The Great Pronoun Shift: The Big Impact of Little Parts of Speech 2020042537, 9780367210076, 9780367210083, 9780367210175

Citation preview

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THE GREAT PRONOUN SHIFT

This book is a holistic exploration of personal pronouns in English and their development. In conversational prose and drawing on linguistic and psychological research, Helene Seltzer Krauthamer gives an overview of what pronouns are, why they are problematic, what they reveal about us, how they can be used effectively, where they came from, and where they are going. Assuming no specialized knowledge and with helpful real-​world exercises at the end of each chapter, the book aids growth and inspires thought in students and other readers, spelling out the implications of these changes for teachers, writers, and all who write or speak in English. Helene Seltzer Krauthamer is Professor of English, and English and Foreign Languages Program Coordinator, at the University of the District of Columbia, USA.

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THE GREAT PRONOUN SHIFT The Big Impact of Little Parts of Speech

Helene Seltzer Krauthamer

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First published 2021 by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Taylor & Francis The right of Helene Seltzer Krauthamer to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data Names: Krauthamer, Helene Seltzer, author. Title: The great pronoun shift: the big impact of little parts of speech / Helene Seltzer Krauthamer.​ Description: New York, NY: Routledge, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020042537 | ISBN 9780367210076 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367210083 (paperback) | ISBN 9780367210175 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: English language–Pronoun. | English language–Social aspects. | Gender identity. | Language and culture. | Language and sex. Classification: LCC PE1261.K73 2021 | DDC 425/​.55–dc23 LC record available at https://​lccn.loc.gov/​2020042537 ISBN: 978-​0-​367-​21007-​6  (hbk) ISBN: 978-​0-​367-​21008-​3  (pbk) ISBN: 978-​0-​367-​21017-​5  (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Newgen Publishing UK

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CONTENTS

List of Figures  List of Tables  Foreword  Preface and Acknowledgments  1 The Pronoun Problem, Again 

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2 Pronouns in Print and on Broadway 

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3 Nonbinary Pronouns: In Transition 

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4 Pronouns for Pets, Planets, and Other Bodies 

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5 Where Art Thou? Pronouns in History 

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6 Religious Pronouns: Thanks Be to Them! 

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7 Neopronouns: The Final Act of Self-​Actualization 

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8 Breaking the Grammar Binary: The Third Word Category  101 9 What’s a Teacher-​Student-​Writer-​Editor-​Ally-​Person to Do?  111 Appendix: Signs of Them  Index 

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FIGURES

3 .1 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

Gender complexity  Third person singular pronouns in Old English  Third person pronouns in Middle English  Third person pronouns in Early Modern English  Frequency of thou, thee, and thy  The Young Lady’s Accidence  Rise of they 

37 70 71 71 72 73 75

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TABLES

4 .1 Distribution of pronoun survey respondents by year of birth  4.2 Pronoun survey responses for dog  4.3 Pronoun survey responses for cormorant  4.4 Pronoun survey responses for cat  4.5 Pronoun survey responses for horse  4.6 Pronoun survey responses for bear  4.7 Pronoun survey responses for monster  4.8 Pronoun survey responses for Mars  4.9 Pronoun survey responses for moon  4.10 Pronoun survey responses for truck 

54 55 56 56 57 57 57 60 60 63

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FOREWORD

This book is just about pronouns. How much is there to say about them? Apparently, much more than I  thought when I  began this project. The topic expands each time I Google “Pronouns in the News” and find even more articles. There is a generational divide as well, where folks born before, shall we say, 1969, have no idea this is a topic, other than whether to use “I” or “me” or “who” or “whom”. Those born in later years or those with relatives born in later years or those who interact with anyone born in later years are more aware of pronouns appearing in e-​mail signatures, buttons, banners, and T-​shirts. To save you the time of reading this entire book, I’ll summarize its point in one wild prediction: One of these days, when you (the reader) are no longer the person you are today, the pronoun they and all its manifestations (them, their, theirs, themselves, themself, theirself, theirselves) will replace he, she, and all their manifestations. The gendered pronouns will seem as archaic as thee/​thou/​thy/​thine seem to us now. Why? Because people will no longer see the relevance of indicating gender in pronouns, or because people will not want to offend others by using the wrong pronouns, or simply because everyone’s doing it. It will not be a law enforced by the government or even by English teachers or editors. It will simply happen as most language change happens. This is a bold statement. Most people have gradually come to accept the singular they when used with nonspecific antecedents, for example, “Everyone loves their mother” (example credited to Dennis Baron, the president of pronouns). Grammar purists, or finicky old English teachers like me, have objected to this use, claiming that it violates the rule that pronouns should agree in number with what they replace, and so a singular antecedent (everyone) needs a singular pronoun (he or she). Grammar purists, or finicky old English teachers like me, advise writers to find other ways

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Foreword  ix

to express the same thing, for example, “People love their mothers.” However, grammar purists et al. have been lambasted for this attitude toward what is a very common and sensible solution used by Shakespeare, Chaucer, Austin, and just about every English speaker. Style guides for the Associated Press and even the National Council of Teachers of English and the Modern Language Association have now accepted this singular they. However, what about singular they when the antecedent is specific? How do you like “John loves their mother”? Most people would interpret this to mean that John loves someone else’s mother, and the someone else could be either singular (depending upon how finicky you are) or plural. Still another interpretation, however, is that John uses they/​them pronouns, and the mother is John’s. Here’s where the generational divide opens. Some people, generally those known as Generation Z, accept this use of singular they with a specific antecedent, and others do not, often quite angrily (something the “Silent” generation is not so silent about). They claim the anger is over grammar, but that may not really be the case.What if the anger is really about the rights of individuals to make these “preferences”? What if the anger is really about their discomfort with nonbinary gender? As an English teacher, I will tell you that style guidelines change. As a linguist, I will tell you that being conscious of pronouns is an almost impossible task, one that requires a lot of effort. As an ethical person, I will tell you that it is the duty of all ethical people to make that effort. As a prophet, I will tell you that someday it will not be an issue or an effort. Why? For one thing, the protesters will literally die out. Remember which generation has no problem using singular they with specific antecedents.Younger generations will be around longer to spread their word. For another thing, the very fact that pronouns are used subconsciously means that once the singular-​specific they catches on, it will be used everywhere. Now here again is the bold prediction: They will (someday) replace he and she, making them as archaic as thee and thou. Nobody knows for sure what happened to thee and thou, though there is a lot of research on this topic. Some have speculated that the singular you became prominent as social classes became more homogeneous in their styles of dress and people could no longer distinguish the aristocrat from the artisan. It may have become an embarrassment for speakers to insult their audience by using thee or thou when using you would indicate more respect. Is the misclassing of the past analogous to the misgendering of the present? Could the social forces that wiped out class distinctions in language erase the gender distinctions as well? That is the premise of this book. Read on, if thou darest.

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PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This has been a very challenging book to write for many reasons. For one thing, each time I Google “Pronouns in the News,” another item pops up. If writing a book teaches you anything, it is that you know nothing. The topic has drawn me into areas in which I  am no expert:  law, religion, politics, popular culture, science fiction, gender studies, psychology, language history, and even child-​ rearing, though I did attempt that some years ago. Even the field in which I hold a doctorate, linguistics, has advanced into areas in which I am no longer knowledgeable, such as corpus linguistics. (In the old days, we actually counted words with paper and pencil.) Nevertheless, I have written a book about pronouns, even though there are other books about pronouns, so many that I spent a lot of time wondering why there was a need for another. My goal in writing this book is to compile everything I  have been reading about pronouns into one coherent, engaging whole that could be used as a textbook for students of language, as a guidebook for writers, or simply as a book on a fascinating subject for curious people. There are activities at the end of each chapter to engage readers, as well as an annotated bibliography for those who want to read more. The topic, as I wrote earlier, is expanding daily. I am hoping this book will appeal to a variety of readers. First, as an English teacher, I am writing to other English teachers who may be perplexed about how to handle the changing and challenging situation that pronouns have introduced, both now and in the past. I am writing to my students who wonder about their pronouns and how they should be used in their various forms of writing and speaking. I  am writing as well to those people who may not even realize that pronouns are a topic, even as they see e-​mail signatures addressing them or people wearing shirts or buttons with their pronouns, or applications requesting them to

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state their pronouns. Maybe they are just wondering WT* is happening to our English language. Gentlefolk, it changes. It has become a practice for authors to state their identities. I am a cisgender woman who can remember the Kennedy assassination and was already working in my profession as an English professor on 9-​11 at the University of the District of Columbia. I have three adult children (oxymoron?) and have been (happily) married for over 40 years, including during this terrible pandemic, which I hope will be a distant memory by the time this book is published.You would think that it would be easier to write a book during a pandemic, with nowhere else to go (true) and nothing else to do (not at all true), but by the end I was resorting to finding my material in whatever books I had on my own dusty shelves, though the Internet was almost always there for me. Thanks to my intern, Eleanor Selden, a student at the School Without Walls, I never lacked for material to read or view. I love all the pronouns I have encountered in this research, but I have to admit I’ve grown accustomed to she/​her/​hers while they still exist. I would like to thank all the participants in the THEY 2019 conference for their insights into pronouns, for welcoming me into their circle, and for providing me with the most relaxing conference I ever attended since they did not accept my abstract. I have tried to include as many of their publications as seemed relevant and acknowledge that I first read that they could replace he/​she in their work. (See Konnelly and Cowper in Chapters 1, 5, and 7.) There is so much written on this topic, and I apologize to those writers and researchers whose work is not included. I have tried to include as many as possible in this book, but I encourage readers to find more on their own. I also apologize in advance if I have misrepresented any work and hope there will be an opportunity for correction. Of course, I thank my family, friends, students, and colleagues for their support, encouragement, and stimulating conversations throughout this process. I especially thank the professional conferences where I have presented aspects of this book and benefited from the comments of my colleagues there. The College English Association –​Middle Atlantic Group has been my professional association for the past twenty years, as well as the College English Association and the Assembly for the Teaching of English Grammar. I am also grateful to the College of Arts and Sciences at the University of the District of Columbia for providing me with a sabbatical that gave me time to first start the research for this book, as well as access to the numerous resources provided by the library there. My husband,Victor, and my daughter, Diane, have been my pandemic partners to whom I owe a tremendous amount of gratitude for their love and support, as well as for their assistance in many aspects of writing this book. I am also grateful to my son, Lewis, his wife, Anahi, and my son, Gordon, for their ongoing encouragement and presence in my life.

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1 THE PRONOUN PROBLEM, AGAIN

Introduction Pronoun problem? What pronoun problem? Unless you are an editor, an English teacher, a writer, a student, or almost any person belonging to Generation Z who, come to think of it, may not regard pronouns as a problem, you are probably unaware of the current pronoun crisis. But they (that is, pronouns) are making headlines.They are not only in the news, but they have been a problem for writers and speakers of English for quite a while for a variety of reasons. This chapter highlights recent news items and past issues that have arisen around those tiny parts of speech that most of us rarely consider until confronted by an editor, English teacher, or person with pronoun sensitivities.

Pronouns in the News Here are some examples of how important pronouns have become: Singular they was selected as the “word of the year” by the American Dialect Society in 2016 (Guo, 2016). It was the theme of the New York Times crossword puzzle of November 7, 2017 (Poulos, 2017). More alarmingly, a headline cries out “DC Will Fine You for Calling a Transgender Person the ‘Wrong’ Pronoun” (Jones, 2016), referring to a District of Columbia Office of Human Rights guide Valuing Transgender Employees and Applicants, which includes a section on how to “Use Proper Names and Pronouns” (Rodríguez-​Roldán & Imse, 2016). This section includes a chart of pronouns

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including the gender neutral ze (“Ze smiled.”), zir (“I met zir.”), and zirself (“Ze is zirself.”) (Rodríguez-​Roldán & Imse, 2016, p. 13). Under 4 DCMR § 808 (District of Columbia Municipal Regulations), “deliberately misusing a person’s preferred name or pronoun” constitutes harassment and a hostile environment (Rodríguez-​ Roldán & Imse, 2016, p. 9). The guide itself, in fact, uses the pronoun they in the singular sense, as in “Employers may not require an applicant to state whether they are transgender” (Rodríguez-​Roldán & Imse, 2016, p. 9). Presumably, the antecedent in this example (the word that the pronoun is replacing) is “applicant” and not “employers.” Jennifer Lopez (pop star for those of you unaware of popular culture or who are reading this a year from now) used singular they to refer to her sister’s child:  “ ‘They were the one person selected to represent their school at #globalyoungleadersconference in Washington DC!!!’ ” (DaSilva, 2017). The news item includes a photo of a very attractive preteen of unknown gender, presumably the niece/​nephew of JLo. (Note, by the way, how English does not have a slim, gender-​neutral kinship term for the rather bulky expressions niece/​nephew or sister’s child that I had to resort to in the previous sentences.) An even more noteworthy story relates to a couple who are raising their baby named “Boozer” as a gender-​neutral “they-​by” by not revealing the child’s gender (even to the grandparents!) and consistently using the pronoun they (in addition to clothing Boozer in gender-​neutral outfits and buying gender-​neutral toys) to avoid the sexual bias inherent in our society (Ritschel, 2018). The parents say that they are waiting until the child is three years old when they expect the child to select the child’s gender. (Now note how useful a gender-​neutral pronoun would be in the previous sentence to avoid the repetition of the phrase the child, as well as the possible misinterpretation that there is more than one child under discussion.) Several news stories depict how universities, out of respect for the pronoun choices of their LGBTQ+ students, prepare guides to educate professors on the pronoun options, including the use of new pronouns such as ne and ve (Parke, 2018). These guides often stem out of offices of inclusion and diversity so that nonbinary, gender fluid, and trans individuals (terms that are also changing and may need to be defined to people of a certain generation) will not face harassment or discomfort in their classes. A New York Times article (Bennett, 2016) explains how pronouns have become a reflection of the changing ways people want to express their identities through their use of pronouns, no longer a male/​female dichotomy but an array of shifting and fluid forms. Besides discussing how several colleges have pronoun guides to allow students to select their preferred and unrestricted mode of self-​reference, the article also mentions the television show Transparent where pronouns became a topic of discussion for one of the characters who is a transgender parent. Indeed, several shows now have characters who are transitioning, played by performers who have transitioned in real life. More on this in Chapter 3. Generally, once a person has transitioned, the pronouns simply match up with the person’s new

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The Pronoun Problem, Again  3

gender, that is, he for trans males and she for trans females. However, this transition is not always easy for those who knew the person prior to the transition, and discourse about the past becomes particularly problematic (based on personal communication with a parent of a transitioning child). Not everyone welcomes this new approach to pronouns. University of Toronto psychology professor Jordan Peterson has been in the news frequently and has been engaged in numerous debates about his refusal to use gender-​ neutral pronouns in his classes, as indicated by Canadian Bill C-​16, part of the Canadian Human Rights Act. Peterson claims that the compelled use of pronouns violates his free speech and is an outgrowth of political correctness. His opposition point out that the bill does not dictate pronoun use, that there is no penalty for professors, and that the purpose of the bill is to protect the members of the transgender community from the significant harassment they have faced. One of his debaters, Brenda Cossman, a Canadian law professor, said, “The Oxford English Dictionary has just announced the word of the year as post-​truth. I worry that a lot of the ideas about pronouns is located in that idea of post-​truth” (Chiose, 2016/​2017). Many people, however, are open to these changes, particularly with the growing recognition of the significance of the population being affected, as well as how much harassment that population has been facing. Those who have always considered themselves to be nonbinary are lauding the state of California for introducing Assembly Concurrent Resolution (ACR) No. 260 (Christian, 2018). As part of its efforts to be the “gold standard” for ensuring equity for all its residents, California has proposed ACR 260, a bill legislating that language in state documents become gender neutral and avoid the use of he or she. The bill proposes repetition of nouns or the use of singular they to replace gendered pronouns he and she, stating that these are exclusionary. It explicitly justifies the use of singular they by citing its prevalence in language and its acceptance by style guides such as the Associated Press and the Chicago Manual of Style (ACR 260, 2018). Already, government publications, such as the United States Navy Commanding Officers Transgender and Gender Transition Toolkit, use singular they. Here is a quote from this publication: If a Sailor expresses to command leadership feelings of gender non-​conformity, which in some cases can cause significant distress or anxiety, it is important to recognize the Sailor is likely under psychological strain that may place them [my bold] in a vulnerable position. (p. 2) As these examples show, pronouns do matter to many people. They, of course, are just the surface of a deeper transition in our culture –​our ability to perceive gender no longer as binary male or female but as a range. Pronouns just need to keep up.

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The Pronoun Problem Truth is, pronouns have been a problem for quite a while. The problem reveals itself in the completion of this simple sentence: Everyone loves _​_​_​_​_​mother. (Example credited to Dennis Baron, in any of his admirable and readable works on this topic.) How would you fill in the blank? Once upon a time, most of us automatically completed the blank with his, with nary a thought of masculinity. Known as generic he, the masculine pronoun was used to include all humans –​male, female, and all the variants between. As waves of feminism washed over our culture, however, awakening everyone to the sexism inherent in language, generic he revealed itself as sexist. The Handbook of NonSexist Writing by Casey Miller and Kate Swift, first published in 1980, was a guide on ways to be more inclusive of women in language, with a chapter on “The Pronoun Problem.” While we became more conscious of our use of terms such as mailman and chairman and adopted Ms. into our honorifics, we had no replacement for generic he. Completing the sentence above resulted in the use of their, which, for many of us English teachers and strict grammarians, violates the rule of pronoun agreement that states that the pronoun must agree with its antecedent. Everyone, despite its plural meaning, is grammatically singular, as evidenced by its singular verb loves, so its pronoun should also be singular. For a while, the alternative to generic he became he or she, and sometimes s/​ he, as well as other variants, but nobody could use these alternatives consistently without butchering the flow of discourse, and they were almost never used in speaking. The gender-​neutral pronoun it was not acceptable since it denotes an object, not a person.The only time it is used for people is generally when referring to babies prior to knowing their sex, as in “Is it a boy or a girl?”, and even under those circumstances, people often prefer to say the baby. As a writing teacher, how often would I read paragraphs where the writer would properly begin he or she and then his or her, but by the end of the discourse resort to they/​them/​their, causing this finicky old English teacher to pull out her red pen and charge him or her with, what else, pronoun error.

Why Don’t We Think about Pronouns? The simple fact is that most (other) people do not think about pronouns. Pronouns do their job best when they are unnoticeable. They are tiny parts of speech that keep our language moving at its naturally rapid pace. In speech, they allow us to focus on the important parts of the sentence, such as nouns and verbs. They help us improve coherence. When said or read in the context of a sentence,

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they are typically unstressed. Please take a moment to read the following sentence out loud: They are hoping the store is open when they get there. Unless you were deliberately reading each word with emphasis or have some unusual way of talking, the natural stresses were probably on the following words (in bold): They are hoping the store is open when they get there. Notice how the pronoun (they) does not get stressed in any position in the sentence.

Distinctions between Content/​Form Words versus Function/​Structure  Words The words that do get stressed are typically nouns and verbs, as well as adjectives and adverbs. Linguists and grammarians classify nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs as content or form words. These words have meanings, and their form often changes. For example, a noun can have a plural form, and a verb can have a past tense form, as well as a different form with a different subject, as we see in the following examples: My bird sings at dawn. Other birds sing at dusk. The words that do not get stressed are typically what linguists and grammarians classify as function or structure words. These words do not really have meaning and usually have only one form, but they serve the function of maintaining the grammatical structure of the sentence. For example, here are the above sentences without their function or structure words: bird sings dawn. birds sing dusk. The meaning remains, mostly, but the sentences do not fit our idea of grammatical English sentences. They sound foreign, and, in fact, omission of function or structure words is a common error for many non-​native English speakers We may think of function or structure words as the quiet, but hardworking, parts of speech. Function or structure words include parts of speech such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, qualifiers, in fact, most of the grammatical categories that give grammar a bad name. They are notoriously hard to identify in a sentence

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(a claim based on 20 years of teaching experience) and even harder to define.Why are they so much harder to pinpoint, especially for native speakers? Because we never have to think about them. As native speakers, we just automatically put them in their appropriate places in a sentence. Non-​native speakers, on the other hand, typically struggle with these words, particularly in writing, and teachers have a difficult time explaining their use.The purpose of function words is simply to give the sentence a grammatical structure. For example, here is a sentence without its function words: A. Sam put _​_​_​ book _​_​_​ _​_​_​  table. You can probably understand this sentence well enough, even though it resembles a primitive form of speech. Now here is a sentence with only function words: B.

_​_​_​_​ _​_​_​_​_​ the _​_​_​on the _​_​_​_​_​_​.

Nothing, right? Sentence A has only nouns and verbs, the “form” or “content” words. There is, however, a looseness to sentence A  that can be tightened by inserting the function or structure words. Any native speaker can do this naturally, though there is some room for variation. For example, we can have the following: 1. Sam put the book on the table. A A2. Sam put his book on a table. A3. Sam put a book under the table. A4. Sam put her book near the table. Each of the above variations, however, is following this same grammatical pattern: An. Sam put {determiner} book {preposition} {determiner} table. Though there would be a lot of possibilities, eventually we would run out of determiners and prepositions, and we would not be able to invent any more. What happens if we try the same exercise with sentence B? We would be following this grammatical pattern: Bn. {Noun} {Verb} the {Noun} on the {Noun}. Here are some possibilities: B1. Jane ate the apple on the desk. B2. Bob wrote the exam on the computer.

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B3. Moses got the laws on the mount. B4. Haley broke the vase on the wall. . . . The possibilities are endless, particularly if we start inventing new nouns and verbs, which we do all the time. The point of this exercise (which is a good activity to do in a class if you need to kill a lot of time, or maybe as a party game?) is to show the freedom of content words, in contrast with the limits of function words. Content words are an open class, with nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs being added (and lost) easily and often. For example, I will invent a word, a neologism, that will be used throughout this book, a blend of pronoun and radar to be the new noun: prodar (Definition: sensitivity to pronouns whenever they occur), as in, I am hoping that your prodar is being activated as a result of reading this book. Function words, on the other hand, are a closed class, with articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and helping verbs staying stable. While we are learning new nouns, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives all the time, when was the last time you heard a new conjunction, determiner, preposition, or qualifier? This point may need to be repeated, since it is key to understanding our ability to accept new words: CONTENT/​FORM WORDS ARE AN OPEN CLASS; FUNCTION/​STRUCTURE WORDS ARE A CLOSED CLASS.

Why Is This So? One of the universally agreed upon tenets of linguistics is that language is always changing. We are all aware of new words entering the language and old words disappearing. We can hear new expressions every day. When we read older texts, we can see just how much our written language, considered to be more conservative than our spoken language, has changed, to the point that we need dictionaries such as the Oxford English Dictionary to fully understand what the writers of older texts (such as William Shakespeare) really meant. Does all this change take place only with content and form words, and, if so, why? My guess is that we need to have a huge store of content and form words to keep up with all the new content our brains are perceiving. For example, 50 years ago the PC (noun) I  am using now did not exist, nor did the Internet (noun) or lattes (critical noun). People did not Google (verb), and there was no need to worry about phishing (participle or verb) e-​mails (other critical noun). Obviously, our lexicon needs to keep expanding to keep up with changes in the world. On

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the other hand, if we were to keep changing the structure of our sentences, it would become impossible to maintain our comprehension of these new content words, and our language would fall apart. Reading documents from the past would be like reading in another language. Function and structure words need to remain a stable part of our language and cannot be as open to change as content and form words are.

Evidence in the Brain?? There is also some evidence that content/​form words are processed differently than function/​structure words in our brains. According to Diaz and McCarthy (2009, p. 39), “Content words elicited greater activation than function words in middle and anterior temporal cortex, a sub-​region of orbital frontal cortex, and the parahippocampal region.” (The preceding sentence is a good example of the open nature of the content word category!) Their studies indicate that in a matching task of nonsense words mixed in with content words and function words, images from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) reveal that different areas of the brain are activated by content words and function words. They reason that this may be so because content words promote more imagery, or because function words are more frequent and usually shorter. (Interestingly, their list of function words included only the following pronouns: mine, none, nobody, oneself, ours, thee, theirs, thine, thou, thy, whose, whom.) They also cite other researchers who have found similar differences. There is more evidence suggesting differences between content words and function words. For one thing, children constantly invent new content words but never invent new function words (Stromswold, 1996). Here’s what has been observed about the differences between function words and content words: Whereas the average native English speaker has an impressive vocabulary of well over 100,000 words, fewer than 400 are function words (Baayen, Piepenbrock, & Gulikers, 1995). This deceptively trivial percentage (less than 0.04%) of our vocabulary accounts for over half of the words we use in daily speech (Rochon, Saffran, Berndt, & Schwartz, 2000). Despite the frequency of their use, they are the hardest to master when learning a new language (Weber-​Fox & Neville, 2001). (Cited in Chung & Pennebaker, 2007, p. 347) Studies of how the brain actually processes language are many, though not definitive. The scientific research discusses reaction times, eye movement, and actual measures of neural events such as the N400 and the N600 event-​related brain potentials (ERPs) and left-​anterior negativity (LANs) (Coulson, King, & Kutas, 1998; Pakulak & Neville, 2010). These experiments usually involve presenting experimental subjects (that is, people) with sentence sets that include grammatical

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sentences as controls and sentences with anomalous features, all while the experimental subjects have electrodes on their scalps that measure the amount of electric current emitted by the neurons in the brain (yes, our brains emit electric currents, who knew?) For reasons too technical to explain here (or by me), these are called “N400,” and sometimes “N600” activities. One study (Van Petten & Kutas, 1991), for example, states that “the N400 was smaller to function words than to content words. This is a highly replicable finding, which in the past has led us to state that there is little or no N400 activity for closed-​class words,” likely due to “the higher frequency, greater likelihood of repetition, and the greater predictability of such words in sentences” (p. 109). Another study (Neville, Mills, & Lawson, 1992) found that function words and content words had different ERPs in hearing people but not in deaf people. There are hundreds of articles describing research of this sort, searching for physiological evidence of how language is processed in the brain. There is, however, no particular area of the brain that lights up or does not light up when pronouns are used, so it is still a challenge to assert that there are physiological differences in the processing of content words and structure words in the brain.

Are Pronouns Function Words or Content Words? Linguists and grammarians have not all agreed on how to classify pronouns.There are some compelling reasons to consider them function words while there are equally compelling reasons to consider them content words. Some categorize them as something in between.

Pronouns as Function Words Most grammarians and linguists consider pronouns to be function or structure words. They are used, as our teachers used to tell us, to replace a noun, called the antecedent. When we use pronouns, we assume that our reader or listener knows the antecedent. For example, I, the writer of this text, assume that you, the reader of this text, know that when I use we, we (you and I) are both actively involved in this exchange, and we know who we are! In English, pronouns often just assume the role of the nearest and most logical nouns that can be inferred from the context. Consider the following sentences: C. Mary is writing a book. She hopes it will be a best seller. Mary is the antecedent for the pronoun she, and book is the antecedent for the pronoun it. As English speakers, we would probably never produce sentences such as the following (following linguistic convention, I am using * before sentences

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that are ungrammatical and ? before sentences that may be unacceptable to native English speakers): 1: ?Mary is writing a book. It hopes she will be a best seller. C C2: ?Mary is writing a book. They hope she will be a best seller. C3: ?Mary is writing a book. He hopes they will be a best seller. Cn: Mary is writing a book. _​Pronoun1_​ hopes Pronoun2 will be a best seller. (This could be another class time killer and/​or party game by using a variety of pronouns in these pronoun slots.) Though sentences C1–​Cn are grammatical English sentences, most likely they would raise some eyebrows if people were paying attention to the pronouns in use. This reveals that even though pronouns are generally unnoticeable (particularly when spoken), native speakers do have expectations about pronoun agreement, that is, that the pronoun will agree with its antecedent. (More on this later …) Grammatically, however, there is no way we can omit these pronouns from the sentence: D. *Mary is writing a book hopes will be a best seller. (* indicates an ungrammatical sentence) Our English grammar demands that there be a stated subject for hopes and will be. We satisfy that demand by using pronouns. Thus, they are serving a function. Some other reasons for calling pronouns function words are that typically they are very small, monosyllabic, unstressed words, just like other function words.They are in the sentence just to ensure that the grammatical structure is sound. Also, it is very hard to invent new pronouns, suggesting that they belong to a closed class. Dennis Baron, in his classic 1986 book Grammar and Gender, has five pages (pp. 205–​209) listing all the attempts at new pronouns (for example, ne, ir, hizer, ons, e, thir, na, hir, …) that were introduced from 1850 to 1985 to function as “epicene” (gender-​neutral) singular pronouns. One of them, thon, coined in 1884, even made it into Funk and Wagnall’s Standard Dictionary in 1898 and was also in Webster’s Second New International Dictionary (Baron, 1986, p.  201). In his newer book, What’s Your Pronoun?, published in 2020, Baron updates all those efforts in the context of recent efforts to create neologisms for nonbinary individuals, providing additional pronouns that have been proposed and their origins. All, despite many attempts at language reform, enumerated in Baron’s book, have failed. In both books, Baron forecasts the use of more comfortable practices, such as singular they. Anna Livia, however, claims that the neologisms for pronouns have not in fact failed, at least not in literary genres, since they are successfully used in many works of science fiction, with their readers reporting eventual accommodation.

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For example, Livia presents a sentence from June Arnold’s The Cook and the Carpenter, written in 1973: “ ‘Na sat astride Three, nan hands on nan throat’ ” (as cited in Livia, 2001, p. 138). Such a sentence indeed seems grammatical, though a reader would have to make many inferences as to the gender, or even the species, of the antecedent for these neologistic pronouns when read out of context. Livia goes on to illustrate other neologisms such as person and per in Marge Piercy’s 1976 novel Woman on the Edge of Time. Interestingly, this novel uses these neologisms only in the dialogue between the characters, not in the narrative. An example of both invented content words and function words from the novel is the following: “ ‘We’ll get per flimsy from the presser for you’ ” (Piercy, 1976, p. 163). Even this sentence, however, illustrates how much easier it is for us to comprehend nouns (flimsy, presser) than the possessive pronoun (per). The point of the novel is to show us a world of the future where people are more egalitarian than they are in the present, and the pronouns needed to be modified to reflect this. In literature (but not as easily in life, alas) pronouns can be reformed.

Pronouns as Content Words Some argue that pronouns are also content words. The whole fuss about generic he was that he is masculine. There is even psycholinguistic evidence that the use of he does conjure up images of males. Donald MacKay (1983) in his article “The Pronoun Problem” refers to numerous studies of his own and of other researchers who have tested the neutrality of what he calls “prescriptive he,” finding that it is not generic at all. He says that it demonstrates a “highly effective propaganda technique” by virtue of its “repetition” (it is one of the most frequent words in English), “early age of acquisition” (it is learned before the age of six), “covertness” (it is not deliberately used to foster sexist attitudes though it does), “association with high prestige sources” (it appears frequently in edited books), and “indirectness” (it is used with the assumption that everyone agrees to its use) (p. 47). MacKay’s research clearly shows that people respond to the use of he by visualizing males rather than both males and females or some neuter form, even when it is intended to be generic. Wendy Martyna (1983) in her article “The Case for Nonsexist Language” also discusses generic he as well as the use of man to refer to all humans, citing to her research demonstrating the differences in how males and females use and understand the generic masculine forms. She highlights the ludicrousness of once published sentences such as “ ‘Man, being a mammal, breastfeeds his young’ ” (p. 31) and alludes to legal research showing that women are included or excluded in the masculine forms (he, man) depending upon political climate and personal biases (p. 32). Interestingly, since the generic he was supposed to be inclusive of all humankind, at least one woman suffragette, Anna Johnson, in 1888 tried to argue for women’s right to vote, saying, “The English language is destitute of a singular

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personal pronoun, third person, of common gender; but usage sanctions the employment of ’he,’ ‘him’ and ‘his’ as of common gender. Therefore under ‘he’ women can certainly register” (Baron, 2016). [A side note, Miller and Swift (1980) discuss the controversy over whether the term should be suffragist, the original term, or suffragette, a term signaling “small size or imitation” that was coined by a newspaper, not by the women themselves (pp. 120–​121).] James Pennebaker (2011) has done a lot of research indicating that the pronouns, as well as other function (in his terms, style) words, that people use reveal much about their personalities, their status, even their honesty. He refers to his Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC –​this too can be Googled) program, which analyzes written texts and draws inferences about the writers based on the frequency of the types of words used. Pennebaker also suggests that these words are processed differently in the brain, though there is still a need for research in these areas. As for not changing, what ever happened to thou? As we will discuss in Chapter 5, English once had both singular and plural forms for the second person pronouns: thou/​thy/​thine for reference to singular second person, and you/​your/​ yours for reference to plural second person. Even now, we still use the plural verb with you, even when referring to one person (you are). So pronouns can change.

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The Problem Again But back to the problem. We have a gap in English that reveals itself when we write sentences such as the following: E. Everyone needs to put _​_​_​_​_​_​books on the table. Everyone is an example of an indefinite pronoun, a pronoun that does not refer to anything specific. Everyone agrees, however, that everyone is singular, as the verb always indicates. Although the concept seems to be that everyone refers to a lot of people, nobody would ever use a plural verb and say, “Everyone are here.” So the possessive pronoun that fills the slot above needs to be singular, to adhere to the grammatical principle known as pronoun-​antecedent agreement. What possessive pronoun can fill the slot? Back in the old days, we simply wrote his. In spoken language we simply say their. Try writing their, however, in a class with a very rigid English teacher.You will soon see the problem. English teachers and probably editors too do not like the use of what is known as singular they. First, they is plural. Also, it is often vague. Consider a sentence such as the following: F. A client should leave their package by the door.

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While the writer of sentence F is clearly trying to avoid identifying the specific gender of client by using their, the writer is also violating pronoun-​antecedent agreement by using a plural possessive pronoun with a singular referent. Therein lies the problem. Still, there is historical evidence that singular they has been in use by prominent writers for hundreds of years, and it is only the very rigid prescriptionists who oppose it. For example, a classic article by Ann Bodine, originally published in 1975, “Androcentrism in Prescriptive Grammar,” provides numerous instances where singular they appears, arguing that we all should accept they as both singular and plural. She claims that it is more important to observe gender neutrality than grammatical agreement, pointing to our acceptance of a singular you with the plural verb are as precedent. Anne Curzan illustrates the history of confusion around the use of pronouns, showing past documents of the varied attempts to deal with the lack of a singular generic pronoun. Examples of generic pronoun use in Old English, Middle English, and Early Modern English included he, he or she, and they, as seen in the examples below (from Curzan, 2003, pp. 70–​72): (Old English translation) “If an ox gores a man or a woman, so that they be dead, may he [the ox] be killed with stones.” (Middle English translation) “Such a person is very lazy, be he high or be he low.” “Therefore, every lettered man and women should read each day the orisons of my bitter Passion for his own medicine.” “If a man or woman takes sickness that day, they should soon recover.” (Early Modern English) “or whose Husband or Wife shall absent hym or her selfe the one from the other by the space of seaven yeares together …”

What Do We Do with Everyone? Grammar books themselves have a history regarding how to handle the pronoun problem. In 1969, when I was a college freshman (this masculine term was still in use, and there was also a freshman purple and white beanie that looked just like a yarmulke to accompany it), we were assigned The Practical Stylist by Sheridan Baker that soundly supported generic he with the following rule and example: Give an indefinite or general antecedent a singular pronoun (Baker, 1969, p. 64) (Example) Has everybody paid for his ice cream? (Baker, 1969, p. 61)

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By the time I began to teach my own first-​year composition course (still called Freshman English), we used College Writing Skills with Readings, by John Langan (1989) that had this to say about indefinite pronouns using the following example: Everyone in the club may pay his dues next week. (Langan, 1989, p. 258) Note: In the last example, if everyone in the club was a woman, the pronoun would be her. If the club was a mixed group of men and women, the pronoun form would be his or her. Some writers follow the traditional practice of using his to refer to both men and women. Some use his or her to avoid an implied sexual bias. To avoid using his or the somewhat awkward his or her, a sentence can often be rewritten in the plural: Club members must pay their dues next week. (Langan, 1989, p. 258) By 1994, there was such widespread confusion about pronouns that Diana Hacker’s The Bedford Handbook for Writers devotes several examples admonishing writers not to use they or their with indefinite pronouns, offering options such as he or she/​his or her, as well as the avoidance of pronouns and the use of the plural. In the Annotated Teacher’s Edition, however, Hacker refers the teacher to articles written by Martha Kolln, Elizabeth Sklar, and Shannon Bryony who advocated for acceptance of they and their with indefinite pronouns, based on their prevalence in usage (Hacker, 1994, pp. 255–​256). Currently, many handbooks now in use still tell students not to use they/​them/​ their with indefinite pronouns, and the options are the use of plurals so that they/​ them/​their agrees with the plural antecedent, or to avoid pronouns altogether, or to use he or she/​his or hers/​him or her sparingly. So far, not all English teachers have accepted singular they. Nevertheless, those grammarians (such as Kolln, 1986) who support singular they have pointed to the way we add tags to sentences, such as the following: We love reading our newspapers, don’t we? He writes his papers well, doesn’t he? They’re doing their best work, aren’t they? Everyone loves _​_​_​ mother, don’t  _​_​_​_​? Again, the blanks will be filled in with the singular they. As some (Konnelly & Cowper, 2019) have pointed out, the future is their. (Side note: This tag approach is also useful for showing the grammaticality of ain’t when we try to add a tag to the following sentence: I’m doing the best I can,

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_​_​_​_​ I? The “grammatical” use of aren’t reveals another gap in English, the lack of a contraction for *amn’t, which historically had been ahn’t and which became ain’t.) There is a reason why the American Dialect Society chose singular they as the 2016 Word of the Year. Finally, in the period of time that I have been writing this book, the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) has issued a policy statement, reprinted at the end of this book, accepting the use of singular they with indefinite pronouns, as well as for students who choose not to use masculine and feminine pronouns.

Conclusion This chapter has attempted to add to the problems of your already overburdened lives by illustrating how seemingly innocuous parts of speech, pronouns, are in fact real troublemakers. They have the potential to land you in jail or at least cause others to think less of you if you are unaware of their impact. They are indicators of changes in our society, actually good changes whereby people are trying to show their respect for others by being more conscious of their pronoun use and identity. We have considered whether pronouns are function/​structure words, meaning that they are members of a closed class of language that does not change easily, or whether pronouns are content/​form words, meaning that they are members of an open class that does change. Regardless of how we classify them, pronouns, as many forms of language, actually do reflect our culture and the growing recognition of the gender spectrum. Whether changing pronouns can result in the way we view people is a question worthy of consideration under a version of the legendary Sapir-​Whorf hypothesis (you may Google this) –​that our language determines our thoughts. The remaining chapters will explore this aspect of pronouns, glance at the history, and present the options open to speakers and writers of English, including an examination of pronouns in other cultures, in an overall attempt to get your prodar running and identify this as the Great Pronoun Shift.

Activities 1. With a small group of people, make up a new pronoun of your own to replace generic he. Here are some sample sentences to complete: a. _​_​_​_​went to the store. b. Andy gave it to _​_​_​_​. c. The book is _​_​_​_​_​_​. d. _​_​_​_​did it by _​_​_​_​self. 2. Try using the pronoun you invented in #1 above in sentences with one another. What happens? 3. What has been your experience with people’s “preferred pronouns”?

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4. Have you been in a community of people using any “new” pronouns such as zie? How consistent are they in their use of these new pronouns? 5. Look at some naturally occurring text, such as a newspaper or magazine article. Cross out all the pronouns. Read the text aloud. What do you notice? 6. What have you been told (by employers, teachers, editors …) to do about the pronoun problem? 7. How do you complete the below sentences? Explain your answer. Everyone should put _​_​_​_​_​_​feet on the floor. Everyone should put _​_​_​_​_​_​ feet on the floor, shouldn’t  _​_​_​_​? 8. What do you think about some of the bills and practices being introduced about the use of pronouns in the workplace and in publications? 9. Listen to people talking in natural conversations. How often do you hear the singular they? 10. Have pronouns been in the news as you read this? Google “gender-​neutral pronouns” or simply “pronouns” and see what has been happening recently.

Annotated Bibliography Assembly Concurrent Resolution No. 260. (September 5, 2018). https://​leginfo.legislature. ca.gov/​faces/​billTextClient.xhtml?bill_​id=201720180ACR260 This is the actual bill that states that laws and other documents in California should avoid masculine and feminine pronouns, saying that they are noninclusive of the large LGBTQ community. The bill proposes that repetition of nouns or singular they should be used in all documents. Baker, S. (1969). The practical stylist. Thomas Y. Crowall. Still my favorite style guide, despite some of its outdated principles. Baron, D. (1986). Grammar and gender. Yale University Press. This is a must-​read, as well as a good-​read, for anyone interested in pronouns and sexist language. It provides a very accessible account of gender, for example, theories on why the word for “sun” is masculine in countries in southern regions and feminine in countries in northern regions. Baron has an extensive list of the “words that failed” –​a neologism for epicene pronouns, their innovators, and their histories, in addition to a comprehensive history of gender in language. Baron, D. (2016). Gender politics of the generic “he.” https://​blog.oup.com/​2016/​01/​ gender-​politics-​generic-​he/​ Baron is not done with pronouns. His very compelling discussion illustrates so many reasons for the demise of generic he, and his research is awesome. He is definitely one to Google for the latest on this and other topics on linguistics. Baron, D. (2020). What’s your pronoun? Liveright. This is the updated version of Grammar and Gender to include the current pronoun situation addressing inclusivity of nonbinary individuals. It demonstrates very impressive and thorough research on the history of pronouns up to the present.

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Bennett, J. (2016, January 30). She? Ze? They? What’s in a gender pronoun? New  York Times. www.nytimes.com/​2016/​01/​31/​f ashion/​pronoun-​confusion-​sexual-​fluidity. html?_r=0 This is a news article about how gender pronouns have become notable insofar as they reflect a person’s identity and our changing perceptions of gender and sexuality. Bodine, A. (1998). Androcentrism in prescriptive grammar. In D. Cameron (Ed.), The feminist critique of language (pp. 124–​138). Routledge. (Initially published in 1975) This is another often-​cited source, in which Bodine provides ample evidence of past use of singular they by notable writers and offers the simple solution to just accept both singular and plural uses of they as we have accepted both singular and plural uses of you. Chiose, S. (2016, November 19, updated April 7, 2017). University of Toronto professor defends right to use gender-​specific pronouns. The Globe and Mail. This article is one of many about University of Toronto psychology professor Jordan Peterson who claims that proposed Bill C-​16 would limit his freedom of speech. It describes a panel discussion in which his opponents point out that misuse of pronouns would not be considered a criminal act for professors under the Canadian Human Rights Act, and that the bill would rather protect the rights of transgender people. Christian, S. (2018, August 23). California’s effort to end gendered pronouns will trickle down. Advocate. www.advocate.com/​commentary/​2018/​8/​23/​californias-​effort-endgendered-​pronouns-​will-​trickle-​down This article by a nonbinary person praises the new legislation ACR 260 in California to implement singular they, saying that it is necessary to ensure that all people are seen and making the point that gender variance is valued in other cultures and should not be demonized in American culture. Curzan, A. (2003). Gender shifts in the history of English. Cambridge University Press. This book gives an extensive history of the personal pronoun system and gender in English, providing numerous examples drawn from corpus linguistics studies and literary sources. A particularly valuable section is a history of generic he through an examination of corpus data. DaSilva, C. (2017, July 24). Jennifer Lopez lauded for use of gender-​neutral pronouns. Independent. www.independent.co.uk/​arts-​entertainment/​music/​news/​jennifer-​lopez-​ gender-​neutral-​pronouns-​they-​nibling-​the-​fosters-​a7856941.html This very short article provides a photo of Brendan, Jennifer Lopez’s sister’s child (we have no gender-​neutral kinship term for this in English!), as well as the comments, not all kind, following the otherwise very positive response to her use of singular they in her tweet. Diaz, M. T., & McCarthy, G. (2018, March 19). A comparison of brain activity evoked by single content and function words: An fMRI investigation of implicit word processing. Brain Research, 1282(2009),  38–​49. This is the first article I have found showing a physiological difference based on functional magnetic resonance imaging between content words and function words. I hope to one day understand it all.

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Guo, J. (2016, January 8). Sorry, grammar nerds. The singular ‘they’ has been declared Word of the Year. The Washington  Post. This article describes the selection of singular they as the Word of the Year 2016 by the American Dialect Society, some of the reasons, and how it reflects our society’s growing acceptance of transgender and gender-​fluid people who do not feel comfortable using binary pronouns he and she. Hacker, D. (1994). The Bedford handbook for writers (Instructor’s annotated ed.). Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press. This was the most user-​friendly handbook for my students, with real examples and clear explanations of grammar principles. The Instructor’s Annotated Edition was my mentor when I began teaching composition and was an invaluable guide to the scholarship on composition pedagogy Jones, R. (2016, June 30). D.C. will fine you for calling a transgender person the “wrong” pronouns. Military Times. http://​forums.militarytimes.com/​showthread.php/​9705-​D-​ C-​Will-​Fine-​You-​For-​Calling-​A-​Transgender-​Person-​The-​‘Wrong’-​Pronouns This short article describes the contents of the District of Columbia Human Resources Guide and its section on using the appropriate pronouns for transgender employees and applicants. Kolln, M. (1986). Everyone’s right to their own language. College Composition and Communication, 37(1), 100–​102. This article, by the great Martha Kolln, advocates for the use of they/​them/​their with indefinite pronouns on the basis of their widespread use in spoken English and informal varieties of written English and the way tag questions indicate their acceptability. Konnelly, L., & Cowper, E. (2019). The future is they: The morphosyntax of an English epicene pronoun. Lingbuzz. linglingbuzz/​003859 This article shows evidence from corpus studies of the rise of singular they and predicts that it will be used to replace pronouns even when the gender is known. Langan, J. (1989). College writing skills with readings. McGraw-​Hill. The first book I taught first-​year composition with, it will always be my partner. Livia, A. (2001). Pronoun envy. Oxford University Press. The title of this classic book is based on the incident at Harvard Divinity School where a linguist, trying to explain linguistic principles to non-​linguists, in a letter to the editor of the Harvard Crimson, said that there was no cause for “pronoun envy” since pronouns were simply unchangeable parts of speech. Livia recounts numerous examples from literature of how gender neutral, invented pronouns can be successfully used, citing works from science fiction as well as French literature. MacKay, D. G. (1983). Prescriptive grammar and the pronoun problem. In B. Thorne, C. Kramarae, & N. Hemley (Eds.), Language, gender and society (pp. 38–​53). Newbury House. This article cites several psycholinguistic studies showing that sexism does exist in language, for example, people understanding words such as doctor as referring typically to males and nurse to females. Generic he, MacKay claims, was never inclusive of women, and MacKay

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refutes several assumptions defending it. He offers suggestions to replace it, including singular they, he, or she, or some neologism. Martyna, W. (1983). Beyond the he/​man approach:  The case for nonsexist language. In B. Thorne, C. Kramarae, & N. Hemley (Eds.), Language, gender and society (pp. 25–​37). Newbury House. This often-​cited article rejects generic he and the use of man to refer to all people, advocating for greater use of nonsexist language. Miller, C., & Swift, K. (1980) The handbook of nonsexist writing. Lippincott & Crowell. This book provides expert tips on using English inclusively so that gender is not a factor. At the time, it did not address nonbinary populations, but the suggestions still apply, and they recommend the use of singular they with indefinite antecedents. Parke, C. (2018, March 3). “Pronouns matter”:  Georgia college suggests “ne” and “ve” as gender neutral words. Fox News. www.foxnews.com/​us/​2018/​03/​02/​pronouns-​ matter-​georgia-​college-​suggests-​ne-​and-​ve-​as-​gender-​neutral-​words.html A broadcast, as well as an article, this item is about Kennesaw State University’s attempt to educate the university community about the need to respect LGBTQ students and their pronoun preferences, listing a variety of new pronouns that could be used. The announcer has trouble using them. Pennebaker, J. (2011). The secret life of pronouns. Bloomsbury Press. A fascinating read, this book describes numerous studies based on the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LWIC) program that analyzes the style (in our terms, function) words that people use to make inferences about their personalities, status, and even their level of honesty. The research is ongoing, and the book includes links to websites where you can try out the LWIC. Piercy, M. (1976). Woman on the edge of time. Fawcett Crest. I have not been a big fan of science fiction, but I enjoyed reading this novel about a future world where people live more gracefully and joyfully and with more respect for others than in the present, and this present was over 40 years ago. There was not a lot of use of the invented pronoun per and only in dialogue, but it was interesting to read the other neologisms of the future. Poulos, G. (2017, November 7). 1101-​17 New York Times crossword answers. The New York Times. https://​nytcrossword.com/​2017/​11/​1107-​17-​ny-​times-​crossword-​answers-​7-​ nov-​2017-​tuesday.html What can I say? Some of us are just crossword addicts. I consider this evidence that singular they has arrived. Ritschel, C. (2018, April 3). Couple raises child as a gender-​neutral “they-​by.” Independent. www.independent.co.uk/​life-​style/​health-​and-​f amilies/​theyby-​gender-​neutral-​child-​ parents-​raise-​couple-​kyl-​myers-​zoomer-​a8286876.html This news article, about a child named Zoomer, describes how Zoomer’s parents are attempting to raise Zoomer in a gender-​free environment, waiting until the child is three or four to see how Zoomer identifies.The parents, and the author of the article, consistently refer to the child with singular they.

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Rodríguez-​Roldán, V. M., & Imse, E. (2016). Valuing transgender applicants and employees: A best practices guide for employers. District of Columbia Office of Human Rights and National LGBTQ Task Force. https://​ohr.dc.gov/​sites/​default/​files/​dc/​sites/​ohr/​publication/​attachments/​ValuingTransEmployees_​FINAL_​WebQuality_​0.pdf This guide, prepared by the LGBTQ Task Force, provides recommendations on how to ensure that transgender applicants and employees are treated without harassment in the workplace. Besides the use of pronouns and proper names, there are also points about facilities and behaviors. The guide itself uses singular they throughout. United States Navy Commanding Officers Transgender and Gender Transition Toolkit. (n.d.) www.public.navy.mil/​bupers-​npc/​support/​21st_​Century_​Sailor/​lgbt/​Documents/​ CO%20Toolkit%20USN_​Transgender%20and%20Transitioning%20Command%20 Officers%20Toolkit_​V23.pdf This manual provides guidance for commanding officers in their treatment of sailors who are transitioning genders. Though the manual does not specify use of pronouns, it models the use of repetition of nouns (“Sailor”) and singular they consistently throughout. Van Petten, C., & Kutas, M. (1991). Influences of semantic and syntactic context on open-​ and closed-​class words. Memory and Cognition, 19, 95–​112. This article actually provides several statements about how the N400 to function words (closed-​class words) is smaller than that to content words, presenting it as a long-​known observation.

Non-​annotated Bibliography (The following articles are all VERY challenging to read since they are based on highly technical research studies that explore electric potentials in the brain. Each article leads to other studies, and there are a lot more that were not cited in this chapter. Feel free to read them yourself to see how scientists are exploring the brain and its reactions to language.) Baayen, R. H., Piepenbrock, R., & Bulickers, L. (1995). The CELEX lexical database [CDROM]. Linguistic Data Consortium, University of Pennsylvania. (cited in Chung & Pennebaker) Chung, C. K., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2007) The psychological functions of function words. In K. Fiedler (Ed.), Social Communication (pp. 343–​ 359). Psychology Press. www.researchgate.net/​publication/​237378690_​The_​Psychological_​Functions_​of_​ Function_​Words Coulson, S., King, J. W., & Kutas, M. (1998). Expect the unexpected: Event-​related brain response to morphosyntactic violations. Language and Cognitive Processes, 13(1),  21–​58. Neville, H. J., Mills, D. L., & Lawson, D. S. (1992). Fractionating language: Different neural subsystems with different sensitive periods. Cerebral Cortex, 2, 244–​258. Pakulak, E., & Neville, H. J. (2010). Proficiency differences in syntactic processing of native speakers indexed by event-​related potentials. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22(12), 2728–​2744. Rochon, E., Saffran, E. M., Berndt, R. S., & Schwartz, M. F. (2000). Quantitative analysis of aphasic sentence production: Further development and new data. Brain and Language, 72, 193–​218. (cited in Chung & Pennebaker)

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Stromswold, K. (1996) Genes, specificity, and the lexical/​functional distinction in language acquisition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19(4), 648–​649. Weber-​Fox, C., & Neville, H. J. (2001). Sensitive periods differentiate processing of open-​and closed-​class words: An event-​related brain potential study of bilinguals. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 1338–​1353. (cited in Chung & Pennebaker)

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2 PRONOUNS IN PRINT AND ON BROADWAY

Introduction The pronoun they serves at least four and perhaps five distinct functions in English. Not all these functions are considered grammatical by grammar purists for a variety of reasons. Editors, teachers, and writers in general have considered these uses, accepting some and rejecting others, for now. Meanwhile, English speakers continue to use they without regard for the style guides and grammar books, not even discouraged by lowered grades on their English essays.What is going on, and what will be going on in the future?

The Four Five Uses of They As your prodar becomes more activated, you will find yourself pausing whenever you encounter a pronoun in print, particularly singular they. They come without warning. There, that was one, right? You noticed it, didn’t you? What if I rephrase it, perhaps more grammatically: They comes without warning. Not to get overly metalingual here, but that first occurrence would probably slide under your prodar if I weren’t beating it to death right now. Most of our encounters with singular they are like that, though. There is no warning, and they are (or is) everywhere. For example, here is singular they on my university library site: Talk to your professor about your topic. They know the subject in and out and will be able to help you focus on materials that will be useful. (Source: http://​udc.libguides.com/​c.php?g=670831&p=4722026) Here it is on a Discover Card website:

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The Primary Cardmember opened the account.Their name is listed first on statements and e-​mails. (Source: https://​card.discover.com/​cardmembersvcs/ registration/​reg/​verifyForgotUserIdPwd) Let’s distinguish the following uses of they: 1. Plural third person pronoun:  The mothers are taking a nap. They need it. 2. Singular indefinite antecedent: Someone broke into the restaurant last night, but they didn’t take anything. 3. Singular indefinite antecedent with plural meaning: Everyone gets hungry, but they don’t need to eat all the time. 4. Singular definite antecedent: Chris is really hungry, but they don’t want anything to eat right now. 5. Singular definite nonhuman antecedent: The company is changing their logo. There is no controversy over number 1, but it sets up expectations for all that follow. Grammar nerds (like me, often) argue against number 2 (and number 3)  in formal written English based on the lack of agreement between a singular antecedent and a plural pronoun. They will offer work-​arounds, such as rewriting number 2 with “the person,” for example, “Someone broke into the restaurant last night, but the person didn’t take anything.” Similarly, number 3 can be rewritten by replacing the indefinite pronoun “everyone” that seems plural (though grammatically it is singular) with a grammatically plural noun, for example, “People get hungry, but they don’t need to eat all the time.” These revisions are fine for writing, but people generally do not revise what they say, and they say sentences such as number 2 and number 3 all the time. Advocates of singular they for the uses seen in number 2 and number 3 say that there can be both a plural and a singular sense to they, just as we have with you. They also point out that this dual sense has been around for hundreds of years, finding it in works by William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens, and Jane Austen. Also, it is rampant in spoken language. It is this use that style manuals and many English teachers are finally coming to accept. In fact, the Author Guidelines (2019) for the publisher of this book say this: You will deal with a specific Production Editor who will be assigned to your book after submission. They will organize copy-​editing, typesetting, proofreading and indexing. Use number 4, however, is still out there, meaning that it may have a long way to go before it is accepted by everyone. It seems to be fully accepted in

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LGBTQ+ communities and publications and is becoming accepted in mainstream publications in articles about people who use pronouns differently, though introduced with an announcement. Research is also showing that the acceptability of this use is related to a person’s acceptance of LGBTQ+ lifestyles (Bradley 2020). As mentioned in Chapter 1, the National Council of Teachers of English has, as of October 2019, accepted this use. One of the challenges of writing this book is that language is changing as I write, and now Use number 5 is growing: The specific, nonhuman antecedent that used to be an “it” such as “The company is changing its logo” is now becoming more commonly expressed as “The company is changing their logo.” Some argue that this is because words like “company” are collective nouns, but they do not explain why, in the same sentence, the verb is singular while the pronouns is plural. More evidence of the Great Pronoun Shift!

Use Number 4 (Singular Definite Antecedent They) in Publications People who use pronouns differently are often creative in their professions as well. For example, there is an artist whose name is Alphachanneling who uses gender-​neutral pronouns. My first awareness of this artist came while reading the Express, a shortened (and free) (and now defunct) version of the Washington Post, published on Tuesday, February 6, 2018, in an article by Rachel Raczka entitled “Sexual Freedom? Not on Instagram.” In this article, Raczka immediately uses a gender-​neutral pronoun in the third sentence of the article (“But Alphachanneling worries each day may be their last on Instagram”) as well as in the fourth sentence, with an explanation in the fifth sentence (“The San Francisco Bay area artist, who uses gender-​neutral pronouns ...), and they thereafter. Exploring this further, I googled “Alphachanneling” to see how others refer to this artist. In a Huffington Post article (Frank, 2016), the writer immediately and thoroughly refers to the artist with masculine pronouns, with no statements about pronouns, though there is a warning before opening the article that it will feature images that may not be suitable for viewing in the workplace. (I looked up the Huffington Post style guidelines, saw no policy about pronouns, and entered into a virtual chat discussion with “Curt,” asking him what their policy was, who wrote back that there was no policy, that writers are free to follow their own policies.) In an article in Cultured (Slenske, 2016), the writer, who at first does not know the artist’s gender, comments on this mystery, refers to the artist as “the artist,” meets the artist, identifies the artist as “a dude!” and thereafter refers to the artist with masculine pronouns. In a Juxtapoz article (“The Metaphysical Erotic Art of Alpha Channeling”), all four of the references to the artist are with masculine pronouns, with no comment about gender at all.

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On a website (Dănuț, 2016) demonstrating the art of Alpha Channeling, the artist is referred to as “that” (rather than “who”) and “their” in the following quotes: Alpha Channeling is a visionary artist that is redefining erotic art by visually articulating sacred sexuality with gentle colors that penetrate the mind, and inspire the soul. The gallery below showcases a selection of Alpha Channeling’s work, but to buy a print/​learn more –​be sure to visit their official website by clicking here. If you were not waylaid by Alphachanneling’s website and are still reading, you may be wondering, as I  was, what motivates the pronoun use in these articles. Some writers or publications are sensitive to being respectful of pronoun use. Others may simply not want to confuse readers with pronouns that do not conform to their expectations. Pronouns, almost by definition, are supposed to be inconspicuous. When they draw attention to themselves, they cease to be simply function or structure words and start to imply more –​the desire of the publication or the writer to respect the subject of the article, but they are also aware of the audience.

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Use Number 4 in The New Yorker and Elsewhere: Focus on Danez Smith My real awakening to the import of respect came while reading a New Yorker article. I have long regarded the New Yorker as the highest level of writing one could ever hope to achieve. So there, in the middle of an article about a poet who prefers to be characterized as gender neutral, came an explanation by the writer, followed by third person plural pronouns throughout. The poet is Danez Smith, and the article is “Spoken For” by Dan Chiasson in the October 2, 2017, issue of the New Yorker. About ten sentences into the article comes the statement: “Smith who is African-​American, H.I.V.–​positive, and genderqueer, goes by plural pronouns” (p. 72). From that point on, Chiasson uses third person plural pronouns such as “their poems” and “Smith finds themselves in a strobe-​ lit bar, checked out by potential lovers” (pp.  72–​73), though pronouns such as these are mostly avoided. Googling Danez Smith resulted in finding masculine pronouns on Ampersand Review. However, on Smith’s Bio page (www. danezsmithpoet.com/​bio-​encore/​) is the following sentence, not preceded by any explanation: They are the recipient of fellowships from the Poetry Foundation, the McKnight Foundation, and is a 2017 National Endowment for the Arts Fellow.

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(If you are a grammar teacher or copy editor or proofreader, you will have noted the inconsistent verb agreement.) Similarly, on the Poetry Foundation page (www. poetryfoundation.org/​poets/​danez-​smith), there is no explanation, but every pronominal reference (six) to Smith is with third person plural pronouns and plural verb agreement: Danez Smith was born St. Paul, Minnesota. They are the author of Don’t Call Us Dead (2017), a finalist for the National Book Award; [insert] Boy (2014), winner of the Lambda Literary Award and the Kate Tufts Discovery Award; and the chapbook hands on ya knees (Penmanship Books, 2013). Smith is the recipient of fellowships from the McKnight Foundation, Cave Canem, Voices of Our Nation (VONA), and elsewhere. They are a founding member of the multigenre, multicultural Dark Noise Collective. Their writing has appeared in many magazines and journals, such as Poetry, Ploughshares, Beloit Poetry Journal, and Kinfolks. In poetry slam, Smith is a 2011 Individual World Poetry Slam finalist and the reigning two-​time Rustbelt Individual Champion, and was on the 2014 championship team Sad Boy Supper Club. In 2014 they were the festival director for the Brave New Voices International Youth Poetry Slam, and were awarded a Ruth Lilly and Dorothy Sargent Rosenberg Poetry fellowship from the Poetry Foundation. Smith earned a BA from the University of Wisconsin-​Madison, where they were a First Wave Urban Arts Scholar. They are a co-​host of the Poetry Foundation’s podcast, VS. The Wikipedia page on Smith consistently uses third person plural pronouns throughout and leads to even more articles. One of the interesting articles (and there are many) about Danez Smith is in The Guardian, “ ‘Every Poem Is Political’: Danez Smith, the YouTube Star Shaking Up Poetry,” by Kate Kelleway (January 28, 2018). Kelleway avoids pronominal reference for Smith altogether, but writes this: It needs to be said straight away, if only for practical purposes, that Danez (stress on the second syllable), who is African American, gay, gender-​neutral and HIV positive, prefers to be referred to as “they.” When we meet, Smith confirms that “they” feels more comfortable than the alternative “ze” because:  “I feel like many people sometimes.” The plurality is also perfect for a poet who speaks for, and to, so many and who should be read by everyone. The interview goes on to ask whether Smith thinks of God as male or female, and Smith replies: “ ‘God is “They” [laughter].’ ”, though in the very poem cited in this article, titled “dear white America,” the line goes “take your God back. though his songs are beautiful, his miracles are inconsistent.”

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Interestingly, a review of Smith’s earlier work does not acknowledge, or perhaps even know, of the pronoun issues. A 2015 review of [insert] boy by Peter LaBerge in Pank Magazine consistently refers to Smith with masculine pronouns, though here there is a quote from one of Smith’s poems, “Song of the Wreckage: [So me & the boys ride out to smoke],” with third person plural pronominal reference to God: If there is a (or in spite of?) God let my small brown lips know their full brown lips before I rot On the other hand, a PBS Newshour report, “Poet Danez Smith Issues a Wake-​ Up Call to White America,” by Corinne Segal, on November 16, 2015, quickly asserts Smith’s pronoun preference and uses third person pronominal reference throughout its review: Smith, who uses the pronoun “they,” wrote the piece in 2014 for a show with Young Gifted and Black, an Oakland-​based youth performance ensemble. “I was really angry at the time,” they said. “I really wanted to be anywhere but America –​anywhere but Earth.” This article also includes the following comment by Smith: “I have to tell you, all of these old-​timers from my parents’ generation, they rolled with my gender pronouns and still love and support my sister and me.” The pronouns apparently are no longer an item of interest. In a recent interview (Stabile) with Smith, who wrote the emblematic poem “dear white America,” which has had a profound influence particularly during the Black Lives Matter movement, the interviewer simply uses they/​them pronouns without any explicit announcements. Similarly, in a recent Guardian article (Bakare, 2020), there is no mention of pronouns as there was in 2018, just the unannounced use of singular they.

Pronoun Use as an Attitude Pronoun use can often indicate the attitude of the publication. A  recent case concerns a professor at Shawnee State University who is suing his school after he was disciplined for not using a transgender student’s preferred pronouns and honorifics in class.The professor, who identifies as an evangelical Christian, says that he does not recognize “transgenderism,” and so asking him to use pronouns and honorifics that do not match the student’s gender at birth violates his principles. The university says that it is trying to respect the LGBTQ students and is obeying the principles honoring inclusion. Two articles written about this situation depict the stances of the publications. In one (Haverluck, 2018), the transgender student is referred to by name but not by pronouns, and, even in the title of the

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article, wrong is indicated with quotation marks, showing the distance between the writer and the concept. In the other (Ford, 2018), the transgender student is referred to by name and by feminine pronouns, following the student’s use.

Pronouns on Broadway Pronouns have even hit Broadway. A show, Head over Heels, which paired the music of Go-Go’s with the book of Sir Philip Sidney’s Arcadia, included an oracle who is gender fluid, leading to a discussion in the musical about the appropriate pronoun (they) (Willman, 2018). It also led to a controversial review in the New York Times in which the critic, Ben Brantley, was criticized for initially writing this: Pythio identifies as “nonbinary plural.” Dametas (Tom Alan Robbins), the King’s viceroy and father of Mopsa, finds himself strangely drawn to her –​I mean them. (Cao et al., 2018) (Peterson, 2018) After a social media backlash, Brantley issued an apology, and the review now looks like this: Pythio identifies as nonbinary plural. Dametas (Tom Alan Robbins), the King’s viceroy and father of Mopsa, finds himself strangely drawn to Pythio. (Brantley, 2018) Both the use of quotation marks (“nonbinary plural”) in the original version and the aside (“her –​I mean them”) drew the ire of many in the blogosphere (see Peterson, 2018) who interpreted this to mean that the reviewer was not being respectful of the transgender community. This apology, in turn, drew the ire of others in the blogosphere who interpreted the apology as an indicator of subservience to an ultra-​sensitive readership (Comments to Brantley, 2018). There are many reviews of Head over Heels, each indicating a variety of ways to refer to nonbinary people. Most seem to follow the tips to writers suggested by Caroline Cao, Christian Lewis, Jen Gushue, and Sloth Levine (who each identify their pronoun preferences at the end of their article). They say, “At the start of any interview, give your subject space to describe themselves, how they identify, their pronouns, and terms they use to describe their bodies, their race, their gender, and their sexuality” (Cao et al., 2018). Note that the writers themselves use the singular they. In this review of the same show, Jordan Nickels (2018), referring to the nonbinary character Pythio and the actor playing Pythio, writes: Overseeing the comic mischief was Pythio, the Oracle of Delphi, played by RuPaul’s Drag Race Season 9 contestant Peppermint, making their theatrical

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stage debut. Peppermint brought humor with their fierce delivery, along with a haunting rendition of the showstopper, “Heaven is a Place on Earth.” What is notable here is that Nickels does not explicitly mention the pronoun preference for the actor, Peppermint, but simply uses singular they. Nickels also notes, “Never would I think the pronouns of a nonbinary character (they/​them) would be belted out in a Broadway-​bound musical, a historic moment for contemporary theater.” Farber also mentions that this is the first time the pronoun they is used to refer to an individual in a commercial song. (Personal note, I couldn’t find the song, though I  searched the lyrics for Head over Heels!) Chris Willman (2018), writing for Variety, simply uses she to refer to Peppermint. Louis Peitzman (2018) avoids pronouns altogether but notes “Pythio’s pronouns are treated with respect.” What is the effect on the reader? To me, no pronoun use (Peitzman) was the least distracting. Perhaps as a grammar teacher, I still flinch when singular they is used for a specific, singular individual, rather than being simply an unnoticeable, generic pronoun, as has been noted. I may need a bit more time to adjust or a bit less grading.

Style Guides For journalists who wish to write with respect about transgender people, there are many guides. One of the most prominent is from GLAAD, an organization founded by journalists in 1985 as the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (the name is no longer considered an acronym to be more inclusive). The guide provides directions for appropriate use of pronouns and other terms, also definitions for terms that should be used, as well as defamatory terms that should not be used. Regarding pronoun use, the guide tells journalists to use pronouns following the Associated Press, Reuters, and the New  York Times. Reuters in its 2015 guide says, Use the pronoun preferred by the individuals who have acquired the physical characteristics of the opposite sex or present themselves in a way that does not correspond with their sex at birth. If that preference is not expressed, use the pronoun consistent with the way the individuals live publicly. and When in doubt, ask people what gender pronouns they prefer. Respect their wishes if they ask not to be identified as either male or female. If it’s not possible to ask their preference, use pronouns that are most consistent with the way they present themselves. Do not use quotation marks around names or pronouns used for transgender or gender-​nonconforming people. (GLAAD)

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Side (or foot) note: Interestingly, there are two arguments against asking people for their pronoun “preferences.” One is that asking people to reveal a pronoun preference is compelling them to reveal what they may not wish others to know, in other words “outing” them in public. Reis (2016) makes this point about students in college classrooms who are sometimes asked to identify themselves and their pronouns on the first day. The other objection to the word “preference,” made by Sakurai (2017) and others, is that it suggests that a person has a choice, recommending instead to ask what pronouns the person “goes by.” This phrase seems to be the one most used when publications choose to indicate that the pronoun use will be different from what the reader has seen before.

Conclusion The pronoun they has long been part of spoken English and is on the rise in written English, as we will see in a future chapter. It is necessary, however, to distinguish the four or five different uses of they, particularly when it is used with a singular antecedent.The most recent use of singular they is when the antecedent is definite.This is becoming more frequent in publications that try to respect the identities of their subjects, particularly individuals who do not identify as male or female and use gender-​neutral pronouns. The pronoun they is developing a particular status as an indicator of people who use pronouns differently because they identify themselves differently. In this next chapter, we will explore this situation further.

Activities 1 . Google “Pronouns in the News.” What recent articles have appeared? 2. Find some style guides for newspapers and journals that you read. What are their guidelines for pronouns? 3. Find an article about a celebrity that you admire. Rewrite the article avoiding the use of pronouns. How do you respond as a reader to the new version? 4. Google any of the artists mentioned in this chapter. What do you observe about the pronouns used to refer to them? What is your response? 5. Try out the five uses of they. Which of them feel comfortable? Which feel awkward?

Annotated Bibliography Author guidelines. (2019). Taylor and Francis. I tried, really I tried, to follow these. Bakare. L. (2020, February 8). Danez Smith: “White people can learn from it, but that’s not who I’m writing for.” The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/​books/​2020/​feb/​08/​ danez-​smith-​interview-​white-​people-​racism-​homie

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This article, written during the pandemic and the Black Lives Matter movement, is an interview with Danez Smith, who has more important things to discuss than their pronouns. Bradley, E. D. (2020). The influence of linguistic and social attitudes on grammaticality judgments of singular “they.” Language Sciences, 78, 1–​11. https://​doi.org/​10.1016/​ j.langsci.2020.101272 This article provides extensive data indicating that people who have negative attitudes about people are less accepting of the grammaticality of specific singular “they.” This article provides good sources and explains the challenge of changing pronouns but states that this can be done with conscious effort and uses the example of “thee” and “you” as precedent for pronouns changing under social pressures. Brantley, B. (2018, July 26). Review: Ye olde Go-​Go’s songs hit the Renaissance in “Head over Heels.” The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/​2018/​07/​26/​theater/​head-​over-​ heels-​broadway-​review-​go-​gos.html Here is the revision to the review discussed in Cao et  al. below:  Pythio identifies as nonbinary plural. Dametas (Tom Alan Robbins), the King’s viceroy and father of Mopsa, finds himself strangely drawn to Pythio. Cao, C., Lewis, C. Gushue, J., & Levine, S. (2018, September 5). Queer eye for theatre critics:  4 writing tips. American Theatre. www.americantheatre.org/​2018/​09/​05/​ queer-​eye-​for-​theatre-​critics-​4-​writing-​tips/​ This article is a response to a review by Ben Brantley in the New York Times of the Broadway show, Head over Heels. In this review, Brantley initially wrote: “Pythio identifies as ‘nonbinary plural.’ Dametas (Tom Alan Robbins), the King’s viceroy and father of Mopsa, finds himself strangely drawn to her –​I mean them.” The review drew considerable criticism from readers on social media who objected not only to the previous passage, but also to what they perceived to be Brantley’s attitude toward the transgender community, notably his questioning (note the quotation marks above) of the term “nonbinary,” saying that it is overused. The writers of this article, who identify their pronouns at the end, provide tips on how writers should refer respectfully to people who do not identify as binary, saying that they should use “they” in the singular sense if so requested, or follow other methods of reference as a sign of respect. They say, “At the start of any interview, give your subject space to describe themselves, how they identify, their pronouns, and terms they use to describe their bodies, their race, their gender, and their sexuality.” Note that the writers themselves use the singular they. Chiasson, D. (2017, October 2). Spoken for. The New Yorker. I have depended upon The New Yorker for keeping me literate and aware for many phases of my life. This article was a pronoun awakening, of sorts. Danez Smith. Poet. www.danezsmithpoet.com/​bio-​encore/​ This is the bio page for Danez Smith. Dănuț, I. (2016, June 3). The metaphysical erotic art of alphchanneling. Sociedelic. www. sociedelic.com/​metaphysical-​erotic-​art-​alpha-​channeling-​nsfw/​ Visit this site for the art.

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Farber, J. (2018, July 24). This play is full of firsts:  Behind the groundbreaking Go-​Go’s musical.” The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/​stage/​2018/​jul/​24/​go-​gos-​musicalhead-​over-​heels-​broadway This review also refers to the existence of a song in Head over Heels that uses they to refer to an individual, saying it’s the first time in commercial music. Ford, Z. (2018, November 9). This professor wants to disrespect trans students so much, he’s going to court. Think Progress. https://​thinkprogress.org/​professor-​lawsuit-adftransgender-​preferred-​pronouns-​4341eaa191d9/​ This article, about the same situation as the article by Haverluck (November 12, 2018), uses the pronoun “she” for reference to the transgender student. Frank, P. (2016, February 29). Meet the erotic artist bringing psychedelic sex to Instagram. Huffington Post. www.huffingtonpost.com/​entry/​meet-​the-​erotic-​artist-​bringing-​ psychedelic-sex-​to-​instagram_​us_​56d0a21ee4b03260bf76b3ef If the article is still available, try to read it for yourself! GLAAD. (n.d.). GLAAD reference and media guide. www.glaad.org/​reference#guide This is a website from the organization known as GLAAD, which advocates for the LGBTQ community, in existence since 1985.This guide provide directions to journalists for writing about LGBTQ individuals, giving terms to use and terms not to use. Haverluck, M. F. (2018, November 12). Univ. sued after disciplining prof for using “wrong” transgender pronoun. OneNewsNow.com. www.onenewsnow.com/​education/​2018/​11/​ 12/​univ-​sued-​after-​disciplining-​prof-​for-​using-​wrong-​transgender-​pronoun This article describes a lawsuit at Shawnee State University.The university is being sued by a professor who was disciplined after the professor refused to use the pronouns and honorifics requested by a transgender student. The professor, who is an evangelical Christian, claims that his rights are being violated. The university claims that it is trying to respect the preferences of its LGBTQ students. The article is quite careful to avoid pronoun reference of the student, stating that the student has a female name and wants to be referred to with female pronouns and honorifics, for example, ma’am and not sir as the professor had been using in class. Kelleway, K. (2018, January 28). Every poem is political. The Guardian. I can no longer find the URL for this article, but it was a very insightful interview with Danez Smith. The metaphysical erotic art of alphachanneling. (2016, November 7). Juxtapoz. www. juxtapoz.com/​news/​illustration/​the-​metaphysical-​erotic-​art-​of-​alpha-​channeling/​ This is a very interesting site to visit for the artwork. Nickels, J. (2018, April 20). Review: “Head over Heels” at the Curran. Onstage Blog. www.onstageblog.com/​reviews/​2018/​4/​20/​review-​head-​over-​heels-​at-​the-​curran This is another review of the show with no notable mention of the pronouns, just the use of singular they. Peitzman, L. (2018, July 27). “Head over Heels” is the most radically queer show on Broadway. Buzzfeed News.

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www.buzzfeednews.com/​article/​louispeitzman/​head-​over-​heels-​is-​the-​most-​radically-​ queer-​show-​on-​broadway This is a very positive review of Head over Heels, with no notable use of pronouns, a model of how to refer to nonbinary people with respect. Peterson, C. (2018, July 27). NY Times critic uses trans pronouns as punchline in “Head over Heels” review. Onstage Blog:  Observations. www.onstageblog.com/​editorals/ 2018/​7/​27/​ny-​times-​critic-​uses-​trans-​pronouns-​as-​punchline-​in-​head-​over-​heels-​ review Peterson says that Brantley “crossed a line” and includes the original version (this may be the first review of the review). Raczka, R. (2018, February 6). Sexual freedom? Not on Instagram. Express. This article started my entire search into artists who do not use masculine and feminine pronouns. Reis, E. (2016, September 25) Pronoun privilege. The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/​ 2016/​09/​26/​opinion/​pronoun-​privilege.html This is an opinion piece written by a professor of gender studies at CUNY who finds a problem with asking students to identify themselves with their pronouns as part of classroom activities, stating that this leads them into potentially difficult situations in which they might have to reveal more about their identities in public than they would desire. Sakurai, S. (2017, January 22). www.mypronouns.org/​ This is a website devoted to the use of personal pronouns. It includes tips on how to behave with individuals who go by other pronouns and provides a lot of prescriptive rules, including not to use the term “preferred” pronouns but rather “the pronouns a person goes by.” Its author also founded the first International Pronouns Day (https://​medium.com/​@ shigesakurai/​the-​first-​international-​pronouns-​day-​b83154369a8) October 17, 2018. Slenske, M. (September, 2016) Where’s alphachanneling? Cultured. www.culturedmag. com/​alphachanneling/​ This is another interesting article about an interesting artist. Stabile, L. (n.d.) Exclusive interview: Danez Smith. Barren Magazine. https://​barrenmagazine. com/​danez-​smith/​ This is a short interview, written during the pandemic, by a writer who identifies as “queer” and uses she/​her pronouns, though she makes no explicit reference to Smith’s pronouns, just using singular they to refer to them. Steel, S. (2011, September 13). The exchange:  Justin Vivian Bond. The New  Yorker. www.newyorker.com/​ b ooks/​ p age-​ t urner/​ t he-​ e xchange-​ j ustin-​ v ivian-​ b ond? irgwc=1&source=affiliate_​ i mpactpmx_​ 1 2f6tote_​ d esktop_​ V iglink%20Primary &mbid=affiliate_​impactpmx_​12f6tote_​desktop_​Viglink%20Primary This is a New Yorker article about Justin Vivian Bond, who specifies a new pronoun, “V,” as well as “Mx,” which the article uses throughout. There is a note at the end suggesting that initially the article did not follow this preference but was subsequently revised, based on the insistence of readers. [In a search of JVB, there is a note that suggests that their pronoun preference is now they.]

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Willman, C. (2018, April 23). Pre-​Broadway review: Go-​Go’s musical “Head over Heels” Variety. https://​variety.com/​2018/​legit/​reviews/​head-​over-​heels-​review-go-​gosmusical-san-​francisco-​1202761261/​ This review of the show Head over Heels when it appeared in San Francisco is very positive and refers to a discussion between characters about how to refer to the gender-​fluid oracle Pithio, ultimately deciding on they. The review itself does not use they to refer to the character or Peppermint, the transgender woman who plays Pithio, referring to Peppermint with the pronoun she.

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3 NONBINARY PRONOUNS In Transition

Introduction Although the lack of a gender-​neutral, third person singular pronoun has been a problem for centuries, it has become more of an issue now as people recognize that not everyone identifies as a male or a female, that gender can be considered as a spectrum rather than as a binary. As more and more nonbinary individuals come out and want to be referred to with nongendered language, pronouns have been adapting to their linguistic needs. Language communities are emerging where nonbinary pronouns are the norm, where singular they is the “safe” pronoun to use to avoid misgendering someone.

Beyond the Binary When a baby is born, or often before then, the first question usually asked is, “Is it a boy or a girl?” As Lee Airton (2018) discusses in their book Gender: Your Guide, the response to this question can be thought of as either an end to the uncertainty or as the beginning of the socialization process (p. 27). The question is an almost automatic response to a birth announcement, despite the point, made by Jen Willsea in an article in the Huffington Post referenced by Airton (p. 30) that it might in truth be asking what could be considered an inappropriate inquiry as to whether the baby has a penis or a vagina. Why would we need to know this? If our motives are to buy the child appropriate presents, then we are part of the socialization process. One linguistic reason for asking this question, however, is to convert the baby from a not-​quite-​human “it” to a real person “he” or “she” with the next question typically being, “What’s his/​her name?” This is the beginning of the gender binary.

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The gender binary, however, is under scrutiny now. Daphna Joel (2019) points out that it may no longer be relevant to classify people as either male or female since no human characteristics, other than physical features, are exclusively male or female, stating †It is time to get rid of the gender binary. It is time to start treating people according to their unique mosaics of characteristics rather than according to the form of their genitals. It is time for a world with no gender. Most of us were raised with this binary approach to gender and sex, however, as well as to other aspects of life: Black or white, old or young, north or south, east or west, city or country, good or bad, tragedy or comedy.These dualities allow our brains to process a very complex world. Of course, this is a very simplistic approach, one that seems childish once we become aware of all the variations between these polar opposites. In a way, we might consider language to be one of the forces behind these dualities. Language compels us to break up continuums. For example, spoken language is itself a continuum of sounds that we segment into words, as well as other linguistic units such as morphemes (the smallest meaningful part of a word, such as “ex”) and phonemes (the individual sounds such as consonants and vowels).When we hear languages we do not know, we generally cannot distinguish one word from another, we do not separate the morphemes that make up the words, and we often cannot identify the phonemes, particularly if they are unfamiliar, such as/​x/​ (which is the sound in “ugh,” the expression of disgust). When sound is converted to images, however, it is easy to see that there are no actual breaks between the phonemes, even though we imagine them when we spell out words. This segmentation allows us to have the design feature of language known as “duality of patterning” whereby two systems of linguistic units (phonemes and morphemes) form patterns that recur with meaning. As a teacher of linguistics for over 40 years, however, I can tell you that it takes a lot of effort for students to recognize these units. That is how ingrained this continuity is in our minds, yet we learn this segmentation when we learn to read and write. Another example of segmentation is how language expresses the color spectrum. The eye perceives colors to be continuous, but our language segments the spectrum into discrete color terms. As Berlin and Kay’s study of color terminology in other languages indicates, there are some universals. According to Berlin and Kay, some languages have only two color terms, but they will always be words for black and white. If there is a third term, it is red. A fourth and fifth term will be yellow, blue, and/​or green. (A color term is defined as a word that applies only to the color and not to an object that bears that color. For example, purple is a color term but not violet.) Here is the hierarchy of color terminology they proposed:

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It is notable that this hierarchy begins with a binary, as though all colors can be classified as either a variety of white or a variety of black. Obviously, we can use our language to express all the colors on the spectrum if we need to, for example, if we are paint distributors or designers or crayon makers. We can describe a particular type of green as “lime” by referring to the fruit, or we can modify an existing color term with an adjective such as “mahogany brown,” but our mono-​lexemic color terms in English remain constant at 11. And yet, that is far more than the terms we have for gender. Lauren Ackerman (2019a), in her keynote presentation at the THEY 2019 conference, presented an image of how to perceive gender with a great deal of variation, regarding it as a three-​dimensional “bone” with male and female features depicted as broad at the extremes but with narrow variation between them. Figure 3.1, a depiction of biosocial gender, should be imagined as a colorful bone with a concentration of pink at one extreme that gradually morphs through purple at its narrow middle and ends up as a concentration of blue at the other extreme. The three-​dimensional aspect of this image indicates that there is more to this than we usually attribute to it, with development over time as well. Ackerman

FIGURE 3.1  Gender

complexity

(Adapted from Ackerman, 2019a)

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(2019b) describes grammatical gender, conceptual gender, gender identity, gender expression, and biosocial gender. (Perhaps we can even conceive of a moving version of this image to illustrate how it is also changeable!) Most of us are already familiar with the ubiquitous rainbow displayed during Pride Month, so this perception of gender has already caught on, but we may not all be aware of the extent of the complexity of gender and sexual orientation. (See Fausto-​Sterling,  2019.) Daphna Joel and Luba Vikhanski (2019), in their book, Gender Mosaic, make the point that we cannot consider gender a binary since the human brain is essentially the same in both males and females, and that we should consider gender, as the title says, a mosaic. Joel, a neuroscientist, points out that, in the past, these studies were done with the underlying assumption that males were superior, and now the underlying assumption is that male and female brains are distinctly different. However, Joel points out that there is little evidence for this, and that these differences can be accounted for by the different gendered experiences of males and females. Joel’s major point is that rather than view gender as a binary, we should view it as a mosaic of what are considered stereotypical female traits and stereotypical male traits. Other cultures, both historically and geographically, do not consider gender a binary. For example, the Bugis, an Indonesian people, have five terms for gender:

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makkunrai (“female women”) oroani (“male men”) calalai (“female men”) calabai (“male women”) bissu (“transgender [asexual] priests”) (Davies, 2016) American indigenous languages also do not have binary terms for gender, as described in an article about an Anishinaabe youth, Fallon Andy, from the Couchiching First Nation, in Treaty 3 territory (Canada). Fallon Andy goes by the pronoun they and has always been passionate about pronouns, not wanting to be referred to as he or she (Sterritt, 2016). Another article (Yeung, 2019) is about a two-​spirit powwow dancer, Nenookaasi Ogichidaa, living in Toronto who is from a plurality of heritage:  Ojibwe, Black, and Ukrainian. “Neno” has a wife, three children, and a dog, and blends all these identities through dance and healing. In the article, Neno is consistently referred to with they/​them/​their pronouns in the first half, but in the second half is referred to with she/​her pronouns after a spectator refers to Neno with feminine pronouns. In our own culture, Mirhan (2018) has identified 13 gender terms: Amorgender –​gender that changes in response to a romantic partner’s Mirrorgender –​gender that changes to reflect those around you

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Ambigender  –​two genders experienced simultaneously as equal and unchanging Chaosgender –​gender that is highly unpredictable Genderfuck –​a subversive gender that can be singular or multi Demifluid  –​having multiple genders where some are fluid, while others are static Collgender –​not pangender, but having too many genders to describe Endogender –​having multiple genders that all relate to a specific gender construct, for example, mascfluid Cyclogender –​gender that changes with hormonal cycles Fissgender –​having highly disparate genders, as in “fissured” Domgender –​having multiple genders where one is dominant over the rest Gendervex –​having multiple genders, each of which is unidentifiable Obviously, not all these terms have entered mainstream English, and the literature is constantly changing the terminology. The New England Journal of Medicine in 2018 provided a “Glossary of Gender and Sex Terms” with a note saying, “This terminology is fluid and evolving. There may be substantial variations in meaning and interpretation of various terms depending on the individual person, context, and culture” (Liszewski et al., 2018, p. 2392). While we are on the topic of colors, “lavender linguistics” is a field that studies the language styles of the LGBTQ community. Coined by William Leap, the term “lavender” was selected to be inclusive (Friess). In 1993, Leap initiated the Lavender Languages and Linguistics annual conference, which draws a broad range of papers on linguistic research, related to the language of the Queer community. These papers address all aspects of what has also been termed “queer” language, from vocal features to hate speech, with pronouns playing a small, though significant, role. All seem to support the idea of language as a means of asserting one’s identity and of recognizing others within a community of language users. In short, one of the key functions of language is for humans to form and bolster social groups. Konnelly and Cowper (2020) have expressed the importance of pronouns as a “trans-​affirming language practice” and say this: Pronouns, along with proper names, are often among the first acts of linguistic self-​determination a transgender person makes. In light of the significance of pronouns and pronoun recognition for transgender communities, it cannot be denied that grammatical judgements regarding singular they are inextricably connected to social judgements of these communities. (italics in original) A recent (2020) PhD dissertation, Exploring non-​ binary genders:  Language and identity, by Sebastion Cordoba, examined corpus data from online forums for nonbinary people, as well as interviews with 22 individuals. This study presents

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the thesis that the nonbinary population uses language as a means of “linguistic becoming,” which is a process that is always happening, and that nongendered language, including pronouns, is a means of forging their identity. This study also shows evidence of the prevalence of they as the pronoun most widely used. Acceptance or resistance to this nonbinary approach to gender will vary, often depending upon the gender orientation of an individual and, according to research, age. A  recent Pew report indicates that, whereas only 12% of baby boomers (people born between 1946 and 1969)  reported knowing somebody who did not identify as either male or female, 35% of Gen Z’ers (people born after 1996) did (Parker et al., 2019). The “Silent” generation (1928–​1945), which includes some of my best friends and siblings, came in at only 7%. As this research suggests, widespread acceptance of nonbinary gender is just a matter of time.

Sapir-​Whorf? This chapter cannot avoid addressing the Sapir-​Whorf hypothesis, though this has been a controversial topic in linguistics for over a century. Simply put, the Sapir-​ Whorf hypothesis proposes that language shapes thought. The oft-​cited, though inaccurate, example is that people who live in geographical regions above the Arctic Circle have more linguistic terms for “snow” than those who live in temperate climates. The Eskimo-​Inuit languages allow them to discriminate wet from dry snow with simple terms, though English, as I’ve just illustrated, can do the same with the use of adjectives. Does having a single linguistic term permit the user of the language to perceive the concept differently than those who need multiple adjectives? Having labels seems to help us identify referents more easily. Think of how birds may be more easily distinguished from one another once they are provided with specific names, such as a Rufous Hummingbird from a Ruby-​ throated hummingbird, for example. (Look them up!) There has been much research on this topic with no clear conclusions, and though most people agree that the human brain, regardless of language, is capable of any thought, most people would also agree that the words we use have power to shape our thoughts. Objections to gendered language, outdated terms such as “mailman” and “fireman” are somewhat based on this hypothesis; by referring to these professions with words denoting men, people could not conceive of women in these roles. Robin Lakoff ’s seminal work, Language and Woman’s Place (2004, but initially published in 1975), played a huge role in making us aware of how much of English is gendered, leading to volumes of research illustrating and supporting this point. (See Thorne et al. (1983) for a sampling.) Professions with gender-​denoting terms may still need to be modified when fulfilled by the unexpected gender (for example, male nurse, female pilot). Does our language shape employment trends? I have no answer. However, we are now in a similar situation with gender terms. A recent article (Knutson, Koch, & Goldbach, 2019) indicates that therapists need to be mindful of

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their intake forms where their patients indicate their gender. If limited to male and female, a nonbinary patient would feel excluded. If the category of “other” were added to the form, the patient would feel “othered.” Only by indicating some of the options currently indicated would a nonbinary patient feel included.

Legal Aspects As one would expect, there are legal aspects to this recognition of nonbinary genders. An article from the Harvard Law Review asserts that the law has been neglecting nonbinary individuals, and cites several cases where nonbinary people have sued and won, for example, the right to not have to lie about their gender and select Male or Female designations on passports. The article reviews several cases and draws back upon feminist theory. It points out that this is not just about a small portion of society but rather about the larger issues of individual rights. It makes several points about how recognizing the rights of nonbinary people helps all people. For example, most people would like privacy in locker rooms or bathrooms. The article itself successfully uses specific singular they in several instances, though it also uses gender pronouns. Here is an example: Nonbinary actor Asia Kate Dillon, for example, has played female characters as well as a nonbinary character. Dillon has said they wished to play male characters as well. (Clarke, 2019, p. 978) An article in the Florida International University Law Review (Lopez, 2019) provides useful links to the laws regarding “preferred pronouns,” saying that New York City law raises the question of whether this is “compelled speech” and questioning whether this violates the First Amendment. The author (Lopez) asserts that this is something that our society will need to contend with as it becomes more accepting of nonbinary individuals.

Entering the Mainstream Perhaps the fastest entrance into mainstream culture is through the media. Science fiction, as usual, is at the forefront, though nonbinary characters are usually from other planets or times. Way back in 1969, Ursula K.  Le Guin wrote The Left Hand of Darkness, in which the characters, the Gethenians from the planet Winter could be either male or female, depending upon the season: “When you meet a Gethenian you cannot and must not do what a bisexual naturally does, which is to cast him in the role of Man or Woman” (p. 100). Notice that Le Guin, in 1969, uses the generic he/​him. The narrator, however, is aware of the differences between

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our culture and theirs: “They do not see one another as men or women. This is almost impossible for our imagination to accept. What is the first question we ask about a newborn baby?” (p. 101). The narrator then focuses on pronouns: “Yet you cannot think of a Gethenia as ‘it’. They are not neuters […] But the very use of the pronoun [he] in my thoughts leads me continually to forget that the Karhider I am with is not a man, but a manwoman” (p. 101). One of the famous lines from this novel that soon follows is “The king was pregnant” (p. 106). As the narrator soon points out, this is funny to the people on this planet too since the king was too old. Though Le Guin was aware of the inappropriateness of using he/​him pronouns with these characters, she defended the use of generic he as necessary for the coherence of the language, saying, “I utterly refuse to mangle English by inventing a pronoun for ‘he/​she’. ‘He’ is the generic pronoun, damn it.” (Le Guin in 1979, as cited by Livia, 2001, p.  134). She came around later to say that they/​them/​ their should be used instead (Le Guin in 1987, as cited by Livia, 2001, p. 134). In fact, Anna Livia in her chapter “Epicene Neologisms in English” discusses several instances where feminist writers of science fiction invented epicene pronouns for their nonbinary (though the term at the time was “ambisexual”) characters such as Piercy’s per in Woman on the Edge of Time and June Arnold’s na in The Cook and the Carpenter (Livia, 2001, p. 137). More recently, a review of science fiction novels (Fleenor, 2018) reveals that nonbinary characters are quite common, with obvious attention paid to pronouns. One even uses “she” generically. Octavia Butler’s work is listed, though there is some criticism about the dehumanizing aspects of her use of the pronoun “it” to refer to a human nongender character. The reviews themselves try to follow the pronoun use of the novels. The following is an excerpt of one of the reviews, discussing the novel Imago by Butler. As the below passage reveals, the nonbinary character is first referred to as he but later referred to as they, but with a singular verb. Later in the passage, the character is again referred to as he/​him (revealing the persistence of pronouns!): Jodahs is a construct, meaning he has human and Oankali genetics. When he enters his metamorphosis, it becomes clear that he will not be male or female, but rather ooloi. This is the first ooloi construct and represents a danger to humans and Oankali alike. Given their ability to combine genes, an unpaired ooloi could harm just about anyone or anything. Only finding human mates can help an ooloi control the changes in and around themselves. Alone and without mates, Jodahs becomes despondent. As Jodahs wanders the jungle having reverted to a lizard-​like state due to their loneliness, they finds two humans … Jodahs falls in love with the siblings and decides they are his mates. He immediately changes his appearance to become pleasing to them and the three bond deeply. (Fleenor, 2018)

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In another review, Fleenor even tries using the invented pronouns used in the novel, this time, The Mirror Empire by Kameron Hurley: One of the main characters is a powerful magician named Taigan, who experiences hir gender so fluidly, that depending on how ze is feeling, ze uses any of three pronouns:  she/​her, he/​his, or ze/​hir. Ze isn’t the only nonbinary character, as there are other named characters who use “ze” pronouns as well. Besides demonstrating these pronouns, Fleenor makes the larger point that science fiction and fantasy novels help us “imagine realities untainted by a status quo that erases the lives of nonbinary folks” (Fleenor, 2018). TV shows, such as Transparent and Billions, have portrayed trans characters, making them more familiar to the general population. Airton (2018, p.  203) describes a situation of telling a car salesman not to use the term “ladies” when referring to Airton and their partner, and the salesman responded by recalling that the TV show Billions has a character who goes by the pronoun they (and then avoids pronoun use altogether). Wikipedia (https://​en.wikipedia.org/​wiki/​List_​of_​fictional_​non-​binary_​ characters) has a growing chart of fictional nonbinary characters in animation, books, film, theater, television, and podcasts. The earliest reference on the list is to a character named Chick the Cherub in a children’s fantasy novel, John Dough and the Cherub, published in 1906, written by L. Frank Baum. The gender of Cherub is never revealed, and the pronoun it was used for reference to Cherub (https://​en.wikipedia.org/​wiki/​John_​Dough_​and_​the_​Cherub). Readers were asked to determine whether Cherub was a girl or boy as part of a publicity campaign. Though not mentioned on the Wikipedia page, the name “Cherub” also recalls the character Cherubino in Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s opera The Marriage of Figaro. Cherubino is the page for the Count Almaviva, and Cherubino’s clothing is masculine since a page is always a boy, though the part is always played by a woman, possibly because it is a soprano role. Nevertheless, the role has always struck me as an early example of a nonbinary character. Most of the nonbinary characters listed on the Wikipedia page emerged recently, from 2013 to the present, and, where pronouns are indicated, most are masculine or feminine pronouns or singular they. On the current chart (this may change by the time you read this!), there were only a few instances where characters use other pronouns. For example, Eleodie Maracavanya, a pirate ruler in Star Wars: Aftermath by Chuck Wendig, is referred to by zhe and zher, as well as with masculine and feminine pronouns. Chris, a character in Switch, a Canadian television comedy, uses zie/​zir pronouns. Zayn Petrossian, a character in Another Life, an American science fiction web television series, uses ze/​hir. Travertine, a character in Steel Breeze, a science fiction novel by Alastair Reynolds, uses vee/​ver pronouns

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with explicit mention of pronouns in the book. Most of these characters are still in non-​mainstream media, but the list is evolving to include more. In communities where gender fluidity is the norm, specific, singular they is the norm. Although some groups start out using neopronouns, they almost always revert to they and sometimes back to he and she. At the THEY 2019 conference, for example, no neopronouns were used, though some appeared on the name plates that were completed at the beginning of the conference, but specific-​ singular they was used frequently without hesitation. In a conversation/​interview with El (Sigelman, 2020), now 27, born female, masculinizing their body, and identifying as “queer,” El said that pronouns did not matter to them, though they said that pronouns seemed to matter to others in their queer community. El could be referred to as she, he, or they, and said that they were only bothered once when a potential employer kept insisting that El express some pronoun preference. Pronouns, they said, did seem to matter mostly to younger people who were still trying to form their identities. Also, people transitioning male to female or female to male could get upset when misgendered and want to be referred to with the pronouns matching the gender of their transition. In El’s community, singular they is most commonly used and is the “safe” pronoun, particularly when someone’s gender is ambiguous. One person in the community wanted no pronouns to be used, just the person’s name, though in reference to that person, El used them. El noted that older people struggled with pronouns, whereas younger people had no problems, and that in El’s community, pronouns were not a topic, just something that was integrated into their culture. El’s experiences are somewhat supported by a 2020 survey on the pronouns used by LGBTQ youth, conducted by the Trevor Project, an organization whose mission is to prevent suicide by LGBTQ youth. Their online survey of 40,001 LGBTQ youth, ages 13–​24, living in the United States, indicated that 75% of the respondents use he/​him or she/​her pronouns, while 25% of the respondents use other pronouns, such as they/​them combined with he/​him or she/​her (16%), they/​ them exclusively (5%), or neopronouns such as ze/​zir, xee/​xim, and fae/​faer or a combination of neopronouns with the other options (4%) (“Research Brief ”). The report did stress the importance of respecting the pronouns of LGBTQ youths as a way of affirming their genders. In the Trevor Project report National Survey on LGBTQ Youth Mental Health 2020, respondents who reported that their pronouns were respected all or most of the time had half the suicide attempts of those respondents who reported that their pronouns were never respected, and only one in five respondents reported that their pronouns were respected. It is interesting to note that in the first survey done by the Trevor Project in 2019, there did not seem to be any questions about pronouns, illustrating the growing recognition of the power of pronouns. In both reports, over 100 different sex and gender terms were identified.

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Entering the English Classroom While English does not have an authoritative agency dictating and policing prescriptive grammar rules, it does have professional associations that guide English teachers in their teaching and grading, which is essentially the same thing. The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), as of October 2018, has a statement (reprinted at the end of Chapter 9) that provides definitions for terms that arise with discussions of gender: gender identity, gender expression, gender binary, cisgender, transgender, nonbinary, gender fluid, and agender.The guidelines say to avoid generic he, as well as he/​she, he or she, or (s)he. The guidelines also say that they can be used with singular antecedents and that it should be used with singular personal antecedents when the gender is not specified. The verb are is the present-​tense verb for they. The guidelines also say that if a person has an alternative pronoun, then that pronoun should be used. The statement also says that students should be encouraged to use gender-​neutral language but should be cautioned that not all standardized tests and other authorities have adopted this practice. The statement itself uses singular nonspecific singular they throughout the article. As a means of authority, the NCTE statement mentions that these guidelines are also being followed by the Associated Press and the Chicago Manual of Style, as well as by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL), which most teachers and students consult. Supporting these guidelines is research (Hernandez, 2019) showing that while nonspecific singular they is widely accepted, specific (personal) singular they is acceptable to most people only in reference to nonbinary individuals. I suspect, however, that since pronouns are typically unstressed parts of speech, people will simply be unaware of their growing use, particularly in the possessive form, their, which, when said aloud, is a reduced phoneme (/​r/​) away from the definite article the. For example, if we hear “John brought their book to school today,” I doubt that anyone would notice, even if John does not go by they pronouns.

Swedish We should not conclude this chapter without mentioning the effort in Sweden to implement a new, gender-​neutral pronoun, hen, into the language by creating one that is phonetically similar to the existing gender pronouns hon (she) and han (he).The idea is not necessarily to create a pronoun for nonbinary individuals as it is to create a pronoun that has no gender bias. The pronoun has been introduced into nursery schools and included in children’s books, as well as being used in legal documents. Its success as an unbiased pronoun is still being studied (Lindqvist et al., 2017). One study, for example, describes an experiment that indicates there is value in using a novel pronoun such as ze in English and hen in Swedish –​that the novel pronoun provided a more “gender-​fair” perception than singular they,

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which held some male bias (the sense that the referent was male) (Lindqvist et al., 2019). This seems to contradict our assertion that singular they will serve as a gender-​neutral pronoun, but research on the acceptance of new pronouns is still being done. For example, another study (Bradley et al., 2019) finds that singular they is interpreted as gender neutral. It found that not enough English participants were familiar with ze, contradicting the findings of the research by Lindqvist et al. (2017), saying that in that study the English participants were introduced to the pronoun ze and therefore had no associations with it; on the other hand, the Swedish participants, though they did not all approve of it, were familiar with the novel, gender-​neutral pronoun hen due to its controversy.

Singular They as a Pronoun for Nonbinary People The Gender Census 2019: The Full Report (Worldwide) is an annual, crowd-​sourced form of linguistic research, surveying people who identify as nonbinary about their gender terms, pronouns, and nouns of address, among other items. The Gender Census 2019:  the Full Report (Worldwide) reports 11,242 responses, indicating that singular they came out well above other pronoun options, particularly in contrast with the previous year. With reference to pronouns, singular they came out well on top of other pronoun options in 2019. Here are the top five: • • • • •

Singular they –​ they/​them/​their/​theirs/​themselves –​ 79.5% (up  2.1%) He –​ he/​him/​his/​his/​himself –​ 30.8% (down  0.4%) She –​ she/​her/​her/​hers/​herself –​ 29.0% (down  1.9%) None/​avoid pronouns –​10.3% (up 0.2%) Xe –​ xe/​xem/​xyr/​xyrs/​xemself –​ 7.2% (down  0.2%)

As these results reveal, singular they is the most popular option, probably due to its familiarity and acceptance by others, further supporting the Great Pronoun Shift.

Conclusion Will singular they take over both nonspecific (where it is already widely accepted) and specific references? Pronoun use is so automatic that once people start using they/​them/​their without thinking, most likely they will take over all third person pronoun use, singular and plural, specific and nonspecific. Completely. Possibly even making he/​she/​his/​hers/​him/​her as archaic as thee/​thou/​thy/​thine. The resisters will simply not be around to squirm at their use, the young folk who are already using they/​them pronouns effortlessly will become the English teachers, and they will rise.

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Nonbinary Pronouns: In Transition  47

Activities 1. Describe your first encounter being asked for your pronouns. When did it happen, in what context, and how did you react? 2. Find a book or article written before 1969. Identify the use of generic he. Rewrite a short passage without the generic he. 3. Take a paragraph from any written text and revise it so that there are no gendered pronouns he/​him/​his or she/​her/​hers. What writing strategies do you use? How does it change the paragraph? 4. Find articles about gender-​fluid people in the news. How do the writers/​ editors deal with the pronouns? 5. Bring up the topic of pronouns at a multigenerational dinner table. Describe the reactions. What accounts for the acceptance or rejection of pronoun change? 6. Some have argued against singular they on the basis of grammatical concord. How would you defend it? 7. Watch one of the programs on the Wikipedia page for nonbinary fictional characters. What do you observe about pronouns?

Annotated Bibliography Ackerman, L. (2019a). Pronouns as the nexus of grammatical gender and gender expression. They, Hirself, Em, and You: Non-​binary pronouns in Theory and Practice Conference, https://​drive.google.com/​file/​d/​1swwROEt-​RWaLr4KVQOhNCdrcc5E-​81Ry/​ view This is the slide pack for Lauren Ackerman’s presentation at the THEY 2019 conference at Queens University in Kingston, Ontario. It shows the image of a three-​dimensional “bone” that portrays how we can regard gender, with male and female at the extremes. Ackerman, L. (2019b). Syntactic and cognitive issues in investigating gendered coreference. Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics, 4(1), 1–​27. https://​doi.org/​10.5334/​gjgl.721 In this article, Lauren Ackerman describes the complexity of gender by defining and discussing grammatical gender, conceptual gender, gender identity, gender expression, and biosocial gender, showing their expression in language. Airton, L. (2018). Gender: Your guide. Adams Media. Written in an engaging and friendly style, this is a manual with tips and guidance for living in a world where concepts about gender are changing. Lee Airton, a professor of education, identifies as nonbinary and writes this guide from a personal perspective, grounded in research and experiences. Berlin, B., & Kay, P. (1969). Basic color terms: Their universality and evolution. University of California Press. This short but seminal work presents a hierarchy of the stages of color terminology in languages, indicating that all languages have color terms for black and white, and, if there is a third color term, it is red, and, if there is a fourth, it is blue or yellow or green. This

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research is not necessarily accepted now that additional anthropological studies have been done, but it still stands as a memorable theory of color terms. Bradley, E., Salkind, J., Moore, A., & Teitsort, S. (2019). Singular “they” and novel pronouns:  Gender-​neutral, nonbinary, or both? Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America, 4(36), 1–​7. https://​doi.org/​10.3765/​plsa.v4i1.4542 This study asserts that singular they is regarded as a gender-​neutral pronoun and that novel pronouns were not as acceptable. Clarke, J. A. (2019). They, them, and theirs. Harvard Law Review, 132(3), 895–​899. http://​ search.ebscohost.com.proxydc.wrlc.org/​login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=13412 3974&site=ehost-​live This very readable article reviews feminist literature and provides arguments for recognizing nonbinary people in laws by using nonbinary pronouns. Cordoba, S. (2020, January). Exploring non-​binary genders: Language and identity. [PhD dissertation, De Montfort University] https://​sebastiancordobacom.files.wordpress.com/​ 2020/​07/​phdthesis_​sebastiancordoba_​finaljune_​2020.pdf This very recent dissertation, generously available on the Internet, is a study of 22 interviews of nonbinary people, combined with a corpus-​data analysis of texts written in nonbinary forums. There is lots of data analysis showing that gender-​neutral language is used to form identity for nonbinary people, a process labeled “linguistic becoming.” Davies, S. (2016, June 16). What we can learn from an Indonesian ethnicity that recognizes five genders. http://​theconversation.com/​what-​we-​can-​learn-​from-​anindonesian-​ethnicity-​that-​recognizes-​five-​genders-​60775 This article reports that an Indonesian society called the Bugis has five terms for gender. Fausto-​ Sterling, A. (2019). Gender/​ sex, sexual orientation, and identity are in the body: How did they get there?, The Journal of Sex Research, 56(4–​5), 529–​555. https://​ doi.org/​10.1080/​00224499.2019.1581883 This article is just the tip of a great body of scholarship on the topic of gender, sex, and sexual orientation. Fleenor, S. E. (2018, May 31). Science fiction and fantasy novels that take us beyond the gender binary. Electric Literature. https://​electricliterature.com/​science-​fictionand-​fantasy-​novels-​that-​take-​us-​beyond-​the-​gender-​binary/​ This article provides some wonderful examples of texts from novels with nonbinary characters, making the larger point that these works of science fiction help us understand alternative worlds. Friess, C. (2014, February 7). Lavender languages: Linguistics and culture for the LGBTQ community. American University. https://​american.edu/​cas/​news/​lavender-​languages-​ linguistics-​conference-​2014.cfm This article summarizes the work of William Leap and the conference he founded. Gender Census 2019: The Full Report (Worldwide). (2019). https://​gendercensus.com/​ post/​183832246805/​gender-​census-​2019-​the-​full-​report-​worldwide This is a remarkable, crowd-​sourced survey that is given each year online, so the findings are based on a significant number of people. This particular report shows widespread use of singular they.

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Hernandez, E. (2019). The history of “they” and the current state of “they”ffairs: An analysis of comments about the singular “they.” THEY 2019 Conference Presentation, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, CA. Hernandez presents data from a survey of over 700 individuals on their attitudes and acceptance toward a variety of sentences reflecting singular they. The results indicate negative attitudes about the use of singular they based on arguments about number, which Hernandez suggests could be a “shade” for prejudicial attitudes toward nonbinary people. The results also indicate that there is wider acceptance of specific singular they when referring to nonbinary people than otherwise. Joel, D. (2019, October 4). It’s time for a world without gender. Scientific American. https://​ blogs.scientificamerican.com/​voices/​its-​time-​for-​a-​world-​without-​gender/​ This brief blogpost, by a prominent author, points out how gender is generally not relevant, that no human characteristics have ever been shown to be exclusively male or exclusively female, and that making this distinction is often harmful, leading to discrimination, harassment, and death, given that most soldiers have been male. This article states that 1% of humans are intersex with ambiguous genitalia, and also points out that genitalia are an arbitrary way of classifying humans, similar to a time when people were classified as being left-​handed or right-​handed, leading to attempts to change a natural tendency. Joel, D., & Vikhanski, L. (2019). Gender mosaic. Little, Brown Spark. This very readable book brings together scientific research and personal anecdote to present the thesis that there is no difference between male and female brains, that gender is, indeed, a social construct. Knutson, D., Koch, J. M., & Goldbach, C. (2019, June 17). Recommended terminology, pronouns, and documentation for work with transgender and nonbinary populations. Practice Innovations, 4(4), 214–​224. https://​doi.org/​10.1037/​pri0000098 Excellent article for therapists recommending that they use appropriate pronouns and other terms with nonbinary individuals, citing arguments against those typically used for resisting this practice, such as freedom of speech, grammaticality, and effort. Overall, the general argument is that it is important in therapy to respect the client’s desire to use appropriate gender terms and to use mistakes, such as misgendering, as opportunities to apologize, work on the client/​therapist relationship, and discuss how it makes the client feel. It refers to the Swedish adoption of hen and the resistance it encountered. This article announces that it will use singular they and does.The article, however, does not mention the grammatical status of pronouns as belonging to a closed class of words and offers a pronoun chart as though all of these are viable alternatives. It does point out that pronoun acceptance varies according to age and geographical regions too. There is a good list of resources at the end. It cites the APA for its current use of gender terminology and the use of the term “nonbinary” as a cover term for individuals who do not identify with the gender they were assigned at birth, even though it observes that some would prefer to be identified by a term that describes what they are rather than what they are not. Konnelly, L., & Cowper, E. (2020). Gender diversity and morphosyntax: An account of singular they. Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics, 5(1), 1–​19. http://​doi.org/​10.5334/​ gjgl.1000 This paper provides an up-​to-​date account of the research done on singular they, also expressing the authors’ theory of the three stages of its acceptance, the final stage being the use of they for everyone except inanimate referents.

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Lakoff, R. (2004). Language and woman’s place. Oxford University Press. This book, initially published in 1975, was groundbreaking in showing the sexism in language, from generic he to the use of words such as chairman. This edition includes the original version, with commentary by the author, including a discussion about why she used generic he in the original, as well as several articles by notable scholars of feminist studies and language. Le Guin, U. K. (1976). The left hand of darkness. Ace. Just read it for a sense of what science fiction can reveal. Lindqvist, A., Renström, E. A., & Gustafsson Sendén, M. (2017, February). Could hen reduce the gender bias in the Swedish language? [Poster]. International Convention of Psychological Science,Vienna, Austria. www.researchgate.net/​publication/​315713379_​ Could_​hen_​reduce_​the_​gender_​bias_​in_​the_​Swedish_​language This is an ongoing research project to study how the adoption of a gender-​neutral, singular, third person pronoun, hen, would reduce bias in Swedish. What is interesting is that it is being taught in nursery schools so that children will start using it, and the government is using it in legal documents. Lindqvist, A., Renström, E. A., & Gustafsson Sendén, M. (2019). Reducing a male bias in language? Establishing the efficiency of three different gender-​fair language strategies. Sex Roles, 81, 109–​117. https://​doi.org/​10.1007/​s11199-​018-​0974-​9 This team of researchers has been studying whether new, gender-​neutral pronouns reduce bias in language, and this study seems to show that they do. Liszewski, W., Klint Peebles, J., Yeung, H., & Arron, S. (2018, December 20). Persons of non-​binary gender –​Awareness, visibility, and health disparities. New England Journal of Medicine, 379(25), 2391–​2393. https://​doi.org10.1056/​NEJMp.1812005 This (print!) article written for the medical profession offers explanations and definitions for multiple gender identities, asserting the importance for medical practitioners to be aware that many people do not fit into the male-​female dichotomy, particularly as nonbinary people are more visible and in need of medical treatment. They are also more likely to face discrimination and receive inadequate medical care. The article encourages the medical profession to be more “gender-​literate” and to respect gender expression such as pronoun use. The glossary includes cisgender, nonbinary, intersex, and transgender. Livia, A. (2001). Pronoun envy. Oxford University Press. This book is another classic work that examines the use of pronouns in works of literature, including French literature and science fiction. Lopez, R. (2019). Preferred pronoun laws and the first amendment:  When transgender activism clashes with the prohibition on compelled speech. FIU Law Review. https://​ law.fiu.edu/​preferred-​pronoun-​laws-​and-​the-​first-​amendment-​when-​transgender-​ activism-​clashes-​with-​the-​prohibition-​on-​compelled-​speech/​ This brief article has several useful links to laws regarding the use of “preferred pronouns” for nonbinary people. Mirhan, N. (2018, June 23).What it means to be multigender: The questions many have, but are afraid to ask. The body is not an apology. https://​thebodyisnotanapology.com/​magazine/​ what-​it-​means-​to-​be-​multigender-​the-​questions-​many-​have-​but-​are-​afraid-​to-​ask/​

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Nonbinary Pronouns: In Transition  51

This article (which uses singular they throughout and consistently) asserts that multigenderism is real and needs to be accepted by others. The end of the article lists several (13) terms identifying the types of gender: National Council of Teachers of English. (2018). Statement on Gender and Language. www2.ncte.org/​statement/​genderfairuseoflang/​ This statement (reprinted at the end of this book) provides English teachers, K-​college, with guidelines on being inclusive of students with all genders, respecting their pronouns, and being sensitive to issues that affect them. It specifically says that singular they is acceptable and that generic he, as well as he or she and those variations, should not be used, though it cautions teachers to inform students that not all authorities, such as standardized tests, have accepted these changes. National Survey. (2020). National survey on LGBTQ youth mental health 2020. The Trevor Project. www.thetrevorproject.org/​survey-​2020/​?section=SupportingTransgender-​Nonbinary-​Youth This report is based on an online survey of 40,000 LGBTQ youth in the United States to determine the challenges they face that might lead to suicide, such as homelessness, access to mental health counselors, physical threats, and attempts to convert them. Among these factors is affirming their gender identities by respecting their pronouns. Parker, K., Graf, N., & Igielnik, R. (2019, January 17). Generation Z looks a lot like millennials on key social and political issues. Pew Research Center Social Trends. www. pewsocialtrends.org/​2019/​01/​17/​generation-​z-​looks-​a-​lot-like-​millennials-​on-​keysocial-​and-​political-​issues/​ This article discusses recent research on the differences between the latest generation, Gen Z, and the preceding ones, indicating that one of the big distinguishing features between Gen Z and Millennials is the familiarity with nonbinary individuals and acceptance of nonbinary pronouns. Ruday, S. (2019). Inclusive language in the English classroom:  Recommendations for teachers. The ATEG Journal, 28(1),  20–​26. This article presents several recommendations for English teachers regarding the use of language that will make all students feel comfortable and safe in the classroom. It encourages teachers to discuss linguistic variation, particularly regarding writing and literacy, showing respect to all cultural identities. Sigelman, E. (2020, July 29). Personal interview. Thank you, El, for your insights into the community in which you are living. Sterritt, A. (2016, March 10). Indigenous languages recognize gender states not even named in English. Globe and Mail. www.theglobeandmail.com/​life/​health-​and-​fitness/​ health/​indigenous-​languages-​recognize-​gender-​states-​not-​even-​named-​in-​english/​ article29130778/​ This is an article about an indigenous, nonbinary youth who goes by they. The Trevor Project. (2019). National Survey on LGBTQ Mental Health. www. thetrevorproject.org/​survey-​2019/​?section=Introduction This is the first survey done by the Trevor Project on the mental health of LGBTQ youth to determine the factors underlying suicide attempts, receiving over 34,000 responses.

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Research Brief. (2020). Research brief:  Pronouns usage among LGBTQ youth. The Trevor Project. www.thetrevorproject.org/​2020/​07/​29/​research-​brief-​pronouns-usageamong-​lgbtq-​youth/​ This research brief summarizes the results of an online survey of 40,000 LGBTQ youth in the United States, ages 13–​24, asking for the pronouns they use. It indicates that 75% use binary pronouns, and that 25% use alternative pronouns. The report emphasizes the importance of respecting their pronouns, highlighting how this practice supports the mental health of these youth. Thorne, B., Kramarae, C., & Henley, N. (Eds.). (1983). Language, gender and society. Newbury House Publishers. This volume contains classic articles about language and gender that are still relevant even after 30 years. Donald MacKay (“Prescriptive grammar and the pronoun problem”) in particular discusses research indicating that even when generic he was being used, people still visualized maleness. It contains its own very detailed annotated bibliography on additional sources on these topics. Willsea, J. (2017). Please stop asking if my baby is a boy or a girl. Huffington Post. www.huffpost.com/​ e ntry/​ p lease-​ s top-​ a sking-​ i f-​ my-​ b aby-​ i s-​ a -​ b oy-​ o r-​ a -​ g irl_​ b _​ 5935a65de4b0cfcda9169b3f This brief contribution is written by a recent mother who is annoyed by the questions asked by strangers requesting intimate details about the newborn.The article points out that this is inappropriate in a world where people are becoming more open about their gender identities and that it would be better to avoid language that promotes a binary approach. The article also includes a link to the Intersex Society of North America. Yeung, L. (2019, June 5). In Canada, a powwow dancer dances through gender norms. yahoo! news. www.yahoo.com/​huffpost/​nenookaasi-​ogichidaa-​black-​indigenous-​ powwow-​040500527.html This is an article illustrating how indigenous groups are more accepting of nonbinary people.

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4 PRONOUNS FOR PETS, PLANETS, AND OTHER BODIES

Introduction Here is a line from the beautiful poem “Dawn Revisited” by Rita Dove: The blue jay hawks his pretty wares and the oak still stands, spreading glorious shade. If your prodar (= pronoun radar) has been fully activated, rather than enjoying the lovely images, you instead are wondering about that masculine possessive pronoun his lurking in the line. When you approach a person walking a particularly cute dog, are you more likely to ask, “What’s its name?” or “What’s his name?” or “What’s her name?” As far as I  am aware, dogs have not yet begun to share their pronouns on their dog tags. If you misgender the dog, the owner will likely correct you immediately. For a variety of historical reasons, other entities with no visible gender identities often bear gender pronouns. Some people refer to their cars with feminine pronouns, perhaps following a tradition that has been used with ships. Motorcycles are also given feminine pronouns, as are motors, as in “She’s running great.” Also, references to country names can be feminized. For a long while, hurricanes received only women’s names.The planets, including Earth, are often given masculine and feminine pronouns. Days of the week have also been depicted as masculine and feminine. Attributing human qualities to inanimate objects has come to the point where the Roomba, a vacuum cleaner that cleans by itself, has become a “he” in some households (“Metaphorical Gender”). What pronouns are we using for machines in our lives? Try asking Alexa or Siri, “What’s your pronoun?” (My Alexa answered, “As an AI, I don’t have a gender.”) To an AI (artificial intelligence), then, pronouns are synonymous with gender.

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54  Pronouns for Pets, Planets, and Other Bodies TABLE 4.1  Distribution of pronoun survey respondents by year of birth

Year of birth 1940–​49

1950–​59

1960–​69

1970–​79

1980–​89

1990–​99

Number

12

1

2

6

8

1

As a means of investigating some of these questions, I prepared an online pronoun survey. As of this writing, the survey has 30 responses, divided equally among people identifying as males and females, with the following breakdown of years of birth. Table  4.1 shows the characteristics of the respondents to my pronoun survey. These results will be discussed in the context of the following sections. The question is, how much do they succumb to the Great Pronoun Shift?

Pet (and Other Animal) Pronouns I heard a colleague once say that she had “they-​ed” a bird she saw outside. I hear myself slipping in and out of all sorts of gender and gender-​neutral pronouns for animals. When referring to the neighbor’s dog, whose gender I do not yet know, I might say, “I see them running in circles around the house.”When I see a squirrel eating my plants on the patio, I might say, “Do you see what he’s doing?” though sometimes I might say, “They’re back at the tomatoes again.” If I see a spider in the corner, I might say, “I guess I should leave it alone” even if I might have a clear image of Charlotte’s web. Perhaps we have come a long way from what Casey Miller and Kate Swift refer to as the “ubiquitous male animal” in the second edition of their classic guide, The Handbook of Non-​Sexist Writing (2000, p. 55). As they point out in numerous examples of references to animals, even in the first edition (1980, pp.  44–​46), animals usually get masculine pronouns when the sex is not known. References to a dinosaur, for example, by using the masculine pronouns, would give readers the idea that dinosaurs were exclusively male (could that be the reason for their demise?) and not the sense that the masculine pronouns were meant to include females. Their guide suggests using “it” for animals, saying that this would not be offensive to them (Miller & Swift, 2000, p. 56) and would thus not be misinforming readers. They do, however, object to the use of “it” when the sex is known. They do not, however, propose using singular they, even though they do suggest singular they for indefinite third person singular reference in other sections of their book for references to people. A Google search of “pronouns for animals” yields an entry from Writer’s Digest advising writers that the rule for referring to animals is to use the pronoun it unless there’s a “personal relationship” as well as the relative pronouns which and that rather than who or whom (Sobiek, 2010). The entry states that personal pronouns (he/​she) are best when animals are given names or treated in a personal

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Pronouns for Pets, Planets, and Other Bodies  55

way. One of the more recent (2016) postings suggested that writers refer to the Animals and Media organization for guidance, which advises writers not to use it for any animal but rather use he or she when the gender is known and they when unknown (“Guidelines,” 2019). These guidelines also caution writers to refer to nonhuman animals in respectful ways, acknowledging that we all belong to the same animal kingdom. This organization, for example, would replace the word “pets” with “companion animals” or “nonhuman family members.” More traditional style guides, such as the Associated Press (AP), Chicago, and American Psychological Association (APA), however, have not yet gone to singular they/​them pronouns for animals, still sticking with it unless the animal has a proper name that indicates the use of a feminine or masculine pronoun, or if the sex of the animal is known (Wright, 2020). To see what pronouns people use for animals, I  included images of single animals in a pronoun survey available on the Internet. My goal with this survey was to investigate the pronouns people use for singular entities that do not exhibit any particular gender. My hypothesis is that most of the responses will include the recommended it, but I  would also expect to see some use of singular they emerging. As of this writing, to the image of a dog, with the traditional expression, “Every dog will have _​_​_​_​day,” the results were as follows. Table 4.2 indicates the pronoun choices for this prompt. As we see, most (53%) of the responses are following the rule to use it, almost a third (30%) used the masculine pronoun from the traditional expression, and several (17%) used their, which matches with the now common use of pairing their with everyone. In this image, though, there is a particular dog, so it is not quite an instance of a nonspecific antecedent. In the same survey, another picture shows a cormorant with the sentence, “The cormorant is airing _​_​_​_​wings” with the following results.Table 4.3 indicates the pronoun choices for this prompt. These results clearly show that it is the preferred pronoun, but it is interesting that two of the responses are invented pronouns for this situation. Most likely, it is used since people do not regard cormorants as pets and may even be unfamiliar with them as birds. This may be the reason for the invented pronouns itsits and hisit that were produced, although it is also possible that they were typos. TABLE 4.2  Pronoun survey responses for dog

Pronoun

Every dog will have _​_​_​day.

% (n=30)

its his their

16 9 5

53.3% 30.0% 16.7%

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56  Pronouns for Pets, Planets, and Other Bodies TABLE 4.3  Pronoun survey responses for cormorant

Pronoun

The cormorant is airing _​_​_​_​wings

% (n=30)

its his their hisit itsits

25 2 1 1 1

83.3% 6.7% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3%

TABLE 4.4  Pronoun survey responses for cat

Pronoun

_​_​_​ is an odd-​eyed cat.

% (n=30)

It She This Thisit He/​she He (no response)

18 5 3 1 1 1 1

60.0% 16.7% 10.0% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3%

56

In contrast, in the same survey there is a picture of a cat, with the sentence “_​_​_​ is an odd-​eyed cat” yielding the following results. Table 4.4 indicates the pronoun choices for this prompt. In this example, which has the largest variety of pronouns in the survey responses, we see the most instances of she, suggesting that the image of a cat is more feminine than the other images or that people have more experience with female cats. We also see the use of a demonstrative pronoun this, suggesting that some respondents opted to avoid using gendered pronouns in this instance. We get another invented pronoun thisit as well as the he/​she combo that used to be recommended for unknown gender situations. Still, as with the cormorant, the dominant pronoun is it, as recommended by most guides. Note that they does not appear in these responses since the verb is does not allow it, even with the singular they. On the other hand, a very simple response, only three pronouns, emerged with the prompt “The horse has a white spot on _​_​_​_​nose.” Table 4.5 indicates the pronoun choices for this prompt. Again, the dominant pronoun is it, as recommended by style guides, and there are no unusual pronouns. Perhaps respondents are familiar with horses. It is interesting that their does appear, and his is preferred over her. Since horse has a female counterpart, mare, it is possible that respondents had this in mind.

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Pronouns for Pets, Planets, and Other Bodies  57 TABLE 4.5  Pronoun survey responses for horse

Pronoun

The horse has a white spot on _​_​_​nose.

% (n = 30)

its his their

23 5 2

76.7% 16.7% 6.7%

TABLE 4.6  Pronoun survey responses for bear

Pronoun

The bear has a fish in _​_​_​mouth.

% (n=30)

its his her their

24 3 1 1

80.0% 10.0% 3.3% 3.3%

TABLE 4.7  Pronoun survey responses for monster

Pronoun

The monster has an angry expression on _​_​_​face.

% (n=30)

its his their itshi

18 9 2 1

60.0% 30.0% 6.7% 3.3%

Finally, the survey included a large animal not considered within the range of pets, in the sentence “The bear has a fish in _​_​_​_​mouth,” giving these results. Table 4.6 indicates the pronoun choices for this prompt. This also elicited a feminine pronoun, perhaps because we are accustomed to thinking of the “mama” bear, but again, by far the dominant response (80%) is its. There are no invented pronouns, perhaps due to the fact that bears are common and familiar to people, though not as pets. While the previous images were photos of real animals, the following sentence included a cartoon image of an unreal, animate, entity with the sentence “The monster has an angry expression on _​_​__​ ​face.” Table 4.7 indicates the pronoun choices for this prompt. Even for a fantasy animal, the pronoun it is dominant, but it is interesting to see so many instances of the masculine pronoun and none of the female. In keeping with the imagination, there is one invented pronoun, itshi, and there are also two instances of their. As we see in all the preceding examples, most pronouns used for animals are it as recommended by style guides, but we do see the singular they emerging in each

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example. It would be interesting to repeat this survey in the future to see if the use of singular they increases in these situations.

Pronouns for a Mercedes, the H.M.S. Pinafore, the Sun, the Moon, and Other Bodies Given that a car name such as “Mercedes” is also the name of a woman and that a ship name such as “Her Majesty’s Ship Pinafore” also has a feminine reference, with expressions such as “the maiden voyage,” are we already biased toward using feminine pronouns for cars and ships? Under the heading of “Personification,” Miller and Swift (2000) discuss the use of feminine pronouns for ships, pointing out that both she and it are used, and that personification is generally not recommended. At a time when the US Navy was considering calling all ships “it,” they refer to a Bill Kitchen cartoon with two sailors commenting to one another, “Where’s it all going to end?” (p. 75). Calling ships a “she” seems to be a tradition that many (men) hold dear, though the guide books suggest otherwise. Indeed, modern descriptions of US Navy ships mostly contain “it” pronouns, though some still use “she.” Searching the web for ship names, however, reveals a mix of “she” and “it” pronouns, and there are several sites explaining why ships were ever referred to with feminine pronouns, often with sexist jokes like, “because they need so much maintenance” or puns like “they like to hang around the buoys.” These sites also state the idea that ships are thought of as guardians of the sailors, were named after goddesses, and were fitted with figureheads that depicted a female figure, thus the feminine pronouns (“Why is a ship a she?”). Some linguistic explanations point out that the Latin word for ship, navis, has feminine grammatical gender, though the grammatical gender is masculine in Germanic languages, from which the English word ship is derived. In Germany, ships are usually referred to with masculine pronouns since they are associated with strength and power (Rumble, 2019). While some people do give their boats feminine names, even ships with masculine names receive feminine pronouns, such as the Andrea Doria or the Edmund Fitzgerald. Reports about these ship disasters use both “she/​her” pronouns, as well as “it” pronouns, but never masculine ones, though both are named after men. Dennis Baron, whose book Grammar and Gender (1986) is the go-​to source for everything pronoun related, explains that inanimate objects have a “metaphorical gender” that was described even as early as the eighteenth century. Baron cites the grammarian James Harris, who in 1751 described objects as masculine if they were active and strong, and as feminine if they were passive, attractive, and capable of “bearing fruit” (p. 101). Examples are the sun as masculine and the moon as feminine. Baron also points out that some have noted that this is reversed when, in northern climates, the sun is weaker than the moon, and so, for example, the sun is grammatically feminine in German while the moon is grammatically masculine (p. 102).Though these are interesting speculations as to the origins of grammatical

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gender, linguists believe, however, that grammatical gender is arbitrary and not dependent upon any natural features. Recently, some have opposed the use of feminine pronouns for ships in the United Kingdom, going so far as to cross out she and her from signs in nautical museums. (See https://​metro.co.uk/​2019/​04/​24/​boats-​g iven-​gender-​neutral-​ names-​9305683/​) This brought a reaction from the Royal Navy saying, “ ‘The Royal Navy has a long tradition of referring to ships as “she” and will continue to do so’ ” (Olsen, 2019). There were also reactions from others in social media postings saying that this is an example of political correctness getting “out of hand” and a case of “bullying,” though the end result is that the museum will refer to a ship as “it” to avoid further vandalism. On the Quora site, postings there indicate that though some refer to cars, ships, and countries with feminine pronouns, it is much safer to use “it,” particularly in American English, although “they/​their” is emerging as an option (“What is the correct pronoun referring to a car, a country, or a ship?). On another crowd-​ sourced site, Stack Exchange, the topic “Referring to objects as ‘she’ ” drew a wide variety of responses, including one that attributed the use of female pronouns for ships to an old observation that female oak was used to build them. Some postings referred to the use of female pronouns for inanimate objects by mostly males who used them as terms of endearment for objects that they depended upon. Other postings pointed out that male pronouns are hardly ever used for inanimate objects, and that most inanimate objects are nowadays referred to with the neuter “it” (“Referring to objects as ‘she’ ”). Regarding planets and other heavenly bodies, there is a tradition of referring to Mother Earth or Mother Nature, which results in feminine pronouns as in “all her glory.” There is also a tradition in English of referring to the sun as masculine and the moon as feminine, as mentioned earlier. Though English does not have grammatical gender, people still regard some entities as seeming more masculine and some as more feminine based on qualities such as strength and activity as opposed to weakness and passivity. Though in modern thinking, this approach seems sexist, it still explains why depictions of the sun are often masculine and those of the moon are often feminine. Similarly, planets are often associated with the mythological figures after whom they are named, so Jupiter is male, while Venus is female. Nevertheless, blog posts point out that planets have no biological gender and so the pronouns for them should be it (“Why is there gender for planets”); the blog posts indicate that though the planets and other heavenly bodies have no real gender, they do have grammatical gender in many languages, though these are not consistent. For example, the sun has masculine grammatical gender in Spanish but feminine grammatical gender in German, while the moon is the opposite. One of the posts points out that the names for the planets come from Roman and Greek mythology and so the gender of the gods is reflected in the pronouns for the planets; for example,Venus and Earth are feminine while the other planets are

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60  Pronouns for Pets, Planets, and Other Bodies TABLE 4.8  Pronoun survey responses for Mars

Pronoun

This image of Mars shows that _​_​_​has ice caps.

% (n = 30)

it their

29 1

96.7% 3.3%

TABLE 4.9  Pronoun survey responses for moon

Pronoun

The moon is shedding _​_​_​_​light on the ocean.

% (n = 30)

its her its their the

26 2 1 1

86.7% 6.7% 3.3% 3.3%

masculine. Most of the posts point out that it is silly to regard the planets as having any gender and that all should be referred to with neuter pronouns, “it/​its.” In the Pronoun Survey, there was only one item with an image of a planet, asking people to fill in the following: “This image of Mars shows that _​_​_​has ice caps.” There was one response with “their” but all the others were it. Table 4.8 indicates the pronoun choices for this prompt. The verb has probably limited the responses to a singular pronoun, so it is surprising that their, which is not grammatical, even was a response, but she and he were also options that nobody selected. There was more variation in the item with the image of the moon, “The moon is shedding _​_​_​_​light on the ocean,” yielding the following results. Table  4.9 indicates the pronoun choices for this prompt. Again, the majority of the responses refer to the moon with a neuter pronoun, “it,” as recommended by style books, but two people (both female) used a feminine pronoun, one indicating that “their” was possible, and one avoiding pronoun use by using the article “the.”

Pronouns for Tools? A tool should be an “it.” Why are some becoming personalized? A  study of Roombas, the robot-​like vacuum, found that 14 out of 15 respondents referred to them as “he” (Hendricks et al., 2011, p. 192). People have even given names to their Roombas, and, as robots in general become more like humans, it has been suggested that they will require pronouns other than “it” as people empathize with them more (Murphy, 2016). Indeed, a lengthy and heated debate emerged on the topic of “pronouns for robots” in Stack Exchange, where a writer of science fiction asked what pronouns should be used to refer to two robots, one which

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seemed male-​like, and one which seemed female-​like, but neither of which understood or recognized gender. The comments posted by readers revealed some very interesting perceptions about pronouns. For example, in this discussion, taking place in August 2019, one reader claimed that “he” was still gender neutral and could be safely used, while another said that a “vocal minority” advocated for singular “they” though it was not grammatical. A debate then ensued about whether this was really a minority, while several others suggested using invented pronouns, since this was, ostensibly, a fictional world anyway. Regarding the suggestion of using pronouns such as “zie” and “hir,” it was observed that most readers would not understand them. One reader wisely provided several options, indicating the following: • • • • •

Use “he” and “she” for the most familiar, human-​seeming prose. Use “it” to highlight them as artificial. Use “they” as an easily understood but gender-​neutral form, less familiar to some readers, but not truly “alien,” and more “human” than “it.” Use one of the many attempts over the years at coining a new pronoun (“zhe,” “co,” “hesh,” etc.), to convey a more forcefully post-​gender environment. Use pronouns of your own invention, for a more deliberate distancing from our current society. (“Pronouns when writing from the point of view of a robot”)

One of the masters of science fiction, Isaac Asimov, seemed to have no pronoun problem in 1950 in his collection of short stories about robots, I, Robot. In the second of the “Three Laws of Robotics,” “A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings […]” we see the use of “it,” which appears also in the third law, “A robot must protect its own existence […],” which become the rules for robots in this collection. In the stories themselves, where the robots as characters are named, humanized, and gendered, the pronoun is “he.” For example, in the first story, “Robbie,” a robot “nursemaid” is referred to as a “bad boy” with “he/​him” pronouns by a little girl. However, later in the story, there is “The Talking Robot” that is referred to with the pronoun “it” but is later addressed, by the little girl, as “Mr. Robot, sir” (33), though the narrator continues to refer to it as “it.” In other stories in the same collection, as “robotics” advances, the robots are given names and personalities, all male and mostly all referred to with masculine pronouns. These stories were written when generic he was thriving, however, and even a generic reference to a robot merits this pronoun: “When a robot is on his own […]” (p. 87). Even in a story that contains a body part of a robot, a “finger” that talks, the masculine pronoun appears: “The ‘finger’ had a curious air of reciting by rote, as if he answered questions by mechanical pressure of his brain pan, but without any enthusiasm whatever” (p. 88). In the story “Little Lost Robot,” the characters in the story who had little contact with robots use “it” in reference: “ ‘The robot acted as it did because of what it is’ ” (p. 125). An interesting switch in pronouns

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emerges in this statement by the character who is responsible for the robot going astray (pronouns indicated in bold here, though not in the original) I had a little trouble with it. I’d broken a Kimball tube that morning and was out five days of work; my entire program was behind schedule; I hadn’t received any mail from home for a couple of weeks. And he [italics in the original] came around wanting me to repeat an experiment I had abandoned a month ago. He was always annoying me on that subject and I was tired of it. I told him to go away –​and that’s all I saw of him. (p. 126) As we see in this selection, once the robot is humanized, by being annoying, the references switch from “it” to “he” and remain there. In still another story, “Escape!”, one of the characters is “The Brain,” a machine with the personality of a child, and the characters use both neuter and masculine pronouns to refer to it. One of the main protagonists in I, Robot, Susan Calvin, a psychologist who specializes in robots, says this about The Brain: Suppose The Brain is only mildly caught; just badly enough, say, to be suffering from the delusion that he can solve the problem, when he can’t. Or suppose it’s teetering on the brink of something really bad, so that any small push shoves it over. (p. 152) The use of both masculine and neuter pronouns by a character who, as a common thread in all the stories in this collection, consistently humanizes the robots, demonstrates, in a subtle way, her confusion about The Brain. Is The Brain a child (which, in this era, also was sometimes referred to as “it”) or a machine? Does the capacity to think make one human? Susan Calvin empathizes with robots in every story and, in one of the concluding stories, “Evidence,” says, “If a robot can be created capable of being a civil executive, I think he’d make the best one possible” (p. 193). By the end of this collection, despite the use of generic he throughout, the reader is likely to agree. Why we need to gender our tools is a whole other topic that researchers are seriously studying, concluding, for now, that it is just part of human nature (Bianco, 2018). My belief is that we need their company, and, for example, driving a car alone is a lot easier when you can call it “Jacquetta.” One last item in the Pronoun Survey was an image of a truck, with the following results. Table 4.10 indicates the pronoun choices for this prompt. Almost all the respondents chose “its” as the pronoun, following traditional practice, though two selected an article, “the,” and avoided using a pronoun, and one selected “their” in response.

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Pronouns for Pets, Planets, and Other Bodies  63 TABLE 4.10  Pronoun survey responses for truck

Pronoun

The truck is emptying _​_​_​load.

% (n=30)

its the their

27 2 1

90.0% 6.7% 3.3%

Why some items become male and some female seems not to support my initial hypothesis that gender may soon become irrelevant. On the other hand, perhaps it is a backlash; perhaps as gender for humans becomes more complex, we turn to our tools who will not be offended if we misgender them.

Pronouns for Schools, Corporations, Countries, and Other Institutions The sign outside of our local middle school read, “Alice Deal Loves Their Teachers.” I cannot help but wonder if 50 years ago that sign would have used “her” instead of “their.” Our schools are often referred to with feminine pronouns, perhaps stemming from the idea of the “alma mater,” and we often refer to “sister” institutions, again even when the names are masculine. Most of us would use “it” in reference to a school, though in some school songs, there is a use of feminine pronouns. Here are the first two lines from the song for the Mars Area High School in Mars, Pennsylvania: Oh, dear old Mars forever, For her we'll stand together, (Source: https://​highschool.marsk12.org/​apps/​pages/ index.jsp?uREC_​ID=800047&type=d&pREC_​ID=1189653) Here is the chorus for the current version of the school song for Rutgers University: On the banks of the old Raritan, (my friends) where old Rutgers ever more shall stand, For has she not stood since the time of the flood, On the banks of the old Raritan. (“On the Banks of the Old Raritan” Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/​wiki/​On_​the_​Banks_​of_​the_​Old_​Raritan) It is notable that the lyrics were revised to be more gender inclusive in 2013, where the phrase “my friends” had been “my boys” in both the original 1873 version and

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the revised 1914 version.The pronouns for the school, however, remained feminine in all versions and in multiple verses of the alma mater.The songs for other schools often personify the institutions as female, using terms like “mother” and “bride,” so it is reasonable for them to use feminine pronouns, particularly since these songs were usually written in earlier times when such personification was more common than it is today. An interesting exercise would be to investigate the song lyrics for schools written in more contemporary times, to see if those avoid pronouns or use “it” or if they personify the school in some other way. I suspect that while the schools are trying to forge a more personal connection with their alumni, they would not want to risk offending them with sexist or exclusionary lyrics! Similarly, pronouns for countries are sometimes feminine, though now the guides advise using “it” for countries. In another Quora discussion, in response to the question “Can I use ‘they’ instead of ‘it’ for a country?”, one reader responded, “Absolutely not,” indicating that a country is singular, though one may be thinking of the inhabitants when using the plural pronoun, as in “They drink tea there.” Some justify the use of “they” for collective nouns, since they are inclusive of many people who may not all think alike.The grammatical rule for verb agreement with collective nouns has been to use a singular verb if the collective noun refers to an entity whose members all share the same ideas and can be thought of as a single unit, for example, “The jury agrees with the sentence.” When, however, the members of the collective noun do not all agree and can be thought of as individuals, the grammatical rule says it is okay to use a plural verb, for example, “The jury were arguing all night.” There actually is a lot of debate about subject-​verb agreement in general, as noted by Haussamen (1997), who devotes two chapters to the topic. Haussamen notes that subject-​verb agreement rules are very “complicated” (p. 65) and that verb agreement does not really add any necessary information to the sentence, since the subject already carries detail about the number. There is also a history of disagreement about subject-​verb agreement rules. For example, the combination of two synonymous subjects in some grammar books would take a singular verb while in others it would be plural: His kindness and compassion was well known. [Even now, my grammar checker is indicating that a plural verb should be used in this sentence.] Another controversial rule, still a problem today, is when the phrase “as well as” is added to a singular subject: The mother, as well as her child, were ill. [Interestingly, both “was” and “were” are okay by my grammar checker.] Haussamen illustrates how these rules and others are often derived from Latin-​based grammars and so are not as relevant to English, concluding that we need to keep an open mind.

Conclusion In this chapter we have explored the ways that we ascribe gender to items that possess no genitalia, thus seeming to contradict my initial hypothesis that

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Pronouns for Pets, Planets, and Other Bodies  65

gender will someday become irrelevant. Truthfully, I think that we will always have gender, particularly since we are spending so much time considering all of its varieties. With regard to pronouns, however, I  still believe that those complexities will eventually yield to the power of the Great Pronoun Shift and reduce to the use of singular they for all of us, just because they is so much simpler.

Activities 1 . What pronouns do you observe people using for animal encounters? 2. Have you ever misgendered someone’s pet? What happened? 3. What pronouns do you use for inanimate objects? Do you or does anyone you know refer to their car, bike, or any other inanimate object with personal pronouns? 4. Look up news articles related to ship disasters in the past, for example, the Andrea Doria or the Edmund Fitzgerald. What pronouns are used to refer to these ships? Compare them to ship disasters in the present. Has there been a change in pronouns? 5. Try writing a story about robots. What pronouns do you use and why? 6. Investigate the song lyrics to other schools. What pronouns are used for these institutions?

Annotated Bibliography Asimov, I. (1950). I, robot. Doubleday. This is the classic collection of short stories by a master of science fiction, taking place in the future, 2057 AD, which now doesn’t sound so far off. Asimov didn’t foresee the Internet, though. Baron. D. (1986). Grammar and gender. (Reviewed in other chapters) Bianco, M. (2018). What do robots have to do with gender? Stanford University. https://​gender.stanford.edu/​news-​publications/​gender-​news/​what-​do-​robots-​havedo-​gender This short report describes the efforts of researchers to better understand why people feel the need to ascribe genders to robots and how to ensure that there is diversity in this field. Can I  use “they” instead of “it” for a country? (2019, May 7). Quora. www.quora.com/​ Can-​I-​use-​they-​instead-​of-​it-​as-​a-​pronoun-​for-​a-​country Another Quora discussion, with responses mostly objecting to the use of singular they for pronoun reference. Dove, R. (1999). Dawn revisited. Poetry Foundation. www.poetryfoundation.org/​poems/​ 51663/​dawn-​revisited Rita Dove is one of my favorite poets, so I am thrilled to include these lines in this book.

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Guidelines for Journalism. (2019). Animals and media: A style guide for giving voice to the voiceless. www.animalsandmedia.org/​main/​journalism-​guidelines/​ This guide recommends avoiding it and using singular they/​them or he or she for animals whose gender is unknown or androgynous species, saying that this practice recognizes that animals are “sentient, animated beings.” Similarly who should be used instead of that. Haussamen, B. (1997). Revising the rules. Kendall Hunt. This is a book about grammar, providing insight into the rules as they have been depicted in grammar books throughout history, suggesting that we need to rethink some of these rules, insofar as they are often based on Latin grammars. Hendricks, B., Meerbeek, B., Boess, S., & Sonneveld, M. H. (2011). Robot vacuum cleaner personality and behavior. International Journal of Social Robotics, 3(2):187–​195. https://​ doi.org/​10.1007/​s12369-​010-​0084-​5 A technical study, this research demonstrates how people personify their Roombas, with the surprising finding that 14 out of 15 respondents used “he” rather than “it.” Metaphorical gender in English:  Feminine boats, masculine tools and neuter animals. (2017, October). Druide. www.druide.com/​en/​reports/​metaphorical-​gender-englishfeminine-​boats-​masculine-​tools-​and-​neuter-​animals This is a site produced by linguists, and this particular posting covers all the topics in this chapter also referring to a 2007 study showing that people referred to their Roomba vacuum cleaners with masculine or feminine pronouns. It also recommends using “it” for entities that have no natural gender. Miller, C., & Swift, K. (1980). The handbook of nonsexist writing. Lippincott & Crowell. This is the first edition of this classic guide to writing without gender bias, so classic, in fact, that the second edition (see below) does not have any major changes. Miller, C., & Swift, K. (2000). The handbook of nonsexist writing (2nd ed.). iUniverse.com. This is the second edition of this classic guide to writing in nonsexist language. First published in 1980, it became the go-​to publication for writers to avoid sexism. Written by two copy editors in a very readable style, it provides examples from ads, newspapers, classic works of literature, and quotes to illustrate problems with pronouns and other sexist terms that include generic uses of “man” that are not inclusive of women. It also provides solutions, and though it includes the use of singular they for indefinite third person singular reference, it does not acknowledge specific third person singular reference, nor any reference to nonbinary individuals who, in 2000, were not yet recognized in the mainstream world. Murphy, M. (2016, March 17). It’s time for robots to have their pronouns. Quartz. https://​ qz.com/​629535/​we-​need-​new-​pronouns-​for-​robots/​ This brief article points out that as robots become more like humans, it will be harder to use the pronoun “it” with them, and that new pronouns should be invented for them. Olsen, M. B. (2019, April 24). Boats to be given gender neutral name. Metro. B https://​ metro.co.uk/​2019/​04/​24/​boats-​g iven-​gender-​neutral-​names-​9305683/​ This article describes how signs at a nautical museum in Scotland were vandalized to remove the feminine pronouns.

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Pronouns for Pets, Planets, and Other Bodies  67

On the banks of the Old Raritan. (2020, March 23). In Wikipedia. https://​en.wikipedia. org/​w/​index.php?title=On_​the_​Banks_​of_​the_​Old_​Raritan&oldid=946919594 It took a while to find the lyrics to an alma mater with feminine pronouns, as in these lines, but it was worth it! Also, my daughter graduated from Rutgers. Pronouns when writing from the point of view of a robot. (2019, August). Writing Stack Exchange. https://​writing.stackexchange.com/​questions/​47113/​pronouns-​ when-writing-​from-​the-​point-​of-​view-​of-​a-​robot#:~:text=Robots%2C%20being%20 machines%20not%20people%2C%20wouldn%27t%20use%20pronouns.,characters.%20 A%20robot%27s%20narration%20would%20read%20like%20this%3A This is a fascinating exchange of ideas about what pronouns robots should use when referring to one another. It reveals people’s perceptions of pronoun use, with a surprising number of people who consider singular they to be used only by a “vocal minority,” though this is debated by others. There also seems to be a consensus that new gender-​neutral pronouns such as “zie” would not be easily understood, though they would give the robots an alien air. Referring to objects as “she.” (2010, October 15). English Stack Exchange. https://​english. stackexchange.com/​questions/​3178/​referring-​to-​objects-​as-​she English Stack Exchange is a crowd-​sourced site that allows viewers to post and answer questions, so the comments may not all be reliable, but they are fun and interesting to read, also displaying the level of interest in certain topics. This one was particularly lively. Rumble, R. (2019, April 24). Why do ships have a gender? IWM. www.iwm.org.uk/​history/​why-​do-​ships-​have-​a-​gender This is a brief article providing some history on this topic. Sobiek, B. (2010, August 24). How to handle animal pronouns:  He, she or it? Writers Digest. www.writersdigest.com/​editor-​blogs/​questions-​and-​quandaries/​g rammar/​ how-​to-​handle-​animal-​pronouns-​he-​she-​or-​it This is a short article about the rules for using pronouns for animal reference, saying to use it and which/​that unless there is a personal connection to the animal. What is the correct pronoun while referring a country, a car, or a ship? (2018, June 14). Quora. www.quora.com/​What-​is-​the-​correct-​pronoun-​while-​referring-​a-​country-​ a-​car-​or-​a-​ship This is from a site, Quora, that answers questions posed by searchers. The responses come from individuals with some knowledge, though these posts do not seem to be totally verified. Why is a ship a she? (2013, March 30). Glossophilia. www.glossophilia.org/​2013/​03/​why-​ is-​a-​ship-​a-​she/​. Glossophilia is a site that focuses on language questions, and its responses are usually very scholarly. In response to this question, it cites several knowledgeable sources, and it also includes postings from readers, one of whom pointed out that the modern German word for “ship” has a neuter grammatical gender, not masculine. Why is there gender for planets? (2018, August 2). Quora. www.quora.com/​Why-​isthere-​gender-​for-​planets This is also from Quora.

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Wright, E. (2020, December 19). When to use gendered pronouns for animals. Erin Wright Writing. https://​erinwrightwriting.com/​animal-​pronouns/​. This writer has examined the recent style guides for the Associated Press (AP), Chicago, and the American Psychological Association (APA) to check their pronouns for animals. AP and APA styles say that if the animal has a name or a known sex, it could (APA) or should (AP) be referred to with the gendered pronoun, but otherwise it should be referred to with it. Chicago style allows gendered pronouns to be used with animals, as well as with other nonhuman entities, but is not specific.

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5 WHERE ART THOU? Pronouns in History

Introduction Although this book asserts that pronouns, as function words, are not likely to change, history both supports and contradicts this assertion. While masculine third person pronouns have remained relatively stable, and the pronouns used by Shakespeare are somewhat similar to those in use today, some pronouns have changed. The pronoun you is a good example. Once upon a time, English had a set of singular, second person pronouns, thee/​ thou/​thy/​thine, along with the plural set, you/​your/​yours, that we still have today, though it has expanded its function to include singular reference as well. This suggests that pronouns, despite being function words, can undergo change. This chapter proposes some speculations as to the factors driving these changes.

History of English No, I  cannot provide a history of English in this book, but, in case you were unaware, English has gone through many changes, with the following main periods:  Old English (449–​1100), Middle English (1100–​1500), Early Modern English (1500–​1800), and Modern English (1800–​present). Shakespeare belongs to Early Modern English, so you can only imagine how difficult it would be to understand Middle English and Old English. Nevertheless, here is what third person pronouns looked like in Old English. Figure 5.1 depicts the pronouns used in Old English. As you can see, English used to have a set of singular neuter pronouns! Interestingly, they look a lot like the set of masculine pronouns we use today.

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70  Where Art Thou? Pronouns in History

Case

Masculine

Neuter

Feminine

Plural

Nominative Accusative Dative Genitive

hē hine him his

hit hit him his

hēo hīe hire hire

hīe hīe him heora

FIGURE 5.1 Third person singular pronouns in Old English

(Source: www.arrantpedantry.com/​2016/​11/​15/​whence-​did-​they-​come/​)

Also, the masculine pronouns are almost identical to the set of masculine pronouns we use today, though they were not pronounced the same. Though we see many changes, mostly in the feminine and plural forms, it is interesting to note that he/​him/​his have remained stable since this period, again suggesting how pronouns are somewhat resistant to change. It also makes me wonder, though I  have not yet seen any other accounts saying this, if this stability of the masculine pronouns is behind the prevalence of generic he. Does its longevity account for its widespread use? Miller and Swift (1980, pp. 35–​36) refer to the “so-​called” generic he since they say it was never meant to be inclusive of women; that in history, books were written mostly by males for other males; and that the idea of inclusion came about only in the eighteenth century. In fact, the generic he is credited to a woman, Anne Fisher, who wrote in her 1753 New English Grammar that the “ ‘The Masculine Person answers to the general Name, which comprehends both Male and Female; as, Any Person who knows what he says’ ” (Baron, 2020, p. 24; italics in original). Certainly, the patriarchal society that has pervaded most of history would embrace masculine pronouns over all others, but the prevalence and endurance of he/​him pronouns may have also played a role. Figure 5.2 depicts the pronouns used in Middle English. Even in the Middle English period, English had a neuter third person pronoun, and we do not see a great amount of change, although feminine pronouns were starting to take shape. According to Algeo and Acevedo Butcher (2014), the Middle English period saw a lot of variety in pronouns, particularly for the singular feminine, with these forms indicated for the nominative (today’s she): shē, hō, hyō, hyē, hī, schō, chō, hē (p. 142). The other pronouns were very similar to the ones we use today, illustrating their general resistance to change. In Early Modern English we get a set of personal pronouns that are completely familiar. Figure 5.3 depicts the pronouns used in Early Modern English. Note, however, that the neuter third person pronoun is it, leaving us with the problem we have today. These charts illustrate how pronouns have demonstrated both stability in the case of the masculine forms and change in the feminine, plural, and neuter forms.

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Personal pronouns

3rd person Singular

Nominative Accusative Dative Possessive Genitive Reflexive

Plural

Masculine

Neuter

Feminine

he hine him his, hes his him-​selven

hit

s(c)he(o) heo, his, hi(r)e

him his

heo(re), hio, hire

he(o)/​ þei his/​ þem heo(m), þo/​ þem he(o)re/​ þeir

hit-​sulve

heo-​seolf

þam-​selve/​ þem-​selve

FIGURE 5.2 Third person pronouns in Middle English

(Source:  Chart adapted from https://​en.wikipedia.org/​wiki/​Middle_​English# Pronouns)

1st person

singular plural 2nd person singular informal plural or formal singular 3rd person singular plural

Nominative

Oblique

Genitive

Possessive

I we thou

me us thee

my/​mine[# 1] our thy/​thine[# 1]

mine ours thine

ye, you

you

your

yours

he/​she/​it

him/​her/​it

his/​hers/​his[# 2]

they

them

his/​her/​his (it)[# 2] their

theirs

FIGURE 5.3 Third person pronouns in Early Modern English

(Source: https://​en.wikipedia.org/​wiki/​Early_​Modern_​English)

What Happened to Thee? Pronouns have changed in English, as we have seen with the loss of thee/​thou/​thy from common use, recognizing them as some form of you, but also casting them as archaic or possibly religious language. The distinction used to be quite important, as evidenced from these lines from Hamlet, illustrated and explained by Algeo and Acevedo Butcher (2014, p. 180): Queen: Hamlet, thou hast thy Father much offended. Hamlet: Mother, you have my Father much offended. Queen: Come, come, you answer with an idle tongue.

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FIGURE 5.4  Frequency

of thou, thee, and thy

These lines illustrate the interplay between formality (you) and intimacy (thou) that these pronouns implied, a distinction that contemporary readers might miss. Though useful, however, these intimate pronouns became archaic. Figure 5.4 depicts the decline of thee/​thou pronouns based on data from the Corpus of Historical American English. While today we regard thee/​thou/​thy/​thine as archaic pronouns, reserved for Shakespeare, prayer, and the Quaker religion, once upon a time they were part of English grammar books, as we see in Figure 5.5, which depicts a page from a grammar book initially written in 1785. Note that this grammar book, initially written in 1785, is admonishing its readers to avoid using the pronoun you as the second person singular since “it cannot be considered as strictly grammatical” (Bingham, 1815). Also note that the neuter it is suggested for reference to a child. English pronouns certainly were in the alarming process of change! As we saw in the lines from Hamlet, thou and you had distinct functions in English. English once distinguished between the singular and plural second person, where thee/​thou/​thy/​thine were the forms for second person singular as well as for intimate relationships, and ye/​you/​your/​yours were for second person plural as well as for people of higher social status. We still retain the plurality of you in its verb agreement, using the plural form of the be verb, are, and not the singular, inflectional morpheme -​s with other verbs (for example, you write, they write, but Mary writes). Sometime in the eighteenth century, English lost this distinction. Why? Here are some unfounded speculations. In a lunchtime conversation about pronouns, a colleague in the Media program happened to mention that the use of thou dropped considerably upon the emergence of radio broadcasts, which rarely used this form. As the Corpus of Historical

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FIGURE 5.5  The Young

Lady’s Accidence

(Source:  The young lady’s accidence, or, A  short and easy introduction to English grammar designed principally for the use of young learners: more especially those of the fair sex: though proper for either by Caleb Bingham, 1815)

American English reveals, depicted in the table above, the use of thou began to diminish in the 1800s, and by 1930 its use was relegated mostly to religious language. My guess is that it became socially unacceptable to address strangers with the intimate thee forms, particularly as the United States of America was becoming more democratic, where clothing styles could no longer distinguish the aristocrat from the cobbler. In a letter from Martha to George Washington, seen in the Washington Headquarters exhibit in Morristown, New Jersey (but that the pandemic has kept me from revisiting, and even a very helpful worker there was unable to find again), Martha mentions that the dress styles were changing so that it was difficult to distinguish one’s social status anymore. An authority on period clothing styles, Linda Baumgarten (personal communication), says this:

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I do not doubt that some people had difficulty telling one social class from another in the second half of the eighteenth century. Similar sentiments were expressed in England, as well. This was a time when textiles and clothing became more plentiful, affordable, and increasingly available to those of lesser social status. Complaints were made that one couldn’t tell the lady from the lady’s maid. Another factor may have come into play during the American Revolution, when Martha Washington apparently wrote the letter in question. At that time scarcity and disrupted trade were problems, and women of all social levels had to remake their old gowns or wear locally made homespun cloth. Women of high social status were proud to wear humble homespun as a statement of solidarity and independence from British goods. Martha may have been observing that everyone was wearing homespun. (Baumgarten, 2020) Perhaps, rather than make a social gaffe, it became safer to address everyone with the respectful second person pronoun you. An alternative explanation is offered by the research discussed in a classic article from 1960, “The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity” by Roger Brown and Albert Gilman.This study suggests that pronouns historically as well as cross-​linguistically are more than mere function words, reflecting attitudes about social superiority and class consciousness. As the article states, in its pre-​feminist era language, “a man’s consistent pronoun style gives away his class status and his political views” (p.  253). Although the research is based on a limited sample of selected male respondents (“50 Frenchmen, 20 Germans, and 11 Italians” (p. 262)), it reveals that speakers of languages that distinguish between the familiar (“T”) and the formal (“V”) versions of the second person pronoun (think of the familiar tu and the formal vous in French, for example) use these forms to express their equal status to that of their addressee. Terry Walker (2007) expands upon this research by a thorough study of the occurrence of thou and you during the period 1560 to 1760 using corpus data from Trials, Depositions, and Drama, noting that, overall, thou declined (p. 288) and you increased in use. Thou was used initially to denote superiority as well as intimacy, but retained only its intimate use before its ultimate extinction. Numerous extralinguistic factors were considered regarding the use of thou and you, such as sex, rank, and age, but ultimately none of these proved to be definitive in determining which pronouns were used. Interestingly, in most languages it is the familiar version that becomes more dominant, so it is somewhat surprising that in English the formal version took over. Brown and Gilman refer to the founding of the Quakers in the middle of the seventeenth century and their implementation of “Plain Speech,” which required using thou with everyone (p. 265). They suggest that the retention of you and the

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loss of thou in the rest of the English-​speaking population may be “a popular reaction against the radicalism of Quakers and Levelers” (p. 266). In a more current article, Teresa Bejan (2019) also writes about the use of thee in the Quaker population, referring to how the Quakers retained the pronouns “thee/​thy” as a way to denote their humility at a time when plural pronouns were used to denote respect toward others, for example, the royal “we” and the use of the plural “you” toward people of higher social status. The singular “thee/​thy” were used for intimate relations and toward people of lower status, so the Quakers used the “thee/​thy” pronouns for everyone. The article seems to imply that the goal of the Quakers –​a more equitable society –​could also be the goal of current-​ day “pronoun politics” with the use of the singular “they.”

What Will Happen to Them? Perhaps the pronoun they will replace the gendered pronouns he and she if more people appear to be less gendered, that is, share the same clothing and hairstyles, making it harder for others to identify their gender. Both gender-​neutral clothing and hair styles are prevalent in our culture, particularly as young people are becoming more open and fluid with their gender identities. Already, the use of they/​them/​their is on the rise, as indicated by these charts from the corpus data. Figure 5.6 depicts the rise of they/​them pronouns based on data from the Corpus of Historical American English.

125,000

100,000

75,000

50,000

25,000

FIGURE 5.6  Rise

7 18 0 80 18 90 19 00 19 10 19 2 19 0 3 19 0 4 19 0 50 19 6 19 0 7 19 0 80 19 9 20 0 00

18

50 60 18

18

30 40 18

20

18

18

10

0

18

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Where Art Thou? Pronouns in History  75

of they

(Data taken from the Corpus of Historical American English)

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Figure 5.6 simply represents the increase in the frequency of they without consideration for its use as singular or plural. Other researchers, however, have done more thorough analyses. For example, Paterson (2011), Balhorn (2004), and Baranowski (2002) all use corpus data to look specifically at the use of epicene they as it replaces generic he in both American and British English. Baranowski looks at corpus data from British and American newspapers, noting that epicene they is far more prevalent than generic he or he or she, even when the antecedent is definite, and always in use when the antecedent is semantically plural though grammatically singular (such as everybody), also noting that American newspapers had greater use of he or she than British newspapers. Balhorn (2004) examines data from the Oxford English Dictionary and posits that epicene they became more prevalent as more was written about women, that insofar as men were the topics of earlier manuscripts, the generic he was more acceptable than in modern eras when women were equally likely to be the focus. Paterson analyzes two United Kingdom newspaper corpora –​one from 1960 and the other from 2007–​2008 –​ clearly indicating that in 1960 generic he was prevalent (89%) with epicene they at a lower frequency (11%), while in 2007/​8 epicene they (80%) was on the rise and generic he had fallen (20%), attributing this change to the rising awareness of feminism (p. 179). Konnelly and Cowper (2019) have proposed a theory that they will be the future. They refer to three stages. Stage I  refers to the acceptance of “they” for indefinite antecedents, such as “Anybody can get their paper published”; this has been around for a while, though not really acceptable in formal academic contexts since the eighteenth century due to the lack of agreement between singular indefinite antecedents and the plural “they.” However, lots of data are showing that it is creeping into the written language through newspapers, as seen in the studies mentioned earlier. Stage II refers to the acceptance of “they” when referring to individuals who do not want others to specify their gender. This is currently the stage where colleges and the media are grappling with the language to use with nonbinary individuals. An example would be the acceptance of a sentence such as “Pat wants their paper to be published in a good journal” where “their” is referring to Pat’s. Finally, Stage III refers to the acceptance of “they” to indicate any singular animate being, and gender is no longer relevant, such as “A mother should always be with their child.” This is becoming increasingly more common in spoken language (listen for it!), though it would probably not yet be acceptable in written language. However, as the use of pronouns seems to happen on some subliminal level, perhaps Stage III is not far off. Another aspect to consider is politeness theory. According to Brown and Levinson (1987), three types of politeness are universal to human language  –​ positive (to make the hearer feel good), negative (to avoid making the hearer feel bad), and off-​record (sends an indirect or ambiguous message to the hearer). When people address one another, they generally have good intentions and try not to offend or upset one another, unless they are in a confrontational situation.

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Disregarding these negative situations, as well as those where a person is trying to cover up their true feelings about gender, for example, the expectation would be for a person to honor another person’s pronouns, thus leading to some of the pronoun changes we are now witnessing.

Conclusion This chapter has presented evidence from the past to illustrate that English pronouns, despite being function words, have changed, though with some resistance from users, particularly those who govern English usage such as editors, grammarians, and English teachers. The loss of pronouns thee/​thou/​thy/​thine that indicated lower social status when social status was no longer evident from clothing may foretell the loss of pronouns that indicate gender, he/​him/​his and she/​her/​hers, in a society where gender is either irrelevant, ambiguous, or upsetting in cases where misgendering is possible. Most people try to avoid disrespecting others with their language. It is one of the principles of language –​being polite –​ and it could be a driver of the Great Pronoun Shift.

Activities 1. Examine works of literature or letters written before 1789, and study the way the writers used thee/​thy thou/​thine. What do you notice? 2. Try using thee/​thy/​thou/​thine with people you know. What effect does it have on them? 3. Go to a corpus data archive (such as the Wikipedia Corpus, the Corpus of Historical American English, or the Full Text Corpus Data), and chart the frequency of thee. When was it highly used? When did it drop out of use? 4. Revise a text with one set of second person pronouns and replace it with another. How does it change the perspective? 5. Research the third person neuter pronoun it. Was it ever used for a person, without objectifying the person? Could it be used today for a person? 6. Can you see a future without gender pronouns? Revise a text so that it has no gender pronouns. How did you do it? How does it change its impact?

Annotated Bibliography Algeo, J., & Butcher, C. A. (2014). The origins and development of the English language (7th ed.). Wadsworth Cengage. This is the classic text on the history of the English language, an excellent resource that is very clearly written, with interesting activities, great charts, and a very comprehensive bibliography. Balhorn, M. (2004). The rise of epicene they. Journal of English Linguistics, 32(2), 79–​104. https://​doi.org/​10.1177/​0075424204265824

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An excellent article, this research looks at historical texts and finds an increase in the use of epicene they, explaining its rise as a consequence of the loss of gender in language (?), using word frequency data and a really good Table 1. Additional references indicate that animacy factors into this, using examples such as “Somebody is coming, aren’t they?” versus “Something is coming, isn’t it?”The animacy in “somebody” governs the use of they, which is clearly animate, and that animacy trumps number. He also mentions stylebooks and their approaches over the years, including Kolln’s Rhetorical Grammar, where she does not advocate use of epicene they. Baranowski, M. (2002). Current usage of the epicene pronoun in written English. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 6(3), 378–​397. This article provides corpus evidence that generic he is being used less frequently and epicene they is being used more frequently, with good graphs to show this change over time (1970, 1990). Having compared American texts with British texts, the article concludes that Americans are more conservative than the British, insofar as American texts reveal greater use of “he or she” and generic he, and less use of epicene they than British texts. Baron, D. (2020). What’s your pronoun? Liveright. This is the updated version of Grammar and Gender written in 1980, but the thorough history of pronouns makes this book very relevant today. Baumgarten, L. (2020, May 30). Personal e-​mail communication. Linda Baumgarten (http://​lindabaumgarten.com/​) is the retired curator of textiles and clothing at Colonial Williamsburg and has written four books on the topic of the early history of clothing. In my e-​mail correspondence with her, she provided permission for the inserted quote. Bejan, T. (2019, November 16). What Quakers can teach us about the politics of pronouns. The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/ ​ 2 019/ ​ 1 1/ ​ 1 6/ ​ o pinion/ ​ s unday/​ p ronouns-​ q uakers.html?smid= nytcore-​ios-​share This is an op-​ed piece that implies that the Quaker use of pronouns was a political statement that can be compared to the current awareness of pronouns to reflect gender and people’s attitudes about it. Bingham, C. (1815). A young lady’s accidence, or a short and easy introduction to grammar. I. Thomas and E.T. Andrews. https://​digital.library.pitt.edu/​islandora/​object/​ pitt%3A00z334080m/​viewer#page/​1/​mode/​2up This book, initially published in 1795, was used for many years to teach young women the forms of grammar they should use when writing. It is available in an online archive of old textbooks, but it can also be purchased on Amazon now. ] Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge University Press. A classic work, the thesis is that being polite underlies much of our language. If only this were true today. (Note: Even in 1987, the generic he is used throughout the book.) The term “genderlect” is used in this book to indicate language that reflects styles of language indicative of males or females.

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Brown, R., & Gilman, A. (1960). The pronouns of power and solidarity. In T. Sebeok (Ed.), Style in language (pp. 253–​276). MIT Press. This is a classic article expressing the viewpoint that pronoun use reflects attitudes about social status and power. Written in 1960 with generic he and the gendered language of its time, it reports on a study of the use of the formal and informal varieties of the second person pronouns in French, Spanish, and German, indicating that speakers use these pronouns to indicate their power over others, as well as their equivalence with others. Konnelly, L., & Cowper, E. (2019, May). The future is “they”: The morphosyntax of an English epicine pronoun. Lingbuzz. https://​ling.auf.net/​lingbuzz/​003859. Konnelly and Cowper have written several articles about the three stages of “they” as it evolves in acceptability from its nonspecific use with indefinite pronouns such as “anyone” (Stage I) to its reference for nonbinary individuals (Stage II) to its reference for any animate individual (Stage III). This article is very syntactic with reference to theoretical ways of explaining this change. Miller, C., & Swift, K. (1980). The handbook of nonsexist writing. Lippincott & Crowell. This is the first edition of this classic guide to writing without gender bias, providing tips but also providing a history of pronouns and sexism in language. Paterson, L. L. (2011). Epicene pronouns in UK national newspapers: A diachronic study. ICAME, 36, 171–​184. This article demonstrates through corpus data from UK national newspapers that generic he has been replaced by singular they.The article has some good charts showing this change over time. Walker, T. (2007). Thou and you in early modern English dialogues. John Benjamins. This is a very thorough corpus study of these pronouns using data from Trials, Depositions, and Drama, considering factors such as sex, age, and rank, though none were found to be definitive. The study does show the decline of thou in the period 1560–​1760. Corpus of Historical American English www.english-​corpora.org/​coha/​ Full Text Corpus Data www.corpusdata.org/​corpora.asp The Wikipedia Corpus www.english-​corpora.org/​wiki/​ These corpora are valuable sources of data reflecting the use of English in the modern era as well as in the past.

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6 RELIGIOUS PRONOUNS Thanks Be to Them!

Introduction This is a very awkward chapter to write. I am all too aware of how deep religious beliefs are, and my intent is not to upset readers. In my own religious education, I was taught not to even write the name for G-​d, and even now, I hesitate to write out the full word, but, for this book, I will, with apologies to my Hebrew school teachers and observant friends. Orthodox Jews say “Hashem” or “the name” when referring to God, and in Hebrew the reference is often “Elohim,” which is grammatically masculine and plural. The topic yields a great number of impassioned responses. Even without the question about gender, the topic of “deity pronoun” brings a discussion as to whether or not to use capital letters for “He/​Him/​His” with the conclusion that doing so makes the text seem even more exclusive as well as archaic (Engle, n.d.). Pronouns in religious literature have serious implications for readers and followers of religion. For example, in most Judeo-​ Christian Bibles, God is referred to with the masculine pronouns He/​Him/​His, and to do otherwise is highly offensive. Even skeptics, like Voltaire, refer to God with masculine pronouns: “If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent Him.” Feminists chose to replace masculine pronouns for God with feminine pronouns, and those challenging patriarchal approaches to religion routinely refer to God as “She.” Some religions recognize a gender-​neutral deity or a multigendered god. Many believers now regard God as “transcending gender.” Angels too are genderless, and, since demons are fallen angels, they too are genderless, though they are often referred to in both masculine and feminine terms in both religious and secular literature.

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Pronouns for the Judeo-​Christian God Anna Livia (2001) in her book Pronoun envy describes the incident at Harvard Divinity School that inspired the title of this book. In 1971, women students opposed the use of masculine pronouns for references to God, and to people in general, demonstrating its prevalence by blowing paper kazoos each time a masculine pronoun or masculine reference, such as man or mankind, was used. Word of this came to the linguistics department at Harvard, inspiring the professors to write a letter to the Harvard Crimson, the student newspaper, saying, “ ‘There is no need for anxiety or pronoun envy’ ” (Livia, 2001, p. 3). Although the linguists were trying to justify the use of the generic he as a linguistic feature, feminists regarded this incident as a serious dismissal of their concerns. Livia also refers to French feminists with articles such as “ ‘Priez Dieu, elle vous exaucera’ (Pray to God, She Will Grant Your Prayers” (p. 3). In the context of the feminist movement, discussing the need to consider the Goddess, as in Hindu traditional literature, Rita Gross (1978) states, “the ultimate symbol of women’s degradation in the Western religio-​cultural heritage is the inability to say ‘God-​She.’ Thus it also seems clear that saying ‘God-​She’ is among the most powerful techniques for overcoming that sexism” (p. 276). The topic even entered into The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing (1980) by Casey Miller and Kate Swift in their chapter about personification, saying that, based on archaeological evidence of female representations of deities, “for millennia, God was personified as female,” and that though most religions today consider that God has no sex, there are many masculine symbols that have led to a “patriarchal religious tradition [that] strongly influenced the development of the English language” (p.  63). They refer to the often-​quoted statement from 1646 by grammarian J.  Poole, “ ‘The Masculine is more worthy than the Feminine and the Feminine more worthy than the Neuter’ ” as the basis of how masculine references such as “man” were considered to be inclusive of women, as well as the generic he. In a small booklet, Cleaning Up Biased Language:  Toward Creating an Inclusive Society (1994), distributed by the Eighth Day Center for Justice, an effort is made to eradicate sexist, racist, and militaristic language in religious literature. The booklet provides examples of Bible translations indicating that the English versions were more male dominated than the Hebrew and Greek versions. For example, the Hebrew word ‘adham is generic and means “humankind,” though it is translated as the “first man” (p. 9), and the Greek word adelphoi, which means “siblings,” is often translated as “brothers” (p. 10). The booklet suggests using feminine images of God as well as masculine and to remove he, his, and him in reference to God and to humans in songs and prayers (p. 13). Using feminine pronouns for God is quite a controversial topic, though. In Christianity, for example, even recognizing that God has no human gender, some insist that pronouns should still be masculine on the basis that males give, while

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females receive (Dance, 2019). This echoes some of the early claims about grammatical gender cited by Baron (1986, p. 101) and attributed to the grammarian James Harris, writing from 1751 to 1765, that males are giving while females are receiving, and thus we have an explanation as to why ships are referred to with feminine pronouns, “because they are receivers and containers” (Baron, 1986, p. 102). The male imagery for God often stems from this passage from the Book of Genesis in the Bible: And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. King James Version (KJV) (Genesis) (Source: www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/​Genesis-​1-​26/​) This passage has several interesting pronouns. The first is the use of “us” and “our” for self-​reference to God. It suggests either that others were involved in the creation of man, or that God is a plurality, even though the belief for followers of the Bible is in one and only one God. In Hebrew, God is often referred to as Elohim, the plural form of El, and there is much discussion over why this verse is in the plural. Some speculate that angels participated in the creation. Another interpretation says that animals were being addressed, to indicate that humans are like animals too (Lieber, 2001, p. 9). Outside of Jewish tradition, some say that the plural reference is to the Triune –​Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (“Why does”) –​or to the use of “the plural of majesty,” what we might consider today as the royal “we” where rulers refer to themselves in the plural (“Why is the plural”). One particularly linguistic analysis (Rudd, n.d.) suggests that this passage, as well as several others where the plural form is used along with singular verbs and plural adjective forms, serves as “irrefutable evidence” that God is a trinity, stating that man was not made in the image of angels, and that there was no concept of the royal “we” at the time the Bible was composed. The other interesting aspect of this passage is the use of “them” following “man.” Could this be the first use of singular they? Since “man” is not in its plural form “men” and the understanding is that this passage is about the creation of the first human being, who is generally regarded as a single man, the pronoun could have been “him” to assure both grammatical and gender agreement. Even if we were to think of “man” as representing all of humankind (which, by the way, is its translation in The Contemporary Torah: A Gender-​Sensitive Adaptation of the JPS Translation: “ ‘Let us make humankind in our image, after our likeness. They shall rule’ ” (Stein, 2006, p. 2)), this would be a good place for the generic he/​him since woman was not yet around. Why is the pronoun “them”?

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The next line in Genesis 1–​27 (“So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them”) has received a feminist reading from Susan Niditch, Professor of Religion at Amherst College: For feminist readers of scriptures, no more interesting and telegraphic comment exists on the nature of God. The male aspect and the female aspect implicitly are part of the first human and a reflection of the creator. (Women’s Bible Commentary, ed. Carol A. Newsom and Sharon H. Ringe, Westminster/​John Know Press, 1992, p. 13, as cited in Harper, 2020) Again, the power of pronouns!

Christianity For many, it is sacrilege to even raise the question of the gender of God. For many Christians, God is, has always been, and will forever be male. He is the Lord. To think otherwise is heresy. All pronouns are he, him, and his, sometimes capitalized. Those with this belief are not open to efforts to revise the Bible to include gender-​neutral language and chastise those who do. (Patterson, 2017; Underground Christian Network, 2015) Nevertheless, there are Christian groups who welcome the opportunity to be more inclusive and have issued statements about referring to God in gender-​ neutral terms. In response to Ariana Grande’s assertion that “God is a woman,” a survey (“Not in His Name”) taken of British people revealed that 41% believe that God is neither male nor female (Smith, 2018). The same report states that the Catechism of the Catholic Church #239, written in 1994, says, “ ‘God is neither man nor woman: he is God’ ” (Smith, 2018). (Note, of course, the unavoidable use of the masculine pronoun, however.) Justin Welby, Archbishop of Canterbury, also said that God has no gender, that “All human language about God is inadequate and to some degree metaphorical,” and the article reporting this replaces masculine pronouns with its and their as well as other gender-​neutral language as in this passage: Occupation: Creating the world, then washing His Its/​Their hands of the whole mess; showing tough love to Its/​Their son divine offspring (“Not in His name,” 2018). The Church of Sweden has made it a policy to refer to God as gender neutral (Patterson, 2017), perhaps driven by the same forces that gave Swedish its new, singular, gender-​neutral pronoun hen.

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Islam In Islam, the Arabic word for “Allah” is grammatically masculine, so all the pronouns are also masculine. Arabic is a highly gendered language, and there are masculine and feminine forms in all the pronouns, with no gender-​neutral terms, not even an equivalent to it. There is some discussion about Allah in the Quran using the plural “we” pronoun, with the sense that Allah is a plural concept, but all the references are in the masculine form.

Judaism In Judaism, though there is also a long tradition of using masculine terms for G-​d (whose name is actually never supposed to be uttered or written in a document that may vanish), there is also the concept of the Shechina (with variable spellings, such as Shekhina), which is the feminine side. In an essay in the journal Poetry, Joy Ladin (2020), a poet and English professor who is a trans woman, writes in great detail about the nature of the Shechina as “an image of female identity independent of a female body” and also says that she “couldn’t imagine why a divine being who had no body would bother with gender at all” (p. 77). In a YouTube video, Taylor (n.d.) mentions that G-​d has always been referred to in masculine terms since, insofar as males are “givers” and females are “receivers,” Jewish tradition has always posited the giving before the receiving, and thus the precedence of males before females. Nevertheless, a blog (Potek, 2018) recently suggested that there are three options currently open for pronouns: (1) feminine pronouns, (2) no pronouns, (3) singular  they. Option 1 is too marked, 2 is too awkward, but 3, though it seems odd now, may gradually gain popularity. The blog even cites the beginning of Genesis, which refers to the first human as “they” made in “our” image, mentioning the verse discussed earlier. Potek concludes, “So, referring to God as ‘they’ accurately conveys the androgynous nature of God, who, like the first human, is of indeterminate gender.”

Hinduism Hinduism is characterized by a variety of devas (gods) and devis (goddesses), possessing gender characteristics that determine the pronouns used for reference. For example, the goddess of the dawn, Ushas, is female as depicted in this hymn:

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Hymn to Ushas (Abridged): The shining tints of the Dawn have spread like the waves of the waters, Beautifying the world, she renders all good roads easy to traverse, She who is replete with delight, excellence and health, Divine Ushas, though art seen auspicious, thou shinest afar, thy bright rays spread over the sky, lovely and radiant with great splendour; Do thou Ushas bring me opulence, daughter of heaven; thou who art divine, who art lovely, who art to be worshipped at the first daily rite; At thy dawning, divine Ushas, birds fly from their resting places, men arise to work; Thou, divine Ushas, bring ample wealth to the mortal, the offerer of these prayers.  Rigveda,VI.64[6]‌ (Source: https://​en.wikipedia.org/​wiki/​God_​and_​gender_​in_​Hinduism) Religious documents are written in Sanskrit, a language with grammatical gender, though Heinrich Zimmer notes the following: It must be understood that in Sanskrit, grammatical gender is not always a sign of physical sex. Gender infers function, sex infers form; so that an individual[13] may be masculine from one point of view and feminine from another. (...) Brahman can be regarded as the ”womb” of life, and as in Christianity “this man” and “this woman” are equally “feminine to God” [in Hinduism]. Absolutely, Brahman, although grammatically neuter, is the principle of all such differentiation. Essence and nature are respectively masculine and feminine, logically distinct, but “one in God,” who is neither this nor that [in Hinduism], and therefore “It” rather than “He” or “She” specifically.  Heinrich Zimmer, Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization[10] (As cited in “God and Gender in Hinduism”)

Other Religions First, let me admit that I  am no scholar of religions, so what is represented here is merely a sketch of what is on the web, but it would be an interesting topic for others to research. Buddhism is noted for not having one God and instead having many deities of both male and female genders, though none that can be identified as nonbinary. Native American religions are varied and not documented, though there is some evidence of the “Big Spirit,” which is referred to with masculine pronouns. One teacher (Harper, 2020) specifically looking for nonbinary deities to discuss with his students, found “Turquoise Boy” in Navajo creation stories, who is supposed to have ambiguous gender, but, as the name implies, seems to be depicted as male. Harper also refers to Lan Ts’ai in Chinese as being able to move from male to female forms, and, of

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course, there is Greek Hermaphrodite. It is notable that all the pronouns used to refer to Hermaphrodite, born male, even after becoming androgynous, are masculine. African religions too are varied, though there is also reference in some to a Supreme Being that also receives masculine pronouns in the accounts. Obviously, Western religions and beliefs have influenced all these accounts, but it would be interesting to pursue this topic to see if other religions have a nonbinary interpretation of a deity.

Conclusion Religion is a sensitive topic, and people have different and firm conceptions of the Deity, or deities, in their lives, but regardless of beliefs, everyone, even atheists, need to use a pronoun when referring to them. It would probably be impossible to persuade some people to use any pronoun other than He, but there are and have been efforts to shift that pronoun to They to reflect the inclusivity that all are seeking. The problem with pronouns, however, is that they do not change easily, but when they do change, nobody will even notice, and we will have to thank Them when they do.

Activities 1. If you belong to a religious community, what pronouns are used for the Deity? What are people’s reactions to them? 2. Revise a hymn, psalm, prayer, or other religious text to a gender-​neutral format. What is your reaction to it? 3. Look at prayer books from the past and compare them to the present. What changes in language have occurred? 4. Speak with someone from a religion that is different than yours. What pronouns do they use for the Deity or deities they follow? 5. Do some research on a religion other than your own. Are there any nonbinary approaches, and what pronouns are used?

Annotated Bibliography Baron, D. (1986). Grammar and gender. Yale University Press. The classic and first resource on pronouns, no question! Cleaning up biased language: Toward creating an inclusive society. (1994). 8th Day Center for Justice. There are more recent versions of this, and this is the fourteenth edition, but this is what I found in a box of free books. It is aimed for a Catholic readership, and it provides numerous examples of texts that could be understood to be more inclusive of women than the translations suggest. The sections on racism and militarism are not as developed as sexism, but the suggestions for removing these terms from language are still apt. Surprisingly, for such a brief booklet, there is an excellent list of references at the end.

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Dance, S. A. (2019, August 23). No, we shouldn’t stop using masculine pronouns for God. The Federalist. https://​thefederalist.com/​2019/​08/​23/​no-​shouldnt-stop-usingmasculine-​pronouns-​god/​ In the wake of Ariana Grande’s statement that God is a woman and the response from the Anglican church that pronouns for God could be gender neutral, this article asserts that pronouns for God should remain masculine. Interestingly, at the end of the article, the writer uses feminine pronouns for the church. Engle, S. (n.d.). Just say no to deity pronouns. Scottengle.org. http://​scottengle.org/​just-​sayno-​to-​deity-​pronouns/​ This posting says that using capital letters “He/​Him/​His” makes the text exclusive and archaic, and, though they are usually a sign of respect, they still should not be used since capital letters are used for entities we do not respect, such as Hitler and Satan. Genesis. King James Bible. www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/​Genesis-​1-​26/​ The King James Bible has been the traditional source to check for biblical translations since it has been the bible most used in English classes, with the understanding that most authors used this version. Thankfully, it is all available online. God and gender in Hinduism. (2020, December 10). In Wikipedia. https://​en.wikipedia. org/​wiki/​God_​and_​gender_​in_​Hinduism This page is quite detailed about the various deities in Hinduism, usually associated with specific genders, though the conception of Brahma is usually regarded as inclusive of all genders. Gross, R. (1978, September). Hindu female deities as a resource for the contemporary rediscovery of the Goddess. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 46(3), 269–​291. www. jstor.com/​stable/​1463798 This article, written by a prominent feminist and scholar of comparative religions, makes the argument that other religions could benefit from conceiving of the Goddess as the Hindu religion does and that doing so would help to promote feminism. Harper, D. (2020, March 30). Deities of non-​binary gender. Patheos. www.patheos.com/​ blogs/​naturessacredjourney/​2020/​03/​deities-​of-​non-​binary-​gender/​ Besides in Genesis, Harper writes that nonbinary deities can be found in the Navajo “Turquoise Boy,” the Chinese Lan Ts’ai, and, of course, the Greek Hermaphrodite, all of whom are referred to with masculine pronouns. Ladin, J. (2020, April). Writing beyond the human: Divining the poetics of divinity. Poetry, 216(1),  77–​86. In this beautiful essay, Joy Ladin writes about the Jewish concept of the Shekhinah, the feminine aspect of God, from her perspective as a trans woman. She challenges the male interpretations of God, discussing Alicia Ostriker’s poem “A Prayer to the Shekhinah,” as well as Walt Whitman’s “Song of Myself,” and says that the concept is best understood as “a female identity untethered to biology and unimaginable in terms of the gender binary” (p. 82). Lieber, D. (Ed.). (2001). Etz Hayim Torah and commentary. The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism. As the title says, this is the Torah, the Jewish Bible, also known as the Five Books of Moses, in Hebrew and translated into English, with lengthy commentary about the passages.

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Livia, A. (2001). Pronoun envy. Oxford University Press. This book begins with the anecdote about the students at Harvard Divinity School and goes on to provide numerous examples of how writers avoided using generic he in literary works, often by inventing their own pronouns. Miller, C., & Swift, K. (1980). The handbook of nonsexist writing. Lippincott & Cromwell. This book is another kind of bible that showed editors, writers, and all those interested in language how to avoid sexism in English to be more inclusive of women. Not in his name: God is gender-​ neutral, says the archbishop of Canterbury. (2018, November 21). The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/​world/​shortcuts/​2018/​nov/​21/​ not-​in-​his-​name-​god-is-​gender-​neutral-​says-​archbishop-​of-​canterbury Justin Welby, Archbishop of Canterbury, has declared that God is neither male nor female, in response to Ariana Grande’s statement that God is female. Patterson, K. J. (2017, December 17). “Dear feminists, God is not gender-​neutral for these 6 reasons.” odyssey. www.theodysseyonline.com/​god-​not-​gender-​neutral Apparently, the Swedish Church has issued a statement saying that references to God should be gender neutral. This author, however, says that gender neutrality is not a “Christian value” and presents evidence from the Bible that God is male, justifying this assertion with the use of the pronoun “He” as well as going back to the creation of man in His image, quite literally. Potek, A. (2018, August 15). God’s preferred pronoun. Gather DC. https://​gatherdc.org/​ 2018/​08/​15/​gods-​preferred-​pronoun/​ The Jewish perspective is that there are three options:  (1) using feminine pronouns, (2) using no pronouns, (3) use singular “they.” Rudd, S. (n.d.). Trinity:  Plural references to God in the Old Testament:  Plural nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs. Bible.ca. www.bible.ca/​trinity/​trinity-​oneness-​unity-​plural-​ nouns-​pronouns-​verbs-​adverbs.htm This writer presents numerous arguments claiming that the plural reference refers to the Christian belief in the Trinity. Smith, M. (2018, September 5). Female Christians are more likely to believe God is male than Christian men are. YouGov. https://​yougov.co.uk/​topics/​philosophy/​articles-​ reports/​2018/​09/​06/​only-​1-​british-​christians-​believe-​god-​female This article refers to a survey that indicates that most (41%) British Christians believe that God is neither male nor female. Stein, D. E. S. (Ed.). (2006). The contemporary Torah: A gender-​sensitive adaptation of the JPS translation. The Jewish Publication Society. As the title says, this is an English translation of the Torah that tries to remove masculine references where the intention was to be inclusive of women, and includes a very interesting and detailed preface (35 pages!) explaining how the translators accomplished this feat. It refers to the recognition of a nongendered God in Jewish tradition, though historically depicted with masculine terms such as “Lord” and the challenges of changing the text to be more gender neutral.

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Taylor, P. (n.d.).The gender of God. YouTube. www.youtube.com/​watch?v=jn1eGNdPokA This video says that God does not have a male or a female gender and the references to God as male are meant to be metaphorical. The reference is metaphorically male since in Jewish tradition, the giver comes before the receiver, so, since males give and females receive, God was depicted as male.There is, however, the idea of the “Shechina,” which is supposed to be the female side of God in the more receptive state. Underground Christian Network. (2015). Beware:  Gender neutral bibles  –​Dr.  Walter Martin. YouTube. www.youtube.com/​watch?v=L7ZqEw171-​o. “Castration of the Bible” is a phrase from a sermon given by Dr. Walter Martin (who died in 1989), really bashing the feminist movement, objecting to changing the language from “mankind,” and so forth. He begins by saying that Scripture is the Word of God, literally. The Council of Churches, apparently, made a statement about making the language of the Bible more inclusive by neutering the masculine terms, such as Lord. He makes fun of the gender-​neutral Biblical changes. Surprisingly, this was a topic over 30 years ago. Why does God refer to Himself in the plural in Genesis 1:26 and 3:22? (n.d.). Got Questions. www.gotquestions.org/​God-​plural.html This is a website devoted to promoting certain religious beliefs. Why is the plural used for God in Genesis 1:26 and 3:22? (n.d.). compellingtruth. www. compellingtruth.org/​God-​plural.html This is another website devoted to promoting certain religious beliefs.

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7 NEOPRONOUNS The Final Act of Self-​Actualization

Introduction Why is there a need for more pronouns? Pronouns are words that stand in for nouns, and so they are representations of these nouns. When these nouns are individual people, should these pronouns be individualized as well? No one seems to object to the addition of a neutral singular third person pronoun, but why are there so many options? What has given rise to neopronouns?

The Pronoun Dressing Room In the worlds of Tumblr and Fandom, alien to some of us over a certain age, there are communities of people, mostly very young ones, who invent pronouns to match their identities. A search for “neopronouns” yields some very creative sites, with a Pronoun Dressing Room, “nounself ” or noun-​based pronouns, and several pages devoted to people who identify as “MOGAI,” an acronym that stands for Marginalized Orientations Genders And Intersex. MOGAI is a cover term for LGBTQ+ that used to have negative connotations but is now embraced by those who so identify. One of the MOGAI pages is devoted to pronouns (https://​ mogai.fandom.com/​wiki/​Pronouns) and has this to say about neopronouns: Noun-​based and non-​binary pronouns have caused a lot of controversy amongst people experiencing dysphoria, the transgender community, the LGBTQ+ community, and transphobic people alike. Many people say that these pronouns are invalidating and mocking to “real transgender people” who stay in the main binary area. Most people who experience dysphoria are just looking for any way to alleviate the feeling, and if these pronouns

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help you personally then you should experiment in a safe environment. An important thing to remember is to stay calm and kind if someone doesn’t get your specific noun-​based/​non-​binary pronoun correct every single time. The blog on this site is worth reviewing since it presents how others respond to these options. Mostly, they are respectful, saying that people have the right to their pronouns and that these are “valid,” though there are some blog posts that argue this point. Interestingly, some of the objections are linguistic and grammar based, saying, for example, “Neopronouns and nounself pronouns are sort of nonsensical to me,” while another posting says, “Nounself pronouns are just as valid as any other pronoun someone makes up to make them feel better about themselves.The pronouns are not transphobic.” The Pronoun Dressing Room (www.pronouns.failedslacker.com/​) is a remarkable website that allows people to “try on” different pronouns. It offers a “pronoun closet” with categories of pronoun options, such as avian, botanical, and feline, to name just a few, providing sets of pronouns such as fleur, fleurself, fleurs, and then using them in canonical texts, taken from Project Gutenberg, such as Alice in Wonderland and The Wizard of Oz. The site even invites people to submit other pronouns, so the list of pronouns is open to a multitude of possibilities. Here is an example of a text from Alice in Wonderland with a set of botanical pronouns: So fleur was considering in fleurs own mind (as well as fleur could, for the hot day made fleur feel very sleepy and stupid), whether the pleasure of making a daisy-​chain would be worth the trouble of getting up and picking the daisies, when suddenly a White Rabbit with pink eyes ran close by fleur. There was nothing so VERY remarkable in that; nor did think it so VERY much out of the way to hear the Rabbit say to itself, “Oh dear! Oh dear! I shall be late!” (when fleur thought it over afterwards, it occurred to fleur that fleur ought to have wondered at this, but at the time it all seemed quite natural); but when the Rabbit actually TOOK A WATCH OUT OF ITS WAISTCOAT-​POCKET, and looked at it, and then hurried on, started to fleurs feet, for it flashed across fleurs mind that fleur had never before seen a rabbit with either a waistcoat-​pocket, or a watch to take out of it, and burning with curiosity, fleur ran across the field after it, and fortunately was just in time to see it pop down a large rabbit-​hole under the hedge. In another moment down went after it, never once considering how in the world fleur was to get out again. (www.pronouns.failedslacker.com/​#misc) Playing with these neopronouns on this site reveals that changing pronouns in this fashion does not interfere with comprehension. Most pronouns, after all, are inferable from their contexts. In the above example, the proper name (Alice) is never used and is sometimes deleted in places where it appears in the original text, but

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the mind fills it in. (Another interesting point is that the Rabbit’s pronoun is it in the original as well as in this version, even though it is quite anthropomorphized by Lewis Carroll.) Other sites (https://​yaypronouns.tumblr.com/​; https://​ askanonbinary.tumblr.com/ ​ p ost/ ​ 1 64467654475/ ​ p ronoun- ​ d ressing- ​ room; https://​nonbinary-​friend.tumblr.com/​) directed to nonbinary youth recommend using the Pronoun Dressing Room as a practice space for using neopronouns, and these neopronouns do, indeed, start to sound normal with repetition. It supports the point that, with effort and practice, most people could learn to use different pronouns.There is, however, a caveat that speakers of other languages and speakers with disabilities might have particular problems changing pronouns, so one should be patient and forgiving if they make mistakes.

Pronouns as a Speech Act of Self-​Actualization Before we discuss the reality of whether most people would change their pronouns and how this change would be accepted by others, we should consider why there is a need for so many. As pointed out elsewhere, pronouns have now become almost synonymous with gender. Asking a person for their pronouns is akin to asking them to tell you their gender identity. Kirby Conrod (2020) describes “the Pronoun Game” when people use gender pronouns to obscure the identity of a partner so as not to oust them in a heterosexual environment. Konnelly and Cowper (2019) say this: “Pronouns, along with proper names, are often among the first acts of linguistic self-​determination a transgender person makes” (p. 2). Let me agree that pronouns are not simply a frivolous fad for nonbinary people testing out their identities. Instead, they should be regarded as a serious attempt by people to control how others view them. Making such a request could be considered a speech act of self-​actualization. Some definitions are in order.

What Are Speech Acts? Speech acts are statements that do things. For example, saying, “I promise I will return the book” creates an obligation, or “I hereby pronounce you spouse and spouse” creates a legal bond between two partners when said by a person with a license to do so. Speech act theory is associated with two philosophers of linguistics:  John L.  Austin in his book How to Do Things with Words (1962) and John R. Searle in his book Speech Acts (1969). Both theorists essentially say that when we use language, we perform acts that make other people do things such as commands or indirect requests, make ourselves do things such as vows, or have an effect on others. Austin discusses three types of speech acts:  (1) locutionary, (2) illocutionary, and (3) perlocutionary. In plain English, these refer to statements that (1) provide meaning, (2) make something happen, and (3) produce an effect

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on another person. For example, a sentence such as “Eating an apple is good for your health” is (1)  a locutionary speech act by providing dietary information, (2) an illocutionary speech act by offering an apple as an eating option, and (3) a perlocutionary speech act by influencing people to eat apples. Searle further elaborated on this theory, but essentially the concept of a speech act remains that language does more than simply convey meaning.

What Is Self-​Actualization? Self-​actualization is a term initially coined by Kurt Goldstein in 1939 in his book The Organism and is usually associated with Abraham Maslow in his theory of a hierarchy of needs that drive human behavior: food, safety, love, esteem, and self-​actualization. According to Maslow (1943), in his pre-​feminist language, it is explained as “What a man can be, he must be,” or in more neutral language refers to the desire “to become everything that one is capable of becoming” (p. 382). Ann Olson (2013) states, “Maslow identified self-​actualizing people as individuals who are highly creative, who have peak experiences, and who are able to resolve the dichotomies inherent in opposite contraries.” Perhaps we can regard people who assert that their gender is nonbinary as people who meet these characteristics. Also, Erik Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development is related in that it posits that people must go through eight stages of development: Stage Stage Stage Stage Stage Stage Stage Stage

1: Trust versus Mistrust 2: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt 3: Initiative versus Guilt 4: Industry versus Inferiority 5: Identity versus Confusion 6: Intimacy versus Isolation 7: Generativity versus Stagnation 8: (Ego) Integrity versus Despair (Cherry, 2020)

Clearly, pronoun selection, when a person becomes of age to understand what a pronoun is, reflects these stages. Young people often select pronouns as an assertion of their identity at Stage 5, usually associated with Adolescence (ages 12–​18 years). Pronoun selection can also be understood as a means of achieving intimacy with others in Stage 6,Young Adulthood (ages 19–​40), when they are in serious relationships and asking others to use these pronouns. By Stage 7, Middle Adulthood (ages 40–​65), pronoun selection indicates that the person does not accept the status quo (stagnation) of gender and language and generates their own pronouns. At the final Stage 8, Maturity (ages 65–​death), as people reflect back on their lives, perhaps if they and those around them have come to terms with their

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pronouns (and gender identities), they experience the glorious state of being a fully integrated human! Also, the humanist approach to psychotherapy of Carl Rogers supports the concept of self-​actualization as the drive that motivates people. It depicts a “fully functioning” person as someone who exhibits the following features: • • • • • • •

being open to experience living in the moment trusting in one’s feelings and instincts having self-​direction and the ability to make independent choices showing creativity and malleability demonstrating reliability feeling fulfilled and satisfied by life (Vinney, 2020)

Clearly, people who select or even invent their own pronouns are demonstrating that they are being open to experience, living in the moment (particularly if their pronouns change!), trusting in their feelings, making independent choices, and showing creativity. Exhibiting five of these seven traits brings a person mighty close to being self-​actualized. Rogers, in his own, pre-​feminist words, describes the “fully functioning person”: He is more able to experience all of his feelings, and is less afraid of any of his feelings; he is his own sifter of evidence, and is more open to evidence from all sources; he is completely engaged in the process of being and becoming himself, and thus discovers that he is soundly and realistically social; he lives more completely in this moment, but learns that this is the soundest living for all time. He is becoming a more fully functioning organism, and because of the awareness of himself which flows freely in and through his experience, he is becoming a more fully functioning person. (Rogers, 1953) (It is interesting, in case we forgot, to notice how a gendered pronoun does create a sense of exclusivity.) This passage states exactly what neopronoun makers are attempting to do with their lives –​become fully functioning people by asserting their gender identities through their pronoun selection. Rogers also posits the concept of the “ideal-​self ” –​the person that we would like to be –​though we may never fully be that person, and self-​actualization as the process of becoming that person (McLeod, 2008). When the self-​image and the ideal self are closely related, there is “congruence,” which brings a person closer to self-​actualization. On the other hand, when the self-​image and the ideal self are far apart, there is “incongruence,” which prevents a person from achieving self-​actualization.

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Pronoun selection or invention may be considered a speech act of achieving congruence. As people create neopronouns to more closely match their identities, they are actually attempting to more closely express their ideal selves, and thus congruence or self-​actualization.

Would People Accept Neopronouns? Would you? Would you learn to use neopronouns to preserve someone’s life? Surveys, such as the Trevor Project (2020), have indicated that youths who have people around them supporting their gender identities have lower rates of suicide than those who do not. Of course, respect for pronouns is probably only one factor in supporting the gender identity of a teen, but it does seem to be an indicator. It is unlikely that the assortment of neopronouns, particularly as they are reflected in the Pronoun Dressing Room, would slip into mainstream English, and it would take a very dedicated ally to learn to use even one set of these neopronouns consistently. I  imagine that it would be an easier feat in writing than it would be in speaking, which takes less conscious thought. As mentioned in Chapter  3, Livia (2001) observes the successful use of new pronouns (they were not new enough to merit the prefix neo-​) in science fiction. Here is an example of a writer of science fiction attempting to use a novel pronoun (my bold): Yatima surveyed the Doppler-​shifted stars around the polis, following the frozen, concentric waves of color across the sky from expansion to convergence. Ve wondered what account they should give of themselves when they finally caught up with their quarry.They’d brought no end of questions to ask, but the flow of information couldn’t all be one-​way. When the Transmuters demanded to know “Why have you followed us? Why have you come so far?”, where should ve begin? (Egan, 1998) Was that so hard to understand? With practice, the reader accommodates to these pronouns. Nevertheless, the presence of they in this same passage caused me to reread it several times to wonder whether the antecedent is the “Transmuters” or if the writer had indeed slipped into the singular they. The question, however, is not so much about using neopronouns for characters in science fiction, but rather about using neopronouns for nonbinary people in the real world. I have also noticed that many self-​written biographies use neopronouns, particularly on sites directed to nonbinary readers, and I  have found at least one academic article that models them as well as discusses the reasons for using them. Here is an illustrative passage:

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Leslie Feinberg is another well-​ known transgender author and activist, and was one of the “chief architects of the new transgender sensibility” (Stryker 2008:123), as ze4 was one of the first public transgender figures to “define and occupy a space on the borders and intersections of conventional gender categories” (Stryker 2008:123). Uncomfortable at some points with gendered pronouns and forms of address (Owen 1996), Feinberg defined the need for neutral language by stating that “[f]‌or many of us, the words woman or man, ma’am or sir, she or he –​in and of themselves –​do not total up the sum of our identities or of our oppressions” (Feinberg 1998:7). Speaking from hir unique gender position, Feinberg highlighted what ze called a “crisis of language” (Owen 1996)  which often results in clumsy dual constructions such as s/​he, and which would be solved by abandoning binary language altogether in favour of specific language to suit complex gender identities. (Hord, 2016) As the passage itself states, real people need to have pronouns that represent their gender identities, but as the passage illustrates, the pronouns do stand out and are not consistent since, in the previous paragraph, one of the researchers is referred to as s/​he. Also, even individual use is not all that consistent, as footnote (4) says this: “Along with ze/​hir, Feinberg also accepted the pronouns she/​her and he/​ him depending on context” (Hord, 2016). The research reported in this article, by the way, finds that in languages with natural gender, such as English and Swedish, it is much easier to have gender-​neutral language than in languages with grammatical gender, such as French and German. In the novel Symptoms of Being Human about a gender-​fluid teen (Riley), the author, Jeff Garvin, says this: Riley’s pronoun is never identified in Symptoms of Being Human, so I chose to use her/​him. This encapsulates the theme of the novel: not subjecting people to something that they are not based on what they look, sound or act like. By subjecting Riley to either he or she, it would have also subjected him/​her to one gender. However, Riley identifies as either a girl or boy depending on the day. (Richardt, n.d.) The responses in the Goodreads postings by readers indicates that some were not comfortable with the lack of pronouns: I get that the author thinks it’s radical to not include Riley’s pronouns and that it will make the reader think. Here’s the thing though. People use pronouns when they talk. And when those pronouns don’t match up with

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how you feel, it stings. To not show that really real pain because you think it’s a cute literary device does trans people a disservice. Here’s another: While we’re on the subject of pronouns, Riley mispronouns people all the time, and then corrects themselves based on revised assumptions that still very well might be wrong. Go to any queer or trans support group and the first thing you’ll see is people introducing themselves with both their name and pronouns. Don’t know someone’s pronouns? Just ask. Politely. It’s easy. Leaving this out takes away an opportunity for the author to teach readers how to be better allies. (Source: www.goodreads.com/​book/​show/​22692740-​symptomsof-​being-​human#other_​reviews) These comments suggest that readers would like to have more clearly defined pronouns for the character, seeing this pronoun selection as a means of asserting their gender identity. Many of the online communities with nonbinary people do have spaces where people experiment with these neopronouns, and I have heard at least a few people say that they know a few people who have indicated their desire for others to use neopronouns when referring to them. However, when referring to them, they/​ them pronouns were used. Also, it would be easier for younger people, with their more supple brains, to learn to use neopronouns consistently, just as it is easier for younger people to learn new languages. As the Gender Census (2019) indicates, while there is some small use of neopronouns, most people are opting for they/​ them/​their: • • • • •

Singular they –​ they/​them/​their/​theirs/​themselves –​ 79.5% (up  2.1%) He –​ he/​him/​his/​his/​himself –​ 30.8% (down  0.4%) She –​ she/​her/​her/​hers/​herself –​ 29.0% (down  1.9%) None/​avoid pronouns –​10.3% (up 0.2%) Xe –​ xe/​xem/​xyr/​xyrs/​xemself –​ 7.2% (down  0.2%)

Conclusion Choosing a set of neopronouns seems to be a speech act of self-​actualization and should be regarded as a step toward greater mental and emotional health. It should be recognized, however, that pronouns do belong to a category of words that resist change, and, particularly for older people, it would take a lot of effort to use these pronouns, even with the best of intentions. Nevertheless, it is possible, with lots of practice, to use neopronouns, and perhaps it is preferable in contexts

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and communities where it is important to assert gender identities. Also, they are available for creative writers who wish to design their own literary worlds with these neopronouns that, in writing, may be more easily accommodated by readers. For mainstream English, however, particularly spoken English, it is likely that they/​ them/​their pronouns will be the option most widely selected, again showing the power of the Great Pronoun Shift.

Activities 1. Visit the Pronoun Dressing Room www.pronouns.failedslacker.com/​) and “try on” on new pronouns. How does that make you feel about yourself? What challenges do you face as you read passages using those pronouns? 2. Invent some neopronouns of your own. Try to use them in passages. How do they make you feel? 3. What are your own thoughts about neopronouns? 4. Find a community where neopronouns are used, for example on Tumblr. Describe what is happening in these communications with regard to pronouns. 5. Write a passage about a nonbinary person. What pronouns do you select and how does it affect your writing?

Annotated Bibliography Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Clarendon Press. A classic work of linguistics, this book first defined speech acts. Cherry, K. (2020, June 26). Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Verywell Mind. www.verywellmind.com/​erik-​eriksons-​stages-​of-​psychosocialdevelopment-​2795740 This site provides a good explanation and a nice diagram of these stages. Conrod, K. (2020, May 8). How to do things with gender. YouTube. https://​youtube/​ jVr8NJwcMH4. This is actually a presentation that was given at a conference, where Kirby Conrod, who has also published widely on this topic, discusses the effect of gender pronouns on social interactions. Egan, G. (1998). Diaspora. EPD. https://​epdf.pub/​egan-​greg-​diaspora01b79ed6242ecf832 bab8267beac099a943.html Greg Egan has published quite a lot of books of this sort, using novel pronouns consistently to reflect nongendered characters. Gender Census (2019). The full report (Worldwide). https://​gendercensus.com/​post/​ 183832246805/​gender-​census-​2019-​the-​full-​report-​worldwide This is a survey based on 11,242 responses, shared on Tumblr, Twitter, Facebook, and other social media about gender terms, pronouns, and nouns of address.

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Hord, L. C. R. (2016). Bucking the linguistic binary: Gender neutral language in English, Swedish, French, and German. Western Papers in Linguistics/​ Cahiers linguistiques de Western, 3(1), Article 4.  https://​ojs.lib.uwo.ca/​index.php/​wpl_​clw/​article/​view/ 966/​456 This article has a great literature review and list of references for more information on gender-​neutral language. The author also respects the pronouns of the researchers who use neopronouns, as illustrated in this chapter. The point of the article, however, is that it is easier to have gender-​neutral language in languages that have natural gender, such as English and Swedish, than in languages that have grammatical gender, such as German and French. Konnelly, L., & Cowper, E. (2019, May). The future is “they”: The morphosyntax of an English epicene pronoun. LingBuzz. https://​ling.auf.net/​lingbuzz/​003859 As described in Chapter 5, as well as in other papers, Konnelly and Cowper also discuss the social significance of transgender people selecting pronouns that suit their gender identities and others respecting them. Livia, A. (2001). Pronoun envy. Oxford University Press. This book is another classic work that examines the use of pronouns in works of literature, including French literature and science fiction. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–​396. Written in highly pre-​ feminist language, with excellent examples of generic he and references to “man” for human, this article posits that humans are motivated by five basic needs: food, safety, love, esteem, and self-​actualization. These needs form a quasi hierarchy where, in general, each need is desired and necessary before the next. For example, food is the most basic, followed by safety, and so on, with self-​actualization not always achieved. McLeod, S. A. (2008). Self concept. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/​self-​ concept.html This article describes the theory of Carl Rogers and the concept of the “ideal self.” Olson, A. (2013, August 13). The theory of self-​actualization. Psychology Today. www. psychologytoday.com/ ​ u s/ ​ b log/ ​ t heory- ​ a nd- ​ p sychopathology/​ 2 01308/​ t hetheory-​self-​actualization This article explains self-​actualization as a process of self-​realization, also explicating the theories of Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Erik Erickson. It indicates that creativity is one of the hallmarks of a self-​actualized person. Richardt, E. (n.d.). Symptoms of being human. Sutori. www.sutori.com/​story/​symptoms-​ of-​being-​human-​-​N1ArT2EBa9FYhV6KyfEWRuc8#:~:text=Symptoms of Being Human%2C a realistic fiction novel,her%2Fhim deal with these problems and her%2Fhis anxiety This is a review of this novel, Symptoms of Being Human, by Jeff Garvin, about a nonbinary teen, with comments from others who have read it and responded to the use of pronouns. Rogers, C. (1953). The good life and the fully functioning person. Panarchy.org. http://​ panarchy.org/​rogers/​person.html This is an essay taken from the collection of essays that is Rogers’ legacy, On Becoming a Person, published in 1961.

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Searle. J. R. (1969). Speech acts. Cambridge University Press. A somewhat complex but groundbreaking theory that elaborates on speech acts. The Trevor Project. (2020). National survey on LGBTQ youth mental health 2020. www.thetrevorproject.org/ ​ s urvey- ​ 2 020/ ​ ? section=Supporting-​ Transgender-​ Nonbinary-​Youth. This report is based on an online survey of 40,000 LGBTQ youth in the United States to determine the challenges they are facing that might lead to suicide, such as homelessness, access to mental health counselors, physical threats, and attempts to convert them. Among these factors is affirming their gender identities by respecting their pronouns. Vinney, C. (2020, February 11). Carl Rogers:  Founder of the humanistic approach to psychology. ThoughtCo. www.thoughtco.com/​carl-​rogers-​4588296 A short but comprehensive article, this summarizes the contributions of Carl Rogers to psychology.

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8 BREAKING THE GRAMMAR BINARY The Third Word Category

Introduction By now, dear reader, you are either sick of reading about pronouns or you have reached this point and wonder, what’s next? Does anything go in language? Will people be making up all sorts of words? Of course, people already do. If you were to create a beverage out of spinach leaves, green apples, and green tea, calling it a “greenster” (assuming such a beverage does not exist and if it does, this is not its name), there would be no problem telling people that you make greensters (plural noun) every morning, and soon your friends would be asking if you greenstered (verb) today, how greensterish (adjective) that other beverage is, and if your day is going greensterishly (adverb). Though this may sound nonsensical at first, with practice and popularity, this new beverage name could take off.To repeat what we observed in earlier chapters, language is always open to new words with meanings, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, the category of words known as “content” words. By now you may even be using the new noun invented in this book –​ prodar –​as you explain to your friends and relatives why you are so focused on their pronouns, a condition perhaps known as prodarism? Really, there is no limit to how many new content words can be created. Language, however, is not always open to new words that form the basis for grammatical structures, such as conjunctions, determiners, qualifiers, and prepositions, known as “function” or “structure” words. The question before us now is, are pronouns open to change like content words, or are they resistant to change like function words?

What Happened to You? Historically, English has experienced a change in pronouns. As we saw in Chapter  5, social pressures may have led to the rise of you/​your/​yours and the

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demise of thee/​thou/​thy/​thine. We still understand these words, but we associate them with religious language or the Quakers. We accept them in older works of literature, and we may even use them in popular expressions, such as “To thine own self be true.” The pronoun “ye” was also once the subjective form for “you,” and now it is mostly vanished from English, except in some Newfoundland dialects. These pronouns once served an important function in English, distinguishing the singular from the plural second person, and without them we are still experiencing problems of ambiguity so that we may have to be more specific when asking, “Can you please pass the salt?” As Nosowitz (2016) points out, this has resulted in a great variety of dialectal solutions for plural second person pronouns, such as “y’all” from the American South, “you’uns” in Appalachia, “youse” from parts of New York City, and “yinz” from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The expression “you guys” is also often used, though there are objections that it is sexist due to the presence of “guys,” which some people consider a term used for males only. Pinsker (2018) provides a detailed account of whether “you guys” or any expressions with “guys” can be considered gender neutral since “guy” in the singular form is clearly masculine. Alternatives such as “y’all,” however, are considered too informal to use in Standard English, and, as do any of the above variations, illustrate how even seemingly innocuous forms of address carry significant connotations. Nosowitz (2016) also refers to the changes that have taken place in pronouns from Old English, through Middle English, to Early Modern English (Shakespeare’s time), to contemporary English, illustrating how change is possible for pronouns.

And What About Him (Or Her)? As many of us of a certain age have witnessed, we essentially lost generic he, observing that the same texts that we read back in our youth with no awareness of their use of generic he, now feel a bit archaic and exclusionary. One does not have to go very far back to find samples. As an illustration of this shift, here is an example of a sentence with an unself-​conscious use of generic he in the classic book by Roman Jakobson, translated and published in 1967, Child Language: Aphasia and Phonological Universals: The child creates as he borrows. (p. 14) Throughout this book, generic he is ubiquitous. Contrast this with lines from a book published in 1984, Children’s Talk by Catherine Garvey: “Parents, of course, use talk extensively to socialize the child and to induct him* into the social world of his and their company.” The following is the footnote:

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*I have used the male pronoun generically because it seemed awkward to do otherwise. (p. 1) Here there is a self-​conscious use of generic he in keeping with the dictum of the time that it makes for smoother reading. Despite efforts to retain generic he, alternatives arose, as we see in this example from a book published in 1992 by Joseph Kess, Psycholinguistics:  Psychology, Linguistics, and the Study of Natural Language: We know that any toddler can learn any language in the world as his or her first language. (p. 268) Anyone who has tried to use the “he or she” combo for more than a few iterations knows that this alternative had to die out by sheer exhaustion. By the 2000s, writers were aware of several work-​arounds. The antecedents could be plural, for example, or pronouns could be avoided. Some writers chose to alternate between he and she or focus on an individual, as in this example from How Language Works, written in 2005 by David Crystal: At fourteen months, one child was recorded saying dada, with a high rising tone, when she heard footsteps on the gravel path outside the door (“Is that daddy?”). (p. 88) Generic he was clearly out.

And Now They Presently, we are seeing the rise of singular they. On this same topic of child language acquisition, here is what appears on the FAQ page for the Linguistic Society of America: And it is just as easy for a child to acquire two or more languages at the same time, as long as they are regularly interacting with speakers of those languages. A bit further down on the same page, however, we see remnants of earlier solutions: By the time the child first utters a single meaningful word, he or she has already spent many months playing around with the sounds and intonations of language and connecting words with meanings. (Source: www.linguisticsociety.org/​resource/​faq-​how-​do-​we-​learn-​language)

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It is interesting that an excellent book about grammar, Revising the Rules by Brock Haussamen, published in 1997, presented the thesis that there was room in English grammar for both generic he and singular they, saying that they served complementary roles: Generic he was used to be “up close and personal” (p. 103) while singular they was “neutral and distant” (p. 104). Haussamen provides the following illustrations of their separate uses: 1. If a customer is unhappy, he can get his money back. (p. 103) 2. If industry is to do the job, they must understand their workers. (p. 104) According to this interpretation, the generic he is appropriate in number 1 since the individuality of the antecedent (customer) is important, whereas in number 2 there is a sense of the plurality. Although Haussamen presents a good case that there is “an advantage to having them both” (p.  114), providing numerous examples from literature, student papers, and spoken language, as the modern reader (you?) could attest, usage has now shifted to they even for the individual sense. Examples are everywhere now, with one just emerging as a text on my phone: Chinguun B is shopping your order. They’ll message you with questions or changes. Clearly, the use of they here is singular, and not necessarily noting a nonbinary individual. Most likely it is an automatic response, which needs to apply to any individual, regardless of gender. Apparently, artificial intelligence programs have been using gender-​ based pronouns but will now stop using them to avoid bias. For example, the problem was seen when a sentence such as “I am meeting an investor next week” prompted a response, “When do you want to meet him?” (Paresh, 2018), suggesting that work-​arounds would be needed.

And What About Her? Also interesting is that Haussamen comments that generic she (which includes her and hers) is “extremely rare” (p. 103), which almost makes finding one a dare. Recently, a generic she emerged in the following quote from a New Yorker article in the July 20, 2020, issue, “Meeting the Moment” written by Amanda Petrusich about the band formerly known as the Dixie Chicks: Gaslighting is a kind of emotional manipulation in which a bad actor vehemently insists on the veracity of some plainly untrue claim,

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thereby causing the victim to doubt reality and, eventually, her own connection to it. (p. 71) When I read this line, the her stood out. Perhaps the writer intended to indicate that the victim of gaslighting is more likely to be a woman than a man, though that is not true. The article was primarily about women (the Chicks), with many feminine pronouns, so this use could simply be following that pattern. Clearly, there was a need to indicate individuality, and certainly a generic he would not work in this context. That it does not seem inclusive of males, however, illustrates how nongeneric she can be. Generic she apparently startled one reader (Wu, 2017), who found it “obtrusive and annoying” when it appeared in the 2017 issue of the Communications of the ACM in sentences such as this one: Instead of a field engineer constantly traveling between locations, she could troubleshoot machinery and refine product designs in real time. (Kugler, 2017, p. 16; also qtd. in Wu, 2017) This caused at least one reader (Wu) some distress and the sense that he was being excluded. Interestingly, the same article has a generic he as well: A ship captain could view a 3D model of his vessel with real-​time status reports on various components. From there, problems could be diagnosed and solved from thousands of miles away. (Kugler, 2017, p. 16) Apparently, no one bothered to write an article addressing this exclusion. The generic she used to be more common when professional roles were more gendered, such as when women were more likely to be nurses or teachers, and so even in those uses it was not really generic in that it was not inclusive of males. Another interesting article, “Current Generic Pronoun Use” (Meyers, 1990), illustrates uses of generic she in 392 samples of student writing, finding that only women used it, though not as frequently as they used other ways of referring to “an educated person.” This same article found that generic he, which was still popular, was more frequently used by men, but that both men and women used singular they even though grammar books at the time were advising against it.

New Pronouns? Is it possible for English to add new pronouns? Dennis Baron (1986, 2020) has written, spoken, and blogged extensively about the “failed” pronouns, listing feasible options that others have tried to insert into English, mostly with the purpose

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of bringing about a singular, generic, third person pronoun. These have not taken hold for several reasons. There is no language academy for English, as there is for other languages, that prescribes rules. Though dictionaries add new words all the time, they do not regulate language use. As we saw in Chapter 1, there are regulations and policies in institutions that try to promote the use of gender-​ neutral language, but, though they may provide pronoun charts, they do not mandate the use of any specific pronouns. We do have English teachers, editors, style guides, and language purists who try to guide what is considered standard English, but these are in no way regulated, or even consistent (nor should they be, to ensure that all language varieties are acceptable in their contexts). Everyone is guided by what all language users do: Listen, practice, and try to fit in with whatever linguistic community they want to enter. One of the big blocks to adding new pronouns is that it is possible that function words, the category to which we believe pronouns belong, are processed differently than content words. What is the evidence for this? If you recall Chapter 1, we saw some evidence from brain studies showing differences, though not definitively. That is, the brain does not light up in one way for pronouns and in another for nouns. These studies, however, serve only to indicate that conventional pronouns may be perceived differently than content words, but they do not necessarily explain why people may not be accepting of new pronouns. That still remains a challenge. However, many have observed that with practice, a person can learn to use new pronouns. Lee Airton (2018) provides many suggestions on how to accomplish this task. Alternatively, with more people using singular specific they, it is likely that they could become the default pronoun for all genders, as Konnelly and Cowper (2020) also predict, thereby signaling the Great Pronoun Shift.

The Great Pronoun Shift: They for Everyone Some say that singular they should be used now, with everyone (Manjoo, 2019). They (and Manjoo is a cisgender male who goes by they pronouns) argue that there is no reason for gendered pronouns and that misgendering causes problems for everyone. Others argue that some people want they to be used exclusively for nonbinary people, and others argue that people should be free to choose whatever pronouns they wish, including gendered ones. Sanders (2019), for example, does not think that everybody should use they/​them pronouns, opposing the point that Manjoo makes that they should be used for everyone. Sanders also sees pronoun selection as self-​actualization and as a choice that should be honored by others. Sanders states that not all nonbinary people want to use they/​them pronouns and that some cis people want to use them. Sanders also provides this quote: Ashleigh Shackelford writes, “So much of the trauma and violence I  moved through, and resilience and power I  embodied is that of Black

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womanhood and Black femininity. In acknowledging that, I chose to use she/​her pronouns because those pronouns were not afforded to me and they are a derivative and gift of the time I  spent in crafting my Black femme-​ness in a world that denied me to do so. They represent the work and fight I put into my Black girlhood/​womanhood within my alignment of gender expansiveness.” As my own text above illustrates, avoiding pronouns results in perhaps an annoying repetition of a person’s name (Sanders), and it is really challenging for people, particularly older people, to comply. However, in the spirit of respecting others, we at least have to try.

The Third Category A big portion of this book has been asserting that pronouns are function words and therefore resistant to change. All the controversy with neopronouns, however, the history of you, and the problems that people have with generic he and generic she suggest that pronouns do more than serve a function in sentences and seem to carry meaning, certainly connotations, after all. People do think of males and females and now perhaps nonbinary people when these pronouns are used. Pronouns are equivalent to gender identities. Nevertheless, the way we use pronouns so automatically certainly makes them more like function words. Perhaps this is of interest only to grammarians, linguists, and other grammar nerds, but maybe we should consider pronouns as belonging to a third word category, thus breaking the function word/​content word binary.

Conclusion Pronouns remain a topic that generates much argumentation, as they have for centuries. After all, pronouns usually refer to people, and people have shifting identities.Why we argue about them seems to change with whatever social dynamic is currently at play. In the long ago past it may have been social class, in the not-​so-​ distant past it was feminism, and in the present it is recognition and inclusion of nonbinary genders. Pronouns seem to be a barometer of social pressures, linguistic indicators of what our society is experiencing. The Great Pronoun Shift has been happening for a while, and perhaps future readers will not understand what all the fuss was about. Will the day come when there is no longer a pronoun “problem”? I predict it will, and they will rise.

Activities 1. How have your perceptions about pronouns changed as a result of reading this book?

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2. What is your “prodar” like now? Are you noticing pronouns more than before? 3. Check some books written before 1969. Do they use generic he, and if so, how does it make you feel? 4. What examples, if any, have you seen of generic she? 5. Look for signs of they. What do you observe? 6. What do you think is next for pronouns?

Annotated Bibliography Airton, L. (2018). Gender: Your guide. Adams Media. As discussed elsewhere in this book, this is the best guide that explains why and how to respect the gender identities of others. Baron, D. (1986). Grammar and gender. Yale University Press. This book certainly has remained relevant, even after 40 years, with a thorough history of invented pronouns, mostly with a focus on the inclusion of women in language that was mostly patriarchal. Baron, D. (2020). What’s your pronoun? Liveright. This is the updated version of Grammar and Gender with all of the history plus the newer sets of pronouns that have come about to include nonbinary people. Crystal, D. (2005). How language works. The Overlook Press. This is a well-​written book for the average person to learn about linguistics, written by an excellent authority on language. Garvey, C. (1984). Children’s talk. Harvard University Press. This is a well-​ written book for the average person to learn about child language acquisition. Haussamen, B. (1997). Revising the rules: Traditional grammar and modern linguistics. Kendall-​ Hunt Publishing. This book actually has three chapters devoted to pronouns, citing the scholarship from Dennis Baron’s Grammar and Gender and offering many examples of how both he and they appear distinctively in Early Modern English, literature, student writing, and spoken language. Unfortunately, this book was written in an early phase of the Great Pronoun Shift, so how was Brock to know that generic he was doomed? Jakobson, R. (1972). Child language aphasia and phonological universals. Mouton. I loved this book as a graduate student since it presented such a clear theory as stated by the title. For example, the first sounds that children acquire are the same sounds that are found in all languages and the last sounds to vanish in people with aphasia. If only all theories could be this clear. Kess, J. F. (1992). Psycholinguistics: Psychology, linguistics, and the study of natural language. John Benjamins.

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The distinguishing feature of this book, besides containing a great overview of psycholinguistics, is that so far it is the only book that cites one of my articles on passives, written in 1981. Quite a thrill to see it in its list of sources! Konnelly, L., & Cowper, E. (2020). Gender diversity and morphosyntax: An account of singular they. Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics, 5(1), 1–​19. http://​doi.org/​10.5334/​ gjgl.1000 This paper provides an up-​to-​date account of the research done on singular they, also expressing the authors’ theory of the three stages of its acceptance, the final stage being the use of they for everyone except inanimate referents. Kugler, L. (2017). Why virtual reality will transform a workplace near you. Communications of the ACM, 60(8), 15–​17. https://​doi.org/​10.1145/​3105444. https://​cacm.acm.org/​ magazines/​2017/​8/​219595-​why-​virtual-​reality-​will-​transform-​a-​workplace-​near-​ you/​fulltext I found this article by searching for the sentence with generic she quoted in the article by Wu. The writer uses generic he for a ship captain and uses he in his own description at the end of the article. The article itself is also quite interesting and very readable. Manjoo, F. (2019, July 10). Call me “they.” The New York Times. This writer states the desire that we all use singular they for everyone, presenting the argument that it is already in our lexicon, it is easy to use, and that there is no need to express gender (in a “just, rational, and inclusive world”). The writer, who is not nonbinary, wants to be referred to with they/​them/​their, after explaining their reasons, and goes on to use singular they with specific referents in the rest of the article. Meyers, M. W. (1990). Current generic pronoun use: An empirical study. American Speech, 65(3), 228–​237. www.jstor.com/​stable/​455911 A fascinating quantitative study, probably done by hand, of the pronouns used to refer to “an educated person” in 392 student essays. The findings revealed support for the idea that singular they was becoming more widely used, that generic he was dropping, and that generic she was used only by women. It also provided data on alternative means, such as he or she as well as other work-​arounds, but found that most of these uses were inconsistent. Nosowitz, D. (2016, October). Y’all, you’uns, yinz, youse:  How regional dialects are fixing Standard English. Atlas Obscura. www.atlasobscura.com/​articles/​yall-​youunsyinz-​youse-​how-​regional-​dialects-​are-​fixing-​standard-​english This fascinating article goes into the history of the second person pronoun, showing how at one time English had distinctions between plural and singular, and how present dialects have restored those distinctions with their own versions of plural second person pronouns. The article rejects “you guys” as being sexist, though, which I don’t think it is. See Pinsker for more details. Paresh, D. (2018, November 27). Fearful of bias, Google blocks gender-​based pronouns from new AI tool. Reuters. www.reuters.com/​article/​us-​alphabet-​google-​ai-​ gender/​fearful-​of-​bias-​google-​blocks-​gender-​based-​pronouns-​from-​new-​ai-​tool-​ idUSKCN1NW0EF

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This article does not say exactly how Google is doing this, but I suspect they will eventually play a role. Petrusich, A. (2020, July 20). Meeting the moment. The New Yorker.  70–​71. In the Pop Music section, this article describes how the band formerly known as the Dixie Chicks changed their name to the Chicks, and all the controversy that the members have experienced, including gaslighting. Pinsker, J. (2018, August 23). The problem with “Hey, Guys.” The Atlantic. www.theatlantic. com/​family/​archive/​2018/​08/​guys-​gender-​neutral/​568231/​ This is another fascinating article about using the expression “guys” and whether it is considered gender neutral. Some people really object to its use, with the most compelling argument being that the possessive form, “your guys’s letter” is really awkward, but overall it seems to be gaining traction as a useful substitute for a plural second person address. Sanders, W. (2019, October 11). What people get wrong about they/​them pronouns. Them. Cps144.quicklaunchsso.com/​cas/​login?service=https%3A%2F%2Fmy.udc.edu%2 Fpaf%2Fauthorize Sanders argues the points made by Manjoo, saying that not everyone wants to use they/​ them pronouns. People of nonbinary gender, for example, who have made great efforts to be either male or female, want others to refer to them with masculine or feminine pronouns. Wu,Y. (October 2017). On the use of “she” as a generic pronoun. Medium. https://​medium. com/​@yongweiwu/​on-​the-​use-​of-​she-​as-​a-​generic-​pronoun-​6ddeb91fff32 This is a blog post by a reader who found a generic she in reference to a field engineer to be distracting. Wu recommends that a singular they would be less exclusionary.

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9 WHAT’S A TEACHER-​STUDENT-​ WRITER-​EDITOR-​ALLY-​PERSON TO DO?

Introduction As we have seen in the previous chapters, pronouns are no longer insignificant, innocuous parts of speech. How we use them has a huge impact on others, particularly if we misgender people with them.They also have a big influence on our readers, so selecting pronouns should be a big part of our writing process. Consider the following sentences: My prodar should now be active when I write. Your prodar should now be active when you write. One’s prodar should now be active when one writes. Our prodar should now be active when we write. Do you prefer any of the above sentences? The choice of pronouns is always open to us, but as the above sentences reveal, they do provide perspective. The pronouns we select certainly do more than just fill grammatical slots. Haussamen (1997) provides an extensive history of the definition of a pronoun, indicating that it began with the Greeks as “a word assumed instead of a noun” (p.  77), evolving over time to more complex definitions, and then returning to the similar concept that we have today that a pronoun takes the place of a noun. Haussamen observes that pronouns are unlike other words; whereas, other words have semantic or functional value, pronouns are the only words that refer to other words (p. 79). This could be considered an argument favoring the idea that pronouns are more than just function words, that they do convey meaning, certainly a point of view, and that they deserve their own grammatical category.

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Perhaps we need to move beyond the binary when we consider grammatical categories too.

In the Classroom As a grammar teacher and as a writing teacher, as I have confessed before, I had always stuck to the rule about pronoun agreement, that singular they violates the rule requiring a pronoun to agree in number with its antecedent. As a result of researching this book, I am repenting and would like to suck up all the red ink I  used to correct this “error” on so many student papers. As of now, even the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) and the Modern Language Association, the two professional associations guiding English teachers, have come to agree that we should no longer consider the singular they to be an error when used with an indefinite singular antecedent. (The NCTE Statement appears at the end of this chapter.) So now, English teachers, when you see a sentence such as “Everyone should call their mothers,” please withdraw your red pen. There is still a question about what to do with the use of singular they with definite antecedents:  “Skyler should call their mother.” There are at least three possible interpretations for this sentence. It could mean that the mother belongs to two other people. It could imply that Skyler is a person who uses they/​them pronouns. It could also mean that the mother belongs to another person who uses they/​them pronouns. Can we live in a world with this much ambiguity? Sure, we can. We are dealing with ambiguity all the time, but in most cases, ambiguity is resolved by context. Particularly in the case of pronouns, which, you may recall, we usually do not think about, the context determines whether we can use them in the first place. In the fast-​paced speaking situation, there will probably be so much repetition that the use of pronouns is just to keep the conversation going, and of course there is always the opportunity to clarify any ambiguity by asking, “Whose mother?” In the written context, the preceding or following discourse will most likely clarify the situation. So, ultimately, there is usually no problem with ambiguity, or no more than usual. In the classroom, however, we do have an obligation to be aware when people have pronouns they want others to use.What are the best tactics to follow to learn about these? When this topic first arose, it was common to ask people, “What’s your pronoun?” This soon turned out to be a mistake. For example, Murphy (2019) points out this question could upset a student who is not yet ready to reveal their gender to others and suggests asking this question privately in pre-​ class surveys. Though it was a way of bringing attention to pronouns and was done in the spirit of inclusivity, it often turned into a moment of embarrassment for people who preferred to be private about their gender. Similarly, asking people to state their “preferred” pronouns implies that they have a choice about their genders, which they often do not feel. Some schools have included pronoun options on their admissions forms, which suggests that the pronouns may appear

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in school records that can be accessed by teachers. In those cases, a teacher could simply check that information prior to the first class and make notations on the class lists. In schools where this is not an option (such as mine, so far), teachers could distribute their own surveys to students prior to or in the first week with a space to indicate pronouns, if desired. Another strategy is to introduce yourself on the first day by simply stating your pronouns, providing an explanation as to why you are doing this, and telling students they have the option to follow suit. As multiple guides then advise, as the teacher you can model the behavior you would like your students to follow: Practice using the pronouns, use the pronouns, and, if you make a mistake, quickly apologize without drawing too much attention and correct yourself. Ruday (2019) also suggests that the issue be raised as part of inclusivity, where class lessons discuss pronouns as ways of including diversity in gender as well as other aspects of language. Ruday suggests using singular they for all students, unless a student requests another pronoun, as well as using gender-​neutral terms such as “y’all” instead of “you guys” and looking at language variation in texts and writing. For some folks, however, “y’all” brings with it the flavor of Southern American dialect and all that connotes, again showing how much meaning is associated with seemingly meaningless expressions. The expression “you guys” seems to be sexist to some people and gender neutral to others, so that is probably another expression to avoid or at least have a discussion about in a class devoted to these topics. A good activity at the beginning of a class is to raise this topic about how the class would like to be addressed as a whole, letting the students decide for themselves. How about that idea, folks?

On the Page The “Pronoun Problem” earned a chapter in one of the more influential books written in 1980, The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing by Casey Miller and Kate Swift. Their mission, as the title implies, was to rid English writing of sexist terms such as “chairman” and “postman,” as well as so-​called generic words like “mankind” that evoke sexist overtones, and of course the generic he. Rereading this book over 40 years later reveals that English, as well as the job market, has indeed changed, where we refer easily to “flight attendants” and “postal workers” and generic he seems outdated. Miller and Swift do, of course, consider using singular they, though they also suggest the he or she combination if used infrequently. Their main advice seems to be to use work-​arounds, such as pluralizing the antecedent or avoiding pronouns altogether. While the book is full of solutions to writing inclusively of women, nowhere is there any mention of the possibility of nonbinary inclusion, which of course was not on anyone’s radar at that time or in the updated version published in 2000. By this point, you are probably overthinking the pronouns you use as a writer. I, for example, could have written the preceding sentence in several ways:

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a. By this point, readers are probably overthinking the pronouns they use as writers. b. By this point, one is probably overthinking the pronouns one uses as a writer. c. By this point, the reader is probably overthinking the pronouns they use as a writer. d. By this point, the reader is probably overthinking the pronouns he uses as a writer. e. By this point, the reader is probably overthinking the pronouns she uses as a writer. f. By this point, the reader is probably overthinking the pronouns ze uses as a writer. Which seems the best third person option to you? Do you like the grammatically correct use of they? (Option a) Which option sounds stuffy? (Option b) Can you spot the notorious singular they? (Option c) How does generic he sound nowadays? (Option d). Do you prefer the generic she or do you find it a bit exclusive? (Option e) Can you understand a neopronoun? (Option f) Really! So many choices, it’s no wonder that writing takes so long! As you see, I like the second person pronouns you/​your/​yours or the first person singular (I/​me/​my) or plural (we/​us/​our) since they make the writing more engaging, as opposed to the use of third person pronouns, which have been giving us problems throughout this book. As a college freshman, I was advised to avoid first person pronouns so that my writing would sound more objective. In fact, the Author Guidelines (2019) for this book say to avoid first person pronouns in the chapter abstracts! As writers, we need to make many choices, and pronouns certainly do count. As we saw in Chapter  2, writers indicate their respect for people when they use the pronouns that they designate, sometimes with an announcement in publications where pronouns are the usual ones, and sometimes without an announcement in publications where the readership is more accustomed to singular they and/​or neopronouns. As is always the case with writing, the first rule is to know your audience. One point about neopronouns is that using unusual pronouns for nonbinary people implies that nonbinary people are unusual. Even the term “gender neutral” can be considered inappropriate, insofar as it implies that a person has no gender when some people want their gender to be known. For example, people of nonbinary gender, as mentioned earlier, want to be referred to with their gender pronouns. Gender-​fluid people may also want gender pronouns that reflect their presentation. However, 1 percent of the population is intersex, that is, people who do not identify with either gender (Joel, 2019). This has been recognized by the German government, which has put an additional gender category for Intersex on birth

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certificates (Schmidt & Fox, 2018). The book Aroused by Randi Hutter Epstein provides many stories about people who were born with ambiguous genitalia and the problems they faced. In the 1950s and 1960s, surgeons would often modify the genitalia of babies to make them more clearly a female or a male, though there were other aspects that they could not modify such as hormones and genes. As these children grew up, they had problems identifying as either sex. Today, this is recognized, and the term “intersex” is used, rather than the former, more stigmatized, and rarely used term “hermaphrodite,” with several organization advocating for them, based a lot on the work of researchers such as Anne Fausto-​Sterling (2019). In the Nonbinary and Intersex Recognition web page (www.intersexrecognition.org/​about), most of the bios use singular they in their self-​descriptions. Creative writers may consider creating their own pronouns if they are trying to design a new world with a new language for their characters. Will this pose any problems for the readers? As we saw in Chapter 7 on neopronouns, we can eventually accommodate to the use of even the oddest pronouns, since pronouns are used when the reader can infer the antecedent anyway. Their use, however, conveys a message that the reader has entered an unusual world with an unusual language. The function of pronouns, however, is not to draw attention, so this does create a tension in the writing style. As a writer, you would need to consider whether this tension harms or helps your purpose in writing. Another point to consider when using pronouns is to be consistent with them throughout the writing. One pronoun error that I  used to love to correct was called Pronoun Shift. I am not sure that writers and editors pay attention to this anymore, but once upon a time it was considered poor writing style to start a paragraph with third person pronouns, for example, and then switch to first person pronouns, then on to second person. The preceding paragraph is a good example of that. Did you notice? The point again is that pronouns are doing their job when they are not drawing attention to themselves, so it’s quite likely that unless you are an experienced editor or finicky English teacher, you did not notice. Still, it’s another pronoun rule.

In the World What do you say about pronouns to friends and relatives who think the pronoun problem is about when to use “I” and “me”? How do you use pronouns respectfully as an ally of people who would like others to respect their pronouns? First of all, knowing when to use “I” and “me” is still a problem, and the use of “I” to be hypercorrect when it is grammatically incorrect is incredibly annoying. “I” is subjective, “me” is objective, and that’s it.Though we do like to say, “It’s me!” rather than the grammatically correct “It’s I,” I, for one, would rather let folks have

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their “me’s” than hear, “Let him and I go now” (when it is grammatically correct to say “Let him and me go now”). But back to the real problem. To say, as a cis-​gender person, that pronouns do not matter to you is to assert your cis-​privilege.Those of us who never have to think about pronouns have been enjoying a world where the pronouns people use for us do not stir up feelings of shame, stress, or anger.This is not true for everyone, however, and the population this affects is larger than many of us think and growing, particularly as younger people are becoming more open about their gender identities. Misgendering people is also more harmful than many of us think. Fortunately, most younger people are aware of these issues. Still, what do we do at the dinner table? There is no harm to introduce yourself with your name and pronouns as a model for others. If questioned, you can simply tell others what you have learned from this book, that you are trying to respect others by honoring their pronouns. Many guides have emerged to help people navigate these waters. As referenced in earlier chapters, Lee Airton’s Gender: Your Guide (2018) is one of the most comprehensive and engaging books regarding what to know, say, and do in the “New Gender Culture.” Airton suggests using singular they all the time with everybody (pp. 114–​115), practicing, providing “gentle correction to others” (p. 116), and accepting the awkwardness of noticing pronouns (p. 118). They also refer to “pronoun rituals” (p. 123), which exist in some contexts and are emerging in more, and are simply the practice of identifying oneself with pronouns in introductions. Another much simpler manual for perhaps a less academic audience is A Quick & Easy Guide to They/​Them Pronouns by Archie Bongiovanni and Tristan Jimerson (2018). This is actually a small, graphic handbook that provides tips on using they/​ them pronouns with friends, family, and coworkers.The book says that the question “What pronouns do you prefer?” should be avoided since it implies that gender is a choice (p. 29). It recommends practice and suggests that in the workplace there should be conversations about pronouns before they are necessary as more people are coming out as nonbinary (p. 36). The rules, admittedly, are changing, so it may be best to check current websites. A recent article by Devin-​Norelle (2020) has very informed guidelines about using pronouns for nonbinary people, even including gender-​neutral honorifics such as Mx. and Misc. (instead of Mr. and Ms.) and including links to a site to “Practice with Pronouns” that allows users to try out neopronouns. Even these, however, may be targeting a particular viewer, so it is always good, as we say in this business of writing, to know your audience. Most schools now have a center or office devoted to inclusion, and their sites usually provide up-​ to-​date resources and guides, but again, be aware that even these resources can become outdated or can be used inappropriately. As most of the guides say, if you

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make a mistake with someone’s pronouns, do not make a big deal but apologize and move on.

Just Say They By this point you may realize that the easiest thing to do is just to use they. At some point, you will probably not even be aware of doing it. Jacob Tobia (2016), an actor who is nonbinary and plays nonbinary roles, suggests using they for everyone. In one cartoon show with a nonbinary character who is voiced byTobia,all the other characters use they pronouns without any announcements, so these uses are being viewed, presumably, by children who will grow up without any self-​consciousness about using specific singular they (Smith, 2019). The adjustment to using singular they to refer to a specific person may happen over time, but for now it can be made with practice, even for old(er) people. Here is what Geoff Nunberg (2019) had to say: Tweak your internal grammar so that the pronoun “they” can refer to a specific individual. It takes some practice to get the hang of it, but the human language processing capacity is more adaptable than people realize, even for geezers like me.

Conclusion The rules keep changing as language keeps changing, and we need to stay alert to how pronouns are shifting in their acceptability by teachers, students, writers, editors, and the people we encounter. Our prodar, whether we know it or not, is always activated. The Great Pronoun Shift demonstrates how language, even with some of its smallest parts of speech, continues to respond to the varying needs of people. The underlying principle, which I hope never alters, however, should be that the language we use does not offend, upset, or misrepresent others, with the final word being mutual respect.

Activities 1. What has been your experience in schools or the workplace regarding questions about pronouns? How do those around you respond? 2. Practice an introduction of yourself with a variety of pronouns. Use this the next time you meet someone new. How do they react? 3. Rewrite a passage varying the pronouns. Which versions do you prefer? 4. Rewrite a passage avoiding pronouns. How does it sound? What does it make you notice about the function of pronouns? 5. Find some websites about intersex organizations. What pronouns are used by staff members in their bios?

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Annotated Bibliography Airton, L. (2018). Gender: Your guide. Adams Media. Written by Lee Airton, a professor of education at Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, Canada, this manual is written in an engaging style, directed to readers who want a greater understanding of how to respond to the changing gender world.The guide provides details on what a person should know, say, and do to show respect for people of every gender. Author guidelines. (2019). Taylor & Francis. Again, I tried, I really, really tried. Bongiovanni, A., & Jimerson, T. (2018). A quick & easy guide to they/​ them pronouns. Limerance Press. This is a graphic book, written in a comic style, with cartoons illustrating two characters, Archie, who uses they/​them pronouns, and Tristan, who uses he/​him pronouns. Though small, the guide covers the main points of why it is important to respect pronouns and how to use gender-​neutral pronouns, as well as other inclusive language. Devin-​ Norelle. (2020, May 22). Gender-​ neutral pronouns 101:  Everything you’ve always wanted to know. Them. www.them.us/​story/​gender-​neutral-​pronouns-101they-​them-​xe-​xem This article explains everything you want to know about gender-​ neutral pronouns. Apologies to the author for my not knowing how to indicate a hyphenated name (Devin-​ Norelle) with no first name in a bibliography. Epstein, R. H. (2018). Aroused: The history of hormones and how they control just about everything. Norton. This book shares the stories of people whose hormones have impacted their lives, including those people who were born with ambiguous genitalia. Reading it brings awareness of the issues facing intersex people. Pronouns, however, are not mentioned. Fausto-​Sterling, A. (2019). Gender/​sex, sexual orientation, and identity are in the body: How did they get there?, The Journal of Sex Research, 56(4–​5), 529–​555. https://​doi.org/​ 10.1080/​00224499.2019.1581883 This article is just the tip of a great body of scholarship on the topic of gender, sex, and sexual orientation, indicating that the binary approach to gender is inadequate. Haussamen, B. (1997). Revising the rules: Traditional grammar and modern linguistics. Kendall Hunt. As mentioned in the other chapters, this book is an excellent review of the grammar rules, looked at from a linguistic perspective, providing histories of how they came to be and questioning their value today. Joel, D. (2019, October 4). It’s time for a world without gender. Scientific American. https://​ blogs.scientificamerican.com/​voices/​its-​time-​for-​a-​world-​without-​gender/​ This is a short but very provocative blog post saying there are no major differences in the brains and behaviors of males and females, that gender is more of a mosaic, and that the gender binary is a “straitjacket” forcing people into harmful roles. Miller, C., and Swift, K. (1980). The handbook of nonsexist writing. Lippincott & Cromwell.

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Written in a very engaging style by two copyeditors, this handbook became a bible for writers who were learning to avoid sexist terms and be more inclusive of women. Their suggestion are common practice today, but the chapters present a lot of the history of pronouns and reveal examples of how pervasive sexism was in language a mere 40 years ago. Though written in 1980, the writers are very careful NOT to use generic he even once, following their own advice, and they do use singular they very sparingly, only with indefinite antecedents, such as “anyone” (p. 19 and p. 102). Murphy, J. (2019). The question is well-​intended, but asking queer students to share pronouns is uncomfortable. The GW Hatchet. www.gwhatchet.com/​2019/​09/​12/​ the-​question-​is-​well-​i ntended-​but-​a sking-​q ueer-​students-​t o-​share-​pronouns-​i s-​ uncomfortable/​ This opinion piece points out that asking students to indicate their pronouns in class introductions puts non-​cisgender students in awkward positions. The writer, a student and a journalist, suggests that professors distribute surveys instead. Nunberg, G. (2019, August 6). Even a grammar geezer like me can get used to gender neutral pronouns. National Public Radio. www.npr.org/​2019/​08/​06/​744121321/​evena-​grammar-​geezer-​like-​me-​can-​get-​used-​to-​gender-​neutral-​pronouns This is a short segment on NPR by linguist Geofrey Nunberg, stating that using gender-​ neutral pronouns can, and should, be done. Ruday, S. (2019). Inclusive language in the English classroom:  Recommendations for teachers. The ATEG Journal, 28(1),  20–​26. This article provides four ways to be more inclusive as a teacher: addressing students in inclusive ways by using appropriate pronouns and avoiding gendered terms, discussing topics of inclusion with students, discussing texts with linguistic variation, and allowing students to use linguistic variation in their own writing. Schmidt, N., & Fox, K. (2018, December 29). Germany’s third gender law is celebrated as a revolution. But some say it’s just the first step. CNN. www.cnn.com/​2018/​12/​29/​ health/​third-​gender-​law-​germany-​g rm-​intl/​index.html?no-​st=1546394802 This article reports about the recognition of intersex individuals in Germany by the addition of a third gender category on birth certificates. Smith, R. (2019, November 11). Look transphobes, even children’s cartoon villains know to respect people’s pronouns. PinkNews. www.pinknews.co.uk/​2019/​11/​11/​ she-​ra-​princesses-​power-​non-​binary-​jacob-​tobia-​pronouns/​ A children’s cartoon on Netflix, She-​Ra and the Princesses of Power, has a character, Double-​ Trouble, voiced by actor Jacob Tobia, who is nonbinary, and, without any announcements, all the characters use the singular they to refer to them, even the villain (Hordak). Statement on gender and language. (2018, October 25). National Council of Teachers of English. www2.ncte.org/​statement/​genderfairuseoflang/​. (Statement reprinted in the following pages) Tobia, J. (2016, May 12). Everything you ever wanted to know about gender-​neutral pronouns. Time. https://​time.com/​4327915/​gender-​neutral-​pronouns/​ This article provides guidance on how people should use gender-​neutral pronouns, saying that it is important and inclusive to use singular they with everyone, and that it is okay to

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ask people their pronouns when being introduced.Tobia uses they/​them pronouns, and their Wikipedia page is an example.

Statement on Gender and Language Date: October 25, 2018 Category: Curriculum, Diversity, Grammar, Instruction, Language, Writing Print Statement This statement, formerly known as Guidelines for Gender-​Fair Use of Language, was updated in October 2018 with the new title, Statement on Gender and Language. Revised October 2018; Revised July 2002, Women in Literacy and Life Assembly (WILLA); Formerly “Guidelines for Nonsexist Use of Language in NCTE Publications”; Revised 1985; Created 1975, Committee on the Status of Women in the Profession As both a product and an engine of human culture, language is inherently dynamic and ever-​evolving. Regarding the intersection of language, gender, and equity, the English language has been in a period of active shift for several decades. That dynamism is reflected in the evolution of NCTE’s position statements on gender and language through the last forty years. In 1978, NCTE published the first predecessor of this statement with the help of the Committee on the Status of Women in the Workplace. Originally titled “Guidelines for Nonsexist Use of Language in NCTE Publications,” the document was revised first in 1985, and again in 2002, when the Women in Literacy and Life Assembly (WILLA) renamed it “Guidelines for Gender-​Fair Use of Language.” At that time, the statement explored the ways in which language reflects and shapes understandings of gender, and it offered examples of ways in which language might promote the fair treatment of women and girls in early-​childhood, elementary, secondary, and postsecondary educational settings. The current document, “Statement on Gender and Language” (2018), reflects NCTE’s ongoing commitment to gender equity in education, and also builds on contemporary understandings of gender that include identities and expressions beyond a woman/​man binary. Rather than reinscribe the gender binary or cisnormativity (the assumption that each person’s gender identity corresponds to the sex they were assigned at birth), this document aims to support people of all genders. This statement will discuss how gender differs from sex and sexuality; will explain what is meant by the term gender binary; will recommend ways educators might use language to reflect the reality of gender diversity and support gender diverse students; and will highlight resources English language arts educators at any level may use to support more nuanced and inclusive understandings and discussions of gender in classrooms, schools, and broader communities.

Issue Defined Often, people unintentionally confuse gender with sex or sexuality. Gender is distinct from sex assigned at birth, which may be designated with categories such as female, male, or intersex. Sex is distinct from sexuality, which is about desire:  to whom one is attracted emotionally and/​or physically. Gender, distinct from both sex and sexuality, is a socially

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created and regularly reinforced cultural construct. As such, gender is vulnerable to social reinscriptions that sometimes perpetuate problematic and even discriminatory notions of how people should look, sound, express, or behave. This document focuses on the ways that gender matters in language, specifically within and across educational spaces. This document also recognizes that gender constructs are dynamic and vary by context, culture, language, and usage. The most common concepts of gender are based on the long-​perpetuated notion that gender is a binary matter, and that it always aligns with a binary designation of sex (male/​female).Yet contemporary understandings of gender clarify that gender identity and expression occur along a broad spectrum that is not limited to two binary alternatives, such as woman/​man or girl/​boy. The previous NCTE Guidelines for Gender-​Fair Use of Language (2002) was grounded in a traditionally binary concept of gender, and was thus limited by that binary in its discussion, for example, of she/​he pronouns. The “Statement on Gender and Language” (2018), based in the contemporary understanding that gender is a cultural construct that is not limited to binary categories, recommends usage that moves beyond the gender binary in order to include individuals whose identities might otherwise be unacknowledged or devalued. There are several terms that people might use when discussing gender. Some of the most common ones include the following: •

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•

• •

•

•

•

Gender identity: an individual’s feeling about, relationship with, and understanding of gender as it pertains to their sense of self. An individual’s gender identity may or may not be related to the sex that individual was assigned at birth. Gender expression: external presentation of one’s gender identity, often through behavior, clothing, haircut, or voice, which may or may not conform to socially defined behaviors and characteristics typically associated with being either masculine or feminine. Gender binary: a conceptual framework that defines gender as consisting solely of two categories (termed “woman” and “man”) that are biologically based (“female” and “male”) and unchangeable, and that denies the existence of other nonbinary variations of gender or anatomy. Cisgender: of or relating to a person whose gender identity corresponds with the sex they were assigned at birth. Transgender: of or relating to a person whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth. This umbrella term may refer to someone whose gender identity is woman or man, or to someone whose gender identity is nonbinary (see below). Nonbinary: of or relating to a person who does not identify, or identify solely, as either a woman or a man. More specific nonbinary identifiers include but are not limited to terms such as agender and gender fluid (see below). Gender fluid: of or relating to individuals whose identity shifts among genders. This term overlaps with terms such as genderqueer and bigender, implying movement among gender identities and/​or presentations. Agender: of or relating to a person who does not identify with any gender, or who identifies as neutral or genderless.

Language, which plays a central role in human cognition and behavior, is one of the most common mechanisms by which gender is constructed and reinforced. The words that people use to describe others or objects are often unintentionally but unquestionably based

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in implicit cultural biases, including biases that privilege the gender binary.We can see such bias reinforced in professional language use: in curriculum and pedagogy; in papers and publications; in handouts and other materials used in presentations; and in speaking in and beyond our classrooms. NCTE is concerned about the critical role that language plays in perpetuating gender bias, including binary understandings of gender and gender norms. Through careful attention to language as it relates to gender, NCTE members have the opportunity to influence inclusive and supportive thought and behavior both directly and indirectly. Understanding that, despite the dominant cultural force of cisnormativity, there is a full spectrum of gender identities that are not confined to the gender binary, we provide recommendations for gender-​expansive language in practice in the next section. We base these recommendations on the principle that all students have the right to their own gender identities and gender expressions. We urge members of NCTE to engage in deep reflection on traditional understandings of gender in hopes that this reflection will contribute to the ongoing work of supporting the safety, growth, and learning of students of all gender identities.

Recommendations General Usage Guidelines • •

• •

• •

Avoid using he as a universal pronoun; likewise, avoid using binary alternatives such as he/​she, he or she, or (s)he. As the editors of the recent editions of the Chicago Manual of Style (2017), the Associated Press Stylebook (2018), and other style guides affirm, the pronoun they is appropriate to use in writing when referring to singular antecedents, including when writing for publication. Unless the gender of a singular personal antecedent is otherwise specified, use the gender-​neutral singular pronouns they, them, their, and theirs. The Chicago Manual of Style affirms that the pronoun themself may be used to signal a singular antecedent; that some people may alternatively prefer to use themselves to signal a singular antecedent; and that a person’s stated preference should be respected. Are is the present-​tense verb for the singular pronoun they, just as are is the present-​ tense verb for the singular pronoun you. When referring to any individual, respect that individual’s chosen pronoun usage, or lack thereof. (Note: while the singular they is the most common nonbinary pronoun, there are others, including but not limited to ey/​em/​eirs and ze/​hir/​hirs. See the University of Minnesota’s “Nonbinary Gender Pronouns” declension and usage chart, linked in the Resources section below, for further details.)

Some Usage Examples Exclusionary (binary): Every cast member should know his or her lines by Friday. Inclusive (any gender): Each cast member should know their lines by Friday. Inclusive (student whose chosen pronouns are they/​ them/​ theirs): Alex needs to learn their lines by Friday.

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Exclusionary (binary): Each should wait until he/​ she is notified of his/​ her test results. Inclusive (any gender): Each should wait until they are notified of their test results. Inclusive (student whose chosen pronouns are they/​ them/​ theirs): Janani should wait until they are notified of their test results.

Recommendations for Working with Students Regarding Grammar and Usage •

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•

• •

Observe all of the General Usage Guidelines above when exploring language usage in classrooms, communicating with students, preparing curriculum and materials, designing class activities, and responding to student writing. Frame instruction in grammar and usage conventions with ongoing discussion of the inherently dynamic and evolving nature of language, rather than asserting, implicitly or explicitly, that grammar and usage rules are timeless, universal, or absolute. Language shifts; make that part of the classroom conversation. When the gender of a singular antecedent is unknown, allow and encourage students to use the gender-​neutral singular pronouns they, them, their, and theirs, rather than using binary alternatives such as he/​she, he or she, or (s)he. Allow students who choose not to refer to themselves with any pronouns to self-​ describe as they see fit, according to context. Note that while a rising number of major print-​language authorities such as those noted in the General Usage Guidelines section now embrace the use of the singular pronoun they, makers of most standardized tests have not yet adopted this policy.Track the treatment of the singular they in the standardized tests your students may be taking and apprise students accordingly, contextualizing differences among language authorities in a larger, ongoing discussion of language and usage as dynamic and evolving, not absolute or static.

Regarding Classroom Culture • •

• •

Work to establish and maintain classrooms and school communities where students of all gender identities feel visible, heard, valued, and protected. A student’s pronouns intersect profoundly with their gender identity and their sense of self; accordingly, as early as possible in any given term, give each student a private way to let you know their name and chosen pronouns.This process could be as simple as including the following questions on a basic student information sheet a student can fill out confidentially: “What name would you like me to use in referring to you in class?” and “What pronouns would you like me to use in referring to you in class?” Respect each student’s chosen name and pronouns. As any student does, LGBTQ students have a right to privacy, which includes the right not to be “outed.” As an article in the Fall 2018 issue of Teaching Tolerance makes clear, “Even if people within the school know about a student’s sexual orientation or gender identity, educators cannot disclose a student’s private information without consent. Outing LGBTQ students has led to tragic, even fatal consequences, and violates their constitutional rights” (Collins 26). In short, it is imperative to respect a

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•

student’s privacy and keep a student’s communication about gender identity confidential. A transgender student may or may not feel comfortable or safe having their gender identity known in all contexts, and therefore may not use the same pronouns in all contexts, even within one school. Maintain confidentiality, attention, and discretion in communicating with and about the student, and do not disclose any student’s gender identity in any setting without the student’s clear consent. Because, like other elements of identity, a student’s gender identity may be fluid rather than static, remain attuned to and supportive of possible shifts in a student’s chosen name and pronouns; again, maintain confidentiality and do not disclose any shift in a student’s gender identity without the student’s consent.

Regarding Curriculum Creation •

Create lessons and materials that discuss gender as a spectrum, and that include a range of gender identities, rather than inadvertently perpetuating a binary concept of gender or excluding transgender students through curricular and instructional choices.

For example: Seize and create classroom opportunities to discuss and challenge gender assumptions, particularly binary assumptions about gender. Avoid assuming binary gender identities by designing activities that divide the class into boys and girls. Avoid assuming binary gender identities when assigning readers or roles for texts being read aloud or performed. When facilitating discussions of the impact of gender identity on personal, social, or political experience, move beyond binary terms that compare and contrast the experiences of women and men to ensure that such explorations consider experiences of those with nonbinary identities as well. •

Understand that a student’s gender identity may impact their engagement with certain texts and/​or participation in certain conversations.

Recommendations for Working with ELA Colleagues • •

•

•

Observe all of the General Usage Guidelines above when working with ELA colleagues in any professional capacity. Become conversant with recent official affirmations of the singular they by usage and style authorities such as The Chicago Manual of Style (2017) and The Associated Press Stylebook (2018), and update colleagues on this area of active, ongoing language shift. When providing leadership to ELA teachers (for example, as an official or unofficial mentor, a department and division head, a curriculum coordinator, a principal, or a teacher-​educator), provide instruction and support, where needed, as trainees and colleagues expand their competency in using and teaching language that is free of gender bias. This NCTE position statement, as well as the resources listed at the end of it, can aid in that ongoing effort. When collaborating with other ELA colleagues in designing curriculum, implementing instruction, and selecting texts, materials, and media, observe the following practices:

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When teaching or discussing gender or identity, do not limit discussions to a binary understanding of gender and gender identity. Represent gender diversity in text selection, seeking to include not only books by or about cisgender people, but also texts written by transgender and nonbinary authors about transgender and nonbinary characters and experiences. Remain alert to the emergence of implicit or explicit gender bias in any given text, and engage with colleagues and in acknowledging, contextualizing, and challenging such discriminatory notions of gender, just as ELA colleagues work to acknowledge, contextualize, and challenge racial bias when it emerges in curricular texts. Such ongoing discussions with colleagues will inform essential critical discussions with students.

Recommendations for Administrators •

• • •

•

•

Observe all of the General Usage Guidelines above when working with, speaking with, writing for, or presenting to students at large, parents, or other school community members. Provide support to ELA professionals as those professionals in turn provide guidance in using language in a way that is free of gender bias. Conduct an internal audit of written material representing the school and/​or district and, where needed, direct the revision of material to eliminate binary language. In tandem with a language audit (C.), review other practices that may formally or informally press a nonbinary student to conform to binary categories (example: male/​ female formal-​wear requirements or expectations for graduation or dances). Ensure that all school/​district buildings include accessible gender-​inclusive restrooms, and that they are marked with signs phrased in nonbinary terms such as “All-​Gender Restroom.” Provide regular opportunities for proactive professional development for all teachers and staff to promote understanding of the nature of gender as a spectrum, and to nurture a safe and supportive school community for all members –​both students and adults –​of all genders.

Recommendations for Working with the Larger Professional Community • • • • •

Observe General Usage Guidelines above when writing for NCTE publications including journal articles, lesson plans, and social media communications. Participate in ongoing professional development for educators to succeed in countering bigotry, discrimination, and harassment of transgender students in education. Support the enforcement of laws and policies that provide sanctions against discrimination and harassment in education. Advocate for legislative reform that will lead to policies that provide sanctions against discrimination in education based on sexual orientation and/​or gender identity. Coordinate with educational constituents of various sorts –​ELA teachers and other colleagues, members of the larger school community, and members of the larger professional community  –​to participate actively in public conversations about gender diversity and how to support students of all gender identities.

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References The Associated Press Stylebook. The Associated Press, 2018. The Chicago Manual of Style. 17th ed. The University of Chicago Press, 2017. Collins, Cory. “LGBTQ Best Practices Guide.” Teaching Tolerance, Fall 2018, pp. 24–​26. Guidelines for the Gender-​Fair Use of Language. NCTE, 2002.

Resources Terminology Corcione, Danielle. “How to Use Gender Neutral Words  –​and Why They’re Important.” Teen Vogue, August 27, 2018. www.teenvogue.com/​story/​how-​to-usegender-​neutral-​words. Teen Vogue has become well known recently for in-​depth reporting on serious topics that impact adolescents. This article presents a clear, accessible, and useful guide for both adults and “youth who aspire toward language use that is gender-​neutral and gender-​fair.” “Gender Pronouns and the Singular ‘They’.” The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL). https://​owl.purdue.edu/​owl/​general_​writing/​g rammar/​pronouns/​gendered_​pronouns_​ and_​singular_​they.html. The OWL, to which many teachers refer their students for guidelines on writing, grammar, usage, research, and documentation, added this helpful discussion of gender-​ inclusive language in 2017. This article discusses the use of singular they through centuries of English, as well as the importance of singular they today. “The Gender Unicorn.” Trans Student Educational Resources. www.transstudent.org/​ gender/​. The Gender Unicorn offers a visual explanation of how gender identity, gender expression, and sex assigned at birth are different identity categories. It also includes definitions of each term. “Key Terms and Concepts in Understanding Gender Diversity and Sexual Orientation Among Students.” American Psychological Association, 2015, www.apa.org/​pi/​lgbt/​ programs/​safe-​supportive/​lgbt/​key-​terms.pdf. This comprehensive terms guide is one pamphlet in a series, “Promoting Resiliency for Gender Diverse and Sexual Minority Students in Schools,” which presents research-​based best practices meeting the needs of LBGTQIA+ students. “Nonbinary Gender Pronouns.” University of Minnesota Student Writing Support. http://​writing.umn.edu/​sws/​quickhelp/​g rammar/​nonbinary.html Provides a declension chart of some of the most common nonbinary pronouns, including the singular they, as well as others such as ze/​zir/​zirs and ey/​em/​eirs. “Pronouns:  A Resource for Educators.” GLSEN. www.glsen.org/​article/​pronounsresource-​educators GLSEN is one of the most prominent LGBTQIA+ organizations working to support students, schools, GSAs, educators, and allies. This pronoun guide directly supports and explores more inclusive language choices in the classroom. Other resources abound on the site. “Resources.” International Pronouns Day. https://​pronounsday.org/​resources/​. Page includes helpful very short videos such as “Pronouns: How Do You Ask?”

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Sojwal, Senti. “What Does ‘Agender’ Mean? 6 Things to Know About People with Non-​ Binary Identities.” Bustle. September 16, 2015, www.bustle.com/​articles/​109255-​what-​ does-​agender-​mean-​6-​things-​to-​know-​about-​people-​with-​non-​binary-​identities. Article discusses what it means to identify as agender. Steinmetz, Katy. “Beyond ‘He’ or ‘She’: The Changing Meaning of Gender and Sexuality.” Time. March 16, 2017, http://​time.com/​4703309/​gender-​sexuality-​changing/​. Article considers understandings of gender and sexuality in relation to young people in schools and includes survey data from young adults. Tobia, Jacob. “Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Gender-​Neutral Pronouns.” Time. May 12, 2016, http://​time.com/​4327915/​gender-​neutral-​pronouns/​. A helpful introductory guide to gender-​neutral pronouns in a question-​and-​answer format. For educators newer to the topic, this is a helpful place to start –​with a piece that poses many common questions you may already be asking yourself  –​before exploring more robust sources.

Resources for Addressing Gender Diversity with Students Butler-​Wall, Annika et  al. Rethinking Sexism, Gender, and Sexuality. Rethinking Schools, 2016. This anthology contains suggestions for how to include topics such as gender, sexism, and feminism within a social justice curriculum. Gittelman, Maya. “5 Ways to Help Kids Think Outside the Gender Binary.” The Body Is Not An Apology. July 27, 2018, https://​thebodyisnotanapology.com/​magazine/​5-​ways-​to-​ help-​kids-​think-​outside-​the-​gender-​binary/​. Presents practical ways to help students consider gender beyond the binary. Harbin, Brielle. “Teaching Beyond the Gender Binary in the University Classroom.” Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. https://​cft.vanderbilt.edu/​guides-​sub-​ pages/​teaching-​beyond-​the-​gender-​binary-​in-​the-​university-​classroom/​ Although intended for university educators, this adaptable resource explains the significance of language use in the classroom, particularly in working with gender diverse students who are actively defining and expressing their identities, and seeking support from allies and educators. Miller, S., editor. Teaching, Affirming, and Recognizing Trans* and Gender Creative Youth:  A Queer Literacy Framework. Palgrave Macmillan, 2016. In this award-​ winning anthology, ELA teachers of all levels can find examples from research and practice, as well as sample lessons for teaching about gender beyond the binary. A glossary is included for reference. Miller, S. About Gender Identity Justice in Schools and Communities. Teachers College Press, forthcoming (2019). This book seeks to disrupt the default through which a dominant gaze tends to view life through a cisgender and cisnormative lens and provides ways to change the exclusionary

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political, economic, and affective practices and their subsequent conditions that have created gender identity injustice in the first place. By moving away from presumptions that sustain cis-​and gender identity normative defaults and resetting and recasting it to and through expansive lenses, it foregrounds new starting points for gender identity work. Pennell, Summer Melody. “Training Secondary Teachers to Support LGBTQ+ Students: Practical Applications from Theory and Research.” The High School Journal, vol. 101, no. 1, January 2017, pp. 62–​72. This article includes an easy-​to-​execute activity for exploring how our ideas of gender are shaped by our society. Ryan, Caitlin L., and Jill M. Hermann-​Wilmarth. Reading the Rainbow: LGBTQ-​Inclusive Literacy Instruction in the Elementary Classroom. Teachers College Press, 2018. Ryan and Hermann-​Wilmarth include examples from several elementary classrooms where teachers encourage students to challenge assumptions about gender, gender identity, and gender expression through working with books about LGBTQ+ and straight characters. Shared activities allow teachers to measure student progress toward essential literacy goals. Tempel, Melissa Bollow. “It’s OK to Be Neither.” Rethinking Schools, vol. 26, no. 1, Fall 2011, www.rethinkingschools.org/​articles/​its-​ok-​to-​be-​neither-​teaching-that-​supportsgender-​variant-​children. This article shares one teacher’s story of supporting a gender variant student and offers suggestions for talking to early-​ elementary aged children about gender variance and stereotypes.

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Advocacy Organizations Gender Spectrum. www.genderspectrum.org/​resources/​education-​2/​#more-​424 Gender Spectrum offers educators and school communities a wide variety of professional development tools, including language guides, a gender inclusive schools toolkit, and a sample gender support plan for administrators working to support gender diverse students. Trans Student Educational Resources. www.transstudent.org/​about/​ Founded and led by trans youth,TSER is “dedicated to transforming the educational environment for trans and gender nonconforming students through advocacy and empowerment.” Website includes links to many resources for students and those who support students. Transparent USA. https://​transparentusa.org/​resources/​educational-​materials/​. Transparent’s website includes links to a wide variety of helpful resources for families and educators.

Statement Authors This document was composed by the following working committee: Ellie DesPrez, chair, John Burroughs School, St. Louis, MO Damián Baca, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ

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Mollie Blackburn, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH Andy Chen, John Burroughs School, St. Louis, MO Justin A. Coles, Fordham University, New York, NY Michael Domínguez, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA fahima ife, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA Summer Melody Pennell, Truman State University, Kirksville, MO Stephanie Anne Shelton, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL The committee thanks sj Miller, University of Wisconsin-​Madison, for formative leadership and ongoing support, and also thanks the students, teachers, and editors who provided feedback along the way. This position statement may be printed, copied, and disseminated without permission from NCTE.

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APPENDIX SIGNS OF THEM

This section contains an ever-​g rowing collection of images of the use of they/​ them/​their pronouns where other pronouns may have appeared in the past, showing physical evidence of the Great Pronoun Shift.

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As far as I  know, there is no evidence that Alice Deal was nonbinary. (All other references to the middle school are it.)

Photo credit: H. Krauthamer

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Nowadays, one would never know from whom or where or when the ride is coming, so why not blame the late ride on them?

Photo credit: H. Krauthamer

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I have been informed that it is not unlikely that a patient can present as male but be pregnant, thus making this sign completely reasonable, but I would still interpret this as evidence of the Great Pronoun Shift.

Photo credit: H. Krauthamer

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The singular they has even joined the Black Lives Matter movement.

Photo Credit: Diane Krauthamer

13

INDEX

Note: page references in bold are tables; in italic are figures acceptance, 40–​41, 105–​106; of neopronouns, 95; research on, 45–​46; stages of for singular they, 76; by teachers, students and writers, 117 Ackerman, Lauren, 37 ACR 260 (pronoun legislation, Ca.), 3 activities, 15–​16, 30, 47, 65, 77, 86, 98, 107–​108, 117 AI, pronouns and, 53, 104 ain’t, 14–​15 Airton, Lee, 35, 106 Alexa, pronouns and, 53 Allah, pronouns for, 84 Alphachanneling (artist), 24–​25 American Psychological Association (APA), 55 Amherst College, 83 “Androcentrism in Prescriptive Grammar” (article, Bodine), 13 Andy, Fallon, 38 Animals and Media, 55 animals, pronouns for, 53–​58, 55–​57 Another Life (web TV show), 43 Arcadia (Sidney), 28 Arnold, June, 11, 42 Aroused (Epstein), 115 Asimov, Isaac, 61 Associated Press, 29, 45, 55 Austen, Jane, 23 Austin, John L., 92

baby boomers, nonbinary gender and, 40 Baker, Sheridan, 13 Balhorn, M., 76 Baranowski, M., 76 Baron, Dennis, 4, 10, 58, 82, 105 Baum, Frank L., 43 Baumgarten, Linda, 73 Bedford Handbook for Writers,The (Hacker), 14 Bejan, Teresa,  75 Berlin, B., 36 Bible, gendered pronouns and, 81–​83. See also God; Goddess; religious pronouns Big Spirit, 85 Billions (TV show), 43 binary thinking: color spectrum and, 36–​37; irrelevance of gender binary and, 36; non-​binary terms for gender in other cultures, 38 biosocial gender, 37, 37 Black Lives Matter, 111, 132 Bodine, Ann, 13 Bongiovanni, Archie, 116 Boozer (baby), 2 brain studies, 38, 106 Brantley, Ben, 28 Broadway, pronouns on, 28–​29 Brown, P., 76 Brown, Roger, 74 Buddhism, 85

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Bugis (Indonesian people), gender terms of, 38 Butler, Octavia, 42 California, pronoun legislation in (ACR 260), 3 Canadian Bill C-​16, 3 Cao, Caroline, 28 cars, feminine pronouns for, 53, 58 cats, pronoun survey, 55, 55 “Case for Nonsexist Language, The” (article, Martyna), 11 change, pronouns and, 70, 77, 102, 107; in feminine pronouns, 70; feminism and, 76; historical evidence of, 69; loss of thou/​thee and, 71–​77; politeness theory and, 76–​77; Quakers and you replacing thee/​thou, 72, 74–​75, 101–​102; social class and, 73–​74, 101, 107; they/​them/​ their rise, 75, 75–​77, 106. See also Great Pronoun Shift; history, pronouns and Chicago Manual of Style, 3, 45, 55 Chick the Cherub (nonbinary character), 43 Child Language: Aphasia and Phonological Universals (Jakobson), 102–​103 Children’s Talk (Garvey), 102–​103 Cleaning up Biased Language: Toward Creating an Inclusive Society (Eighth Day Center for Justice), 81 collective nouns, 24, 64 College Writing Skills with Readings (Langan), 14 color spectrum, language and, 36–​37 Communications of the ACM, 105 confusion, pronouns and, 25 Conrod, Kirby, 92 consistency, need for in pronoun use, 115 content/​form words, 5–​7, 101; brain imaging studies on vs. function/​ structure, 8–​9; as open class, 7–​8; pronouns as, 11–​12, 15 continuums, language as breaking up of, 36 Cook and the Carpenter,The (Arnold), 11, 42 Corpus of Historical American English, 72, 72, 73, 75 Cossman, Brenda, 3 countries, pronouns for, 59, 64 Cowper, E., 39, 76, 92, 106 Crystal, David, 103 Cultured, 24 “Current Generic Pronoun Use” (article, Meyers), 105 Curzan, Anne, 13

days of the week, feminine pronouns for, 53 DC Will Fine You for Calling a Transgender Person the ‘Wrong’ Pronoun (headline), 1–​2 “Dawn Revisited” (poem, Dove), 53 “dear white America” (poem, Smith), 26 Devin-​Norelle,  116 Diaz, M.T., 8 Dickens, Charles, 23 Dillon, Asia Kate, 41 Dixie Chicks, 104 dogs, pronouns and, 55, 55 Dove, Rita, 53 duality of patterning, 36 Early Modern English: third person singular pronouns in, 70, 71. See also Shakespeare, William El, 44 English: as gendered language, 40; loss of thee/​thou/​thy/​thine, 12, 46, 69, 71–​75, 72–​73; neuter pronouns in, 69–​70; pronouns examples from Old, Middle and Early Modern, 13, 69–​71, 70–​71, 102; they in, 22 “Epicene Neologisms in English” (article, Livia), 42 Epstein, Randi Hutter, 115 equity, pronouns and, 75 Erickson, Eric, 93 Eskimo-​Inuit languages,  40 everyone, choice of possessive pronoun and, 12 “Every Poem Is Political” (article, Kelleway), 26 Exploring non-​binary genders: Language and identity (Cordoba), 39 Express (newspaper), 24 fae/​faer, 44 failed pronouns, 10, 105 Fausto-​Sterling, Anne,  115 Feinberg, Leslie, 96 feminine pronouns, 15, 43; animals/​pets and, 56–​57; for God/​dess and, 81–​82; inanimate objects and, 53, 58–​60, 60; in Middle English, 70, 71; schools and, 63–​64 feminism, 74, 83; generic he and, 4; pronoun change and, 76 fireman, as gendered language, 40

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First Amendment, preferred pronouns and, 41 Fisher, Anne, 70 Fleenor, S. E., 42–​43 Florida International University Law Review, 41 free speech, 3 function/​structure words, 5–​7, 15, 25, 68, 101; brain imaging studies on vs. content/​form, 8–​9; as closed class, 7–​8; pronouns as, 9–​11 Garvey, Catherine, 102–​103 Garvin, Jeff, 96 Gen Z: nonbinary gender and, 40; pronoun problem and, 1 gender: 13 terms for in U.S. culture, 38–​39; binary thinking on based on male/​female brain similarities, 38; biosocial gender (bone image depicting), 37, 37; color as having more terms for than, 37; gender complexity, 37, 37, 38; gender fluidity, 114; gendered pronouns for nonhumans (eg: cars, planets, animals), 53; inanimate objects and, 64–​65; intersex people and communities and, 114–​115; irrelevance of gender binary and, 36; National Council of English Teachers’ gender definitions, 45; non-​binary terms for in other cultures, 38, 40; origins of grammatical gender, 58–​59; socialization of from birth, 35; as a spectrum vs. binary, 35 Gender Census 2019: The Full Report (Worldwide), 46, 97 Gender Mosaic (Joel and Vikhanski), 38 gender-​neutral pronouns: as “trans-​ affirming language practice,” 39; God and Goddess and, 26–​27;  83; hen as in Sweden, 45–​46, 83; it (gender-​neutral pronoun), 4, 43; legislation for in Ca. (ACR 260), 3; LGBTQ+ students and pronoun acceptance, 23–​24; neologisitic pronouns for nonbinary people, 10; nonhuman antecedent pronoun use (it vs. their), 24; vs. pronoun agreement, 13; recognition of need for nonbinary people, 35; research on acceptance of, 45–​46; in science fiction, 41–​43; self-​ actualization and, 92–​95; singular they as norm, 44; style guides on, 3, 23, 29–​30, 39; they-​by (gender neutral pronoun), 2;

thon, 10; use of in publications, 24–​27, 30; vee/​ver, 43; y’all, 113; ze, zir, and zirself, 2; ze/​hir, 43; zhe/​zher, 43; zie/​zir, 43. See also singular they; they/​them/​their Gender: Your Guide (Airton), 35, 116 gendered language: English as, 40 generic he, 11, 13, 45, 76, 102–​105, 107; alternatives to, 4; persistence of, 42; pronoun problem and, 4, 11–​12, 113; stability of masculine pronouns and, 70 generic pronouns, 13 generic she, 104–​105 Gilman, Albert, 74 GLAAD (Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation), 29 Go-​Go’s, The,  28 God: gendered pronouns in Judeo-​ Christian and, 81–​83; masculine pronouns and, 80–​81, 84; pronouns for Allah in Islam, 84; pronouns for god/​ desses in Hindu, 84–​85; pronouns in Judaism, 80, 84; pronouns of, 26–​27; references to in Judaism, 80. See also religious pronouns Goddess, 81–​83; pronouns for in Hindu, 84–​85 Goldstein, Kurt, 93 Grammar and Gender (Baron), 10, 58 grammatical gender, 93; origins of, 58–​59 Great Pronoun Shift, 15, 46, 65, 98, 115; politeness theory and, 76–​77; singular they and, 65, 106–​107 Gross, Rita, 81 Guardian,The (newspaper), 26–​27 Gushue, Jen, 28 Hacker, Diana, 14 Hamlet (play, Shakespeare), 71–​72 Handbook of NonSexist Writing (Miller and Swift), 4, 54, 81, 113 harassment, 2–​3, 49, 125 Harris, James, 58, 82 Harvard Divinity School, 81 Harvard Law Review, 41 Haussamen, B., 64, 104, 111 he or she, 113; as alternate to generic he, 4; in NCTE guidelines, 45 he/​him/​his, 14; in Gender Census, 97; generic he and pronoun problem and, 4; stability of, 70; they as replacing, 75–​77; use in LGBTQ youth community, 44

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he/​she, 4, 44; for animals, 54; in NCTE guidelines, 45; for trans males and females, 2–​3 Head Over Heels (Broadway play), 28 hen (Swedish gender-​neutral pronoun), 45–​46 hermaphrodite, 85–​86, 115 him/​hers, 14 Hindu, pronouns and, 84–​85 hir, 43 his or her, 14 history, pronouns in: loss of thee/​thou/​ thy/​thine and, 12, 46, 69, 71–​75, 72–​73; pronoun examples from Old, Middle and Early Modern English, 69–​71, 70–​71; they/​them/​their rise, 75, 75–​77; they/​them/​their use, 13, 23, 30. See also Shakespeare, William horses, pronoun survey, 56, 57. See also animals, pronouns for How Language Works (Crystal), 103 How to Do Things with Words (Austin), 92 Huffington Post, 24, 35 Hurley, Kameron, 43 I, Robot (Asimov), 61–​62 Imago (Butler), 42 indefinite pronouns, 12, 14; singular they and, 14–​15 [insert] boy (poem, Smith), 27 intersex people and communities, 114–​115 Islam, pronouns for God in, 84 it, 4, 9, 42–​43; for animals, 54–​57; for animals/​pets per style guides, 56–​57; for collective nouns, 24, 64; for countries, 64; for inanimate objects (ships, cars, etc.), 59–​60, 60, 62, 63; as neuter third pronoun, 70; nonhuman antecedent pronoun use (it vs. their), 24; for robots, 61–​62; for tools, 60 Jakobson, Roman, 102–​103 Jimerson, Tristan,  116 jobs, gendered language and, 40 Joel, Daphna, 36, 38 John Dough and the Cherub (Baum), 43 Johnson, Anna, 11–​12 Judaism, pronouns for God in, 80, 84 Juxtapoz, 24 Kay, P., 36 Kelleway, Kate, 26

Kess, Joseph, 103 Konnelly, L., 39, 76, 92, 106 LaBerge, Peter, 27 Ladin, Joy, 84 Lakoff, Robin, 40 Langan, John, 14 language: American indigenous and gender terms, 38; as breaking up continuums, 36; child language acquisition, 103; for color spectrum, 36–​37; duality of patterning, 36; lavender linguistics (field of LGBTQ studies), 39; as linguistic becoming for nonbinary persons, 39–​40; outdated terms in, 40; respect as final word to guide use of, 117; Sapir-​Whorf hypothesis, 15, 40; segmentation in, 36 Language and Woman’s Place (Lakoff), 40 lavender linguistics, 39 Le Guin, Ursula K., 41–​42 Leap, William,  39 Left Hand of Darkness,The (Le Guin), 41 legal considerations, nonbinary genders and, 41 legislation, pronoun, 3 Levine, Sloth, 28 Levinson, S.C., 76 Lewis, Christian, 28 LGBTQ+ people and community, 2, 27–​28; lavender linguistics (field of LGBTQ studies), 39; lower suicide rates and reported respect for pronoun use, 44, 95; MOGAI identities (Marginalized Orientations Genders and Intersex) and, 90; pronoun acceptance and, 23–​24; Trevor Project survey on pronouns preferences, 44 linguistic becoming, nonbinary persons and, 39–​40 Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC), 12 Livia, Anna, 10–​11, 42, 81, 95 Lopez, Jennifer: use of singular they by, 2 MacKay, Donald, 11 mailman, as gendered language, 4, 40 man (as referring to ALL humans), 11 Manjoo, F., 106 Maracavanya (Stars War character), 43 Martyna, Wendy,  11 masculine pronouns, 15, 24, 27, 43; in English and older English, 69–​70; God and, 80–​83; inanimate objects/​

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Index  137

animals and, 53–​54, 58–​59; in other religions, 85–​86; planets and, 53, 58–​59; stability of, 70 masculinity, pronoun problem and, 4 Maslow, Abraham, 93 McCarthy, G., 8 “Meeting the Moment” (article, Petrusich), 104–​105 Middle English: feminine pronouns in, 70; third person singular pronouns in, 70, 71 Miller, Casey, 4, 12, 54, 58, 70, 81, 113. See also Handbook of NonSexist Writing, The (Miller and Swift) Mirhan, N., 38 Mirror Empire,The (Hurley), 43 misgendering, 53, 106, 111, 116 MOGAI identities (Marginalized Orientations Genders and Intersex), neopronouns and, 90–​91 moon, feminine pronouns and, 58–​60, 60 motorcycles, feminine pronouns for, 53 Murphy, J., 112 na (pronoun from science fiction book), 10–​11, 42 National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), 15, 24, 112; gender definitions and guidelines of, 45 National Survey on LGBTQ Youth Mental Health 2020, 44 Native American indigenous language: gender terms of, 38, 40; in religion, 85 Navajo, 85 ne, 2 neologistic pronouns. See neopronouns neopronouns, 7, 10–​11, 42, 44, 90, 96–​98, 105–​106; acceptance of, 95; MOGAI identity and website and, 90–​91; prodar (author neologism -​pronoun radar), 7, 15, 22, 53, 101, 111, 117; Pronoun Dressing Room and, 90–​92, 95; in science fiction, 10–​11, 42–​43, 95; self-​actualization and, 92–​95, 97; use in LGBTQ youth community, 44 neuter pronouns, 60, 62, 69–​70 New England Journal of Medicine,The, 39 New English Grammar (Fisher), 70 New York Times,The, 1–​2, 28–​29; GLAAD pronoun guide use by, 29 New Yorker,The (magazine), 25, 104–​105 news, pronouns in, 1–​3 Nickels, Jordan, 28–​29 Niditch, Susan, 83

nonbinary people and community, 3, 92, 107, 113; acceptance or resistance poll by generational group, 39–​40; gender designations on passports and, 41; Head over Heels reviews and, 28–​29; legal aspects of, 41; linguistic becoming and, 39–​40; list of fictional on Wikipedia, 43; neopronouns and, 10, 90–​91, 114; nonbinary plural identification, 28; options for on intake forms, 40–​41; pronouns as self-​actualization, 92; recognition of need for non-​gendered pronouns for, 35; rights of, 41; in science fiction, 41–​43; singular they as norm and, 44–​45, 115. See also binary thinking; gender nonhuman antecedent pronouns (it v. their), 24 Nosowitz, D., 102 Nunberg, Geoff, 117 Ogichidaa, Nenookaasi, 38 Old English, pronouns of, 69–​70, 70, 102 Olson, Ann, 93 Organism,The (Goldstein), 93 outdated terms, 40 Oxford English Dictionary, 76 Pank Magazine, 27 passports, gender selection lawsuits and, 41 Paterson, L. L., 76 PBS Newshour, 27 Peitzman, Louis, 29 Pennebaker, James, 8, 12 Peppermint, 28–​29 per (neologistic pronoun from science fiction), 11, 42 person (neologistic pronoun from science fiction), 11 Peterson, Jordan, 3 Petrossian, Zayn, 43 Petrusich, Amanda, 104 pets, pronouns for, 53–​58, 55–​57 Piercy, Marge, 11, 42 Pinsker, J., 102 Plain Speech of Quakers, 74–​75 planets, pronouns and, 53, 58–​60, 60 plural pronouns, 13, 23, 64, 75; third-​ person pp use by D.Smith (poet), 25–​27 Poetry (journal), 84 Poetry Foundation page, pronoun use on, 26 politeness theory, 76

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post-​truth,  3 Practical Stylist,The (Baker), 13 preferences, pronoun, 28–​29, 41, 44; asking people their, 29–​30 prodar (author neologism -​sensitivity to pronouns), 7, 15, 22, 53, 101, 111, 117 professions, gendered language and, 40 pronoun agreement, 9–​10, 112; vs. gender-​neutrality, 13; in writing, 4 Pronoun Dressing Room, neopronouns and, 90–​92, 95 Pronoun Envy (Livia), 80 “Pronouns of Power and Solidarity” (Brown and Gilman), 74 pronoun guides, 2, 13–​14; in universities, 2 Pronoun Problem, 1, 4, 113; everyone and, 12–​13; generic he and, 11–​12 pronouns: as “trans-​affirming language practice,” 39; AI and, 53, 104; automaticity of use, 46; on Broadway, 28–​29; classification of, 9; in the classroom/​for English teachers, 112–​113; consistency in use of, 115; as content words, 11–​12, 101; defined, 90, 111; as deserving own category, 107, 111; Erikson’s’ theory of psychosocial development and, 93–​94; failed pronouns, 10, 105; First Amendment and, 41; as function/​structure words, 9–​11, 25, 68, 107; generic he alternatives, 4; generic pronouns, 13; generic she, 104–​105, 107; God and, 26–​27, 80–​85; guidelines for respectful use of, 115–​17; he/​she for trans males and females, 2–​3; impacts on readers, 29; indefinite pronouns, 12; intersex people and communities and, 114–​115; learning to use new, 105–​106; legislation to replace he/​she with singular they, 3; LGBTQ+ students and pronoun acceptance, 23–​24; neuter pronouns, 60, 62, 69; in the news, 1–​3; nonhuman antecedent pronoun use (it vs. their), 24; online Pronoun Survey, 54, 54–​57, 55–​60, 60, 62, 63; per (neologistic pronoun from science fiction), 11, 42; persistence of, 42; for pets/​animals, 53–​58, 55–​57; plural pronouns, 13, 23, 25–​27, 64, 75; practicing use of, 116–​117; prodar (author neologism -​pronoun radar), 7, 15, 22, 53, 101, 111, 117; respect as final word to guide use of, 117; Reuters style

guide for, 29; Rogers’ theory and, 94; role of in speech and in writing, 4–​5; self-​actualization and, 92–​95, 97, 106; unstressed nature of in speech, 5; use of as revealing of status, personality, honesty, 12; writer’s use of, 4, 113–​15. See also change, pronouns and;  it; neopronouns; singular they Psycholinguistics: Psychology, Linguistics, and the Study of Natural Language (Kess), 103 psychosocial development, 93 publications, pronouns use in, 24–​27; as indicative of attitude of publication, 27–​28 Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL), 45 Pythio (play character), 28–​29 Quakers, 74–​75, 102 “queer” language, 39 Quick & Easy Guide to They/​Them Pronouns (Bongiovanni and Jimerson), 116 Quora, 59, 64 Raczka, Rachel, 24 radio broadcasts, loss of thou and, 73 Reis, E., 30 religious pronouns, 80, 85–​86; gendered pronouns in the Bible and, 81–​83; thou as, 72–​73, 102. See also God respect and pronouns: 25, 27–​30; animals and, 55; as final word to guide language, 117; lower rates of suicide for LGBTQ youth and, 44, 95; style guides and guidelines to ensure, 29, 115–​17 Reuters, pronoun usage at, 29 Revising the Rules (Haussamen), 104 Reynolds, Alastair, 43 rights, 41 Riley (character), 96–​97 robots, pronouns for, 60–​61; I, Robot (Asimov), 61–​62 Rogers, Carl, 94 Roomba, pronouns for, 53, 60 Ruday, S., 113 s/​he, 96; as alternate to generic he, 4 Sakurai, S., 30 Sanders, W., 106–​107 Sanskrit, 85 Sapir-​Whorf hypothesis,  15, 40 schools, pronouns and, 63–​65

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Index  139

science fiction: neologistic pronouns in, 10–​11, 42–​43, 95; nonbinary characters and pronouns in, 41–​43 Searle, John R., 92 Segal, Corinne, 27 segmentation in language, 36 self-​actualization, pronouns as speech act of, 92–​95, 97, 106 sexism in language, 4, 11, 113; generic he and, 11–​12 “Sexual Freedom? Not on Instagram” (article, Raczka), 24 sexual orientation, complexity of, 38 Shackelford, Ashleigh, 106–​107 Shakespeare, William, 7, 23, 69, 71–​72, 102. See also Early Modern English; history, pronouns in Shawnee State University, 27–​28 (s)he, 45 she/​her/​hers: in Gender Census, 97; generic she, 104–​105; inanimate objects and, 58; they as replacing, 75–​77; use in LGBTQ youth community, 44 ships, feminine pronouns for, 58–​59 Sidney, Sir Philip, 28 Silent generation, nonbinary gender and, 40 singular definite antecedent pronouns, 30, 106; use in publications (singular they), 24–​27 singular they, 2–​3, 11, 28–​30, 41, 43, 54; acceptance of, 23–​24, 45–​46, 76; for animals/​pets, 55, 57–​58; distinguishing between 5 grammatical uses of, 23, 30; in English language usage, 22; equity as goal of, 75; in Gender Census, 46, 97; gender-​neutrality vs. pronoun agreement and, 13; Great Pronoun Shift and, 65, 106–​107; Head over Heels reviews and, 28–​29; historical evidence of use of, 13, 23, 30, 75, 75–​77; indefinite pronouns and, 14–​15; in NCTE guidelines, 45; in the news, 1–​2; as norm in usage in gender fluid communities, 44, 115; pronoun agreement considerations, 112; rise of, 75, 75–​77, 103–​104, 106–​107; singular definite antecedent use in publications, 24–​27, 30; for students in classrooms, 112–​113; ubiquitusness of, 22–​23; as vague and plural, 12; as Word of the Year (American Dialect Society, 2016), 15. See also they/​them/​their

Siri, pronouns and, 53 Smith, Danez, 25–​27 snow, linguistic terms for, 40 social class, pronoun change and, 73–​75, 101, 107 social media backlash, 28 socialization of gender, 35 “Song of the Wreckage: [So me & the boys ride out to smoke] (poem, Smith), 27 speech acts, 92–​93 Speech Acts (Searle), 92 “Spoken For” (article, Chiasson), 25 Stack Exchange, 59–​60 Star Wars: Aftermath (Wendig), 43 Steel Breeze (Reynolds), 43 students, pronouns in classrooms for, 112–​113 style guides, 39, 45, 116; acceptance of gender-​neutral pronouns, 3, 23; for animals/​pets, 54–​57; gender-​neutral pronouns and, 29–​30; GLAAD style guide, 29; on inanimate objects/​animal pronoun use, 54; National Council of English Teachers’, 45; NCTE guidelines, 45; for respectful reference to transgender people, 29–​30; singular they in, 23, 116; in universities, 2 subject-​verb agreement,  64 suffragist v. suffragette, 12 suicide, lower rates of with respect for pronoun use, 44, 95 sun, masculine pronouns and, 58–​59 survey, online Pronoun, 54, 54–​57, 55–​60, 60, 62, 63 Sweden: God as gender-​neutral in, 83; hen as gender-​neutral pronoun and, 45–​46, 83 Swift, Kate, 4, 12, 54, 58, 70, 81, 113. See also Handbook of NonSexist Writing, The (Miller and Swift) Switch (Canadian TV show), 43 Symptoms of Being Human (Garvin), 96–​97 tag approach, singular they and, 14 thee/​thou/​thy/​thine, 12, 46, 69, 71–​75, 72–​73; Quakers and, 74–​75, 101–​102 THEY 2019 conference, 37, 44 they-​by (gender neutral pronoun), 2 they/​them/​their, 4, 38, 46, 106–​107; for collective nouns, 24, 64; distinguishing between grammatical uses of, 23, 30; in Gender Census, 97; handbooks on usage with indefinite pronouns and, 14; for

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inanimate objects, 59, 62, 63; nonhuman antecedent pronoun use (it vs. their), 24; as plural third person pronoun, 23; potential unawareness of increased use of, 45; as replacing he and she, 75; research on acceptance of, 45–​46; rise of they, 75, 106–​107; in science fiction works, 42; ubiquitousness of, 22–​23; use in LGBTQ youth community, 44; use of in publications, 24–​27. See also singular they third person singular pronouns: in Middle English, 70, 71; in Old English, 69–​70, 70 thon (gender-​neutral pronoun), 10 Tobia, Jacob, 117 tools, pronouns for, 60–​63 transgender people and community, 1–​2, 28, 43; neopronouns and, 96; in other cultures, 38; preferred pronoun use incidents, 27–​28; pronouns as “trans-​affirming language practice,” 39; pronouns as self-​actualization, 92; style guides for respectful reference to, 29–​30. See also binary thinking; gender transitioning people and community, 3; pronoun preferences for, 44; transitioning characters, 2–​3. See also pronoun problem Transparent (TV show), 2, 43 Travertine, 43 Trevor Project surveys, 44, 95 United States Navy Commanding Officers Transgender and Gender Transition Toolkit, 3 universities, pronoun guides in, 2

Ushas (Goddess of Dawn, Hindu), 84–​85 Variety, 29 ve, 2, 95 vee/​ver, 43 Vikhanski, L., 38 Walker, Terry,  74 Washington, George and Martha, 73–​74 Washington Post (newspaper), 24 Welby, Justin, 83 Wendig, Chuck, 43 Wikipedia, 43; pronoun use on, 26 Willman, Chris, 29 Willsea, Jen, 35 Woman on the Edge of Time (Piercy), 11, 42 Word of the Year (American Dialect Society, 2016), 15 work, gendered language and, 40 Writer’s Digest, 54 writers, pronoun use and, 113–​15 xe/​xem/​xyr/​xyrs, in Gender Census, 97 xee/​xim, 44 y’all, 102, 113 you/​your/​yours, 12; change in and loss of thou/​thee and, 71–​77, 101–​102; regional variations, 102 ze, 2, 26, 43–​44, 46, 96, 114, 122; ze/​ hir, 43, 61 ze/​zir, 44 zhe/​zher, 43 zie/​zir, 43, 61

410