops the next. If in doubt, contact a company by email or telephone. My favorite sources of chemicals are Photographers’ Formulary and Artcraft Chemicals. In the EU, Alternative Photographic Supplies in Gdynia, Poland, is an excellent source. The complexity of purchasing chemicals today is one of the reasons I try to keep my recipes and my workflow as simple as possible. One fortunate aspect of basic emulsion making is that the chemicals are (currently) readily available, relatively inexpensive, and store well for a long time. My personal rule of thumb is to stay at least ten batches ahead with the chemicals I have on hand. If there is a problem or delay with ordering a chemical, I know I won’t be stuck.

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Chemicals should always be tightly capped, and safe from direct light, high heat, and humidity. If a chemical comes in a glass bottle, place the bottle in a sturdy, re-sealable plastic bag. If it’s a liquid in a glass bottle, double-bag the bottle. If there is any chance whatsoever that children or pets might get into your chemicals, you’ve stored them in the wrong place. Access to photographic chemistry outside the United States can be complicated. Every country has different laws. Those laws are beyond the scope of this book, but as I write this, it looks like anyone, anywhere, who wants to make silver gelatin emulsions is able to do so. The Silver Gelatin Dryplate public group on Facebook is a good source of ideas and options, as is Alternative Photographic Processes, the Facebook group associated with AlternativePhotography.com. The only chemical that has a handling “trick” is glyoxal, a hardener. It can be the source of frustrating flaws if it isn’t used right. Solids precipitate out of solution over time and settle to the bottom of the bottle. Leave them there. Never shake or stir the bottle. Take the glyoxal from the top of the liquid in the bottle with an eyedropper. Use as little glyoxal as necessary to harden the emulsion. Not all emulsions require hardening. Overhardening can result in fixing problems.

Gelatin The very name “silver gelatin” indicates how important gelatin is to our process. Without undue hyperbole, it’s fair to say that gelatin is a unique miracle. C. E. Kenneth Mees, the creator of Kodak Research Laboratories, and director for 43 years, summed up gelatin nicely in his book, The Theory of the Photographic Process.5 Gelatin acts as a protective colloid that maintains the dispersion of the silver halides, allowing a stable suspension to form. In its jelly state, it’s a mechanical support system for the light sensitive elements of the emulsion. It acts to increase the sensitivity of silver halides, and it prevents potentially damaging byproducts from causing problems.

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

So far, there is no other substance, natural or artificial, that can replace gelatin. Gelatin is the most complex ingredient we use. In the first edition of The Theory of the Photographic Process, Dr. Mees spent 67 pages on gelatin. It’s fascinating reading. In addition, he was rigorous with his source material. There are five pages of references laid out for those of us interested in a deep dive into emulsion technology and history.6 When silver gelatin was new technology, the vagaries of gelatin were a constant plague on the industry. Manufacturers went to great lengths to pin down the types of gelatin that were best for each type of emulsion. Emulsion scientists and engineers tried to apply as much of the currently known science as possible, but to a large extent success often came down to luck. Trade secrets were the rule. The secrecy involved is one reason it is so difficult to trace the history of the technology of that time. It wasn’t until 1924 that S. E. Sheppard, a photo chemist at Eastman Kodak, discovered and isolated the active impurities in gelatin.7 From that point on, most emulsions have been made with purified, or inactive, gelatin. Inactive gelatin is also referred to as inert. The desirable active components are added separately. Gelatin comes in three basic strength categories: “hard,” “medium,” and “soft.”8 Gelatin manufacturers call these categories “High Bloom,” “Medium Bloom,” and “Low Bloom,” based on the Bloom number of a gelatin. Bloom numbers are determined by a very specific, standardized laboratory test.9 The range of Bloom numbers for High Bloom, or “hard” gelatin is 225–325. With culinary sheet gelatins the same general strength categories are called “platinum,” “gold,” and “silver.” Although the Bloom numbers are similar, the composition of the gelatins is not. Don’t be tempted to use food gelatin, at least while you are first learning to make emulsions. Although our predecessors had to use active gelatin, if we hope to achieve a measure of control over our emulsion making, it is important to use photographic gelatin. Photographic gelatin is highly

purified. It won’t introduce mysterious gremlins into our process. It is “hard.” That means it holds a lot of water relative to its weight and it has a high jelly strength. Relative to the gelatin-to-water ratio, the melted gelatin will set up into a very firm material when it cools. There are a number of sources for photographic gelatin, and each brand of gelatin is slightly different. For consistency’s sake, try to use only one kind for any given recipe. The labels of the different brands all have slightly different information. This can make things confusing. The Photographers’ Formulary doesn’t label its bottles of gelatin as “photographic,” but Photographers’ Formulary gelatin specifies the Bloom number with the related “hard” designation, and they have sold a reliable gelatin for years at an affordable price. It’s always been my first choice. Adox also makes an excellent gelatin. If I understand correctly, it is the brand most easily obtained in the EU. The Adox label for Colloida P specifies that it is “photo grade” and inert. I’ve used it in a number of recipes and it’s excellent. It may make an emulsion a bit faster and more contrasty than the Formulary gelatin. If print consistency is important, it’s wise to use only one type of gelatin at a time. Artcraft, Bostick & Sullivan, and Talas also carry photographic gelatin. An Internet search could doubtless locate additional sources. As with our chemicals, shop with a reputable company and all should be well. Tip: Photographic gelatin comes in two granularities: fine and chunky. Because we measure by weight, the granularity isn’t an issue. However, the best way to combine each with water differs. To combine fine grain gelatin with water, slowly add the gelatin to the water with gentle stirring. A plastic fork is the ideal tool. Chunky gelatin combines better if you add the water to the gelatin. It barely needs to be stirred. Whether it’s fine or chunky gelatin, avoid excess stirring while the gelatin and water are melting and coming up to

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Figure 4.6 (top left) Photographic gelatins, © Denise Ross Figure 4.7 (bottom left) Photographers’ Formulary gelatin, © Denise Ross Figure 4.8 (right) Adox gelatin, © Denise Ross

the required temperature. Excess stirring produces excess foam. A little practice will go a long way toward understanding your best techniques. Endnotes 1. Adams, W. I. Lincoln, The Photographic Instructor for the Professional and Amateur (New York: Scovill Manufacturing Company, 1888), 11. 2. Kodak Photographic Papers, For Professional Use (sample book) (Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Company, 1949). 3. Funderburk, Kit, A Guide to the Surface Characteristics; Kodak Fiber Based Black and White Papers (Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Company, 2007), 21. 4. Ibid, 15. Kit Funderburk was a paper engineer with Eastman Kodak Company for 36 years, retiring in 2005 as Senior Technical Manager for Science and Technology. His retirement coincided with the dismantling of much of Kodak Park’s infrastructure. He realized that the history of Kodak paper manufacturing was at risk of being lost forever. He set out to recover as much information as he could. In 2006, he wrote History of the Papermills at Kodak Park, followed by

5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

A Guide to the Surface Characteristics; Kodak Fiber Based Black and White Papers in 2007. Mees, C. E. Kenneth, The Theory of the Photographic Process (1st edn) (New York: Macmillan, 1945), 86–87. Ibid, 127–133. The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography, Desk edn, s. v. “Chronology of Photographic Inventions” (London and New York: Focal Press, 1960). Baker, T. Thorne, Photographic Emulsion Technique (1st edn) (Boston: American Photographic Publishing, 1941), 22. Sigma-Aldrich Product Information. “Gelatin.” CS,MAC, KTA,MAM 11/08. Bloom number: the Bloom number, as determined by the Bloom gelometer, is an indication of the strength of a gel formed from a solution of known concentration. The Bloom unit is a measure of the force (weight) required to depress a given sample area of gel a distance of 4 mm; the higher the Bloom number, the stronger the gel. A method of determining Bloom strength has been described. Bloom number is proportional to the average molecular mass: Bloom Number Average Molecular Mass 50–125 (Low Bloom) 20,000–25,000 175–225 (Medium Bloom) 40,000–50,000 225–325 (High Bloom) 50,000–100,000.

Figure 5.0 Contact Print from Commercial 5 × 7 inch negative, on Chlorobromide Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 5

The Basics

Figure 5.1 Beaver Pond, © Denise Ross

Reduced to its simplest form, the making of a sensitive emulsion has a good deal of resemblance to cooking. Solutions of the reacting salts are weighed out and mixed, one of them containing a little gelatin that acts as a protective colloid and as means of preventing sedimentation of the halide precipitate. Any amateur cook knows the difficulty of making a good mayonnaise or hollandaise sauce. Some of the tricks of the emulsion-maker are comparable to those of the adept culinary artist, and the sensitometric characteristics of the finished emulsion largely depend on the exact method of mixing and cooking. (Baker, 1941)1

Basic Emulsion Chemistry . Thorne Baker wasn’t the first, or the only one, to observe that making an emulsion is nothing more than cooking. If you enjoy cooking, chemistry will be fun! Every time I weigh out the chemicals for a new batch of emulsion, I feel like a kid with a chemistry set. If your immediate reaction to that is a snort of disbelief, you are among the multitudes who managed to avoid high school chemistry, or if you did take a chemistry class, had a bad experience. I understand. I finished my high school chemistry class confused and discouraged. This was especially disheartening because I’d wanted to be a scientist since I was a

T

little girl. Understanding even basic chemistry seemed a hopeless goal. My first college chemistry instructor put me back on track. He taught a class especially designed for students who had been traumatized by high school chemistry. He related the subject to cooking—a subject with which even non-cooks feel comfortable. In a blink, the class began to understand how to think about basic chemistry. It turns out the professor was on the same page as almost all emulsion writers from the beginning of silver gelatin photography. As with cooking, you can follow instructions step by step, and if it’s a sound recipe, you’ll be successful. There is

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

absolutely no need to understand what’s happening to the gluten molecules in the loaf of bread you are baking, or to understand what the yeast is doing. For many cooks, at some point it becomes interesting and informative to know a little bit more about the ingredients and processes. As with most things, it’s not an absolute. There is enough space on the continuum to accommodate all levels of interest. The only important thing is to dig in and “cook.” Make a lot of emulsions. Make mistakes. Make successes. Basic emulsion making is much more a craft than a science. Your hands, as much as your mind, learn to make beautiful paper. It takes just a few minutes to read the recipe for a loaf of bread. It takes a few more to read up on gluten and yeast. However, if you are using your hands to make your bread, it takes time and practice to make a perfect loaf. That’s OK. You’ll be proud of your first loaves of bread, no matter their lack of “perfection.” The same is true for your first sheets of paper. First things first. Safety

No chemical used in this book is especially dangerous if it is handled carefully That said, there are important precautions that should be taken with every chemical. Even sodium chloride (common table salt) will burn your eyes if you are careless. You should always familiarize yourself with each chemical’s MSDS (material safety data sheet), even if you think the chemical is “harmless.” If an MSDS doesn’t come with your chemical, it will be readily available on the Internet. Enter MSDS, followed by the name of the chemical. Read the information carefully. Print out the sheet and keep it with your records. Reread it occasionally. With the exception of chemistry disposal, I don’t take a “Haz-Mat” approach to darkroom work. In general, I am far more worried about using drain cleaner, or about my neighbor’s toxic lawn care chemicals, than I am about working with the stuff in my darkroom. That said, reasonable precautions must become second nature.

Eye safety is always paramount. If I didn’t wear eyeglasses, I would wear safety glasses. When I work with strong acids (not used in the recipes for this book), I do wear safety glasses over my eyeglasses. Never rub your eyes or touch your face in the darkroom. If you have an uncontrollable itch, leave the darkroom, and remove your gloves. If this becomes habit, you’re far less likely to slip up someday. All chemicals should be handled with care, and keeping a clean darkroom is important. Ask yourself if you’d feel comfortable eating in your darkroom. You should never eat in the darkroom, of course, but you should feel like you could! Avoid generating dust and wipe up spills immediately. Dust from dried spills will get everywhere and can ruin a whole batch of paper. Don’t weigh chemicals in the darkroom (or kitchen!). Some chemical dust can be tasted if you breathe it in. Sodium sulfite is an example. If you are weighing sodium sulfite and you taste something, chances are good that you are also inhaling the other chemicals you weigh. Never pour a chemical out of its bottle. Carefully spoon it into the beaker you are weighing into. Visualize how you would weigh the finest dust without spreading it around. Even chemicals that look chunky in the bottle have a certain amount of very fine particles attached. Keep a supply of clean plastic spoons next to your scale. Take a clean one for each chemical you weigh. After use, put the used spoon in a wash bucket. When you clean up for the day, include the spoons. They can be reused until they break. Have two colors of plastic spoons—one color just for silver nitrate and one color for the other chemicals. This way, when you bring the solutions into the darkroom, you’ll immediately know which beaker has the silver solution and which has the salts. This isn’t something you want to mix up. Wear protective gloves—nitrile or latex. I don’t handle any chemicals, wet or dry, without wearing a pair of close-fitting blue nitrile gloves; think the kind that TV detectives put on at a crime scene.

The Basics

Once they become habit, you’ll forget they are on. That’s not necessarily a good thing. The gloves are just as much for protecting your materials as protecting your skin. Never touch anything with wet gloves except the material you are working with. It’s all too easy to go for a clean sheet of paper, or reach for the light switch or door knob, with a contaminated glove. Don’t. Wash, dry, and replace your gloves frequently during a darkroom session. I keep a small bucket of water with a little dish soap and rubbing alcohol in the corner of my darkroom sink to wash my gloves before I remove them. I dry my gloves the same way I’d dry bare hands. I wear an apron with a clean dish towel tucked into the waist ties. If I think the towel is getting too wet or dirty during a session, I replace it with a clean one. If it’s always available, I remember to use it as often as I should. Wear old clothes and shoes. Wear what you might wear if you were painting your house. If you accidently spill chemicals on your clothes, remove them immediately and rinse in water before throwing them in the washing machine with your other things. If the chemical wet through your clothes to your skin, take a shower. That’s simply common sense, but unless you have a specific allergy, the only chemical in this book that is cause for special concern is silver nitrate. Silver Nitrate

You’ll be seeing this box at the beginning of every recipe. If you only take one thing very seriously about emulsion making, it’s this:

Practice safe working habits. Be especially careful with silver nitrate. It is a strong oxidizer, which among other things means that it reacts with organic compounds. You are an organic compound. If you get silver nitrate on your skin, don’t panic, just wash it off immediately, but know that your skin will be stained for a while. Silver nitrate discoloration cannot be

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washed off. It will be a part of your skin until the affected skin cells naturally slough off. It will never come off clothes, your floor or countertop, or your weighing scale. Working with silver nitrate means accepting a few stains. Our goal is keeping them to a minimum, and only where they are acceptable. Getting silver nitrate in your eyes is the only serious hazard of working with the chemical, but it is a very serious one. Carefully study the MSDS for silver nitrate. Take great care to protect your eyes from silver nitrate solution, and never, under any circumstance, touch your face with your hands while you are working with chemicals.

Since experimentation and stretching into new recipes seems to be in the DNA of emulsion makers, there are two other categories of chemicals that require extra caution: acids and ammonia. Although neither is used in the recipes in this book, I would be remiss not to mention them. Acids

If you decide to experiment with recipes that contain strong acids, please read about—and understand—the correct way to combine acid and water. Take care and use good ventilation, and always wear good eye protection. Ammonia

As with strong acids, there are reasonable safety precautions you must be aware of. Besides the obvious hazard of getting ammonia on your skin, avoid breathing the fumes. Breathing in strong ammonia fumes is just about as smart as you think it is! Take care and use good ventilation, and always wear good eye protection.

Weighing and Measuring Consistency with your own measuring procedures is almost as important as following the recipes.

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

Read the directions for your scale. Calibrate it from time to time. Tare (reset to zero) the scale each time you add an individual ingredient to the container you are weighing into. It’s hopeless for most of us to try to keep a running numerical total in our heads as we add things one after another. The meniscus (the curve at the surface of a liquid in a container) is usually concave (smile-shaped), although a few liquids form a convex curve (frown-shaped). Either way, get eye level with the meniscus and measure at the center of the curve, not along the edges of the curve where the liquid meets the wall of the container. Practically, this is only important when we measure relatively small amounts of liquid in a graduated cylinder. For larger volumes of liquid—in our case, that’s water—it is best to weigh the liquid on a scale. Conveniently, and not by accident, 1 g (gram) of water equals 1 ml (milliliter) of water. With water, the units of measurement are interchangeable. This is one of the handiest chemistry facts to know. When you are measuring water, you can either weigh it or pour it into a graduated cylinder. I don’t recommend measuring it with a standard kitchen measuring cup. It is rare to find one that is critically accurate. All the recipes in this book use metric measurements. If you are a typical American, you don’t use the metric system in your everyday life. That’s fine, and it’s not a hinderance to working with the metric system. Just weigh or measure out the chemistry in metric units. It’s essentially impossible to find lab glassware that isn’t calibrated in metric units. That said, it helps to know a few liquid measurement equivalencies, if only to be able to more clearly visualize the recipe as you make it. 1 gallon = 3.75 liters (l) 1 cup = 237 milliliters (ml) 1 8⁄ cup = 1 ounce = 2 tablespoons = 30 ml 1 tablespoon = 3 teaspoons = 15 ml 20 drops = 1 ml 1 ml water = 1 g water

Eyedroppers

If 20 drops equal one milliliter, then one drop equals 12⁄ 0 milliliter. That’s the official definition, but precise measurement is more easily defined than accomplished. In reality, a “drop” is the amount of liquid that comes out of an eyedropper. The size of the drops varies considerably and is partially dependent on whether the dropper material is glass or plastic. In emulsion making, consistency is not a hobgoblin.2 It is never foolish; it is vital to successful results. To this end, it is wise to know how much your eyedropper drops. Put a clean, small container on your scale and tare the scale. Put some water in an eyedropper bottle and then count by drops into the dish on the scale until you reach 1 g. Label your bottle with this information. An example label: “21 drops/1 ml.” If a recipe calls for 20 drops of a particular solution, you would count out 21 drops. For all practical purposes, however, no recipe in this book will be ruined by a dropper that’s off by a drop or two. Be consistent with your own measurements and your paper will be consistent from batch to batch. It is likely you have more than one dropper bottle. If you have a number of different sizes and styles, test and label each one. Consistency is important here, too. Hold your eyedroppers at the same angle each time. It may be that the measurement is different for vertical as opposed to the eyedropper held at an angle. If your dropper delivers far off the 20 drops/ml mark, try different angles of delivery. You may get a lot closer. If so, make sure you label the bottle to indicate this. This is a tedious step, to be sure, but it only has to be done once. Your emulsions will thank you. Percent (%) Solutions

Some ingredients are called for in too small a quantity to accurately measure on any scale a mere mortal could afford. This is especially true for recipes that are scaled down (reduced in volume) to home darkroom size. The solution to this is the % solution (an expression of concentration).

The Basics

For our purposes, it works just fine to simplify the technique used by most scientific labs to make % solutions. If a recipe calls for a 1% solution, 1 gram of a substance (the solute) is dissolved in 100 ml of a liquid (the solvent), usually water. Since 1 g of the solute is in 100 ml of solvent, if you needed 0.1 g of the solute, you’d measure out 10 ml of the % solution. If you didn’t want to add that much extra liquid to your emulsion, you could make instead a 10% solution and from that take only 1 ml. Tip: Any amount can be reasoned up or down from a 1% solution baseline. Knowing that 1 ml equals 20 drops, if a recipe calls for 0.05 g (half of 0.1 g), you could use 10 drops of a 10% solution. As an example, let’s use potassium bromide (KBr). The reasoning goes like this: There are 10 g of KBr in 100 ml water to make a 10% KBr solution. (For the purposes of darkroom chemistry, that’s close enough.) Therefore, there is 1 g of KBr in 10 ml of the 10% KBr solution, or 0.1 g in 1 ml of the solution. 1 ml = 20 drops, so half that would be 10 drops. If you are already familiar with % solutions, or if this makes perfect intuitive sense, go no further. If the subject is still as clear as mud, it is probably best to seek additional information. The Internet has a great number of excellent articles explaining every aspect of chemistry. The moment an author uses the right words to explain things to you, a light will go off in your head and you’ll never again be confused. It’s worth the effort. Handy things, % solutions.

The Recipes As you read a recipe and think about making the emulsion, have a pen and paper handy. Translate the recipe into a form that makes sense to you. The ingredients and their measurements, and time and temperature, in the order given, are the only immutable facts. From your notes, make a

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master computer copy that you print out each time you make a batch of the recipe. Date each one. Take notes on them. Note mistakes you made, especially in temperature or time. A mistake may ruin a batch of paper, but it just may result in an improvement. Alter your master recipe as needed. For example, the ambient temperature and humidity of a darkroom are variables for coating temperature. Keep a notebook with every dated recipe and at least one sample from that particular recipe—even (especially!) if it’s the ugliest paper imaginable. Above all, make lots and lots of batches of emulsion and make them frequently. Successful paper making is as much about muscle memory as anything else. You will be amazed by how fast you learn, and how natural and intuitive it all begins to feel.

Waste Disposal I mention this last, not because it is of least importance, but because it’s a topic outside the scope of this book. The laws for chemical disposal vary from place to place. I live on a septic system. I take great care with it. I would never pour most chemicals down the drain of a municipal system, much less my septic tank, so I end up with liquid waste to dispose of. Even as much as I work in the darkroom, my waste doesn’t seem excessive. Handmade photography, by its very nature is slow and therefore inherently relatively resource conservative. Because I make my own materials, I don’t normally make huge prints. Smaller, more intimate prints take less emulsion to make and require less processing chemistry. I collect my liquid waste in strong 5-gallon buckets with tight lids. Once or twice a year, I take the buckets to my disposal company’s hazardous materials collection event. If you have any concerns about how to dispose of your darkroom chemicals, consult with your local municipality for guidelines and suggestions.

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

Basic Emulsion Making

Figure 5.2 Secret Garden, © Denise Ross

As a field for experiment, emulsion making is extremely fascinating. As a means of spending money it is only equaled by dabbling in stocks. In both cases one has the excitement of waiting for results, which may be all that one desires (Wall, 1929)2 or merely a loss of time and money.

The underlying chemistry of basic emulsion making is simple and straightforward. Technically, it’s not necessary to learn any of it, but understanding a few facts and concepts will make everything more interesting and likely more successful. Because there are so many publications devoted to photographic chemistry—from elementary to the excruciatingly complex—if you want to venture beyond basics, you will never lack for fascinating things to read. When we are making an emulsion, we are growing light-sensitive crystals suspended in gelatin. How we grow those crystals, and the exact ingredients we use, define the characteristics of any given emulsion. It is the miracle of silver nitrate mating with one or more halide salts, while suspended in a gelatin matrix, which gives us our paper and film. The universally accepted name for the process is “silver gelatin.” To be even more precise, emulsions might

have been called “silver halide gelatin.” The term “gelatin silver” isn’t used by emulsion makers, commercial or home. Although some galleries and art academics use the term, emulsion makers do not.

Addressing Sources of Potential Confusion and Consternation At times, making emulsions is portrayed as difficult to impossible for anyone lacking a degree in chemistry or engineering. By that reasoning, baking a loaf of bread at home is either impossible or the result inedible. Granted, a manufactured modern emulsion is mind-bogglingly complex and seemingly perfect. So is a loaf of commercial bread. Have you ever read the list of ingredients on one of the white, fluffy varieties? Compare that to a loaf of homemade bread, although I think we’d be hard pressed to find many people who would argue the fluffy stuff is superior.

The Basics

From my observation point, I have come to believe there are two major reasons for the attitude that, among all the historical processes—most of them more complex than simple emulsion making—only handmade silver gelatin is treated to the “high tech or the highway” treatment in some discussion forums. First, commercial silver gelatin products are still alive and well in the retail world. The level of excellence of most of them can promote an unrealistic goalpost. Every artist knows better, but that doesn’t make it any easier to go on an analog photography forum and try to ask questions, or even discuss our art. Second, and a bit harder to overcome for artists, even after we decide to just “make good art,”3 are the differences in terminology used by different authors over the years. The problem is not limited to the question of whether it should be “silver gelatin” or “gelatin silver.” It’s hard to ask questions when there isn’t an agreed-upon vocabulary. There seem to be a least two different terms for every step in the process of emulsion making. At times, this can make reading the old literature confusing. It helps if we accept that the vocabulary surrounding the craft and science was never standardized. Dozens of inventors in dozens of labs, large and small, around the world, developed the medium in the early days. Often, each lab used unique, in-house terminology. Fortunately, most terms make at least some sense, and understanding what an author meant becomes much easier as fluency in the process of emulsion making increases. The letter designation for chemical symbols doesn’t always make sense. The chemical symbol for potassium is “K,” from kalium, the Latin word for potassium. Why? As likely as any explanation is that “P” was already claimed by phosphorus! Regardless, K it is. Often, there’s a fascinating historical tidbit behind a name. The name potassium comes from “pot ash,” originally the dried brine of wood ashes evaporated in an iron pot. Today, potash refers to

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any one of a number of different potassium-bearing rocks, and potash mines are a major industry. The most commonly recognized use of “K” is to assign potassium availability on a bag of garden fertilizer. Knowing the history of the name of an element helps me remember its chemical symbol. Sodium is another interesting one. Sulfur owns “S.” Sodium gets “Na,” from its Latin name, natrium. Silver gelatin materials are often designated as “negative” or “positive.” The film we put in our camera is referred to as the negative. To differentiate paper from negatives, a sheet of paper is often referred to as the positive, but this is misleading. All emulsions are negative emulsions, or at least start out in the kettle as negative emulsions. A case in point is “paper negatives”— using a sheet of printing paper, rather than film, in a camera. It still produces a negative image. The reason paper is referred to as “positive” is that printing it with a negative produces a positive image. Another point of potential confusion is the word “grain.” “Grain” and “crystals” are often used interchangeably, even by the same author, to describe silver halides in the early stages of emulsion making.4 Once the emulsion is made, it’s just grain. “Grain” isn’t the same as “graininess.” Graininess refers to the clumps of developed grain visible in a print, primarily noticeable in the mid-tones.5 The clumps are present equally in the entire print, but they are less noticeable in the highlights and shadows. Because most papers are by their nature fine-grained, visible graininess in a print almost always comes from the negative being printed. The greater the enlargement, the more visible the developed clumps of film grain in the print. This is one of the reasons a contact print is often highly regarded. The grain from the negative being printed isn’t enlarged, so it is essentially invisible in the print. As a result, the mid-tones, usually the most important values in a print, are as creamy smooth as the highlights and shadows.

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

The Basic Emulsion Components Silver

The silver in a silver gelatin emulsion is supplied (almost without exception) by silver nitrate— AgNO3. Ag is the chemical symbol for silver (from the Latin argentum). “NO3” is the chemical symbol for nitrate. Shove the two chemical symbols together and you’ve got chemistry-speak for silver nitrate. It’s also very convenient shorthand for when you’re taking notes on your emulsions. Halides

A halide is a compound formed from one of the halogen elements plus another component. The term “halide” and “halogen” are sometimes confused. Halogens are pure elements (i.e. they are not compounds). The name literally means saltforming, and that’s their only role in emulsion making. Our interest is in the photographically important halides. There are three halides used for photographic emulsions: chloride, bromide, and iodide. Their chemical symbols are Cl, Br, and I. Generically, any or all can be designated by X. If you read AgX in a description of emulsion making, it’s pronounced “silver halide,” or “agg-ex.” The designation simply means that the author is describing a universal emulsion fact that is not dependent on any specific halide. Although there are only three halides used in photography, the components that contribute the halides are more diverse. The most common are potassium (K), sodium (Na), and the ammonium ion (NH4+). They all are able to form salts suitable for emulsion making. The most commonly known salt is, of course, common table salt—sodium chloride (NaCl), but potassium chloride (KCl), potassium bromide (KBr), potassium iodide (KI), and ammonium bromide (NH4Br) are all salts used in this book’s recipes. Gelatin

Although gelatin performs many functions in silver gelatin materials (Chapter 4), it serves a very specific

role during the actual making of an emulsion: it controls the speed at which the silver nitrate and the halide(s) combine. The gelatin is a protective colloid. It’s basically a chaperone for the silver and the salt. It makes sure the two components don’t get together too soon or too fast. If there is no gelatin, the silver nitrate and halide(s) combine immediately into big, worthless aggregates. However, the difference between a little gelatin and a lot of gelatin can mean a world of difference in emulsion characteristics. There is a fairly narrow range of workable gelatin-to-water ratios in emulsions. In general, this range is between 8% and 15%. However, the entire amount of gelatin doesn’t need to be added all at once. Only part of the gelatin is required for the first step of emulsion making, (“precipitation”). With some precipitation methods, less gelatin during the precipitation step results in a more sensitive (“faster”) emulsion. There is a drawback, however. Less gelatin also means less protective colloid. The combination of silver and salt is less controlled. This can result in “peppering.” Fortunately, pepper isn’t common with a good recipe and it’s rarely an all-or-nothing situation. Most pepper is all but invisible in a print, especially if the paper has texture. Developer choice also influences pepper formation (Chapter 9). As with most things about this business, there are tradeoffs and work-arounds at every corner. That is the art of it.

The Basic Formula The basic formula describing the formation of a silver halide is short and sweet: AgNO3 + X => AgX + NO3 This simply says that starting with silver nitrate and a halide, we get a silver halide and a nitrate by-product. The basic components break apart in the gelatin and rearrange themselves into a light-sensitive emulsion. The by-product is a combination of the nitrate and whatever component contributed the halide. For example: AgNO3 + KBr => AgBr + KNO3. Mixing together silver

The Basics

nitrate and potassium bromide in a solution of gelatin gives us our silver halide (in this case, silver bromide) and a leftover by-product (in this case, potassium nitrate). That’s the nutshell formula, but what the AgX actually becomes is a great multitude of crystals. Making and controlling those crystals—their size and shape, their perfection or lack thereof, and their composition—is where the science meets the art. Creating the crystals, and their combinations of different shapes, is the goal of the first step in emulsion making: precipitation. This step is sometimes called emulsification. Both terms capture the essence of what the step accomplishes. Silver halide crystals are forming (precipitating) in the gelatin. The solution goes from clear to milky white, taking on the appearance of an emulsion. Although technically the silver halide crystals are in suspension, not actually emulsified, the term “emulsion” has been the agreed-upon term of use since the very beginning of silver gelatin photography. We don’t want perfect crystals. In fact, crystals with just the right kinds and amounts of defects are an important aspect of modern emulsion making. The cracks and holes in the surfaces of the crystals create light traps that play a vital role in forming the latent image (a potential image that becomes the actual image when the film or paper is developed). Silver bromide and silver chloride crystals are actually quite regular, with few defects. That means that they are relatively slow, although by its nature, AgBr is a little faster than AgCl. However, add a little iodide, especially to an AgBr emulsion, and the iodide creates AgBrI crystals with enough defects and light traps that the emulsion speed increases considerably. This is one of the ways to turn a contact printing speed paper into an enlarging speed paper, or to make film that is fast enough to be practical. The addition of various chemical sensitizers, often used with negative emulsions, brings the speed up even more.6

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The game with emulsion making is to grow the desired crystals. Modern commercial emulsion makers often aim to make emulsions consisting of only one type of crystal. From there, they can mix and blend crystal types, resulting in brand-name characteristics, much the way blended wines are made from varietal grape types. We have it much easier. A handmade emulsion naturally forms many different crystal shapes (known as crystal habits) in the same batch. This is almost the definition of a traditional emulsion. It has the physical and emotional depth of live chamber music— completely different from the same notes performed and reproduced electronically. Most simply put, growing crystals is about combining a halide and silver nitrate in gelatin, but this can be done in an almost limitless number of ways. You can add a salt (halide) solution to melted gelatin and then add the silver nitrate solution. Or, you can do the opposite: add the silver nitrate to the gelatin before the halide solution. You can add silver nitrate solution and a halide solution to gelatin at the same time. You can add the components quickly or slowly. You can add them all at once, or in separate, spacedapart additions. You can change the temperature. You can change the time you heat the emulsion. (Dr. Seuss should have written a book about emulsion making!) All these variations in technique produce slight, or great, variations in the final emulsion. The only really important thing to remember is that each decision is an emulsion variable. A variable is any action, or ingredient, whose change produces a different outcome or product. The rule of thumb is to change only one related variable at a time. Changing more than one makes understanding outcomes difficult to impossible. That is the fast track to frustration. The only thing that you should never, ever do is mix a silver nitrate solution with a salt solution without the presence of gelatin. The silver halide will precipitate as big chunks that drop straight out of suspension. Rescue is impossible.

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

The Steps of Emulsion Making Precipitation and Ripening

The nanosecond that silver nitrate and the halide or halides come together (addition), crystals start to form (precipitation/emulsification). The moment they form they start to grow (ripen). Unless the process is stopped right there, as is the case with ultrafine grain emulsions, the crystals will continue to grow (up to a point).7 We control the growth during this stage. The faster the silver and the halide combine, the smaller the resulting crystals. Conversely, the slower, the larger. This is because crystals are opportunistic little cannibals.8 The large ones grow at the expense of the smaller ones. A slower addition rate gives them more opportunity to feast and grow. The dissolving of small crystals, which provides material to grow the large ones even larger, is called Ostwald ripening. Less often, small crystals join together (aggregation). The longer the time allowed, the larger the crystals (again, up to a point). Temperature plays a role during the ripening period. The higher the heat, the faster the ripening (up to a point). Larger crystals are generally faster (more sensitive to light), but there are limits to both crystal growth and sensitivity at this stage, beyond which degradation of emulsion quality is possible. And don’t forget: speed isn’t everything, especially with paper emulsions. A recipe that delivers a fine-grained emulsion with bright highlights and deep shadows, no matter it may require a long exposure time, is a recipe for beautiful paper. The concentration of the component elements is a crucial variable. With single-jet precipitation (one part added to the other part, without replenishing the components), the concentrations in the kettle (container in which you are making the emulsion) at the end of the process are very different from those at the beginning. In the beginning, there is just AgNO3 and X. The moment precipitation starts, the concentrations change, as AgNO3 and X re-form to AgX and a

by-product. In the case where silver nitrate is going into gelatin and the halide, the concentration of silver nitrate stays the same, but the concentration of the halide salt in the gelatin goes down as it is removed from solution to create AgX crystals. The silver nitrate is reacting in a constantly changing environment and therefore growing different types of crystals. That’s what we want. A variety of crystal types in the same emulsion is one of the factors contributing to the beauty of traditional emulsions. The notes are nuanced. To be sure, this is not to say the system is chaotic or out of our control. If we follow the same addition protocol (addition rates and times and temperatures), each batch of emulsion from the same recipe will be almost identical. This allows easy standardization of the negatives we print with any given paper recipe. In a simple paper emulsion, precipitation and ripening are often the only steps before coating. Setting and Washing

If an emulsion is destined for coating on impermeable surfaces, such as glass or film, or if it is made with ammonia, before coating it must be washed to remove its unwanted components. With most home darkroom protocols, an emulsion is refrigerated until it solidifies (sets) before it is shredded and washed. Paper, even thin paper, absorbs the precipitation by-products and therefore doesn’t require washing. No recipe in this book uses ammonia or calls for washing. The recipes are classified as unwashed and neutral (or non-ammoniacal). “Neutral” refers to pH 7, the middle of the pH range of 0–14. Emulsions with ammonia have a high pH. Emulsions with a great deal of added acid have a low pH. Neutral is that sweet spot in between.9 Digestion

If extra speed is desired, over and above what results from the precipitation and ripening protocols, the emulsion can be given additional heat and time. If an emulsion is refrigerated (set)

The Basics

after precipitation and ripening, the time spent melting and bringing the emulsion to coating temperature is digestion. The heat chemically changes the crystals to make them more receptive to photons. This is the reason the step is sometimes called chemical ripening (or, sometimes: afterripening), while the crystal growth during precipitation is usually called physical ripening. The more time and heat, the greater the speed— up to a point. Beyond that point lies dragons. OK, actually the risk is fog (gray highlights with a loss of speed and contrast). In my opinion, a slightly slower emulsion is a small price to pay for bright highlights and good contrast. A bit of fog is acceptable in a film emulsion, but it is deadly for printing paper. I tend to be conservative with both heat and time. Finals

I love this term. It’s poetic and pragmatic at the same time. Finals are what go into the emulsion at the very end, right before coating. They can include

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surfactants (wetting agents), hardeners, antifogging agents, additional sensitizers, preservatives, and dyes to make the emulsion self-filtering. A commercial emulsion may well contain even more categories, but the finals for the emulsions in this book are limited to ethanol and/or Kodak PhotoFlo 200 (surfactants), and glyoxal, a hardener. Endnotes 1. Baker, T. Thorne, Photographic Emulsion Technique (1st edn) (Boston: American Photographic Publishing, 1941), 3–4. 2. Wall, E. J., Photographic Emulsions (London: Chapman & Hall, 1929), iii. 3. Gaiman, Neil, Keynote Address 2012, 134th Commencement, University of the Arts, Philadelphia, PA. 4. Stroebel, Leslie, John Compton, Ira Current, and Richard Zakia, Photographic Materials and Processes (Boston: Focal Press, 1986), 267. 5. The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography, desk edn, s. v. “Grain” (London and New York: Focal Press, 1960). 6. Duffin, G. F., Photographic Emulsion Chemistry (London: Focal Press, 1966), 83. 7. Thorne, Photographic Emulsion Technique, 13. 8. Duffin, Photographic Emulsion Chemistry, 60. 9. Ibid., 66.

Figure 6.0 Handmade 35mm Film Negative to Enlarged Digital Negative, on Three Salts Contact Printing Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 6

Coating Paper

Figure 6.1 Frozen Fog, © Denise Ross

Another very convenient method of preparing sheets of paper for negatives is by means of a perfectly straight glass tube of the width of the paper, round the ends of which are two india-rubber rings, of the thickness of which the film is desired to be. If thought advantageous, a rod may be passed through the tube, and bent round to join, and so to form a handle, by means of which the tube will revolve as it passes over any surface. (Abney, 1885)1

O

ur success at making silver gelatin printing paper isn’t about being a chemistry whiz. It might be nice if it were because the chemistry of basic emulsion making is very basic. We certainly don’t have to learn the history of photography to make our own paper, although one’s art is always deeper for that knowledge. The biggest challenge of making art with our own paper isn’t intellectual. Where handmade anything succeeds or fails lies in the craftsmanship. Handmade emulsions are no different, and for us craftsmanship is almost all about coating.

As silver gelatin photography has traveled its way toward becoming an historical process, an odd thing has happened. It seems to have broken the pattern common to most of the other historical processes. Most historical (or “alternative”) photographic printing processes have gone through about the same sequence of rediscovery and adaptation. For the first practitioners, it starts with the simple joy of getting something on paper. It doesn’t matter in the least how it looks. An artist starts making prints and, to the artist, they are beautiful. With

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

each print, the technique gets a little better. Other people start working in the process. Little by little, both the process and the practitioners mature. More is expected from the process, and, at some point, for many artists, technical perfection becomes an expectation, but importantly, new practitioners of the process still expect a learning curve. Too often, however, this doesn’t seem to be the case with handmade silver gelatin paper. Perhaps it is because it is the first “historical” process that isn’t really history quite yet. We can easily compare our efforts with factory-made perfection and modern emulsion characteristics. I advocate that we reject the comparison. Handmade silver gelatin paper, along with handmade film and dry plates, for that matter, deserves recognition for its own beauty and creative potential.

Infrastructure and Equipment Before you get started outfitting your darkroom, decide which coating technique, or techniques, you want to try first. To a certain extent, this affects your infrastructure and equipment decisions. Coating Table

A coating table is a perfectly smooth and easy-toclean surface. Heavy plate glass is perfect. I do most of my coating on a 50″ (long) × 25″ (deep) × 1 4⁄ ″ piece of old salvaged glass. When 25″ isn’t deep enough, the table is the foundation for 36″ × 10″ × 14⁄ ″ pieces of glass, temporarily set up. Glass may be the perfect surface, but it is heavy! If at all possible, try to have your main coating table set up and leveled somewhere it can stay for a good long while. I have mine on a table in my darkroom. It would work just as well (albeit a bit less conveniently) in my narrow hall bathroom, suspended on strong cleat brackets attached to opposite walls. In an emergency (parties!) the glass could come down, the darkroom paraphernalia stored away, and the company towels hung up. If you require ultimate space flexibility, you can set up the plate glass on a wheeled kitchen utility

cart. The storage drawers and shelves are a real bonus. Even the sturdiest models are surprisingly inexpensive. If you are planning to also coat film or dry plates, now or in the future, your coating table must be absolutely level. If you are only coating paper, there is a little more forgiveness, especially if the papers you are coating are CP (“cold press,” moderately textured). However, the more level your surface, the less likely you will experience coating frustrations. A couple of carpenter’s spirit levels, ideally as long as your glass, will get you started. Place one along the length and the other along the width. Having two to look at simultaneously makes it a lot easier to get the necessary tilts and shifts quickly nailed down. The best leveling material I’ve found to place between the table and the bottom of the plate glass is Post-it notepad paper. You can detach any thickness from the main pad, and then remove or add a few sheets at a time—likely different amounts in each of the four corners—until you’ve achieved a level surface. The paper is essentially non-compressible, so once you’ve determined and placed the right number the stack won’t change height. If you do decide that you want a dead-level surface, the easiest way to achieve this is with a spirit level puddle. Get the glass as level as you can with a standard straight level, or two. Clean the glass impeccably and let it dry completely. Then, pour a small puddle of distilled water in the center. If it doesn’t stay circular, shim the glass until it does. This may require that you wipe everything dry and try again. Next, take some ethanol (Everclear) or rubbing alcohol and with a wash bottle or an eyedropper, carefully add drops of the alcohol to the center of the puddle of distilled water. If the puddle of alcohol doesn’t stay circular, shim the glass until it does. When an alcohol puddle retains a circular shape in the center of a circular puddle of water, you know you have an absolutely level glass table.

Coating Paper 55

Figure 6.2 Coating table with temporary longer pieces of glass, © Denise Ross

Figure 6.2 is my emulsion coating table with supplementary longer pieces of glass lined up on top of the main sheet. Pieces of non-skid fabric (sometimes called “grip” fabric) prevent the longer pieces from slipping around on the main glass surface. The fabric is sold alongside shelf and drawer lining materials. Be sure that the glass is at least an inch larger than the table on the front and back sides. The overhang will give you a place to clip coating guide bars to the table. Coating Guide Bars

Coating bars are nothing more than square wood dowels (approximately 3⁄4″ square) wrapped all around with heavy plastic tape. They are not required for all the coating techniques.

The length of the bars depends on the depth of your coating surface. I have three separate sets, one for each size of surface I coat on. The length of the bars should match the depth of the coating surface. You need two bars for each sheet of paper you coat. To make coating guide bars that will work smoothly and hold up over time, you must cover the wood with plastic. Heavy tape works perfectly. Unroll a piece of tape the same length as the dowel, adhesive side up. Lay the dowel on top of the tape with a corner of the dowel lined up along the middle (give or take) of the tape. Make sure the tape is smooth and then press it firmly to the dowel. Rotate the dowel so that a second side is in contact with the tape. Repeat the smoothing and pressing. Repeat until the dowel is wrapped in

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

Figure 6.3 (top) Tape and wood dowel to make a coating guide bar, © Denise Ross Figure 6.4 (middle) Tools and materials for adapting a puddle pusher for silver gelatin coating, © Denise Ross Figure 6.5 (bottom) One end of a prepared puddle pusher, © Denise Ross

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tape. If one piece of tape doesn’t go completely around the dowel, use a second piece. Whether one piece or two, the edges of the tape should overlap. This will prevent emulsion and wash water from infiltrating the wood. Glass Coating Rods (a.k.a. Puddle Pushers)

Successful paper coating, whatever the technique used, requires a coating rod. The most common, and inexpensive, is a glass coating rod, or “puddle pusher.” I do all my coating with puddle pushers. Puddle pushers come in 5-inch, 9-inch, and 12-inch sizes. The useable coating path made by each is one inch narrower than the rod, by however long you coat a piece of paper. Puddle pushers aren’t inexpensive, but, with reasonable care, they will last forever. There are other coating tools available that might be sturdier, but I’ve never tried them, so I can’t opine. You should have at least two of each size you use. There are not many things more frustrating than breaking your sole puddle pusher in the middle of a coating session. In addition, having two makes setting up for coating easier. Most other traditional print “emulsions” are actually liquids and can be spread with a barenaked puddle pusher. That won’t work for us. Silver gelatin emulsion has viscosity. Our puddle pusher has to be raised above the surface of the paper so that it can leave behind a given thickness of emulsion. The more texture the paper has, the greater the gap between the glass rod and the paper surface needs to be. Very little of the silver gelatin emulsion sinks into the paper fibers, so the puddle pusher can’t be allowed to scrape the paper surface during coating. Happily, the strategy for raising a puddle pusher above the surface of paper isn’t complicated or expensive. All that’s required is some good tape. Polyester (also called “mylar”) film tape works very well. The tape I like best is 3M 850 polyester film tape, 14⁄ -inch thick. When the tape is wrapped tightly and smoothly on the ends of a puddle

pusher, it stays useable for a long time, especially if you never leave your puddle pusher soaking in wash water. One roll of tape should be enough for years of wrapping puddle pushers. Not technically required, but smart to do, is filling the ends of the puddle pushers with putty. This keeps the emulsion from getting inside the hollow rod, both reducing emulsion waste and making it harder to break a rod during cleaning. Removable wall adhesive putty works perfectly. I use UHU tac, made by Saunders. Various office supply stores have their own store brands. Only two tools are required: a scissors and a chopstick. Start the tape wrapping on the top (handle) side of the puddle pusher. Rotate the puddle pusher rather than the tape. Let the tape come freely off the roll as you turn the rod. Count each time the tape passes back over the top, generally from eight to twelve wraps, depending on the texture of the paper and the viscosity of the emulsion (in other words: trial and error will be your guide). Next, form a ball of putty a tiny bit larger than the diameter of the inside of the rod. Very gently push it in with the fat end of the chopstick. Shove it in just inside the edge; not too far, but don’t leave any outside the rim. Remember that glass breaks if you get careless or aggressive with it. It’s not hard to snap off an end of a puddle pusher. The longer the glass rod, the easier this is. Squeegee

A new window squeegee is perfect. It should have a sturdy and comfortable handle. The rubber blade section should be smooth and flexible, but not so flexible that it’s hard to exert pressure with it. Some shower squeegees work, but others are too soft and pliable. One nice thing: squeegees are inexpensive. You can try a few of them until you find a favorite. Thrift stores will be happy to take your rejects.

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Assorted Old Towels and Paper Towels

Snap-Blade Utility Knife

Emulsion making is sometimes a messy business. You can never have too many darkroom-dedicated towels handy!

A snap-blade style isn’t required but it certainly is convenient. The convenience makes it harder to justify keeping a dull blade on your knife.

A Plastic Storage Box

Plastic Measuring Cups, Spoons, and Scoops, with Handles

If you are coating using the wet paper technique, this is for soaking paper before coating. Essentially, it’s a big custom-sized tray. Ideally, it should be just a little longer and a little wider than the sheets of paper you are coating. Mine is made by Rubbermaid, but there are many different brands. It measures 30″ × 18″ × 6″. If you regularly coat different size sheets of paper, it’s economical to have separate soaking trays that match the sizes of the papers. The sheets are soaked in distilled water, and trays that are only as large as necessary reduce how much water is required. Polyester (a.k.a. “Mylar”) Sheets

These are for the wet paper coating techniques. They should be the same size, or just a bit larger, than a sheet of paper you intend to coat. The best source for these I’ve found is ClearBags print storage bags. They are sold in every size imaginable. When you lay a bag over a wet piece of paper, before you squeegee off the excess water, be sure the opening is at the bottom. This way, as you pull the squeegee down the length of the bag, the air inside the bag can escape. Needless to say, there are many sources of polyester sheet material. Use what is most convenient for you. Metal Yardstick (or, Meter Stick)

In addition, the usual office supplies—pencils, permanent markers, various length rulers, scissors, etc.—will all come into use at some point.

A stacked set of 14⁄ cup, 13⁄ cup, and 12⁄ cup sizes should cover the bases. Along the way, you’ll likely customize your collection. I have a scoop that came in a jar of protein powder that is the ideal size for coating paper negatives. Putting together the perfect collection of custom odds and ends is part of the great fun of all this. Hanging Laundry Clips

These come in a number of styles, but the sturdier, the better—ideally, metal. Clamps with a swivel hook are handy. A large sheet of wet watercolor paper and emulsion is heavy. A flimsy hanger will as likely as not drop its load on the floor. Wood Strips

Strips of wood, two for each sheet of paper you’ll be hanging in a session, and the same length as the width of the paper, are very helpful for hanging paper. One of them helps you get a wet sheet of coated paper safely off the coating table and hung up to dry; the other helps discourage the paper from curling when it dries. I have a rather motley collection of strips. I started out using leftovers from various remodeling projects, but as I started adding more sizes to the collection and buying new wood, I’ve settled on thin strips of wood trim, called 14⁄ ″ × 34⁄ ″ “screen trim” at my local building supply store. Spring Clamps

Watercolor Crayon

Watercolor crayons are perfect for drawing on wet paper. You use them to indicate the end of a run of emulsion, or to draw an arrow in the selvage pointing to a flaw, usually a bubble. Any dark color will work, except red and orange.

You can’t have too many sturdy clamps—either nylon or plastic. A selection of sizes comes in handy, but the size required for coating is generally 1.5–2 inches. This is big enough to clamp a wood dowel to the coating table. Also, a larger, strong clamp to serve as a third hand when you cut paper

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Figure 6.6 (top) Various sizes and styles of emulsion scoops, © Denise Ross Figure 6.7 (second from top) Hanger clips, © Denise Ross Figure 6.8 (third) Wood strips for hanging paper so that it doesn’t dry in a tight curl, © Denise Ross Figure 6.9 (bottom) Spring jaw clamps, © Denise Ross

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is invaluable. Clamp size is measured by how wide the jaws open up.

Materials The list isn’t long: • paper (see Chapter 4) • distilled (or deionized) water • emulsion Coating Techniques The goal itself couldn’t be more straightforward. We want gorgeous, smooth, even coats of emulsion on paper, and just the right thickness. How we get to that goal is not as straightforward. There is more than one way to coat paper. The choice of technique is partly dependent on paper choice and partly dependent on personal aesthetics. It’s also dependent on personality. The degree of success of any technique increases with practice. Practice is fun if you’re enjoying the process, but if you choose a technique that fights you, you’ll be finding excuses to not get in the darkroom. So, along the lines of the principle “the best camera is the one you’ve got with you,” the best coating technique is the one you love to practice. Wet Paper Coating with Guide Bars

Wet paper coating is my favorite technique. It is hard to get an unusable coating when you coat on properly prepared wet paper. It suits the papers I like best: the lighter weight HP papers without a lot of sizing. It makes it easier to standardize the gelatin-to-water ratio of a recipe, especially if I’m coating different papers in one session. I enjoy the preparation steps. Coating requires puddle pushers, which come in three sizes that cover the bases for making up to 11-inch wide printing paper. A glass fabrication shop can easily make longer coating rods. The guide bars are an easy do-it-yourself project. Cut your paper to size and notch a small piece off the lower right corner (or the corner of your choice, as long as you are consistent with all your

sheets of paper). The notch allows you to always identify the front side of a sheet of paper. Once the paper is wet, it’s very hard to identify front from back. If you end up coating on the back of a sheet, more times than not you will be able to see a screen texture in the final print. If your space is limited and one table has many jobs, it’s time efficient to cut and code a lot of paper at one time. Stack the sheets and store them in a suitably sized ClearBags (or similar) plastic bag. Unless you only use one paper, label the bag with the paper name, along with information like weight, texture, and color. If you learn something idiosyncratic about the paper as you are using it, record this on the bag. It’s more likely you’ll see the information next time you use the paper than it is that you’ll remember to check your notes (speaking from experience!). When you’re ready to make paper, arrange your space and tools. This includes the tools and materials required to make the emulsion, a paper soaking tray, distilled water, a sheet of mylar the size of your paper sheets, a squeegee, coating guide bars, spring clips, prepared puddle pushers, and an emulsion scoop. Old towels and/or paper towels are useful. Also, know where your paper hanging aids are. You don’t want to fumble for anything in a dimly lit darkroom. Make sure the coating surface is impeccably clean. Determine how long you need to prepare your paper for coating. You won’t be sure at first. The time required will decrease with practice and experience. You want to leave yourself enough time to not be rushed, but not so much time that your paper will dry out before you coat it with emulsion. Your time frame is dependent on the humidity in your darkroom. If your temperature and humidity vary considerably over the course of a year, you’ll want to keep detailed notes. Ideally, you will be able to moderate temperature and humidity. This used to be more of a challenge than it usually is today with modern heating and cooling systems, and humidifiers and dehumidifiers.

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If the emulsion you are making has a long ripening period, you will want to prepare your paper during this time. Since you are probably coating in the same room as you are making the emulsion, you need to be able to prepare the paper under safelight conditions. This isn’t much of an issue if you are using bright LED bulbs. Paper emulsion is blind to the pure red LED wavelengths. If you don’t have a long ripening period to work in, prepare the paper before you start the emulsion. A good time to do this is while the gelatin is melting. Most of the tasks involved in making paper can either be done ahead of time or overlapped. This means that even for all the steps involved, the process can be quite time efficient. Line up the dry paper on your coating surface. One at a time, place a sheet of paper in the soaking tray. (Only enough water to cover a sheet is required.) Make sure both sides are thoroughly wet. The thicker the paper, the longer this will take. 140 lb paper will take a minute or two. You don’t want to over-soak, but there can’t be dry patches after you squeegee the paper. Papers differ. Rives BFK takes less time to saturate than Arches. It won’t take you long to get to know your paper. While firmly pinching the top two corners, pull the paper out of the water. Try not to touch the sheet with your hands except along the edges. Let the excess water drain back into the tray until the water starts falling off in drops. Lay the wet paper back down on the coating table. Getting wet paper down on the coating surface smoothly and evenly takes a bit of practice (or luck!). You may have to fuss with it, but getting it straight and smooth, with no wrinkles or bubbles is important. Take the next dry sheet and repeat. When you have soaked all the sheets, examine them carefully. They should all be shiny from the water. If you see dull patches forming, you didn’t soak the paper long enough. Carefully pull the sheet off the coating table and re-soak.

When all the sheets have been soaked and are back on the coating table (or separate glass sheets), take the sheet of mylar and place it on the first sheet of paper you soaked. The mylar should be a little bit bigger all the way around than the paper. At the top of the sheet, with the fingers of one hand, press the mylar down as firmly as you can against the paper. With your other hand, take the squeegee and firmly scrape the mylar, starting at the top of the sheet right below your fingers, down to the bottom of the sheet and off the edge of the coating surface. You should be able to hear water hit the floor. (This is where towels come in handy!) Try not to lift the squeegee during a pull. Don’t let the mylar wrinkle. If you press wrinkled mylar into the paper, it will leave an impression. (Thin mylar works best for this process because it doesn’t require as much pressure to squeegee the paper sufficiently, but handling the thin material does require care.) Repeat the squeegeeing a couple of times until you’ve scraped away most of the water. With a clean towel (paper or cloth) wipe off any excess water on and around the mylar. Carefully lift the mylar off the paper and place it on the adjoining wet paper. Be sure that the paper doesn’t come up with the mylar. The paper should be tightly and smoothly pressed in contact with the glass coating surface. Repeat the squeegee step with all the sheets. After the last sheet, hang the mylar to dry for the next time. Tip: If you are using cut-down ClearBags as your polyester/mylar sheets, you can easily and inexpensively and on the spot as needed, replace a sheet that wrinkles. Also, if the air in your darkroom is particularly dry, you can use a separate sheet of mylar for each sheet of paper and leave them on the paper until you are ready to position the guide bars. Positioning the guide bars: Place one guide bar along an edge of a sheet of paper. Clamp it in place on both ends.

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Place one puddle pusher at the top and one at the bottom of the paper, each up against the guide bar. You could use only one puddle pusher for this step, moving it back and forth from the top of the sheet to the bottom, but using two makes the task faster and easier. Also, you really should have a second puddle pusher anyway. Accidents happen, and you don’t want to be stuck without a coating tool in the middle of a session. Place a second guide bar up against the ends of the puddle pushers, then move it away from the puddle pushers a couple of millimeters. What you are doing is forming a runway for the emulsion. You want as little space as possible on either side of the puddle pusher, but at the same time the puddle pusher shouldn’t rattle up against the guide bars as you are pulling the emulsion down the trough created by the bars. Tip: Be sure both puddle pushers are the same length, or your emulsion runway may narrow down enough that the longer puddle pusher can’t get through. If there is some variation in length, compensate for this before you clamp the second guide bar. When your emulsion has reached coating temperature, pour the right amount to coat one sheet into a plastic measuring cup with a handle. Decide which hand you want to use to pull the puddle pusher down the guide bar trough. Grasp the handle of the puddle pusher and at the top of the paper, hold it upright with the glass rod in firm contact with the paper. You don’t have to exert a lot of pressure. Pour the emulsion in front of the puddle pusher, in as even a strip as possible, and immediately start pulling the puddle pusher toward you. You are herding the emulsion down the trough to the end of the sheet of paper. If you maintain a smooth pull, and never let the puddle pusher lift off the paper, your emulsion coating should be successful. Chapter 7 has tips for the inevitable uglies. Tip: Unless you use enough emulsion to run off the end of the paper, you will likely run out of

emulsion sooner on one side of the paper than the other. If this happens consistently, try to pour a little more on that side before you start your pull. As soon as you’ve coated the last sheet of paper, gather up your emulsion making and coating equipment. Take it all out of the darkroom to wherever you clean up. With paper towels, wipe off as much emulsion from everything as you can. Immediately rinse everything under hot tap water. There won’t be enough silver left on the equipment that it will be an issue going down the drain. Now, wash everything in warm soapy water and rinse well (tap water is fine for this). Air dry, covered by a clean towel. By washing everything immediately, you’ve eliminated a lot of extra work. More importantly, you’ve extended the life of your tools. When your tools are clean, go back into the darkroom and carefully unclamp and remove the guide bars. The best way to do this is to tilt them toward the edge of the paper, away from the emulsion, and then lift them. You are less likely to damage the emulsion than if you simply lifted a bar straight off the paper. Take the guide bars out of the darkroom and clean them the same way you cleaned your other equipment. If you have waited too long, and the emulsion has started to set up, you can carefully run a dull butter knife along the guide bar. Don’t use a sharp knife, or a knife with serrations. It is likely as not you will either cut the paper or tear the emulsion. In about an hour, go back into the darkroom and hang your paper to dry. Before you hang the sheets, inspect each carefully. This is where your red safelight flashlight comes in handy. Look for obvious flaws, and where the emulsion trail ends at the bottom of the sheet. It’s much easier to tell the emulsion from bare paper while the emulsion is wet. With a watercolor crayon, draw an outline of the end of the emulsion; also, arrows on the bare paper that was under the guide bars pointing at any flaws.

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Hanging paper without mishap: Lift the top edge of the paper off the coating surface. Slide a wood strip under the edge. Pinch the paper and wood together in the center of the sheet. Lift the wood and paper up and straight toward you. Place a spring clamp on both edges of the paper. Clamp a laundry hook to the center of the wood/ paper. Hang the sheet. Now, clamp a second strip of wood at the bottom of the sheet. When the paper is dry and ready to cut up, very little emulsion area is lost to selvages. You can cut within a centimeter of the solid line marking where the puddle pusher came up against the guide bar.

Free-Form Coating on Wet Paper

This technique doesn’t employ guide bars. Although the paper preparation steps are the same, the goal isn’t getting a long piece of coated paper that will be cut into several sheets of printing paper. Each sheet you coat becomes an individual sheet of printing paper (unless you are making teeny, tiny prints). Without guide bars, you are basically limited to a flattened puddle of emulsion. The size and shape of the useable coated paper depends on the size and shape of the initial puddle of emulsion. If you intend to trim off selvages, you can run the emulsion off the end of the paper. If you want

Figure 6.10 (left) Simulated emulsion path, © Denise Ross Figure 6.11 (right) Paper hanging to dry with wood strips to prevent curling, © Denise Ross

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Figure 6.12 (top edge) © Denise Ross Figure 6.13 (bottom edge) © Denise Ross

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Figure 6.14 (left) Processed piece of paper, coated on wet paper, using emulsion guide bars, © Denise Ross Figure 6.15 (right) Free-form coating, © Denise Ross

Figure 6.16 Three Onions, contact print, Whole Plate format (6.5″ × 8.5″) Silver gelatin dry plate negative, © Denise Ross

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to print in the middle of the emulsion and show the free-form edges in the final print, you will want to use a sheet of paper large enough to contain the emulsion. It’s not all-or-nothing. You can incorporate one, or more, free-form corners into a print. Practice. Play. Make a 10% solution of plain (food) gelatin. Add some food dye. Let the gelatin solution cool until it starts to thicken. On prepared wet paper (you don’t have to use expensive watercolor paper), experiment with puddle sizes and shapes. The advantage of practicing with colored gelatin is that it’s easy to see where our coating is. However, colored gelatin does not coat as nicely as emulsion. Don’t be dismayed by slight variations in density on the paper. This is also a good opportunity to practice keeping emulsion at coating temperature, along with seeing the results of coating with too warm (thin) and too cool (thick) emulsion. You are learning the choreography of coating. Let your play guide you. Tip: Your coating will be more square-shaped if you start out with a line of emulsion at the top of the sheet of paper (in front of the puddle pusher). However, if the line of emulsion starts out too close to the ends of the puddle pusher, it will overspread the ends. It’s wasted. You can’t pull it back into your puddle. In addition, you will be left with too-thick emulsion at the selvages. Unless you trim them off, the selvages will not fix out completely and eventually they will start to discolor. Coating Dry Paper

Typically, coating on dry paper has been done with an emulsion coating well. As I write this, however, there isn’t a retail source of affordable coating wells. Of course, that could change at any time. Also, the definition of “affordable” is different for different people. That said, my focus is on sustainable, affordable, easy-to-do techniques. In my judgment, that means puddle pushers. Dry paper coating is best suited to paper that has a considerable amount of texture (CP or Rough)

and moderate-to-heavy sizing. Paper that has a distinct grain and cups strongly is particularly good. There are undoubtedly a number of suitable papers, but I will only look at one here. The CP paper I’ve found that works well is Fabriano Artistico CP, 140 lb (300 gsm). There is one big difference between wet and dry paper coating: the paper’s attachment to the coating surface. With wet paper coating, the surface of the paper and the coating surface glass must be in intimate contact and stay that way until the paper is lifted for drying. With dry paper coating, the paper must be allowed to follow its own mind about lifting off the surface. When paper is dry until emulsion hits it, it behaves differently than if it’s thoroughly wet first. Its grain exerts itself. We use that characteristic to our advantage. That is why it’s vital to know the grain of the paper. The sheet of paper on the left in Figure 6.18 demonstrates what happens when strong grain orientation isn’t taken into consideration. The paper washboarded. The sheet on the right is the same paper except that it was prepared for coating along its grain. Figure 6.19 shows what happens to emulsion free-form coated on dry paper. Washboarding is almost inevitable on all but the thickest and most heavily sized papers. Free-form coating is much more successful on wet (and squeegeed) paper. If you coat with an emulsion well, you don’t need to construct a contained area for the emulsion. The well takes care of that. All that’s required is absolutely flat paper and one guide bar to give the well a straight line to run up against as you spread the emulsion down the sheet of paper. Without an emulsion well, a containment trough is required. However, using two guide bars, as with wet paper coating, doesn’t work for dry paper coating. The paper will swell when the emulsion hits it. If it’s clamped down on two sides, the swelling can all too easily turn into buckling. If this happens, the emulsion will not dry in a smooth, even coating.

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Figure 6.17 Practicing free-form coating with colored food gelatin on inexpensive paper, © Denise Ross

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Figure 6.18 (top) Paper troughs: washboarded vs. paper correctly coated with its grain, © Denise Ross Figure 6.19 (bottom) Failed free-form coating on dry paper, © Denise Ross

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Figure 6.20 Tools and materials to make an emulsion coating trough, © Denise Ross

The way to deal with this is to turn a sheet of paper into a self-contained emulsion trough. Cut a sheet of watercolor paper into appropriately sized pieces. The right size depends on the width of your puddle pusher and on the grain direction of the paper. For example, if you are cutting up a 22″ × 30″ sheet of long grain paper to coat with a 5-inch puddle pusher, you will end up with three pieces, each 7.33″ × 30″. If you are cutting up a 22″ × 30″ sheet of short grain paper, you will get four pieces, each 7.5″ × 22″. Fold a sheet of the cut-down paper along two sides, parallel to the grain direction of the paper. To do this, clamp a straightedge ruler, at least as long as your paper, along one edge of the paper, front side up. Take great care to keep the paper clean. Also, it’s very important that the paper be flat. Make sure you store your paper in such a way that the sheets don’t end up bowed. With a butter knife (or something similar) make a deep, straight score on the paper up along the

straightedge. Dent the paper only. Don’t cut it. Remove the straightedge. Carefully, fold up the edge along the score line. Take your puddle pusher and place it at the top of the sheet with one end up close against the fold. Mark the paper at the other end of the puddle pusher, plus about an eighth of an inch, or half a centimeter. Repeat this at the bottom. It will take a test or two to determine the exact “plus.” The perfect width trough has enough room for the puddle pusher to run down, but not so much extra width that emulsion oozes off the ends of the puddle pusher and consequently doesn’t get spread. Repeat the scoring and folding step along the line between the top and the bottom. An aside: I go back and forth on whether putting tape on the inside of the edges is helpful. All I can suggest is to experiment—with and without—and see what works best for you. Arrange your troughs on a level surface. The surface doesn’t have to be glass, but it does need to be

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Figure 6.21 (left) Paper cupping encouraged with a foam “pool noodle,” © Denise Ross Figure 6.22 (right) Coating troughs can be used to coat very long strips of paper, up to the full length, along the grain of a sheet of watercolor paper, © Denise Ross

level. Tape the trough to the coating surface with small pieces of tape at the top and bottom of one edge only. The tape prevents the trough from moving while you coat it, without constraining the swelling of the paper. Coat in the same way as described for wet paper coating with guide bars. However, immediately after you’ve pulled the emulsion down a paper trough, make sure the paper is freely cupping up. Your paper may or may not require help to do this successfully. A paper with a strong grain, such as 140 lb Fabriano Artistico, coated with a 5-inch puddle pusher in a 22-inch-long trough, will probably form a strong cup without help. If

the trough is 9 inches wide, or 30 inches long, or made with a paper not as heavily sized, the situation may be different, and a cupping aid may be required. Trial and error is the only sure guide. It’s good insurance to have cupping helpers ready in case they are required, or even if you’re unsure. These are nothing more than a “long round thing” (LRT) that can be shoved under the paper for support as it’s cupping up. They are left in place until the emulsion dries. Pool “noodles” cut to the length of your troughs are perfect. Plumbers’ foam pipe wraps are good, too. For short troughs, the paper core of a roll of paper towels is perfect. Or,

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Figure 6.23 Close-up of the end of the paper in Figure 6.22, © Denise Ross

you can use two. Place one under the cup from the top end of the trough, the other from the bottom. They don’t necessarily need to touch in the middle. Wrap the paper tubes in plastic tape for a long, useful life. All things considered, the wider the trough, the larger the diameter of the LRT. Emulsion coating on paper troughs shares one issue with wet paper coating with guide bars—the

emulsion can run out sooner on one side than the other. Use a watercolor crayon to outline where the emulsion ends. On CP and rough papers especially, this is hard to see once the emulsion is dry. Endnote 1. Abney, William De Wiveleslie, Photography with Emulsions (3rd edn) (London: Piper & Carter, 1885), 30.

Figure 7.0 Handmade 120 Film Negative to Enlarged Digital Negative, on Three Salts Contact Printing Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 7

Troubleshooting Coating

Figure 7.1 (left) From the “oops!” file, © Denise Ross Figure 7.2 (right) Tyee Oak, from the “Yay!” file, © Denise Ross

The state of photography nowadays is such that the amateur and professional alike are surrounded by an overwhelming mass of all kinds of materials—cameras, plates, films, papers, chemicals—with the inevitable result that any one individual who does not succeed with a certain class of goods will prefer to leave it and try another, rather than try to ascertain the reasons for his failure. It is not enough, furthermore, to be satisfied if we are successful; let us endeavour to find out why success has attended our efforts, every bit as much as failure, so that a clear knowledge of the principles of photography shall guide our future work, and make us as independent as possible of facts, formulæ, and friends. (Baker, 1905)1

E

veryone keeps their greatest hits. Building a portfolio of beautiful, successful prints is a first-order goal. However, I will advocate for a portfolio that’s just as important: our bloopers— what we might call our “oops!” file. The obvious reason is that it’s educational, especially if you include good notes. However, it’s also reassuring. A lot of things can go wrong—will go wrong—but more things work out than fail, even in the very beginning. You might not believe that without a record of your progress. There are three basic categories of emulsion flaws: problems with the emulsion quality itself,

which arise during the emulsion making process (Chapter 5), processing problems (Chapter 9), and coating flaws. Coating flaws are by far and away the most common problems that confront us. The flaws may be common to the handmade paper experience, but the ways we deal with them are personal.

The Art in the Process Question: Which is better, an injection-molded plastic lawn chair, to all appearances perfect, or a handcrafted wood chair with all the imperfections of real wood? If you answer the wood chair, how

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many and what types of flaws would you accept? What would you be willing or able to pay the craftsperson? Is the weight of the chair an issue to you? The question can take a hundred forms. Machine-knit polyester sweater or hand knit sweater from handspun alpaca? Chicken McNuggets or home pan-fried chicken? The answers aren’t cut and dried. My favorite cookie comes from a factory. (Sorry Mom!) It is a mixed blessing that handmade silver gelatin paper can look perfect and indistinguishable from commercial paper. Commercial materials are undeniably miracles of perfection. Digital? Even more so because we unrelentingly define perfection to fit the potential of the current technology. Figures 7.3 and 7.4 lie at different points on the perfection continuum. Both are prints that I’m very proud of from a technical standpoint. They are both “perfect.” However, Figure 7.3 is coated on factory-made plain glossy baryta paper. It is indistinguishable from a contact print of the same negative on Ilford glossy RC paper. Figure 7.4 is coated on Rives BFK. Although there may have been a commercial paper in the past with the same texture, today it is different from any fiber-based

paper I’m aware of. The differences between the prints are lost in reproduction, but 7.4 looks and feels like a handcrafted print. It is far too easy for us to get stuck in a vicious loop. On the one hand, we might reasonably and legitimately strive for mastery of our craft, and materials perfection is one aspect of that mastery. If we do, and our prints are indistinguishable from commercial prints, will the audience reaction be admiration or boredom? Do you care? That is a deeply personal question that each of us has to ask and answer for ourselves. There is no correct motivation for making art. For myself, I’ve lost interest in chasing “perfect” for its own sake, but sloppy technique for the sake of an artistic statement isn’t in my nature. So, how to proceed? One approach, taken from the earliest days of apprenticeships with great masters, is to perfect your craft so that your knowledge and control of the materials allows you to consistently bring your vision to your work. Relying on “happy accidents” is not a workable strategy. However, if you take notes on everything you do, one accident might be turned into a reliable and valued technique in the creation of all your prints.

Figure 7.3 (left) Fairydusted, handmade emulsion on commercial plain baryta paper, © Denise Ross Figure 7.4 (right) Endurance, handmade emulsion on watercolor paper, © Denise Ross

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Selvages Hand coating produces selvage edges. A factory produces selvages, too. The manufacturer trims them off before packaging the paper. We can do that. Or: not. The sheet of paper in Figure 7.5 is larger than my flatbed scanner. I could print an 8″ × 10″ negative without seeing any white paper. No one would necessarily know that it’s handmade paper. The trimmed parts needn’t be wasted. They are valuable as test strips. All is good, but what if I chose to print a suitable negative with different aesthetics? Does the onion study require a full sheet of perfect paper? I haven’t decided. Spots Although some artifacts of handmade silver gelatin paper can be celebrated, there are a lot of things that are just plain ugly. Dust and lint and all the

little poxes and plagues related to coating are by far the most common problems we’re likely to encounter regularly. Making emulsions is easy. Baking a layer cake is more complex, but unless you do all your work in lab cleanroom conditions, some uninvited junk will end up in your emulsions. The goal is to minimize it. Small particles find their way around. They can settle on your paper while it’s drying. In addition, real materials are . . . well, real. Stuff happens, apparently even in the factories that make our component ingredients. That said, common sense clean work habits go a long, long way toward solving problems. Everyone has different conditions to deal with, and we all pretty much know how to keep our spaces clean (at least in theory!). You don’t have to be obsessive–compulsive, but there are no two ways about it: clean habits will make life a lot easier.

Figure 7.5 (left) Free-form wet-coated paper, © Denise Ross Figure 7.6 (right) Three Onions, contact print on free-form wet-coated paper, © Denise Ross

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Be especially careful with chemicals. Not out of fear. With very few exceptions (and I try to avoid the exceptions) darkroom chemicals are no more dangerous than common household cleaning products. The problem with chemicals is that chemical dust in your darkroom will contaminate your recipes, and that will suck the joy out of the process really fast. If you have forced air heating or cooling, turn off the air while your paper is drying. If you can’t do that, close the air registers. It’s not only that the air coming out the registers may have dust in it; the air movement will stir up any dust that may already be in your darkroom. Don’t let pets in the darkroom. Dog and cat hairs are sentient, malicious life forms with an unnatural attraction for drying emulsion. Easy to overlook, but a surprising source of dust movement, is opening and closing the darkroom door. When paper is drying (either as an emulsion, or as a print after processing) open and close your door slowly so that the air movement doesn’t kick up dust.

However, try as we might, spots happen. Only photographers with a 100% digital workflow can avoid learning to spot (Chapter 9).

A Catalog of Coating Boo-boos Dust spots on a print, picked up from the negative during printing, are easily spotted. However, if the flaw is in the paper emulsion, it may be impossible to make it completely disappear. My best advice is to learn to identify coating flaws on the paper before you print, and then avoid printing on them. Areas of paper with flaws make excellent test strips or test prints. Cutting up flawless paper for test strips hurts! Welcome the few inevitable coating flaws that seem to come with every batch of paper. Don’t think of them as flaws. Rather, they are free test strips! Microbubbles

A microbubble is created when a bubble of air gets into the wet emulsion, either as the emulsion is being made or as it’s being coated on the paper. When the emulsion dries, the bubble collapses.

Figure 7.7 (left) Microbubble, © Denise Ross Figure 7.8 (right) Microbubble, close up and too personal, © Denise Ross

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What’s left is a crater, with bare paper circled by a raised rim of hard emulsion. They can’t be spotted away. Even if you match the density of the surrounding area, you’ll be able to see the raised rim in the right light. It’s a personal decision whether or not that’s acceptable in a finished print. If the smallest of them land on print areas with detail, they are nearly invisible, especially on paper that has a bit of texture. The larger ones are harder to ignore. Letting a microbubble get past the initial inspection process of the dried paper doesn’t happen very often. They are not hard to see under safelight before you print. Microbubbles are rare if you avoid incorporating air into the emulsion before coating. During the ripening stage, and the cooling-down step right before coating, stir the emulsion very gently and slowly. Not all bubbles are micro. Some can be downright huge. Fortunately, you are able to see large bubbles right after you coat a piece of paper. If you gently pop them with a small knitting needle, immediately after coating, they will completely disappear, but you have to catch them before the emulsion starts to set up. This is usually a matter

of a minute or less. It means you can’t coat all the sheets first and then go back and pop bubbles. Large bubbles are primarily caused by coating at the wrong emulsion temperature. If you get bubbles while you are coating, try to notice whether they get better or worse with each subsequent sheet of paper you coat. If they decrease, you started too warm. Increase? The opposite. Adjust your coating temperature appropriately. Blisters

Blisters can’t be seen on the dry paper before printing. It’s when the paper gets wet that they look and act just as you’d expect from their name. During processing, liquid gets under a patch of emulsion and swells the gelatin until it detaches from the paper. When the paper dries, the blister flattens out to a shiny patch on the print. It’s very obvious and not something you can spot away. Depending on the size of the blister, it may or may not be a problem for a print. Looking at the actual print, the blister in Figure 7.9 is nearly invisible to the naked eye. I had to throw a Photoshop marquee around it and push the contrast up to full, at 100% view, in order to show it here. Fortunately, blisters aren’t a common problem. Prevention steps include cooler processing temperatures, gentle handling during processing, and, if necessary, a hardening fix. It was when none of these steps worked for a batch of paper that I discovered the whole lot of watercolor paper I had just started using had faulty sizing. There was nothing that was going to make it work for emulsions, although it was fine for watercolor painting. I donated it all to the local school art program. This is where a little experience comes in handy. I knew there was nothing wrong with the recipe, so it didn’t take Sherlock Holmes to figure out the problem was with the paper. True Mysteries

Figure 7.9 Emulsion blister, © Denise Ross

Figure 7.10 is a paper problem that came and went in exactly half the sheets in one pack of watercolor

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Figure 7.10 (left) Undiagnosed and absolutely mysterious paper flaw, © Denise Ross Figure 7.11 (right) Repellency spots and peppering, ugh, © Denise Ross

paper. Long story short, it appears that there had been some kind of contamination along one side of an entire roll, sometime in the manufacturing process. The problem was absolutely invisible until near the end of the final wash process. I’ve never experienced the problem since, but I accept that something just as mysterious could happen any time. Repellency Spots

Repellency spots look like a hazy full moon on your paper. Their name is a perfect description. The spots are areas of localized non-wetting, which form around repellent inclusions.2 A small amount of wetting agent, such as Photo-Flo 200, added to the emulsion right before coating, usually eliminates the problem. Wet paper coating seems to be less prone to repellency spots, perhaps because the soaking and draining steps rinse off loose paper fibers that might form the core of a spot. The trick with wetting agent is to add as little as possible. Don’t count on dumping a bunch in to compensate for dirty paper or emulsion. Too much wetting agent can actually start to cause repellency issues.

Glyoxal Pox

This is a special-case repellency problem that took me a long time to figure out. Glyoxal is an excellent hardener for paper, but particulates settle out to the bottom of the bottle over time. Let that happen. Don’t shake the bottle. I take up a dropperful from the very top of the liquid in the bottle and never touch or disturb the junk at the bottom. Glyoxal particulates repel the emulsion around them, clear down to the paper. There is no “crater rim” of dried emulsion, so they can’t be confused with microbubbles. Unfortunately, they are easily confused with other types of repellency spots. Surfactants won’t help; the only solution is to avoid the glyoxal particulates. Always a good idea: make sure the solution fits the problem and doesn’t make it worse. I initially thought the problem in Figure 7.11 was regular repellency spots, so I added increasing amounts of Photo-Flo. Unfortunately, the problem was too much Photo-Flo. I believe I made a mistake with my initial addition of Photo-Flo and started with too much. Adding more wetting agent can’t fix a problem of too much wetting agent.

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Figure 7.12 (left) Glyoxal pox (edge flaws are from original flaws on the dry plate negative), © Denise Ross Figure 7.13 (right) Glyoxal pox, close up, © Denise Ross

Too Thick; Too Thin

Beyond problems with the emulsion itself, and spots of various forms, the only other likely problem is with emulsion thickness. Think Goldilocks and her porridge. Figure 7.14 has areas that are too thin, too thick, and just right. The paper was coated with an emulsion blade on dry paper without regard for the grain direction of the paper. It’s textbook for what can go wrong. The emulsion flow started out slow, which resulted in a thin patch. The emulsion pooled where the paper swelled and buckled. Blade coating on dry paper can be very successful and lovely when everything goes right, but too often, things go wrong instead. The problems involved are the reason I’ve gone to wet paper coating with a puddle pusher for almost all my paper making (Chapter 6). Figure 7.2 is a wetcoated print. Many of the problems with any coating system are more readily visible when the emulsion is wet. I keep a watercolor crayon handy to note flaws on the paper. Wet emulsion doesn’t clog a watercolor

crayon like it can a permanent marker. If I see a flaw anywhere on the wet sheet, I draw an arrow in the dry margin pointing at it. When the paper is dry, it may be fine for printing, so I don’t want to have ruined it by marking on the emulsion itself. I also note where the emulsion starts and where it tails off. If I know I’ll only be printing on full sheets, I’ll draw the exact outline of where the emulsion path ends so that there’s no chance I’ll try to print on it. Thick patches are hard to see right after coating. They show up easiest when most of the emulsion has started drying and turning a duller sheen. A thick patch stays shiny longer. It will always be shinier than emulsion coated at the optimum thickness, even after it’s been printed, processed, and dried. The real problem with thick patches is that they take much longer to fix out. It’s easy to end up with a patch that will turn brown after the print is processed and exposed to daylight. Brown discoloration is the classic result of inadequate fixing. The

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Figure 7.14 (left) Too thick and too thin emulsion, © Denise Ross Figure 7.15 (right) Poorly fixed areas turning brown, © Denise Ross

Figure 7.16 (left) Emulsion coated while still too warm, © Denise Ross Figure 7.17 (right) Backside of 7.16, © Denise Ross

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Figure 7.18 Color shift from partial fixing, followed by exposure to light, and complete fixing and washing, © Denise Ross

solution isn’t to fix longer. Too-long fixing will degrade the rest of the print. Paper that has been coated using the wet paper coating technique almost never has problems with too thick/too thin.

After I looked at it, I left it lying on the bottom of the darkroom sink. Over the next couple of hours, it started turning a beautiful rosy brown, so I took a chance and gave it a full fix and wash. I know there is potential there. I just haven’t chased it down yet.

Hot Emulsion

If emulsion is coated while it’s too warm, the coating will be thin and blotchy. If it’s much too warm, it can wrinkle the paper and soak through to the back.

Uncovering the Hidden Potential of Flaws Figure 7.18 was a test print. I only fixed it for a few minutes—just long enough to inspect it by daylight.

Endnotes 1. Baker, T. Thorne, Successful Negative Making (2nd edn) (London: Marshall, Brookes & Chalkley, 1905), 1. 2. Zelikman, V. L. and S. M. Levi, Making and Coating Photographic Emulsions (London: Focal Press, 1964), 261–262.

Figure 8.0 Handmade 120 Film Negative to Enlarged Digital Negative, on Three Salts Contact Printing Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 8

Printing

Figure 8.1 Dawn, Beverly Beach, © Denise Ross

Another of the chiefest charms of photography is its unselfishness; the pictures made on a morning ramble are not alone enjoyed by the maker, but enjoyed as well by all his (or her) friends; and this cannot be said of all the ordinary pastimes of our time. (Adams, 1888)1

S

o, how do we print on our gorgeous paper? In almost every way, printing on handmade paper is the same as printing on commercial paper. The biggest differences involve emulsion hardness—its resistance to rough or careless handling. Process one sheet at a time, emulsion side up in the processing trays, and don’t use warm chemistry. We have a number of printing options. The two major categories are contact printing and enlarging. The variations within them open up a world of creative potential.

Contact Printing Contact printing was a process invented for glass plate negatives—first, wet plate collodion, and later,

silver gelatin dry plate. When film came along, a piece of clear glass and film substituted for the plates. No matter the negative/paper combination, the emulsion of the printing paper and the emulsion of the negative are in tight contact when they are exposed to light. In the beginning, “printing” meant contact printing, and although it’s the oldest photographic printing process, contact printing is alive and well today. Actually, it’s been given a breath of fresh air by the invention, and wide acceptance, of enlarged inkjet negatives, probably best known simply as “digital negatives.” Before inkjet printers and the ability to make excellent big digital negatives, making a print larger than your negative meant you had to optically

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enlarge the negative, either directly onto paper, or with an intermediary enlarged film negative. There was (and still is) disagreement over the quality of an 8″ × 10″ contact print versus an 8″ × 10″ enlargement from a smaller negative, especially after T-grain films came into wide use. The distinctions are largely artistic or practical, rather than technical. Nevertheless, contact printing waned as large format sheet film became more expensive, and as popular tastes changed to accept the “look” of greatly enlarged negatives. Contact printing came roaring back starting in the 1970s with the revival of various alternative and historical processes. Of course, at the time, silver gelatin wasn’t a historical process. Today, we’ve come full circle. Handmade silver gelatin has joined the club of printing processes superbly suited to contact printing. There needn’t be much technology involved with contact printing. It can be as simple as a wood frame and a bare incandescent bulb. Edward Weston is famous as much for this approach to print making as he is for sensual peppers. However, human nature such as it is, simple can be made more complex. Any number of inventions and innovations have been applied to contact printing. Ultimately, the simple wood frame and light bulb morphed into a vacuum contact printer with a powerful high-intensity lamp. Fortunately for the budget, this type of UV printer, valued by many alternative process photographers, is unnecessary with silver gelatin. An “upgrade” that does work well is printing by the light of an enlarger, with its advantage of aperture control. We can contact print with old frames and new frames, bare bulbs and enlarger light, incandescent bulbs, and LED, and employ a number of techniques—traditional and modern—to craft our prints. There is specific additional information in each recipe chapter. Printing Frames

If you are printing with glass plate negatives, you need to have a frame that exactly fits the plate size.

The negative is the only glass in the frame. It’s set in the frame emulsion side up. Looking at it on a light box, the image is flipped horizontally. Printing paper is placed over the plate, emulsion-side down. The plate and the paper are emulsion to emulsion. The back is set in place and secured by springs. The springs have to exert enough pressure to force even and tight contact across the entire surface of the paper. If you are only printing with film or digital negatives, your options for frame size expand. You can print a 4″ × 5″ print in an 11″ × 14″ frame. Most new frames are designed for printing with negatives. For this reason, an “11″ × 14″ frame” will likely be 12″ × 15″, in order to accommodate a margin of paper around the negative. The backs of printing frames come in different styles. Some have the hinge in the middle; some have one side larger than the other. There are different spring styles, but ones that exert the greatest pressure on a center point, rather than along the edges, probably provide better contact. Some old frames have dials or pointers that look like little clock hands (Figure 8.4). These were added to the frame to help a printer remember when the frame had been set out in the sun. If a photographer or printing shop needed to make a lot of prints, many printing frames could be in use at the same time. The aids on the back of each individual frame helped keep the confusion and exposure mistakes to a minimum. The three 5″ × 7″ contact printing frames in Figure 8.5 are different styles available a hundred years ago. There was a wonderful diversity of craftsmanship at the time. Somewhere along the line, the beautiful frame on the right lost its time keeper, but an outline of its use is still visible. Hinged backs are designed for printing-out papers (POP). POP papers form their visible image during exposure to light, as opposed to developingout papers, which don’t form a visible image until the developer step of processing. With POP papers, the printer needs to be able to judge image formation as it’s happening so that the paper can

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Figure 8.2 High tech printer: an old desk lamp and a stopwatch, © Denise Ross

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Figure 8.3 Glass negative in a contact printing frame, © Denise Ross

be taken out of the light at the right time. However, the paper and the negative must not be moved out of alignment while the print is being evaluated. Having a hinged frame allows looking at part of the print without disturbing the alignment. If, after taking a peek at the progress, the judgment is that the print needs additional exposure, the open half of the frame is closed again. Even if you don’t print with POP, a hinged back is very handy for exactly positioning a negative on paper and making sure everything stays in place while you close the frame. Place the registered negative and paper in the frame, centered under the hinge, and while holding them together with one hand, secure one side of the back with your other hand. The negative and paper sandwich are now immobile, and you can close the other half. One last thing: Watch out for signs that your hinges aren’t pressing down as hard or as evenly as

they should. It’s easy to see on something like a step tablet. The numbers in the middle are very fuzzy. I corrected the problem with this frame by adding a piece of felt between the back of the paper and the back of the frame. DIY Printing Frames

It’s not hard to make a contact printing frame from scratch if you have carpentry skills and tools. However, it’s even easier to make a frame with a few purchased items. It starts with a sturdy wood picture frame. The handy thing about picture frames is that they come in the same sizes as standard glass plate negatives. If you are printing film negatives, the glass that comes in the frame is ready to go for printing. Just make sure the glass is not “UV-filter glass.” Keeping out damaging UV rays is a great idea for artwork, but not so much for printing.

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Figure 8.4 (top) The back of a contact printing frame, © Denise Ross Figure 8.5 (bottom) Three of many styles of contact printing frames, © Denise Ross

Figure 8.6 Blurring of detail in a print made in a printing frame with a loose back, © Denise Ross

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Figure 8.7 (top) Pieces of a DIY contact printing frame, © Denise Ross Figure 8.8 (bottom) Pieces of a DIY contact printing frame, ready to use, © Denise Ross

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In addition to the frame, you need stout metal strips (pieces of a heavy metal ruler are perfect) and felt. The design of this frame has a groove around the inside. The ends of the metal strips fit into the groove and are held in place. The bend in the metal exerts the necessary pressure on the back. Screws to hold the spring strips to the back aren’t necessary. The back doesn’t need to be hinged if it will never be used for POP printing by inspection, and if the printing paper is cut to exactly fit inside the frame. A piece of felt between the frame back and the back of the printing paper ensures close, even contact. Add a second piece if need be. If the frame doesn’t have a groove to secure the ends of the springs, four metal washers can be screwed into the wood in such a way that part of each washer catches an end of a spring. The beautiful brass hardware used with the better quality old frames may be more elegant than a common stainless steel washer, but secure is secure. Printing

Determining the right exposure for contact prints is the same as for enlarged prints: making test strips. After progressively increasing exposures across a sheet of paper, either the correct exposure is apparent, or you know to fine-tune a second test strip. Once you’ve worked with one paper for a short time, you’ll have a very good idea of the best time increment to start with for most negatives.

This is true for dry plate, film, and digital negatives. See Chapter 9 for more information. Any decent old book on darkroom technique will spell out good test strip technique. My favorite has always been the 1950 edition of The Print: Contact Printing and Enlarging, by Ansel Adams.2 The density of the information can be daunting to a beginner, but the effort of understanding the details is worth it. Some of the best and most wellknown photographers of the past generation cut their teeth on Mr. Adams’s books. Because so much of the technical information in The Print is “obsolete,” and because there were so many issues originally sold, used copies are essentially free. The Elements of Black-and-White Printing, by Carson Graves, is also excellent.3 Once you’re in the ballpark of the general exposure, and unless you are working with digital negatives that have already been fine-tuned, you’ll probably want to tweak the image. Traditionally, this is done with burning and dodging. Again, consult just about any good darkroom technique book. Burning and dodging are excellent techniques for selectively adding and removing density in a print, but a photographer can go through a lot of paper getting everything right. That may have been fine in the days when a box of a hundred sheets of paper was affordable and seemingly limitless, but a hit and miss approach doesn’t really fit my current way of thinking about resources. A better way to fine-tune prints is with masking. Hand-Drawn Masks with Graphite Pencil

Figure 8.9 One method for holding spring back clips tightly and securely, © Denise Ross

The simplest mask of all is just a piece of smooth vellum paper (one with no visible paper fibers) or Yupo synthetic translucent paper, and a soft pencil. Tape the paper to the non-emulsion side of your negative (plate or film). On a lightbox, carefully sketch density where you want highlights bumped up. The mask stays in permanent registration with the negative. Don’t remove it until you retire the image or change the mask. Make sure the pieces

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Figure 8.10 (top) Exposure test strip, © Denise Ross Figure 8.11 (bottom) Final print, based on the best exposure on the test strip, © Denise Ross

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Figure 8.12 (top) Dry plate glass negative with visible flaws caused by a light leak in a drying cabinet, © Denise Ross Figure 8.13 (bottom) Yupo and pencil mask, © Denise Ross

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of tape holding the masking material to the negative are small and as close as possible to the edges of the negative. You want the tape to be within the lip that supports the plate in the frame so that it doesn’t show up in the print. The dry plate negative of the onion (Figure 8.12) would have been fine to print without a mask but for an unknown-at-the-time light leak in my new drying box. The plate picked up a veil of extra density except where the drying rack shielded it. By adding a contrast mask (Figure 8.13), I could give the paper the extra exposure needed to print down the background—just enough to hide the grid marks—without overexposing the onion. I also added a bit of highlight area under the onion. If the plate hadn’t been flawed with grid marks from the light pollution, I could have used a much simpler mask: just as smudge of density to bump up the highlights on the body of the onion. If I had only wanted to make one print I could have dodged the center of the onion, rather than use a

mask. If I wanted to make multiple, identical prints, dodging them all equally would have been a serious challenge. Masking is a repeatable process. The plate is 5″ × 7″. The final print is 5″ × 6″. Essentially, I cropped it by trimming it down. Trimming, or cropping with a mat, allows some aspect ratio control with contact printing. If you enjoy making hand-drawn masks and you feel that many of your prints would benefit from masking, it’s a real time saver to make all your exposure tests with a piece of Yupo over the paper and negative. The density of the Yupo becomes a part of the exposure calculations for the print. After you make a test print and say to yourself, “Gee, I wish there were a brighter highlight there,” you can sketch one on the Yupo without having to recalculate the correct exposure. One caveat: Yupo diffuses the exposure light. If the Yupo is laid on top of the printing frame, the image can be noticeably softer, but if it’s in the contact frame with the negative and paper, the effect is much less.

Figure 8.14 Onion, silver gelatin emulsion contact print, from masked dry plate negative, © Denise Ross

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Figure 8.15 (top) Yupo and colored pencil mask, © Denise Ross Figure 8.16 (bottom) Film negative registered with Yupo and colored pencil mask, © Denise Ross

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Figure 8.17 (top) Rhododendron, 6″ × 8″ enlargement from a 4″ × 5″ masked negative, © Denise Ross Figure 8.18 (bottom) Contact print from negative with taped-on mask, © Denise Ross

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Tip: This softening can be used to advantage if you are photographing with an overly-sharp modern lens, but you’d like a print that looks more like “traditional” photography. Hand-Drawn Masks with Colored Pencil

The rhododendron leaves on this 4″ × 5″ negative are almost as clear as the film base. Without masking, they print darker than the background— not what I want for this print. Instead of using a graphite pencil to draw the mask, I used a yellow pencil on Yupo. The yellow is good for heavy

masking because it blocks light better than graphite while remaining easier to see through. Yellow and red masking operates under the same principle as safelights. A plain paper emulsion only “sees” UV and blue light; it is blind to the yellow or red light coming through the mask. Masks work just as well with enlarging printing as with contact printing. There is one disadvantage with masks. They eliminate the option of making a contact print where exposed emulsion around the negative forms a black border around the image. Although this is

Figure 8.19 Ghost Turnips, contact print from dry plate negative, made with an inkjet contrast control mask, © Denise Ross

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necessarily the case if you are printing in a frame that exactly matches the negative size, printing in a larger frame would ordinarily give you the option of a black border. However, printing with a tapedon mask creates prints that look like Figure 8.18. The print will need to be trimmed or matted. Digital Inkjet Masks

Figure 8.19 is a print from one of my first whole plate format attempts. I had coated with the emulsion a little too warm. The warm emulsion spread smoothly and evenly, but the dried coating is definitely on the thin side. Rather than printing on a high contrast paper, I chose instead to make a contrast control mask. I decided to make it an inkjet mask because of the complexity of the image area needing corrective masking. The technique itself is straightforward: Scan the plate at high resolution, Photoshop the file to your best guess for contrast, apply a very slight

Gaussian Blur, and print it on digital negative material. I like Pictorico OHP. Register the mask and the plate and print as usual. So simple to write. Actual practice involves a fair amount of trial and error. There are many sources of techniques for making digital negatives— books and websites, and opinions enough to fill yet more books and websites—but don’t automatically dismiss “trial and error.” Keep a histogram and history ledger. With every lap around the track your eye and intuition improve, and the next mask is quicker and easier to make. I treat my digi-negs like prints: a pinch of levels, a dash of curves, and a bit of burning and dodging. Tip: Don’t use big pieces of test paper when you are fine-tuning your masks. A small piece of paper can tell you what you need to know. When you cut your printing paper to size from the larger coated sheets, keep every scrap of good paper, no matter the size. You’ll use them.

Figure 8.20 (left) Original 6.5″ × 8.5″ glass dry plate negative, © Denise Ross Figure 8.21 (right) Inkjet contrast control mask, © Denise Ross

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If digital masks are a good fit for you, the same advice holds as for hand-drawn masks. Always make your exposure tests with a piece of inkjet transparency film sandwiched with the negative and paper. Digital Negatives

Enlarged inkjet negatives might be considered a segue between contact printing and enlarging. Not many photographers today work with large and ultra-large cameras. Fewer still travel with a full kit of lenses in the way that our pre-digital, “contact print or bust!” predecessors often did. They had to if they wanted a measure of control over perspective. Zoom lenses aren’t designed for large format cameras. Although few photographers today work with big cameras, current expectations from galleries and audiences are for big prints. If you are working with a digital camera, inkjet negatives are your only option; if you are working with film or glass plate negatives, you may not want to be constrained by your camera’s size. Back in the day, there was commercial direct duplicating film. If it’s still available, I’m unaware of it. Today,

we have digital negatives. And, true confession: whether I’ve captured an image with film or a digital camera, I’ve become more than a little spoiled by Photoshop “levels” and “curves.” From a technical standpoint, there is no reason to avoid digital negatives. It is almost impossible to tell the difference between a print made with an original negative, and one made with an inkjet negative. Although the aesthetics of the two approaches may be different, on emulsion-coated watercolor paper, both grain and an inkjet droplet/ printer pattern are invisible. How many different techniques for making digital negatives are there today? I can’t even imagine. Most photographers have already picked a favorite. I favor the very simplest. I pick a paper, and then a light source, and then a developer, and then I do some tests. I take notes. I make a few test prints. I fiddle and tweak. In short order, I have a personal profile for making consistent digital negatives for one combination of factors. From there, each image gets a further tweak or two. For me, the process is as personal and unique to each image as it is with traditional enlarging. Old, meet new.

Figure 8.22 (left) Detail of a contact print made with a glass dry plate negative, © Denise Ross Figure 8.23 (right) Detail of a contact print made with a digital negative made from a glass dry plate negative, © Denise Ross

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Larger prints aren’t the only reason to consider digital negatives. Cropping, spotting, contrast corrections, and/or negative damage—some images just need help. Digital negatives allow us to use seriously flawed materials, rather than wasting them.

Traditional Enlarging Although different styles have different characteristics, there is no right or wrong enlarger. If you already have an enlarger you are happy with, there is no need to change in order to print with handmade materials. There are two basic types of enlargers— condenser and diffusion—and good reasons to choose either or both. Each type includes several variations. There is the condenser enlarger with a point-source directional lamp. It produces the most contrasty images. Detail is enhanced, but so is grain, dust, and all flaws in a negative. A standard condenser uses a set of glass lenses within the lamp housing, all of them clear, while the illumination light is a frosted incandescent light bulb. A softer effect can be produced when one or more of the glass lenses are frosted, rather than clear. Softest of all are the several variations of diffused light enlargers, including those with variable contrast and/or color printing capabilities. Enlarger lens quality and characteristics also come into play. A good lens is more important than the enlarger chassis. (Note: Lens quality is not important if an enlarger is being used as the light source for contact printing. The only thing that matters in that case is that the aperture control works.) Enlarger Choice

Most of the differences between enlargers can be mitigated with the right negative/paper/developer choices, along with the amount of enlargement. Because any print gets progressively softer with ever greater enlargement, final print size relative to negative size can play a role in enlarger choice.

One difference that is inherent, however, is the ability of diffusion enlargers to minimize grain, dust spots, and scratches. Trade-offs always seem to come into play. For example, with a badly scratched negative, is it more important to minimize the scratches or to retain the fine detail in the image? Contact prints (regardless the light source) and diffusion enlarger prints have nearly identical contrast. This makes it easier to match contact proof sheets with a given negative’s contrast when you enlarge it. If you use a Yupo mask with a negative in an enlarger, the mask acts like a diffuser. A condenser enlarger compensates for the effect. Generally, a diffusion enlarger is slower than a condenser enlarger. If your favorite paper is already on the slow side, enlargements with a diffusion enlarger may take a long time. This in itself can decrease contrast. The same reasoning holds for printing with very dense negatives. Unlike contact printing, where the negative and paper are in intimate contact, with enlarging, the light from one area can spill into another. The longer the exposure, the greater the opportunity for this to happen. Light leaking out of the enlarger chassis or light reflecting off the darkroom walls and ceiling can both contribute to decreased contrast in a print. A condenser enlarger is almost always less expensive than a diffusion enlarger. In addition, bulb replacement is easier and less expensive. Enlarging with Handmade Paper

Enlarging with handmade paper is a little different from enlarging with commercial paper. Handmade paper curls as it dries. Some types of paper curl more than others, but almost all can be flattened enough to work with if the sheets are first stacked under a piece of heavy glass (in a lightproof paper safe, of course!). Be sure the emulsion is completely dry before you stack and press the sheets together.

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Figure 8.24 (left) First step: the enlarger base ready for wet-paper printing, © Denise Ross Figure 8.25 (top right) Wetting the paper very briefly, © Denise Ross Figure 8.26 (bottom right) Removing the excess water from the surface of the paper, © Denise Ross

You can print with dry paper, just as with commercial paper. However, there are advantages to working with wet paper. There are no worries about curling, but more important, you can easily work with a number of different paper sizes without owning an adjustable easel. First, prepare the enlarger. Place a piece of black paper on the base. Mark the paper with lightcolored tape or white or silver pen to the intended size of your enlarging paper. You can prepare a number of different sizes. Position the paper so that it is centered under the enlarger light. Cover it with a sheet of heavy glass.

Put about an inch of cool distilled water in a clean tray dedicated to distilled water only. While the paper is wet, the image will appear a little soft. This disappears when the print dries. Because there is nothing around the image area while you are printing, the edges of the print will be subtly soft, rather than hard as they would be from an enlarging easel with borders. The distinctive appearance remains after the print is dry. I like it very much.

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Figure 8.27 (top) The paper centered on the glass under the lens, © Denise Ross Figure 8.28 (bottom) The characteristic edge of an enlarged print made without an easel with borders, © Denise Ross

Printing 101

Making Enlargements on Wet Paper Always work with printing paper under safelight conditions. (The illustrations were made in room light.) Dip a sheet of enlarging paper in the water—one side, then the other. Make sure the paper is completely wetted, but leave the paper in the water for as little time as necessary for the wetting. Hold the paper by a corner to drain for a few seconds and then place the paper (emulsion side up) on a clean, soft cloth towel that is folded a number of times. Gently run an absolutely clean glass coating rod over the paper, pressing the paper down on the towel just a bit. Wipe down the rod each time to keep it clean. If there is any dried emulsion on the rod, it will scratch the surface of the paper. Center the damp paper on the glass (within your printing guide) and enlarge as you would with dry paper.

Endnotes 1. Adams, W. I. Lincoln, The Photographic Instructor for the Professional and Amateur (New York: Scovill Manufacturing Company, 1888), 9. 2. Adams, Ansel, The Print: Contact Printing and Enlarging (Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1950). 3. Graves, Carson, The Elements of Black-and-White Printing (Boston: Focal Press, 1993).

Figure 9.0 Handmade 120 Film Negative to Enlarged Digital Negative, on Three Salts Contact Printing Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 9

Processing

Figure 9.1 Seepcicles, © Denise Ross

Development of the print or the enlargement involves many more effects than the mere degree of reduction of silver. There are various developing agents, and many of these in various concentrations yield different colors of image on a given paper. Hence the proper selection and application of a print developer are of greatest importance. Time of development, temperature, and the degree of exhaustion of the developer solution have profound effects on the quality of the print. (Adams, 1951)1

I

t is beyond the scope of this book to exhaustively discuss darkroom techniques. Fortunately, from the first days of darkroom work, photographers have written about printing and processing. Ansel Adams wrote what are perhaps the most well-known series of books on photographic technique, but countless other books and magazine articles have been written. They are still being written and that is very encouraging. Additionally, today there are excellent videos and websites. The wealth of knowledge, especially historical knowledge, is invaluable. Because there is so much information about processing readily available, this chapter will hit the basics that relate particularly to handmade paper.

Whether you are learning darkroom techniques from one source or a hundred, keep an important thing always in mind: developing a print can be as simple as four steps. Often, however, it is presented as mind-bogglingly complex—aimed more at aspiring alchemists than at photographers whose primary goal is a beautiful print. I favor the simplest options, with a nod to anything that is of special importance for handmade emulsions. In other words: as simple as possible, but as complex as necessary. However, as the saying goes: the devil is in the details. Your own research and work will be your best guide. The Bibliography lists excellent sources for more information.

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If you are already an old hand in the darkroom, most of the methods you’ve been using are sure to work just fine for handmade paper. Some differences might include processing temperature and handling. If you typically use warm developer: don’t. If you are sometimes careless with print handling: fight the habit. The surface of a wet handmade print isn’t as fragile as tissue paper, but it is softer and more readily damaged than is the case with modern commercial paper, especially if you haven’t added hardener. Once it dries, however, it’s as tough as you could ask for.

Tools and Materials Very few specialized items are necessary. Most of what you’ll need can be found in grocery and hardware stores. Gloves

Wear nitrile or latex gloves. Never put your bare hands in processing solutions. I don’t recommend tongs with handmade paper unless you are very careful, especially if you are working with an unhardened emulsion. If you wash and dry the gloves while you are wearing them (just as you would wash and dry your bare hands), gloves can be reused many times. Never touch a dry sheet of unprocessed paper with damp gloves. Bottles

Amber-colored plastic soda bottles make terrific containers for processing chemistry. They come in a number of sizes, and their caps are made to prevent gas exchange. They are virtually unbreakable, and soft enough to squeeze out air between uses. Quart-size bottles of rubbing alcohol often have excellent flip-up caps. I use them for solutions that I normally measure out into a graduated cylinder. They are perfect for KBr 10% solution. Wine bottles are also excellent. With wine bottles, you have the option of using an airevacuation plug. A tight lid or cap is important for all chemicals, primarily to prevent spills, but keeping

out excess oxygen will increase the working life of most developers. Along that line of thinking, it’s best to store developers in smaller bottles, filled to the top, rather than in one large bottle. Trays

Plastic storage containers are perfect for the darkroom. They are inexpensive. They have tight lids. They stack. Stackable trays with lids are a great space saver. They allow you to do all your work in a very small sink. Even if you have enough sink space for all your trays to be lined up, keep the lids on, especially the fixer trays. This works wonders for keeping darkroom fumes to a minimum. You can label them by writing in permanent marker on their bottoms so that you always know what processing solution is what. Storage containers come in enough different sizes that you can customize your trays to fit different formats, which means you minimize the waste of processing chemistry. Before you use a container, run your fingers around the inside to check for any rough areas. I’ve never had a problem with food storage containers. They’re easier on negatives and prints than actual darkroom trays.

Technique A degree of care during processing any photographic material is always important. It’s only fair to say that this is even more true with handmade emulsions. Commercial printing papers (and film) have a number of hardeners and coatings to protect the surface of the print while it is wet. These aren’t necessary if reasonable care is taken in the darkroom. Also, one of the advantages of handmade paper is being able to get an unhardened surface. A hard print surface isn’t always the best choice for an intended work flow. By and large, it’s probably easier to be careful than it is to worry about making our emulsions bulletproof. Always process with the emulsion side up. Try to handle the paper from the bottom, rather than

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Figure 9.2 (top) The darkroom tray aisle of the grocery store, © Denise Ross Figure 9.3 (bottom) The paper soaking tray aisle, © Denise Ross

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pinching the edges. Don’t process more than one item per tray at a time. Don’t be overly aggressive with your agitation. Bumping a print around in the tray only serves to damage the corners. Keep the processing temperature of all the trays of solution the same and keep that temperature on the cool side (65–68°F/18–20°C). Maintain the same temperature for all the solutions being used during the same session, including wash water. This is easy if you can keep the temperature in the darkroom at 65–68°F/18–20°C. If it’s not possible to keep the temperature of your darkroom cool, you’ll have to work a little harder to keep your processing solutions and wash water cool. Nest the processing trays in a larger tray with a couple of ice cubes. Periodically, throw a few ice cubes in the wash water. Regularly take the temperature of the wash water and each tray.

Develop Development time for paper is different than for film. Film development time is typically 5–10 minutes, but there is a lot of leeway to change the time. Film that is slightly fogged, or too thin, or overexposed can still print well. This isn’t the case with a print. Because the print is the final step in the photographic process, what you see is what you get. We can’t play with pushing and pulling (manipulating exposure and/or development times to change the emulsion response) to the same extent as with film. Try to establish a standard procedure for all your printing, especially the developing step. I’ve always followed the most common recommendation for procedure: Slip the paper into the developer and then pull it back and forth in the solution a couple of times to make sure there are no air bubbles clinging to the surface. Gently rock the tray back and forth, then side to side, for thirty seconds. That’s usually the only period of continuous agitation. Let the paper sit in still developer for 30 seconds and then rock the tray twice. Repeat until the end of the development step.

Continuous gentle agitation for the entire development time can sometimes increase the print contrast a bit. The degree to which this is true varies among paper and developer combinations. Although recommended times vary from developer to developer, paper development time is usually 1.5–3 minutes. Getting the exposure right is key to the right developing time. If the image on the print pops up immediately, or if it looks like the print is fully developed within the first thirty seconds, you gave it too much exposure. If the print is not developed fully by three minutes, you gave it too little exposure. Fortunately, there are options available in the darkroom that aren’t available in the field with a film camera. In the darkroom, we can (and should) make test strips. If you are unfamiliar with the concept, think of a test strip as a histogram for your print. Test strips are one piece of paper with increments of increased exposure. Ideally, it is under-exposed on one end and overexposed on the other. The strip is developed just as you would a print. The first time you work with a new paper, it is highly likely it will take more than one test strip to determine the paper’s general exposure parameters. Give the first strip fairly large increments of difference in exposure time. Because each paper type is different, along with different exposure lights, and different developers, it’s impossible to make exact recommendations. As you get closer, each subsequent test strip will have smaller increments of difference. It will only take a few sessions for you to get to know the paper. When you do, it will only take a test strip or two per print to nail down the correct exposure. See Chapter 8 for more information. Tip: Some developers leave a thin film of developed silver particles on the bottom of the developer tray. Keep your eyes open for this and if necessary pour your developer into a clean tray. The fine silver will make a mess of your prints, especially if they are ever emulsion-side down in the tray.

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Stop I generally use plain water with a splash of white vinegar as my stop bath for prints. An acidic stop bath neutralizes the alkalinity of the development step. Its primary purpose with paper processing is to extend the tray life of the fixer. Don’t make the stop bath too acidic. This can cause bubbles to form on the print surface. Don’t use any acid if your developer contains sodium carbonate.2 An advantage of using plain water, or water with household vinegar as the stop bath, is that you can safely pour it down your drain. This reduces considerably the volume of liquid darkroom waste you generate. If you choose to use a commercial stop bath, reduce the recommended concentration by about a half and change the solution more frequently than recommended. Read the instructions carefully. Be especially aware of aquatic life hazard warnings. Fix With the exception of paper negatives coated on ultra-thin paper, I prefer not to use hardening fixer. I mix up my own hypo: sodium thiosulfate and water. I learned how in my first darkroom lesson, and because it’s wonderfully simple and inexpensive and it’s always worked, I rarely alter my fixing strategy. However, this strategy has always generated controversy. A plain hypo fixer has drawbacks. It doesn’t last long in a tray, especially with a plain water stop bath. Once used, even a little, it shouldn’t be carried over to the next day. Fixing is one of the many issues in photography for which we must each come to our own conclusions. I make plain hypo fixer by the gallon: 32 oz of sodium thiosulfate crystals in a gallon of distilled water. Start with about 3 quarts of very warm water (125°F/52°C). While stirring the water, slowly add the crystals. Stir until they are dissolved and then top off the solution with the water remaining from the gallon (at room temperature).

For prints made with 140 lb paper, I use a divided, two-bath protocol. Prepare two trays of fixer. Fix a print in the first tray for five minutes with constant gentle agitation. After five minutes, move the print to the second tray and agitate for an additional five minutes. For unhardened emulsion on thin paper, reduce the time in each tray to four minutes. For warm-toned prints, add a third tray of fixer to the protocol and leave the print in each for only three minutes. Warm-toned prints are particularly vulnerable to over-fixing or to fixing baths that are nearing exhaustion.3 If you are using a so-called “rapid fixer,” carefully follow the time recommendations for the product. One difference from commercial paper is that it isn’t wise to have more than one print in a tray at a time. Also, I’ve become increasingly conservative with my estimates of how long a given tray of fixer can do its job. For the past year, as I’ve been making batch after batch of paper, rather than using the second tray from one session as the first tray for the next session, I’ve been using fresh fixer for both trays at the start of each session. I throw out both trays after a couple of hours and start fresh. Sodium thiosulfate is not expensive; an under-fixed print is. Beware, however. Over-fixing isn’t good for an image either, especially with warm tone prints.4 Because fix dissolves silver, it can eat away at fine detail, especially in the highlights of a print. It might reasonably be asked what exactly is the definition of “over-fixing.” Unfortunately, there isn’t a short answer. I can only suggest that you read up on the current thinking. There is a lot of excellent information about fixing readily available. A good source is The Darkroom Cookbook.5 It has all the fixer recipes and information you need to get started. Also, every brand of photo chemistry carries at least one variety of fixer. Follow directions and you probably can’t go wrong. A deeper dive is Basic Photographic Materials and Processes, by Nanette Salvaggio.6

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I do keep a bottle of Kodak Kodafix hardening fixer handy. If it happens that a batch of emulsion has frilling or excessive curling problems, and reducing the processing temperature doesn’t help, hardening fixer almost always will. I use it at 1 part in four parts water. Generally, I use it for the first fix bath only. The second bath remains plain hypo.

Hypo-clear Although the term “hypo-clear” is often confused with fixing, it’s actually the opposite. An old name for fix is “hypo.” Knowing that, the term “hypo-clear” makes sense. It’s also called “washing aid,” which makes even more sense. Its purpose is to speed the complete removal of fix during washing. It can conserve both time and water. Credible opinions differ on whether or not hypo-clear is necessary. You don’t have to purchase a commercial wash aid. A 2% solution of sodium sulfite is effective.7 I don’t always use a hypo-clear step. When I do, I first rinse the fix off in a tray of plain water. Wash It’s all too easy to be lax with this step, but take it seriously. Complete washing is vital to print longevity. Fortunately, it doesn’t require running water down a drain for hours. I started in the darkroom in the American Southwest. I learned washing from experienced photographers who had a profound respect for water. A running water wash was anathema. They washed by passive exchange, allowing osmosis in still water to leach out the processing chemicals, rather than relying on continuously running and draining water. I’ve always washed my prints this way. That hasn’t changed with handmade emulsion prints. Line up six trays of cool tap water. The trays only need to be a little larger than the prints. When you finish the fixing steps with the first print (and optionally, the hypo-clear step), put the print in the first tray of water. Each time you finish processing a print, move the prints down the line

into the next tray of water, with a few seconds of gentle agitation with each move. Alternate emulsion side up and emulsion side down. A print will not normally sink to the bottom of a tray but take care with the agitation when a print is emulsion side down. By the time a print is in the sixth tray, the water is essentially clean and so is the print. If you are processing a great number of prints in one session, add a pre-wash tray to your line-up to rinse off excess fixer before a print goes in the first wash tray. Change the water in the pre-wash tray frequently. After every session, empty the trays and wipe them dry with a clean towel. If you decide you must wash with running water, beware of print damage.

Toning See Chapter 10 on toning and adding color, and each recipe chapter. Drying Air Drying

Remove a print from its last wash water tray by sliding your fingers under the print and lifting from the bottom. If a print has enough non-image margin, you can carefully pull it out by one corner. Either way, let the water drain off for a few seconds. Carefully set the print down on a couple of layers of folded clean paper toweling, emulsion side up. Using gentle pressure, pull an impeccably clean glass coating rod over the surface of the print. Do this only once. Move the print, with or without the towel, to a drying screen that’s set up somewhere dust won’t settle on it. Mine is under my coating table. If you allow prints to air dry at room temperature, most will not be badly curled. If your drying area is cool or humid, the drying can take a considerable time, especially if you’ve left the prints on the paper towels. A warm room will speed the process. A warm room doesn’t affect print curling

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Figure 9.4 (top) Removing excess water from a print before drying, © Denise Ross Figure 9.5 (bottom) Drying prints somewhere safe and clean with good air circulation, © Denise Ross

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in the same way that direct heat does (for example, from a hairdryer). Ferrotyping

This is not to be confused with the ferrotype process, more commonly known as tintype. Ferrotyping is a method of giving a print a glossy surface. It is sometimes called “glazing.” Originally the ferrotyping method used metal plates, and later, plastic.8 We’ve got the perfect material today: mylar bags— one more use for ClearBags polyester print bags. Tape a bag that’s larger than your print size to your glass coating table, or to another sheet of heavy glass. Tape it down one side first, then the opposite side, followed by the third and fourth sides. It’s important the bag is pulled taut without ripples, and that it is taped securely to the glass. Pull a print out of its final wash water. Carefully place it in the center of a mylar sheet, emulsion side down. Cover the print with a clean sheet of Yupo synthetic watercolor paper larger than the print. With the heel of one hand, press the top edge of the Yupo down on the glass. You’re only pressing the Yupo, not the print. Pull a squeegee over the Yupo, removing the water between the back of the paper and the Yupo. You need to exert a fair amount of pressure while maintaining a smooth and even pull. This is very similar to preparing paper for wet paper coating. The perfect amount of pressure is hard to describe. You are forcing the wet emulsion into tight contact with the polyester sheet, but at the same time you don’t want to squish the emulsion. Now, change your grip on the Yupo to a side. Pull down from the top of that side. You’ve now exerted pressure in two directions. Slowly peel off the Yupo, being careful not to lift the print. Practice on a few test prints before you ferrotype a good print. Do not touch the print until it’s dry and pulls itself off the ferrotyping surface. The reason that it is so important to tape the polyester sheets taut and tight is that a drying print curls. If the polyester can’t follow the curl, the print falls clean off. Pretty nifty, actually.

This process does not work equally well with all papers. The thinner and smoother the paper, the glossier the surface obtainable. Fabriano Artistico HP, 90 lb and Arches HP, 90 lb both work brilliantly. However, heavier and more textured papers resist the process, especially if you’ve hardened the emulsion. Most prints will be perfectly glossy, but with some prints there may be tiny flecks of non-glossy paper in the low areas of the texture. You have to hold the physical print up to a light and tilt it back and forth to see the tiny dull patches. Whether or not this detracts from the print probably depends on the print (Figure 9.9). If you ferrotype a print, it necessarily becomes the last processing step. The print cannot be easily spotted because wetting an area on the print removes the gloss. Whether or not you want a glossy surface for your final print, a ferrotyped surface scans truer to the actual appearance of a print. It’s hard to scan, or photograph, non-ferrotyped prints so that the resulting reproduction does justice to the process. Light bounces off the emulsion-covered hills and valleys of the paper. The dark areas especially appear as though they have light speckles, rather than the velvety blacks of the actual print.

Flattening Back in the day, a dry mount press was part of the standard darkroom arsenal. Even then, they were expensive and took up a lot of real estate in a studio. When mine finally gives out, I don’t think I’ll replace it. There’s a much less expensive alternative. You need a clothes iron, 2-ply mat board or Bristol board, a sheet of thick glass larger than your prints, and something heavy. Heat one of the mat boards with the iron (no steam). Place the print in the center of the mat board. Put the second mat board on the print and iron that. Put the glass on top of the assembly, and then a heavy book (or similar) on the glass. You can stack as many assemblies as you’d like under the glass. Leave the stack undisturbed for several hours.

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Figure 9.6 (top) Ferrotyping on mylar-covered glass, © Denise Ross Figure 9.7 (bottom) Drying ferrotyped prints, © Denise Ross

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Figure 9.8 (left) Crab Walk, © Denise Ross Figure 9.9 (right) 100% detail of ferrotyped print, Crab Walk, © Denise Ross

Whether you are using a dry mount press or a clothes iron, you don’t want to get a print too hot. My dry mount press is set at 180°F. Warmth with pressure is the key.

Spotting Spotting prints is the sock-darning part of the photographic process. No matter how often and well you clean negatives, there will be some dust, and this causes white spots on the prints that have to be filled in by minute daubing. Edward was extremely careful in his darkroom, but it was hardly an archival environment. Particles also got on negatives in the field, particularly in desert winds, as we pointed out in ‘What is a Purist?’ No photographer could avoid the ‘manipulation’ of spotting . . . When Edward got through with a print, you’d be doing well to find two or three of the thirty or so spots he had filled. (Wilson, 1998)9 I don’t know how many people still darn socks, but photographers still spot, and good spotting requires good brushes. Excellent quality, teeny, tiny watercolor brushes are worth their weight in chocolate. A cheap brush will be a constant frustration that will make you hate spotting. You might have to buy and try more

than one brush to find what works best for you. Fortunately, small brushes, even the best brands, are much less expensive than big brushes. My favorite brush is a #785 Robert Simmons white (synthetic) Sable, 8/0. Treat your brushes well and they will last a lifetime. Don’t let dyes dry on a brush. Rinse them with clean water before you set them down, even for a short time. At the end of a spotting session use clean water and mild soap to clean them. Make sure to roll or pinch the brush hairs into a point. Never point them with your mouth. Let them dry completely before storing them. If you lose the plastic tip protector that hopefully came with your brush, a plastic soda straw is a good substitute. It’s reassuring that there are still so many options for spotting and retouching prints. I’ve always used Marshall’s dyes, but I’ve tested all the different brands I could find and they all seem to work just fine. The challenge isn’t getting the materials, but rather learning how to use them. Fortunately, we have a great many test prints and failures to practice on! Practicing is the only real way to learn spotting. However, a couple of tricks are handy. A small glass or porcelain plate, either clear or white, is probably the easiest surface to use for mixing dyes. You don’t need to mix much. If you are just spotting a print or two, you only need to

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Figure 9.10 (top) The many varieties of available spotting dyes, © Denise Ross Figure 9.11 (bottom) Color wheel and dye play, © Denise Ross

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touch the end of the bottle dropper to the plate. A full drop will be too much. Dilute the dyes with distilled water. Work with as dry a brush as possible. Always lightly dab the point of your brush on a clean paper towel before you touch the print with a new load of dye. Emulsion lightens and subtly changes color when it gets wet. You may not be matching a color as closely as you hope if you let an area get too wet. If an area does get too wet, it’s best to let it dry and then come back to it. Build up color density slowly and then stop short of a “perfect” match. A slightly lighter spotting job disappears; slightly darker sticks out like a sore thumb. When you think you are getting close, it’s sometimes helpful to walk the print around the house and examine it under different lights. It may not be obvious at first, but a “black and white” print actually has a color. Very few prints are an absolutely neutral grayscale. Emulsion tones can range from blue-black to reddish brown. This is the reason that even though a bottle may say “warm tone” or “cool tone,” you will be doing some color mixing and matching. If you’ve never spotted or retouched, spend a couple of hours with your new dyes and play with the colors. Understanding a color wheel comes in handy. In theory, colors opposite each other on the wheel will create gray if they are mixed in equal proportions, but what we really use that information for is color correction. If you spot a print and then detect a blue-green cast to the area, you can come back in with a very dilute wash of red or magenta. If the unwanted color is purplish, you give it a

wash of yellow. If you get things right, the color cast will disappear. Be aware, however, that you are still adding density. This is another reason to stop short of exactly matching the print density. It gives you a little wiggle room. If you do end up with too much density on a spot, you can remove some of it. Place your print on a flat surface. Put a drop of clean distilled water on the spot you want to lighten. Wait a couple of seconds and then blot the water with a square of white tissue paper. “Tissue paper” is an ambiguous term. I don’t mean the box of tissues we keep around for blowing our noses, rather the type used to wrap a present or a print. It is absorbent without leaving behind fibers. You can repeat the wetting and blotting steps a number of times as long as you are gentle with the print. Never scrub a spot. Allow the print to dry completely before you re-spot the area. Endnotes 1. Adams, Ansel, The Print: Contact Printing and Enlarging (Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1950), 45. 2. The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography, desk edn, s. v. “Developing Prints” (London and New York: Focal Press), 1960. 3. Salvaggio, Nanette, Basic Photographic Materials and Processes (3rd edn), Leslie Stroebel and Richard Zakia, editors (New York: Elsevier/Focal Press, 2009), 404. 4. Ibid. 5. Anchell, Steve, The Darkroom Cookbook (3rd edn) (New York: Elsevier/Focal Press, 2008). 6. Salvaggio, Basic Photographic Materials. 7. Ibid, 404. 8. “Ferrotyping,” Focal Encyclopedia of Photography. 9. Wilson, Charis and Wendy Mader, Through Another Lens— My Years with Edward Weston (New York: North Point Press, 1998), 199–200.

Figure 10.0 Pinhole Camera, Handmade Film, Contact Print, on Chlorobromide Paper, Handcolored, © Denise Ross

Chapter 10

Toning and Other Ways to Add Color

Figure 10.1 Cascadia Head #3, gold-toned and selenium toned, © Denise Ross

Every photographer tones his prints—whether he knows it or not.

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oning is almost the definition of “rabbit hole.” As Ira B. Current so insightfully pointed out, the tone of a print does not require a “toning” step. Each step in the print-making chain of decisions influences print color. There is a wealth of creative color control available from different developers combined with the original choice of paper type. The most commonly known and used dedicated toners are selenium and gold, but there are almost countless others. (On my bucket list is to spend half a year going through Tim Rudman’s book, The Photographer’s Toning Book—The Definitive Guide.)2 In addition, handmade emulsion prints are perfect substrates for either hand coloring or gum printing.

(Current, 1949)1

To be clear, “toning” is an optional step. It is done to either increase the archival life of a print, or to change the color. It can do both. With my personal work, I’ve usually limited myself to selenium and gold because they are beautiful. It’s a bonus that they are both considered archival toners. As with so much of photography, toning is as much art as science. Print color is different under different lights. If your house is like mine, you have a dozen different types of lighting. There are the older incandescent bulbs, maybe a few “curly” fluorescent bulbs, and various color temperatures of LED lighting. Walk a print around your house and view it by each light. Take the print outside, in the sun and

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in the shade. If you know the lighting conditions where a particular print will be viewed by others, you’re lucky. Usually, it’s a guess. Most experienced photographers recommend “daylight” temperature light—not too bright, not too dim—as the best compromise. It’s hard to argue with that, but you are the artist. Pick a light you like and judge your prints by that light. Always do your toning by the same light. Take good notes. It’s not only the concentration of the toner and the timing that are important. Record also the paper and the developer you use. It’s almost impossible to judge color change while the toning is going on. And, when the print is dry, it’s slightly different from when it’s wet. A lot of paper (and time!) can be wasted by a haphazard approach to toning. When we don’t pull our sheets of paper out of a box of a hundred, it’s nice to minimize waste. I recommend taking a few hours to make a master toning “cheat sheet” for one combination of emulsion, paper, and developer. First, make several test prints, as nearly identical as possible, from either a step tablet, or a negative that is representative of your usual printing. A good place to start is with a solution of 10% selenium toner. Following the instructions that come with the toner, tone for one, three, five, and ten minutes. Perhaps repeat with higher and/or lower concentrations. Wash and dry the prints and arrange them in a way that makes them meaningful information to you. Your toning from that point on will be much more consistent. Keep this information. You’ll refer to it often. After you’ve toned a print, and washed and dried and flattened it, hang it under your favorite viewing light. (My judging gallery is my refrigerator door.) Live with the print for a few days, or a few weeks. Do you still like the color? Too much? Not enough? Is the print dark enough, or maybe too dark? One of the real perks and joys of working with handmade emulsion paper is that the responses of our materials to both developers and toners is much more in line with the old literature.

A disadvantage of modern, commercial papers (and films) is that they are so excellent— “excellent” in the sense that they are foolproof. It’s hard to screw things up. However, the flipside is that it’s equally difficult to creatively manipulate the materials with developers and toners. They resist. They’re something akin to auto-correct. No matter how creative you want to be with a word, the autocorrect bot wants to override your choice. If you’re typing a report, this might be a good thing. If you are trying to write poetry? Maybe not so much. With handmade photographic materials, we have much more control. In addition to Tim Rudman’s book, and The Darkroom Cookbook, by Steve Anchell,3 Photographers’ Formulary makes a multitude of toner mixes, each with excellent instructions. I highly recommend starting with a kit. If you decide you love a particular toner, and then you decide that buying the ingredients in bulk would be less expensive than the kit, the option is always open. I’ve only used Nelson gold toner from a Formulary kit because the pre-weighed little packets of chemicals are just too convenient to pass up. Each individual emulsion recipe in this book has toning information as it relates to that specific emulsion. The colors seen in any book are reproductions of reality, of course, and can only be close approximations. The best judge of whether or not a toning process and color appeals to you is to try it. If it doesn’t work, try it again. And probably again. There are pitfalls and caveats with toning any paper, and probably more so with handmade paper. Here’s one example: I was very happy with the blue gold toning I was doing with Three Salts paper (Chapter 14). I was getting a classic response. I wouldn’t have known about potential problems if I hadn’t decided to make a few prints from a new batch of paper for a show submission. Before, I’d always toned prints that had been thoroughly washed and then dried before re-wetting for toning. This time, I went straight from the final wash tray to the toner. The emulsion melted off the paper

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right before my eyes. “Dismay” is putting it mildly. I made new prints, dried them, and tried again. The emulsion melted a little slower. I remade the toner with half the ammonium thiocyanate of the

original recipe. This time it worked, although the toning was slower. Slower toning I can live with. I found a work-around, but the questions are still hanging out there. The most obvious (although

Figure 10.2 Sample book of toners, developers, and papers, © Denise Ross

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not necessarily correct!) observation is that the emulsion gets progressively harder with time. How much time? Is there something different that could be done with the basic emulsion recipe? With the toner recipe? Perhaps with the processing? How far we chase questions depends on how badly we want to catch the rabbit. Although general predictions can be made about the response of a paper to a toner, the exact colors will be different—a lot or a little—with different combinations of paper, emulsion, and developer. What is important is that any specific combination be consistent. That’s a good reason to build a sample book of toners, along with other creative variables.

Selenium toning Selenium is probably THE classic toner. It imparts most papers with the color so admired by Ansel Adams and other photographers of his era. Selenium improves the archival life of a print, even when the color shift is almost imperceptible. Kodak Rapid selenium toner (or a similar liquid concentrate) is the only way to go for selenium toning. Selenium powder is extremely toxic and should be handled only with rigorous safety protocols. It’s a risk and bother I’m happy to leave to the professionals. However, once selenium is in a working solution, it’s relatively safe. As with all liquids in a darkroom: wipe up spills immediately and don’t leave any solution to dry out in a tray. Figure 10.3 (left panel) is an untoned chlorobromide emulsion, developed to be as neutral in color as possible. Figure 10.3 (right panel) is the identical print, except that it has been toned with 20% balanced alkali for two minutes, followed by five minutes in 10% selenium. It is heading toward a warm red, rather than toward the plummy brown more common without the balanced alkali step (Figure 10.4). Gold Toning Gold toners can impart cool, neutral, or warm tones, depending on the toner formula and on the

paper/developer combination. The only toner I make from scratch is blue gold toner, which is simply water, 1% gold chloride, and ammonium thiocyanate.

Blue Gold Toner Distilled water (125°F/52°C) ........... 375 ml Ammonium thiocyanate .................... 53 g Gold chloride (1% solution) ............. 30 ml Water to bring the total solution volume to 500 ml Dissolve the ammonium thiocyanate completely in the water. Stir in the gold chloride. Add enough additional distilled water to bring the total volume to 500 ml. Store in an amber bottle or out of prolonged direct light. Use at room temperature. A print may need to soak in the toner for up to twenty minutes to achieve full toning, and longer if the toner is half strength. The toner can be reused until it stops toning. Store used toner in a separate bottle. Replenish with unused toner. Blue gold doesn’t impart a bright blue on most prints, but its subtlety is lovely with the right image. For a milder-acting toner, reduce the ammonium thiocyanate by half to 26 g.

Gold chloride solution is easy to make. Purchase 1.0 g of gold chloride crystals. With an eyedropper, add a little room temperature distilled water to the small bottle the gold chloride comes in. Replace the bottle cap and gently shake. Remove the cap, being careful not to spill any liquid. Carefully pour the gold water into a 100 ml bottle. Repeat this until the wash water is completely clear. Rinse the inside of the bottle cap if necessary. It’s important to catch every last bit of gold. Add enough additional water to the 100 ml bottle to bring the

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Figure 10.3 (top) Untoned and selenium-toned chlorobromide prints, © Denise Ross Figure 10.4 (bottom) Selenium-toned chlorobromide print, © Denise Ross

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Figure Figure Figure Figure

10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8

(upper left) Untoned Three Salts (Chapter 16) print, developed in TLF developer (Chapter 11), © Denise Ross (upper right) Blue gold-toned Three Salts print, © Denise Ross (lower left) Three Salts Plus Copper Chloride print, developed in D23-Plus (Chapter 11), untoned, © Denise Ross (lower right) Three Salts Plus Copper Chloride print, developed in D23-Plus, toned in blue gold, © Denise Ross

total volume of solution to 100 ml. Do be careful not to get any gold chloride on your skin. It will stain and it will feel like a burn. Because blue gold toner is so easy to make and use (discounting the whole melting emulsion experience!), and because its blue-gray tone rounds out a lot of creative potential, I seldom use other gold toners. Blue gold shows best on chlorobromide emulsions, especially warm tone papers. Warm tone developers further enhance the color.

If the paper is inherently warm-toned, and then developed to be even warmer, the color of the lighter values is more blue than blue-gray, although there is some tone overlap in the mid-tones. True split toning with blue gold and selenium is very effective, especially if the print is a warmtoned emulsion, developed to be more or less neutral (Figure 10.9). Figure 10.10 (left panel) is a chlorobromide emulsion with Kodak GP-1 Gold Protective

Toning and Other Ways to Add Color 123

Solution. The Photographers’ Formulary sells it under their name. It ever-so-slightly cools the natural emulsion color, which in this case was neutral. Figure 10.10 (right panel) is the same chlorobromide emulsion in Nelson (or Nelson’s) gold toner. I’ve never taken Nelson’s to color extremes; only as far as to warm and brighten a print.

Silvergum A black and white emulsion print is a perfect “K-layer” for gum printing. Emulsion hardened with glyoxal is as tough as nails. There are countless excellent systems for making separation negatives. There’s no special secret for making those that work “best” with silver gelatin paper.

If any photographic printing process is fully open to creative license, that would be gum printing. Personal taste and interpretations abound. The workflow can be one color layer over the black and white print, or a faithful color representation in 3-color or 5-color. I usually prefer 5-color: a cyan layer and a red layer in addition to yellow, blue, and magenta. The two extra layers add depth and punch to a print, and as much as I usually prefer gentle images, I like my gums with punch! I am very fond of Daniel Smith watercolors. There are a number of excellent gum printing instruction books. If you only buy one, I highly recommend Christina Z. Anderson’s book, Gum Printing.4

Figure 10.9 (top) Three Salts print, developed in TLF developer, toned first in blue gold, followed by 10% selenium, © Denise Ross Figure 10.10 (bottom) Two takes on gold toning, © Denise Ross

Figure 10.11 Chlorobromide “K-layer” black and white print, © Denise Ross

Figure 10.12 (upper left) K-layer plus Yellow (Hansa medium, Hansa deep, and Naples yellow), © Denise Ross Figure 10.13 (upper right) K + Y + Blue (Verditer Blue), © Denise Ross Figure 10.14 (lower left) Bics on the Beach, K + Y + B + Magenta (Rhodonite Genuine and Quinacridone Rose), © Denise Ross Figure 10.15 (lower right) Bics on the Beach, K + Y + B + M + Cyan (Verditer Blue and Hansa Yellow Light) + Red (Quinacridone Red), © Denise Ross

Figure 10.16 (left) Three Graces, 3-color silvergum print, © Denise Ross Figure 10.17 (right) Three Graces, 5-color silvergum print, © Denise Ross

Figure 10.18 A Tulip Amongst Bluebells, 5-color silvergum print, © Denise Ross

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Figure 10.19 (left) Crab Walk, colored pencil hand-coloring, © Denise Ross Figure 10.20 (right) Detail of Figure 10.19, © Denise Ross

Figure 10.21 (left) Crab Walk, hand-colored with photo oils, © Denise Ross Figure 10.22 (right) Detail of Figure 10.21, © Denise Ross

Hand-Coloring with Colored Pencils The tooth of emulsion-covered watercolor paper, even HP texture, grabs and holds colored pencil identically to the type of paper that was once manufactured for that purpose. The color lies on the tops of the ridges, so the color is not uniformly even. However, at normal viewing distance from a print, the colors visually merge, much as with the impressionistic painting technique of pointillism.

Hand-Coloring with Photo Oils I have very little practice with photo oils. In all honesty, I’ve never been a fan of the “doing” part of the process. I can’t seem to not make a mess, though I must admit, I had fun digging out my ancient Marshall’s oils and playing with the crab. The paper itself behaved beautifully. In the hands of someone who knows what to do, photo oils would have a lot of potential.

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Figure 10.23 (left) Beatrice Meets a Flat Cat, photo dyes on a Three Salts print, © Denise Ross Figure 10.24 (right) Detail of Figure 10.23, © Denise Ross

Hand-Coloring with Photo Dyes Handmade paper is made for photo dyes. Without the hard supercoat added to most modern commercial photographic papers, the dyes don’t ride on top of the print and spread before they can penetrate the emulsion. The control over the process warms the heart of this hand-coloring enthusiast. I’m a big fan of Marshall’s Photo Retouch Colors.

Endnotes 1. Current, Ira B, The Complete Photographer—An Encyclopedia of Photography. s. v. “Toning.” (New York: National Educational Alliance, 1949). 2. Rudman, Tim, The Photographer’s Toning Book—The Definitive Guide (New York: Amphoto Books/Watson–Guptill Publications, 2003). 3. Anchell, Steve, The Darkroom Cookbook (3rd edn) (New York: Focal Press, Elsevier, 2008). 4. Anderson, Christina Z., Gum Printing (New York: Routledge, 2017).

SECTION TWO

The Recipes

T

he long, rich history of silver gelatin emulsions has given us a wealth of paper options.

The five types of basic papers are chloride, slow chlorobromide, fast (enlarging speed) chlorobromide, bromide, and POP. These papers can all be made in a home darkroom with a few ingredients and minimal equipment. In addition, we have the option of coating on a handmade baryta surface. More complex, and therefore much harder for the home darkroom, are direct positive papers, panchromatic papers, and variable contrast papers. The major difficulty with making these types of specialized papers is not emulsion making techniques, but rather accessing the specialized chemical sensitizers required. For example, making orthochromatic film is very straightforward, and the required erythrosin easy to purchase. However, it dyes the emulsion

light pink. This isn’t an issue with film, but it would be in a paper. Making variable contrast paper requires a colorless sensitizer, and that eludes me. I have high hopes that someone else will tackle and conquer the challenge. Developer recipes can be equally basic, and the full range required to work with handmade papers are described in Chapter 11. Finally, paper negatives can be viewed as a bridge between paper making and negative making (film or dry plate). They are also a beautiful tool in their own right.

Reading the Recipes The recipe chapters are arranged to be read sequentially, even if you are only interested in one particular type of emulsion. There is necessarily some redundancy, but each chapter contains general emulsion making information.

Figure 11.0 35mm Film Negative to Enlarged Digital Negative, on Three Salts Contact Printing Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 11

Developers

Figure 11.1 Ansco Formulas, 1946 [artist unknown]

Step into my darkroom and we’ll see what develops.

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ome of the illustrations aside, there is a wealth of knowledge in the old pamphlets and booklets that used to be sold for pennies in every corner camera and darkroom store. Steve Anchell has done a terrific job hunting them all down and pulling their information into one book,1

but there’s a lot to learn from the original sources. Ansco, Kodak, Agfa/Ansco, Dupont Defender, and others published various guides. Most are not much more expensive today than when they were first sold. I’ve had excellent luck finding several at abebooks.com and camerabooks.com.

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Although you don’t have to know anything about photo chemistry to use a developer, or even to mix one up from a recipe, understanding a few basics is never a bad idea. Almost any book on photographic processes will do the trick. If nothing else, Wikipedia has some surprisingly solid information. If you are new to darkroom work, it may seem like there is an awful lot to learn, but don’t let yourself feel overwhelmed. All in good time. Until then, a recipe is just a recipe. If you don’t want to mix your own developers, I recommend Kodak HC110, a liquid concentrate. All developers are not created equal. There are several developers that work well with a specific recipe, but HC110 is the only commercial developer I’ve used that seems to play well with all. I’ve had terrible results with several, including every PQ (Phenidone and hydroquinone) developer I’ve tried. Mix the ingredients in the order written. Completely dissolve each ingredient before adding the next. With the exception of hydroquinone, none of the ingredients are especially hazardous, but always use caution to avoid dust and spills. Avoid breathing the dust. Avoid skin contact. For some people, metol can cause dermatitis after prolonged skin contact. Wearing latex or nitrile gloves eliminates the risk. Store all developers in airtight containers. You can purchase either plastic or glass storage bottles from photographic supply companies. Amber glass bottles are classic and beautiful. However, repurposed bottles work just fine. Brown plastic hydrogen peroxide bottles are excellent. I also like diet root beer bottles (probably because I always seem to have too many of them). Soda bottles do have an advantage over more rigid bottles. The air can be squeezed out before capping.

Metol-Based Developers

D23-Plus Distilled water at 125°F/52°C ......... 750 ml Metol ....................................................... 5 g Sodium sulfite ....................................... 80 g 10% solution of KBr (potassium bromide) in water .......................... 10 ml Water to make 1.0 liter total volume

TLF All-Purpose Developer Distilled water at 125°F/52°C ......... 750 ml Metol ....................................................... 3 g Sodium sulfite ....................................... 80 g Borax ................................................... 2.5 g 10% solution of KBr (potassium bromide) in water .......................... 10 ml Water to make 1.0 liter total volume You can bump up the speed and contrast by adding a little 10% sodium carbonate to the tray of developer. Increasing exposure time and adding extra 10% KBr warms the tone of a print.

TLF Extra Oomph Developer (TLF-X, for short) Distilled water at 125°F/52°C ......... 750 ml Metol ....................................................... 6 g Sodium sulfite ....................................... 80 g Borax ....................................................... 6 g 10% solution of KBr (potassium bromide) in water .......................... 10 ml Water to make 1.0 liter total volume.

Developers

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Ansco 120 Soft-Working Paper Developer

Ansco 135 Warm-Tone Paper Developer

This is a soft-working developer, primarily intended for portrait work where soft gradation is required.2

Distilled water at 125°F/52°C ......... 750 ml Metol .....................................................1.6 g Sodium sulfite ....................................... 24 g Hydroquinone ..................................... 6.6 g Sodium carbonate .............................. 24 g Potassium bromide ............................ 2.8 g Water to make 1.0 liter total volume

Distilled water at 125°F/52°C ......... 750 ml Metol .................................................. 12.3 g Sodium sulfite ....................................... 36 g Sodium carbonate .............................. 36 g Potassium bromide ............................ 1.8 g Water to make 1.0 liter total volume For use, dilute 1 part stock solution with 2 parts water. Use with a plain water stop bath and non-acidic fix. Normal developing time, 11⁄2 to 3 minutes at 68°F/20°C.

Ansco 125 Paper and Film Developer Distilled water at 125°F/52°C ......... 750 ml Metol ....................................................... 3 g Sodium sulfite ....................................... 44 g Hydroquinone ...................................... 12 g Sodium carbonate .............................. 65 g Potassium bromide ............................... 2 g Water to make 1.0 liter total volume Paper development: Dilute 1 part stock solution with 2 parts water. Develop 1 to 2 minutes at 68°F/20°C. For softer and slower development dilute 1 to 4, and develop 11⁄2 to 3 minutes at 68°F/20°C. For greater brilliance, shorten the exposure slightly and lengthen the developing time. For greater softness, lengthen the exposure slightly and shorten the developing time.3

For use, dilute 1 part stock solution with 1 part water. A properly exposed print will be fully developed at 68°F/20°C in about 11⁄2 to 2 minutes. Complete development may be expected to take slightly longer with rough-surfaced papers than with semi-glossy or lustersurfaced papers. For greater softness, dilute the bath with water up to equal quantities of developer and water. To increase the warmth, add bromide up to double the amount in the formula. The quantity of bromide specified in the formula, however, assured rich, warm, well-balanced tones.4

Metol/Hydroquinone (MQ) Developers MQ developers have more kick than metol alone. They have their place, but use extra care handling hydroquinone. It’s toxic. Read and follow its material safety data sheet (MSDS). A recipe for plain hypo fixer is on page 107. A recipe for hypo-clear is on page 108. There are toner recipes in Chapter 10. Endnotes 1. Anchell, Steve, The Darkroom Cookbook (3rd edn) (New York: Focal Press/Elsevier, 2008). 2. Ansco Formulas for Black and White Photography (Binghamton, NY: Ansco, 1946), 20. 3. Ibid., 22. 4. Ibid., 21.

Figure 12.0 Contact Print, Chlorobromide Emulsion, on Handmade Baryta Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 12

Baryta Coating Surface

P

re-coating lightweight HP watercolor paper before coating with emulsion is a way to find the semi-gloss sweet spot between glossy smooth and textured. A coating of barium sulfate (“baryta”) and gelatin, coated and dried before the emulsion itself is coated, does the same thing the baryta does with commercial silver gelatin paper and art quality inkjet printer paper. It protects the emulsion from any chemical contaminants in the base paper, and it creates a smoother and less permeable coating surface. Barium sulfate isn’t always easy to source. To my knowledge, the two brands currently available are Rublev Barite, and Spectrum Barium Sulfate. For a baryta paper to become ultra-smooth and permanently glossy, it must be calendered. Calendering paper involves heavy industrial machinery with stainless steel rollers that apply an enormous amount of pressure to the surface of the paper.1 Calendering produces a surface that stays glossy, even after coating with emulsion and processing. Emulsion coated on handmade baryta-coated paper takes on a perfect gloss if it is ferrotyped (Chapter 9). However, the ferrotyped glossiness is not resistant to wetting. Because of this, ferrotyping is necessarily the last processing step. Because the baryta coating adds considerable weight to a paper, it is important to start with a thinner paper. The best, by far, that I’ve tried is Rives BFK, 115 gsm. 115 gsm only comes in a cream color, but that’s fine. The paper ends up

very white. The cream color is actually an advantage. It’s very easy to see flaws in the baryta coating. My baryta making set-up is a tall Luminex glass, fitted with its plastic lid. Holes are punched for an Oster mixer balloon whip attachment and a funnel. The lid is important. When the operation gets going, it’s messy! After the baryta paper is dry, it is handled like uncoated watercolor paper, coated with a wet paper technique. Don’t cut off the selvages from the baryta coating. Place the guide bars for emulsion coating in the same position they were for the baryta coating.

Figure 12.1 Baryta coating on Rives BFK, 115 gsm, © Denise Ross

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Figure 12.2 (top) Contact print with film and chlorobromide emulsion on baryta paper, © Denise Ross Figure 12.3 (bottom) Detail of Figure 12.2, © Denise Ross

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Figure 12.4 (left) Contact print with silver gelatin dry plate and chlorobromide emulsion on baryta paper, © Denise Ross Figure 12.5 (right) Detail of Figure 12.4, © Denise Ross

Figure 12.6 Baryta mixing tools and two brands of barium sulfate, © Denise Ross

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Recipe: Baryta Paper Ingredients: Barium sulfate, photographic gelatin, distilled water, Everclear (unadulterated ethanol), glycerin, glyoxal (40%) Tools: Tall Luminex glass with lid (or similar), Oster hand mixer (or similar), balloon whip attachment for the mixer, funnel, “gold mesh” coffee filter, water bath to hold Luminex glass, 400 ml beaker, rubber scraper, plastic spoon, plastic wrap, rubber band, Rives BFK (115 gsm) paper, coating set-up The recipe can be doubled. Baryta Paste Barium sulfate ...................................... 67 g Distilled water (warm) ....................... 52 ml Place the dry barium sulfate in a tall Luminex glass, fitted with a funnel and a mixer whip. With the mixer running at slowest speed, slowly add the warm water through the funnel. Stop and scrape down the sides of the glass. Mix again. Scrape as much as possible down to the bottom of the glass. Rest the mixture while the gelatin is blooming. In the Luminex glass, mix together Gelatin .................................................... 6 g Distilled water (cool) ......................... 65 ml Bloom the gelatin at least an hour. Melt the bloomed gelatin in a 144–150°F/60–65°C water bath. When the melted gelatin reaches the temperature of the water bath, slowly add and mix the melted gelatin into the Baryta Paste in the same way as the water was added. Variation: If the brand of “Everclear” you are using is less than 95% alcohol by volume (190 proof), or if you are using vodka, reduce the water equally between the baryta paste and the gelatin solution, and increase “Everclear” or vodka to maintain the water to gelatin balance of the recipe as written, along with the amount ethanol. If math isn’t your strong suite, experiment. Consistency between recipes is more important than exact quantities. Remove the mixer assembly, and with a plastic spoon, gently and thoroughly stir in Everclear .............................................. 5 ml Strain the mixture through the coffee filter into a 400 ml beaker (or similar). Tip: stirring the mixture while it’s going through the filter mesh is helpful. Cover the beaker with plastic wrap, secured with a rubber band. Refrigerate until set, or up to a week. Place the cold baryta gelatin in an unheated water bath. Heat and melt slowly, without stirring, until the baryta gelatin reaches 113°F/45°C. While the baryta is melting, prepare the paper for wet-paper coating.

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When the baryta gelatin reaches 113°F/45°C, add the remaining ingredients. Keep the mixture in the water bath at 113°F/45°C for the remaining additions. With a clean plastic spoon for stirring, slowly and very gently, add in the order listed. Do not incorporate air into the mixture. Everclear .............................................. 5 ml Glycerin ................................................ 5 ml Everclear .............................................. 5 ml Glyoxal .......................................... 12 drops Tip: A 5 ml graduated cylinder is the right tool to measure out glycerin. Start with 6 ml because about 1 ml will cling to the inside of the graduate after pouring out the freeflowing glycerin. The recipe coats approximately 575 square inches of paper. Coat the paper using the wet-paper technique (Chapter 6). Pay attention to the grain of the paper. Only 22″ × 30″ sheets of Rives BFK, 115 gsm, are long grain. The other sizes are short grain. After the coating has set, hang it to dry. Use wood drying strips on both the top and bottom of a sheet.

If desired, buff the dry paper to remove any tiny bits of roughness. Tape the paper to a smooth flat surface along its edges. With a clean, soft towel, or a piece of faux sheepskin fabric, buff the paper surface with firm, yet gentle, circular motions. The buffing dust travels, so do this where you don’t care about dust. Wear a dust mask.

Endnote 1. Whittenberg, L. E., The Complete Photographer—An Encyclopedia of Photography. s. v. “Baryta Coating for Papers” (New York: National Educational Alliance, 1949).

Figure 13.0 Handmade 120 Film Negative to Enlarged Digital Negative, on Potassium Chloride ("Gaslight") Printing Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 13

Potassium Chloride (KCl) “Gaslight” Contact Printing Paper

Figure 13.1 Peonies, © Denise Ross

But there is a wide field in very slow silver chloride emulsions which can be made with the simplest equipment sufficiently well for everyday use on a small scale. A whole range of delightful monochrome prints in sepias, greens, blues, etc., can be obtained with this homemade paper. (Baker, 1943)1

T

his recipe is my adaptation of A Homemade Chloride Emulsion, written by T. Thorne Baker for the magazine American Photography, March 1943. When I first read Baker’s description of the artistic potential of such a simple recipe, I knew I was going to become an emulsion maker. There

are six ingredients in the emulsion: distilled water, photographic gelatin, potassium chloride, silver nitrate, ethanol/Everclear, and Kodak Photo-Flo 200. Adding the hardener glyoxal is optional. The recipe can be made by hand or with a magnetic stirring hot plate. It makes enough emulsion to

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coat approximately 750 square inches of paper. Counting selvage, this requires the equivalent of two sheets of 22″ × 30″ watercolor paper. When this recipe was the latest thing in modern photography, very few people had electricity. Few people besides studio photographers had need of a darkroom. Gelatin dry plates were just beginning to replace collodion wet plates. Until the discovery of silver gelatin paper, prints were made primarily with albumen paper. Albumen paper is very slow and requires bright UV light to print, and at the time, UV light was only available from the sun. The height of luxury was having a skylight studio for indoor print making. When photographers began to be able to print by indoor gaslight, things changed fast; just as fast as the recent switch from film-based photography to digital. What all this means for us today is that “gaslight” paper is still the ideal for photographers with limited space to work, or to store tools and materials—perfect for photographers who want to keep things simple and inexpensive. Temporary space can work very well. As with other historical photographic processes, silver chloride contact

printing paper is ideally suited for printing with digital negatives. Review the darkroom and coating sections of this book, along with the tools and materials sections. Do some shopping (don’t forget to check out thrift stores!). Do some building. Put together as simple a situation as you can, and then make your first emulsion. From there, fine-tune your space and your requirements. Print with your paper. Make more paper. Take notes. Make lots of paper! There is no way for you to fail, and even the stumbles and bumbles will be fun. Starting from the dry ingredients, the paper can be made in less than two hours, plus drying time. This isn’t all active work time. Part of the time spent making any emulsion is waiting, much as you would wait for bread to rise before baking. As simple as it is, a chloride paper is beautiful. It is very similar to Azo paper, discontinued years ago to the great lament of its many fans. One of my favorite eBay treasures is a glass plate negative from 1934. It was carefully sleeved with a thin strip of a print made from the plate. The strip is simply labeled “Azo” on the back. There were many variations of Azo in 1934, and

Figure 13.2 (left) Original Azo paper strip from an antique 4 × 5 (inches) dry plate negative; 1934, unknown subject and photographer; compared with handmade paper made from same negative, © Denise Ross Figure 13.3 (right) Detail from Figure 13.2, © Denise Ross

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I don’t know which it is. Nor do I know the developer, or if the print was toned. It may have been a hastily processed test strip that has yellowed with age. What I do know is that except for color it is almost indistinguishable from KCl gaslight paper. Figure 13.2 is a scan of my print from the plate with the original 1934 strip. Figure 13.3 is a crop from that scan. The original print was a singleweight glossy paper. My print is on bright white Arches HP, 90 lb paper, developed in TLF AllPurpose developer (Chapter 11).

Chloride Emulsion Characteristics A chloride emulsion is a contrasty emulsion. It has a narrow dynamic range, also referred to as the brightness range, the contrast range, or the total density range, depending on the author and what precisely is being considered part of the range. Regardless the exact vocabulary used, it means there are fewer steps between the deepest black and the lightest highlights than with emulsions made with a combination of chloride and bromide, or only bromide. This makes the emulsion perfect for flat (low contrast) negatives, either because they are thin or very dense. Of course, it can also punch up normal negatives! Figure 13.1 is an 8″ × 10″ contact print made with an underexposed film negative (oops!).

However, underexposure is not necessarily a problem. Often, allowing shadows to fall away gives you leeway to properly expose the highlight values. The negative can concentrate all the information actually important to the image within its best range of densities. Within this latitude, however, most films have a near infinity of microgradients. A chloride emulsion is capable of rendering them fully and faithfully. What it cannot do is simultaneously render fully both lights and darks. A dark red rose in among the white peonies would have been lost. Figure 13.5 is a 5″ × 7″ contact print made with a very dense negative, the kind of negative that’s sometimes called “bullet proof” (oops!). The print took several minutes to expose, but the subtle gradations of the foggy morning light were not entirely lost. A bromide paper also can deal with dense negatives, but with very different results (Chapter 16). The inherent contrast of a chloride emulsion can also be put to creative use with what we would consider “normal” negatives (Figure 13.6). The negative of a lone tree in a flooded field was exposed and developed properly to match the scene. It was a dreary day. A straight print reflects that. But I decided I didn’t want a print of a dark and dreary day. The print I first made with the negative,

Figure 13.4 (left) KCl “Gaslight” paper, developed in D23-Plus (Chapter 13), © Denise Ross Figure 13.5 (right) Birdsong, © Denise Ross

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Figure 13.6 (left) 5″ × 7″ negative of Yggdrasill, © Denise Ross Figure 13.7 (right) Yggdrasill, © Denise Ross

printed on commercial variable contrast paper, required a lot of work to get the luminosity I visualized. Chloride paper delivered it automatically.

Paper Choices As with any printing paper, the choice of the paper we coat the emulsion on influences the final print characteristics. When we are trying to match a negative with a printing paper, in order to achieve the print we visualize, we should take the base paper into consideration. The two most influential elements are paper color and paper texture. The influence of paper color is more of an emotional perception than physics. A print made on bright white paper usually seems to have brighter highlights than one on cream-colored paper. For most people, a cool-tone print feels as though it has more contrast than a warm-tone print. On bright

white paper, potassium chloride emulsion, given standard exposure and development in an MQ developer, has blue-black shadows with cool-toneutral mid-tones and highlights. On a warm-toned paper, the highlights glow with the warmth of the paper base, while the shadows retain a cooler tone. Paper texture affects perceived contrast. A smooth, glossy print appears to have more contrast than a print made on textured paper. Physics comes into play. The greater the texture, the more the light hitting the surface of the paper scatters, reducing the density of maximum black in the shadows.2 A chloride emulsion is able to render very fine detail. It’s a compelling reason to use a Cl paper when detail counts, and when detail counts, a smooth paper reveals more than a textured paper. Textured paper can produce lovely prints, but the paper itself becomes part of the image in a way

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Figure 13.8 (top) Resolution target, contact print, © Denise Ross Figure 13.9 (bottom) Detail from Figure 13.8, © Denise Ross

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Figure 13.10 4″ × 5″ film negative of Pond #3, © Denise Ross

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that isn’t as true with a smoother paper. Watercolor painters have always made paper texture an inherent characteristic of a painting. It’s the same for us. Figure 13.8 is a contact print of an old printed circuit board resolution target, on Arches HP, 90 lb, a lightly textured paper. Figure 13.9 is a 0.3″ × 0.3″ crop from the print. The negative of lily pads in a wetland is relatively thin; the density in the grasses is almost nonexistent except for the highlights on each blade. The camera was on a tripod and there was no breeze. Because of these factors, the detail in the grass is all there. If 4″ × 5″ is big enough, the negative is a perfect candidate for a chloride emulsion contact print. Chloride paper holds its own against digital inkjet paper in a head-to-head match. Figure 13.11 is a scan of a digital inkjet print (Hahnemühle Glossy Fine Art, Baryta FB) made from the scanned negative. Figure 13.12 is a scan of a

chloride paper contact print (coated on Arches HP 90 lb paper) made from the negative. Figure 13.13 and Figure 13.14 are crops from the two prints. Potassium Chloride (KCl) “Gaslight” Contact Printing Paper is a high viscosity emulsion. That is, it has a high gelatin-to-water ratio. It must be coated at a warmer temperature than most other emulsions in order to keep it fluid enough to spread well. This influences paper selection. In my experience, the emulsion is better suited to the lighter weight papers. I like both Fabriano Artistico HP, Traditional White, 90 lb and Arches HP 90 lb. I’ve never had a problem with Fabriano Artistico, but emulsion bleed-through to the back of the paper happens occasionally with Arches HP 90 lb. I’ve never nailed down what exactly it is that might encourage or discourage this. It feels absolutely random, although I’m sure it’s not; just another mystery still to be solved. Arches HP 140 lb works well, but because it already has a fair amount of

Figure 13.11 (left) Pond #3, inkjet print, © Denise Ross Figure 13.12 (right) Pond #3, handmade contact print, © Denise Ross

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Figure 13.13 (left) Detail of Figure 13.11, © Denise Ross Figure 13.14 (right) Detail of Figure 13.12, © Denise Ross

gelatin sizing, it can get quite stiff. My favorite paper is Rives BFK. For me, it hits the sweet spot. Although it’s not a particularly light weight paper, it behaves like one for the purposes of coating. It’s a soft paper, and lightly sized. It coats, and then prints, beautifully.

Printing A gaslight paper is a contact printing paper. Although theoretically (code for “I haven’t actually tried”) you could enlarge on a chloride paper, the exposures would run a very, very long time. Very long exposures under an enlarger are more problematic than simply requiring patience (Chapter 8). In the heyday of gaslight paper, a large print required a large negative. Fast enlarging papers and digital negatives have eliminated that constraint. Today, we contact print because we love it. Both incandescent and LED bulbs will expose gaslight paper. My favorite light is a GE 75 watt halogen flood, set at four feet from the printing frame. A household incandescent bulb works as

well if it’s set a little closer. LED bulbs expose beautifully, but with a vital caveat. Although the technology is constantly evolving, most white light LED bulbs right now are actually a combination of red, green, and blue LED chips. Combined, they make white light. That is, our eyes see white, but a colorblind emulsion only sees blue. It’s the blue wavelengths of the “white” light that expose the paper. Figure 13.15 shows the result of letting the contact printing frame stay in one position for the entire exposure (which is, of course, a very reasonable thing to do). Figure 13.16 is what happens when the contact printing frame is constantly moved during the exposure. It doesn’t have to be much movement, but it does need to be constant. If there ever comes a time when LED bulbs are all that are available to us, all is not lost. We just add a little more exercise to our craft. As is always the case with testing materials in what can seem like a world of infinite possibilities, I didn’t test every light bulb available. I tried two LED bulbs: a basic 60W bright white household bulb, and an LED flood. The LED floodlight

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Figure 13.15 (top) Stationary LED exposure, © Denise Ross Figure 13.16 (bottom) Moving LED exposure, © Denise Ross

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bulb’s pattern wasn’t as distinct as with the household bulb, but it was still unacceptable.

Developers: Color and Contrast Control There is a surprising amount of contrast and color control possible. Let’s start with color. The color of KCl emulsion is dependent on developer composition. A metol-based developer (that is, one without added hydroquinone) produces a neutral color. To achieve a blue-black color, hydroquinone must be present in the developer. (I haven’t tried hydroquinone replacements.) The emulsion can be driven to a very warm color with the technique of increased exposure followed by development in a KBr-rich developer. Review Chapter 11 for specifics of developer recipes and techniques. All work done for this chapter was with D23-plus, TLF-All Purpose, TLF-X, Ansco 135 Warm-Tone, Ansco 120 Soft-Working, and Kodak HC110 (a commercial liquid concentrate). As mentioned before, paper color (“tint”) is an important element of print color. All permutations of emulsion color are influenced by paper tint. A warm-toned emulsion on a bright white paper will look different from a cool-toned emulsion on warm color paper. Cool-on-cool vs. warm-on-warm are worlds apart in appearance. Figure 15.17 is a short stack from a long list of possibilities from four types of paper and a short list of developer ingredients. 1. KCl emulsion coated on Fabriano Artistico HP, Traditional White, 90 lb. The warm tone is achieved by increasing the exposure and adding a large proportion of potassium bromide to the base developer, in this case, TLF-X. The exposure time tripled. The developer was four parts TLF-X with one part 10% KBr (potassium bromide). 2. KCl emulsion coated on white Rives BFK, 250 gsm. The chocolate-brown blacks and platinum mid-tones come from Ansco 135, mixed one part with three parts water and one part 10% KBr. I think the combination of the rich brown-

Figure 13.17 KCl prints color variations, © Denise Ross

blacks on the bright white paper is striking. It seems backwards from expected cool shadows and warm highlights, but it works somehow (personal opinion alert!).

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Figure 13.18 KCl contrast control, © Denise Ross

Figure 13.19 Fail! Developer without restrainer, © Denise Ross

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3. KCl emulsion coated on Fabriano Artistico HP, Traditional White, 90 lb. The neutral emulsion color comes from TLF All Purpose developer. 4. KCl emulsion coated on Fabriano Artistico HP, Traditional White, 90 lb; Kodak HC110 developer, 1.5% solution. The color is just a bit cooler than with the TLF-X developer. If the emulsion were coated on a bright white paper, the difference would be more distinct. 5. KCl emulsion coated on Arches HP, Natural White, 140 lb; Kodak D-73 developer, a handmade formula with metol and hydroquinone. Our control over contrast is more limited than with color. Figure 13.18: On the left, KCl emulsion was developed in D23-Plus, 1:1 dilution; on the right, TLF-X. A specifically “high-contrast” developer could have shortened the contrast range even further, although increasing the contrast with this emulsion isn’t usually the goal. There is only so far that the emulsion contrast can be lowered before the quality suffers. Further dilution, or shorter exposure times, do unfortunate things to the appearance of the mid-tones. One very interesting and important idiosyncrasy of this emulsion is its requirement for potassium bromide in the developer. Without it, the developed print is a sickly, mottled mess (Figure 13.19). Potassium bromide acts as a restrainer (fog inhibitor) in a developer. It is likely that other restrainers, variously used in commercially prepared developers, work as well.

Selenium Toning Selenium is a toning classic with gaslight paper. Not only does it increase the archival life of a print, it can offset any slight greenish tint that may occur with some developers. A dilute solution of selenium toner is enough to ever so slightly shift the tone. Figure 13.20: The section of step tablet on the right is untoned. Viewed alone, it would be hard to see a green tint. The color is noticeable only in comparison with a lightly toned print (the section

on the left). However, it is a lovely difference. It was toned in a 10% concentration of Kodak Rapid Selenium Toner for three minutes. Selenium toning can be very subtle, or it can be taken far enough to cause a distinct color change. Figure 13.21 is a print made with a digital negative, Rives BFK paper, and TLF All Purpose developer. I toned in 30% selenium for three minutes. Figure 13.22 is the print before toning.

Figure 13.20 Selenium toned versus untoned, © Denise Ross

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Figure 13.21 (top) Selenium toned, © Denise Ross Figure 13.22 (bottom) Untoned, © Denise Ross

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The Recipe

Potassium Chloride (KCl) “Gaslight” Contact Printing Paper Read the entire recipe before assembling ingredients and tools. Visualize the steps. Preheat a water bath to 122–125°F/50–52°C. Weigh out the chemicals. Double-check that all tools required are clean and at hand. Stage your paper for coating. The basic recipe is designed for magnetic stirring and coating on wet paper. Modifications for hand-mixing, and coating on dry paper, are at the end of the recipe. If necessary, review the chapters relating to emulsion making and coating. Also, review the chemical (material) safety data sheets (MSDS) for your ingredients. Banish pets and small children from your work space.

Practice safe working habits. Be especially careful with silver nitrate. It is a strong oxidizer, which among other things means that it reacts with organic compounds. You are an organic compound. If you get silver nitrate on your skin, don’t panic, just wash it off immediately. But, know that your skin will be stained for a while. Silver nitrate discoloration cannot be washed off. It will be a part of your skin until the affected skin cells naturally slough off. It will never come off clothes, your floor or countertop, or your weighing scale. Working with silver nitrate means accepting a few stains. Our goal is keeping them to a minimum, and only where they are acceptable. Getting silver nitrate in your eyes is the only serious hazard of working with the chemical, but it is a very serious one. Carefully study the MSDS for silver nitrate. Take great care to protect your eyes from silver nitrate solution, and never, under any circumstances, touch your face with your hands while you are working with chemicals.

Ingredients. Distilled water, photographic gelatin, potassium chloride (KCl), silver nitrate (AgNO3), unadulterated ethanol (also known as Everclear), Kodak Photo-Flo 200. Optional: glyoxal, 40%. Tools. Magnetic stirring plate, magnetic stirring bar, water bath, thermometers, 400 ml beaker, 40 ml or 80 ml beaker, 250 ml beaker, plastic spoons, plastic wrap, very small funnel (3–4 ml outlet), small silicone scraper, Keurig K-cup filter (or similar), measuring cup with a handle (1⁄4 or 1⁄3 cup), 10 ml graduated cylinder, timer, and the paper coating set-up. Wear nitrile or latex gloves and whatever other protective items you feel appropriate.

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Salted Gelatin In a 400 ml beaker, dissolve together Distilled water, room temperature or cooler 150 ml Potassium chloride ................................ 3 g When completely dissolved, slowly and thoroughly stir in Photographic gelatin .......................... 25 g Cover the beaker with a piece of plastic wrap. Let it sit at least 30 minutes for the gelatin to absorb all the water (“bloom”). Prepare the silver solution. Silver Solution In a small beaker (40 or 80 ml) dissolve together Silver nitrate ........................................... 5 g Distilled water .................................... 25 ml When the Salted Gelatin has bloomed, set the beaker in the pre-heated water bath, on a magnetic stirring plate. The water bath temperature will cool at first. Let it come back up to 122–125°F/50–52°C. Place a clean thermometer in the gelatin and another one in the water bath to monitor the temperatures. If your plate is not a heating type, replace the cooling water in the water bath with hot water until the temperature of the gelatin is 122–125°F/50–52°C. (Keep the temperature there until the end of the ripening time.) Remove the thermometer. Place a magnetic stirring bar in the beaker of Salted Gelatin. Start a strong—but not splashy—stirring vortex. Start the timer for a 10 minute countdown. Go to safelight. Precipitation: Hold the small funnel over the beaker of Salted Gelatin, approximately halfway between the wall of the beaker and the center of the stirring vortex. Carefully pour the Silver Solution through the funnel into the salted gelatin. Continue to stir for the remainder of the 10 minute countdown. Ripening: Stop the stirring. Let the emulsion sit at 122–125°F/50–52°C for 30 minutes. Monitor both the water bath temperature and the emulsion temperature. Do not use the same thermometer for both unless you clean it impeccably each time before placing it in the emulsion. Paper preparation: While the emulsion is ripening, prepare your paper for coating. Coating: Remove the beaker of emulsion from the water bath. Wipe the outside of the beaker. Slowly pour the emulsion through a K-cup filter into a clean 250 ml beaker. Slowly and gently stir in Everclear ............................................ 10 ml Very slowly and gently stir in

continued

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continued

Photo-Flo 200 ................................ 20 drops Optionally, stir in 3 drops glyoxal. Take the emulsion’s temperature. With very slow and very gentle stirring with a clean plastic spoon (you are avoiding adding air into the emulsion), stir the emulsion until the temperature falls to 110°F/43°C. The emulsion is coated at 104–108°F/40–42°C. This is assuming a room temperature of 68–72°F/20–22°C. A little too warm is better than a little too cool. Because this is a high viscosity emulsion, it can easily become too thick to coat well. However, the right temperature is especially important with a high viscosity emulsion. Much too warm and the coating will be patchy (see Figures 7.16 and 7.17). The recipe covers approximately four 11″ × 30″ sheets of HP (hot press/minimal texture), long grain watercolor paper, coated with a 9-inch puddle pusher. It takes between 1 ⁄4 and 1⁄3 cup to coat a sheet. The more heavily textured the paper, the less area the emulsion covers.

Hang and dry the paper as described in Chapter 6. Variations: To coat on dry paper, add 5–10 ml distilled water (at room temperature) to the emulsion right before adding Everclear. This is a starting place. Papers vary enormously, especially their absorbency. A few trials will let you know if you need more water, or if the coating temperature is too high or too low. To make this emulsion “by hand,” that is, without a magnetic stirring plate, prepare a water bath that you can keep at 122–125°F/50–52°C. Rather than forming a vortex with the magnetic stirring rod, use a small balloon whisk. Vigorously stir/whisk the emulsion as you would whisk the oil to make mayonnaise by hand. The Internet has a number of excellent videos. Search “how to make mayonnaise by hand.” As you are whisking the salted gelatin, slowly pour in the silver solution. After the silver is all added, continue slowly and

gently whisking until the end of ten minutes. After this, finish the emulsion as described in the recipe. To use a brand of Everclear with less than 95% by volume alcohol (190 Proof), or vodka, decrease the water equally in the Salted Gelatin and the Silver Solution, and increase the amount of your alcohol. This will maintain the water to gelatin ratio, and the % alcohol. If math isn’t your strength, experiment with the reductions. Consistency is more important for success from batch to batch of emulsion than the exact volume of ethanol. An additional recipe for chloride paper is in Chapter 24. Endnotes 1. Baker, T. Thorne, “A Homemade Chloride Emulsion.” American Photography, 37(3) (March 1943), 12–13. 2. Salvaggio, Nanette, Basic Photographic Materials and Processes (3rd edn), Leslie Stroebel and Richard Zakia, editors (New York: Elsevier/Focal Press, 2009), 168.

Figure 14.0 Pinhole Camera, Handmade Film, Contact Print, on Three Salts Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 14

Three Salts Contact Printing Paper

Figure 14.1 Dogwood #3, © Denise Ross

A chloro-bromide emulsion contains a mixture of silver bromide and silver chloride. Papers coated with this (called chloro-bromide or C.B. papers) are slower than bromide but more rapid than gaslight papers, and are among the most beautiful media for the production of warm tones, giving a range of colours from warm or brownish black to rich brown. This range is obtained by adjusting the exposure time and developer, and such fine gradations result from individual adjustments that probably no two workers could produce identically the same results. The mastery of chloro-bromide printing is thus a fine art, and depends mainly on the tastes and capabilities of the individual. (Stubbs, 1938)1

T

he earliest photographers had chloride and bromide papers to work with. The introduction of the first papers that combined the two halides in one emulsion precipitated a paradigm shift not unlike the one many of us have experienced as digital prints have overtaken darkroom prints. The Modern Encyclopedia of Photography, edited by S. G. Stubbs, F. J. Mortimer, and Gordon S.

Malthouse, each prominent photographic writers in their time, was not unique in adding a section devoted to the intricacies and potential of this new and exciting paper type. ClBr papers were made in a range of sensitivities, depending largely on the predominant halide, but in general, they were classified as “slow” or “fast.” When I first started researching silver gelatin paper

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Figure 14.2 (top) Developed in 3% Kodak HC110, © Denise Ross Figure 14.3 (bottom) Developed in TLF-X, 4:1 with 10% KBr, © Denise Ross

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making, I especially wanted to find a good recipe for slow ClBr paper. Unfortunately, I never did. Fortunately, “inventing” our own recipes is fairly straightforward. Three Salts Contact Printing Paper is my contribution to our wee niche. There is only a pinch of bromide relative to chloride in the recipe, yet that small amount is all it takes to create a set of characteristics different from those of a purely chloride paper. Basic emulsion tone and speed are the most obvious.

Emulsion Characteristics The inherent emulsion tone is warmer. It doesn’t develop the characteristic blue-black of KCl Gaslight in a standard metol-hydroquinone developer. However, the tone can go to blue-black with a

developer that uses BZT (benzotriazole) as a restrainer. Bürki and Jenny Cold Tone Developer in Steve Anchell’s The Darkroom Cookbook 2 is excellent. Three Salts can be taken farther into the brown and reddish-brown color ranges than can KCl “Gaslight.” Figures 14.2 and 14.3 are from the same batch of Three Salts paper, exposed with a condenser enlarger with an incandescent bulb. Figure 14.2 was exposed at f/11 for 45 seconds and developed in 3% Kodak HC110. Figure 14.3 was exposed at f /5.6 for 2 minutes and developed in TLF-X, 4:1 with 10% KBr. (See Chapters 9 and 11 for more information.) The emulsion is a little faster, enough so that it’s practical to contact print with enlarger light,

Figure 14.4 (left) Three Salts (top) and KCl Gaslight (bottom), © Denise Ross Figure 14.5 (right) Detail from Figure 14.4, © Denise Ross

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with the ease advantage of aperture control. It has a slightly longer density scale. In most developers, the blacks don’t have the hard punch characteristic of KCl Gaslight, but it retains the ability to resolve fine detail characteristic of chloride emulsions. Purely subjective: it feels softer without being mushy. This makes it perfect for what are usually considered “normal” negatives. Figure 14.4 is a comparison of Three Salts (top) and KCl Gaslight (bottom), processed in the same developer and scanned at the same time. The differences in color and density range are subtle, but clear. Each is a 4″ × 5″ contact print of an old printing resolution target. Figure 14.5 is a detail of the Three Salts print. One “mil” is a thousandth of an inch.

Figure 14.6 Three Salts in four different developers, © Denise Ross

Resolution targets and step tablets are all fine and dandy, but it’s the implications for our art that are important. Figure 14.6 shows four contact prints from the same 4″ × 5″ TMAX 400 negative, developed in four different developers with no toning; scanned together. Clockwise from the upper left: D23-Plus (1 part developer in 2 parts water), Kodak HC110, 3%, Bürki and Jenny Cold Tone Developer, and TLF All Purpose (Chapter 9). The tone of Three Salts in TLF and TLF-X developers is almost identical to a platinum print. There is a little more sheen to the paper surface, and the emulsion doesn’t penetrate the paper fibers to the extent usual with non-gelatin processes. Advantages are the cost of silver versus

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Figure 14.7 Crab Walk, © Denise Ross

Figure 14.8 Tyee Oak, light selenium toning, © Denise Ross

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Figure 14.9 (top) Very light selenium toning, primarily for increasing the archival lifespan of the print, © Denise Ross Figure 14.10 (bottom) Deep selenium toning, © Denise Ross

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Figure 14.11 (top) Three Salts with Copper Chloride print, untoned, © Denise Ross Figure 14.12 (bottom) Three Salts with Copper Chloride print, toned in blue gold toner, © Denise Ross

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platinum, and the ability to use average density negatives. Kodak HC110 produces a beautiful neutral black. It’s especially versatile with this recipe because the concentration of the developer influences print contrast. If you start with a tray of 3% concentration, and you feel the print is too contrasty, you can add more water. One thing to remember is that any highly diluted developer has a short working lifespan. The tone of Three Salts in D23-Plus developer is very similar to a “salted paper” print. The emulsion works very well with digital negatives. Figure 14.7 is a contact print made with a Pictorico OHP negative from a digital camera file; Rives BFK paper, D23-Plus developer.

Toning Selenium toning can be taken from almost imperceptible to plummy purplish-brown. Any color the developer imparts influences the final color of the toned print. This is also true for blue gold toning (see Chapter 10). The effect of combining colors in a print may or may not be effective with a particular image. Combining colors can be done using two or more toners, or it can be accomplished with one toner over a print with a non-neutral base color by way of developer choice. Figure 14.12 is blue gold toner over a Three Salts with Copper Chloride print, developed for a warm tone. On the other hand, blue toning is a classic with winter scenes. Although iron blue toner is often

Figure 14.13 (left) McKay Crossing Falls, untoned, © Denise Ross Figure 14.14 (right) McKay Crossing Falls, blue gold toner, © Denise Ross

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Figure 14.15 (left) Deschutes River Ice, untoned, © Denise Ross Figure 14.16 (right) Deschutes River Ice, selectively toned with selenium and blue gold, © Denise Ross

considered the go-to toner for imparting a chill to ice and snow, blue gold toner is similar, easier, and archival. If soley blue doesn’t work for an image, but fully toning a print with two different toners would produce unwanted colors in some areas, a print can be selectively toned. Figure 14.16 was first fully toned in blue gold. When I decided the blue had gone as far as it was going to go, I rinsed the print and swiped off the water with a puddle pusher. I put the print in a clean flat-bottomed tray and gently painted most of the rocks with a soft watercolor brush and 10% Kodak Rapid Selenium toner. I kept the print tilted so that the selenium didn’t run into the ice or water areas.

The effect is subtle but it works, I think, with this image. It might be even more effective if the emulsion were Three Salts Plus Copper Chloride. Warm tone emulsions are more responsive to blue gold toning. The rocks would start with more warmth, which would be further enhanced by the selenium.

The Recipe There are three variations of the Three Salts Contact Printing Paper recipe: magnetic stirring, hand-mixed, and Three Salts Plus Copper Chloride. Any variation can be modified for coating on dry paper.

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Three Salts Contact Printing Paper (magnetic stirring variation) Read the entire recipe before assembling ingredients and tools. Visualize the steps. Preheat a water bath to 131–133°F/55–56°C on a magnetic stirring hot plate. Preheat a second water bath to the same temperature on a non-stirring heat source. Weigh out the chemicals. Double-check that all tools required are clean and at hand. Stage your paper for coating. This recipe is designed for magnetic stirring and coating on wet paper. Modifications for hand-mixing, and coating on dry paper, are at the end of the recipe. If necessary, review the chapters relating to emulsion making and coating. Also, review the chemical safety data sheets for your ingredients. Banish pets and small children from your work space.

Practice safe working habits. Be especially careful with silver nitrate. It is a strong oxidizer, which among other things means that it reacts with organic compounds. You are an organic compound. If you get silver nitrate on your skin, don’t panic, just wash it off immediately. But, know that your skin will be stained for a while. Silver nitrate discoloration cannot be washed off. It will be a part of your skin until the affected skin cells naturally slough off. It will never come off clothes, your floor or countertop, or your weighing scale. Working with silver nitrate means accepting a few stains. Our goal is keeping them to a minimum, and only where they are acceptable. Getting silver nitrate in your eyes is the only serious hazard of working with the chemical, but it is a very serious one. Carefully study the MSDS for silver nitrate. Take great care to protect your eyes from silver nitrate solution, and never, under any circumstances, touch your face with your hands while you are working with chemicals.

Ingredients: Distilled water, photographic gelatin, potassium chloride (KCl), sodium chloride (NaCl), ammonium bromide (NH4Br) silver nitrate (AgNO3), citric acid, Kodak Photo-Flo 200, Everclear (unadulterated ethanol), and glyoxal, 40%. Tools: Magnetic stirring plate and magnetic stirring bar, two water baths, thermometers, two 400 ml beakers and one 250 ml beaker (or three 250 ml beakers), two 40 or 80 ml beakers, two 10-ml graduated cylinders (or one 10-ml graduated cylinder and a tiny beaker), plastic spoons, plastic wrap, rubber bands, small rubber or silicone scraper, Keurig K-Cup filter (or similar), measuring cup with a handle (1⁄4 or 1⁄3 cup), timer, and the paper coating set up. The recipe can be doubled. The weights for a doubled batch are in parentheses.

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A single batch of emulsion coats approximately 1000 square inches of paper, assuming wet paper coating, a 9-inch puddle pusher, and HP texture paper. That is two sheets of 22″ × 30″ long grain paper, cut into four 11″ × 30″ pieces. If the paper is short grain, the dimensions of the pieces change. A good way to minimize paper wastage is to use more than one size puddle pusher and cut your paper accordingly. Gelatin A In a 250 (400 ml) beaker, combine: Distilled water, room temperature or cooler ................................... 60 (120) ml Photographic gelatin .................... 9 (18) g Bloom about 30 minutes. Set the beaker in the 131–133°F/55–56°C water bath on the magnetic stirring hot plate and bring the gelatin solution up to temperature. Gelatin B In a 250 ml beaker, combine: Distilled water, room temperature or cooler ................................... 60 (120) ml Photographic gelatin .................... 9 (18) g Bloom about 30 minutes. Set the beaker in the second (non-stirring) 131–133°F/55–56°C water bath and bring the gelatin solution up to temperature. Salts Solution In a 40 (80) ml beaker, dissolve together: Distilled water ............................ 15 (30) ml Ammonium bromide ................ 1.0 (2.0) g Potassium chloride .................... 1.3 (2.5) g Sodium chloride ........................ 2.7 (5.5) g Add and stir until dissolved: Citric acid .................................. 2.0 (4.0) g Silver Solution In a 40 (80) ml beaker dissolve together: Distilled water ............................ 25 (50) ml Silver nitrate ............................. 5.0 (10.0) g Measure out and hold Everclear ....................... 5 (10) ml, divided

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When the melted Gelatin A in the water bath on the magnetic stirring hot plate has reached 131–133°F/55–56°C, set in a magnetic stirring bar and start a strong—but not splashy—vortex in the center of the beaker. Add the Salts Solution and continue stirring for a couple of minutes. Stir in Everclear ..................................... 2.5 (5) ml Go to safelight. By hand, with a plastic spoon, stir the Silver Solution into Gelatin B. Gently stir for a minute. Stir in Everclear ..................................... 2.5 (5) ml Set a darkroom countdown timer for 40 minutes. Precipitation: Check the vortex in the beaker to be sure it’s still centered and slowly pour in the silver solution. A funnel is not necessary. This should take about 30 (45) seconds. Continue stirring with a strong vortex for two minutes. Ripening: Reduce the stirring speed to as slow as possible for the remainder of the 40 minutes. Tip: Ripening time is an emulsion variable. You can experiment with less or more ripening time within a range of 20–60 minutes. Once you determine the time you like best, be consistent. Paper preparation: While the emulsion is ripening, prepare your paper for coating. Coating: Remove the beaker from the water bath and wipe off any water on the outside of the beaker with a clean towel. Pour the emulsion through a K-cup filter into a clean 250 (400) ml beaker. With a clean plastic spoon, slowly and gently stir in 10 (20) drops Photo-Flo 200 and 3–4 (6–8) drops glyoxal. Tip: If you choose not to use glyoxal, or to reduce the amount, it is wise to have hardening fix on hand (Chapter 9). Place the beaker in a bowl of cold water and slowly and gently stir the emulsion with a clean plastic spoon until it almost reaches coating temperature. Remove the beaker and wipe it dry. Assuming a room temperature of about 70°F/21°C, the best emulsion temperature for coating on wet paper is 95–97°F/35–36°C. If you are coating on dry paper you will need to experiment with the best amount of additional distilled water to add to the emulsion. A good starting place is 2 (4) ml. Variation: To use a brand of “Everclear” with less than 95% by volume alcohol (190 Proof), or vodka, decrease the water in Salts Solution and the Silver Solution, and increase the amount of your alcohol. This will maintain the water to gelatin ratio, and the % alcohol. If math isn’t your strength, experiment with the reductions. Consistency is more important for success from batch to batch of emulsion than the exact volume of ethanol.

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Three Salts Contact Printing Paper (Hand Stirring Variation)

Because of the high viscosity of the precipitation components, this recipe adapts very well to hand-stirring. However, I recommend mixing a single (not doubled) batch. Except for the modification of hand-stirring rather than magnetic stirring, all instructions are the same. A sturdy plastic spoon is a better tool than a hand whisk. Any water bath method works that is convenient for you (see Chapter 3). Add the gelatin with silver nitrate into the salted gelatin while stirring thoroughly with a plastic spoon. After you’ve combined the salted gelatin and the silvered gelatin, continue stirring slowly and gently with the plastic spoon for a few minutes, followed by 30 seconds every five minutes (or, slow, continuous stirring) until the end of the ripening. Monitor the water bath temperature. Make any necessary adjustments to maintain 131–133°F/55–56°C. Remove the beaker from the water bath and dry the outside. Slowly and gently stir in 10 drops Photo-Flo 200 and 3–4 drops glyoxal (and additional water if you are coating on dry paper). Place the beaker in a bowl of ice water and slowly and gently stir the emulsion with a clean plastic spoon until it almost reaches coating temperature. Remove the beaker and wipe it dry. Assuming a room temperature of about 70°F/21°C, the best emulsion temperature for coating on wet paper is 95–97°F/35–36°C.

Hang and dry the paper as described in Chapter 6.

Variation: Three Salts Plus Copper Chloride Contact Printing Paper In the “Salts Solution,” replace the plain distilled water with 1% cupric chloride solution [Copper (II) chloride in distilled water]. The recipe is otherwise unchanged. The addition of copper chloride bumps up the warmth a bit. It’s actually copper-toned, which perhaps shouldn’t be surprising. However, the tone shift is subtle. In my opinion, a warm tone development protocol with the standard recipe is just as effective, but I have not played extensively with varying the amounts of added copper chloride. The emulsion is a little slower than the recipe without the added copper chloride. Figures 14.17 and 14.18: Because the differences are subtle, the two step tablets were scanned

together in order to defeat any differences the scanner might have imposed on them individually. Both tablets were developed with my usual warm tone protocol: extra exposure and TLF developer: 4 parts in 1 part 10% KBr. With standard developers, Three Salts Plus Copper Chloride behaves almost the same as the emulsion without the added copper chloride. Figure 14.19 was developed in D23-Plus, 1:2 with water, plus a splash of TLF-Plus. Figure 14.20 was developed in 3% Kodak HC110. The print tone is neutral. Figure 14.20 was ferrotyped on mylar. Neither print has additional toning. Endnotes 1. The Modern Encyclopedia of Photography, Stubbs, S. G., F. J. Mortimer, and Gordon S. Malthouse (eds.) s. v. “ChloroBromide Printing” (London: Amalgamated Press, 1938). 2. Anchell, Steve, The Darkroom Cookbook (3rd edn) (New York: Focal Press/Elsevier, 2008).

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Figure 14.17 (top) Three Salts Plus Copper Chloride, © Denise Ross Figure 14.18 (bottom) Three Salts Contact Printing Paper, © Denise Ross

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Figure 14.19 (top) Three Salts Plus Copper Chloride; D23-Plus, 1:2 with water, plus a splash of TLF-Plus, © Denise Ross Figure 14.20 (bottom) Three Salts Plus Copper Chloride; 3% Kodak HC110, © Denise Ross

Figure 15.0 Whole Plate Dry Plate Negative, Contact Print, on Chlorobromide Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 15

Chlorobromide (Kodabromide-Type) All-Purpose Paper

Figure 15.1 Rhododendron, © Denise Ross

The next division includes the chlorobromide or bromochloride papers, the name depending on whether silver bromide or silver chloride is predominant in the emulsion. These are moderately fast enlarging papers but may also be used for contact printing under weak light. They have considerable richness of tone and are usually amenable to slight direct toning in metallic salts—selenium, for example. Typical brands of such papers are Cykora, Illustrators Special, Kodabromide, and Velour Black. (Adams, 1950)1

I

n 1950, chlorobromide papers were firmly established. The characteristics of the emulsion type had become the accepted “look” for most prints—not too harsh; not too soft. In addition to the brands listed by Adams in The Print, Agfa

made Portriga Rapid and Record Rapid, and Ilford made Plastika and Multigrade. Today, Ilford papers are all chlorobromide types. Chlorobromide (Kodabromide-Type) AllPurpose Paper is my adaptation of Chloro-Bromide

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Projection Paper Emulsion Formula, a recipe in the SPSE Handbook of Photographic Science and Engineering, 1973, edited by Woodlief Thomas Jr., while he was with Eastman Kodak Company.2 The book is an invaluable resource, and because it was on the desk of most photo engineers, there are still a lot of affordable copies available. It is an excellent addition to any emulsion-maker’s library. The original formulation contained cadmium chloride, which I have eliminated. Kodabromide was a remarkably versatile paper, and its discontinuance was mourned by many photographers (myself included). Although reference to the chloride component wasn’t in its name, Kodabromide was a ClBr (chlorobromide) paper. The color of chlorobromide emulsions, developed in a standard, “all-purpose” developer, is neutral with a hint of warmth. By adding additional KBr to a standard developer, the color of Chlorobromide (Kodabromide-Type) AllPurpose Paper can be warmed to almost brown. Commercial chlorobromide papers typically came in several grades (sequentially numbered papers under the same name, ranging from “soft”/low contrast to “hard”/high contrast). The individual contrast grades that were available for Kodabromide and similar papers aren’t easily duplicated in the home darkroom, but considerable contrast flexibility can be achieved with handmade developer formulations. If your workflow includes both contact printing and enlarging, this may be the only paper you need.

Enlarging Speed ClBr Emulsions There are a few key differences between a ClBr emulsion and a pure chloride one. AgBr sees more of the visible spectrum than does AgCl. In addition to UV and violet, it records wavelengths throughout the blue range. The emulsion itself is a different color. Rather than the stark white of a pure chloride emulsion, it is a pale yellow. The more bromide in the mix, the deeper the yellow. If iodide is added, the color further deepens.

For enlarging-speed emulsions, such as this one, the precipitation step is different from a slow emulsion, either a pure chloride recipe or one containing chloride and bromide, such as the Three Salts recipe (Chapter 14). Rather than adding the silver nitrate slowly, or in time-staggered steps, all the silver nitrate is dumped in at once. This is followed immediately by a second addition of gelatin. Then, the stirring is stopped, and the emulsion sits undisturbed in the hot water bath to ripen before coating. During ripening, the emulsion picks up speed and increases its dynamic range. After ripening, the finals (ingredients added right before coating) are added and the emulsion is immediately cooled to coating temperature. An important emulsion fact comes into play with this recipe. The amount of gelatin used during precipitation is very small. Low-percentage precipitation gelatin (the gelatin used during the first and main reaction of silver halide formation) is characteristic of the faster emulsions, whether intended for enlarging paper or for negatives. However, the completed emulsion requires more gelatin than is present at precipitation. Without it, the final emulsion viscosity would be too low. Low viscosity would mean the final coating would be too thin, and prints made from the paper would appear to be faded and low contrast. This is the reason for a second gelatin addition in the recipe. In the old recipes, this gelatin is sometimes referred to as make-up gelatin. There is a price paid for speed. (Emulsions sometime seem to be the very definition of tradeoffs!) The low percentage of precipitation gelatin means that the emulsion can be susceptible to pepper (chunky aggregates of silver halide that spontaneously develop without exposure to light). Pepper is essentially an extreme case of development fog. Fortunately, this is usually only true with highenergy developers, particularly those containing hydroquinone, which includes most commercial developers. A few easy-to-make handmade developers eliminate this problem.

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Homemade Developers for ClBr Emulsions Chlorobromide (Kodabromide-Type) All-Purpose Paper works perfectly with a simple set of related developers, made with inexpensive, relatively nontoxic, readily available chemicals, although, in most areas, “readily available” probably means ordering from an online source. Like many photographers who started working pre-digital, I think it’s great fun to play with developer formulations. In that spirit, I have taken a few old classics and tweaked the ingredients to fit my needs and expectations as they relate to handmade emulsions. I want clean prints (no stains, fog, or pepper) that capture all the densities and details a negative can deliver. Additionally, I want to be able to duplicate the flexibility of different grades of paper, as well as have a measure of control over print tone. For an overview of developer chemistry and processing procedure, plus recipes, see Chapter 11. Also, I heartily encourage owning the third edition of Steve Anchell’s The Darkroom Cookbook,3 the best source I know for a thorough grounding in the basic chemistry of processing formulas. The developers I use here are variations on D23 and D76H: D23-Plus, TLF All-Purpose Developer, and TLF Extra Oomph Developer (TLF-X, for short). A full range of print possibilities from this emulsion can be achieved with four ingredients: metol, sodium sulfite, borax, and potassium bromide. Printing The emulsion speed (sensitivity to light) of Chlorobromide (Kodabromide-Type) All-Purpose Paper is comparable to commercial enlarging papers. It works with both condenser and diffusion enlargers, as well as contact printing with incandescent, LED, and halogen bulbs (see Chapter 9). I exposed the paper under an Omega D condenser enlarger, with the recommended 75W incandescent enlarger bulb. The lens-to-paper surface was 18 inches. The aperture on the enlarging lens was f/8. Exposure time was eight

seconds. The developer was half TLF and half TLF-X. Figure 15.3 was exposed at f/16 and eight seconds. I used straight TLF-X, but the print has a lower contrast than the contact print developed in a softer-acting developer. To my eye and taste, condenser enlargements are the ultimate reason for this paper. The print is lovely. The details are crisp and “gentle” at the same time. The shadows are deep black, and the highlights show the grain of the driftwood. The light was soft and bright the day I exposed the film—classic beach lighting conditions. Negatives exposed in harsher light print comparably if a less vigorous developer is used. The paper is fast enough for a considerable enlargement factor. Figure 15.4 was printed from a cropped 6 × 9 cm negative. The light was very bright at the time of exposure and the negative is very dense. I wanted to be sure to capture the detail on the underside of the water tower. Sufficient density in the shadowed areas resulted in high density elsewhere, even after compensating development.

Controlling the Characteristic Curve A step wedge helps us understand our emulsions. Stouffer brand is probably the best known to photographers. Step wedges (or “tablets”) come in several styles and different increments of density. I recently bought a 31-step, and it’s fun and informative, but 21 steps are just as useful, and a 21-step tablet is more readily available and usually less expensive than a 31-step variety. A new wedge, no matter the style, is not cheap. Fortunately, a used one works just fine for our goal: understanding and using the characteristic curve (a graph of the density values, from deepest to lightest) of paper, or film, as it relates to our exposure light source, developer choice, and processing protocol. I’ve modified my step tablets to better see what’s going on. I punched a hole in step #1 (clear film base on the negative) and ran a line of lightproof polyester film tape through the highlight areas.

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Figure 15.2 (top) Cape Perpetua Driftwood, contact print from 4″ × 5″ Kodak TMAX 100 film negative, © Denise Ross Figure 15.3 (bottom) Cape Perpetua Driftwood, 5″ × 7″ enlargement from 4″ × 5″ Kodak TMAX 100 film negative, © Denise Ross

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Figure 15.4 Crosby, Minnesota, Water Tower, 8″ × 8″ enlargement from a handmade roll film negative, © Denise Ross

After exposure and processing, if I can’t see where the hole was punched, I know I’ve gotten maximum black. If I can see the line of film tape run off the lower left side, I know that the highlights are not being adequately represented. The characteristic curve is sometimes confused with the density range of a paper (the range of values reflected from the paper surface). The density range of a print is influenced by paper texture, in addition to the characteristic curve of the emulsion. In general, the higher the gloss of the base paper, the more density values perceived by a viewer. A related set of developers—fundamentally the same formulation, but with different degrees of developer activity—affords a level of control over print contrast, primarily by contraction of the toe

of the characteristic curve (the shadows with a minimal separation of values). The shoulder portion (brightest highlights) is relatively unaffected by development. Exposure time is the best way to move highlight values. The values between the toe and the shoulder represent the straight-line portion of the curve, referred to as the gamma. The characteristic curve is influenced by the developer, by the time a print spends in the developer, and the temperature of the developer. As much as I love and respect the power of numbers, it is my opinion that obsessing the mathematics of a characteristic curve isn’t all that useful, at least in the beginning of the learning curve. Far better to make emulsions and print with them. Understanding follows experience.

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Figure 15.5 (upper left of block of four) Contact print on chlorobromide paper, D23-Plus developer, © Denise Ross Figure 15.6 (upper right of block of four) Contact print on chlorobromide paper, TLF All-Purpose developer, © Denise Ross Figure 15.7 (lower left of block of four) Contact print on chlorobromide paper, TLF All-Purpose and TLF-X developers, 1:1, © Denise Ross Figure 15.8 (lower right of block of four) Contact print on chlorobromide paper TLF-X developer, © Denise Ross

I exposed Figures 15.5–15.8 under the same light and for the same amount of time (a condenser enlarger at f/8, for ten seconds). I developed them with the same agitation protocol. D23-Plus developer (Figure 15.5) produced the softest results. The toe threshold (the point at which you can just begin to see the densest black begin to lighten) is between the numbers 1 and 2. The shoulder threshold (where the last detail is visible in the highlights) is between 22 and 23. That is 21 steps of density.

The color of the print is a bit warmer than the prints processed in the developers containing borax. The degree to which this is perceptible is partially dependent on the color of the viewing light. I developed Figure 15.6 in TLF All-Purpose developer. There is less metol than in the D23Plus recipe, but borax contributes additional developer activity. The blacks are deeper than with D23-Plus, and more neutral in color. The toe threshold moved up a step (perhaps two—it’s a

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close call depending on how the print is angled to the light). The difference between D23-Plus and TLF-All Purpose is mostly a matter of emulsion color and density, but although the differences are subtle, it is often the case that a subtlety is the difference between a very nice print and an exceptional one. A noticeable change in the characteristic curve takes place when the amounts of metol and borax increase. I developed Figure 15.7 in a combination of half TLF All-Purpose and half TLF-X. Although the highlights didn’t change, the toe threshold moved up to 6. The print developed in straight TLF-X (Figure 15.8) begins to show the limitations of developer strength on contrast with this emulsion. The toe threshold only moved up by one step, but peppering reared its ugly head (Figure 15.9).

Figure 15.9 Enlarged crop from Figure 1.8, © Denise Ross

TLF-X developer, used at stock solution strength, just begins to bring out pepper in the emulsion. The print developed in half TLF All-Purpose and half TLF-X is fine. Somewhere between 50% and 100% TLF-X, the ratio of borax got too high. A series of tests with increasing percentages of borax would be necessary to find the maximum level before peppering occurs. This would only be important if it were necessary to achieve maximum print contrast from a lowcontrast negative, with this emulsion, using only developer strength. It would certainly be necessary if you preferred to work with only one developer, modified by you to fit your personal requirements. There are other ways to control contrast. You can make a contrast-control mask for the negative. I printed Figure 15.1 with a Yupo mask (Chapter 8). Or, you can print on a paper with an inherently

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Figure 15.10 (top) Print exposed and developed for a warm tone, © Denise Ross Figure 15.11 (bottom) Print given a split developer treatment for warm tones and deeper blacks, © Denise Ross

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Figure 15.12 Print tones: warm brown, warm black, and neutral, © Denise Ross

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higher contrast, such as Potassium Chloride (KCl) “Gaslight” Paper (Chapter 13) or Three Salts Contact Printing Paper (Chapter 14).

Controlling Print Color Emulsion tone, as well as contrast, is influenced by developer choice. An inherently neutral ClBr emulsion can be made a very warm (brownish) color. The trick is extra potassium bromide (KBr). In developers, KBr is a restrainer, a chemical added to a developer to inhibit development fog (a thin, uniform veil of gray, without visible aggregates), or to reduce development speed. The chemistry and physics of this are complex, but how we use the phenomenon to our advantage is simple. The more restrainer, the warmer the tone, but the more restrainer in the developer, the slower the development. To achieve acceptable print density and contrast, prints developed for warm tones must be exposed far longer than for a more neutral color. The warmer the desired color, the longer the required exposure. A range from neutral black to

almost reddish brown is possible. If exposure and development are standardized, it is possible to achieve a precise, consistent tone from print to print. In other words: if our workflow is consistent, modifying print color is not a random process.4 The print in Figure 15.10 was exposed for two minutes. I developed it for five minutes, with constant agitation, in 4 parts TLF-X mixed with 1 part 10% KBr. For the print in Figure 15.11, I exposed the paper for two and a half minutes. I developed the paper for two minutes in 4 parts TLF-X mixed with 1 part 10% KBr. This in turn was followed by stock strength TLF-X in a second, separate tray for 30 seconds, then back to the first tray for one minute. The 30 seconds in TLF-X, without extra 10% KBr, increased the density and changed the tone enough that the darkest steps are a warm black, rather than the dark browns of Figure 15.10. Figure 15.12 is a stack of Figures 15.10 and 15.11 with Figure 15.6. The differences in color

Figure 15.13 Beached Bull Kelp, selenium toned, © Denise Ross

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come down simply to variations in exposure time and the amounts of potassium bromide in the developers. There are any number of combinations of the two variables.

Toning One of the many claims to fame of chlorobromide paper is its affinity to most toners. For more information see Chapter 10.

Figure 15.14 Cape Perpetua Driftwood, untoned (left); blue gold toned (right), © Denise Ross

The Recipe Chlorobromide (Kodabromide-Type) All-Purpose Paper Read the entire recipe before assembling ingredients and tools. Visualize the steps. Preheat two water baths: the first to 150°F/65°C, the second to 144–145°F/62–63°C. The first water bath will be used during the precipitation step. If your magnetic stirring plate is also a hot plate, you can preheat your water bath directly on its surface. There is room for a certain amount of flexibility with the temperatures. 145°F/63°C is very close to 150°F/65°C. If both the water baths stay within that temperature range, the emulsion is not going to be a failure. What is most important is consistency from batch to batch. Consistency is our friend. It allows us to calibrate our negatives to our paper and saves an untold amount of time, money, and frustration. Weigh out the chemicals. Double-check that all tools required are clean and at hand. Stage your paper for coating. This recipe is designed for magnetic stirring and coating on wet paper. The recipe can be modified for coating on dry paper. If necessary, review the chapters relating to emulsion making and coating. Also, review the chemical (material) safety data sheets (MSDS) for your ingredients. Banish pets and small children from your work space.

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Practice safe working habits. Be especially careful with silver nitrate. It is a strong oxidizer, which among other things means that it reacts with organic compounds. You are an organic compound. If you get silver nitrate on your skin, don’t panic, just wash it off immediately. But, know that your skin will be stained for a while. Silver nitrate discoloration cannot be washed off. It will be a part of your skin until the affected skin cells naturally slough off. It will never come off clothes, your floor or countertop, or your weighing scale. Working with silver nitrate means accepting a few stains. Our goal is keeping them to a minimum and only where they are acceptable. Getting silver nitrate in your eyes is the only serious hazard of working with the chemical, but it is a very serious one. Carefully study the MSDS for silver nitrate. Take great care to protect your eyes from silver nitrate solution, and never, under any circumstances, touch your face with your hands while you are working with chemicals.

Ingredients: Distilled water, photographic gelatin, silver nitrate, sodium chloride, potassium bromide, citric acid (as a 20% solution in water), Photo-Flo 200, and optionally, glyoxal, 40%. Tools. Magnetic stirring plate, magnetic stirring bar, two water baths, thermometers, two 250 ml beakers, two 150 ml beakers, plastic spoons, plastic wrap, small silicone scraper, Keurig K-cup filter (or similar), measuring cup with a handle (1⁄4 cup or 1⁄3 cup), and the paper coating set-up. Wear nitrile or latex gloves and whatever other protective items you feel appropriate. This emulsion should be made with a magnetic stirring plate. The addition/precipitation technique is “hot and fast.” For it to work best, the agitation vortex during addition must be very vigorous (see Chapter 5). A hand whisk would probably not suffice; although I must say I have never tried. The procedure calls for two heated water baths. The magnetic stirring plate does not need to be a heated type, but both water baths must be kept hot. Heating units makes this more convenient, but they are not necessary (see Chapter 3). In the second water bath, both the silver solution and the second gelatin are heated to 144–145°F/62–63°C, which melts the gelatin. The precipitation technique requires that the Silver Solution, followed immediately by the melted Second Gelatin, be added rapidly into the Salted Gelatin. Salted Gelatin Distilled water, room temperature or cooler ............................................. 60 ml Photographic gelatin .......................... 50 g

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Sodium chloride .................................... 2 g Potassium bromide ............................ 1.9 g Citric acid, 20% solution ............... 5 drops In a 250 ml beaker, combine the distilled water and the gelatin. Cover the beaker with a piece of plastic wrap. Let it sit at least 30 minutes for the gelatin to absorb all the water (“bloom”). Weigh out and mix together the sodium chloride and potassium bromide. Drop a magnetic stirring bar into the 250 ml beaker. Place the beaker in the 150°F/65°C water bath on the magnetic stirring plate and start very slow stirring. Sprinkle the sodium chloride and the potassium bromide slowly over the surface of the gelatin solution while the slow stirring continues. Stir 5 minutes and then add the drops of citric acid. Continue slow stirring until the Salted Gelatin solution comes up to 150°F/65°C. Silver Solution Distilled water, room temperature or cooler ............................................. 50 ml Silver nitrate ........................................... 5 g In a 150 ml beaker or equivalent, dissolve together the distilled water and the silver nitrate. Cover the beaker with plastic wrap and place it in the second water bath. Second Gelatin Distilled water, room temperature or cooler ............................................. 50 ml Photographic gelatin .......................... 15 g In a 150 ml beaker, combine the distilled water and the gelatin. Cover the beaker with a plastic wrap and place it in the second water bath, alongside the beaker of Silver Solution. When the Second Gelatin has melted and reached 144°F/62°C, skim off most of the surface foam that has formed. A clean plastic spoon is ideal for this. Go to safelight. Precipitation: Start a countdown timer for 45 minutes. Increase the stirring speed in the Salted Gelatin enough to form a strong—but not splashy—vortex. As rapidly as safely possible, dump the Silver Solution in the Salted Gelatin. Continue stirring for 30 seconds and then add the melted Second Gelatin as rapidly as possible. It won’t all pour out of the beaker. Stir 10 seconds and then stop the stirring. Now, with a clean silicone scraper, scrape the beaker of Second Gelatin and add it to the emulsion. You don’t have to stir it in. continued

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continued

Ripening: Leave the still emulsion sitting in the 150°F/65°C water bath until the end of the timer. Check the temperature often. The temperature range is very important for quality and consistency. Variations in temperature within a degree or two of the average are unlikely to cause problems, but the closer you can keep to the recommended temperature, the better. Paper preparation: While the emulsion is ripening, prepare your paper for coating (Chapter 6). Coating: Remove the beaker of emulsion from the water bath. Wipe the outside of the beaker. Slowly pour the emulsion through a K-cup filter into a clean 250 ml beaker. With a clean plastic spoon, very gently and slowly stir in 10 drops Photo-Flo 200. Stir for about a half minute and then stir in 5 drops glyoxal. Tip: The hardener is optional, but unhardened emulsion may require extra care to use cooler temperatures with the processing solutions and/or a hardening fixer. The water in this recipe is calibrated for wet paper coating. If you are coating dry paper, add 5–10 ml water along with the other finals. The exact amount is determined by experience and will depend on the paper you are using. Set a clean thermometer in the beaker of emulsion. Place the beaker of emulsion in a cold water bath. With very slow, gentle stirring with the plastic spoon, cool the emulsion to 99°F/37°C. Take it out of the cold water bath, wipe the outside of the beaker, and continue stirring until the temperature reaches the high-95s°F/35s°C. Coat at mid-to-low 95s°F/35s°C.

Hang and dry your paper using the methods in Chapter 6.

Notes The recipe coats approximately four 11″ × 30″ sheets of HP (hot press/minimal texture), long grain, watercolor paper. This is the width best suited for 9-inch puddle pushers. It requires between 14⁄ cup and 13⁄ cup to coat a sheet. The recipe coats five or six 7″ × 30″ sheets (with a 5-inch puddle pusher). It takes a little over 13⁄ cup to coat a sheet. The more heavily textured the paper, the less area the emulsion covers. Variation 1: The recipe can be doubled. Double the amounts of the ingredients; leave the times

and temperatures unchanged. The beakers need to be larger. Variation 2: Decreasing the ripening time slightly decreases the contrast. Don’t ripen for less than fifteen minutes.

Endnotes 1. Adams, Ansel, The Print: Contact Printing and Enlarging (Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1950). 2. Woodlief, Thomas, Jr., ed., SPSE Handbook of Photographic Science and Engineering. Eastman Kodak Company with the Society of Photographic Scientists and Engineers (New York: John Wiley, 1973), 519. 3. Anchell, Steve, The Darkroom Cookbook (3rd edn) (New York: Focal Press/Elsevier, 2008). 4. The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography, desk edn, s. v. “Developers” (London and New York: Focal Press, 1960).

Figure 16.0 Bright Sun on Polished Aluminum; Extreme Contrast Tamed with Bromide Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 16

Bromide Paper for Enlarging and Contact Printing

Figure 16.1 Birdsong, © Denise Ross

Some workers argue that bromide papers do not yield so rich a tonal scale as chloride and chlorobromide papers, but I feel that this is more a matter of the limitations of certain brands and a lack in the processor’s ability than a question of the shortcomings of bromide papers in general. Some of my finest prints have been produced on fast bromide papers, not only by enlarging, but also by contact printing with weak amber light. (Adams, 1950)1

B

y the time Ansel Adams wrote his first series of books, chlorobromide paper was the established go-to paper type, and except for a few niche purposes bromide paper was falling by the wayside. Then, as today, it was important to educate photographers on the value of bromide paper.

Bromide paper comes to us from the earliest days of silver gelatin history. The first enlarging papers were most often simply the same dry plate emulsions being used. Bromide paper was originally popular not only because it was a familiar negative recipe type, but also because it came very close to the gradient curves of the papers in use before

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silver gelatin, most of them printing-out papers (POP). This allowed established photographers to switch to the newfangled fast developing-out papers, while still being able to use most of their old negatives. And, it must be admitted, it probably allowed them to make their new negatives in the way familiar to them.

Bromide Emulsions Bromide paper delivers an amazing degree of enlarging speed for such a simple recipe. In addition, there is essentially no baseline fog. This results in a lovely long-gradient paper that still maintains spectral highlights the color of the base paper. It does have limitations. It’s hard to increase contrast, so it is best to print with a negative matched to the paper, not the other way around. The blacks are a bit softer than with chloride and chlorobromide papers. I think the paper is beautiful, and bromide papers did match the aesthetic of their day. But, as witnessed by the current popular aesthetic of digital hyper-sharpness and HDR gleam, tastes change. It wasn’t too long before ClBr papers became ascendant, and bromide papers gradually disappeared. The names Brovira and Royal Bromide belong to history. This recipe is my adaptation of the classic bromide paper recipes. It’s not complex. As befits its pre-electricity origins, it can be made with a hand whisk, although a magnetic stirrer is certainly handy. Almost all “bromide” emulsions, including this one, are actually bromo-iodide (BrI) emulsions. A touch of potassium iodide kicks up the speed several notches in two ways. First, iodide has more sensitivity to light in the visible spectrum, and second, its presence in a crystal matrix creates holes on the surfaces of the crystals. These imperfections act as photon traps, essentially harvesting more light. Figures 16.2 and 16.3 show both the long range of density gradients with bromide paper, and the similarity in response to Kodak HC110, 3%, and TLF-Plus developer (Chapter 11). This long range

makes the paper a good match for very contrasty negatives. Its speed makes it a good match for very dense negatives. Often, of course, negatives are both. My first love affair with a photographic material was with Ilford Pan F. I used it in my new-to-me Rolleiflex TLR camera. Pure joy. Pan F is a gorgeous emulsion. However, it may not have been the smartest choice for Texas summer sunshine! Somewhere on the Gulf coast I photographed a blinding white church (Figure 16.4). The negative was opaque black in the sky and almost clear in the shaded areas. It wasn’t until variable contrast paper became excellent that I was able to pull a (barely) decent print from the negative. Today, Lightroom can extract all the information; amazingly, bromide paper can do every bit as well. The enlargement (Figure 16.5), made with a condenser enlarger, required almost no manipulation; just a bit of dodging within the door and burning on the sunlit side of the church. Figure 16.7 was made with the same Rolleiflex camera, thirty-three years later. It was photographed on the Oregon coast, rather than the Texas coast, and it was made with handmade orthochromatic film, rather than the panchromatic Pan F. No negative from the Oregon coast will look exactly like a negative made on the Texas coast, but the two prints would be compatible in a portfolio. This is one of the strengths of any alternative printing process. Anyone who has been a photographer for more than a few years likely has a variety of original negatives or files that are technologically different from each other. A physical print portfolio allows us to pull together coherent bodies of work from across a creative lifetime. If you make your own film, or dry plate negatives, bromide paper is an excellent match for both enlarging and contact printing. The long gradient range is seemingly made for printing the types of emulsions that are very slow, and which also can be very dense and contrasty. The negative for Figure 16.9 is too dense to scan well. The handmade

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Figure 16.2 (top) Kodak HC110, © Denise Ross Figure 16.3 (bottom) TLF-Plus, © Denise Ross

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Figure 16.4 (left) Ilford Pan F negative, © Denise Ross Figure 16.5 (right) Bromide paper enlargement, untoned, © Denise Ross

Figure 16.6 Detail from Figure 16.5, © Denise Ross

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Figure 16.7 (left) Bromide paper enlargement, © Denise Ross Figure 16.8 (right) Detail from Figure 16.7, © Denise Ross

Figure 16.9 (left) Pineapple, bromide paper enlargement, © Denise Ross Figure 16.10 (right) Detail from Figure 16.9, © Denise Ross

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Figure 16.11 Detail from Figure 16.1, © Denise Ross

orthochromatic negative is 6 × 9 cm, enlarged to a 5″ × 7″ print. Figure 16.1, Birdsong, is a contact print of a 5″ × 7″ TMAX 400 negative. The negative is too dense to scan. It’s printable only on variable contrast paper (with a lot of effort) and on bromide paper (almost effortlessly). Bromide paper is probably not going to be anyone’s go-to paper for all situations, but it can be a valuable option. Technically, a bromide emulsion has a lower resolution than a chloride emulsion, especially when it’s deliberately made for speed. That’s physical fact based on the average sizes of their respective grain. However, the inherent resolution of the emulsion has less effect on the perceived sharpness of a bromide print than does exposure and development. Negatives can be pushed and pulled to a

certain extent without ruining an image. Paper is far less forgiving, even if the emulsions are essentially the same. In the 2× enlargement (condenser enlarger) in Figure 16.12, it’s easy to see very fine lines. The resolution of the paper sufficiently supports fine detail. The enlargement appears “sharp.” But, look carefully at the difference between a white line on black, and a black line on white. The L-shaped lighter block is a piece of Yupo, printed in contact with the resolution target film. The Yupo reduced the exposure under it, clearly affecting the physically measurable sharpness (the acutance) of the line of demarcation between dark and light. The paper under the Yupo is underexposed, which itself decreases the visibility of the fine details and the perception of sharpness. For adequate print

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Figure 16.12 (top) Bromide paper enlargement, © Denise Ross Figure 16.13 (middle) Detail from Figure 16.12, © Denise Ross Figure 16.14 (bottom) Detail from Figure 16.13, © Denise Ross

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Figure 16.15 Selenium toned bromide paper, © Denise Ross

density there needs to be enough exposure, but if detail in a print is important (and, often, it’s not important), then it pays to get the exposure as right as possible. With any print, it is likely there will be trade-offs. Resolution, sharpness, and acutance are all good concepts to understand, but it is the beauty of the final print that matters. Good technique in the field and in the darkroom go a long way toward a good print, but it’s very easy to get side-tracked by the concept of ideal technique and the ideal print. Make a lot of prints, pay a bit of attention

to what you are doing, and in short order the details will almost take care of themselves. First, have fun.

Toning In general, bromide paper doesn’t tone as easily as chloride and chloro-bromide papers, but it does respond. My only personal experience is with selenium and blue gold, half-strength ammonium thiocyanate variation (Chapter 10). Additional information about toning bromide paper, along with lith printing, is in Chapter 21.

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Figure 16.16 (left) Selenium toned bromide paper, © Denise Ross Figure 16.17 (right) Blue gold toned bromide paper, © Denise Ross

The Recipe Bromide Paper Read the entire recipe before assembling ingredients and tools. Visualize the steps. Preheat a water bath to 131°F/55°C. Weigh out the chemicals. Double-check that all tools required are clean and at hand. Stage your paper for coating. This recipe is designed for coating on wet paper. Modifications coating on dry paper are at the end of the recipe. If necessary, review the chapters relating to emulsion making and coating. Also, review the chemical (material) safety data sheets (MSDS) for your ingredients. Banish pets and small children from your work space.

Practice safe working habits. Be especially careful with silver nitrate. It is a strong oxidizer, which among other things means that it reacts with organic compounds. You are an organic compound. If you get silver nitrate on your skin, don’t panic, just wash it off immediately. But, know that your skin will be stained for a while. Silver nitrate discoloration cannot be washed off. It will be a part of your skin until the affected skin cells naturally slough off. It will never come off clothes, your floor or countertop, or your weighing scale. Working with silver nitrate means accepting a few stains. Our goal is keeping them to a minimum, and only where they are acceptable.

continued

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continued

Getting silver nitrate in your eyes is the only serious hazard of working with the chemical, but it is a very serious one. Carefully study the MSDS for silver nitrate. Take great care to protect your eyes from silver nitrate solution, and never, under any circumstances, touch your face with your hands while you are working with chemicals.

Ingredients: Distilled water, photographic gelatin, ammonium bromide (NH4Br), potassium iodide (KI) 10% solution, silver nitrate (AgNO3), Kodak Photo-Flo 200. Optional: glyoxal, 40%. Tools: Magnetic stirring plate and magnetic stirring bar (or a hand whisk), water bath, thermometers, two 400 ml beakers, two 150 ml beakers, 250 ml beaker, plastic spoons, 1-tablespoon (or 15 ml) measuring spoon, small silicone scraper, plastic wrap, rubber band, Keurig K-cup filter (or similar), timer, lightproof container large enough to hold a 400 ml beaker, and the paper coating set-up. Wear nitrile or latex gloves and whatever other protective items you feel appropriate. Salted Gelatin In a 400ml beaker, dissolve together Distilled water, room temperature or cooler ............................................. 90 ml Ammonium bromide ......................... 8.2 g When completely dissolved, slowly and thoroughly stir in Photographic gelatin ............................ 4 g Cover the beaker with a piece of plastic wrap. Let it sit at least 30 minutes for the gelatin to absorb all the water (“bloom”). Prepare the Second Gelatin and Silver Solution. Second Gelatin In a 150 ml beaker, mix together, cover, and set aside Photographic gelatin .......................... 20 g Distilled water .................................... 50 ml Silver Solution In a 150 ml beaker, dissolve together Silver nitrate ......................................... 10 g Distilled water .................................... 90 ml Right before the precipitation step, warm the Silver Solution by setting it in a cup of hot (not boiling) water. When the Salted Gelatin has bloomed, set the beaker in the pre-heated water bath. The water bath temperature will cool at first. Let it come back up to 131°F/55°C. Place a

Bromide Paper for Enlarging and Contact Printing Paper 201

clean thermometer in the gelatin and another one in the water bath to monitor the temperatures. If your plate is not a heating type, replace the cooling water in the water bath with hot water until the temperature of the gelatin is 131°F/55°C. (Keep the temperature there until the end of the ripening time.) Remove the thermometer. If you are using a magnetic stirring plate, place a magnetic stirring bar in the beaker of Salted Gelatin. Start a strong—but not splashy—stirring vortex. Alternatively, have your hand whisk ready. Go to safelight. Precipitation: Start a timer for a 10 minute countdown. With constant, consistent vigorous stirring, either from the magnetic vortex or hand whisking, add the Silver Solution to the Salted Gelatin at a rate of 15 ml (1 tablespoon) once a minute until the solution is gone. Continue vigorous stirring between additions, and then until the end of the 10 minute countdown. Ripening: Let the emulsion sit in the water bath, without stirring, for an additional 15 minutes. If you are using a magnetic stirring bar, remove it with a plastic fork. Gently stir in the Second Gelatin with a plastic spoon. Let it sit in the water bath for an additional 5 minutes. Cover the beaker with plastic wrap secured tightly with a rubber band. Place the beaker in a lightproof container. Refrigerate for 8 hours to a week. Preservative is not required. Digestion: Preheat a 131°F/55°C water bath. Stage your coating. Under safelight conditions, set the beaker of emulsion in the water bath and allow it to melt, without stirring, for 30 minutes. As soon as you place the cold beaker of emulsion in the water bath, the water temperature will drop. Replace the cool water with enough hot water to bring the temperature back up to 131°F/55°C. Repeat this step at 15 minutes remaining if the water bath heating unit has not brought the temperature back up to at least 122°F/50°C. Take notes. The rate of temperature return is an emulsion variable. Paper preparation: While the emulsion is coming up to temperature, prepare your paper for coating. After 30 minutes, remove the beaker of emulsion from the water bath, wipe the outside dry, and pour the emulsion through a K-cup filter into a dry, clean 400 ml beaker. With a clean plastic spoon, very gently stir in 10–12 drops Photo-Flo 200, and optionally, 6–8 drops glyoxal. (If you are coating dry paper, add 2–5 ml distilled water, or more. The exact amount varies with the type of paper and must be determined by trial and error.) Place the beaker in a cold water bath and with very slow and gentle stirring, cool the emulsion to coating temperature (approximately 97°F/36°C). Coat the prepared paper.

Hang and dry the paper as described in Chapter 6.

Endnote 1. Adams, Ansel, The Print: Contact Printing and Enlarging (Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1950), 5.

Figure 17.0 Digital Camera, Enlarged Digital Negative, Contact Printed on POP

Chapter 17

Gelatin-Chloride Printing-Out Paper (POP)

Figure 17.1 Solio Printing-Out Paper. Introduced in 1892, the paper was available with white and mauve paper tints, and smooth, matt, and glossy surface textures. There was even a specially hardened option for working in the tropics. The package doesn’t say that it’s a POP, no more than packages of paper today say “developing-out.” © Eastman Kodak Co.

In giving detailed instructions for working with any photographic process, the description always appears to be more complex than the work actually becomes in practice, and P.O.P. is no exception to this rule. (Wastell, 1922)1

A

ll the modern papers we are familiar with are developing-out papers. That is, there is no image after exposure until the paper has been put in a developing bath. Only then does the latent image become visible. Printing-out paper, on the other hand, reveals its image during exposure to light, otherwise known as “printing.” If you go online to buy a box of printing paper (or shop at a physical store if you are lucky enough to live near one) you probably won’t read either DOP or Developing-Out Paper on the box or in the description. Developing-out has been the default silver gelatin printing paper for many years.

The type of paper is assumed, but that wasn’t always so. Over the years there have been a great variety of commercial printing-out papers, not only silver gelatin, but also collodion, albumen, platinum, and blueprint paper (cyanotype). Kodak’s last POP was called Studio Proof. It was discontinued in 1987. It took a year for Chicago Albumen Works (CAW) to line up Guilleminot, a French firm, to make a gelatin chloride printingout paper for them. It was marketed under the name Centennial, a venerable name from early photographic history. When Guilleminot closed its doors in 1995, Kentmere Photographic picked

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up making the paper. That, however, has also stopped, and as I write this, Centennial paper is no longer offered for sale. What this means for us is that if we want to print on gelatin-chloride POP, we have to make our own. Fortunately, it could hardly be easier. This recipe is directly related to Potassium Chloride (KCl) “Gaslight” Contact Printing Paper (Chapter 15). Ease aside, a question that could be reasonably asked is “why?” Number one is because we can— for knowledge’s sake, fun, creative potential, or simply (and let’s face it) niche-marketing. However, there’s another reason to pursue this—just as important, and I believe growing in importance— its value to museums interested in historical veracity. The oldest glass plates were exposed and developed for the papers of their times. This meant they had to be very dense and contrasty. This, in turn, means they require a paper with a very long density range. Before the digital era, museums had to print their old negatives and plates on developing-out paper, as often as not on an RC (resin-coated) paper. The results were usually abysmal: chalk and charcoal values and neutral tones, rather than the long, smooth density gradients and rich, warm tones of printing-out papers. To a great extent, those problems have been eliminated. Digital printing can reproduce the full range of accurate historical values and colors. However, the last step toward true (rather than only “faithful”) reproduction involves real paper, whatever the type of paper that matches the time frame of the negative. Thanks to the efforts of the photographers who have worked to bring historical processes into the present, most materials matching is possible today. The exception is handmade silver gelatin printing-out paper. It is high time gelatin POP finds its place among contemporary alternative/traditional/historical processes. For the entire history of photography, something new has always been right around the corner. Once upon a time, printing-out papers were the photographic printing technology. When gelatin POP grabbed the market from albumen, the same

thing happened that happens every time there’s a new photo-technology tsunami: everyone rushed in with advice on the best (i.e. their own) way to do things. Consequently, there are a great many different workflows in the literature. Because there are not yet many contemporary artists working with handmade POP, there is still much in the old literature to be discovered and refined. And because there is a strong positive feedback loop between experience and getting good information from historical documents, what it comes down to is that we have to do the work to do the work.

The Basics A printing-out paper has more silver than a comparable developing-out emulsion.2 In addition to excess silver nitrate, there is at least one organic compound, which forms an organic salt and is required for a “genuine” POP. Citric acid and sodium potassium tartrate (also known as Rochelle salt) are the most common compounds used. A developing-out silver chloride emulsion (DOP), left out in the light, slowly exposes to a grayish blue-violet color. Without the action of a developer, it will never become truly black. Anyone who has left emulsion making glassware out before cleaning up knows the color. Organic silver salts turn a much different color. Rather than grayish blue-violet, emulsion left out looks like melted rich chocolate. The color change goes much darker than it does with DOP emulsion. The exact color of an emulsion varies with the components. Toning is optional and influences final print color, as does the color (or “tint”) of the paper stock. Without toning, print colors are variations on yellowish or reddish brown. Toning can change the colors to gray blue, copper, sepia, or a velvety purplish-brown. According to the literature, only platinum toning will produce a true black. This may have been desirable before the invention of developing-out paper, but today we’ve got cheaper ways to get a good black! As with a developing-out chloride paper (Figure 17.2), chloride POP is able to render fine detail.

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Figure 17.2 (left) Potassium chloride “Gaslight” printing paper, © Denise Ross Figure 17.3 (right) Potassium chloride/citric acid POP, © Denise Ross

However, the density ranges of the two related emulsions are a world apart. In Figure 19.3, the step tablet doesn’t capture the density range of the POP. The light strips running through the steps are from lightproof film tape on the step negative. It allows an accurate evaluation of how close minimum exposure is to paper base color. The circle in step #1 is a hole punched in the negative. It allows an accurate evaluation of how close to maximum exposure step #1 got. In the physical print of the step tablet, the circle is a bit darker than #1. The long density range of printing-out paper allows for a faithful interpretation of negatives with an equally long density range.

The Recipe Rives BFK, 250 gsm, is my favorite paper for this recipe. Because the emulsion is gelatin-rich, the BFK light sizing works well. Heavily sized papers can cause problems. The emulsion must be coated considerably warmer than most other emulsions or the dried coating will be too thick. Too-thick emulsion is almost impossible to completely clear during fixing without damaging the highlight areas of a print.

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Baker’s Gelatin Chloride POP, TLF Version #1 Read the entire recipe before assembling ingredients and tools. Visualize the steps. Preheat one water bath to 131°F/55°C and another to 100°F/38°C. A water bath can be pre-heated with any heat source and mixing can be done with any method, as long as the emulsion ripens at 131°F/55°C. Weigh out the chemicals. Double-check that all tools required are clean and at hand. Stage your paper for coating. This recipe is designed for coating on wet paper. If necessary, review the chapters relating to emulsion making and coating. Also, review the chemical safety data sheets (MSDS) for your ingredients. Banish pets and small children from your work space.

Practice safe working habits. Be especially careful with silver nitrate. It is a strong oxidizer, which among other things means that it reacts with organic compounds. You are an organic compound. If you get silver nitrate on your skin, don’t panic, just wash it off immediately. But, know that your skin will be stained for a while. Silver nitrate discoloration cannot be washed off. It will be a part of your skin until the affected skin cells naturally slough off. It will never come off clothes, your floor or countertop, or your weighing scale. Working with silver nitrate means accepting a few stains. Our goal is keeping them to a minimum, and only where they are acceptable. Getting silver nitrate in your eyes is the only serious hazard of working with the chemical, but it is a very serious one. Carefully study the MSDS for silver nitrate. Take great care to protect your eyes from silver nitrate solution, and never, under any circumstances, touch your face with your hands while you are working with chemicals.

Read the entire recipe before assembling ingredients and tools. Visualize the steps. This recipe is a modification of Potassium Chloride (KCl) “Gaslight” Contact Printing Paper. The instructions are for magnetic stirring. Refer to instructions for hand mixing in Chapter 13. Ingredients: Distilled water, photographic gelatin, potassium chloride (KCl), silver nitrate (AgNO3), citric acid, and Kodak Photo-Flo 200. Tools: Magnetic stirring plate and magnetic stirring bar, two water baths, thermometers, two 400 ml beakers, three approximately 50 ml beakers, plastic spoons, plastic wrap, very small funnel (3–4 ml outlet), small silicone scraper, Keurig K-cup filter (or similar), measuring cup with a handle (1⁄4 cup or 1⁄3 cup), and a paper coating set-up. Wear nitrile or latex gloves and whatever other protective items you feel appropriate.

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Salted Gelatin In a 400 ml beaker, dissolve together Distilled water, room temperature or cooler ........................................... 150 ml Potassium chloride ................................ 3 g When completely dissolved, slowly and thoroughly stir in Photographic gelatin .......................... 25 g Cover the beaker with a piece of plastic wrap. Let it sit at least 30 minutes for the gelatin to absorb all the water (“bloom”). Set the beaker of bloomed gelatin in the 131°F/55°C water bath until the solution reaches 131°F/55°C. Prepare the Silver Solution. Silver Solution In a small beaker (50 ml) dissolve together Silver nitrate ........................................... 5 g Distilled water .................................... 25 ml Warm the Silver Solution in the 100°C/38°C water bath. Place a magnetic stirring bar in the beaker of Salted Gelatin. Start a strong—but not splashy—stirring vortex. Set a timer for a five minute countdown. Go to safelight. Precipitation: Start the timer. Hold the small funnel over the beaker of Salted Gelatin, approximately halfway between the wall of the beaker and the center of the stirring vortex. Carefully pour the Silver Solution through the funnel into the salted gelatin. Continue stirring until the end of the five minutes. Ripening: Stop the stirring. Let the emulsion sit at 131°F/55°C for 30 minutes. Monitor both the water bath temperature and the emulsion temperature. Do not use the same thermometer for both unless you clean it impeccably each time before placing it in the emulsion. Paper preparation: While the emulsion is ripening, prepare your paper for coating. POP Conversion step: Mix two separate solutions, each in a small (50 ml) beaker. Solution A Silver nitrate ........................................... 5 g Distilled water .................................... 15 ml Solution B Citric acid .............................................. 2 g Distilled water .................................... 15 ml

continued

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continued

Hold the two solutions in the 100°F/38°C water bath while the emulsion is ripening. Mix them together right before adding to the ripened emulsion with slow, gentle stirring with a clean plastic spoon. Pour the emulsion through a K-cup filter into a clean beaker. Gently and thoroughly stir in Photo-Flo 200 ................................ 20 drops (Hardener is not recommended.) Continue gentle stirring at room temperature, or in a cool (not cold) water bath, until the emulsion reaches coating temperature (104–108°F/40–42°C). Don’t let the emulsion get too cool. Coat on prepared paper. The recipe is scaled to coat four pieces of 11″ × 30″ paper (cut from two 22″ × 30″ sheets). Eleven inches wide is perfect for coating with a 9-inch puddle pusher. Rives BFK coats best with 9–10 wraps of Scotch 850 polyester (“Mylar”) film tape. The single most likely source of problems with this emulsion is being too thick once it has dried on the paper, so don’t be afraid to experiment with different ways of getting your best coating thickness. Trial/error/success. We can’t escape the creative process! One strip of 11″ wide paper takes 1⁄4 to 1⁄3 cup of emulsion—give or take exactly how much of the length of the full 30″ strip you can coat with your staging. Hang and dry the paper as described in Chapter 6.

The Workflow In a nutshell: (1) choose or make the right negative; (2) expose the negative and paper together in a contact printing frame under artificial UV light or sunlight; (3) fix only, or fix/tone/fix, and 4) wash. The Right Negative In the heyday of gelatin POP, there was a range of different contrast grades manufactured. The first papers were made to match the expectations, negatives, and work habits of albumen printers. With the handmade options realistically available to us today, we are probably best off matching our negatives to our paper and not the other way around. The best negatives have a long density range. The easiest way to get a good negative for POP is to make a digital negative, either from a scanned glass plate negative, scanned film, or from a digital camera file. Another option is to make a digital contrast control mask. This lets us use an original negative to make a print while still letting us use negatives that might otherwise be unsuitable.

Printing You can go either of two routes, depending on your printing light source. Before electricity, printing was done by sunlight. “Skylight” studios were designed with printing-out papers in mind. Contact printing frames were designed for visual inspection of half the print, without disturbing the registration of negative and paper, and experienced printers really had exposure nailed. Needless to say, we can still do things that way. In the old literature, bright, indirect sunlight was always recommended. Direct mid-day summer sunlight is not recommended. As I found out the hard way when I was printing albumen in Arizona: negatives cook. The second option is a UV/ “blacklight” bulb array. With this light, you can make test prints just as you would with any other printing. Fortunately, other alternative processes require artificial UV light and there are a great many recommendations and products. A good place to start is the Bostick & Sullivan website.

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Figure 17.4 Exposed, but not yet fixed, POP print, © Denise Ross

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Either way, expose the print until it appears seriously overexposed (Figure 17.4). The highlights should look several stops too dark and the blacks might have the faintest hint of being “bronzed.” There are no absolutes by which to judge all exposures. There’s a range of values that work for one image or another. The right exposure is the key to success, of course, but it can be a trick. It takes some experience to understand what you’re seeing when you are printing out by inspection. Overexposure

Beyond a certain point, increasing exposure does not increase print density. Extreme overexposure, even if the print doesn’t get overly heated, essentially bakes the emulsion; think winter skin under a tropical sun. In Figure 17.5, the paper area was about a half inch larger on all sides than the digital negative in its bag. The negative itself was printed and cut so that there was a half inch of clear material on all sides surrounding the printed image area. OHP, even without ink, blocks a certain amount of UV. The emulsion under the OHP

wasn’t badly affected. However, the surrounding paper was overexposed to the point that the density started backing off (solarization). The emulsion frilled and lifted, even into the image area, even though that wasn’t overexposed. Underexposure

It’s a balancing act with digital negatives, at least if you leave unprinted film around the negative image. Too little exposure and the paper around the image doesn’t reach maximum density. You can always trim a digital negative right up to the image area, but unless you have an exquisitely sharp cutter, there’s a risk of a ragged edge that will be visible on the print. Also, and just as important, I think, is that an edge of clear digital negative material serves as a built-in density monitor. If you can’t see a line demarking a density difference, you know the shadows in your print are as deep as they can be. Alternatively, you could trim the print to eliminate the dark border, but I think a dark emulsion surround is beautiful.

Figure 17.5 (left) Overexposed POP print from antique 4″ × 5″ dry plate negative; unknown date, subject, and photographer, © Denise Ross Figure 17.6 (right) Detail of an underexposed POP print, © Denise Ross

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Figure 17.7 Fixed and toned POP print, © Denise Ross

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Dry-down

Remember to take dry-down into account when you are judging a wet print. The only way to understand the effect of dry-down is experience.

Fixing, or Fixing and Toning After exposure, the print is fixed and then toned, or fixed and toned in the same step, or it is simply fixed, which leaves the inherent emulsion color unchanged. You can find countless toning recipes and recommendations in the old literature. For now, I’ve aimed for the simplest protocols and those which seem to have the most consensus behind them. Figure 17.7 is Figure 17.4 after it was fixed/toned in Hypo & Gold POP Toner/ Fixer. The color is a distinctive range from purplish brown to very rich chocolate.

Hypo & Gold POP Toner/Fixer To make one liter. Distilled water (122°F/50°C) ........... 900 ml Sodium thiosulfate (hypo) ................ 120 g Gold chloride, 1% solution ............... 30 ml Completely dissolve the hypo in 900 ml water. When you are sure that all the crystals have dissolved, keep stirring a few more minutes. Continue stirring and pour in the 1% gold chloride. Don’t let it splash. Gold chloride is caustic. Add enough water to bring the volume to 1000 ml and stir a few minutes more. Transfer to a glass amber bottle and let the solution rest for a day before you use it. Shake before using.

Figure 17.8 (left) Hypo & Gold toned POP print from antique 5″ × 7″ dry plate negative; unknown date, subject, and photographer, © Denise Ross Figure 17.9 (right) Hypo & Gold toned POP print from antique 5″ × 7″ dry plate negative; unknown date, subject, and photographer, © Denise Ross

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There are many variations of gold toner, including several variations with ammonium thiocyanate. Blue Gold POP Toner To make 500 ml. Distilled water (125°F/52°C) ........... 375 ml Ammonium thiocyanate .................... 26 g Gold chloride (1% solution) ............. 30 ml Water to bring the total solution volume to ......................................... 500 ml Dissolve the ammonium thiocyanate completely in the water. Stir in the gold chloride. Add enough additional distilled water to bring the total volume to 500 ml. Store in an amber bottle or out of prolonged direct light. Use at room temperature.

Gold toning is not as expensive as it might seem at first glance. As I write this, Artcraft Chemicals is selling one gram of gold chloride for $45. Although that’s not cheap, one gram makes 100 ml of 1% gold chloride solution. It takes less than a third of that to make a liter of toner. Depending on the size prints you make, over three liters of toner can go a long way. A rich chocolate color is lovely, but toning is not required. In its day, the color of an untoned print wasn’t considered attractive.3 That’s convention, not fact. Today, when we can make any digital print any shade we wish, I’d like to think we’re a bit more open-minded. Gold toning adds to the archival life of a silver print, but it’s only a matter of degree. A properly fixed and washed silver print is “archival.” Figure 17.10 is two prints scanned together. On the left, the print was fixed in plain hypo (sodium thiosulfate) only; on the right, a print fixed in Hypo & Gold POP Toner/Fixer. I like

Figure 17.10 POP prints, untoned (left) and Hypo & Gold toned (right), © Denise Ross

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them both. If there’s a truly unattractive POP color, I haven’t bumped into it yet. Having said that, there is tremendous variability in POP. Reading through the old literature, it feels like everything has been reported to influence color at one time or another—the light source, the humidity, the emulsion, and of course, the toning. I can’t claim to have tried a fraction of the permutations. After it was fully fixed in plain hypo, Figure 17.11 was toned (Hypo & Gold POP Toner/Fixer) for a full ten minutes. It would be hard to distinguish it from a conventional selenium-toned print. The color may not be only from the time in the toning bath. I made the print with a same negative as the other pirate portraits, registered with a Pictorico OHP digital contrast control mask (Chapter 8). The OHP material may have changed the color of the light reaching the paper, and that in turn may have influenced the toned color. If consistency from print to print matters, it might be wise to incorporate the same materials into every printing session. Placing an unprinted piece of OHP, for example, over each print during exposure not only ensures that the color will be consistent, it makes it a lot easier to judge the timing of negatives that need to be masked. Because so many factors can influence print color, it’s best to establish a repeatable workflow from start to finish. If a print is fixed without toning, it should get the standard two-bath plain hypo fixing treatment. If a print is toned, either after fixing, or in combination with fixing, it should receive an additional five minute fix in plain hypo. Err on the side of caution as far as fixer exhaustion goes. Replace used fix with fresh frequently. It is sometimes suggested that a print be trimmed right up to the image area before toning. This conserves the gold in a toner, so it’s more economical with a workflow that reuses toner until it is exhausted. Whether or not that is our workflow, I think there are two reasons to leave a generous border, rather than trimming it off. First, it’s pretty.

It celebrates the process. But, that’s subjective. The second reason is objective print quality. A dark border protects the light areas of a print. Highlights and the lighter mid-tones are more susceptible to over-fixing, especially along the cut edges of a print where fixer can wick into the paper. The image area may be discolored, or the image itself may look like it’s been rubbed off. Even if the damage starts in a light area, it can migrate to denser areas.

Washing Follow the same washing protocol as with any other print (Chapter 9). The Case for Digital Negatives for POP I’m going to advocate for the value of digital negatives with this process. There are quite a few good reasons besides being able to print with a bigger negative. First, most of us have not been making our negatives with a printing-out process in mind. It’s nice to be able to pull out old favorites and use them with any process. Our new favorites are likely from digital cameras, including phone cameras. The output from these is necessarily digital negatives. Very old negatives and plates are often damaged. Few people have the skills required to retouch old negatives. Even so, it’s hard to justify invasive restoration techniques on precious historical materials. Perhaps the most important reason to print with digital negatives is to allow for an exposed border surrounding the image area. If we are printing with a glass plate negative, the print is the same size as the negative. There isn’t an option of an exposed paper border, either for aesthetics or for image protection. Making a digital negative opens up our options. We need own only one standard printing frame, rather than one frame for each size glass plate we print. On eBay, I purchased a 4″ × 5″ gelatin dry plate made by an unknown photographer, on an

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Figure 17.11 POP print made with a handmade film negative and a contrast control digital negative, © Denise Ross

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Figure 17.12 Faded POP print edges, © Denise Ross

Figure 17.13 POP print from antique 4″ × 5″ dry plate negative; unknown date, subject, and photographer, © Denise Ross

unknown date, in an unknown place, of unnamed people. The plate was almost certainly shot by an amateur photographer. The focus is a bit off. The horizon level is way off. The plate itself is in terrible shape. The emulsion is flaking off on the top, it’s

scratched, and the silver has started to tarnish. Despite the flaws, I was drawn to the subjects. The photographer captured something real, unlike so many stilted formal portraits, whether they were made a hundred years ago, or yesterday.

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Figure 17.14 (left) Detail of Figure 17.13, © Denise Ross Figure 17.15 (right) Detail of a print made with a damaged digital negative, © Denise Ross

An absolutely faithful reproduction would take the negative as-is. Or, we can try to make a print our couple might have been happy to have. There are probably as many methods for making digital negatives as there are photographers using them. Most, if not all, produce excellent results. I share mine only to show how simple it can be. I scanned the plate on a flatbed scanner with a transparency lid, at 16-bit grayscale and 3200 dpi. In Photoshop, I straightened the horizon, cropped, and used the spot healing brush tool where it was needed. I flipped the print horizontally and inverted it. I did some burning and dodging to make a nice print and then applied curves to bring the histogram to approximately 18/15/14. It is a very dense digital negative. I increased the image size and decreased the resolution to 720 dpi. I printed a Pictorico OHP digital negative on an Epson photo printer. The print settings were black and white at 2880 × 1440 dpi, with no other tools applied.

A test print or two will show you where you might like to do some localized burning and dodging or general contrast increase or decrease. Take notes as you go along, and you’ll very quickly get to know the best parameters for your workflow. However, there isn’t such a beast as the perfect profile that will get you a perfect negative at first crack. Except on the rare occasion when luck strikes, there will always be test prints and tweaks in the workflow. As wonderful as digital negatives may be to work with, they are easily damaged by watercolor paper coated with emulsion. OHP and printer inks aren’t cheap, so it’s smart to protect the negatives. I always print with my digital negatives inside a thin polyester print storage bag. I buy them from ClearBags.com. It’s not only potential waste and expense of the negative material. A digital negative that has even small amounts of ink damage transfers that damage

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to the print in the same way as a pinhole from dust on a film negative.

Color Variations Between Different Densities With this recipe there is a subtle, yet distinctive, shift in color from the densest areas to the lightest, even to the extent that the colors used to spot a print ideally should be fine-tuned for the density. I use Marshall’s Photo Retouch Colors for my spotting. Omegabrandress.com still carries the full line. Search “product/Retouching-Dyes.”

Spot #1 (deepest density) is a mix 1 part Verona Brown and 2 parts Basic Violet. Spot #2 is one part each of Verona Brown and Basic Violet. Spots #3 and #4 are both 2 parts Verona Brown and 1 part Basic Violet, but the dilution increases with decreasing density. The addition of Raw Sienna to the palette is handy if you are fixing only (no toning), or if your toning tends to reddish. Practicing is the only real way to learn spotting. A couple of tricks are handy, however. Work as dry as possible. Emulsion lightens when it gets

Figure 17.16 Color variations from density variations, © Denise Ross

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wet. In addition, there can be subtle color shifts. You may not be matching a color as closely as you hope if you let an area get too wet. If an area does get too wet, it’s best to let it dry and then come back to it. Build up color density slowly and then stop short of a perfect match. A slightly lighter spotting job disappears; slightly darker sticks out like a sore thumb (Chapter 9). This is a gelatin-rich emulsion. It naturally has a satiny sheen on HP paper, even paper that has been only air-dried, but it responds particularly well to mylar ferrotyping, and to drying with a hairdryer (Chapter 9). A ferrotyped or heat-dried print is glossier. A scan and reproduction is much more faithful in virtual appearance to the physical print. The differences in detail rendition are not as apparent when the physical prints are viewed side by side. Aside from the special case of drying the surface of a print with a constantly moving hairdryer while you are securely holding down the corners to minimize curling, don’t try to force print drying with heat beyond that of a warm room. Drying a

print too fast makes it want to curl into a tight roll. Once it does that, trying to force a print flat will only bend it. Handmade emulsion coated on flexible watercolor paper won’t easily crack like a commercial print can, but the paper will crease, and that crease will be visible on the print. If your paper does dry in a tight curl, the best thing to do is submerge it in a generous amount of clean, cool water and let it flatten on its own. Then, re-dry the print more carefully.

Recap It seems that everyone who ever printed with POP had his or her own method. I’ve sorted through a number of them and have some pretty firm opinions of my own. Theoretically, you can work by dim room light, but why take the chance of degrading highlights when working by the bright light of cheery, red LED mini-lights is so easy? Because the chemistry is all one-shot, a print at a time can be made. There’s no need to schedule an elaborate or extensive darkroom session. You

Figure 17.17 Details from two prints, ferrotyped (left) and air-dried (right), © Denise Ross

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only need room for one tray. Besides the chemicals needed for the emulsion itself, only sodium thiosulfate (“hypo”) is required, along with the chemicals for toning, if you choose to tone. • Choose the negative. • Place the negative in a thin mylar print bag to protect it or place a thin single sheet of mylar between the paper emulsion and the negative emulsion. One side of a print bag is perfect. • Expose the print. You can decide the correct exposure by inspection, or by making a test strip print with a series of increasing exposures. • Take the print out of the printing frame and place it straight into a tray of plain hypo fix.

Figure 17.18 Beached Bull Kelp, © Denise Ross

• • •

• • •

You only need enough to cover the print by about a half inch. If your tray is a close size match for the print, you will waste very little chemistry. Gently and constantly agitate the print for five minutes. Pour off the hypo (do not reuse). Into the same tray, pour just enough Hypo & Gold POP Toner/Fixer or blue gold toner to cover the print and gently and constantly agitate for five to ten minutes. Pour off the solution. Into the same tray, pour fresh plain hypo— again, just enough to cover the print. Gently and constantly agitate for five minutes.

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• Pour off the hypo. • Wash the print for two hours with a passive washing technique (Chapter 9). This can be in one tray, changing water every 15 minutes, or in a succession of trays if you are processing a number of prints in a session. • When the washing is complete, remove the print from the water and place it, emulsion side up, on a couple of layers of clean paper toweling. Gently run a clean puddle pusher over the surface to remove excess water. • Lay the print, emulsion side up, on a clean screen to dry at room temperature, or dry it with

a hairdryer, or ferrotype it on mylar on glass (Chapter 9). Depending on the humidity and temperature, air-drying can take up to a day. Additional recipes and instructions for working with POP are in Chapter 20. Endnotes 1. Bennett, H. W., The Barnet Book of Photography, “P.O.P. and Self-toning Paper,” Wastell, W. L. F., ed. (Herts, UK: Elliott and Sons, Barnet, 1922), 122. 2. Baker, T. Thorne, “A Homemade Chloride Emulsion,” American Photography, 37(3) (March 1943), 12–13. 3. The Modern Encyclopedia of Photography. Stubbs, S. G., F. J. Mortimer, and Gordon S. Malthouse (eds.) s. v. “Printingout Paper.” (London: Amalgamated Press, 1938).

Figure 18.0 Paper Negative, Coated on Rives Lightweight Paper, © Denise Ross

Chapter 18

Paper Negatives

Figure 18.1 Yaquina Head Lighthouse, Newport, Oregon, © Denise Ross

The Calotype paper is sensitive to light to an extraordinary degree, which transcends a hundred times or more than of any kind of photographic paper hitherto described. This may be made manifest by the following experiment: take a piece of this paper, and having covered half of it, expose the other half to daylight for the space of one second in dark cloudy weather in winter. This brief moment suffices to produce a strong impression upon the paper. But the impression is latent and invisible, and its existence would not be suspected by anyone who was not forewarned of it by previous experiments. (Talbot, 1841)1

W

illiam Henry Fox Talbot’s seminal photographic discovery was the first paper negative. It revolutionized photography but its popularity was short-lived. In

photography, something new and better is always around the corner. Collodion wet plates, followed by silver gelatin dry plates, and then film, made better prints. Paper negatives for roll film cameras

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were very popular until they were replaced by film negatives. Over the years, there have always been a few photographers who have worked with paper negatives, but film negatives, both sheet and roll, were far and away the predominant technology before digital. Today, paper negatives have increased in popularity more than might be expected given that excellent quality commercial films are still available. Price, maybe? RC paper is about a quarter the cost of sheet film. Easier to work with? Paper can be handled in safelight conditions. I think it’s probably a bit of both, but perhaps it’s mostly about the fun and “looseness” of the process. I know that’s what has grabbed my imagination. For anyone interested in DIY film photography, but intimidated by the process of simply getting started, paper negatives are an excellent way to begin. Consider it the bridge step between paper making and film or dry plate making. You can coat on commercial (glossy) plain baryta paper, and end up with a product identical to commercial paper, although currently, as I write this, the product is hard to source. You could fix out old black and white printing paper, but that would be too much effort, without a strong point in its favor, for me. As long as excellent quality commercial products are still available, I see no reason to re-create those products. Handmade photography is its own art form. A handmade paper negative, coated on translucent vellum paper or watercolor paper, has its own special identity.

Paper Negative Emulsion Characteristics Any emulsion can be used to make paper negatives, but for practical purposes a relatively fast emulsion is probably best. “Fast” is indeed a relative term! An emulsion made without ammonia or chemical sensitizers is only going to get up to a certain speed. The recipe used here is basically the bromide enlarging paper in Chapter 16. Although the emulsion can be made orthochromatic, the basic recipe is colorblind. That means it only “sees” UV

and blue-violet light. This was the earliest type of negative emulsions. It is characterized by cloudless skies, very light blues and violets, dark yellows and yellow-greens, and near-black oranges and reds. Cloudless skies aside, there is an excellent reason to use colorblind emulsions, rather than orthochromatic film or a modern commercial panchromatic film. Because light in the shadows is primarily blue, and colorblind emulsions are disproportionately sensitive to blue light, shadows can appear to glow from within. This is among the reasons that an image made with an old emulsion can sometimes evoke such an ethereal mood. The density range of a bromide emulsion is well suited for negatives. Even though the emulsion doesn’t reach a deep black, the gradation steps from the darkest values to the lightest are long and even. I contact printed a Stouffer film step tablet with a paper negative and developed in TLF All-Purpose Developer (Chapter 11). The tablet looks essentially the same when developed in Kodak HC110. The step tablet registers eighteen units of density gradation. I’ve modified my step tablet by punching a hole in step #1, and running strips of silver, lightproof polyester film tape through the gradients. This makes it easier for me to see if the darkest step matches maximally exposed paper, and also where the lightest areas become indistinguishable from unexposed emulsion. Another important characteristic of nonmodern, non-panchromatic emulsions is the change in their ISO number throughout the year. It makes sense. An emulsion that is primarily sensitive to UV light has an ISO profile that follows the amount of UV light falling from the sky. Photographers working with early silver gelatin dry plates and film, both colorblind and orthochromatic, kept tables that told them how to rate their materials at different times of year, and at different latitudes and altitudes. Almost every brand published its own little booklet of guidelines. We have the Internet. The UV number is forecast just like the weather.

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Figure 18.2 Stouffer step tablet exposed on paper negative material, © Denise Ross

The convenience of the Internet aside, we still need to develop our own table of guidelines. If you photograph with paper negatives for a year, bracketing and taking excellent notes along the way, including weather and light conditions, and the day’s UV number, you’ll come to know your materials with the depth of familiarity that encourages artistic expression.

for emulsion coating can be used for paper negatives, I’ve settled on a few thinner papers for my work. There are four that I like. They all have their virtues. The choice of which one to use ultimately comes down to the final print, how it’s made, and what you want it to look like. When all is said and done, a paper negative is just a negative.

Paper Options As good a place as any to start is with our paper options. While, theoretically, any paper suitable

Helix 100% Rag Vellum Paper

This is the thinnest of the papers I’ve found that hits all the requirements. It’s acid free and it has

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incredible wet strength for its weight. It is very smooth and translucent. The surface isn’t too hard to accept emulsion. It is suitable for contact printing without too much of its own texture showing up

in the final print. Negatives made with Helix paper show the least paper texture when scanning—if the negative is perfect, and that can be a big “if.” The disadvantage of working with vellum papers

Figure 18.3 (left) Helix paper negative, scanned and turned into an electronic print, © Denise Ross Figure 18.4 (right) Detail of Figure 18.3, © Denise Ross

Figure 18.5 (left) Helix Vellum paper, © Denise Ross Figure 18.6 (middle) A tablet of paper sheets all pre-cut for coating, © Denise Ross Figure 18.7 (right) Paper orientation notch code, © Denise Ross

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is that they require more care at each step in the process. Tip: Vellum paper comes in pads of sheets. 18″ × 24″ size sheet pads are a standard size and a good size for coating. Keep the sheets attached at the top of the pad and cut all the sheets to the width you want. Leave them attached to the pad until you are ready to work with them. Notch the bottom right corner so that you’ll know which side is up when you pull them out. 18″ × 24″ divides perfectly for coating with 9-inch and 5-inch puddle pushers, leaving a one inch margin on each edge. Cut the paper down the length with one side 11 inches and the other 7 inches. Bienfang Graphics 360, 100% Rag Translucent Marker Paper

Bienfang 360 is a bit heavier than Helix Vellum. This isn’t a disadvantage. It’s a little easier to handle than Helix, and it’s still translucent enough for contact printing. A big advantage is that it’s generally easier to find than Helix and comes in more sizes. A print made from a scanned Bienfang negative looks identical to one made from a Helix negative. Rives BFK, 115 gsm

This is the lightest weight BFK. It doesn’t come in pure white, but the cream-white color works fine for paper negatives. The paper handles very nicely, and it makes a good negative for scanning. However, its texture is noticeable in a contact print (Figures 18.8–18.10). The texture of the negative paper becomes part of the character of the final print. It gives the print a unique identity, and I’m increasingly warming to it, even for small prints. Fabriano Artistico Traditional White, Hot Press, 90 lb (200 gsm)

The FabArt90 is the thickest of the papers I’ve used enough to write about. As you might expect from its weight, it handles the easiest of all the papers, and scans beautifully. I’ve never contactprinted with it.

Figure 18.8 (top) Rives BFK paper negative, 21⁄4″ × 31⁄4″, © Denise Ross Figure 18.9 (middle) BFK paper negative contact printed on handmade chlorobromide paper (Chapter 15), © Denise Ross Figure 18.10 (bottom) Detail of Figure 18.9, © Denise Ross

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Figure 18.11 (left) FabArt90 paper negative, scanned and turned into an electronic print, © Denise Ross Figure 18.12 (right) Detail of Figure 18.11, © Denise Ross

Figure 18.13 (left) Blistering and frilling on Clearprint vellum paper, © Denise Ross Figure 18.14 (right) Detail of Figure 18.13, © Denise Ross

Not all papers work out. I had high hopes for Clearprint vellum paper. It’s very smooth and the paper fibers are almost invisible. Unfortunately, those two qualities come bundled with a very hard

surface. Emulsion can’t grab on. The paper coats beautifully, but when it hits the processing solutions, water comes through from the back of the paper and blisters the emulsion up, up, and away.

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Figure 18.15 (top) Exposure comparison, front side, © Denise Ross Figure 18.16 (bottom) Exposure comparison, back side, © Denise Ross

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Photography with Paper Negatives Paper negatives don’t behave exactly like film negatives. The way we approach subject matter and lighting sometimes needs to be different. Because the light doesn’t bounce off the back of a paper substrate to augment the exposure, paper negatives require at least a stop more exposure than film or dry plate negatives, even if the emulsions are the same. Paper negatives do not capture the same degree of detail that film and dry plate can. However, one thing is identical: good exposure is as important for paper negatives as it is with any negative—perhaps more so. Exposure

Underexposure is straightforward. Detail, especially in the shadows, can be lost. Whether or not that’s important depends on the image. Overexposure is a bit more complicated. Paper negatives share one consequence of overexposure with film negatives: potential loss of detail in the highlights. In addition, paper negatives made with ultra-thin paper can suffer exposure bleed-through. When emulsion is coated on thin paper, it can soak through to the back. If the negative is overexposed, the highlights also develop on the back of the negative, where they show up as dark blotches. During scanning or contact printing, these areas turn into light blotches. They are usually only a problem in a bright sky and may not be visible at all in the final print. However, if they happen in a bright principle subject, they can obscure detail. Figure 18.15 is a side-by-side scan of two Baby Graphic paper negatives (214⁄ ″ × 314⁄ ″), coated on Helix. A paper negative is scanned like a paper print, not as you would scan a film negative. After I selected the two negatives with the scanner marquee, I hit the “reset” button to override the contrast profile the scanner wanted to assign the image. Figure 18.16 is a scan of the backs of the same negatives. Figure 18.17 and Figure 18.18 are crops of the two negatives, post-processed with “levels” to match up the two histograms.

The righthand negative shows the telltale signs of overexposure. Figure 18.19 is my best final print from the correctly exposed paper negative. It required very little post-processing work. It’s been cropped and has a Photoshop application of “levels.” This file is ready to be an inkjet print or a digital negative for contact printing. Reciprocity Failure

Because the ISO of a paper negative is so slow, reciprocity failure can be an issue. In theory, the lower the light level you are trying to photograph, the more exposure required to achieve adequate negative density. It should be a simple correlation: for any given aperture, the lower the light, the longer the shutter must be open. The theory holds up in the range that’s usually considered average exposure. It breaks down when exposures get much longer than one second. The exposure required to get a good negative may be up to three times what your exposure meter indicates. Another way of looking at this is through the ISO number. If your emulsion is otherwise rated at ISO 12, you may have to meter as though the ISO were 6, 3, or even 0. This is the reciprocity law of photochemistry in action. Aside from the patience required for exposures that can last a minute or two, the negatives produced by long exposures in low light are among my favorites. I’ve never experienced back blotches on any of the negatives, the density is excellent, and the shadows are filled in without the highlights becoming blocked (overexposed to the point of lost detail). Figure 27.20 is a 214⁄ ″ × 314⁄ ″ Helix Vellum paper negative. It was exposed late in the day in midFebruary. The sky was overcast. Although I normally rate the emulsion ISO 3 in the winter, I accounted for a reciprocity factor of 2. That brought the ISO down to minus 3. At ISO 3, and f/11, the exposure would have been 8 seconds. ISO minus 3 took the exposure to 30 seconds. I also bracketed at

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Figure 18.17 (left) © Denise Ross Figure 18.18 (right) © Denise Ross

twice that. It turned out that 1 minute was the best exposure. The reciprocity factor was actually 3. I developed the negative in 4% Kodak HC110 for five minutes, with gentle, constant agitation followed by five minutes of sitting in the developer without agitation. I scanned the negative on a flatbed scanner. The post-processing for the print (Figure 18.21) was limited to “invert” and “auto contrast.”

Processing Paper Negatives Processing a paper negative (developing, stop bath, fixing, and washing) is essentially the same as it is with a paper print. However, there are a few things that are different, or particularly important for success, especially with ultra-thin paper negatives. Keep all the solutions on the cool side (65– 68°F/18–20°C). Before you put a paper negative that has been coated on very thin paper into the developer, place a piece of glass under the negative. The glass should be the same size as the negative—or even better, a little larger. Keep the negative and the glass together throughout the entire processing, including washing. Handle the glass rather than the negative. If you don’t do this, the ultra-thin paper will stick

to the bottom of the trays and be almost impossible to move without damage. Hopefully, it could go without saying that the edges of the glass should be smooth so that you don’t cut yourself. You need as many pieces of glass as the number of negatives you will process in one session. If you don’t have glass lying around from making dry plate negatives, a good glass company can cut and smooth suitable pieces of glass for you. Remember to keep your fingers off the surface of the negative. Fabriano Artistico doesn’t require a glass support sheet. For a Rives paper negative, glass makes handling easier, but I don’t find that it’s as strictly required as with Helix and Bienfang negatives. Developing

My developer recommendation for paper negatives is the same as for ClBr paper (Chapter 15). Stop

Plain water with a splash of white household vinegar (about a teaspoon to a cup of water) is all that’s required. You are primarily concerned with rinsing off the developer so that your fixer will last longer.

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Figure 18.19 © Denise Ross

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Figure 18.20 (left) © Denise Ross Figure 18.21 (right) © Denise Ross

Fixing

If your negatives are coated on Helix Vellum or Bienfang 360, it is necessary to use hardening fixer. I use Kodak Kodafix. Steve Anchell’s The Darkroom Cookbook 2 has recipes for making your own hardening fixer. If you fail to use hardening fixer, the thin paper negative will roll up in the wash water like an expensive cigar. It is almost impossible to flatten a negative without damaging it once it has rolled tight. The hardening fixer prevents the emulsion from swelling and curling the paper. Negatives coated on Fabriano Artistico can be fixed in plain hypo fixer. Emulsion coated on thicker paper also swells in plain hypo fixer, but the paper is stronger than the emulsion and the negative stays more or less flat.

A divided two-fix process is always the safest bet for complete fixing. Follow your fixer’s instructions for single-weight paper. Washing

Passive washing (Chapter 9) works just fine. This is fortunate because a paper negative on ultra-thin paper wouldn’t hold up to vigorous washing. Let a negative sit in still water for five to ten minutes, in a tray not much larger than the negative. I have a collection of food storage containers (Glad and Ziploc brands) in various sizes that seem to be made with darkroom work in mind. After the time is up in the first wash, carefully pour off the water (while holding down a corner of the negative and its backing glass). Refill the tray. Repeat five times.

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Figure 18.22 (left) Fingerprint on paper negative, © Denise Ross Figure 18.23 (right) Detail of Figure 18.22, © Denise Ross

A variation on this technique, and less wasteful of water if you are processing a number of negatives in the same session, is to sequentially transfer the negatives (along with their support glass) from one tray to the next, down a line of five trays, each time you finish developing and fixing a negative. By the last tray, the negative is clean. Drying

Slide the negative off the glass plate onto a couple of layers of clean paper toweling. Take a clean puddle pusher and pull it gently over the negative, applying just enough pressure to move the surface water off. If you dampen the puddle pusher first, it won’t catch on the emulsion. Leave the negative on its paper towel to dry somewhere flat and clean.

so thin, it’s easy (enough) to tame. Take two pieces of clean mat board, cut a little larger than the negative. Then, use a clothes iron (without water or steam) and iron the mat board pieces until they’re hot. Carefully place the negative between the pieces of mat board. Be sure it’s flat, because any creases will be permanent. Place something heavy over the mat board/negative/mat board sandwich. A couple of heavy books is classic. When everything cools, the negative will be flat enough to work with. The longer it sits under the weight, the flatter it will be. If you get the negative too warm, it can crinkle. Unless you’ve absolutely fried the emulsion, this can be remedied by re-soaking the negative in clean water, drying it as before, and flattening it again.

Flattening

The dry negative will be a little curled. The thinner the paper, the greater the curl. You can use a dry mount press to flatten negatives, just as you would a print, but it’s not necessary. A paper negative is

Developers for Paper Negatives Chapter 11 looks at various developers. Most of that information is pertinent to paper negatives. There are a few key differences, however. A print

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is the final product. The blacks must be deep; the highlights must be clean and bright. Fog is fatal. A negative isn’t that fussy, especially if it’s destined for digital adjustment. I contact printed a 31-Step Stouffer step tablet on paper negatives coated on Rives BFK, 115 gsm. Exposure time for each was set to the time required to reach the darkest value the developer could deliver. There is a hole punched in the first step. Maximum density is when step #1 matches the

Figure Figure Figure Figure

18.24 18.25 18.26 18.27

directly exposed paper. The images on the left are a straight scan; on the right, the images are after the application of “auto contrast” in Photoshop. Matching the contrast profile of a negative with the contrast profile of the right paper achieves the same result. For example, a negative developed in D23-Plus would likely be a perfect match for a high contrast paper. With the exception of the D23-Plus negative scanned in color, all the negatives were scanned in grayscale.

(upper left) D23-Plus developer, © Denise Ross (upper right) Figure 18.24 with application of Photoshop “auto contrast,” © Denise Ross (lower left) Color scan of D23-Plus step tablet, © Denise Ross (lower right) TLF All-Purpose Developer, © Denise Ross

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The negatives are not fogged. In grayscale, the tint of Rives scans a light gray. To the extent necessary, this should be taken into consideration.

Spotting Paper Negatives All prints require spotting. There are simply too many paths for dust and blemishes to enter the workflow. Stuff can settle on the emulsion during paper making. It can get caught between the negative and paper in a contact printing frame. It can settle on printed and processed paper as it’s drying. Even my scanner has picked up a bit of dust. Paper can have microbubbles. Paper negatives coated on thin paper can have blotches. Today, digital spotting is as easy as one could ask for, and spots aren’t an issue if you are making a digital negative for contact printing. But fortunately, even if you are contact printing directly from a handmade negative to handmade paper, emulsion on watercolor paper is particularly easy to spot; far easier than on commercial paper. This, of course, includes paper negatives. Microbubbles are rare on paper negatives, but they can happen, and when they do, there are usually a whole bunch of them (Figure 18.32). (Carelessness happens!) They look like tiny craters (Figure 18.33). The emulsion forms a ring around the circle. The center of the circle is thin emulsion or bare paper. Both the paper and the rim make spotting very easy. The goal of negative spotting is to make spotting the final print as easy as possible. This requires blocking the light that would otherwise print through bare spots on the negative to produce black spots on the print. Black spots on a print are almost impossible to remove without visible damage. However, when microbubbles or clear dust spots on the negative are spotted, the result is light patches on the print. Light spots and areas are easily and invisibly spotted away on the Figure 18.28 (top) Figure 18.27 with application of Photoshop “auto contrast,” © Denise Ross Figure 18.29 (middle) Kodak HC110, © Denise Ross Figure 18.30 (bottom) Figure 18.29 with application of Photoshop “auto contrast,” © Denise Ross

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Figure 18.31 (left) Yaquina River Bridge, digital print from a whole plate format (6.5″ × 8.5″) paper negative, © Denise Ross Figure 18.32 (right) Yaquina River Bridge paper negative, spotted with a red pen, © Denise Ross

Figure 18.33 (left) Microbubble, © Denise Ross Figure 18.34 (middle) Microbubble spotted with a red pen, © Denise Ross Figure 18.35 (right) Detail of a spotted area on the resulting contact print; red blocks exposure light, © Denise Ross

print. Any dark blotches on the paper negative will already print lighter. Larger light areas can be filled in with dyes. For microbubbles and dust spots, I use a red Pigma Micron pen, #005. Just a straight down dab in the center of the crater does the trick. The spot on the print made from the negative will now print a uniform white, instead of black with a light circle

around it. The red is ideal. It blocks the exposure light with one coat. There is no need to match the density of the surrounding area. Theoretically, if you spotted with dyes that exactly matched the negative, there wouldn’t be any areas to spot on the final print, but it’s not that easy. There still will be spots that need attention on the final print, and far better to spend time on a print than on a negative.

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Figure 18.36 Detail of final Yaquina River Bridge contact print with Figure 18.35 spotted out, © Denise Ross

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Figure 18.36 is a crop of the final print, a contact print from the spotted paper negative and ClBr Kodabromide-Type paper (Chapter 17). The ClBr paper emulsion color can be perfectly matched by any of the brands of spotting dyes I’ve tried: Marshall’s Basic Black, Berg Touchrite black, Fotodyes black, and Pebeo “8050 grey film.” However, different emulsions have different colors. Base paper also influences color. Basic black doesn’t exactly match a cool-tone chloride paper. You may want to experiment with spotting color sets, try your hand at mixing custom colors. Fotodyes comes with a good selection of colors. Freestyle Photographic carries it. Omega Brandess carries Marshall’s, including individual bottles. For more information on spotting prints, see Chapter 9.

Printing with Paper Negatives There are three main ways to make prints with paper negatives: a scanned negative made into a digital print, either physical or virtual, a straight paper negative-to-paper contact print, with or without masking, and a scanned negative made into an inkjet negative for contact printing. Scanned Paper Negatives to Digital Print

The first, and simplest, is the scanned negative, digitally post-processed for an inkjet print, or simply for screen viewing. Contact Print Made Directly with an Original Paper Negative

Another method is directly contact printing the paper negative on either handmade paper or commercial printing paper. The paper needn’t be silver gelatin.

Figure 18.37 (top) Whole plate format paper negative, © Denise Ross Figure 18.38 (middle) Empty Nest. Scanned paper negative to digital print, © Denise Ross Figure 18.39 (bottom) Detail of Figure 18.38, © Denise Ross

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Figure 18.40 (top) Empty Nest, contact print on handmade chlorobromide paper, © Denise Ross Figure 18.41 (bottom) Paper negative with red pencil masking on the back, © Denise Ross

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Direct contact printing showcases the texture of the paper negative. Whether or not that’s a good thing is personal taste. One disadvantage of a direct contact print is that the density range of the negative might not match the paper. If the match is close, masking can be employed to improve the print (Figures 18.40 and 18.41). Lightly tracing on the back of the negative, in the areas you’d like to have more density, is very effective. Red colored pencil works perfectly because you can see where you’ve been. Also, red is more effective at blocking exposure than graphite pencil, so less tracing is required. A mask can also be made on a separate sheet of paper or film so that you don’t have to alter your original negative. Chapter 8 has more on masking.

Tip: Thin, polyester print bags are invaluable, whichever contact printing method you choose. A well-known brand is Clear Bags. The bags come in every imaginable size. If you place a digital negative in a polyester bag as soon as the ink is completely dry, it won’t be damaged during the printing process. If you place a paper negative in a bag, and then put a piece of Yupo synthetic watercolor paper inside with it, on the side away from the emulsion, the paper texture of the paper negative will be less noticeable in the contact print. Three variations in texture can be seen in the crops of three different prints from the same 4″ × 5″ Helix paper negative.

Contact Print Made with an Inkjet Digital Negative

It’s best, of course, to always get perfectly exposed negatives. As I type that wisp of wishful thinking, I can hear my Norwegian grandmother saying, “Ya shoor, ya’ betcha!” Exposure mistakes happen. The chances of bringing home perfect negatives are greatly increased by bracketing, but sometimes there’s only one opportunity, either because we don’t have

If the profiles are too far off the mark for masking to remedy, you can make a digital inkjet negative with a custom profile to fit the printing paper. This method is my favorite by far. It combines the best possible options from old and new photography.

Scanning for Digital Negatives, Inkjet Prints, and Screen Viewing

Figure 18.42 (left) Empty Nest, contact print from masked paper negative, © Denise Ross Figure 18.43 (right) Detail of Figure 18.42, © Denise Ross

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Figure 18.44 (top) Empty Nest, inkjet digital negative contact print on handmade paper, © Denise Ross Figure 18.45 (bottom) Detail of Figure 18.44, © Denise Ross

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Figure 18.46 Contact print on handmade paper, made with a digital negative from a scanned paper negative, © Denise Ross

Figure 18.47 (left) Detail of Figure 27.46, © Denise Ross Figure 18.48 (middle) Detail of a contact print made with emulsion to emulsion contact, © Denise Ross Figure 18.49 (right) Detail of a contact print made with a piece of Yupo synthetic watercolor paper between the emulsions, © Denise Ross

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enough film along, or the light changes, or the situation changes. Sometimes, we just plain misread the exposure. Shiny metal beer barrels in bright sunlight was a textbook situation for back blotches, and I only had one exposure left, but even if I’d had more negatives, a forklift was heading my way. I metered for the shadows, knowing that there would be trouble in the sky. I had my fingers crossed for the barrels. But, alas, they blotched-up, too. The shadows would have been fine with less exposure, and I might have had less trouble with the barrels. If the negatives had been made with thicker paper, there wouldn’t have been as great a risk of blotches, but I was holding out hope that the Helix negative could be used for direct contact printing. Fortunately, there is a fix. It’s not perfect, and it comes with a small price, but it can usually rescue a negative with back blotches. Figures 18.53 and 18.55 are crops of a straight scan of Figure 18.51, followed by “invert” and “levels.” Figures 18.54 and 18.56 are crops of the same negative, but this time with a sheet of black paper laid over the back of the negative during scanning (followed by “invert” and “levels”). For the final print, I used the “spot healing brush tool” on the few remaining blotches that messed with subject detail. Some negatives may actually benefit from being scanned with a black backing, even if they don’t technically need it. I usually scan a negative both with, and without, the backing. I keep a sheet of black construction paper next to my scanner.

Figure 18.50 (top) Rogue Ales Barrels, digital print from a scanned whole plate format paper negative, © Denise Ross Figure 18.51 (middle) The negative, © Denise Ross Figure 18.52 (bottom) The back of the negative, showing dark blotches in the heavily exposed areas, © Denise Ross

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Figure Figure Figure Figure

18.53 18.54 18.55 18.56

(upper left) Straight flatbed scan, © Denise Ross (upper right) Scan with black backing paper, © Denise Ross (lower left) Detail from 18.53, © Denise Ross (lower right) Detail from 18.54, © Denise Ross

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Coating Paper Negatives

Another very convenient method of preparing sheets of paper for negatives is by means of a perfectly straight glass tube of the width of the paper, round the ends of which are two India-rubber rings, of the thickness the film is desired to be. If thought advantageous, a rod may be passed through the tube, and bent round to join, and so to form a handle, by means of which the tube will revolve as it passes over any surface. The paper is damped as before and stretched on perfectly flat plate glass, the emulsion poured gradually in front of the roller, and the emulsion takes a fine layer of uniform thickness. (Abney, 1885)3

William De W. Abney’s advice from over 130 years ago is still spot on. There is only a bit to improve upon. He ‘free-form” coated, and of course we can still do that (Chapter 7), but with paper negatives especially, it’s more wasteful of both paper and emulsion. Smooth, thin plastic tape, available to us today, is a much better rod elevator than rubber bands, and today we have commercially available glass coating rods (a.k.a. “puddle pushers”). My preferred wet paper coating technique adds guide bars along the coating path to constrain the emulsion. One vital trick when coating with ultra-thin paper is to lap the top of the paper over a thin strip of Yupo synthetic paper (Figures 18.57, 18.58, and 18.59). When the emulsion has set up, and you are ready to hang the paper to dry, the Yupo helps the paper lift off the coating surface. If it isn’t there, it is almost impossible to start the lift without tearing the paper. The Yupo strip follows the paper through the drying stage (Figure 18.60). It’s cut off when you cut the paper into negatives. The Yupo can be reused several times. The overlap area is not useable, so plan the width of the overlap accordingly. Paper negative coating is handled the same way as any other paper coating, with the exception that dry paper coating is not an option. Dry, thin paper buckles and curls as soon as emulsion hits it. Also, coated ultra-thin vellum tissue (Helix or Bienfang) requires help getting off the coating table. Allowing for a few differences, follow the directions for wet paper coating in Chapter 7. The Yupo support strip is one difference. The other is the necessity of getting thin paper off the

coating surface before it can dry there. Depending on the temperature and humidity, this may be a very short time. This recipe coats four to five sheets of 11″ × 14″ paper, staged for wet-coating, assuming a 9-inch puddle pusher with nine wraps of Scotch brand polyester film tape (#850). The amount of emulsion for each sheet is approximately three tablespoons. The exact amount depends on how long you want the run of emulsion on a sheet. If you have a lot of emulsion left over, you probably coated too thin (the emulsion was too warm). If you can’t coat at least three and a half sheets, your emulsion is too thick (too cool). To get a better handle on your precise coating requirements, draw a mock-up of your format size. One sheet, fully coated, will yield six 4″ × 5″, or three 5″ × 7″, or two Whole Plate, or one 8″ × 10″ plus two 4″ × 5″. However, each combination ends on the sheet in a different place. You want to minimize waste. “Waste” is actually useful when coating printing paper because you can use it for test strips. Unfortunately, wasted paper negative material is less useful. If you are planning on coating for 4″ × 5″, or 5″ × 7″, plan on as full a coating as possible on three sheets, and whatever is left over on the last sheet. If you want Whole Plate, stop shy of the end of all the sheets. This will be very clear after you draw your format “map” and coat a batch or two. If you have the space to coat five sheets of paper, and plan the right amount of emulsion for each, you can get five 8″ × 10″ sheets, without the extra 4″ × 5″ sheets. If you use more than one format, for example adding a Baby Graphic size

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Figure Figure Figure Figure

18.57 18.58 18.59 18.60

(upper left) © Denise Ross (upper right) © Denise Ross (lower left) © Denise Ross (lower right) © Denise Ross

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(2.25″ × 3.25″) into your work flow, you may indeed be able to use the leftovers. If a Baby is your only camera, you will get almost fifty sheets of film from a batch of emulsion.

The Recipe

Ammonium Bromide Paper Negative Emulsion Read the entire recipe before assembling ingredients and tools. Visualize the steps. Preheat a water bath to 131°F/55°C. Weigh out the chemicals. Double-check that all tools required are clean and at hand. Stage your paper for coating. This recipe is designed for magnetic stirring and wet-paper coating. If necessary, review the chapters relating to emulsion making and coating. Also, review the chemical (material) safety data sheets (MSDS) for your ingredients. Banish pets and small children from your work space.

Practice safe working habits. Be especially careful with silver nitrate. It is a strong oxidizer, which among other things means that it reacts with organic compounds. You are an organic compound. If you get silver nitrate on your skin, don’t panic, just wash it off immediately. But, know that your skin will be stained for a while. Silver nitrate discoloration cannot be washed off. It will be a part of your skin until the affected skin cells naturally slough off. It will never come off clothes, your floor or countertop, or your weighing scale. Working with silver nitrate means accepting a few stains. Our goal is keeping them to a minimum, and only where they are acceptable. Getting silver nitrate in your eyes is the only serious hazard of working with the chemical, but it is a very serious one. Carefully study the MSDS for silver nitrate. Take great care to protect your eyes from silver nitrate solution, and never, under any circumstances, touch your face with your hands while you are working with chemicals.

Ingredients: Distilled water, photographic gelatin, ammonium bromide (NH4Br), silver nitrate (AgNO3), potassium iodide (as a 10% solution), Kodak Photo-Flo 200, and glyoxal, 40%. Tools: Magnetic stirring plate, magnetic stirring bar, water bath, thermometer, 400 ml beaker, 80 ml beaker, 150 ml beaker, 250 ml beaker, plastic spoons, plastic wrap, a teaspoon-size plastic measuring spoon (5 ml), Keurig K-cup filter (or similar), measuring cup with a handle (1⁄4 cup or 1⁄3 cup), 10 ml graduated cylinder, timer, and a paper coating set-up.

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Wear nitrile or latex gloves and whatever other protective items you feel appropriate. Salted Gelatin In a 400 ml beaker, dissolve together Distilled water .................................... 70 ml Ammonium bromide ............................ 7 g Slowly and thoroughly stir in Photographic gelatin ......................... 4.5 g Cover the beaker with a piece of plastic wrap. Let it sit at least 30 minutes for the gelatin to absorb all the water (“bloom”). Prepare the Silver Solution and the Second Gelatin. Silver Solution In a small beaker (150 ml) dissolve together Silver nitrate ........................................... 8 g Distilled water .................................... 70 ml Second Gelatin In a small beaker (80 ml) mix together, cover, and set aside Distilled water .................................... 40 ml Photographic gelatin ............................ 8 g Place the Salted Gelatin in the preheated water bath. Let it sit for 30 minutes, making sure the water bath comes back to 131°F/55C°. Drop in a magnetic stirring bar. Stir in 10% Potassium iodide solution ... 30 drops Optionally: 2% erythrosin (in half water and half ethanol) 2 drops Tip: The addition of erythrosin will convert the emulsion from colorblind (sensitive only to UV and blue-violet light) to orthochromatic (insensitive only to orange and red light). Go to safelight. Precipitation: Start a strong—but not splashy—stirring vortex in the Salted Gelatin solution. Start the timer for a 10 minute countdown. Add the Silver Solution to the Salted Gelatin, 1 teaspoon (5 ml) at a time, once per minute at ten minutes, nine minutes, and eight minutes remaining, and then every 30 seconds until the silver is gone. Stir 30 seconds, and then add the Second Gelatin. Stir another 30 seconds and then stop stirring. Ripening: Let the emulsion sit in the water bath, without stirring, for 45 minutes. Keep the temperature within two degrees of 131°F/55°C. Paper preparation: While the emulsion is ripening, prepare your paper for coating. continued

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continued

Coating: Remove the beaker of emulsion from the water bath. Wipe the outside of the beaker. Slowly pour the emulsion through a K-cup filter into a clean 250 ml beaker. Slowly and gently stir in Photo-Flo 200 .................................. 8 drops Glyoxal ............................................ 4 drops Set the beaker of emulsion in a cold water bath and very gently and slowly stir it with a clean plastic spoon until the temperature falls to 93°F/34°C. Coat at 90–91°F/32–33°C. This is assuming a room temperature of 68–72°F/20–22°C.

Hang and dry the sheets as described. Endnotes 1. Talbot, William Henry Fox, “The Process of Calotype Photogenic Drawing” (1841) in Beaumont Newhall (ed.), Photography: Essays & Images (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1980), 34. 2. Anchell, Steve, The Darkroom Cookbook (3rd edn) (New York: Focal Press/Elsevier, 2008). 3. Abney, William De Wiveleslie, Photography with Emulsions (3rd edn) (London: Piper & Carter. 1885), 175–176.

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Figure 18.61 Happiness, scanned Helix paper negative print, © Denise Ross

SECTION THREE

The Contributors

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he work of Ian Andvaag, Radoslaw Brzozowski, Didier Derien, Edward Durrill, Cate Sampson, and George L. Smyth reflect the diversity of creative options available with handmade silver gelatin emulsions. Ian Andvaag comes at this from a deep interest in the chemistry and technology of emulsion making, but his interest transcends the purely scientific. He uses the beautiful paper he is making to capture the beauty of his environment. Radoslaw Brzozowski is an experienced historical process artist, and a superb teacher. He is leading the way in fostering knowledge and appreciation of alternative and historical processes in Poland and beyond. His work in handmade POP is an invaluable contribution. He shares his recipes and workflow. Didier Derien is reaching further into the creative possibilities of handmade silver gelatin than almost anyone working in the medium. He is perfecting the use of handmade bromide paper

for lith printing and toning. The results are stunning. Edward Durrill is using his paper to document the ephemeral history of US Route 66 through the Missouri Ozarks. The Azo-type emulsion he uses, and the paper he coats on, are perfect for evoking the sense of history of that unique part of America. Cate Sampson’s work is personal. She loves the bayous of Louisiana, and her art expresses a deep sense of place, along with a connection to the people who live there. George L. Smyth’s current project is photographing the neighborhoods of Baltimore. His urban landscapes are haunting in their simplicity. Baltimore’s neighborhoods are changing, but George’s Azo-type prints will always allow people to feel what once was. George shares his simple, sodium chloride Azo-type emulsion recipe. In addition, his website has instructions for making an emulsion coating tool, along with other valuable information.

Chapter 19

Ian Andvaag

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he images submitted are not part of a larger coherent body of work. They are simply images I take on campus and in and around one of the few remaining patches of natural fescue grassland in Canada, which happens to be near where I live. I love silver gelatin. It is the perfect synthesis of my interests in chemistry and artistic expression. I find it fascinating to think about the physical phenomena at the interfaces of the silver grains. Considering the science adds to the excitement, the mystery, and the awe when I hold a handmade print. Making the emulsion makes me feel much more involved with the final result and it is extremely satisfying when a print turns out just right. I feel a bit sad when I look at the scans of my prints since they really don’t convey the subtle qualities of a handmade silver gelatin print, while they accentuate the dust and exaggerate unpleasant surface texture. Nevertheless, they do give an impression of what the prints look like. It is not hard to make a “beginner” emulsion. I am a college student living in a smallish apartment with my brother. He is generous and allows me to take over the bathroom for an evening when I coat emulsions. On the countertop to the left of the sink is an 8″ × 21″ area where I place my hotplate stirrer and darkroom timer. To the right of the sink, there is an 8″ × 21″ area where I have a level piece of glass used as the coating surface. After the emulsion sets a little bit, I hang the prints from the shower rod.

Figure 19.1 (top) Cattails, © Ian Andvaag Figure 19.2 (middle) Up Hill and Down Dale, © Ian Andvaag Figure 19.3 (bottom) Caption Thorvaldson, © Ian Andvaag,

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Figure 19.4 (left) Mirror, © Ian Andvaag Figure 19.6 (right) Frost on Caragana, © Ian Andvaag

I got interested in emulsion making after picking up Ron Mowrey’s book, Photographic Emulsion Making, Coating, and Testing. I am quite interested in improving my skills as an emulsion maker. My next steps are to make washed emulsions for faster speed and the ability to coat on film. I am also very keen on electrochemistry and making controlled emulsions using potentiometric measurements during precipitation. I like that silver gelatin emulsions can be made at various levels of complexity. There is always more to learn and more ambitious projects to undertake. My biggest challenge is finding time for photography and darkroom work while being a full-time student. All prints are made using the grade 2 Azo-type emulsion in Photographic Emulsion Making, Coating, and Testing, by Ron Mowrey.1 The prints are developed in D-72 and are not toned.

Biography Ian Andvaag is an undergraduate chemistry student with a strong interest in traditional chemical photography. His preferred artistic medium is stereo photography, in particular, medium format slides in a backlit handheld viewer. In the past couple years, Ian has become interested in emulsion making and design. Endnote 1. Mowrey, Rowland, Photographic Emulsion Making, Coating and Testing (Rochester, NY: Photographic Systems LLC, 2011).

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Figure 19.5 (top) Invaders, © Ian Andvaag Figure 19.7 (bottom) Self Portrait, © Ian Andvaag

Chapter 20

Radoslaw Brzozowski Silver Gelatin Printing-out Papers (POP) he POP papers are a curious thing. On one hand, they are direct descendants, not to say younger siblings, of the salt print and albumen print with which they share much of their chemistry. On the other hand, they clearly belong to the realm of silver gelatin emulsions, to the kingdom of more advanced materials that were to dominate the twentieth century and eventually rule supreme until the advent of digital technology. POP was one of the earliest types of emulsion and by far the most simple, not to say primitive; something that is of great advantage to many of us today. It was also expected to quickly disappear from the market, to be superseded by other, more advanced emulsion types, and yet it maintained its popularity for many decades, with some varieties still being made in the twenty-first century, albeit on a small scale. As late as the 1920s and 1930s, POP papers were still available in photographic shops, at least in Europe, and instructions for using them were included in general photography textbooks. The simplicity of the POP emulsion is actually of great value to us as it is by far the easiest photographic emulsion to make. The list of necessary chemicals is really short, as is the list of equipment. Actually, no laboratory equipment whatsoever is necessary, and it can be made using basic kitchenware in a pinch. At the same time, POP is a truly beautiful paper, capable of yielding excellent results while being really simple to process. All these surely explain why it enjoyed such popularity in the past.

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The Papers Used for Hand Coating POP emulsion can be coated on nearly any watercolor paper of sufficient wet strength to survive the processing. Actually, if enough care is exercised,

even reasonably delicate papers will do, as the gelatin coating will increase the paper wet strength. Personally, I use rather thick papers which I find easier to handle and that don’t require subsequent mounting. As with most processes I do, for initial tests I use cheap, “student grade” papers such as Canson Fine Face. For serious work, however, only the best papers should be used, as they alone guarantee the necessary longevity of the print. My favorites are Fabriano Artistico and Bergger Cot 320, though I have also used Kozo and similar papers with good results. We have even run tests on baryta-coated Whatman tissue with good results, even if filtering tissues are not the best choice. Generally, the thinner papers are more user friendly, easier to handle at the coating stage, and dry faster, but it is the thicker papers that will be easier to handle during the processing, especially during matting and framing.

Emulsion Recipes and Making Instructions Similarly to other historical processes, we can find numerous recipes in books from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and in most cases, these recipes are about as perfect as they can be made, which means there is little need to try to improve or alter them. However, it makes sense to try as broad a variety of recipes as possible, as different results were historically achieved depending on the recipe used. Having said that, most recipes I have come to try produced very similar results, which is why I am limiting myself to presenting only two, both from Photographic Emulsions by Wall.1 one originally invented by Valenta, and the other by Beadle. At first glance they seem rather different. When you look at them a little more closely, similarities become quite clear.

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Gelatin

As a general rule, I only use photographic gelatin (meaning inert or empty gelatin, as used in modern filmmaking).

Recipe: POP recipe by Beadle Solution A Gelatin .................................................. 30 g Potassium alum ................................ 1.35 g Sodium potassium tartare ............... 1.35 g Ammonium chloride ........................ 0.96 g Water ................................................ 235 ml Solution B Silver nitrate ......................................... 10 g Citric acid ........................................... 5.4 g Water ................................................... 40 ml Please note that the alum used in this recipe is not chrome alum. Mixing instructions: From the 235 ml of water to be used in Solution A, pour about 80 ml into a separate beaker. Add the gelatin to the remaining water and let it sit for about 20 minutes so that it can swell. Make sure to stir the mix as soon as the gelatin is added to the water. Dissolve the remaining ingredients of Solution A in the 80 ml you have poured into a separate beaker. Using a water bath, heat the gelatin to about 104–122°F/40–50°C in order for it to melt. Once the gelatin has melted, pour in the remaining water in which the other chemicals have been dissolved, constantly stirring the gelatin solution. Bring the resulting solution to 122°F/50°C. In the meantime, dissolve the citric acid and silver nitrate in 40 ml of water. It is usually a good idea to split the liquid into two even portions and dissolve the two chemicals separately, only mixing them directly prior to use. Heat this solution to 122°F/50°C. Once both solutions have reached the required temperature, switch off the light, leaving only safelight on, and then, constantly stirring Solution A slowly, pour Solution B into it. Rinse the beaker used for keeping Solution B with 0.5 ml of water and add it to the emulsion. Keep it at the temperature of 122°F/50°C, stirring it continuously for about 10 minutes. If the emulsion is going to be stored, a little thymol solution should be added.

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Tip: Though it is perfectly possible to make simple emulsions with glass beakers and rods, having a magnetic stirrer, preferably with a heating plate, will make your work much easier. It needs not even be lab grade equipment; for all the emulsions used to make pictures in this chapter, I used a simple $50 Chinese stirrer. Directly before use, add about 5–10 ml of 5% solution of chrome alum. This will harden the emulsion, protecting it from damage during exposure, but especially during processing.

Recipe: POP recipe by Valenta Solution A Gelatin .................................................. 30 g Ammonium chloride ........................ 0.90 g Water .................................................. 220 g Mix the gelatin with water, let it sit for about twenty minutes, then heat to 104–122°F/ 40–50°C using a water bath. Once the gelatin has fully dissolved, add the ammonium chloride and stir until dissolved. Solution B Tartaric acid ........................................ 0.9 g Baking soda (NaHCO3) ................... 0.45 g Alum .................................................... 0.6 g Water ................................................... 45 ml First, dissolve the tartaric acid in the water, then add the baking soda. Be sure to use a large enough container because once the soda is added, the solution will foam. Finally, add the alum and heat the solution to 122°F/50°C. Solution C Silver nitrate ......................................... 10 g Citric acid ........................................... 2.5 g Water ................................................... 50 ml Once more, it is a good idea to split the water into two halves and dissolve the citric acid and the silver nitrate separately, only mixing them directly before use. This solution should be brought to 122°F/50°C. Mixing instructions: With constant stirring, first add Solution B to Solution A, and then Solution C to the resulting mix. Continue stirring with the temperature at 122°F/50°C for about 10 minutes. This emulsion can be made using just glass beakers and a stirring rod, but a magnetic stirrer will make your work much easier.

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POP emulsion need not be coated on paper immediately after being made, but can be stored for a few days provided thymol (or some other preservative) is added, the emulsion is stored in a lighttight container, and kept in a cool place such as a fridge.

Preparing a Matte Emulsion The simplest method to obtain a matte emulsion is to add starch to the gelatin emulsion prior to coating. Other fine powders such as silica may also be used, but starch, preferably rice starch because of its fine grain, is by far the most readily available. Mix together Rice starch ........................................... 10 g Water .................................................. 100 g Heat to 158°F/70°C, then let it cool and stand for the night. Next day, re-heat it to 158°F/70°C once more and add Gelatin .................................................. 10 g The mixture should be stirred until the gelatin is fully dissolved, then filtered through a linen or cotton cloth and mixed with the emulsion at a rate of 1:4.

The resulting emulsion should be coated and processed in the same way as a regular emulsion, except for one crucial difference: the resulting pictures should not be dried face down on a sheet of mylar (a technique designed to produce a perfectly glossy surface). It is best to simply tape the image face up on a sheet of glass. Use paper tape with water-activated glue and let the print air dry. If the results are not fully satisfying, and a deeper matte is required, the amount of starch in the mixture should be slightly increased. Similarly, if a semi-matte surface is required, the amount of starch could be reduced.

Methods for Coating Paper As you have seen before, making a POP emulsion is rather easy. It is by far the most simple silver gelatin emulsion to make, and can be prepared using very basic equipment and ingredients. Coating it on paper is another matter, as it will be exactly the same as is the case with the more sophisticated, modern emulsions. Most methods in which paper can be coated have already been described in the other chapters, so I will only briefly present the ones I use most frequently. Brush coating

As is the case with all other emulsions, POP can be brush-coated on the paper. Brush coating is the most basic, simplest form, and in many ways a recipe for disaster, though this “disaster” may of course be creatively used to our advantage. It is next to impossible to get a perfectly even coating using a brush, which is especially annoying as the density and contrast of the resulting image will depend on the thickness of the coating. But then, a perfectly even coating is not always what we are after, and those brush marks may actually enhance the image. This is the only reason why I would prefer a traditional brush rather than a foam brush. Paper can be brush-coated both dry and moist. If you work fast and actually like the brush marks, dry paper will do fine as long as you first pin it down to a hard, flat surface to prevent excessive curling. Transfer

Personally, I am not a great fan of brush coating with emulsion, as I rarely find the brush marks appealing. There surely are images which benefit from them, I just feel in most cases they are not the images I photograph. This is why I decided to look for other methods of getting a more even coating, in this case borrowing a technique used widely in carbon transfer printing, that is transferring a readymade layer of emulsion onto the paper. This method works particularly well with papers that have an additional coating making

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their surface airproof, such as baryta coated papers. As with uncoated papers, bubbles will usually appear, especially with prolonged washing, so it is usually best to first coat the paper with a layer of 5% gelatin and only then transfer emulsion onto it. With a little practice, this method gives very even coatings with few, if any, errors. It can also be used with quite large sheets of paper; the largest I have ever coated were 40 cm × 60 cm. In order to transfer emulsion onto paper, you will need the following: • A sheet of glass about 5 mm thick, at least a few centimeters longer and wider than the paper you are going to coat. • A sheet of Mylar or Melinex film, also a few centimeters larger than the paper you are going to coat, but not larger than the glass pane you are going to use. In my experience, Mylar of medium thickness works best. • A comb. • A table or some other surface that can be made perfectly level. I use a metal stand with three threaded legs that can be made to protrude a little more or a little less by just turning them. This way I can simply place the stand on any table and level it, getting a perfect coating surface. The following steps are required to transfer a layer of emulsion onto paper: 1. Place the sheets to be coated in a tray of cold water and let them soak well. 2. Warm the glass pane to about 104–122°F/40– 50°C. The easiest way to do it is to simply soak it in warm water or pour warm water over it. The tap water in my lab is nearly exactly 104°F/40°C and works perfectly. 3. Make sure the surface of the glass is still covered with water and place the sheet of Mylar on top of it. Then, carefully squeegee all the water from between the glass and Mylar. This will eliminate all the air bubbles that may have been trapped between the two sheets and will make the Mylar stick to the surface of the glass. Then, dry the surface of the Mylar with a paper towel. It is

4.

5.

6.

7.

best to start from the center and work toward the edges of the sheet, as this will drive more water from between the two sheets and will make the Mylar stay in place during the subsequent process. Once the plastic has been thoroughly dried, place the glass pane on the perfectly level surface you have prepared, with the plastic sheet facing up. I always put a sheet of paper of the same size as the one I need to coat beneath the glass to give me a point of reference. Pour a carefully measured amount of emulsion in the center of the Mylar sheet and spread it with a comb so that it covers a portion of the surface corresponding to the sheet of paper underneath, or marginally larger (about 1 cm longer and 1 cm wider will do fine). For a sheet measuring 20 cm × 30 cm, I will usually use 20 ml of emulsion, though this may be varied in order to get more or less density and contrast from the prints. Make sure there are no bubbles; if you see any, push them to the side of the gelatin with the comb. The warmth of the glass will keep the emulsion liquid long enough for its surface to become perfectly flat and even. What is even more important, if the surface you are working on is perfectly level, the gelatin layer will have an identical thickness over its whole surface which will produce a perfect coating. Wait for the emulsion to fully set. This will take a while as the glass needs to get cool first and the emulsion has to be fully set. There are ways to deal with that issue though. You can, for example, transfer the glass sheet to a perfectly level shelf where it will be left to set. A set of five shelves will make your work really swift, as by the time you fill the last one, the first layer of emulsion will have set. Once the emulsion has fully set (this can be ascertained by gently pressing its edge with your finger), transfer the glass pane it is on to a sink, place it horizontally, and cover the emulsion with a layer of cold water. It is imperative that

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the water is cold (not warmer than 68°F/20°C) as warm water will melt the emulsion. 8. Place the well soaked sheet of paper over the emulsion, making sure it is in the center of the pool of emulsion, and the edges of the emulsion stick out a little on each side. You may, of course, also choose to use sheets of paper much larger than the layer of emulsion; this will in no way influence the process. Once the paper has been placed on the emulsion, it can still be moved about freely, thanks to the thin layer of water separating the two, so there should be no problem putting it in the right position. 9. Now, squeegee the water from between the paper and emulsion in the same way you would have done trying to place an advertising sticker on the body of your car. Leave the whole thing to dry. It is perfectly possible to remove the Mylar from the surface of the glass at this point, as long as you don’t bend it or put any pressure on the still delicate bond between the paper and the emulsion. The paper need not be dried horizontally, so you may just as well hang the Mylar from a regular clothes line, as long as it is in a dark room. 10. Drying the paper will be rather lengthy; in most cases it will take about 24 hours or slightly longer, but the emulsion will make a firm bond with the paper. Once it is dry, the paper, now covered with emulsion, will detach from the Mylar and we will get photographic paper covered with a perfect layer of emulsion. This method is a little more work-intensive and time consuming than the others, but it allows us to get nearly perfect control over the thickness of the emulsion and thus the density and contrast of the resulting images, as well as getting extremely even coatings even on quite large sheets. Mayer Rod

Another interesting method would be to use a Mayer rod. It is a metal rod covered with a thread or wound with a thin wire of very carefully measured

thickness, designed especially for coating surfaces with perfectly even layers of thick liquids such as gelatin emulsion (actually, this method is very close to what was used in some of the industrial grade film coating machines). The depth of the thread or the thickness of the wire covering the rod will decide how thick the resulting layer of emulsion will be; the deeper the thread, the thicker the emulsion. As the rod should be warmed up before use, it will keep the emulsion warm and liquid while it is being spread on the surface of the paper, and afterwards for long enough for its surface to become perfectly smooth. In order to use this method you will need a perfectly level surface, preferably a large one on which more than one sheet of paper can be placed, and a Mayer rod with the right size of grooves for your needs. It is a good idea to cover your working surface with a large sheet of Mylar or Melinex as this will make cleaning so much easier. Also, whenever possible, I would rather choose to coat long strips of paper cut from a roll or from a large sheet, than small, individual sheets. You will need to pre-soak your paper in order to make sure it stays flat during coating. Just remember to carefully remove excess water from the surface, which can be done with a squeegee or a piece of paper towel. It is also a good idea to tape the edge you will be starting with to the surface you are working on as this will prevent the paper from moving, and will let you start from the very edge, rather than some centimeters into its surface. Since you will most likely be drying your papers taped to a glass surface in order to prevent them curling up anyway, you may just as well do it at the beginning and just coat paper that has already been taped to individual sheets of glass. The working surface should be cold as this will speed up the setting of the gelatin and will enable you to work faster. Once your sheet is flat on the working surface and ready to be coated, warm your rod to the temperature of about 122°F/50°C. This can easily

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be done by placing it in a tray of warm water and then drying it with a paper towel. Place the warm rod along the edge of the sheet to be coated as you would do with a puddle pusher. Pour a carefully measured amount of emulsion along the rod so that it is in contact with the rod along the whole edge of the paper. The emulsion must be spread along the whole required width but still, most of it should stay in the center of the pool. Needless to say, the actual amount of the emulsion will depend on the depth of the grooves in the coating rod of your choice. Next, slowly and steadily drag the rod to the other edge of the paper, and then outside of it, thus removing any emulsion that has not been coated off its surface. It is important that the movement of the rod is very steady and rather slow, otherwise uneven coating may result, or worse, the sides of the paper may remain uncoated. If you are coating long strips of paper, you may need to add emulsion as the rod is being dragged along the paper. This method is suitable both for coated and uncoated papers, and bubbles are much less likely to appear. It is, however, more prone to imperfection than the previous method and offers you less control because in order to vary the thickness of the emulsion layer, you need to get a rod with different grooves. On the plus side, the emulsion sets almost instantly as it is coated onto cold papers resting on a cold surface. The papers may be removed for drying minutes after being coated.

advisable to dry papers horizontally, I have never seen any harm caused by drying them in a vertical position. Another way is to stick the papers, face down, to a sheet of thick Mylar. The same method which is used for transferring the emulsion onto paper is used, except this time, water should initially be placed between the already coated and fully set layer of emulsion and the sheet of Mylar, and then squeegeed away. The paper will initially stick firmly to the plastic sheet but will fall off once it has fully dried. Though the paper will not be 100 percent flat, this method will prevent most curling and will make it possible to get a perfect, glossy surface. Also, the paper will be very easily flattened for the purpose of copying. This is the method I use to dry my finished prints in order to give them a perfect, glossy surface, without using heat.

Drying Coated Papers Similarly to fiber based photographic papers, the papers we have coated will curl desperately if allowed to dry freely, making printing very difficult. While the problem will not be so great with really thin papers, thicker and stiffer ones must never be allowed to dry freely. Rather than this, they can simply be taped face up to a sheet of glass by means of paper tape with water-activated glue, which will be easily cut off later. Though it is generally

Exposing the Print The POP emulsion, even though it is a silver gelatin emulsion rather than a simple process such as the salt print, is very similar to it. This means the actual exposure will in many ways be similar. It is done in contact with the negative, for example in a copying frame, and a light source rich in ultraviolet rays needs to be used. In practical terms, it may mean either using sunlight or an ultraviolet exposure unit. Identically to the salt print, it is a

Storing POP Papers Contrary to sensitized albumen or salt-printing papers, POP papers can be stored in a black bag or box for weeks. Should you need to extend the time over which they can be stored, it is a good idea to place the paper in a fridge. There are two important points to remember. First, if you intend to use a developer with your papers, storage time should be limited to a minimum. Also, even though it is mostly sensitive to blue or ultraviolet light, the paper’s exposure to artificial light should be as limited as possible, especially if developer is going to be used.

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printing-out process, which means we can assess the exposure by simply opening one part of the copying frame and looking at the image. Also, similarly to salt printing, the image after exposure should appear to be slightly overexposed because it will lose some of its intensity during processing. POP tends to be only marginally faster than the salt print or albumen print. Once the exposure is finished, the print should be processed without undue delay.

Processing POP paper In its basic form, that is if we treat the paper as a true printing-out material, the processing is rather simple and consists of three stages; washing, toning, and fixing. Since the emulsion contains excess silver nitrate necessary to give it proper speed and sensitivity to light, usually I start processing the paper by washing it for about five minutes in a tray of water containing about 3% sodium or ammonium chloride and some 2% citric acid to convert the excess nitrate to silver chloride, which is fully soluble in the fixer. This will help avoid unpleasant yellowing that so often mars our salt prints or albumen prints. The tray with the chloride solution should be rocked or moved during this stage to make sure the solution is constantly mixed and in contact with the whole surface of the paper. The washing should be careful, which means at least three changes of water should follow the chloride bath. It is important that we don’t just put the paper in water and let it sit there, but rather move it about or rock the tray, as otherwise the surface of the paper may be uneven. Once the paper has been carefully washed, it is time for it to be toned. Generally, POP paper is toned with gold, though there are also toners using platinum salts. If the latter is used, the image should be strongly overexposed as it will lose quite a lot of density in the toning. I usually use the following toner from the excellent Fotografja Praktyczna by Józef S´witkowski,2 though other toners used for salt prints can be tested. Many of

them will work due to the chemical similarity between the processes. Whatever toner you use, it will take about 10 minutes for full toning to take place, although toning times will vary significantly depending on the condition of the toner. Of course, we may choose to perform partial toning only, as this may also lead to pleasing results. Once the paper has been toned, it should be washed for about 5 minutes in tap water and then fixed in 15% sodium thiosulfate for about 10 minutes. As POP papers will usually be rather poorly hardened, it is a good idea to use a hardening fixing bath, such as the one below, rather than pure thiosulfate. A fully fixed print should be washed for about 30 minutes in running water and then dried. Hyporemoving solutions known from the traditional black and white darkroom may be used to shorten the washing time.

Recipe: Gold Toner for POP Paper Solution A Water .............................................. 1000 ml Sodium acetate ..................................... 6 g Borax ..................................................... 10 g Ammonium thiocyanate ...................... 6 g Solution B 1% gold chloride solution Directly before use, 6 ml of Solution B should be added to 100 ml of Solution A. The toner should be prepared directly before use.

As mentioned before, other gold toners originally designed for albumen or salt printing may also be used, though not all of them will produce equally pleasing results, as demonstrated by the pictures below, toned in one of my favorite albumen toners.

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Figure 20.1 (top) Untoned POP, © Radoslaw Brzozowski Figure 20.2 (bottom) POP gold toner, 5 minutes, © Radoslaw Brzozowski

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Figure 20.3 (top) Albumen gold toner, 5 minutes, © Radoslaw Brzozowski Figure 20.4 (bottom) Albumen gold toner, 2 minutes, © Radoslaw Brzozowski

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It is worth remembering that a toner may not give pleasing results when the image is fully toned but will be very effective and visually attractive with partial toning. Figure 20.3 and Figure 20.4 were toned in the same albumen toner, but for different lengths of time.

Recipe: Hardening Fixer for POP Papers (by Lumiere) Water ................................................ 900 ml Sodium thiosulphate ....................... 150 ml Sodium metabisulfite .......................... 10 g Chromium alum, 5% ....................... 100 ml

Drying POP Paper Once more we will face the same problem with drying the paper as we did when coating it. Allowed to dry freely, the paper will curl badly. If we are drying paper with a matte surface, it is best to tape the paper, face up, to a sheet of glass and let it dry naturally. If we are aiming at a glossy surface, it is easiest to stick it face down to a thick sheet of Mylar. Wet gelatin will form a strong bond with the film which will exist until it dries and will make the paper dry flat and with a glossy surface. As a general rule, the thicker the sheet of Mylar, the better. Developing POP Paper Now, contrary to modern beliefs, POP materials, both older ones like the salt print or the albumen print, and the later ones like POP paper, were frequently developed after exposure. This was most useful if we consider the short days and very limited light much of the world gets in winter or autumn, as it enabled the photographer to shorten the exposure time considerably and produce more images in the same time. It is also worth noticing that the use of developer will frequently produce

deeper blacks and higher contrast than are possible to achieve using the POP process without development. Similarly, the color of the resulting image may also change considerably if a developer is used. The use of developer doesn’t exclude the use of toners. On the contrary, toning is still needed to increase the longevity of the print. We should bear in mind, however, that the colors resulting from toning a paper that has been developed may be different than in the case of a paper that has not been developed. Should you decide to use a developer with your POP papers, it helps to remember the following rules. • The papers should be fresh. They may be stored for a few days or even a week or two, especially if they have been stored in a fridge, but the longer the papers have been stored, the bigger the danger of fogging will become. • POP papers are generally more sensitive to artificial light than an albumen print, so excessive exposure should be avoided at all times. Things get much worse when we use a developer. As this increases the sensitivity of the paper manifold, the use of light other than safelight should be limited to a minimum, or simply avoided. • The increase in speed will be quite considerable. If I choose to develop an albumen print, I will usually cut its exposure by 50 percent. In the case of silver chloride POP emulsions, the time will be 7–10 times shorter. Below are two developers that I find particularly useful working with POP emulsions. One is a more “modern” recipe based on hydroquinone and, in my opinion, gives results that are a little inferior to those obtained with a more traditional pyrogallol recipe given below. It is also worth remembering that most negative developers, especially the older recipes such as D-76 or Rodinal should be capable of giving good results with POP, though they may need to be diluted prior to use.

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

Figure 20.5 (top) HQ developer, 14 minutes, © Radoslaw Brzozowski Figure 20.6 (bottom) Pyrogallol developer, 40 seconds, © Radoslaw Brzozowski

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Recipe: Hydroquinone Developer for POP

followed by a careful wash in running water. Just don’t be surprised if you see the developer has stained the back of the paper you are using.

Stock Solution A Water ................................................ 100 ml Sodium sulfate ..................................... 20 g Citric acid .............................................. 1 g Stock Solution B Alcohol ............................................. 100 ml Hydroquinone ...................................... 10 g The stock solutions are stable and can be stored for a long time. For use, take 5 ml of Stock Solution A and 5 ml of Stock Solution B and add them to 100 ml of water.

Using the developer is a little tricky as the surface of the picture should be covered with it immediately, without the developing solution ever stopping, as this will produce uneven development and ugly stoppage lines. One way to achieve it is to use a tray that is longer than the print, tape the print flat to the bottom of the tray close to one edge and then lean the tray toward the other edge. Pour the developer into the tray so that it collects near the edge that is below the image, without actually coming in contact with the picture. Then, bring this edge of the tray up so that the developer flows over the print in one swift move. Afterwards, the developer should be kept in constant motion, which can be done by gently rocking the tray until the print gets the required density. Once this has been achieved (remembering that some of the density will be lost in fixing), the developer should be replaced with a solution of kitchen salt and citric acid (mentioned earlier). This again should be kept in constant motion to ensure that the elimination of superfluous silver nitrate is complete. Follow this with a wash in running water, and then a toner and a fixer,

Recipe: Pyrogallol Developer for POP Water ................................................ 500 ml Sodium sulfate ..................................... 50 g Pyrogallol ............................................... 5 g Citric acid .............................................. 6 g

This developer should be used in a completely different way than the previous one. The print should be taped or clipped to a sheet of glass or a similar flat and rigid surface, which is placed at an angle in a sink. Pour a little developer into a tray or cup, dip a brush in it and brush it onto the surface of the image starting with the edge that is uppermost. Bear in mind that the development will start slowly but will speed up after about half a minute and become quite rapid a little later. This means that if you wait and continue brushing until you are pleased with the image, you will end up with one that is too dark. I usually continue the development for 80 seconds, which means that the image should be almost perfect after about 70 seconds so that I can put away the brush and transfer the image under a stream of running water. After a very brief rinse with cold running water, I transfer the paper to a tray containing a solution of citric acid and salt. From this moment, the picture should be processed as usual, although the development itself may give the image a pleasing color, which means the only function of toning will be to increase the longevity of the print. I hope the instructions above will be sufficient for you to start an adventure with POP papers. Just bear in mind that the preceding pages are really a brief introduction that hardly exhausts the possibilities offered by POP emulsions. There are different recipes that will give different image color, different substrata, and a whole variety of developers

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Figures 20.7 and 20.8 © Radoslaw Brzozowski

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Figure 20.9 © Radoslaw Brzozowski

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Figure 20.10 © Radoslaw Brzozowski

and toners that can be used. Modifications can be made to the recipes to alter the contrast of the paper and so on and so forth. But this is the kind of information that you will only find useful once you have truly started using POP in your work.

Biography and Mission Statement Photography has been present in my life ever since I was 13, when I found my father’s Zenit camera and decided it would be mine from that moment on. Like most people who started back in the 1980s, I started in the darkroom learning to develop and print factory-made silver gelatin materials, then went through the digital stage to finally become passionate about historical photographic processes and mature into taking advantage of all the available technology, be it digital or traditional. It is the belief that all photographic processes are important, and have their place in modern practice,

that has driven me to work on popularizing and bringing back methods long forgotten or neglected, such as the POP photographic papers. My passion for alternative photography has lasted for more than a decade, during which I have extensively exhibited my work both in Poland and abroad, published five textbooks on various historical processes, as well as a unique album containing exclusively wet plate ambrotype work. I currently teach photography in the Tricity School of Photography in Gdynia, Poland, and run alternative photographic workshops in the Alternative Photographic Supplies Training Centre in Poland. Endnotes 1. Wall, E .J., Photographic Emulsions (London: Chapman & Hall, 1929), 107–108. 2. S´witkowski, Józef, Fotografja Praktyczna Do Uzytku Amatorów i Fotografów Zawodowych (3rd edn, extended) (Lwów, Poland: Ksiegarnia wydawnicza H. Altenberga, 1925

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Figures 20.11–20.14 © Radoslaw Brzozowski

Chapter 21

Didier Derien

I

’ve been playing with alternative photographic processes for a few years now, mostly with cyanotype and pigment processes using ferric ammonium citrate instead of dichromate (Chiba System). I’ve also made lith prints with old and new photographic papers, as well as some chemigrams. What I’m enjoying the most with these processes is that they’re mostly handcrafted. I have nothing against digital workflows and images, but the look of “perfect” prints is simply not what I’m looking for in a process. What I dislike the most with alternative processes is looking at my printer while it makes inkjet negatives. And, large format analog sheet films are now so expensive that I knew I’d have to try to make my own. I’ve read quite extensively the huge amount of information available on thelightfarm.com and decided to get started. I live in France and here we can get all the chemicals for photographic processes from an online store, disactis.com, that is very convenient, and where we can also discuss and share our experiences. As soon as I got the chemicals, I made my first very basic bromide emulsion without any apparatus. I was absolutely stunned to get pretty good images on 4″ × 5″ paper negatives, along with positives by contact printing on the same emulsion. I was immediately hooked and decided straight away to buy a hot plate magnetic stirrer to experiment further. I am lucky enough to have a darkroom in my basement where I can work any time without worrying about cleaning the space and packing away the equipment. So, now I can make small batches and experiment, which is very interesting and instructive. So far, I have a negative emulsion formula that yields 8 ISO and a warm tone paper emulsion that reacts beautifully with lith developer.

I coat my sheets with a coating rod. I usually make my emulsion in the evening and let it sit in the refrigerator until the next evening. Then, I coat my sheets and the morning after they are dry and ready to be stored. The main issues I’m facing are microbubbles. Also, I’ve not yet succeeded in making a paper emulsion suitable for enlargement. I’m only at the beginning of the road, but making your own emulsion is quite inexpensive and it’s so much fun that you feel entirely free to experiment and create, which is invaluable.

Biography My name is Didier Derien. I’m 48 years old, and I live in Marseille, in the south of France. I have practiced photography as an amateur since my teen years—first, 35 mm film photography and then digital. When digital photography appeared, it was a great boost to creativity and freedom, with the added ability to share images with people all over the world through sites like fotolog, and the beginning of flickr. The rise of digital photography also meant that analog medium and large format cameras, which I had only been able to dream of, became affordable! I started to shoot with cameras from 120 medium format to 8″ × 10″. That led me to alternative photographic printing processes. Now, I use the best of two worlds, mixing analog and digital to create my images. My photography is more than witnessing moments or documenting the world around me; it’s a starting point for creation and expression through the means of a photographic handmade print. Even if I may use digital negatives or digital cameras, the “handcrafted” side of the process is essential to me; this is where I take my pleasure, and pleasure is the only thing I’m looking for with all this.

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Figure 21.1 Song to the Siren #2, contact lith print on chlorobromide emulsion from a paper negative, © Didier Derien Figure 21.2 The Wild Bunch, 5″ × 7″ contact lith print on chlorobromide emulsion from a paper negative, bleached, then toned in thiourea and selenium, © Didier Derien

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Figure 21.3 (left) The Black Rock, 5″ × 7″ contact lith print on chlorobromide emulsion from a paper negative, © Didier Derien Figure 21.4 (right) Fallen Tree, 5″ × 7″ contact lith print on chlorobromide emulsion from an X-ray negative, © Didier Derien

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The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

Figure 21.5 (top) Song to the Siren #1, contact lith print on chlorobromide emulsion from a paper negative, © Didier Derien Figure 21.6 (bottom) On the Edge of Darkness, 5″ × 7″ contact lith print on chlorobromide emulsion from a paper negative, © Didier Derien

Didier Derien 281

Figure 21.7 (top) 4″ × 5″ paper negative, Boar Skull, © Didier Derien Figure 21.8 (bottom) Boar Skull, contact lith print on chlorobromide emulsion, selenium toned, © Didier Derien

Chapter 22

Edward Durrill

I

have made it a goal to attempt to re-create the process and produce at least one image from every major historical photographic process. Most recently, I have been successful in creating an AZO-type silver gelatin emulsion suitable for contact printing. This is the first time I have attempted to recreate a photographic process that is not technically dead. This turned out to be a lot more work than one would think. Not only did I need to reinvent the wheel, I had to rediscover trade secrets that are not published. Very small process changes make a difference between a petri dish containing the common cold and a petri dish that would make an image. After much research and many false starts, I gave up and took a workshop. In the end, I gathered at the International Museum of Photography

with several extraordinary like-minded people, and under the week-long tutelage of Ron Mowrey, a (retired) Eastman Kodak film chemist, we managed to produce some photographic prints. They were coated on dry watercolor paper, primarily Strathmore Bristol, with an emulsion coating blade Ron Mowrey manufactured based on the ones used to make hand coatings at the Kodak research labs.

Biography After many years of earning or supplementing my living as a professional photographer, I have relegated photography to a hobby, forgoing the exciting life as a photographic artist for a gray cubical, the security of a salary, and a health medical plan. Currently, I make a living as a computer programmer, and live quietly with my wife, Chris, and daughter, Emma, in central Missouri.

284

The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

Figure 22.1 (top) Cherokee Trail of Tears Monument and A Missouri Highway and Transportation Right of Way Marker, hand-coated emulsion on commercial baryta paper, © Edward Durrill Figure 22.2 (bottom) Cherokee Trail of Tears Monument, Route 66 Near Jerome, Missouri, hand-coated emulsion on lightly textured watercolor paper, © Edward Durrill

Edward Durrill

Figure 22.3 (top) Coral Court Hotel, Route 66, St. Louis, Missouri, TRI-X negative, hand-coated AZOtype emulsion on commercial baryta paper, © Edward Durrill Figure 22.4 (bottom) Coral Court Hotel, Route 66, St. Louis, Missouri, TRI-X negative, hand-coated AZO-type emulsion on lightly textured watercolor paper, © Edward Durrill

285

286

The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

Figure 22.5 John’s Modern Cabins, Route 66, Newburg, Missouri, TRI-X negative, hand-coated on AZO-type emulsion, grade 3, lightly textured watercolor paper, © Edward Durrill

Edward Durrill

Figure 22.6 (top) Missouri Ozark National Scenic Riverways, 8″ × 10″ TRI-X negative, handcoated emulsion on commercial baryta paper, © Edward Durrill Figure 22.7 (bottom) Missouri Ozark National Scenic Riverways, 8″ × 10″ TRI-X negative, handcoated emulsion on lightly textured watercolor paper, © Edward Durrill

287

Chapter 23

Cate Sampson Why Historic Processes hen I was pursuing my undergraduate degree at Louisiana State University, I took the one alternative process course offered at the time and felt like this door to an entirely “other” way of doing things as a photographer was opened. After I graduated I started seeking out advice and workshops led by historic process practitioners and began to home in on the alternative imaging techniques I was most curious about. One thing that greatly appealed to me about employing historic process photography in my creative practice was the tactile nature of everything. I loved measuring my chemistry on scales, coating the paper or glass with emulsion, and exposing the materials I made with my own two hands. There is something about the personal investment in these processes that makes a successful image that much more potent and meaningful for me. And being able to share my interest in practicing these antiquated photo processes with other people, and perhaps sparking curiosity for their own pursuits, just underscores the value I hold in keeping these techniques alive.

W

Print and Process Information • AZO-type gelatin paper emulsion • Silver nitrate, sodium chloride, hard bloom gelatin • Coated on Arches Platine 100% cotton rag paper • Coated using a 3D printed coating blade

Figure 23.1 (overleaf) gator-1, © Cate Sampson Figure 23.2 (top) noam, © Cate Sampson Figure 23.3 (bottom) lauren, © Cate Sampson

290

The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

Biography Cate Colvin Sampson is a historic process and film photographer based in New Orleans, LA. She travels by boat to document the vanishing culture of those living and working on the water, to explore our state’s current wetlands restoration efforts, and the landscapes we’ve already forgotten—fractured places erased from our maps. Sampson works out of her

analog darkroom to create her own film emulsions using the gelatin dry plate and wet plate collodion processes, and was the recipient of the Michael P. Smith Grant in 2015 and an inaugural National Park Artist-in-Residency in New Mexico in 2016. When she’s not out shooting in the swamp with her large format camera she’s likely fishing in the marsh or adventuring around southern Louisiana.

Chapter 24

George L. Smyth

A

s is the case with most things, the initial reason for learning silver gelatin emulsion making is not the direction in which I am currently moving. I attended a workshop at the George Eastman House in Rochester with the intention of learning the process so that I could produce my own bromoil paper. Someday I may again try to get to that point, but for now the ability to make my own paper works hand in glove with my current project of photographing the neighborhoods of Baltimore. It is incredibly

Figure 24.1 1079—North Fayette St., © George L. Smyth

frustrating (emulsion separating from the paper, fogging, etc.) but when I get a good sheet of paper that reflects the digital negative’s intention then it is well worth the effort—nobody ever said that something worthwhile would be easy. Baltimore Neighborhoods is a long-term project exploring the evolution of areas within the city. Each neighborhood has its own distinct feeling, and my intention is to offer a gateway to the sense of the neighborhood, and perhaps an indication as to how it has changed over the many years.

294

The Handmade Silver Gelatin Emulsion Print

Figure 24.2 (top) Beware of Dog—S. Carey St., © George L. Smyth Figure 24.3 (middle) Canine Realtor, Bank St., Fells Point, © George L. Smyth Figure 24.4 (bottom) Food Mart—N. Charles St., © George L. Smyth

Figure 24.5 (top) No Ball Playing—Glyndon Ave., © George L. Smyth Figure 24.6 (middle) No Climbing—North Schroeder St., © George L. Smyth Figure 24.7 (bottom) Rooms 4 Rent—West Baltimore St., © George L. Smyth

George L. Smyth 295

The silver gelatin prints in the Baltimore Neighborhoods project are made with an AZO-type formula, with no toning.

Biography George L. Smyth has been a serious photographer for the past 25 years, working primarily with the historic processes that offer the most direct means of translating image to idea. Known mostly for his work with the bromoil process, he has exhibited extensively and given talks and demonstrations of the process. George coats his handmade silver gelatin emulsion with his adaptation of the Mowrey coating blade, which is no longer sold. His website, http://glsmyth.com, has a detailed article showing how to make the coating blade.

Recipe: AZO-Type Formula Silver Gelatin Paper, Grade 3

Figure 24.8 (top) Seat With A View—Hollins St., © George L. Smyth Figure 24.9 (middle) Tiny Boxes—North Schroeder St., © George L. Smyth Figure 24.10 (bottom) Window And Board—West Lombard St., © George L. Smyth

Dissolve 20 g of gelatin into 180 ml distilled water Raise temperature to 40°C After the gelatin has completely dissolved, add 3.6 g sodium chloride Raise the temperature to 60°C Go to safelight Inject silver nitrate into gelatin over 60 seconds with a mixer at 300 rpm Drop the temperature to 40°C (hold at least 10 minutes) Add 6 drops (0.3 ml) 1% potassium iodide Hold for 10 minutes Add 6 drops (0.3 ml) 1% potassium iodide Hold for 10 minutes Add 12 drops (0.5 ml) Photo-Flo Add 5 ml 4% glyoxal Hold for 15 minutes Cool to coating temperature

Bibliography

General Emulsion Making

Chlorobromide Paper

Abney, William De Wiveleslie, Photography with Emulsions (3rd edn) (London: Piper & Carter, 1885). Baker, T. Thorne, “Making Bromide and Chloride Papers.” American Photography, 34 (1940), 469–474. Baker, T. Thorne, Photographic Emulsion Technique (1st edn) (Boston: American Photographic Publishing, 1941). Duffin, G. F., Photographic Emulsion Chemistry (London: Focal Press, 1966), 83. Greenwood, H. W., “Making Photographic Emulsions.” British Journal Photographic Almanac (1941), 95–102. Hanafin, Jr., Eugene P., “Know Your Emulsions.” American Photography, 34(9) (1940), 625–632. Hanson, Jr., W. T., “The Preparation of Photographic Emulsions.” American Photography, 34 (1940), 254–263. Hill, Thomas T., “Laboratory-Scale Photographic Emulsion Technique.” Journal of Chemical Education, 43(9) (1966), 492–498. Mowrey, Rowland, Photographic Emulsion Making, Coating and Testing (Rochester, NY: Photographic Systems LLC, 2011). Wall, E. J., Photographic Emulsions (London: Chapman & Hall, 1929). Zelikman, V. L. and S. M. Levi, Making and Coating Photographic Emulsions (London: Focal Press, 1964), 261–262.

Bennett, Henry W., “Prints on Chloro-Bromide Papers.” British Journal Photographic Almanac. (London: Henry Greenwood, 1934), 189–197 Steigmann, A., “Unwashed Silver Chloro Bromide Emulsions for Enlargement.” British Journal of Photography (April 19, 1946), 140–141. Stubbs, S. G., F. J. Mortimer, and Gordon S. Malthouse (eds.), “Chloro-Bromide Printing,” in The Modern Encyclopedia of Photography (London: Amalgamated Press, 1938).

Chloride Paper Baker, T. Thorne, “A Homemade Chloride Emulsion.” American Photography, 35 (1941), 560–566. Friedell, Philip A., “One Grade of Paper for All Negatives.” American Photography (April 1948), 238–239. Mortimer, F. J., “Gaslight Paper for Contact Prints,” in S. G. Stubbs, F. J. Mortimer, and Gordon S. Malthouse (eds.), The Modern Encyclopedia of Photography (London: Amalgamated Press, 1938).

Bromide Paper Gibson, H. Lou, “Bromide Papers and Bromide Enlargements,” in Willard D. Morgan (ed.), The Complete Photographer: An Encyclopedia of Photography (New York: National Educational Alliance, 1949), 497–526. Mortimer, F. J., “Bromide Papers & Their Characteristics,” in S. G. Stubbs, F. J. Mortimer, and Gordon S. Malthouse (eds.), The Modern Encyclopedia of Photography (London: Amalgamated Press, 1938). Mortimer, F. J., “Bromide Printing: The Best Methods,” in S. G. Stubbs, F. J. Mortimer, and Gordon S. Malthouse (eds.), The Modern Encyclopedia of Photography (London: Amalgamated Press, 1938).

POP Bennett, H. W., “P.O.P. and Self-toning Paper,” in W. L. F. Wastell (ed.), The Barnet Book of Photography (Herts, UK: Elliott and Sons, Barnet, 1922), 122. Clerc, L. P., Photography—Theory and Practice (London: Henry Greenwood, 1930), 327–338. Jarman, A. J., “A Simple Emulsion for Matt or Glossy P.O.P.” Wilson’s Photographic Magazine, 40(557) (1903), 193–195. Stubbs, S. G., F. J. Mortimer, and Gordon S. Malthouse (eds.), “Printing-Out Paper,” in The Modern Encyclopedia of Photography (London: Amalgamated Press, 1938).

298

Bibliography

Paper Negatives Smethurst, P. C., “Bromide Paper as a Negative Material,” British Journal Photographic Almanac (1939), 166–170. Stubbs, S. G., F. J. Mortimer, and Gordon S. Malthouse (eds.), “Paper Negative,” in The Modern Encyclopedia of Photography (London: Amalgamated Press, 1938), 284–286. Ward, Nowell, Picture Making with Paper Negatives (Boston: American Photographic Publishing, 1938).

Miscellaneous Adams, Ansel, The Negative (Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1948). Adams, Ansel, The Print: Contact Printing and Enlarging (Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1950). Adams, W. I. Lincoln, The Photographic Instructor for the Professional and Amateur (New York: Scovill Manufacturing, 1888), 11. Anchell, Steve, The Darkroom Cookbook (3rd edn) (New York: Focal Press/Elsevier, 2008). Anderson, Christina Z., Gum Printing (New York: Routledge, 2017). Benson, Richard, The Printed Picture (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2008). Brayer, Elizabeth, George Eastman, A Biography (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2006). “Chronology of Photographic Inventions,” in The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography, desk edn (London and New York: Focal Press, 1960). Clerc, L. P., Photography—Theory and Practice (London: Henry Greenwood, 1930). Current, Ira B., “Toning,” in The Complete Photographer—An Encyclopedia of Photography (New York: National Educational Alliance, 1949), 3411. “Developers,” in The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography, desk edn (London and New York: Focal Press, 1960). Dictionary of Photography, and Reference Book for Amateur and Professional Photographers (18th edn) (London: Iliffe & Sons, 1956). [any edition; 1st edn was 1889] Eder, Josef Maria, History of Photography (New York: Columbia University Press, 1945). “Ferrotyping,” in The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography, desk edn (London and New York: Focal Press, 1960). Focal Encyclopedia of Photography, desk edn (London and New York: Focal Press, 1960). Funderburk, Kit, Kodak Fiber Based Black and White Papers: A Guide to the Surface Characteristics (Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Company, 2007).

Graves, Carson, The Elements of Black-and-White Printing (Boston: Focal Press, 1993). Haist, Grant, Modern Photographic Processing, Volumes 1 and 2 (New York: Wiley, 1979). James, T. H. James and George C. Higgins, Fundamentals of Photographic Theory (New York: Wiley, 1948). Kodak Photographic Papers, for Professional Use, paper sampler (Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Company, 1949). Kodak Reference Handbook (Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Company, 1945). Lootens, J. Ghislain, Lootens on Photography (Baltimore, MD: The Camera, 1944). Mees, C. E. Kenneth, The Theory of the Photographic Process (1st edn) (New York: Macmillan, 1945), 86–87. Morgan, Willard D. (ed.), The Complete Photographer— An Encyclopedia of Photography (New York: National Educational Alliance, 1949). “Papers,” in Kodak Reference Handbook (Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Company, 1945). Rempel, Siegfried and Rempel Wolfgang, Health Hazards for Photographers (New York: Lyons & Burford, 1992). Rudman, Tim, The Photographer’s Toning Book—The Definitive Guide (New York: Amphoto Books/ Watson-Guptill Publications, 2003). Salvaggio, Nanette, Basic Photographic Materials and Processes (3rd edn), ed. Leslie Stroebel and Richard Zakia (New York: Elsevier/Focal Press, 2009), 168. Stroebel, Leslie, John Compton, Ira Current, and Richard Zakia, Photographic Materials and Processes (Boston/London: Focal Press, 1986). Wall, E. J., The Dictionary of Photography (9th edn) (London: Hazell, Watson & Viney, 1912). Wall, E. J., Photographic Facts and Formulas (Boston: American Photographic Publishing, 1924). Walls, H. J., Basic Photo Science (2nd edn) (London and New York: Focal Press, 1977). Wentzel, Fritz, Memoirs of a Photochemist, ed. Louis Walton Sipley (Philadelphia, PA: American Museum of Photography, 1960). Wilson, Charis and Wendy Mader, Through Another Lens—My Years with Edward Weston (New York: North Point Press, 1998), 199–200. Woodlief, Thomas, Jr. (ed.), SPSE Handbook of Photographic Science and Engineering, Eastman Kodak Company with the Society of Photographic Scientists and Engineers (New York: Wiley, 1973), 519.

Index

31-Step Stouffer step tablet 235

Arches Platine 100% cotton rag paper

A

Aristico, CP (Cold Press) 32

bottles 104

Abney, William De Wiveleslie 13, 53,

Artcraft Chemicals 37, 38, 213

bromide emulsions 192–198

Azo paper 142

Bromide Paper for Enlarging and

289

246

Borax 36 Bostick & Sullivan 38, 208

acids, safety 43

Azo-type emulsion recipe 253

Contact Printing 191–201; bromide

acutance 196

AZO-type silver gelatin emulsion 283,

emulsions 192–198; recipe 199–201;

Adams, Ansel 13–14, 31, 83, 89, 103, 120, 175, 191

bromo-iodide (BrI) emulsions 192

“additional” tools 27

B

Adox 38

Baby Graphic paper negatives 230, 246,

after-ripening see digestion

toning 197

289, 295

brush coating 262 Brzozowski, Radoslaw 253, 259–275;

248

biography and mission statement 274;

Ag 7

Baker, T. Thorne 41, 141

developing POP papers 269, 271,

Agfa/Ansco 131

Balanced alkali 37

274; drying coated papers 265;

Agfa Portriga Rapid 175

Baltimore Neighborhoods project 293, 295

drying POP paper 269; emulsion

Agra Record Rapid 175

barium sulfate see baryta coating surface

recipes and making instructions ;

air drying 108–110

baryta coating surface 7, 74, 135–139;

59–262; exposing the print 265–266;

alcohol 8–9

recipe 138–139

methods for coating paper 262–265;

Alterative Photographic Supplies 37

Baryta FB 144

papers for hand coating 259;

Alternative Photography Supplies

basic emulsion chemistry 41–43, 43;

preparing a matte emulsion 262;

addressing sources of potential

processing POP paper 266, 269;

ammonia, safety 43

confusion and consternation 46–47;

recipe: gold toner for POP paper

ammonium bromide (NH4Br) 36

recipes 45; safety 42–43; waste

266; recipe: hardening fixer for

ammonium bromide paper negative

disposal 45–46; weighing and

POP papers (by Lumiere) 269;

measuring 43–45

recipe: hydroquinone developer for

Training Centre, Poland 274

emulsion 248–250 ammonium thiocyanate 37

basic emulsion components 48

POP 271; recipe: POP recipe by

Anchell, Steve 131; see also The Darkroom

Basic Formula 48–49

Beadle 260–261; recipe: POP recipe

Beadle 259, 260–261

by Valenta 261–262; recipe:

Anderson, Christina Z. 123

Berg Touchrite black 239

pyrogallol developer for POP 271;

Andvaag, Ian 253, 255–257

Bergger Cot 320 259

silver gelatin printing-out-papers

Ansco 131

Bienfang Graphics 360, 100% Rag

(POP) 259; storing POP papers

Cookbook (Anchell)

Ansco 120 Soft-Working Paper Developer 133, 150 Ansco 125 Paper and Film Developer 133

Translucent Marker Paper 227, 233 Blick Premier 36

265 Bürki and Jenny Cold Tone Developer

blisters 77

161, 162

blocking 230 Bloom 7

C

Bloom number 7, 38, 39n9

Canson Fine Face 259

Bloom unit 39n9

Centennial 203, 204

HP (Hot Press) 32, 34, 110, 143,

Blue Gold POP Toner 213

characteristic curve, controlling 177–184

147

blue gold toner 120, 122

chemical ripening 8

Ansco 135 Warm-Tone Paper Developer 133, 150 Arches 34, 36, 61; CP (Cold Press) 32;

300

Index

chemicals 36–37; commercial formulas

negative 239–241; made with an

36; emulsion making 36; processing

inkjet digital negative 241; printing

chemistry 36; toning 37

89; printing frames 84–86; see also

drying 108–110, 219, 221, 234, 264; coated papers 265; POP paper 269; see also ferrotyping

Chiba System 277

Bromide Paper for Enlarging and

Dupont Defender 131

Chicago Albumen Works (CAW) 203

Contact Printing; Potassium Chloride

Durrill, Edward 253, 283–287

Chlorobromide (Kodabromide-Type)

(KCl) “Gaslight” Contact Printing

All-Purpose Paper 9, 175–188, 239;

Paper

controlling print color 184–186;

convex 44

controlling the characteristic curve

cooling, darkroom 18

177–184; enlarging speed C1Br

CP (Cold Press) 34, 54, 66, 71; see also

E Eastman Kodak Company 34, 39 n4, 176, 283 emulsification 8, 49

emulsions 176; homemade

Arches CP; Aristico CP; Fabriano

emulsion 8; hot 81; thickness 79–81

developers for C1Br emulsions

Artistico CP

emulsion making: chemicals 36; digestion

177; printing 177; recipe 185–188;

crystal habits 49

toning 185

Current, Ira B. 117

50–51; finals 51; setting and washing 50; steps of 50–51 emulsion making stages 8

chrome alum 36 citric acid 36

D

emulsion sensitivity 10

clean emulsion 7

D-76 274

enlarging 8; bromide paper for 191–201;

ClearBags 58, 61, 110, 217, 241

D23 developer 177

clips 19, 58

D23-Plus developer 132, 150, 162, 166,

clothes lines 19

171, 177, 180, 181, 235

enlarger choice 98; with handmade paper 98–101 Epson photo printer 217

coated papers, drying 265

D23-Plus negative 235

ethanol 141; see also Everclear

coating see baryta

D76H 177

Everclear 8–9, 10, 36, 54, 138–139, 141,

coating dry paper 66–71

Daniel Smith watercolors 123

coating guide bars 55–57, 60–63

darkroom 13–29; equipment and tools

coating paper 53–71; coating guide bars 55–57; coating techniques 60–71; glass coating rods 57; infrastructure

19–29; infrastructure 16–19;

154, 155–156, 168, 169–170 exposure 210, 230, 265–266 eyedroppers 44

miscellaneous items 27–29; space 13–16

F Fabriano Artistico 34, 36, 70, 233,

and equipment 54–60; material

density range 179

60; methods for 262–265; paper

Derien, Didier 253, 277–281

259; CP (Cold Press) 66; HP

negatives 246–248; papers for

develop 8; see also processing

(Hot Press) 32, 110, 147, 150, 152;

hand coating 259; squeegees 57;

developers 8, 131–133; color and

Traditional White, Hot Press 147,

see also troubleshooting coating

contrast control 150–152;

152, 227

coating tables 16, 54–55

homemade developers for C1Br

ferrotyping 110, 219, 221

Colloida P 38

emulsions 177; metal-based

fillers 27

color 7; controlling 184–186; darkroom

132–133; metol/hydroquinone

finals 9, 51

(MQ) 133

first ripening see ripening

18–19 colorblind 224

developing, paper negatives 231

fix 9, 107; see also processing

concave 44

Developing-Out Paper (DOP) 203

fixing 212–214, 233

contact printing 7, 83–98; bromide

developing-out silver chloride emulsion

flattening 110–112, 234

paper for 191–201; digital inject

(DOP) 204

flaws, hidden potential of 81

masks 96–97; digital negatives

development fog 184

floors 19

97–98; DIY printing frames 86–89;

digestion 8, 50–51

fog 9

hand-drawn masks with colored

disactis.com 277

Fotodyes black 239

pencil 95–96; hand-drawn masks

distilled water 36, 141

Fotografia Praktyczna (Świtkowski) 266

with graphite pencil 89, 95; made

dry-down 212

free-form coating on wet paper 63–66

directly with an original paper

dry plate 8

Freestyle Photographic 239

Index

frilling 9

Hypo & Gold POP toner/Fixer 212,

Funderburk, Kit 39 n4

301

Marshall’s Photo Retouch Colors 127, 218

213–214, 220 hypo-clear 9–10, 108; see also processing

materials 31–39; chemicals 36–37; gelatin

gamma 179

I

matte emulsion, preparation 262

gaslight paper 9; see also Potassium

G

37–39; paper 31–36 Ilford glossy RC paper 74

mayer rod 264–265

Chloride (KCl) “Gaslight” Contact

Ilford Multigrade 175

measuring 43–45

Printing Paper

Ilford Pan F 192

measuring cups 58

Ilford Plastika 175

Mees, C. E. Kenneth 37, 38

International Museum of Photography

Melinex 263, 264

gelatin 9, 36, 37–39, 39 n9, 48, 260; inactive 38; inert 38; strengths 38

283

Gelatin-Chloride Printing-Out Paper (POP) 203–221; the basics

meniscus 44 metal yardsticks 58

204–205; the case for digital

J

meter sticks 58

negatives for POP 214–218; color

jelly strength 38

metol 36

variations between different densities

metol/hydroquinone (MQ) 133, 144, 161

218–219; fixing, or fixing and toning

K

Michael P. Smith Grant 290

212–214; printing 208–212; recap

Kentmere Photographic 203

microbubbles 76–77, 236

219–221; recipe 205–208; the right

Kodabromide 9, 32, 175–190

mixing, glassware 20

negative 208; washing 214; the

Kodak 3, 31, 35, 131, 283

Mortimer, F. J. 159

workflow 208

Kodak D-73 developer 152

Mowrey coating blade 295

Kodak GP-1 Gold Protective Solutions

Mowrey, Ron 283; see also Photographic

George Eastman House, Rochester 293

122–123

glass coating rods see puddle pushers glassware 20–21

Emulsion Making, Coating, and Testing

Kodak HC110 developer 36, 132, 150, 152, 161, 162, 166, 171, 192, 224, 231

glazing 110

(Mowrey) MSDS (materials safety data sheet) 36, 42

gloves 104

Kodak Kodafix 36

glyoxal 36, 37, 141

Kodak Park 39 n4

glyoxal pox 78

Kodak Photo-Flo 200 10, 36, 51, 78, 141

N

gold chloride 37

Kodak Rapid Selenium Toner 37, 152,

National Park Artist-in-Residency, New

Mylar 57, 58, 61, 263–265, 269

Mexico 290

167

gold toning 120–123, 213–214 grain 34–35, 47

Kodak Research Laboratories 37

Natural White 152

graininess 47

Kodak Studio Proof 203

negatives 47; see also paper negatives

Graves, Carson 89

Kodalk see Balanced alkali

Nelson 123

Guilleminot 203

Kozo 259

H

L

OHP 96, 210, 217; see also Pictorico OHP

Hahnemühle Glossy Fine Art 144

latent image 49

Omega Brandes 239

halide salts 46

light traps 49

Omega D condenser enlarger 177

halides 9, 48

lighting, darkroom 18

overexposure 210

hanging laundry clips 19, 58

lightproof containers 27

oxidizers 43, 154, 186

heating: darkroom 18; glassware 20–21

M

P

Helix 100% Rag Vellum Paper 225–227,

make-up gelatin 176; see also second

O

hardener 9

230, 233, 241 HP (Hot Press) 34, 60, 126, 135, 156, 169, 188, 219 hydroquinone 36

gelatin

paper 31–36; composition 33–34; developers for 234–236; front-side vs.

Malthouse, Gordon S. 159

screen side 35–36; grain 33, 34–35;

Marshall’s Basic Black 239

handmade 98–101; sizing, buffering,

Marshall’s oils 126

and optical brightness 33, 34; surface

302

Index

texture 34; tint 34; weight 34; wet

paper choices 144–148; printing

Printing Paper 154–156; pyrogallol

strength 33, 36; see also Bromide

148–150; recipe 154–156; selenium

developer for POP 271; Three Salts

Paper for Enlarging and Contact

toning 152

Contact Printing Paper 167–171;

Printing; Chlorobromide

potassium iodide (KI) 36

(Kodabromide-Type) All Purpose

precipitation 8, 49

reciprocity failure 230–231

Paper; coating paper; paper negatives;

precipitation gelatin 8, 176

repellency spots 78

Potassium Chloride (KCl) “Gaslight”

printing 208–212; contact printing

restrainer 152, 184

Contact Printing Paper; Three Salts

83–101; dry-down 212; overexposure

Contact Printing Paper

210; paper negatives 239–245; scanned

paper negatives 223–250; coating

Three Salts Plus Copper Chloride 171

ripening 8, 176; see also emulsion making stages

paper negatives to digital print 239;

Rives BFK 32, 33, 34, 36, 61, 74, 135,

246–248; developing 231; drying 234;

scanning for digital negatives, inkjet

138, 139, 148, 150, 152, 166, 205,

emulsion characteristics 224–225;

prints, and screen viewing 241, 244;

exposure 230; fixing 233; flattening

traditional enlarging 98–101;

Robert Simmons brush #785 112

234; paper options 225–229;

underexposure 210; printing frames

Rodinal 274

photography with 230–231; printing

84–86; DIY 86–89; see also exposure

Rolleiflex TLR camera 192

208, 227, 235

239–245; processing 231–234; recipe

printing-out-papers (POP) 84, 86, 89

Rough 34, 66

248–250; reciprocity failure 230–231;

processing 10, 103–115; develop 106;

Rubbermaid 58

spotting 236–239; washing 233–234

drying 108–110; fix 107–108;

Rudman, Tim 117

paper towels 58

flattening 110–112; hypo-clear 108;

Pebeo 239

POP paper 266, 269; spotting 112,

S

pepper 10, 176

114; stop (bath) 107; technique

safelight 10, 18, 99, 101; see also speed

percent (%) solutions 44–45

104–106; tools and materials 104;

safety: acids 43; ammonia 43; basic

Photographers’ Formulary 37, 38, 123

wash 108

Photographers’ Formulary Nelson Gold Toner 37 Photographic Emulsion Making, Coating,

Professional Kodafix 36

emulsion chemistry 42–43; silver nitrate 43

puddle pushers 57, 60–63

Salvaggio, Nanette 107

pushing and pulling 106

Sampson, Cate 253, 289–290; biography 290; print and process information

and Testing (Mowrey) 255–256 Photographic Emulsions (Wall) 259

R

photographic gelatin 141, 260

RC (resin coated) 34

scale/scaling 10

Photoshop 217, 235

Reblev Barite 135

scaled down 44

physical ripening see ripening

recipes: Azo-type emulsion 253; AZO-

scales 19–20

289; why historic processes 289

type formula silver gelatin paper,

scoops 58

grade 3 295; basic emulsion chemistry

Scotch 246

Pigma Micron pens 237

45; Bromide Paper for Enlarging

second gelatin 8

plastic storage boxes 58

and Contact Printing 199–201;

second ripening see digestion

polyester (“Mylar”) sheets 57, 58, 61,

Chlorobromide (Kodabromide-Type)

selenium toning 120, 152

All Purpose Paper 185–188; emulsion

selvages 75

positive 47

recipes and making instructions

sensitization 10

potassium 47

259–262; hardening fixer for POP

setting 8

potassium bromide (KBr) 36, 45, 152

papers (by Lumiere) 269; Gelatin-

sheen 10

potassium chloride (KCl) 36, 141

Chloride Printing-Out Paper (POP)

shelves 19

Potassium Chloride (KCl) “Gaslight”

205–208; hydroquinone developer for

shoulder 179

Contact Printing Paper 141–156,

POP 271; paper negatives 248–250;

silver 48

161, 162, 204; chloride emulsion

POP recipe by Beadle 260–261; POP

silvergum 123

characteristics 143–144; developers:

recipe by Valenta 261–262; Potassium

silver gelatin 37, 46, 47; AZO-type silver

color and contrast control 150–152;

Chloride (KCl) “Gaslight” Contact

Pictorico: HP (Hot Press) 96, 166; OHP 96, 166, 214, 217

263–265, 269

gelatin emulsion 283, 289, 295

Index

Silver Gelatin Dryplate 37

thermometers 19

U

silver gelatin printing-out-papers (POP)

Three Salts Contact Printing Paper

underexposure 210

259 silver halide gelatin 46

159–171; emulsion characteristics

unwashed 50

161–166; recipe 167–171

unwashed emulsion 11

silver halides 10

toning 166–167

UV/ “blacklight” bulb array 208

silver nitrate (AgNO3) 36, 46, 141;

Three Salts Plus Copper Chloride 166,

UV light 224

safety 43

167; recipe 171

sinks 16

tissue paper 114

V

“Skylight” studios 208

TLF All-Purpose Developer 132, 150,

Valenta 259, 261–262

Smyth, George L. 253, 293–295; biography 295; recipe: AZO-type formula silver gelatin paper, grade 3 295

303

152, 162, 177, 181, 224 TLF Extra Oomph Developer (TLF-X)

ventilation 16–18 Vodka 8

132, 150, 152, 161, 162, 177, 181, 184

W

snap-blade utility knives 58

TLF-Plus developer 171, 192

Wall, E. J. 46, 259

sodium carbonate 36

TMAX 400 negative developer 162, 196

warm color 184

sodium chloride (NaC1) 36

toe threshold 180–181

wash 108

sodium metaborate 37

tone 10

washboarding 66

sodium sulfate 36

toning: Bromide Paper for Enlarging and

washing 8, 11, 214, 233–234; see also

sodium thiosulfate 36, 220

Contact Printing 197; chemicals 37;

solute 45

Chlorobromide (Kodabromide-Type)

solvent 45

All-Purpose Paper 185; Gelatin-

washing aid 108 see also hypo-clear

Somerset Printmaker Paper 32

Chloride Printing-Out Paper (POP)

waste 45–46, 246

soup 10

212–214; gold toning 120–123,

Wastell, W. L. F. 203

Spectrum Barium Sulfate 135

213–214; Potassium Chloride (KCl)

water baths 21–27

speed 10, 177

“Gaslight” Contact Printing Paper

watercolor crayons 58

spoons 58

152; selenium toning 120, 15; Three

weighing 43–45

spots 75–76

Salts Contact Printing Paper 166–167

weighing and measuring; eyedroppers 44;

spotting 112, 114, 236–239

emulsion

toning and other ways to add color

spring clamps 58–59

117–127; gold toning 120–123; hand-

SPSE Handbook of Photographic Science

coloring with colored pencils 126;

and Engineering (Thomas) 176

emulsion making stages; unwashed

percent (%) solutions 44–45 wet paper coating with guide bars 60–63

hand-coloring with photo dyes 127;

Whatman 259

squeegees 57

hand-coloring with photo oils 126;

Whole Plate 246

stop (bath) 10, 107, 231

selenium toning 120; silvergum 123

Wikipedia 132

Strathmore Bristol 283

towels, old 58

Wilson, Charis 112

Stubbs, S. G. 159

transfer 262–264

Winsor & Newton Professional 36

sulfur 47

trays 104

wood strips 19

surface texture 10

Tricity School of Photography, Gdynia,

surfactant 10

Poland 274 troubleshooting coating 73–81; art in the

X X, use of term 11

T

process 73–74; catalog of coating

Talas 38

boo-boos 76–81; selvages 75; spots

Y

Talbot, Henry Fox 223

75–76; too think; too thin 79–81; true

Yupo 89, 92, 95, 98, 110, 196, 246

tare 44

mysteries 77–78; uncovering hidden

The Darkroom Cookbook (Anchell) 107,

potential of flaws 81; true mysteries

Z

77–78

Zenit camera 274

117, 161, 177, 233