The Future of the Creative Industries: A Global Perspective [1 ed.] 1527512533, 9781527512535

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The Future of the Creative Industries

The Future of the Creative Industries:

A Global Perspective Edited by

Madhura Yadav and Sampath Kumar

The Future of the Creative Industries: A Global Perspective Edited by Madhura Yadav and Sampath Kumar This book first published 2023 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2023 by Madhura Yadav, Sampath Kumar and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-1253-3 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-1253-5

CONTENTS

Manipal University Jaipur, Celebrating Decennial Year ........................... ix Invited Speakers and Contributors.............................................................. x Preface ....................................................................................................... xi About Manipal University Jaipur ............................................................. xii About the Faculty of Design .................................................................... xiii Acknowledgments ................................................................................... xiv Message from the Dean ............................................................................ xv Message from the Director ...................................................................... xvi Chapter One ................................................................................................ 1 Pottery in Interior Designing: Art and Craft Creativity of Kumhar Community in India Amit Kumar and Rabindranath Sharma Chapter Two ............................................................................................. 13 Posture Analysis and Identification of Musculo-Skeletal Disorders in Deliverymen and Users while Transporting LPG Gas Cylinders Rahul Hareesh, Anup Hengade, Jonathan Shajan, Paramesh Krishnan, Nishant Reddy and Niloy Lahiri Arunachalam Muthiah Chapter Three ........................................................................................... 27 Dialogues and Advocacy for Sustainable Urban Greenspaces in the Urban Planning Process Akanksha Sangwan, Nand Kumar and Ashwani Kumar

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Chapter Four ............................................................................................. 51 Assessing Sustainability in Transforming Urban Form of Historic Towns: Case Study Badami Monica Kashkari and Tejwant Singh Brar Chapter Five ............................................................................................. 64 Urban Development in Post Liberalisation Era Swasti Sharma, Satish Pipralia, Ashwani Kumar, Bhavna Shrivastava and Bansari Sharma Chapter Six ............................................................................................... 84 New Planning Approach to Optimize Resource Utilization in Sustainable Housing Anil Kumar and Akshay Gupta Chapter Seven......................................................................................... 100 Transformations in the Vernacular Architecture of Row Houses: A Case Study of Kanyakumari S. Monika and Bhanu M. Marwaha Chapter Eight .......................................................................................... 130 Water Stress: Vulnerable Urban Areas Manish Sharma, Bansari Sharma, Nand Kumar and Ashwani Kumar Chapter Nine........................................................................................... 139 Cultural and Creative Industries: Exploring Connections with Cultural Heritage Harveen Bhandari, Kanika Bansal and Sunanda Kapoor Chapter Ten ............................................................................................ 154 Reading Architectural Heritage as Living Stories! Ritu Sharma Chapter Eleven ....................................................................................... 164 Design, Emotions, and Theories of Product Emotion: A Review Gaurav Vaidya and Pratul Ch Kalita Chapter Twelve ...................................................................................... 176 A Teaching Approach for Textile Waste Manipulation Upcycled Surface Design: An Approach to Sensitize Sustainability Dure Shehwar Mohibi

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Chapter Thirteen ..................................................................................... 188 Understanding the Role of Visualisation in Generating an Impact on Indian Communication Design Hemang Anglay Chapter Fourteen .................................................................................... 204 A Proposal for a Collection of Bags Made from an Original Recycled Plastic Lívia Juliana da Silva Solino, Aline Gabriel Freire, Antônia Lindemeres da Silva Bessa, Flávia Carla da Silva and Ítalo José de Medeiros Dantas Chapter Fifteen ....................................................................................... 217 Consumer Behavior Towards the Adoption of Sustainable Clothing Pratibha Mishra and Madhura Yadav Chapter Sixteen ...................................................................................... 229 Business Responsibility and Sustainability Reporting: How Prepared are Real Estate Companies? Siddhant Walia and Sneh Singh Chapter Seventeen .................................................................................. 238 Affordable Housing in India: A Study of Government Schemes Post Commencement of JNNURM Raunak Prasad and Rina Surana Chapter Eighteen .................................................................................... 270 Regeneration of Defunct Urban Industrial Area: A Sustainable Approach Sanjeev Pareek and Manoj Kumar Chapter Nineteen .................................................................................... 287 The Impact of Urban Traffic Jam: A Review Rohit Mathur and Roli Rai Chapter Twenty ...................................................................................... 298 An Overview on Urban Public Space Development of Indian MediumSized Towns Akshay and Madhura Yadav

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Chapter Twenty-One .............................................................................. 312 Influence of Conflict Over the Temples of Srinagar: Before and After the Exodus Smriti Saraswat Chapter Twenty-Two.............................................................................. 330 Challenges in Restoration of Kashi Mughal Miniature Painting Uma Shankar Prabhakar, Kusum Kanwar and Sampath Kumar Jinka Chapter Twenty-Three............................................................................ 343 The Indian Sari: Narrative of Creative Futures Vaibbhavi Pruthviraj Ranavaade Chapter Twenty-Four ............................................................................. 354 Visual Analysis of the Modes of Composition in the Woodcuts and Etchings of Artist Somnath Hore Namrita Sharma and Utpal Barua

MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR, CELEBRATING DECENNIAL YEAR

Dr. G.K. Prabhu Patron President, MUJ Dr. N.N. Sharma Co-Patron Pro- President, MUJ

Dr. Nitu Bhatnagar Co-Patron Registrar, MUJ

Dr. Madhura Yadav Conference Chair Dean Faculty of Design

Dr. J. P. Sampath Kumar Conference Chair Director School of Design and Art

Prof. Pratibha Mishra Convener Professor, Fashion Design

Prof. Sunanda Kapoor Convener HOD, Architecture

Dr. Anant Kumar Ozarkar Co-Convener HOD, Fine Arts

Ar. Sneh Singh Co-Convener HOD, Interior Design

INVITED SPEAKERS AND CONTRIBUTORS

Invited Speakers Ar. Yatin Pandya Keynote Speaker

Ar. Chitra K. Vishwanath Keynote Speaker

Dr. Toolika Gupta Keynote Speaker

Prof. Jay Thakkar Keynote Speaker

Contributors Ar. Bibhu Kalyan Nayak Organizing Secretory Associate Professor

Dr. Kusum Kanwar

Dr. Manish Sharma

Organizing Secretory Assistant Professor

Organizing Secretory

Ar. Siddharth Mishra Organizing Secretory Assistant Professor

Dr. Richa Jagatramka Organizing Secretory Assistant Professor

Ar. Akshay Gupta

Assistant Professor

Organizing Secretory Assistant Professor

PREFACE

As defined by UNESCO, creative industries consist of the "cultural industries, which include publishing, music, cinema, crafts, and design, continue to grow steadily apace and have a determinant role to play in the future of culture." A report by World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) 2015 confirms that the creative economy sectors of publishing, broadcasting, advertising, performing arts, crafts, and others considerably contribute to national GDP and wealth creation in both the formal and informal economies. Reports UNESCO, the industries contribute around "3 percent of the global GDP." The importance of creative industries is highlighted because the 74th United Nations General Assembly has announced 2021 as the International Year of Creative Economy for Sustainable Development. However, it is also ironic that due to many economic recessions at the global and local level, climate change, and more recently, the pandemic, have threatened many of these industries and the communities and individuals associated with them. Through the International Conference of Creative Futures (ICCF'22) hosted by Manipal University Jaipur (focused on the following disciplines and their sub and allied disciplines – Applied Art & Design; Built Environment; Fashion & Textiles; and Spatial Design & Interior Environments), we hope to be able to imagine just, resilient, safe, inclusive, and sustainable futures. The conference theme has been identified as follows: 1. Buildings and Urbanscape 2. Digital, Vocal, and Tangible Art 3. Moving and Still Arts 4. Fabrics and Fashion

ABOUT MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR

Manipal University Jaipur was launched in 2011 on an invitation from the Government of Rajasthan as a self-financed State University. MUJ has redefined academic excellence in the region with the Manipal way of learning, one that inspires students of all disciplines to learn and innovate through hands-on practical experience. Manipal Group in education is a name to reckon with in India and the world. The seeds of its magnificent growth were sown in 1953 by Padma Shree, Late Dr. TMA Pai. Manipal University Jaipur is the youngest member of the Manipal Education family. Due to its broad spectrum of academic and research programs covering almost all disciplines like Architecture, Engineering, Sciences, Management, Law, Arts, Journalism, imposing high-quality infrastructure, excellent faculty committed to achieving excellence. Manipal University Jaipur has already established itself as a premier university. Jaipur, one of India's fastest-growing cities, has an increasing demand for quality higher education in the region. Following an allotment of 122 acres of land at Dehmi Kalan village near Jaipur, the university's permanent campus has come up quickly. It is by far one of the best campuses in the region.

ABOUT THE FACULTY OF DESIGN

The design industry is one of the fastest growing industries of the 21st Century. Hence the demand for skilled designers has increased in the last few decades. Manipal University Jaipur aims to nurture it as one of its core strengths, with the mission to become the most preferred global destination in design education and research for students, researchers, faculty, collaborators, promoters, investors, and developers. The architecture school was set up in 2012, Faculty of Design (FOD) was established in 2014 to cater to escalating demands. Over time, the FOD has grown into two schools, namely, the School of Architecture & Design and the School of Design & Art, with many departments. In line with Manipal Group's legacy of providing quality education to its students, the Faculty of Design is backed by excellent infrastructure (which includes well-equipped laboratories and workshops and a dedicated FOD library. Over time, FOD has established institutional partnerships, recognition from professional societies, and achieved a high ranking from national accreditation bodies. At present Faculty of Design is offering undergraduate and postgraduate programs and Ph.D., which include B Arch, M Arch (Landscape), B Des & M Des (Interior Design), B Des (Fashion Design), BFA & MFA (Applied Art). In the future, it will offer more diverse programs and pathways based on the strategic direction and market needs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We convey our gratitude to our panel of reviewers, editorial team, and mentors, who extended their guidance and time, which have helped us to organize this event. We would also like to thank our entire leadership team for their motivation and administrative support for this conference. Finally, this event is an outcome of the combined efforts of all the faculty members, supporting staff, and students, who have worked for this event for the last several months. We acknowledge their contributions to making this event possible. We hope to continue this initiative in the future to facilitate peer learning in the fraternity of creative professionals. Regards The Organizing Team ICCF 2022

MESSAGE FROM THE DEAN

It is my great honor and pleasure to welcome you to the International Conference on creative futures during May 20-21, 2022, at the faculty of design at Manipal University Jaipur. A report by World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) 2015 confirms that the creative economy sectors of publishing, broadcasting, advertising, performing arts, crafts, and others considerably contribute to national GDP and wealth creation in formal and informal economies. Furthermore, reports UNESCO, the industries contribute around "3 percent of the global GDP." The importance of creative industries is highlighted because the 74th United Nations General Assembly has announced 2021 as the International Year of Creative Economy for Sustainable Development. However, it is also ironic that due to many economic recessions at the global and local level, climate change, and more recently, the pandemic, have threatened many of these industries and the communities and individuals associated with them. The International Conference of Creative Futures (ICCF'22) is focused on Applied Art & Design, Built Environment; Fashion & Textiles, Spatial Design & Interior Environments. We hope to be able to imagine just, resilient, safe, inclusive, and sustainable futures. We hope you'll join us in this exciting endeavor so we can reshape and create a better future for the next generation of students, faculty, and researchers in academia and industry. Dr. Madhura Yadav Dean Faculty of Design

MESSAGE FROM THE DIRECTOR

This first conference organized by the faculty of design of Manipal University Jaipur is based on broad themes of planning for Creative Futures that are resilient, sustainable, just inclusive, ethical, and safe across various disciplines. This conference aims to provide an opportunity for academicians, practitioners, consultants, scholars, researchers, and policymakers with different backgrounds and expertise to present and share their work experiences. In this book of abstracts, an attempt has been made by the faculty of design to put together design and research activities carried out by students, teachers, researchers, designers, artists, and the community at large deliberating upon new ideas, innovations, trends & advances looking into the future developments. This book should then serve as a guide to future young researchers and designers, who can contact the authors for the entire paper. We look forward to conducting such activities in the future and making this one a grand success. Dr. J.P. Sampath Kumar Director School of Design and Art

CHAPTER ONE POTTERY IN INTERIOR DESIGNING: ART AND CRAFT CREATIVITY OF KUMHAR COMMUNITY IN INDIA AMIT KUMAR1 AND RABINDRANATH SHARMA1 1

DEPARTMENT OF TRIBAL STUDIES, CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF JHARKHAND, RANCHI

Abstract Pottery is the art of crafting clay into various shapes and forms, visually communicating the human imagination and having an emotional connection. It includes some skills, creativity, and procedures from kneading the clay or soil to shaping the clay into various products, ultimately firing it to have visual forms. Clay craft is one of the most ancient practices of human civilization associated with the Kumhar or Prajapati community in India. The demand for pottery products is gaining momentum as materials for interior design in modern India. As a mix of cultural creativity and technology usage, contemporary pottery has become the objet d'art for homes, restaurants, malls, universities, etc. This chapter discusses the significance of pottery's art and craft creativity in interior design in the context of India. Keywords: pottery; craft; interior design; cultural creativity; Kumhar

I. Introduction Pottery is the art of crafting clay into many shapes and forms which visually communicates the human creative imagination in materialistic forms. Clay craft means making an object with clay, predominantly by hand, where functional and aesthetic considerations are equally important. Clay crafting is associated with the Kumhar community in India as they have pottery

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skills, which have been transferred to them from their ancestors. The current demands of pottery products have made them more creative with the help of technology, making them objects for interior design. For an appealing and elegant look, pottery items have been used for decorating purposes in homes, restaurants, academic institutions, museums, retail stores, and organizations. As they are eco-friendly and creative, pottery products are being used as luxurious materials and have become the prime choice for interior designers. Clay-made items may make people's lives more comfortable, joyful, entertaining, efficient, and organized without jeopardizing their health and safety, as imaginative home designs. Humans are inspired by creative interior design, which changes their lifestyle and allows them to appreciate the beauty of their surroundings and everyday objects. People's daily behavior, micro-cum-macroscale interpersonal relationships, multidimensional perceptions, emotional sentiments, and finally, bodily and mental wellness may all be positively influenced by a well-choreographed interior environment (Suh, 2020). The potters in India have much more scope in the future. They can play an essential role in interior design with the help of their clay craft creativity. This chapter discusses the significance of pottery's art and craft creativity in interior design in the context of India.

II. Pottery as Interior Design: Historical Background It cannot be said that pottery products have only recently been used for interior design. Evidence shows that even ancient people used glazed clay craft materials to look attractive and luxurious. The Pannonian Plain's Bronze Age was a vibrant time during which several different groups of cultures were discovered. Such ancient peoples had different burial customs, settlement types, and pottery decorating traditions, represented in complicated national chronologies. The range and number of painted clay containers increased throughout the Bronze Age (2500–800 BC), including various types of Nagyrév pottery bowls, jugs, cups, pedestalled jars, hanging vessels, and storage containers. Another type of design is a sequence of incised motifs set in bands or vertical fields around the pot or covering the whole outside of the vessel (Fig. 1). Triangular symbols, textures, dot marks, vertical and horizontal outlines, and L-shaped and steplike patterns are among the most common geometric motifs. These designs may be found on various surfaces, including decorations on the walls of houses, carved bone, and boar tusk, and they were most likely also used on clothing and as body adornment. The vast majority of ornamented fine ware bowls (Fig. 2) throughout the Bronze Age of the Carpathian Basin are found

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to be of exceptionally good quality and technically healthily manufactured, reflecting an investment of both material and skill above that of ordinary domestic goods (Sofaer, 2017).

Figure 1: Nagyrév vessel (Matrica Museum, Százhalombatta). Photo Source: Sofaer, J. (2017). Pots and Stories: Creativity and Design in the Bronze Age of the Pannonian Plain. J. S. Lise Bender Jørgensen, Creativity in the Bronze Age (Understanding Innovation in Pottery, Textile, and Metalwork Production) (pp. 221234). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108344357.026

Ancient kings from various locations used glazed pottery wares. Some notable Islamic princes asked potters from the Middle East to travel to India in the 12th century AD, ushering in the era of glazed pottery. Gujarat offers examples of beautiful glazed clay artifacts or pottery with Persian designs and Indian concepts dating back to the Sultanate period. Glassy-looking pottery is only produced in a few locations in the country, depending on demand. Later, in the 13th century, glazed ceramic wares became quite famous when Turkic princes invited pottery people from Persia, Central Asia, and other areas of the globe to settle in what is now the northern section of India. These glazed pottery goods were seen as a sign of economic affluence (Indian Pottery, 2021).

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Figure 2: Decorated turban clay-made rim bowls from Vukovar Lijeva Bara, Croatia. Sun motif (left); Wheel motif (right) of the Bronze age. Photo Source: Sofaer, J. (2017). Pots and Stories: Creativity and Design in the Bronze Age of the Pannonian Plain. J. S. Lise Bender Jørgensen, Creativity in the Bronze Age (Understanding Innovation in Pottery, Textile, and Metalwork Production) (pp. 221234). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108344357.026

Terracotta and ceramic designs, as well as natural fiber products, are used practically all over India. In India, pottery has had various forms, from the renowned Longpi pottery of Manipur to the black clay pottery of Nizamabad. Longpi has a dark appearance and gets its color from the powder of the stone called black serpentinite, while black clay pottery gets its color when the clay-made products are carbonized by fire along with ingredients like the bark of mango trees and bamboo leaves. This also spreads to interior design and architecture, as seen in the clay dwellings of the Kutch area of Gujarat. Walls built of bamboo chips and clay plastered with Lipan (a clay and dung combination) were embellished with an intricate bas-relief created with the help of the thumb and index finger (Desai, 2017).

III. Interior Design The term interior design has sometimes been considered as interchangeable with the term interior architecture. Although there is some overlap between the notions of interior design and interior architecture, both phrases have distinct meanings in the field of interiors, making them somewhat contradictory. Interior designers and architects deal with most structural renovations. Technically, the interior designer or architect develops the whole construction and structure inside the houses and is involved in the design process. They collaborate with builders, contractors, and technicians to make rebuilding or renovating an existing facility go as smoothly as

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possible. Interior design, on the other hand, is more concerned with aesthetics. Interior design is an architectural and space planning profession that focuses on creating expressive and visually satisfactory designs for homes and business offices inside buildings (MasterClass, 2020). Interior space design is an essential aspect of the architecture profession. Following the advent of interior decorating as a 'new' profession in the latter half of the 19th century, the recognition of interior design and architecture was predominantly seen in the 20th century. This split has created a source of friction that stems from conceptual disparities in the sectors' pedagogies and exacerbated by a conflict of interest between the interior design and architecture professions. Architects are taught to think in three dimensions: purity, geometry, philosophy, and idea maintenance. On the other hand, interior designers (who are lumped together with decorators to distinguish themselves from interior architects) are often concerned with people's comfort and the quality of two-dimensional surfaces, according to the findings of the study conducted by Meltem Gürel and Joy K. Potthoff (2006). The concepts of interior design (e.g., selecting furniture design and layout, interior ingredients and textures, attractive ornamental elements, color theory) were not well addressed by interior architecture (Potthoff, 2006).

Figure 3: Clay-made vase ready for selling. Photo: Amit Kumar

Figure 4: Clay-made vase used inside the home. Photo: Amit Kumar

Diverse terminology, such as interior decorator, interior designer, and interior architect, also contributes to the uncertainty in defining the scope, possibilities and duties of interior design. As one might expect, an interior decorator's work focuses on managing the attractive look of rooms with artwork, fixtures, and lighting; an interior designer's work entails the

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selection and planning of the fixtures, finishes, and renovation of the available space; and an interior architect's work entails the allocation of innovative spaces with sturdier architectural interdependence, taking into account the architectural factors and site. So, interior design is a creative profession that aims to create settings that satisfy people's requirements and enrich their lives. The interior designers develop a strategy for innovative design, take care of ergonomics and build areas where people live, work, study, and play, and participate in various activities satisfactorily. Because of the multidimensional approach of interior designers, the places where various activities are performed show the diverse range and scope of people associated with it for a better environment for businesses and homes (Suh, 2020). The pictures in figures 3, 4, 5, and 6 give a better visualization of the pottery used for interior design, decoration, and architecture in today’s India.

Figure 5: Clay art made on the wall of the restaurant in Ranchi, Jharkhand Photo: Amit Kumar

Figure 6: Clay art made on the wall of the house in Ranchi, Jharkhand Photo: Amit Kumar

IV. Art and Craft Creativity in Interior Design Arts and crafts are the results of creativity flowing into the human mind. In the guise of culture, creativity may be found everywhere. There is creativity when there are problems and ideas. In simple terms, culture is the 'background' of invention, i.e., the product as the outcome (Yong Shao, 2019). Examples of creativity are playing, thinking, making, finding, dreaming, and exploring the natural environment. It is the result of the human mind and includes a variety of creative processes. It is more focused on the process of creating concepts and ideas for goods. ‘Both originality and utility or appropriateness are required for creativity’ (Jaeger, 2012).

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Terracotta and clay are popular for emerging businesses and designers because of their originality, appropriateness, versatility, and durability. The Indian Kumhar believe their traditional crafts have survived and are earning appropriate attention because of innovative design inputs. Crafts may be revitalized and brought back into the contemporary space with the proper sustainable design. Brahmadeo Ram Pandit, a Mumbai-based potter, won the Shilp Guru award in India and was also awarded the Padma Shri for his contributions in the field of clay craft creativity (Desai, 2017). Figure 7 depicts one of his unique ceramic designs. Clay craft is a kind of Kumhar creativity, and this natural association of the Kumhar people highlights their distinctiveness. They mold clay into communicative arrangements and record the clay's plasticity. Clay is the same for the Kumhar and us, but they molded it into various forms that are presented, glazed, and ornamented, and have a purpose in everyday life. When you look at any Kumhar idol or object, it appears to be talking, transmitting some message; this is what creativity accomplishes. Creativity helps to address the physiological and psychological needs of people's environment through interior design. An overview of outlines and guidelines for interior design demands numerous ‘Interior components, materials, and furniture’ while considering economic and environmental concerns. The importance of ideas, methods, theory, practice, and development in comprehending interiors is highlighted by the fusion of such concepts (Vouchilas, 2011). Interior designers need to be creative, and one of the major purposes of higher education is to foster creative problem-solving abilities; yet, design is a complicated and enigmatic activity that includes ‘many intangible aspects, such as intuition, imagination, and originality.’ Thus, in deducing the creative design process from observations of the behavior of designers who created artifacts such as sketches, interviews, etc., the study of designers' verbal procedures is complex and only partial. So far, the complex link between interior design and creativity has only been studied in bits and pieces. We discuss internal design creativity in terms of product (qualities of creative interior design), process (strategies for creative output), and person from the standpoint of the invention as a complex phenomenon (prerequisites for creative interior designers) (Suh, 2020).

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Figure 7: Ceramic pottery. Photo Courtesy: Brahmadeo Ram Pandit

We examine the unique relationship between creativity and designing by presenting a synthesizing framework for a domain-specific understanding of creativity in interior design rather than dealing with creativity in general. Aesthetics is one of the significant objectives of an interior designer so that the living space or working space can be full of energy and give positive psychological satisfaction. Clay craft materials have a tendency to help make people calm, satisfied, and responsible for environmental sustainability. The study of people's reactions to ecological items, mainly manufactured or artificial artifacts like clay craftwork or other artwork, is known as aesthetic psychology. Predilections, fondness, attractiveness, and different sorts of evaluative assessments, as well as emotional responses, are all examples of aesthetic experiences (see Fig. 8). As per the Indian belief system, using pottery products can calm the senses of humans, e.g., drinking water in clay made pots, the taste of cooked food in an earthen pot, etc. (Sarma, 2021). Each aesthetic encounter is the consequence of a complex interplay between the features of the object of attention, the person interacting with it, and the environment in which the incident occurs. Because the things that individuals produce are frequently viewed aesthetically by others, aesthetics and creativity are inextricably linked (P.L.Tinio, 2020). By considering the project type, the socio-cultural environment, and the customer demands, creative interior designers try to produce innovative aesthetics to look at the given place. As a result, aesthetics plays a vital role in interior design, occupying two primary realms: visual and spatial, and involving the pictorial facets of a space, such as color, the surface finishing of space, and its shape; or the amplification of the three-dimensional experience, such as longitudinal quality, organization, or space sequence. In creative interior design, aesthetics represents the space's intrinsic quality that incorporates a more humane and sensual experience that appeals to the field of vision, sound, aroma, grasp, and taste.

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Figure 8: Clay-made goods kept at a selling store. Photo: Amit Kumar

Clay is a timeless and dateless substance, and things made of it may survive for generations. Clay-made pots not only provide information about the history of a location; they also give a vivid image of the people who lived there and their way of life and cultural practices. They encapsulate the traditions, techniques, and cultures of the past time in which they were created. They are nothing less than a snapshot from a historical period. Clay crafts and artifacts from archaeological sites, such as bull carts, pots, stamps, and other pottery items, depict the history and culture of a bygone era, whereas contemporary artifacts, such as a man riding a bicycle, modern art sculptures, and fashionable jewellery depict contemporary styles and cultures. Clay was not just a creative material for beautiful ornaments, cutlery, and other items; it was also an essential aspect of ancient construction processes. The terracotta sculptural pattern tiles engraved on the facade of clay and terracotta temples in West Bengal still hold strong (Gupta, 2008). Expertise, knowledge, skill sets, techniques, and so on are all prerequisites for creativity from the standpoint of a potter. Flexibility, adaptability, openmindedness and intense concentration are qualities for ideas that are transformed into visual forms with the assistance of clay idols and objects. Some people, such as members of the Kumhar group, are born with creativity, but it may also be developed to some extent. Education and occupational training can be used to earn the prerequisites. Furthermore, cognition and a thoughtful style are flexible and may be learned with practice. An interior designer must be familiar with current design trends, technological advancement, systems, structure, human behaviour, legislation, and visual insight. The designer can quickly extract relevant information

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and resources when his experience and knowledge create a repository. The ‘adaptable mind’ is similar to the ‘flexible mind,’ which is the attitude of adapting to new, varied, and changing conditions. Open-mindedness is a person's attitude toward design that is free of prejudice or biases. Without flexibility, one is more inclined to stick to one's original concept, existing knowledge, or previous experience rather than exploring new ideas or ways. Adaptability to new ideas, images, and resources appropriate for the new project and current knowledge are required to be more flexible in the creative space. A great concept for one co-working space may not be successful for another; the notion may be too well-known, eliciting no more originality. The significant demands of creative designs are not just knowledge and competence but also acceptance, flexibility, open-mindedness, and adaptability to approach the issue from a new and innovative viewpoint (Suh, 2020).

Figure 7: Diagram used to show the domain of interior design creativity. Picture courtesy: Suh, J. Y. (2020). Interior Design. In M. R. Steven Pritzker, Encyclopedia of Creativity (Third Edition) (pp. 685-694). Cambridge, USA: Academic Press. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809324-5.23600-6

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V. Conclusion Traditional clay craft practices are being phased out because of machinemade utensils with the changing times and fashion choices. Skilled pottery artisans are being displaced by machines, leaving them unemployed. Clay craft goods can be better options for objects d'art with an environmentally sustainable and creative touch in newer generations. Still, the skilled artisans in pottery are losing interest in working as potters, and as a result, they are shifting to other jobs and relocating to cities in search of work. The level of creativity in newer generations belonging to the Kumhar community is slowly decreasing as they move away from their cultural heritage. Machine-made crafts are replacing the magnificent art items due to the changing style of décor and interiors. Artisans must keep up with the challenges of the changing times and adapt to modern techniques and artworks to sustain the craft. However, the artworks depicting relatable life experiences and feelings will never become old, old-fashioned, or uninteresting. Craft practices disappear into the black hole of forgotten traditional history skills when demand for the craft declines. Craftsmanship practices like this should be valued, encouraged, and maintained.

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6. 7.

Desai, L. (2017, September 19). Craftsmanship special: pottering about with clay. Retrieved from Architectural Digest India: https://www.architecturaldigest.in/content/craftsmanship-and-contemporarydesign-special-pottery-clay/ Gupta, C. S. (2008, January). Clay Traditional Material for Making Handicrafts. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 7(1), 116-124. Indian Pottery. (2021). Retrieved December 23, 2021, from The Iloveindia: http://lifestyle.iloveindia.com/lounge/indian-pottery-2141.html Jaeger, M. R. (2012). The standard definition of creativity. CREATIVITY RESEARCH JOURNAL, 92-96. MasterClass. (2020, November 08). Interior Architecture vs. Interior Design: Explore the Differences. Retrieved January 15, 2022, from MasterClass: https://www.masterclass.com/articles/interior-architecture-vs-interiordesign#how-to-become-an-interior-architect P.L. Tinio, P. (2020). Aesthetics. In S. P. Runco, Encyclopedia of Creativity (3 ed., Vol. 1, pp. 18-22). Cambridge, USA: Academic Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809324-5.23690-0 Potthoff, M. Ö. (2006). Interior Design in Architectural Education. International Journal of Art & Design Education, 25(2), 217-230.

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doi:10.1111/j.1476-8070.2006.00486.x Sarma, A. K. (2021). Significance of Kumhar Community and their Traditional Practices. In B. S. Amit Kishore Sinha (Ed.), Ancient Indian Wisdom For Sustainable Wellbeing (pp. 45-48). Varanasi: Bharti Prakashan. 9. Sofaer, J. (2017). Pots and Stories: Creativity and Design in the Bronze Age of the Pannonian Plain. J. S. Lise Bender Jørgensen, Creativity in the Bronze Age (Understanding Innovation in Pottery, Textile, and Metalwork Production) (pp. 221-234). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108344357.026 10. Suh, J. Y. (2020). Interior Design. In M. R. Steven Pritzker, Encyclopedia of Creativity (Third Edition) (pp. 685-694). Cambridge, USA: Academic Press. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809324-5.23600-6 11. Vouchilas, G. (2011). Interior Design: A Critical Introduction (Book Review). Family & Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 40(01), 96-97. doi:10.1111/j.1552-3934.2011.02093.x 12. Yong Shao, C. Z. (2019). How Does Culture Shape Creativity? A MiniReview. Frontiers in Psychology, 01-08. 8.

CHAPTER TWO POSTURE ANALYSIS AND IDENTIFICATION OF MUSCULO-SKELETAL DISORDERS IN DELIVERYMEN AND USERS WHILE TRANSPORTING LPG GAS CYLINDERS RAHUL HAREESH1, ANUP HENGADE1, JONATHAN SHAJAN1, PARAMESH KRISHNAN1, NISHANT REDDY1 AND NILOY LAHIRI ARUNACHALAM MUTHIAH1 1

SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN, UNITED WORLD INSTITUTE OF DESIGN, KARNAVATI UNIVERSITY, GANDHINAGAR

Abstract The study is concerned with the ergonomic evaluation and prevalence of musculo-skeletal disorders (MSDs) in the carrying and transporting of LPG (liquid petroleum gas) cylinders by deliverymen and users in homes. Using surveys and interviews, data were collected to determine the work-related musculo-skeletal disorders (WMSDs) experienced by these users. The working posture of the people transporting gas cylinders was evaluated using the Ovako working analysis system’s (OWAS) postural analysis tool. It was found that only two out of 10 postures did not require correction (category 1), while one required immediate correction (category 4) according to the OWAS. Studies were also conducted on the present use of mechanical aids like trolleys to prevent WMSDs in the target group. The use of trolleys was more prevalent in users in homes than delivery men, although the variety of MSDs reported was high in users in homes. Keywords: ergonomics, MSDs, OWAS, cylinders, posture

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I. Introduction Background of the current research Gas cylinders are one of the building blocks of a kitchen in order to cook delicious food. Looking at a highly populated country, many people, mainly from the rural or town areas, still rely on gas cylinders even though pipelines have started taking over. A section of the Indian population lives in 3-4 floor apartments, due to which there is either an absence of an elevator or the elevator is out of service given the electricity conditions. Here, the major task involves transporting the gas cylinders from the truck to the house. It is mostly done by hand, or cheap solutions are taken up. A delivery man delivers a full gas cylinder, which weighs 29.8 kg, and takes away an empty cylinder weighing 14.2 kg for refilling and reuse. The delivery man will have to handle the delivery process physically, doing actions like lifting the full cylinder from the transport vehicle and then distributing it to the customer; then bringing back the empty cylinder to the transport vehicle. In addition, the delivery man has to rely on the stairs to manually transfer the LPG cylinder from the ground to the required upper level in the case of apartments with no elevators. Delivery men are exposed to various ergonomic risk factors like improper or awkward postures, heavy loads, excessive force, highly repetitive tasks, and improper rest periods between tasks due to the above-mentioned LPG cylinder delivery process, which may lead to MSDs, such as back and shoulder injuries, wrist injuries, etc. As reported by the occupational safety and health statistics, workers suffer from back pain and experience shoulder injury caused by overexertion, bodily reaction, and contact with objects or equipment. Since incorrect body posture when doing such tasks is a major contributor to MSDs, we focus on analysing different postures in this study using an ergonomic assessment method.

II. Literature review We did a literature review to understand the problems associated with the transportation of gas cylinders and problems associated with existing solutions. We took a closer look at the safety, efficiency, and attractiveness of the design of the appropriate items. Considering a huge fuel-consuming country like India, LPG plays a vital role in daily life. Many 3-4 floor apartments were built to accommodate the growing population in small towns, which resulted in many smaller apartments having an absence of

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elevators or the elevator out of service given the electricity conditions (Wan Zainul Abidin, 2017). Here the major task involves transporting the gas cylinders from the truck to the house. It is often done by hand or using cheap solutions that result in ergonomic issues. An LPG cylinder delivery man delivers a full gas cylinder that weighs around 29.8 kg (carrying it from the vehicle to the customer) and takes away the empty cylinder weighing around 14.2 kg for refilling and reuse (carrying it from the customer to the vehicle). In a study by Roaslni (2019), some men suggested they use manual methods because they get a better degree of freedom of movement without an assisting device for transport. In the case of customers, they generally move the cylinder inside to the required spot using cheap stands. A rapid upper limb assessment (RULA) tool is used to identify ergonomic risk factors associated with upper-limb musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), which include injuries or pain in joints, nerves, muscles, ligaments, and tendons. It measures the amount of risk among workers due to the constant exposure to postures and muscle activities that have been shown to contribute to strain injuries. This assessment requires an evaluation of scores between one and seven, where a lower score means no action is required and a higher score means immediate action is required. The existing LPG cylinder trolley is not safe to use due to durability and stability problems, but no ergonomic failure was confirmed when a RULA analysis was done on the product (Mohd Tajwi, 2015). However, by contrast, a case study of four workers rolling gas cylinders in an industrial area analysed their working postures using the RULA. The result of this research was that the postures assessed by the RULA all exceeded action level 3. The repetitive activity frequency for each wrist was 1 time/second. The radial deviation of the wrists and the dorsiflexion on the right wrist approximately reached the highest range of motion. Hence as suggested by the RULA, the tasks could cause injury, particularly in the wrists (the upper limbs), and require study and changes to the working postures (Chen & Chiang, 2014). According to Talapatra et al. (2019), users are not aware of or bothered about ergonomics. In some cases, many workers suffer from MSDs due to the reason that the industrial trolleys are not ergonomically designed, possibly due to the fact that local workshops manufacture or produce most of the trolleys, and they have a lack of experience and knowledge about ergonomic facts and designs, hence they are not ergonomically designed and hence they lead to various problems. In one study by Al Amin et al. (2015), it was found that there is a mismatch between industrial trolley

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dimensions and anthropometric data of workers. This has resulted in workers experiencing pain in various body parts. For example, 92% of all the delivery men in the study experienced discomfort in the lower back, 84% felt discomfort in the neck, 80% in the upper back, 60% in the right shoulder, 8% in the left shoulder, and 28% of them reported uneasiness in both shoulders. The cause of discomfort to the workers was found to be a short wheel radius and handle height. Manual transport aids (trucks and trolleys) are in widespread use throughout most industries, but their use does not always result in the anticipated reduction of workload or musculoskeletal stress because of problems of overloading, overexertion, difficulty in steering, use of cheap or low-quality wheels and insecure loads (Mack et al., 1995). Ramkumar and Krishnaraju (2016) point out that various optimizations can be carried out to reduce the structure's weight and optimize the trolley's shape. The existing model consumes more weight, so it increases the initial cost of the trolley. A reduction in workload by reducing the weight of the trolley as well as the load can reduce accidents. Most critical accidents are caused by slips on steps, walkways, or floors and posture, bodily reaction, and overexertion due to heavy cylinders, as well as falling down on floors, walkways, or steps during loading and unloading from vehicles (Kim et al., 2017). Handle ergonomics should also be considered as important in the case of ergonomics. It was found that during the starting phase, significant wrist deviations and high stresses occurred at the elbow. The design of the trolley handle significantly affected elbow stresses, as well as the tilt of the trolley while moving forward with the weight. The best configurations for the handle angle and handle length were proved to be 35° and 1.0 m, respectively. The arm postures adopted in the task were influenced by the orientation of the handle. For steady movement, the 50° handle proved to be the most desirable (Okunribido & Haslegrave, 1999, 2003). Changing the handle material from nylon to polypropylene to increase the durability of the product can also be done (Mohd Tajwi, 2015).

III. Rationale of research The loading and unloading of cylinders from vehicles are neglected. Some existing or offered solutions have motorized parts and chunky wheels and require a lot of space. The existing solutions can have maintenance issues for users. The studies found that most of the trolleys currently used in industries were not ergonomically correct and hence resulted in a number

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of accidents. With the help of surveys and experiments, researchers were able to decode the problem and focus on the areas for improvement. This is a summary of all points: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.

Materials for the handle have to be changed to give the optimum grip. Enough importance has to be given to the ergonomics of the handle. The weight of the trolley has to be reduced. The size of the load carried at one time should be reduced to prevent overloading. A braking mechanism has to be provided to reduce accidents by slipping. Small wheels should not be used on the trolley. Caster wheels have to be chosen such that they do not swivel too much and cause difficulty in moving the trolley in a straight line. An appropriate securing mechanism has to be provided to fix the gas cylinders to the trolley and prevent them from falling off.

However, researchers were inconclusive about the angle and handle length for trolleys when pushing them forward. Hence, more research has to be done to (i) match the measurements of the trolley with the anthropometric data of users; and (ii) assess the ergonomic risks using various methods, and reduce the workload and frequency of doing tasks.

IV. Problem statement Carrying LPG cylinders results in musculo-skeletal disorders due to awkward postures, thereby causing heavy loads or excessive force, due to highly repetitive tasks and improper rest period between tasks in delivery men and home users.

V. Aim and Objectives The aim is to study the ergonomic evaluation of transporting LPG gas cylinders. The objectives are as follows: 1. Evaluation of the working posture of people transporting gas cylinders using the OWAS postural analysis tool. 2. Determining the WMSD problems faced by LPG cylinder delivery men and LPG cylinder users using a questionnaire.

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VI. Materials and Methods Survey and questionnaire People including delivery men and home users of LPG cylinders from a sample size of 63 people from different parts of India (namely, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Daman and Diu, and Assam) from various age groups (15-20 years: 38.1%, 21-40 years: 30.2%, 41-60 years: 28.6%, 60+ years: 3.2%) were interviewed or given surveys to get to know about their day-to-day issues with transporting gas cylinders during or after delivery. Questions were asked to get an idea about the various MSDs that they face and about existing products from the market that they use to accomplish the task. The survey was done in online mode using Google forms as well as through telephonic means. OWAS assessment The Ovako work assessment system (OWAS) has been used in various studies like Chowdhury et al. (2012) and Etemadinezhad et al. (2013) to study awkward postures involving carrying various loads. Similarly, here we analysed 10 different working postures of lifting and transporting cylinders under various loads (filled and empty) using the OWAS, and results were obtained to classify whether postures needed immediate corrective measures or not. The OWAS method collects observation information on worker postures on the back, arms, and legs. Each posture of the OWAS is determined by a four-digit code in which the numbers indicate the postures of the back and the arms, and the load needed. The observer needs to identify the OWAS posture code of each selected posture, as shown in Table 1. Each OWAS posture code is then analyzed by using the individual OWAS classified posture combination (figure 1) to get the action category for each work phase. The classification for an individual posture combination indicates the level of risk of injury for the musculoskeletal system. If the risk for musculoskeletal disorder is high, then the action category indicates the need and urgency for corrective actions (Table 2). An example of a complete OWAS assessment is shown in Table 3.

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Table 1. OWAS posture code Body parts Back

Arm Leg

Load

OWAS code 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3

Description of position Back straight Back bent Back twisted Back bent and twisted Both arms below shoulder level One arm at or above shoulder level Both arms at or above shoulder level Sitting Standing on both straight legs Standing on one straight leg Standing or squatting on both feet, knees bent Standing or squatting on one foot, knee bent Kneeling on one or both knees Walking or moving Less than 10 kg Between10 and 20 kg Greater than 20 kg

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Figure 1. Action category for an individual OWAS posture combination, based on the grades allocated from the table above. (Source: Anthropometric and Biomechanics Analysis of Lower Limb Exoskeleton for Indonesian Population Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/OWAS-evaluation-and-resultinterpretation_fig2_335675130 [accessed 3 Jul 2022]

Back bent and twisted, Both arms below shoulder level, Standing on both straight legs, load above 20 kg

4

1

OWAS code

back

Posture

front

Activity with cylinder

2

3

3

Action category

Table 3. Example of assessing a posture using the OWAS

Explanation No action required Corrective actions required in the near future Corrective actions should be done as soon as possible Corrective actions for improvement are required immediately

legs

Action category 1 2 3 4

Table 2. OWAS action categories for prevention of MSDs

Posture Analysis and Identification of Musculo-Skeletal Disorders in Deliverymen and Users while Transporting LPG Gas Cylinders

load

Corrective actions should be done as quickly as possible

Remarks

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Frequency distribution A frequency distribution table is made to study the frequency of occurrence of specific postures (annexure – Table 4).

VII. Results and Discussion Survey and questionnaire analysis The survey was conducted on 63 people, including 59 home users and 4 delivery men of LPG cylinders. More than half of the home users said they had difficulty moving around the LPG cylinder. Most of the users (49.2%) said that they used a circular trolley stand to move the LPG cylinder after receiving it. However, 40.7% of the users said they do not use a trolley. 42.4% of the users said they live in a flat or apartment, while 57.6% said they live in an independent house. When asked how many cylinders are changed in a month, 69.5% of the users said they changed them once a month, 27.1% said twice a month, and 3.4% said more than twice a month. Users were asked which parts of their body were painful after carrying cylinders; their responses are illustrated in figure 2.

Wrist

42.40%

Upper arm Knee

27.10% 11.90%

Mid to lower back

28.80%

Upper back

23.70%

Shoulder pain

45.80%

Neck 0.00%

23.70% 10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

Figure 2. Distribution of occurrence of MSDs in home users when handling LPG cylinders

Measures taken by users to reduce pain during/after transporting the cylinder include: accepting help from family members, asking the delivery man to place it in the kitchen, dragging or rolling the cylinder, using a trolley, taking rest in between, moving slowly without sudden movement

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and shaking or stretching the arms. Only half of the respondents agree that their products or methods are comfortable. All four delivery men interviewed said they faced difficulty in delivering LPG cylinders to their customers. Almost all of them said that they do not use a trolley and deliver to both apartments and independent homes. They deliver about 15-30 cylinders daily, about 22 being the average number. Users were asked which parts of the body were painful after carrying cylinders; their responses are illustrated in figure 3. Hand Wrist Upper arm Knee Mid to lower back Upper back Shoulder pain Neck 0.00%

25% 100.00% 50.00% 75.00% 100.00% 75.00% 75.00% 50.00% 20.00% 40.00% 60.00% 80.00% 100.00% 120.00%

Figure 3. Distribution of occurrence of MSDs in LPG delivery men when delivering LPG cylinders

Measures taken by delivery men to reduce pain during/after transporting the cylinders include: taking a rest after a whole day of work or taking short breaks. When asked to rate how comfortable they are with the existing products or methods that they use on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 – least, 5 – most comfortable), three of the four delivery men gave a rating of 2, and one delivery man gave 3 out of 5. Most of them said that they had faced injuries when transporting cylinders. OWAS procedural analysis The analysis of 10 different postures of handling LPG cylinders (by delivery men and home users) was done using the OWAS, where they carry an empty or a full cylinder (weighing 15.6 kg and 29.8 kg, respectively). It was found that only 2 out of 10 postures scored ‘no action required’ (category 1) and 7 scored ‘corrective actions should be done as soon as possible’ (category 3), while one posture scored ‘corrective actions for improvement required immediately’ (category 4)

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according to the OWAS. None scored category 2. Hence, the postural analysis has revealed the possible reasons why LPG handling results in body pain or MSDs in the long run. The frequency distribution table shows that the leading causes of MSDs were due to postures leaning forward, an inappropriate way of holding the cylinder with the hands, and handling heavy weights repeatedly. Proposals Based on our research, we would like to propose the following methods to alleviate the said problems: 1. Using a trolley with a caterpillar track (belt) instead of wheels so that it can climb staircases as well as move on a variety of surfaces. There are many existing devices built specifically for this purpose (for example, Fuelnzel RECW LPG Cylinder Trolley). 2. Using a wearable exoskeleton that can carry the whole weight of the cylinder, controlled by the user. This helps to reduce musculoskeletal stress due to the repeated handling of heavy weights. 3. Providing wearable massage devices or heating pads that are periodically activated to increase blood flow in order to relax the muscles after work. 4. Using extra people to deliver LPG cylinders to homes; hence, the load carried by a single person is reduced, and the delivery men get enough time to relax. 5. Restructuring work shift timings so that people are working in an alternating manner between periods of work and rest. Scope of this research This is only a preliminary research study done during the ongoing COVID19 pandemic; hence face-to-face interviews were limited, and data collection was done through an online form and telephonic means with a sample size of 63 people. Direct, in-person observations of existing methods used in homes or warehouses were not possible; hence online sources like pictures from existing research and news articles were used for the posture analysis. This research, therefore, reflects the opinions of only a limited section of the society, from just a few specific states of India. Therefore, this can only be considered as a preliminary study.

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VIII. Conclusion Our research found that both home users and delivery men are unsatisfied with the existing transport solutions for LPG cylinders. Safety features and securing mechanisms are inadequate or absent in the products available on the market, and components like the wheels used are not of good quality, which results in less user comfort. It was also found that some users were also not aware of various products available in the market. This prompts users in homes or workers in storage areas to manually handle gas cylinders without the help of any equipment due to the fact that they find it easy to pick up and transport them. Many postures used by LPG cylinder handlers were awkward or incorrect due to less awareness about maintaining a good posture for maintaining a healthy body. People also need to be educated about the need for taking rest between tasks and using relaxation techniques like massages to reduce the occurrence of MSDs.

IX. Acknowledgement We would like to acknowledge our mentor, Dr. Arunachalam Muthiah, for his support, knowledge, and guidance, without which this chapter and the research behind it would not have been possible. We are also grateful to our institution, United World Institute of Design, Karnavati University, for allowing us to learn about ergonomics and its applications in daily life. We are also overwhelmed by the support of our batchmates and friends for giving their time and support as part of this research.

References 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

Wan Zainul Abidin, W.N.S.A., (2017). Design and Develop A Stair Climber Trolley. Project for Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering Technology (Automotive) with Honours, Universiti Teknikal, Melaka – Malaysia. Roaslni, M.A.B., (2019). Climb Gas Tank Trolley with Brake. Project for diploma in mechanical engineering (packaging), Mechanical engineering department, Polytechnic of Ministry of higher education, Malaysia. Mohd Tajwi, N.A.B., (2015). Design and development of cylinder LPG trolley for domestic use. Project for Bachelor of Manufacturing Engineering (Manufacturing Design) with Honours, Universiti Teknikal, Melaka – Malaysia. Chen, Y. L., & Chiang, H. T., (2014). Atilt rolling movement of a gas cylinder: A case study, Work, 49, 3, 473-481. Talapatra, S., Mohsin, N. and Murshed, M., (2019). An Ergonomic Approach for Designing of an Industrial Trolley with Workers Anthropometry,

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7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Chapter Two American Journal of Industrial and Business Management, 9, 12, 2156-2167. Al Amin, M.S., Isa, H., Febrian, I., Nuradilah, Z. and Nor, A.M., (2015). Application of Quality Function Deployment to Design a Liquefied Petroleum Gas Trolley, Applied Mechanics and Materials (Vol. 761, pp. 698702). Trans Tech Publications Ltd. Mack, K., Haslegrave, C.M. and Gray, M.I., (1995). Usability of manual handling aids for transporting materials, Applied ergonomics, 26, 5, 353364. Ramkumar, R. and Krishnaraju, A., (2016). Optimization of Material Handling Trolley using Finite Element Analysis, IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE), 13(6), pp.137-148. Kim, J.N., Jeong, B.Y. and Park, M.H., (2017). Accident analysis of gas cylinder handling work based on occupational injuries data, Human Factors, and Ergonomics in Manufacturing & Service Industries, 27, 6, 280-288. Okunribido, O.O. and Haslegrave, C.M., (1999). Effect of handle design for cylinder trolleys, Applied Ergonomics, 30, 5, 407-419. Okunribido, O.O. and Haslegrave, C.M., (2003). Postures adopted when using a two-wheeled cylinder trolley, Applied ergonomics, 34(4), pp.339353. Chowdhury, S. S., Boricha, J., & Yardi, S. (2012). Identification of awkward postures that cause discomfort to Liquid Petroleum Gas workers in Mumbai, India. Indian journal of occupational and environmental medicine, 16(1), 3. Etemadinezhad, S., Ranjbar, F., & Gorji, M. (2013). Posture Analysis by OWAS Method and Prevalence of Musculoskeletal Disorders using Nordic Questionnaire among Workers of Sourak Tobacco Factory in 2013. Iranian journal of health sciences, 1(2), 89-94.

CHAPTER THREE DIALOGUES AND ADVOCACY FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN GREENSPACES IN THE URBAN PLANNING PROCESS AKANKSHA SANGWAN1, NAND KUMAR1 AND ASHWANI KUMAR1 1

MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Abstract Urban green spaces (UGS) play a vital role in the city's sustainable development. However, due to high-scale urbanization, the alterations in the landforms and their diversified uses have resulted in the overutilization of the available natural resources. The research work in urban planning addressing the green space is scattered and deals with a particular area or region, which is a constraint. This study focuses on the literature review of available secondary data in the context of sustainable urban green spaces in the urban planning process within the provided timeframe. It was found that there is no quantitative research, generalized definition, or provisional framework yet established pertinent to UGS in India. So, there is a dire need for planners and policymakers to have a glance in this direction to gain a better life and liveability of the city, supporting sustainable development in India. From this study, it was found that there is no particular framework yet developed for the planners, policymakers and researchers to decide the quantity, quality and hierarchy of the urban green spaces at the spatial level. Hence, developing an analytical framework that can be integrated with the master planning process is recommended to achieve sustainable development goals. Keywords: urban green spaces, master plan process, hierarchy of green spaces, sustainable development, urbanization

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I. Introduction Urbanization trends suggest that most of the population resides/prefers to live in an urban area, creating high-density development. Especially in countries like India, very moderate attention has been given to interconnecting the living environment with people's healthy life. Maintaining a good quality of life and a liveable environment is essential for future urban planning (Balk et al., 2019; Kotharkar & Surawar, 2016; Office for National Statistics, 2011). UGS are the major determinants for improving living and quality of life. Still, they have not been given a major emphasis, lowering the population's standard of living. Urbanization is meant to offer better opportunities and living standards, but a lack of urban green space planning has adverse effects like overcrowding and a strain on resources (Ramaiah & Avtar, 2019). Environmental pollution keeps increasing with the usage of growing numbers of automobiles and industries and the simultaneous shrinkage of UGS due to the scarcity of land. The extreme population density in metropolitan cities causes immense pressure on the environment and management of resources. The prime aspect of such a burden is a lack of environmental planning, which keeps up with the rate of urbanization while maintaining the quality of living. As cities grow and develop, the UGS has more competition with dense housing, shopping and trade development, and transportation infrastructure, and significant environmental challenges posed by impervious areas of roofs, roads, and sidewalks (Hunter et al., 2019). In addition, migration to cities creates many health and social problems caused by increasing social and health inequalities, high-density housing, limited public resources and environmental neglect. Urbanization causes various alterations in the landscape and its management. Thus, this leads to a fall in basic natural resources like air and water quality. For example, groundwater exploitation causes the deterioration of groundwater with a drop in the groundwater level. Alterations in environmental factors like temperature, precipitation and evaporation are the major cause of the lowered rate recharge of groundwater. Also, air pollution is a major concern for a developing country like India, where pollution levels are already higher than in European countries (Baldasano et al., 2003 & Handley et al., 1998). Thus, urban growth is a burden to the environment, causing adverse effects on the climate like temperature irregularity, noise pollution, urban heat island, mental health, etc.

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There are plenty of studies that indicate that by exposure to green spaces, individuals show a betterment of mental health as well as physical health (Barton & Rogerson, 2017). UGS like parks and gardens provide a space for promoting social interactions, which helps to relieve anxiety and stress, improving mental and psychological health. UGS also offer a protective atmosphere for many birds and insects, providing biodiversity and maintaining the soil quality. Lord Rogers (Urban Task Force, 1999) suggested that urban open/green spaces should not be considered as isolated units but as small integral units like streets, parks, shopping plazas, etc. This helps in the excellent working of direct relationships with spaces and the community. In totality, UGS are very important for the health and development of the population living around them. And in India, no such framework focuses on the quantitative allocation of UGS in the Master Plan and Zonal Development plan of cities required for multiple environmental and social benefits. This results in the non-uniform allocation of UGS throughout the city, which leads to the formation of an urban heat island (UHI). Thus, this chapter offers a review of UGS as an integral part of urban development, which helps in normalizing the climate change effects in terms of eliminating the UHI.

II. Methodology This chapter is a methodological review of secondary data sources that generalize concepts and concerns associated with UGS in creating a cooling effect. The chapter is written based on the review and analysis of secondary data available in published literature from reputed data sources, government reports, and the author's observation during the study. Out of these papers, those covering UGS case studies, including gardens, tree cover, parks, forests and green spaces, were shortlisted and further examined in broader detail. In the Indian scenario, there is a lack of consideration of the UGS in policy guidelines and also research perspective. Studies concerning the UGS and its cooling effect resulted in a clear outline of i) the UGS definition and overview, ii) How the UGS has been addressed in the Indian guidelines and Master Plan, iii) Current scenarios of the UGS in Indian cities as per the Master Plan, and iv) The effect of the UGS on the management of the UHI and LST. After rearranging the data into the above categories, articles in the same category have been compared in terms of quantity, quality, and findings, including the number, shape, and size of green spaces, and the resulting cooling effect. By using these grouped and arranged articles, the

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benefits of UGS are depicted. Then the consequences of a lack of UGS are mentioned. Because of this, a broad recommendation has been given in conclusion. The prime limitation of the chapter is that it is purely theoretically based on secondary literature reviews and lacks any experimental or simulation-based results. This chapter can be used as a base for further research, which uses geo-sensing and simulation methods to help to develop Master Plans for UGS development.

Figure 1: Methodology Flow Chart

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II. An overview of Urban Green Space Table 1: Characteristics of Urban Green space

Tuzin (2009) states that open spaces, having vegetative cover in urban areas that are implicitly (active or passive recreation) or explicitly (positive impact on the environment) available to users, are classified as UGS (Baycan-Levent et al., 2009). Universally, no confined definition for green spaces has been given to date. Instead, authors and researchers have defined UGS differently. The unique characteristics of UGS as given by researchers are tabulated below in Table 1. The UGS is a piece of land within the urban area covered with vegetation and accompanied by natural elements. Synonymous terms like parks, gardens, playgrounds, public space, open space, nurseries, vacant lots, etc., are used as UGS elements. But the UGS is no generalized definition, an umbrella for spaces like parks, gardens, open

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spaces, recreational spaces, and public spaces. Such elements enhance the beauty of the locality and have a vital role in improving the environmental quality of the location. The UGS benefits are broad and diverse, as shown in Figure 2, and numerous studies have showcased the multiple benefits of providing UGS concerning the ecology, society, economy, etc. (Kabisch et al., 2015a). Thus, the UGS tends to provide vivid benefits to the health and wealth of the population living in urban areas. Many authors have related the UGS and land surface temperature (Guha et al., 2020). They indicated that UGS act as a thermal comfort enhancer in temperate and tropical regions (Kumar et al., 2021).

Figure 2: The UGS and Its Benefits.

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The quality of an urban landscape, such as its size, shape, location and context (De La Barrera et al., 2016), has varying effects on the surrounding areas. These affect multiple levels of the city simultaneously in terms of sustainable development (Tzoulas et al., 2007; Bertram & Rehdanz, 2015; Colding & Barthel, 2013; Jia et al., 2020), ecological aspects (Aronson et al., 2017; Dzhambov & Dimitrova, 2015; Jim & Chen, 2008; Whitford et al., 2001; YU et al., 2020; Rozalija Cvejiü, 2017), social aspects (Rozalija Cvejiü, 2017; James et al., 2009; Engemann et al., 2019), economic value (Johnston & Russell, 2011; Sander & Haight, 2012; Tu et al., 2016), ecosystem services (Johnston & Russell, 2011) and provisional services (Rozalija Cvejiü, 2017). The further contexts in the previous broad aspects as per the multiple researchers are tabulated in Table 2 for a comprehensive understanding of the UGS. How the UGS is addressed in Indian Literature Guidelines The amorphous nature of urban green spaces replicates a lot of ambiguities among the researchers and planners, as mentioned above. In the Indian literature, urban green space is categorized as open space and has been considered as a part of recreational land uses in various guidelines, as tabulated in Table 3. Government policy guidelines such as Urban Green Guidelines 2014 (URDPFI, 2014) and the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT, 2015) ensure a sufficient provision of land area to be covered in recreational spaces in terms of the per capita or percentage of total developed area. In 2014, the URDPFI defined an organized green space hierarchical category and area based on population size, whereas Urban Green Guidelines define the typologies of green spaces based on greenness. Further, in 2015, the AMRUT suggested the detailed classification of green spaces based on the geographic information system (GIS). Numerous environmental policies are also enforced to preserve and protect urban forestry (a synonym of the UGS) from various environmental problems. The government (from colonial times) has enacted several environmental legislatures and policies to preserve, protect, and manage urban forestry, which is related to green space. Acts and policies include the India Forest Act of 1972 (forest legislation) and the Forest Conservation Act of 1980 (regulating the alteration of forest land for non-forestry purposes). The National Afforestation and Eco-development Board was established in 1992 to promote afforestation, tree planting, ecological restoration, and ecodevelopment initiatives. The National Environmental Policy Guidelines (NEPG) were created in 2006 to regulate reforms and environmental efforts

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and foster collaboration among diverse stakeholders for better environmental management. Table 2: Multiple Benefits of UGS as stated in various literature

Furthermore, the National Action Plan for Climate Change (2008) established the National Mission for Green India to improve ecosystem services by planting 10 million hectares of land. The National Forest Policy makes sure that at least one-third of the land area is covered with forests and trees (a synonym of urban green space). The World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations suggest the availability of a minimum of 9 m2 of UGS per person. Despite the multifunctional benefits of the UGS, it has not been clearly defined and addressed in the Indian literature.

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Various metropolitan cities have defined the UGS in their respective Master Plans under the recreational spaces. Each city has classified its recreational areas into different sub-categories based on its defined function. Further, the per capita number of recreational spaces is calculated and allocated under different sub-categories based on population and area. Table 4 tabulates the comparative analysis of recreational space (synonym of UGS) provision in selected Indian cities. Effect of UGS on the Urban Heat Island and Land Surface Temperature An urban heat island (UHI) is defined as a localized warmer area in an urban landscape (Oke, 1982; Voogt, 2004). During summers, these areas have significantly higher warmth in that locality which is a discomfort to humans, animals and vegetation, leading to non-harmonious biochemistry and resulting in many disorders which span from mild discomfort to heatstroke and a severe imbalance of biochemistry which is life-threatening (Dessai, 2002; Kovats & Hajat, 2008; Lafortezza et al., 2009). An urban heat island acts as a sink that traps air pollution and, in turn, promotes smog, damaging the community (Gobakis et al., 2011; Ng et al., 2012; Rahman et al., 2012). The trend in the increase in temperature globally indicates the increase in the worrying situation in future, especially when it is coupled with unplanned urban expansion in developing countries (Luber & McGeehin, 2008; Sun et al., 2012; Oliveira et al., 2011). Studies that have included the effect of vegetation on the local temperature are limited, and they are commonly considered very limited areas (Cao et al., 2010; Honjo & Takakura, 1990; Kawashima, 1994). A direct relation between the size of the UGS and the temperature drop is hard to make, but estimations from many studies have shown a strong correlation between the UGS and the cooling of its surroundings (Bowler et al., 2010; Spronken-Smith & Oke, 2010). The UGS provides cooling in two ways providing shade and evaporative cooling (Oliveira et al., 2011; Santamouris, 2014). UGS spaces are also highly responsive in controlling the comfort of the microclimates; they create and help to reduce the summer air temperature (Dimoudi & Nikolopoulou, 2003). Plenty of research focuses on the direct interaction of such microclimates and UGS in cities with a high population density (Cohen et al., 2012; Srivanit & Hokao, 2013; Wong et al., 2003). Such studies show a drop in ambient air temperature from 3 to 12 degrees in various global regions like China (Chang et al., 2007; Kolokotroni & Giridharan, 2008), Australia (Berry et al., 2013), Arabic countries (Mahmoud, 2011; Oliveira et al., 2011) and European

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Table 3: UGS addressed in Indian Guidelines

countries (Georgi & Dimitriou, 2010; Oliveira et al., 2011). UGS have such an immense effect that they provide a microclimate that reduces air temperature and the cooling required for the nearby buildings and structures. Being exposed to elevated air temperatures can result in various consequences for human health and well-being, ranging from mild

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discomfort to life-threatening medical conditions; therefore, this amplification of heat stress incidents limits the quality of life in urban areas. To combat this heat stress, the residents in urban areas often consume more energy using air conditioners, which leads to an increase in peak electrical demand. Hence, the cooling effect of UGS also helps in lowering summertime peak energy demands. As a result, the environmental benefits of UGS in terms of air temperature reduction may be linked to energy savings via green space cooling (Zhang et al., 2014). The lack of UGS not only induces the UHI but also increases the land surface temperature (LST), especially in the urban parts where high-rise buildings are prevalent (Cao et al., 2010; Giridharan et al., 2008). In such cases, the UGS plays a vital role; for example, a grassland has a temperature of more than 20 degrees lower as compared to that of a concrete or plastered surface (Armson et al., 2012; Rosenfeld et al., 1998; Shashua-Bar & Hoffman, 2000). If such a reduction in temperature, when widespread around the urban area, is capable of reducing the land surface temperature (LST) of the city by a degree, then it will also be a drastic change in consideration of the livability of the city (Liu & Weng, 2009; Li et al., 2011). Research has shown that an LST drop of 7-8 degrees is possible just by using grasslands as parking spaces (Onishi et al., 2010; Rosenfeld et al., 1998; Rui et al., 2019; Shashua-Bar & Hoffman, 2000). Remote sensing is an effective tool that can be utilized for the measurement of LST and further planning and changes of the urban structure with more UGS to improve the comfort can reduce the ill effects of the urbanization process (Cao et al., 2010; Keramitsoglou et al., 2011; Schwarz et al., 2011; Small, 2006; Voogt & Oke, 2003).

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Table 4: UGS address in the Indian Master Plan

As per a recent article by Vivek Shanda, India saw more days above 40ႏ than any prior year. On a 40ႏ day, a 10 degree difference between two neighborhoods can become 20 degrees. This is hugely concerning. Studies show hotter areas tend to have more built-up infrastructure. This doesn't mean only tall buildings, but those relatively lower and large low-slung buildings, one to two stories tall, made of bricks or cinder blocks, surrounded by concrete or built-up parking lots, let the sun's radiation hit surfaces, holding that heat for a long time. Planners should ensure such areas have a place to plant trees which significantly reduces the temperature. It is found that the hottest locations tend to coincide with lower-income areas.

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The findings have resonance for India, where thousands of people perish annually due to heat, mostly from lower-income groups (Kovats & Hajat, 2008; Knowlton et al., 2014). With 4.81 million urban residents and cities growing fast with immigration, they are exposed to severe impacts with the least capacity to cope. Planners and policymakers need to examine whether they are building cities in ways that amplify temperatures. From a planning approach, planners must increase green spaces. India has a rich history of cooling trees in cities like Bangalore, Chandigarh, Mumbai, etc. The last two decades have shown vast urban deforestation. This trend needs to be reversed by creating city afforestation. If planners and policymakers start focusing on tree plantations today, by the time the even hotter 2030s arrive, those trees will provide life-saving shade. Globally, temperatures are regularly breaching 50ႏ now, but our built environment is not ready for this. Railway tracks buckle, electricity lines melt, and roadways crack when the heat dome phenomenon descends on us. The scale at which these high temperatures affect the urban environments is unprecedented. It urgently needs planning for adaptations and mitigations. Thus, it is extremely important that the governing and planning authorities have clear planning guidelines, frameworks and strict rules for the development, provisions and maintenance of UGS, which will help us out in the future. Guidelines should not be drawn as per the current requirement but should be made to the extrapolated future requirements.

IV. Result and Discussion In this chapter, the literature related to urban green spaces will be reviewed. The portrayal of major gaps pertaining to the definition, allocation and spatial distribution of urban green spaces has been attempted. The absence of quantitative research, a generalized definition or provisional framework in the Indian context has been the significant finding of this study. Furthermore, from the multiple case studies conducted in various climatic zones and locations across the world, it's been shown that those green spaces have varied benefits, but they are as per the context of that zone, and the benefits of urban green space have been depicted with the help of the current literature. The evident literature pertinent to the UGS and its multifunctional benefits and a discussion of the significant research findings are tabulated in Table 5.

Survey

Case Study Case Study

Secondary

Secondary

(Gidlow et al., 2012)

(Cetin, 2015) (Hashem, 2014)

(Fotoohi et al., 2015)

(Kabisch et al., 2015b) (De La Barrera et al., 2016) (Haaland & van den Bosch, 2015)

Netherlands

Secondary

Secondary

Secondary

Regime Analysis

Content Analysis

Case Example

Statistic Applied

Sweden

Germany South America

Iran

Sweden

Miscellaneous

Sub-Tropical

Descriptive Statistics Content Analysis

Miscellaneous

Tropical

Temperate Semi-Arid

Temperate

Miscellaneous

Temperate

Moderate

Temperate

Tropical

Climatic Zone

Content Analysis

Descriptive Statistics

Factor analysis & regression analyses Australia Content Analysis Descriptive Statistics, UK Reliability, Factor analysis & regression analyses Turkey Case Example Saudi Arabia Content Analysis

Belgium

Secondary

Survey

USA

Location

Table 5: Literature Evidence

Chapter Three

Case Study

Secondary

Research Design

Source (Botequilha Leitão & Ahern, 2002) (Van Herzele & Wiedemann, 2003) (Baycan-Levent et al., 2009) (Grahn & Stigsdotter, 2010) (Roy et al., 2012)

40

UK Sweden Germany Belgium Italy Poland China Australia Canada

Secondary

Secondary

Secondary Case Study Case Study

Secondary

Secondary Secondary Secondary

Secondary

(Moffat, 2016) (Annerstedt Van Den Bosch et al., 2016) (Nero, 2017) (Van de Voorde, 2016) (Sanesi et al., 2017) (Szulczewska et al., 2017) (Yang et al., 2017) (Sugiyama et al., 2018) (Ladle et al., 2018)

(Masoudi & Tan, 2019)

Singapore

Bulgaria

Case Study

(Vranic et al., 2016)

USA

Case Study

(Sander, 2016)

View Point Content Analysis Regression Correlation and Regression, Factor Analysis

View Point

Sprawl Analysis, Percentage Percentage, Descriptive Content Analysis

Percentage

Tropical

Moderate Temperate Tropical

Temperate

Temperate Temperate Temperate

Miscellaneous

Content Analysis, Regression Tropical Analysis, Percentage Relative Importance Index Temperate (RII) Content Analysis Temperate

Dialogues and Advocacy for Sustainable Urban Greenspaces in the Urban Planning Process 41

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Cities would be significantly less healthful and enjoyable if deprived of all vegetative cover, gardens, parks, and trees and the greenery in individual gardens and on rooftops. Green space in cities cleans the air, reduces traffic noise, allows rainwater to permeate the soil, cools the environment, converts CO2 to oxygen, and gives recreational opportunities. Furthermore, simply looking at green space and water can make us feel better, help us recover faster in the hospital, and raise the value of our homes. The city is a pleasant place to live and work because of these demonstrated functions of urban nature. They aid in combating the effects of climate change, contribute to preventing cardiovascular diseases, and promote social cohesion within a community. There is no standard classification followed by any city for its recreational spaces and this is contextual and thus not the true representation of per capita UGS. Therefore, it should not be compared to the per capita UGS proposed by the URDPFI unless we have a standard set for UGS classification. Every city follows the same line in their planning and calculation of UGS. From the literature review, and in conjunction with the case studies, it is found that there is the lack of a universally acceptable definition of green space. Considering its benefits and importance in reducing UHIs, pollution, etc., there is a dire need for a framework according to which urban green spaces should be allocated spatially while planning cities. A universal definition and hierarchy of green spaces should be defined and acceptable to all by incorporating the various functions that green spaces provide. It would then be more realistic to measure those benefits against a standard scale. The setting of standards would allow the researchers to achieve more tangible results, and planners would have defined guidelines to provide green spaces in their areas. In this way, the efficient use of resources can be achieved.

V. Conclusion In a city's overall development, urban green spaces play a significant role. The presence of a green space ensures physical, social, environmental, economic and planning-related benefits to human beings. The availability of adequate green space helps to achieve the sustainable growth of our societies. Even with these many benefits, the allocation and distribution are not based on maximizing the benefits arising from green space or the efficient utilization of the open areas. The major lacuna in the current literature is the unavailability of the standard definition, parameters, and

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modal framework for the allocation of the urban green space at a spatial scale in India. It has been found that more detailed and local-level studies of urban green space planning are required. Based on these studies, it should be recommended to prepare a framework for urban green spaces that can allocate or monitor green space management in a particular direction such as maximizing green space benefits, etc., at various spatial scales and act as a benchmark probe in the Master Plan process. It is also important to develop a standard definition, hierarchy, and distribution pattern of urban green space from the regional to the city to the local level to understand its different typologies and benefits. This chapter advocates prudent UGS allocation in the Indian context.

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.02.001 83. Urban Task Force. (1999). Towards an urban renaissance: final report of the Urban Task Force chaired by Lord Rogers of Riverside. 328. 84. Van de Voorde, T. (2016). Spatially explicit urban green indicators for characterizing vegetation cover and public green space proximity: a case study on Brussels, Belgium. Http://Dx.Doi.Org/10.1080/17538947.2016.1252434, 10(8), 798–813. https://doi.org/10.1080/17538947.2016.1252434 85. Van Herzele, A., & Wiedemann, T. (2003). A monitoring tool for the provision of accessible and attractive urban green spaces. Landscape and Urban Planning, 63(2), 109–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(02)00192-5 86. Voogt, J. A. (2004). Urban heat islands: hotter cities. America Institute of Biological Sciences, September 2008. 87. Voogt, J. A., & Oke, T. R. (2003). Thermal remote sensing of urban climates. Remote Sensing of Environment, 86(3), 370–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(03)00079-8 88. Vranic, P., Zhiyanski, M., & Milutinovic, S. (2016). A conceptual framework for linking urban green lands ecosystem services with planning and design tools for amelioration of micro-climate. Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences, 13(2–4), 129–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/1943815X.2016.1201516 89. Whitford, V., Ennos, A. R., & Handley, J. F. (2001). “City form and natural process” - Indicators for the ecological performance of urban areas and their application to Merseyside, UK. Landscape and Urban Planning, 57(2), 91–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(01)00192-X 90. Wong, N. H., Chen, Y., Ong, C. L., & Sia, A. (2003). Investigation of thermal benefits of rooftop garden in the tropical environment. Building and Environment, 38(2), 261–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(02)000665 91. Yang, D., Fu, C. S., Smith, A. C., & Yu, Q. (2017). Open land-use map: a regional land-use mapping strategy for incorporating OpenStreetMap with earth observations. Geo-Spatial Information Science, 20(3), 269–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/10095020.2017.1371385 92. YU, N., ZHANG, J., LIU, P., ZHAO, B., & REN, B. (2020). Integrated agronomic practices management improved grain formation and regulated endogenous hormone balance in summer maize (Zea mays L.). Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 19(7), 1768–1776. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(19)62757-7 93. Zhang, B., Xie, G. di, Gao, J. xi, & Yang, Y. (2014). The cooling effect of urban green spaces as a contribution to energy-saving and emission-reduction: A case study in Beijing, China. Building and Environment, 76, 37–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2014.03.003

CHAPTER FOUR ASSESSING SUSTAINABILITY IN TRANSFORMING URBAN FORM OF HISTORIC TOWNS: CASE STUDY BADAMI

1

MONICA KASHKARI1 AND TEJWANT SINGH BRAR1 SUSHANT SCHOOL OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE

Abstract Since time immemorial, the human settlements have grown and imbibed the various activities and the concentration of their inhabitants. The relationship of urban areas with their surroundings creates a unique spatial structure represented on the earth's surface. In today's terminology, this representation is called the ‘form of the settlement’ or its ‘urban form’. With changing times and technology, this traditional urban fabric metamorphosis has led to its transformation to its urban form. The built form and its relationship with its natural and man-made settings change under these circumstances; as a result, the impact on the quality of life is immense. This research asks: How have the multiple facets of urban form changed in its structure and context? Does the change in built form adversely affect the sustainability parameters and vice-versa? The case study of Badami town looks at the relationship, which includes man-made structures and their relationship with their settings. The study uses the ODK plugin of QGIS to collect primary data. The collected attributes are analyzed to understand the built form, pattern and overall structure of the town, showing that a fair policy for rehabilitating and conserving its heritage resources is required. Keywords: sustainability; urban form; built form; morphology; spatial organization

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I. Introduction It is said that the urban form is the collective two-dimensional and threedimensional impressions of all urban areas as represented by the elements of built form, aspects of open spaces and their relationship with each other. In other words, urban form refers to such features of the city, which can be captured by visual analysis and creates a kind of mental map in the viewer's mind. The features include the shape, size, surface, interrelationship, and structure in a defined natural setting (Lynch, 1981). Thus, the factors which determine the urban form (Lynch & Rodwin, 1959) are as follows: 1. Type of space: how it is representative on the ground, i.e., whether spread out in a linear, radial pattern, etc. 2. Quantity of space: whether the quality of space appeals to visual contextualities. What kind of overall effect can be generated by the quality of space? 3. Grain: the look and feel of the space. 4. Density is the intensity with which spaces of significant activity fill that space. 5. The landmark and nodality are the focal points around which the spatial arrangements of the built environment happen. 6. Space distribution is the pattern of spatial arrangement. The study of urban areas has been a multidisciplinary subject. Various faculties have studied urban settlements for a very long time. The city has been explored as a socio-political and economic system. Architects, planners and geographers have studied it, and there have been many approaches to its planning and design. On the other hand, urban areas are seen as a juxtaposition of efficiency of their people, labor and trade (Harris, 2003). The competitiveness of the urban areas in attracting investments to increase their financial worth has resulted in the urban areas exploiting their resources. Thus, the cities and towns experience many issues in terms of their urbanization like congestion, pollution and other social problems, which has initiated a renewed discussion on understanding the relationship between urban form, pattern and mobility (UN Habitat, 2009). Though the towns are making many investments in motorized transportation and related infrastructure, it is familiar to urban managers worldwide that such developments will invariably create problems in the long run. The towns grow uncontrollably, and the areas on the periphery and the outskirts are the worst affected. This results in a changed urban structure, transportation

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networks, and land use (UN-Habitat, 2013). The urban form is dependent on its location, topography, transportation and regional connectivity and linkage, climatic conditions and micro-environment. Traditionally, towns were established near a natural water source like a river which played an essential role in determining the overall form of the settlement; existing natural systems like the topography, geomorphology and climatic conditions also played an important supporting role for the new developments and ensured that these settlements were able to adapt their built form accordingly (Darin, 1998). This brings us to the debate about sustainability and adaptability in the context of urban form. The current literature on urban form and sustainability transverses the various features for an analysis of sustainable urban forms, such as density, uses, shape, size, patterns, landmarks, and their relationships (Jabareen, 2006) and the factors of resilience and adaptability. Urban form in itself cannot change the overall regional climate. Still, it can have an effect to moderate the settlement conditions by adopting various means like localized material use, water structures to improve microclimate, and ensuring minimal sun exposure. The current research focuses on sustainability in the changing urban form of Badami's historic town by studying the built form's resilience and adaptability. The word resilience means the ability to recover or adjust to change, whereas the term adaptability means being able to adjust to different conditions. The study will assess the various phases of development and arrive at the historic features and their transformation. The overall change in climatic conditions will also be evaluated to relate the impact of the transformation. Further, the impact of available policy derivatives will also be evaluated. This research asks: How have the multiple facets of urban form changed in its form and context? Does the change in built form adversely affect the sustainability parameters and vice-versa? These questions will be answered using research methods such as documentary analysis and visual surveys by utilizing the Geographical Information System.

II. Materials and methods The current research study considers the transformation through various phases of development. An extensive literature review is done to understand the historical evolution, morphological development and built-form development. The study is qualitative, and the current status is quantified for analysis. The site data are collected using an Open Data Kit (ODK), a plugin of QGIS for systematic data collection and analysis. Further, the

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analysis and study are taken up by QGIS for spatial attributes and Excel for non-spatial characteristics. The research outcomes are represented with the help of maps, graphs, charts and tables, and the conclusions are drawn. Accordingly, the following methodology is adopted. As a first step to understanding the transforming urban form of the historic settlement, the growth pattern of its built form is understood. The chronological evolution of Badami is collated and the main features of built form, material, etc., are tabulated. How the town has grown is noted and understood. Temporal maps from Google Earth are also collated with the information available, with archival data in the form of old sketches, master plan maps, etc. Then, a documentary analysis is undertaken with the help of the ODK. The parameters identified during the literature review are collated in the data format of the ODK. Appropriate shape files with field names and types are also prepared for ease of data collection in the field. The data collected in the field utilizing the mobile app are uploaded, synced and imported into QGIS. Locational data along with the various parameters are further downloaded in Excel for analysis. Accordingly, the whole town is divided into area types and details pertaining to various built form parameters and variations in recorded temperature. There is further collaboration with the regulatory framework available for the town to ensure the continuity of the sustainability of the built form. The detailed methodology is shown in Figure 1.

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Figure 1: Methodology Source: Current Study

III. Case Study of Badami Badami was the capital city of the Chalukyas and is a renowned tourist destination in Bagalkote district in the State of Karnataka in India (Kamath, 1983). A municipality governs it at the local level. It has an area of 4.23 square kilometers and a population of 30943 as per the 2011 census. The topography of Badami is rough and hilly, with chains of detached hills traversing it. No river passes through the town of Badami (Yadav, 2017). The annual average rainfall is approximately 600 mm with heavy rain experienced between August and September. The city slopes gently towards the southern and eastern sides, with hilly outcrops on almost three sides; the fourth side is where the town has grown and this is on a relatively flat elevation.

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Figure 2: Badami Town Source: SUI report, 2013

In the foothills is one of the earliest examples of a rainwater harvesting tank agasthya teertha (the name of the tank in the local language). It is an artificial tank built by Chalukyas to feed an entire town and to provide the daily water requirements in this arid climate. The monsoon rain falling over the hills flows down to the tank. The flow of rainwater into the tank is achieved by the barriers created by the builders of this tank on the hillock. All of the water flows into the tank without waste [10]. The system is so efficiently planned that the water level in this large tank goes up with an hour's good rain. Perhaps, due to the agasthya teertha, past dynasties survived even in this arid landscape. In heavy and prolonged rains, Agastya Lake overflows, and the water floods some parts of the historic precinct. However, the tank holds sufficient water and even today provides the water requirement of about 3% of the population. Water availability would have been essential for Badami's continuous habitation. From its function as the capital city of one of the illustrious dynasties of all times to a nondescriptive predominantly agrarian settlement, Badami has transformed,

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adding various layers to its visual aspects. The phase-wise spatial development of Badami is understood based on an extensive literature review to trace the historical developments as detailed in Table 1. Essential aspects of the built form, the materials used, and the interplay of spaces are tabulated and discussed. Based on the chronological evolutionary study for the town of Badami, it is noted that the town has been in continuous habitation since its formation many centuries ago. There have been a few additions and alterations done to its earliest built form to the present as it is laid out today and all of these have had a lasting impact on the overall built environment.

IV. Results and Discussion Changes in the developed area based on the parameters of urban form in relationship with the aspects of sustainability as tabulated from a review of the current directions of research were considered. Factors like accessibility, connectivity, adaptability, density, nodality, etc., were assessed in detail in various phases of development. The data collected during the site visit on the ODK were analyzed and understood for outcomes. The details of the data collected and work on the QGIS Excel are shown in Figures 2 and 3. Aspects of changes in the format of the built form and the resultant impact on the sustainability facts were undertaken to assess the transforming urban form in the historic town. It is noted that overall, the historic town of Badami comprises three distinct area types. The historic fortification and monuments atop the hill form the first type of area. This topmost area is the place for the monarchy. It is said that many buildings in this area were made of timber and hence were lost during their spatial evolution over time. However, the distinct types of gates and masonry typologies attribute that the fort may have been adapted to the desires of its various rulers. Currently, the area is under the aegis of the Archeological Survey of India and is not in active use. The second distinct area type is the lower town enclosed by hills on three sides and having a fortification on the fort side. This area includes the historic settlement of Badami, various historical monuments, temples and structures, cave shrines and the historic water structure of Agasthya teertha. About 25 historic structures are present in this area, and nearly half of them are without legal protection.

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Table 1 S. No. 1

PHASE

FEATURES

Pre-Historic

2

Chalukyas of Badami

Traces of human activity in and around Badami of prehistoric times. A large number of rock shelters have prehistoric paintings. Badami being the capital city has many monuments which appeared on account of royal patronage. Monuments include forts and fortifications, temples,

3

Rastrakutas (757-972 AD)

4

Chalukyas of Kalyana (9721198 AD)

6

Seuna 11921313 AD) Vijayanagara rulers (13361570 AD)

7

rock-cut caves, and water bodies, etc. Extension of the fort, additions to the eastern group of the Bhutanatha Temple complex During the Rastrakuta and Chalukyas of the Kalyan period additions were made at the foot of the north hill, on the south-western side partly enclosing Badami village and connecting the hill and the tank on the western side. The renovation of the agasthya tank, the construction of Ellamma temple towards the west tank bund, the Virupaksha temple, the Mallikarjuna temple, the Bhutanatha temple complex near Tattukoti village and Anantashayana temple. Nothing significant During the Vijayanagara times, an extensive fort wall was constructed which enclosed the entire old town of Badami. Modern Badami was extended beyond this fort wall in all directions damaging the fort wall and filling the moats and constructing houses. Renovation of the North Fort, renovation of ruined temples and the fort, the construction of bastions (1543AD) near Malegitti Sivalaya and cave no. 3 by Kondaraja and Erakrishnappa Nayak.

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Adilshahis (1490-1686 AD)

9

Nawab of savanur, Peshwa III in 1746 Haidar Ali (1774-1778 AD) Marathas (1787-1817 AD) British (from 1818 until independence in 1947) Postindependence (1947 to date)

10 11 12

13

59

There are a few Islamic structures from the time of Adil Shahis and Tippu Sultan, an Islamic tomb from the Adil Shahi period (17th century), and a tomb built by Malik Aziz in memory of his wife Shahana Bibi. Nothing significant

During the period of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, two citadels were constructed on the top of the northern and southern hills. Nothing significant Under Bombay presidency Land records and survey Jamabandi – delimitation Municipal and taluk development board. Town development committees, a Town panchayat to the municipal committee under the KMA Act and a planning authority under the KTCP Act.

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Figure 3: Screenshot of the QGIS for Badami Town Source: Primary survey using the ODK Collect app

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Figure 4: Screenshot of the Data for Badami Town input into Excel Source: Primary survey using the ODK Collect app

However, the overall physical condition of these historic structures is average. The general perception of such physical conditions is that most of these structures are still being actively used by the community. Further, the historic agasthya teertha provides some portion of the water requirement of the town but also has a cultural and religious significance due to the various

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temples located around it. This tank also helps in improving the microclimatic condition of the lower town. The presence of vernacular houses made of locally available materials like red sandstones coupled with tiny openings and their clustering around courtyards, further ensures that the microclimate of this arid area is improved. To capture this information, the optimum temperature in various parts of this area type is captured during the ODK survey. In this area, the difference between the outside and inside temperatures in the vernacular houses ranges from one degree Celsius to two degrees Celsius. Also, the overall area typology is of low rise and high density, with a flat skyline of the built form that peaks due to the natural topography. The third distinct area type is the extension area beyond the old historic core. The buildings here are made of newer materials like concrete and concrete blocks, with large openings and two and more floors. The buildings here are sparsely built, having had setbacks. The area type gives a half radial shape to the town, which spills over and around the state highways passing through it. The town has a Master Plan in place, prepared under the Karnataka Town and Country Planning Act, 1961. However, the aspect of heritage responsive development is missing in this case. The development control regulations are not comprehensively looking at the heritage aspects of the town. The general comments on providing wide roads and parking facilities near monuments prove to be contrary to the elements of the historic urban landscape as propagated by UNESCO. The recent amendments made to the Act governing the heritage aspects of the built form like the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 (AMASR Act 1958) will further obstruct sustainable development. Demarcations made for various zones around a heritage monument under its protection will lead to the deterioration of the surrounding environs or the settings of such urban heritage. With 'no development zones' marked and no policy provisions to ensure improvement in the basic quality of life in these zones and the protection to the built heritage surrounding it from falling into disrepair, the knowledge systems and way of life will lose their significance for its future generations. Connections to your heritage is a connection to your roots, and you are able to learn a lot about the times and the turbulence of history and learn from it. Thus, ensuring that the heritage aspects are not lost to the future generations due to the transformation of the built form of the historic town, is also an important aspect to ponder.

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V. Conclusion The urban form is a measure of understanding the towns and their built environment over the various periods of their growth. Based on the intricacies of the cities in question, there are many ways that its form can be understood. Recent debates in urban planning have led to rethinking the local climatic conditions and their mitigation in the town's planning and development, which strongly influence the city's shape and determine its skyline and density. These factors are detrimental in the context of the sustainable urban form. From the example of the historic town of Badami, it can be concluded that the town showed resilience and adaptability over various phases of its development. The different elements of its built form improved its microclimate. Without a proper policy for rehabilitating and conserving its heritage resources, the town will not be able to sustain its relevance in the long term. Hence, this research seeks to develop a methodology to examine the urban form in the current context of sustainability by setting up basic guidelines for a more integrated sustainable approach to urban planning and regulation.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Lynch, K. (1981). A Theory of Good City Form. Cambridge: MIT Press. Lynch, K., & Rodwin, L. (1959). A THEORY OF URBAN FORM. Ekistics, 7(44), 479–486. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43622965 Harris, N. (2003). Globalization and management of cities. Economic and Political Weekly, 38 (June 21), pp. 2535-2543. UN Habitat (2009). Planning Sustainable cities: Policy Directions. Global report on Human Settlements UNHSP. UN-Habitat (2013). Planning and design for Sustainable Urban Mobility. UNHabitat. Darin, M. (1998). The study of urban form in France. Urban morphology, 2, 63-76. Jabareen, Y.R. (2006). Sustainable Urban Forms: Their Typologies, Models and Concepts. J. Plan. Educ. Res. 26, 38 – 52. Kamath. S. (1983). Karnataka State Gazetteer, Vol.1. Karnataka Government Publication, Bangalore. Yadav.S. (2017). Badami Taluk Aquifer Maps and Management plan. Central Ground Water Board, GOI, Bangalore.

CHAPTER FIVE URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN POST LIBERALISATION ERA SWASTI SHARMA1, SATISH PIPRALIA1, ASHWANI KUMAR1, BHAVNA SHRIVASTAVA1 AND BANSARI SHARMA1 1

MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Abstract The chapter gives an overview of the evolution of Indian Government interventions in the post-liberalization era. India witnessed economic liberalization in 1991. There was a transition from an ‘inward looking trade strategy’ to liberalization, privatization and globalization. Although liberalization in India benefitted its residents with a better quality of life, a lagging effect is observed which is discussed in the study as all the socioeconomic segments have not been uplifted from a policy of economic liberalization. The chapter is organized into five sections. Section 1 introduces a glimpse of the Indian economy. Section 2 details the trend of urban growth patterns and changes that have occurred in India’s urban structure. Section 3 highlights the expenditure on urban development after the post-liberalization era and a timeline of the various Acts, policies and programs for urban development since 1991. Section 4 discusses the gap in urban development since liberalization and section 5 assesses the impact of liberalization on urban development in India. The findings from the research validate the need for transparent and consistent data on urban development expenditure by the government and these need to be released into the public domain, which will help to decipher and assess the Indian progression and scenario on urban development aiding the decisions on future spending and policies.

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Keywords: urban development, urban growth, post-liberalization, economy, policy

I. Introduction India followed a ‘mixed economy’ policy after independence, which enabled the private sector to contribute to the development while still ensuring state participation in order to speed up growth and ensure equal distribution. During the 1980s, the economic crisis led to the emergence of economic liberalization. India officially introduced its economic liberalization strategy in 1991 and opened up the economy for the official implementation of neoliberal liberalization (Venkatanarayanan, 2015). The background for economic growth can be narrowly divided into two main stages, namely the pre-liberalization age, that is before 1991 and the postliberalization age, that is after 1991. The Indian era categorization according to the economic growth pattern has been listed in Figure 1 below:

Figure 2: Indian economic categorization Source: Gupta, 2015

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Table 1: A glimpse of these eras, i.e., how economic growth changed till now is explained in the table below Pre-Colonial Era economy

The trade between India and the world was mostly in spices and food grains.

Colonial Period economy

India was under the complete control of Britishers and the stress was on agricultural and food grain production in the country. There was the introduction of five-year plans, economic policy, the development of the heavy industry by both public and private sectors, and, based on direct and indirect state intervention, the Green Revolution. Various actions and initiatives were framed, including improvement in life expectancy, literacy rates and human health, privatization and expansion in the IT field, etc.

Pre-Liberalization period economy

Post-Liberalization Era

II. Post-Liberalization Era: A Glance Why Post-Liberalization? From 1951 to 1991, Indian leaders adopted a centralized economic development policy, which was accompanied by extensive administrative restrictions on the economy. The approach was based on a development model of ‘inward-looking import substitution’. However, this did not fix the root causes of the Indian economy's issues. In the 1970s and 1980s, India's economy went through several episodes of economic liberalization under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and, later Rajiv Gandhi. These economic liberalization initiatives, on the one side, were often half-hearted, selfcontradictory, and self-reversive. On the other side, the economic reforms introduced by Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao and his Minister of Finance, Dr. Manmohan Singh, in the 1990s were far larger and wider and clearly represented a ‘u-turn’ in India's economic policy direction over the previous forty years of economic planning (Wadhva, 1991). Therefore, in July 1991, the newly elected government of India experienced a serious balance of payments crisis. The rupee had been devalued twice within a few months, the Foreign Exchange Management Act had been revised, and a public sector disinvestment program had begun. This initiated a steady push towards economic liberalization (Pandit, 2013). Notable shifts in India's macroeconomic policies arose in the post-1991 period, leading to the Indian economy today becoming much more transparent and much more aligned with the global

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system than at any time since the 1960s (Shankar, 2009). Thus, economic reforms after 1991 were evolutionary and progressive in nature. Prime Minister Narasimha Rao used the ongoing economic downturn as an impetus to introduce significant economic reforms. In 1991, the Rao government agreed that the time had come to reshape India's economic policies by learning relevant global lessons (Wadhva, 1991). This led to the start of the post-liberalization era during the eighth five-year plan (1992-97). Corresponding to a paradigm shift in economic policy, the shift in urban development policy planning will be traced and discussed in a subsequent section. Post-Independence planning in India happened through five-year plans. The first three five-year plans emphasized the need for increasing the housing stock, the next four five-year plans focused on increasing coverage by funding asset creation, and the subsequent five-year plans i.e., from the eighth fiveyear plan onwards, aimed at augmenting the resources of existing urban service delivery, and institutions for service delivery. The focus on urban development was witnessed from the eighth five-year plan onwards, and these are studied with respect to growth and expenditure in the chapter.

III. Urban growth in the post-liberalization era In India, in the census year 2001, the percentage of the population living in urban areas was 28.7 and this rose to 31.16 per cent in 2011, which is a comparatively low level of urbanization compared to other major developed countries. However, India's urban population is extremely large (Shaw, Urban Growth and Change in Post-Liberalized India: Small Town Dynamics, 2019). Table 2: Urban Growth and Change in Post-Liberalized India Census year

Total urban population in millions

Percentage of urban to total Population

Net Annual exponential additions to growth of urban urban population Population 1951 62.44 17.29 18,281,518 3.47 1961 78.93 17.97 16,492,894 2.34 1971 109.11 19.91 30,177,374 3.21 1981 159.46 23.34 48,566,194 3.83 1991 217.17 25.72 58,091,441 3.09 2001 285.35 27.78 70,348,077 2.73 2011 377.10 31.2 90,986,436 2.76 Source: Census of India (Shaw, Urban Growth and Change in Post-Liberalized India: Small Town Dynamics, 2019)

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From Table 2, it is clear that the urban population trend is increasing continuously on previous years but there is a decrease in the annual exponential growth of the urban population after 1981. This decline in India's population growth rate over the past century has been triggered by annual birth rates, death rates, and migration rates, and hence demonstrates patterns. Therefore, the downward trend in the birth rate is the main reason for this variation in the trend after 1981 and the other reasons are an increase in the mean age at marriage and an improved quality of life, particularly the education of females in the country (Population Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition, 2015-2016). The natural increase is the principal source of urban population growth. The percentage of rural-urban migration ranges from 19 to 21 per cent of the net increase in the urban population (Vaidya, 2009). India at present is at stage three of the four-stage model1 of demographic transition. Birth rates have fallen significantly and the population continues to grow, but now at a slower pace after 1981 (implementation). Net additions to the population are significantly large but the decadal growth is decreasing and by the middle of the century India is projected to be the world's most populous country reaching 1.6 billion, which points towards an increased impetus for urban development. Secondly, in India's urban structure, the size class characteristics were provided because about 37 per cent of the urban population lived in 35 million-plus cities in 2001, which grew to 42.6 per cent of the urban population in 2011 in 53 million-plus cities (Census of India). This characterization has only been made with consideration given to the number and proportion of the total urban population of settlements regarded as class I cities with populations over 100,000 (Shaw, 2019). The proportion of the metropolitan population in class I cities rose from 51.42 per cent in 1961 to 70 per cent in 2011. In addition, the number of class I cities rose from 394 in 2001 to 468 in 2011 (Tripathi, 2018).

1

Stage 1: Less developed countries, high birth rate, high number of deaths due to preventable causes, stable population. Stage 2: Death rates fall due to improved public health but high fertility due to limited access to health and contraceptive services, and a spurt in population. Stage 3: Birth rate also falls, population continues to grow due to large number of people in the reproductive age group. Stage 4: Stable population but at a level higher than the initial one, low birth and death rates, high social and economic development.

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Thirdly, there was a large increase in the number of census towns between 2001 and 2011. During this time, 2,532 census towns were added to the urban system (Shaw, 2019). The research by Roy and Pradhan estimates that about 2,231 census towns will be added by 2021 as shown in Figure 2. Also, from the research analysis in their study on spatial and economic characteristics of future and past census towns, it is inferred that some new census towns of 2011 no longer satisfy the criteria to be urban. Although census towns are not listed as urban areas by different urban statutes, a portion of the budget must be devoted to them.

IV. Expenditure on Urban Development after the Post-Liberalization era The growth of India attracted worldwide attention, especially after 1991. Nevertheless, the post-liberalization era was also a time of unprecedented growth in the Indian economy, especially in the 2000s (Rashmi Banga, 2012). The overall expenditure of the government rose from 20.3 per cent in 19901991 to 24 per cent in 2011-2012. There was a financial crisis for the states in India during the 1990s as, after the start of the economic liberalization policy, the states were questioned about their budgetary preferences and forced to reduce their spending in the social sector (Venkatanarayanan, 2015). While the expenditure on urban development is borne by the

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government after the post-liberalization era, this does not form a progression line since the data are not reported consistently in the planning commission reports. On April 1, 2017, the Modi Cabinet replaced the Planning Commission with NITI Aayog, which unveiled three-year action plans. The expenditure on urban development from 1991 is listed in Table 3 (five-year plans). Table 3: Expenditure on Urban Development post-liberalization S. Five-year Year plans No. 1 Eighth 1992-1993 five-year 2 1993-1994 plan 3 1994-1995 4 1995-1996 5 1996-1997 6 Ninth 1997-1998 five-year 7 1998-1999 plan 8 1999-2000 9 2000-2001 10 2001-2002 11 Tenth 2002-2003 five-year 12 2003-2004 plan 13 2004-2005 14 2005-2006 15 2006-2007 16 Eleventh 2007-2008 five-year 17 2008-2009 plan 18 2009-2010 19 2010-2011 20 2011-2012 21 Twelfth 2012-2013 five-year 22 2013-2014 plan 23 2014-2015 24 2015-2016 25 2016-2017 Source: (Government of India, n.d.)

Amount (Rs. Crore) 791.3 855.8 1025.2 1535.6 2064.6 2944.4 2820.6 2823.2 3143.1 5260.1 6524.36 7357.08 1928.72 -

63465

164078

Social service expenditure (Rs. Crore) 11322.8 14016.6 17409.2 20848.4 79011.9 25209.6 26867.1 38737.9 38439.4 40919.5 183273 46474.0 56954 62726 79734 92350 347391 110735 153133 209206 215955 1102327 272031 347250 2664843 -

Detailed annual expenditures are reported in economic surveys, by the Government of India which are analysed to understand the expenditure on urban development since 1992. The analysis points out a data gap, showing that the government has not released into the public domain the specific expenditure on urban development. As per the records, the five-year plan

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budget for urban development has been allocated under a broad sector of social services. Moreover, annual expenditure under urban development has not been mentioned for the period 2009-2017 in the reports. This inconsistency of data makes the assessment difficult with respect to the government’s intervention. The report on India’s Urban Awakening (MGI, 2010) reveals the need for $1.2 trillion in Indian cities to cater for the increasing need for urban infrastructure. The alarming concern here is that currently, India apportions $17 per capita in annual capital spending for urban infrastructure which is miniscule compared to the spending of the developing economy of China ($116) and the developed economy of the United Kingdom ($391). To cater for the increasing urban population and its infrastructure, India needs to invest $1.2 trillion in cities over the next few years which accounts for 0.5 per cent to 2 per cent of GDP, annually spending $60 billion by 2020. The capital-intensive sectors are transportation and housing. Over the last three decades, urban development trends can be seen from the allocations of the five-year plans. Many researchers have emphasized the magnitude of urbanization and hence urban policy trends should be focused on. The expenditure on urban development during these five-year plans was on various provisions and amendments made during this period. The provisions and amendments in the five-year plans during the postliberalization era are as follows: Eighth five-year plan: Under the leadership of P. V. Narasimha Rao, the eighth plan (1992–97) prioritized the growth of human capital, including jobs, schooling, and public health. The plan defined the role and value of the urban sector for the national economy, and the 74th CAA was the first plan to be strongly affected by shifts in national economic policy (Affairs, n.d.). The plan stressed the significance of linking urban planning to economic growth. The Land Acquisition Act, the Urban Land Ceiling and Regulation Act, the Transfer of Property Act and Rent Control Laws were all revized as part of this programme. For urban development, public-private collaborations were granted a lot of weight (Batra, April 2009). As a result, the central government recognized the role of the urban sector in the Indian economy for the first time. Ninth five-year plan: The plan's emphasis was on the ‘Development of Social Justice and Equity’ under Atal Bihari Vajpayee's leadership. During this period, the major urban growth initiatives were the Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY), the Urban Self Employment Programme

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(USEP), the Urban Wage Employment Programme (UWEP), the Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY), Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP), and the Prime Minister's Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme. Tenth five-year plan: This plan aimed to double the per capita income and reduce poverty under the leadership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Manmohan Singh by strengthening local government with the judicious devolution of duties and funds to elected bodies and ULBs, land policy and housing. The repeal of the Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act, 1976 was a major move towards change in the urban land market. Data from the urban market, visualization, and urban indicators: The Town and Country Planning Organisation (TCPO) were established for urban mapping using aerial photography, extending the planned assistance for infrastructure through various programmes such as the Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP), IDSMT, the Mega City Scheme, and others, urban poverty alleviation and slum improvement, and improving civic amenities in urban areas through improvements in the urban water supply. Eleventh five-year plan: This plan came under the leadership of Manmohan Singh. During this period, the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), the Urban Reform Incentive Fund (URIF), the Mega City Project, the Integrated Growth of Small and Medium Towns (IDSMT), the Pooled Finance Development Fund (PFDF), and the development of satellite cities/counter magnet cities – governance in municipalities were the major urban development initiatives. The State Capital City Development Commission, the National Urban Information System (NUIS) (NCRPB), the capability of urban local councils and the strengthening of their financial management, deregulation and land growth may have helped communities to become more efficient and productive. Also included are the dismantling of the public sector's grip on urban resources and developing a climate that attracts private investment, creating a self-governing administrative structure to regulate the public and private sector operations, using technologies and engineering to their full potential, Swarna Jayanti Shahri Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY) lowering the levels of welfare, and improvements in the municipal basic utilities, such as the water quality and solid waste disposal, by the Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP). Twelfth five-year plan: This plan came under the leadership of Manmohan Singh. Its key theme is ‘Faster, More Equitable, and Balanced Growth,’ which was accomplished by programmes such as Rapid Mass Transportation (RMT) for improved transportation, urban water sector change, productive use of urban space, long-term strategic urban design with a regional

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planning viewpoint, environmental sustainability of urban construction, and so on. Investment in modern community development facilities and asset management, as well as improving urban governance and ‘soft infrastructure,' are also essential factors. Improvements to municipal services such as sanitation and sewerage, the National Urban Health Mission (NUHM) for greater urban public health, and the need to address the essential needs of the urban poor are all targets (Affairs, n.d.).

V. Timeline of various Acts, Policies and Programs for Urban development since 1991 This section focuses on an analysis of legislation, urban policy and urban development programmes at the national level. A broad picture of urban policies, acts and programmes in various states has been analysed. Urban planning, housing, urban policy, etc., in India are state subjects under the Constitution (Batra, April 2009). The state legislature formulates laws for the subjects mentioned on state lists. The legislation, policies and urban development programmes have been analysed to 2017 since the expenditures computed on the urban sector, extracted from economic surveys, are available to 2017 as shown in figure 3. With the paradigm shift in a growing economy, the shift of the focus can also be observed in legislation, policies and programmes. The programmes, policies and legislations introduced by the central government post-liberalization supported the changing urban scenario in Indian cities. The focus on cities was witnessed from the early 1990s onwards. The introduction of the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts empowered local rural and urban government with power, resources and functions. They devolved power to the local level. The Model Municipal Law was also formulated directing urban local government towards urban development and an institutional framework. The repeal of the Urban Land Ceiling Act opened up the potential land for development in cities that otherwise had a ceiling under the Urban Land Ceiling and Regulation Act, 1976. The national government also attended to inclusivity in cities with an effort to recognize and help the functioning of the informal sector through the Street Vendors Act, 2014. An extensive focus was given to infrastructure provision in cities through various policies and programmes implemented at the PAN (Presence Across Nation), India level like the JNNURM, the Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns, Swaccha Bharat Mission, Smart Cities Mission and Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation. Simultaneous to

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Figure 3: Timeline of various Acts, Policies and Programs for Urban development since 1991. Source: (Development, 1952), (Affairs, n.d.) (Government of India, n.d.)

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basic infrastructure, sectors like housing and transport were also given consideration with the National Housing and Habitat Policy, 1998 followed by Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana in 2015 and the Real Estate Regulatory Act in 2016 regulating the private real estate market. The National Policy on Urban Transport, 2006 gave guidelines for state and urban local bodies regarding potential improvements in urban transport. Analysing the legislation, development policies and urban development programmes implemented from the post-liberalization era, indicates that transportation, housing, land, basic services, livelihood, heritage and environment have been a strategic focus of the Indian government. However, twenty years after the beginning of economic liberalization, due to significant policy reforms, urban areas in India especially large cities, are undergoing changes in the built environment. This has resulted in the relaxing of regulations to promote the supply of urban land; for example, there was the abolition of the Urban Land Act (Ceiling and Regulation 1976) in 1999 under which funding was to be given for the supply of urban land and the use of 'modern land management techniques' such as the allocation of land development rights and extra FAR (floor area ratio), i.e., allowing a rise in the FAR to increase the vertical height, the use of more land for homes, and the faster recycling of land for obsolete use. Therefore, direct government participation in the land sector has thus reduced and put a much greater focus on public-private partnerships or completely private projects (Shaw, 2013). GDP development: The pick-up in GDP growth helped to boost the global position of India. As a consequence, when GDP is calculated using purchasing power parity, India's ranking in the world economy improves from 8th in 1991 to 4th in 2001 (Shankar, 2009). Poverty has been slowly declining since 1983, but the biggest drop has occurred since economic liberalization. In the seven years between 2004-05 and 2011-12, 138 million Indians were lifted out of poverty. GDP development was about 6 per cent per year between 1993-94 and 2004-05. Between 2004-05 and 2011-12, GDP development averaged more than 8 per cent per year (Aiyar, 2016). According to the results of the report, there is no consistent connection between urbanization and per capita GDP in 1991. However, in 2011, there is a strong connection between urbanization and economic development. Economic growth has been good, but social and governance issues persist as income in many other emerging market economies is gradually advancing. Since 2014, India has become the fastest-growing G20 economy. With an excellent export performance in several industries, including information

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and technology services and pharmaceuticals, India has become a major player in the global economy. Since 2014, considerable changes have been implemented to improve economic growth. They promoted production growth, put inflation at a break and reduced fiscal and current account deficits, combined with subdued oil prices (Economic Survey of India, 2019).

VI. Discussion The 1990s’ economy of the post-liberalization period went through a paradigm shift. In an attempt to free up and expand encouragement of the private sector market, the political leadership steadily loosened the restrictions of the licensing regime (Patra, 2009). For the planning of urban areas, planning decisions of infrastructure, such as rail networks and road access, are often challenging due to a lack of land with clear ownership histories. The proliferation of informal housing (such as unauthorized encroachment on public land where houses have been constructed by the urban poor) presents a challenge for zoning systems since it is uncertain whether or not to incorporate it in official planning. Controlling growth under such circumstances will be futile (Ramanathan, 2009). Overcoming Land Constraints in Urban Planning: There were land constraints in urban areas before the post-liberalization era, such as land markets in India where the Registration Act, 1908 calls for an amendment to require registration (Sarkar, 2009), land acquisition (Bahadure, 2014), compensation and R&R (Sarkar, 2009), etc. Some states have adopted measures to eliminate barriers to private land supply in recent years, such as the elimination of the Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act, 1976, and amendments to the Rent Control Act. Two other steps, in addition to these incremental interventions, are being attempted in a few states to address the current constraints. These are (i) township development, and (ii) land pooling and readjustment (Shankar, 2009). Even then, the land market appears to be deeply skewed and unreliable, despite some reform attempts. Land documents are imprecise, redundant, and incomplete. There are widespread uncertainties that have hurt the market in relation to land titles (Pandey, 2009). The function and contribution of the urban sector to the national economy are indicated in the eighth plan period. While numerous urban policies were discussed in successive plan periods, the first major central government initiative to encourage urbanization was launched with the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) in 2005. However,

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owing to the lack of appropriateness of policies and the inadequacy of funding, the policy action failed (Tripathi, 2018). The JNNURM reform agenda is the culmination of many government attempts over the last two decades to reform the local structure and integrate it into the country's mainstream production. Nonetheless, it is important to allow the Indian government, state governments, and city administrations to cooperate effectively in implementing the reform agenda and provide facilitating support structures, such as facilities and services, to assist rising cities (Bagga, 2010). Environmental distress caused by climate change: India's carbon dioxide emissions have increased by 78 per cent since 1990. Annual coal use has tripled since 1980. India's national electricity demand is forecast to more than double between 2002 and 2020, increasing from 116 to 252 gigawatts (Bahadure, 2014). Administrative problems: Because of the massive urban population, municipalities are overburdened, resulting in inadequate service supply. Most city governments lack planning experience and have not enlisted the support of public-private partnerships (PPP). Minimal openness and fractured oversight worsen the issue. Several agencies and organizations are working on overlapping or contradictory issues, resulting in the emergence in India of implementation disputes on good policy and programmes, legal provisioning, structured institutional arrangements, technical innovation and measurement measures for sustainable growth. But this seems to be only a stepping-stone and there is a need to evolve research, generate a comprehensive database, have more transparency and technical inputs, etc. (Bahadure, 2014). The 74th Constitutional Amendment was meant to strengthen municipal urban bodies and encourage Indian urban decentralization. However, the implementation of decentralization in various states has been different over the past 15 years. In his paper, Prof. Chetan Vaidya proposed that the Constitution should be amended to define core and other functions, industrial areas should not be exempted from the creation of ULBs, and central finance commissions should give grant-in-aid to ULBs linked to some key taxes. The paper also suggested some other administrative measures such as the adoption of a common categorization of ULBs, a minimum level of municipal staffing, executive powers for mayors, a unit area method or capital value method of property tax assessment, a greater role for metropolitan and district planning committees, management of the water supply and sewerage system to be the primary function of ULBs, so

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as to give provisions for private sector participation in the delivery of services and to have improved cost recovery, and a regulatory framework for urban services (Vaidya, 2014). The recommendations of the 13th Finance Commission have far-reaching implications for the strengthening of India's urban finances and governance. In their paper, D. Ravindra Prasad and V. Srinivas Chary discussed some important issues relevant to the operationalization of recommendations, such as the lack of frameworks to ensure compliance at the state and local levels with recommendations, the autonomy of local bodies, the lack of sufficient resources to enhance service delivery, requirements for capacity building, etc. They feel that the 13th Finance Commission guidelines will be taken from both future central finance commissions and state finance commissions and relate grants to better urban governance (Chary, 2010). The problem in the 21st century of urbanization in India is immense. Indian cities continue to face crucial problems and enormous obstacles in the fields of reform, infrastructure, planning, financing, administration and capacity building of urban local authorities, regardless of their scale (Rai, 2010). An urban local body's (ULB) financial output is calculated by a variety of similarly associated parameters in addition to the income-expenditure balance (Thakur, 2011). There has been an observed push towards more and better infrastructure facilities through programmes like the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) (Aromar, 2014). However, some of the concerns posed by the Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) are important, such as the effect of fiscal forces on municipal efficiency, and the impact of state transfers on municipal financial performance, and so on. Based on a sample of 17 out of 63 cities under the JNNURM, Sandeep Thakur in his paper has tried to investigate these questions. Due to variations in population size, functional domain and fiscal powers, municipalities in India cannot simply be compared based on absolute or per capita amounts of their own tax collections and revenue expenditure. It has been found that due to the partial or non-implementation of these powers in line with their ability, more fiscal powers as per the Municipal Acts have not assured better revenue generation. The main variations between municipalities were due to the lack of funding and the exclusion of the water supply and sewerage functions. Many of the municipal corporations in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat are primarily reliant on grants, and the abolition of grants could invite these municipal corporations to seriously damage their own capacity to generate revenue. More issues are facing the cities where octroi has been eliminated and property tax has not been enforced in its full spirit, and the property tax

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has a long way to go to become a potential tax revenue option for cities' self-sustainability. Finally, due to limited capacity and poor financial capabilities, the ULBs were not in a position to fulfil all the tasks of the 12th schedule of the 74th CAA. Many state governments have not developed any guidelines for the proper and effective implementation of the devolution of functions, functionaries and funds (Thakur, 2011). In June 2015, the government approved a major national housing scheme, ‘Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban’ (PMAY(U)), to resolve the issue of housing shortages in urban India. Considering the number of homes (both completed and under construction) in all four verticals of the scheme, the total generation of jobs is projected. The secondary data analysis reveals that the PMAY(U) policy has had a substantial effect on the generation of jobs in the economy with important consequences for the country's household welfare and overall economic development (Dinesh Kumar Nayak, 2019). The issue of financing urban infrastructure in most Indian cities is acute, and most of the funding issues are still unsolved. For urban governance, where many of the urban local authorities are heavily dependent on the higher level of government in the form of grants, the situation is worse. Due to the recent enormous tax gap, persistent fiscal ill health has hampered the operation of municipal government, resulting in the low performance of public services and infrastructure. The key aim of this research study is to conduct an analysis of India's infrastructural finances and to recommend potential ways to effectively enhance facilities and amenities for urban local bodies (Singh, 2012). Despite the implementation of several urban growth measures over the last ten years, Indian cities have remained far from being egalitarian, safe, durable, and environmentally friendly, as India is characterized by a sectoral approach to development, exclusionary urban governance, exclusionary urban planning, and a large divide between policy and reality. It also argues that the new flagship initiative, the Smart Cities Mission, is less likely to support the sustainable urban growth agenda; rather, it should appeal to the information technology community and the corporate elites. Finally, the study stresses the need for an integrated and equitable development approach in order to make our communities sustainable (Debarshi, 2016). Over the past decades, the Indian policies have focused on inclusive growth as a significant priority and initiatives to achieve it as in both the eleventh and twelfth five-year plans. However, the description of inclusive growth in the documents is not clear, and the terminology used in inclusion policy papers is ambiguous and lacks clear goals or commitments, making it

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difficult for the government to evaluate its own success in achieving inclusion.

VII. Conclusion The chapter discusses the growth and changes in India's urban development after the economic liberalization of the country which was implemented in 1991. It reports that there were improvements in the system of urbanization in India after 1991 and the government's attempts to balance the pace of urban development. The development carried out after 1991 brought major change in India, especially in the economy. There was a transition from an ‘inward looking trade strategy’ to liberalization, privatization and globalization. Therefore, the chapter highlights the urban growth scenario in India, big improvements in urban policy, and expenditure on urban development, and finally discusses the various gaps in these policies. There is a shift in the policy rhetoric from viewing cities as ‘engines of growth’ to ‘engines of inclusive development’. The government steadily opened up the economy in the 1990s, with the liberalization of foreign exchange controls, the lowering of import duties and direct tax rates, the deduction of manufacturing and import licenses and the privatization of capital and financial markets. Though urbanization in India has the potential to offer a better quality of life for a greater share of the residents, it simultaneously presents new challenges for today's governments and urban planners. As a result of poorly managed or unplanned urbanization, many of India's cities face an alarming rate of pressure on infrastructure, budgets and public services. As high-density centres for various services and processing activities, they are also vulnerable to deteriorating environmental quality. Also, there is little clarity in government documents, and policies, therefore, making it difficult for the government to assess its own performance in achieving the goals of various policies; for example, in the case of inclusive growth as mentioned in the eleventh and twelfth five-year plans in which many of the evaluations of inclusive growth focused only on the consumption side, and not on the generation of jobs and overall macroeconomic framework, including tax, expenditure and business policies. Somehow, there is a lag in liberalization as there is encouragement in the development of micro-level changes, leading to complex shifts in the functioning of the economy and a future that is unsustainable. Wherever economies have been dynamic and globalized, the results are also uncommon. Such advances have allowed India to prosper; nevertheless, some areas, such as land and natural resources, have never been liberalized,

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and as a result, have become major scandals by staying unreformed. These scandals have unwittingly generated a dilemma for India's urban development scenario. Though liberalization in India can benefit its residents with a better quality of life, a lagging effect is observed as discussed in the study as all parts of society have not been uplifted from a policy of economic liberalization. The neoliberal economy often produces a wider vacuum and disparity among citizens. Therefore, the magnitude of the issues demands solutions that are to be focused on individuals and are realistic as well as practical.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Affairs, N. I. (n.d.). Urban Scenario of India. Retrieved from National Institute of Urban Affairs: https://www.niua.org/urban-scenario-of-india Aiyar, S. S. (2016). Cato Institute. Retrieved from TwentyဨFive Years of Indian Economic Reform. Aromar Revi, J. K. (2014). Cities as engines of inclusive development. IIHSRF Policy Paper Series. Bangalore: IIHS. Bagga, U. (2010). Urban India Moving Towards Reforms Pathway, Urban India. NIUA. Bahadure, P. B. (2014). Sustainable Urban Development in India: Challenge & Approaches. International Conference on Advances in Architecture & Civil Engineering (AARCV 2012). Bangalore: Research gate. Batra, L. (April 2009). A Review of Urbanisation and Urban Policy in PostIndependent India. Centre for the Study of Law and Governance Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Chary, D. P. (2010). Thirteenth Finance Commission and Urban Local Bodies: Towards Good Urban Governance in India, Urban India 2010. NIUA. Debarshi Guin, A. P. (2016). (Re) Analyzing Indian Cities through the Lens of Sustainable Development Goals, Urban India. NIUA. Development, M. o. (1952). Government of India. Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs Home. Retrieved from http://mohua.gov.in/cms/mandate.php Dinesh Kumar Nayak, B. H. (2019). Employment Generation in Urban India through PMAY(U), Urban India. NIUA. (2019). Economic Survey of India. OECD publication. Government of India, M. o. (n.d.). Previous Economic Surveys | Economic Survey - Union Budget. Retrieved from Economic Survey: https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/economicsurvey/allpes.php Gupta, P. D. (2015). Economic Growth in the Post Liberalisation Era. International Journal of Engineering Technology Science and Research, 36-45. Implementation, M. o. (n.d.). Population. In M. o. Implementation, Statistical year book, India. Government of India. J. Chadchan, R. S. (2012). An analysis of urban growth trends in the posteconomic reforms period in India. International Journal of Sustainable Built

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Environment, 36-49. 16. MGI. (2010). India's urban awakening: Building inclusive cities, sustaining economic growth. McKinsey Global Institute. 17. Pandey, S. M. (2009). India Infrastructure Report. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 18. Pandit, K. (2013). The Indian Landscape after Two Decades of Liberalization: An Introduction. Routledge. 19. Patra, S. R. (2009). India Infrastructure Report. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 20. Population Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition. (2015-2016). NCERT. 21. Rai, A. (2010). Urban India: Issues and Challenges, Urban India 2010. NIUA. 22. Ramanathan, S. (2009). India Infrastucture Report. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 23. Rashmi Banga, A. D. (2012). Twenty years of India. New york and Geneva: UNCTAD. 24. Robinson, A. (n.d.). Economic Liberalisation Reforms in India: A Micro-Level Analysis. School of Interdisciplinary Area Studies University of Oxford. 25. Roy, S. N., & Pradhan, K. C. (n.d.). Census Towns in India- Current pattern and future discourses. Centre for Policy Research. 26. Sarkar, R. (2009). India Infrastructure Report. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 27. Shankar, J. C. (2009). Emerging Urban Development Issues in the Context of Globalization. Institute of Town Planners, India. 28. Shaw, A. (15 May 2013). Metropolitan City Growth and Management in Postliberalized India. Eurasian Geography and Economics, 44-62. 29. Shaw, A. (2019). Urban Growth and Change in Post-Liberalized India: Small Town Dynamics. Journal of Urban and Regional Studies on Contemporary India. 30. Singh, S. (2012). Financing Urban Infrastructure in India: A Review, Urban India. NIUA. 31. Thakur, S. (2011). Evaluating the Financial Health of Indian Cities: a Diagnostic Report. NIUA. 32. Tripathi, S. (2018). Do economic reforms promote Urbanisation in India? MPRA. 33. Vaidya, C. (2009). Urban Issues, Reforms and way forward in India. Department of Economic Affairs Ministry of Finance Government of India. 34. Vaidya, P. C. (2014). Urban India 2007. NIUA. 35. Venkatanarayanan, S. (2015). Economic Liberalization in 1991 and Its Impact on Elementary Education in India. SAGE Open. 36. Wadhva, C. D. (n.d.). India trying to liberalize: Economic reforms since 1991.

CHAPTER SIX NEW PLANNING APPROACH TO OPTIMIZE RESOURCE UTILIZATION IN SUSTAINABLE HOUSING ANIL KUMAR1 AND AKSHAY GUPTA2 1

DELHI DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY, NEW DELHI 2 MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR

Abstract Resources are the major cause of energy consumed in any construction project. Primarily these include materials, machinery and manpower. It is very hard to judiciously segregate these three and then seek optimization, as there are too many interfaces between them. That said, effective planning is a pre-requisite for effective resource utilization, which is itself imperative for any sustainable housing, because optimum resource utilization means optimum energy utilization. Organizing the site and resources in such a way that the right resources reach the right location in time is a complex process. This chapter seeks to explore the optimization of resource utilization through interventions in planning. The specific problem area that this chapter looks at for optimization is, construction site logistics planning. This is done to ensure that the construction process flow remains as smooth as possible during execution. It includes planning the numbers and locations for material yards, material hoists, passenger hoists, tower cranes, concrete pumps, batching plants, etc. It also demarcates the access, approach, and movement of resources in and around the site. There are two major issues which can be associated with site logistics planning; the first is improper logistics process flow. The second is over allocation of resources. Both result in increased overall embodied energy consumption. Since site logistics planning is an outcome of site planning, it means that planning building blocks in the housing (that is, the number of buildings, location of building blocks, etc.) defines the site

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logistics flow and their planning. To resolve the above stated planning issues, or alternatively, to make them more sustainable, this chapter suggests a new approach towards the planning process termed as ‘O2 planning’. Keywords: sustainable housing, energy consumption, site logistics, planning

I. Introduction Energy consumption associated with resources utilized in construction projects is quite large. Generally, this view is limited to direct energy consumption. But, if we also take into consideration embodied energy consumption, the impact becomes huge. Furthermore, if we add on the cost which is associated with these resources, then it becomes imperative to manage them efficiently. The construction of any housing should be aimed at optimizing these consumptions, and in sustainable housing it is altogether more important to do so. Resource optimization can also be carried out during earlier phases of the project such as planning, but the most quantifiable impact is seen during the construction phase. This chapter seeks to underline opportunities to optimize resource utilization during the construction phase by introducing design interventions during the planning phase. This is specifically discussed with respect to site logistics planning and the deployment of related resources on site.

II. Research Background In the current scenario, the urban population of the country is constantly rising and so is the demand for their appropriate living spaces. The development of these appropriate living spaces which could positively contribute to the urban spaces, like housing, is thus thought to be on a high growth trajectory. Contributing factors such as, the shortage of existing housing, does give this a further boost. The housing shortfall was anticipated to be 18.78 million units at the start of the 12th Five-Year Plan. Households in the economically weaker section (EWS) and lower income group (LIG) account for over 96 per cent of the housing deficit. The Ministry released the National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy (NUHHP) in 2007 to address the housing scarcity as well as shortcomings in essential services and to keep up with the changing policy environment. This policy emphasizes affordable housing for everybody, with a specific focus on the EWS (MHUPA, GoI, 2017). The responsibility

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for the development of such housing is envisioned to be shared by both the public and private sector, and public private partnerships are deemed to be the most suitable solution for the same. Though this development is very much needed, it has to be carried out in a way that doesn’t worsen the unsustainable development already existing. Haphazard development of urban spaces has taken its toll on the living conditions there. Issues such as lack of safety, lack of proper access, pollution and improper waste disposal, and lack of access to basic amenities like water, sanitation and energy, etc., are common in urban development scenarios. Sustainable development cannot be achieved without significantly transforming the way we build and manage our urban spaces; by reducing the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities and by expanding the number of cities and human settlements that adopt and execute integrated policies and strategies for inclusion, resource efficiency, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and disaster resilience (UNDP, 2016). Sustainable Housing Sustainable housing constitutes an important sub-component of sustainable development, as these achieve multiple goals out of those mentioned above. Considering the attributes of sustainable development and the variety of the literature about it, sustainable housing can be defined as an amalgamation of different elements. It includes social sustainability incorporating safety, security, and universal design. It includes environmental sustainability incorporating water efficiency, waste efficiency and energy efficiency. It includes economic sustainability incorporating construction, operational and community cost efficiency (DHPW, Queensland Government). According to Priemus (2005), ‘sustainable housing’ is defined as ‘housing that is designed to satisfy the requirements of present occupants without jeopardizing future generations' ability to meet their own needs.’ It is housing with the least amount of negative environmental impact in terms of climate change (greenhouse effect); the quality of air, water, and soil, noise, odor, nonrenewable resource stock, and biodiversity. There are different versions of definitions for sustainable housing, covering a wide range of attributes in the larger context. Without venturing into aspects of social sustainability in this chapter, we would limit the definition of sustainable housing to energy and cost efficiency. Both generate the most visible impact on sustainability.

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Achieving energy efficient housing is very important in the present context, as most of the resources are created by the means of non-renewable sources of energy. These energy sources are limited and there are negative environmental impacts as a by-product of production. Thus, limiting the energy used in creating the resources would benefit both ways, by conserving both energy and environment for future generations. Cost efficiency too is an important aspect, as it helps in achieving the affordability part. Fewer costs incurred during the construction and operational phases mean that the housing would be more affordable. Also, cost efficiency in construction would mean that balancing cost could be utilized as the ‘cost of quality’ and ‘cost of sustainability’, both of which would be positive additions to the housing. Resource Utilization and Optimization To understand resource optimization, first we have to understand the types and kinds of resources required in the construction of any typical housing and how they are utilized. The construction industry is resource intensive and resources play a vital role in the successful completion of any project. So, prior arrangements for the provision of the different resources involved in construction are required at each stage of construction. Broadly stated, the construction resources are classified into three major categories: manpower (labor), machines (equipment) and material resources (Aftab et al., 2013). Manpower resources: These are the human resources utilized in the actual execution of the work. Efficient use of manpower resources is a necessity to avoid any kind of cost and time overruns in the projects. Therefore, adequate availability and adequate planning for deployment of these resources are a prerequisite for the successful completion of the project. These include skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled workers utilized for various tasks based on the level and kind of skill desired. Machinery resources: These resources are various tools and types of equipment deployed on a construction site to assist the manpower resources in achieving the designated milestones. The machinery resources increase the overall productivity of a team, as these can be operated for longer durations, under adverse and challenging conditions. While increasing productivity, these also reduce the manpower resources needed. But compared to manpower resources, these are significantly costlier. Hence, the numbers and types of machinery resources need to be carefully planned beforehand for the best cost solution. Adhering to the scope of this chapter,

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we are limiting the discussion to some of them, such as tower cranes, passenger and material hoists, concrete pumps, batching plants, bar cutting and bending machines, wood saws, etc. Material resources: Material resources represent a significant portion of overall expenditure on a project. These complement both manpower and machinery in the completion of various tasks in a project. Managing materials on site includes three major functions, i.e., procurement, storage and distribution. These must be planned before the start of related tasks to avoid delays in achieving the milestones. Apart from that, the efficient waste management of scrap materials and their by-products also needs equal emphasis for achieving the goals of cost effectiveness and sustainability. Major material resources include cement, reinforcement, bricks/blocks, aggregates, wood, etc. Taken together, these resources are a major source of energy consumed in any construction project, and of course, there is certain cost associated with all of them. Some of the literature (Aftab H. Memon) considers the cost separately as another resource. But since the financial resource is equally attributable to all three types mentioned above, this chapter intends to treat it as a sustainability attribute rather than a separate resource. The action of making the greatest or most effective use of a situation or resource is characterized as optimization (Google dictionary). Resource optimization as a process, can be defined as action being taken to best utilize the available resources for the completion of a project within (time and cost) deadlines. The PMBOK Guide, fifth edition, by the PMI describes two resources of optimization techniques: resource leveling and resource smoothing. Both try to balance the demand for resources with the availability of resources during the construction phase; although it doesn’t limit the definition to only these two and the scope of exploring further techniques to optimize resources is open. Whatever way optimization is achieved; it contributes to sustainability.

III. Problem formulation Resource optimization is an effective way of improving the sustainability credentials of a housing project. But we need to look beyond set techniques of resource optimization to achieve further progress. Rather than taking an approach of balancing the demand and supply of resources during the stage of their application, we must look for strategies to limit the demand itself prior to the execution stage.

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During the construction phase, it is very hard to judiciously segregate material, manpower and machinery resources and seek optimization, as there are way too many interfaces between them. That said, effective planning is a pre-requisite for effective resource utilization, which is itself an imperative for any sustainable housing, because optimum resource utilization means optimum energy utilization. Site logistics planning, that is, organizing the site and resources in such a way that the right resource reaches the right location in time is a complex process. It is basically done to ensure that the construction process flow remains as smooth as possible during execution. It includes planning the numbers and locations for material yards (steel and shuttering yards), material hoists, passenger hoists, tower cranes, concrete pumps, batching plants, site offices, etc. It also demarcates the access, approach and movement of resources in and around the site. There are two major issues which can be associated with site logistics planning. The first is, Improper logistics process flow. About two-thirds of the working hours on construction sites are accounted for as material searches, distances, transportation and other work interruptions, directly attributable to logistics planning. This wasted time does have an associated cost and subsequently some embodied energy too. The second is, over allocation of resources for a particular construction site. This happens primarily to make the logistics planning more effective. But when striving for a better process flow, we sacrifice the energy efficiency of the construction project, as more resources lead to more energy consumption (Anil, 2015). Site logistics planning is essentially an outcome of site block planning or site planning. This means that the planning of building blocks in housing, that is, numbers, location, etc., defines the site logistics flow and hence their planning. Site planning is directly affecting the resource planning for housing, hence in order to solve the above stated issues, or alternatively in order to make them more sustainable, intervention is needed in the planning process. In line with the above arguments, the main objectives of this chapter are to:

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ƒ Explore interventions during the planning phase of housing to catalyze the optimization of resources during execution. ƒ Broadly quantify, through an experimental example, the impacts of such interventions on the requirement of resources in sustainable housing. ƒ Discuss the possible limitations in the application of such a scenario and the future course of action.

IV. Proposed strategy To address the above stated problem areas, the strategy proposed in this chapter constitutes two basic principles to be used while planning sustainable housing. This is termed as one-origin (O2) planning (Anil, 2015). It is elaborated as follows: One – Planning should aim to shift the plural nature of housing towards a singular one. This means that the housing should be planned to comprise a few (preferably one) continuous building blocks instead of a number of separate building blocks. The primary purpose of this is to reduce the number of machinery resources, such as cranes, hoists, and concrete pumps, required to make the building accessible for manpower and materials. The lower the number of separate building blocks, the lower is the number of dedicated resources. Furthermore, a continuous building block would also increase the workability of various construction activities such as concreting, shuttering, reinforcement lying, etc., as these could be planned with more options in terms of working area and accessibility. Origin – Planning should be evolved in such a way that the building block/s (prime element of the housing) originate from the focal point of the site, instead of other elements like green areas or a community center, etc. In simpler words, the building should be placed at the center of the site. The secondary elements of the housing could be placed around the building block. This is primarily required to make the first principle more viable. Also, when we design a building as/at the focal center of the site, we are ensuring that the major construction area is concentrated. This means that there will be less distance between the various logistics areas like the steel yards, shuttering yards, material stores, concrete pump locations, etc. This will drastically reduce both the time and resources required to access and utilize them.

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This strategy is more fruitful if applied at the start of the planning. Though it might seem like a constraint to the designer, it is a necessary constraint because it would positively impact the sustainability credentials.

V. Evaluation of the Strategy To evaluate the above strategy and quantify its impact, two experimental cases of housing plans have been considered. In both cases, a site logistics plan was initially prepared on the basis of the original site plan, and the deployment of major resources such as tower cranes, hoists, concrete pumps, material yards, etc., was assessed. The following figures show site logistics plans based on the original site plans of case 1 and case 2. Subsequently, the site plan of each case was modified in accordance with the proposed strategy. The site logistics plan was then prepared again, and resource deployment was assessed for the same resources. The following figures show the revised logistics plans for case 1 and case 2. Resource deployment of both cases was then quantified and compared on the basis of the original plan and the revised plan. The following figures show the summarization of the same.

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Figure 1. Case 1 – Site Logistics Plan based on the Original Site Plan

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Figure 2. Case 2 – Site Logistics Plan based on the Original Site Plan

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Figure 3. Case 1 – Site Logistics Plan based on the Revised Site Plan

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Figure 4. Case 2 – Site Logistics Plan based on the Revised Site Plan

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Figure 5. Summary Comparison of Resource Deployment – Case 1

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Figure 6. Summary Comparison of Resource Deployment – Case 2

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It is observed that when the site plan was done in line with the proposed strategy, the number of resources deployed on site reduced by at least 25 per cent. In some cases, the reduction was even greater. We can, therefore, comfortably deduct that if the O2 planning strategy is applied while doing the site plan of housing projects, a significant reduction in resource demand is possible. The fewer the resources required, the lower is the associated cost and the less is the associated embodied energy. So, the approach is beneficial in achieving sustainable development.

VI. Limitations Some limitations were encountered during the evaluation. Since the evaluation is done on the basis of an existing plan, the application of the strategy was achieved through improvisation with existing building blocks only. If applied to greenfield projects, this strategy would deliver better results. Also, we have limited the evaluation of impacts to machinery resources only. However, there would also definitely be a positive impact on manpower and material resources, and this needs to be quantified. In terms of machinery resources, a lot of other resources (bar bending and cutting machines, wood saw machines, etc.) have been ignored for they need appropriate productivity data. When this strategy is applied to high-density housing, moving towards a singular nature is not always feasible so the strategy has to be modified for as much optimization as possible. There might be different types of proposed dwelling units (HIG, LIG, etc.) which necessarily have to be kept separate. In such a case, where the number of blocks is more than one, then the planning should be aimed at optimum placement so that the construction area is as small as possible.

VII. Conclusions This chapter presents a new approach to optimizing resources by introducing planning intervention right at the start of a project. This is a preventive approach rather than a reactive approach for reducing the resource utilization, so instead of balancing the demand-supply of resources during the execution stage, we modify the planning to reduce the demand itself. From an architect’s point of view, this approach may seem like a design constraint, but that is where the design intent could be explored, to

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achieve functionality as well as aesthetics while working within the boundaries of this philosophy. Though, this chapter uses the case example of an Indian context, the generic nature of interventions and the conclusions are valid in almost any location. The cost component may vary as per variations of currency, but the percentage savings potential would be constant. A future course of action in this direction could involve the quantification of impacts on other resources (manpower and material resources) during the application of this strategy. Also, principles for the application of this strategy to high-density housing could be further explored and explained.

References 1.

Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India, “Annual report”, (2016-2017), www.mhupa.gov.in. 2. United Nations Development Programme, “Sustainable Development Goals”, (2016), www.undp.org. 3. Anil K. Yaduvanshi, “O2 planning- Optimizing Resource utilization in Sustainable housing”, Ideate Innovate, (2015), www.ideovate.blogspot.in. 4. Hugo Priemus, “How to make housing sustainable? The Dutch experience”, Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, Volume 32, (2005), pp. 519. 5. Aftab Hameed Memon, Ismail Abdul Rahman, Ade Asmi Abdul Aziz and Nor Hazana Abdullah, “Using Structural Equation Modelling to Assess Effects of Construction Resource Related Factors on Cost Overrun”, World Applied Sciences Journal 21 (Mathematical Applications in Engineering), (2013), pp. 06-15. 6. Hesham M. Osman, Maged E. Georgy and Moheeb E. Ibrahim, “A hybrid CAD based construction site layout planning system using genetic algorithms”, Elsevier (Automation in construction 12), (2013), pp. 749-764. 7. Sven Bertelsen and Jorgen Nielsen, “Just-In-Time Logistics in Supply of Building materials”, Proceedings of 1st International Conference on Construction Industry Development: Building the future Together, Singapore, (1997) December 9-11. 8. Simaan AbouRizk and Yasser Mohamed, “Optimal Construction Project Planning”, Proceedings of Winter Simulation Conference, San Diego, CA, USA, (2002) December 8-11. 9. Project Management Institute Inc., “A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide)”, fifth edition, (2013), pp. 179-180. 10. Randy R. Rapp and Bradley L. Benhart, Editor, “Construction Site Planning and Logistical Operations: Site Focused Management for Builders”, Purdue University Press, West Lafayette, USA, (2015). 11. Department of Housing and Public works, Queensland Government, “Smart and Sustainable homes”, www.hpw.qld.gov.au.

CHAPTER SEVEN TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF ROW HOUSES: A CASE STUDY OF KANYAKUMARI S. MONIKA1 AND BHANU M. MARWAHA1 1

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY HAMIRPUR

Abstract Vernacular architecture always uses passive strategies to attain thermal comfort and efficiently utilizes the natural local resources to their best advantage without affecting the ecology. This study conducted in July and December 2021, was an attempt to document the metamorphosis of existing row houses in Edalakudy settlement in the Kanyakumari district. The main objective was to document the ongoing transformations and verify the efficiency of vernacular row houses over contemporary row houses. 15 row houses were selected for this study consisting of 11 vernacular row houses of Category A, 2 vernacular row houses with major alterations of Category B and 2 contemporary row houses of Category C. The outcome of this study suggested that due to the closure of courtyards in Category B houses and the absence of courtyards in Category C houses, a shift from climateresponsive architecture to an energy-intensive architecture because of inefficient daylighting and poor thermal performance of the structures, is leading towards unsustainable development. Keywords passive strategies; row houses; sustainable; vernacular; climate responsive

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I. Introduction The inclination of development toward sustainability demands a socially equitable, ecologically sensitive and economically viable architecture (Barbier, 1987). The passive strategies employed in vernacular architecture form a crucial database for a major reform in architecture. Vernacular architecture emerged out of local cultural needs, the availability of local building materials and locally existing climatic conditions, instilling a dynamic nature and essence of sustainability. Awareness and sensitivity about the past values and priorities allow for more appropriate architectural responses for the future (Ahmed, 2009). The study of such vernacular architecture is of substantial importance in consequence of its climatic suitability and socio-cultural identity. These vital forces forming the built character of the town are under great pressure due to the overall homogenization occurring in the country. Contemporary structures have been taking over the landscape for the last two decades. The rich heritage of Kanyakumari, comprising temples, coasts, rocks, forts, palaces and vernacular settlements provides a dynamic span for analysis. This study aims to document the transformations materializing in the vernacular settlement, which will provide a valuable record for future generations. Further, through analysis of the data collected, the causes of these transformations are identified which will provide valuable insights into the current dynamics of the built landscape and its implications from a broader perspective.

II. Location and History Kanyakumari is a coastal town, located at the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsular region between 77o15’ and 77o36’E and 8o03’ and 8o35 N’. The town has an undulating terrain and lies at an elevation of 30 m. Edalakudy, located at 77o5’E and 8o1’N, is a traditional settlement with houses dating back 75-125 years. The settlement (Fig. 1) was one of the first to emerge in the area forming the core of the city. The character of the houses revolved around the occupation during earlier eras, as an outcome of societal needs, and in this study, it is apprehended as a weaver’s settlement. The past practice of weaving has subsided with time due to the latest technologies in the textile industry.

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Figure 1: Satellite Image of the settlement (Earth, 2021)

III. Climate The town has a minimum temperature of 24oC, a maximum temperature of 34oC and annual rainfall ranging from 826-1456 mm, decreasing towards the southeast direction. Kanyakumari has an average relative humidity of 74%, an average wind speed of 4.4 m/s and a prevalent wind direction from the west toward the east (Tamil Nadu, 2021). The town falls under a warmhumid climate as per the National Building Code (NBC, 2016) climate classification.

IV. Site Planning The streets aligned along the east-west direction augment the prevalent wind movement and the row houses roughly face the north or south direction (Fig. 1). The alignment allows for reduced exposure of the wall by the sun as the longer east and west walls do not receive sunlight. The houses are fronted by the main street of 3-7 m and the rear side by lanes of 3 m or less which were used as waste collection and waste transportation routes when manual scavenging was prevalent. The backyards often have vegetation, domestic animals and utility spaces meant for washing, cleaning and bathing. The slender trees and street layout allow for efficient ventilation in the streets and through the houses.

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V. Methodology A preliminary survey was conducted in the month of July 2021 for the documentation and identification of transformations materializing in the settlement. Later, in the month of December 2021, a field investigation was conducted for analyzing the efficiency of vernacular row houses with courtyards over houses without courtyards. In the study, room temperature, wall temperature and air changes per hour (ACH) were recorded for houses 1, 13 and 14. A comparison of the above parameters highlighted the energy efficiency and thermal performance of the houses. The documentation of the houses provided a deep insight into the transformations, their nature and their causes; furthermore, the implications of such transformations were discovered. The transformations and their effects were described based on observations and user experience. The substantiation of 15 houses in the Edalakudy settlement was carried out, and the houses have been broadly categorized into three categories: A. Vernacular row houses (houses 1-11): B. Vernacular row houses with major alterations (houses 12 and 13) C. Contemporary row houses (houses 14 and 15).

VI. Measurement and Data Collection The instruments employed for the analysis were a mini-anemometer model no. UT363BT with an accuracy of ±5% and a handheld infrared thermometer model no. MTX-1 which had a ±1.5% accuracy range. The two instruments were used to record temperature, wall temperature, and airflow through openings. The airflow through openings was recorded at an interval of 5 seconds for 15 readings and the average value was used for calculating the cubic feet per minute (CFM) and ACH of a room; the calculated ACH was a consequence of wind-driven ventilation alone.

VII. Overview of the Houses Category A: The houses in this category are completely vernacular structures with no major alterations which date back 75-125 years; they are recognizable by the presence of a courtyard and mud walls with rounded corners as in House 1 (Fig. 2).

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Figure 2: Sections, Elevation, Plan, Visuals and Site Plan (clockwise)

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Structure: The load-bearing walls of 360 mm in thickness remain shaded by long eaves on the north facade and remain cool throughout the daytime. The rooms remain cool at night due to night ventilation enhanced by porous roofs coupled with a courtyard and opening. The presence of coconut leaf matting and the shading of roofs by trees present in the backyard avoid overheating of the rear semi-open space. Courtyard: The courtyard located in the center enhances air movement in the surrounding spaces which is a necessity in humid conditions and plays a major role in night ventilation. The large size of the courtyard heats the adjacent rooms due to the increased amount of solar exposure during the daytime. Openings: The two sets of openings A1 and A2 fall along an axis and create wind drafts which induce ventilation as the prevailing wind is perpendicular to the axis of the openings. The opening size is narrow with the height greater than the width which ensures the structural stability of the house as the walls play an active role in transferring the load. House 2 (Fig. 3) Structure: The thinnai, a front porch-like structure at the plinth level and serving as a space for social interaction, was reconstructed with reinforced slabs and a puja room over the courtyard; with the above exceptions, the house contains vernacular elements. The living space has a timber false ceiling which reduces daytime heating. Courtyard: The courtyard is very small due to the extended puja room and is located on the west wall. The courtyard remains shaded most of the time and enhances ventilation. Openings: The openings fall along the central axis A3 and the windows W3 and W4 present on the west side are connected to the courtyard for indraft. House 3 (Fig. 4) Structure: The front room has a wooden false ceiling and other rooms were added in the later periods as an outcome of the necessity for private rooms. Otherwise, the front room is a semi-public space, the thinnai is a public space and the rear acts as the private space. The semi-open space around the courtyard contained the handlooms which had a surplus supply of daylight and fresh cool air.

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Figure 3: Elevation, Section, Plan, Visuals and Site Plan (clockwise)

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Figure 4: Elevation, Section, Plan, Visuals and Site Plan (clockwise)

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Courtyard: The house has two courtyards due to the increased length of the row house. The courtyards are used for daylight and air movement into the surrounding spaces. Openings: The door opening falls along a central axis A4 with courtyards along it. Windows W7, W8, W9 and W10 fall along an axis that ensures air movement and windows W7 and W8 have ventilators above them to always facilitate air movement. The location of windows W7, W8 and W10 is close to the plinth to avoid the disruption of air movement and the entry of cool air owing to the stack effect. House 4 (Fig. 5) Structure: The house had partitions built during later periods for creating rooms. The absence of a false ceiling heats the house for a short duration of time during the day but allows for faster cooling when the roof is devoid of solar radiation. Courtyard: The courtyard is centrally placed and used for various activities like bathing, washing, cleaning and other utilitarian activities. The transformation in usage arose due to a shift of occupation from weaving to rearing cattle in the backyard. Openings: The windows W11 and W12 are not aligned along any axis due to minor alterations in the structure in the process of partitioning. Structure: The house is more than 100 years old and has a wooden false ceiling in the front room which ensures a cool environment during the day. Courtyard: The large courtyard is located on the east side and serves various utilitarian activities like drying clothes, washing, etc., and this factor reduces solar exposure and enhances evaporative cooling. The courtyard allows for maintaining a cool environment during the night. Openings: The alignment of windows W13 and W14 is maintained till the courtyard and the kitchen is connected to the semi-open space for air movement. The alignment of the openings is crucial for ventilation until it hits the courtyard to ensure wind draft through the openings and the rooms.

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Figure 5: Section, Elevation, Plan, Visuals and Site Plan (clockwise)

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House 5 (Fig. 6)

Figure 6: Section, Elevation, Plan, Visuals and Site Plan (clockwise)

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House 6 (Fig. 7)

Figure 7: Section, Elevation, Plans, Visuals and Site Plan (clockwise)

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Structure: The house had a double story in the front room with a wall thickness of 400 mm and the thickness of the wall above was reduced to 250 mm for efficient transfer of the load. The house is a half remaining part of a bigger house which was partitioned leading to asymmetric alignment. Courtyard: The partition has led to the placement of the courtyard on the east wall or else it would have been centrally located in the row house. Openings: The door openings fall along an axis A5 to the courtyard. The narrow window W15 is at floor level to ensure unrestricted air movement. The windows W16 and W17 on the attic floor are not aligned on an axis for better circulation of air in the room. House 7 (Fig. 8) Structure: The residence has a large courtyard in the center and no false ceiling, making the days hot and the nights cool. The need for more habitable space created extended rooms which are ventilated by a central open passage. Courtyard: The large courtyard allows for an ample amount of sunlight into the rooms for effective daylighting. Openings: Openings fall along an axis A6 and the front two rooms have openings D1 and D2 towards the courtyard enhancing daylighting and air circulation. The floor-level windows W18 and W19 coupled with the open passage aligned with the courtyard provide effective air movement.

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House 8 (Fig. 9)

Figure 9: Section, Elevation, Plan, Visuals and Site Plan (clockwise)

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Structure: The front room has a wooden partition and further, the absence of a false ceiling leads to warm afternoons. The courtyard is filled, shaded, and shrunken. Courtyard: The central shaded courtyard allows for daylighting to a certain extent. The courtyard is centrally located and covered by an aluminum sheet that captures heat during the daytime creating a warm environment in the courtyard space. However, it experiences cool nights due to the faster air movement. Openings: The door openings fall along an axis A7 ensuring effective air movement. House 9 (Fig. 10) Structure: The house has an attic floor which allows for cooler days on the ground floor. The attic experiences warm days due to the high permeability of clay tile roofing. Courtyard: The centrally located courtyard is small and linear in shape, with an aluminum tray to collect rainwater which obstructs lighting and limits the airflow. Openings: The openings fall along axes A8 and A9 but the airflow in axis A9 is restricted as a room was built outside the window W21. House 10 (Fig. 11)

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Figure 10: Section, Elevation, Plan, Visuals and Site Plan (clockwise)

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Structure: The front room has a false ceiling which yields cooler days and nights. The rear semi-open space experiences cool nights and days due to air movement and shading respectively. Openings: Door openings fall on the axis A10. House 11 (Fig. 12) Figure 12: Section, Elevation, Plan, Visuals and Site Plan (clockwise)

Structure: The house has a small lane on the east side due to the occupational need of rearing cattle. The height of rooms allows for a cool environment as warm air rises and cooler winds are introduced as a consequence of thermal stratification and buoyancy-driven ventilation. Courtyard: The courtyard on the west wall enhances day- and night-time ventilation. Openings: The openings fall on axis A11 for effective ventilation and windows W24 and W25 are at floor level for the passage of wind draft through the house. Category B: The houses within this category are partially vernacular due to the presence of certain vernacular characteristics. They are distinguished by the absence of a courtyard and have undergone alterations in the last 15 to 20 years.

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House 12 (Fig. 13)

Figure 13: Section, Elevation, Plan, Visuals and Site Plan (clockwise)

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The house maintains the vernacular spaces except for the room built over the courtyard which contributes to poor daylighting. The room built over the courtyard has the least ventilation due to the absence of an opening. The wind-driven ventilation is along axis A12 as the long passage with door openings allows air movement. The porous roofs create hotter days due to the exposure to solar radiation and cool down faster at night rendering cool nights. House 13 (Fig. 14) The entire structure has been built over except for the front living space, and poor daylighting and ineffective air movements are major drawbacks. The front living space still experiences cool nights due to porous roofs. The air movement is hindered despite the openings along axes A13, A14, A15 and A16. Category C: The houses are completely modern constructions which can be distinctly characterized by the absence of a courtyard and smaller plot sizes. The houses under this category were built within the period of the last 10 years. House 14 (Fig. 15) The narrow plot lacks efficient daylighting and ventilation. The windows W26, W27 and W28 remain unused and do not fall along an axis. The first floor experiences hot days and nights due to the exposure of a larger surface area to solar radiation during the day and the dissipation of stored heat at night.

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Figure 14: Section, Elevation, Plans, Visuals and Site Plan (clockwise)

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Figure 15: Section, Elevation, Plans, Visuals and Site Plan (clockwise)

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House 15 (Fig. 16)

Figure 16: Elevation, Section, Plans, Site Plan and Visuals (clockwise)

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The building highly relies on artificial lighting and mechanical ventilation. The structure heats up during the day and dissipates the heat during the night time which leads to warm nights and the same effect causes cool early hours during the daytime. The lack of effective ventilation and high temperatures during the day and night have led to the use of air conditioners.

VIII. Results and Discussion Commonalities in Categories A, B and C Category A: The courtyard and opening are aligned along the axis perpendicular to the prevalent wind direction which ensures enhanced air circulation through wind drafts. The 360 mm thick mud walls remain shaded and therefore do not heat up ensuring cool days and nights. The porous roofs cool the spaces faster as outdoor air temperature decreases during the night time. Category B: The absence of a courtyard affects the daylighting adversely and air movement in closed spaces. The air movement still exists to a certain extent due to the presence of openings along an axis. The porous roofs aid in night-time cooling in the structure. Category C: The top floors experience warm days and nights as a consequence of poor air circulation which leads to the use of cooling devices. The absence of a courtyard coupled with non-porous modern RCC roofs and brick walls leads to the high reliability on mechanical ventilation and artificial lighting. The openings fail to make use of natural ventilation as they remain closed due to active air conditioning and do not fall along an axis. It was observed across the categories that the depth of the plot exceeds thrice the width of the plot. Under normal circumstances, the internal courtyard is introduced centrally when the depth of the plot exceeds twice the width of the plot. Under these circumstances, closing the courtyard for the need of additional built-up space or not providing courtyards has led to restrictions on the air movement and daylighting.

IX. Observations The analysis suggested the declining use of the courtyard and alterations involving the removal of existing courtyards due to a lack of space as a consequence of an increasing family size and land values. The nature of

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transformations was from a climate-responsive to an energy-intensive architecture. The transformations are failing to consider the contextual climate conditions in their design. The changes will lead to the extensive use of energy for daylighting and thermal loads for attaining thermal and visual comfort conditions inside the house.

Figure 17: Temperature Flux Curve of the Houses

The transformations were in consequence of the increasing land crisis which had initially resulted in the coverage of the courtyard for the want of extra living space. Later, this factor led to the construction of multiple floors in smaller plot sizes. The increasing cost of land limited the ability of the people to invest in a larger parcel of land and developed hesitation in leaving vacant any usable land space. It was observed that the energy consumption in modern houses ranged between 100 and 410 units/month while in vernacular row houses, it ranged between 75 and 130 units/month. The energy consumption pattern proved that the transformations that are materializing are unsustainable. The increased energy consumption is a consequence of artificial lighting, heating and cooling equipment. In the field experiment conducted in December 2021, houses 1 (Category A), 13 (Category B) and 14 (Category C) were analyzed. The mean temperature of the rooms of house 1 was found to be 2-3oC lower than in houses 13 and 14 between 12 am and 7 am. This temperature difference

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gradually decreased during the day and house 1 experienced a temperature difference of 0.2oC and 0.5oC greater than houses 13 and 15 respectively at around 2 pm. The temperature started decreasing in house 1 shortly after the peak temperature of 31.4oC between 2 and 3 pm, rapidly cooling to 29oC by 10 pm which was 2oC cooler than houses 13 and 14. The temperature fluctuation in house 1 was in congruence with the outside temperature, whereas the temperature in house 14 was maintained at around 31oC and in house 13 it fluctuated between 29.8oC and 32o C due to the presence of a front vernacular structure. House 1 experienced the lowest temperature of 27.2oC between 4 and 7 am while houses 13 and 14 experienced the lowest temperatures of 29.2oC and 30.1oC at 8 am. The highest temperatures observed were 32.1oC and 32.5oC in houses 1 and 13 in the front room due to the direct radiative heat from clay tile roofing while the highest temperature in house 15 of 31.9oC prevailed between 12 am and 6 am. The wall temperature gradually fluctuated between 27oC and 28.8oC in house 1 while in houses 13 and 14 a wall temperature of 29oC prevailed for most of the time, the lowtemperature fluctuation being a result of the long common dead walls of the row houses. Table 1. Air Changes per Hour in the Houses Structure

House 1

House 13

House-14

Average ACH

3.6

1.0

2.7

Average OWV (m/s)

0.4

0.5

0.5

The air changes per hour in house 1 were 3.5 times greater than those of house 13. Furthermore, in spite of the 2.7-fold smaller floor area and higher outside wind velocity (OWV) the air changes per hour of house 14 were three-quarters of those for house 1. The temperature difference between the outside and inside environment (Rajapaksha et al., 2002), also called the relative index, was greater for houses 13 and 14, which was calculated to be up to -4.3 and -4.2 respectively in the morning, and the negative value implicated a warmer environment than the outside by about 4oC. House 1 had a relative index of -1 between 7 pm and 7 am; otherwise, it had a value between 1 and 3, which implied a cooler environment than outside environment during the daytime.

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The above analysis suggests a better thermal performance of Category A over Categories B and C; therefore, it appears that the evolving architecture lacks the vernacular characteristics of the town and its climatic benefits. The emerging trend is devoid of sustainability principles as the generations will not experience the same environment, whether it is built or natural.

X. Conclusion The major advantage of the vernacular house is its ability to fluctuate its temperature with the outside environment leading to cooler nights as a result of increased air exchanges. Modern construction tends to retain higher temperatures for a longer period of time due to inefficient air movement. The doors and windows remain closed in most of the houses, and in such cases the presence of a courtyard can enhance the air movement inside the structure. Apart from the inside environment, the outside temperature on the streets was high near the modern construction due to the high albedo of the surrounding structure. The continuous modern row houses also restrict air movement along the streets which stagnates the heat in the surrounding area. The observations in the houses clearly suggest a lack of air movement and higher temperatures at night in modern houses as compared to the vernacular houses. The door and windows remain open only during the daytime which indicates night-time cooling is a consequence of thermal interaction between a courtyard and the outside environment. Besides, the courtyard, infiltration, mud walls and permeable roofs also take part in the instantaneous night-time cooling of the house while the modern houses which are thermally inert maintain a constant temperature inside the house. The courtyard induces the wind draft inside the structure, and the observed interactive property of the courtyard affects the thermal behavior of the house. Globalization became feasible as a consequence of communication technology and transportation. This mega factor took over the construction industry by means of the availability of a vast arena of materials. Climate responsive architecture, passive strategies, renewable resources and other sustainable practices are the few methods to overcome the upcoming crisis. Apart from harnessing renewable energy, the efficient use of energy will provide for sustainable development.

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References 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

Ahmed, Z. N. (2009). Globalisation and Architecture: reflections of shifting lifestyles in Bangladesh. Journal of the Dept. of Architecture, 13(November), 17–28. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310161462%0AGlobalisation Barbier, E. B. (1987). The Concept of Sustainable Economic Development. Environmental Conservation, 14(2), 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892900011449 Earth, G. (2021). Imagery. CNES. https://www.google.com/maps/@8.1664507,77.4426071,339m/data=!3m1!1e 3 NBC. (2016). National Building Code 2016, clause 6.2, Part 8 Building Services, Section 3, Air Conditioning, Heating and Mechanical Ventilation, page 19 of Volume 2. National Building Code of India, 2, 97. Rajapaksha, I., Nagai, H., & Okumiya, M. (2002). Indoor Thermal Modification of a Ventilated Courtyard House in the Tropics. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 1(1), 87–94. https://doi.org/10.3130/jaabe.1.87 Tamil Nadu, G. of. (2021). Kanyakumari District. 1–14. https://kanniyakumari.nic.in/

CHAPTER EIGHT WATER STRESS: VULNERABLE URBAN AREAS MANISH SHARMA1, BANSARI SHARMA2, NAND KUMAR2 AND ASHWANI KUMAR2 1

2

MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Abstract Urbanization manifests in many forms for water resources by spelling out an increased withdrawal, transforming river temperature, and deteriorating water quality due to unregulated storm-water discharges. In addition, the disposition of untreated sewage from localities and wastes from industries being discharged into the streams and other water bodies creates issues in our sophisticated and complex urban system. This chapter elaborates on the urban vulnerability profile concerning water stresses. The desk study reveals that core, peripheral, and informal settlements have a heightened water vulnerability. Keywords: water stress, vulnerability, urban settlements, vulnerability profile

I. Introduction Water stress can result from actual resource constraints (with a limited recharge for surface and groundwater due to scant rainfall) or the destruction of existing water resources, rendering them unusable or unfit for utilization. Water stresses due to water scarcity are characteristic of arid and semi-arid areas. One such example is areas in the western part of the country, primarily Rajasthan state. Absolute scarcity (requiring supply augmentation) was observed in 51% of towns in 2003, as against 37% of state towns during 1991. However, urbanization manifests in many forms

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for water resources by spelling out an increased withdrawal, transforming river temperature, and deteriorating water quality due to unregulated stormwater discharges. The disposition of untreated sewage from localities and wastes from industries being discharged into the streams and other water bodies creates issues in our sophisticated and complex urban system. The severity of the resulting pollution depends upon the degree of waste treatment and the amount of waste effluent in relation to the amount of water available for dilution. The report by Niti Aayog (2018) indicates that many highly populated Indian states like Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Bihar have less than half of the required installed capacity to treat wastewater, while many of the Indian states have no or deficient capacities for treatment, especially the North-Eastern and Himalayan states (Fig. 1). India is currently ranked 120 among 122 countries in the water quality index with more than half of its water resources considered to be contaminated (70% of the water present in the country is contaminated) resulting in 2,00,000 deaths annually in the country (Niti Aayog, 2018). A report by WaterAid (2016) states that water contamination is a severe challenge to India, which not only induces a scarcity of potable water but is also responsible for many diseases, with three-quarters of the Indian population affected by it while contamination contributes to one-fifth of the country’s disease burden. Rainwater-flushed rainwater after rainfall also contributes to pollution as contaminants from the streets and unattended areas. Moreover, the disposal of solid waste in dumpsites and sanitary landfills poses a threat to the subsurface water resources as it gets polluted by water percolating through the waste, which carries with it, contaminants causing both chemical and biological pollution. Hence these water problems give rise to or aggravate other issues in an urban system, and a water-oriented viewpoint must be considered in assessments of the general urban situation. Alongside this, urban water infrastructure’s poor condition is suitably reflected in the extent of water losses in India, which aggravates the problem of water stress. Water losses via supply systems are estimated to be approximately 40 to 60 per cent, with more than 60 per cent of these losses being due to technical reasons (poor quality construction of pipes and storage, improper installation of pumps and machinery, leakages of lines, etc.), even for a region like Rajasthan which is already physically stressed. Hence, the mismanagement of urban water services is also a significant contributor to water stress in our so-called urbanized areas.

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Figure 1: Percentage capacity installed in the state to treat the urban wastewater as a proportion of the total estimated wastewater generated in the urban areas of the Indian states at the end of the Financial Year 2015-16. Source: (Niti Aayog, 2018)

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II. Literature Review The limited water availability through surface and groundwater sources manifests in physically water-stressed areas, where the demand outstrips the supply at least once a year. This situation is worsened in the regions with limited rainfall and a river network like Rajasthan since the inflow to the surface reservoirs and groundwater recharge is also limited. McDonald et al. (2014) note that ‘some cities exist in relatively dry climates or located far from large water sources and thus may have trouble obtaining water.’ Though virtually the whole of India experiences some level of water stress except for north-eastern regions, Rajasthan falls under the highly highwater-stressed areas. The situation is expected to worsen in the urban areas experiencing a burst in population, like the capital city of Jaipur; as McDonald et al. (2014) note, ‘as cities grow in population, total water needs also increase.’ With the growing urbanization trend, economic development is expected to increase per capita water use as new technologies such as showers increase residential water use. At the same time, the accompanying industrialization might establish water-intensive industrial units, which in the absence of proper waste treatment units may pollute the water sources. On the other hand, urbanization offers many opportunities to develop mitigation and adaptation strategies to deal with climate change, primarily through urban planning and design. The economies of scale, the concentration of enterprises, and innovation in cities make it cheaper and easier to take actions to minimize both emissions and climate hazards. There are also significant opportunities for disaster risk reduction, responses, and reconstruction in cities, including land use planning, building codes and regulations, risk assessments, monitoring, early warning, and buildingback-better responses and reconstruction approaches. With cities expanding their limits to accommodate land requirements for developmental needs, the need for essential services is amongst the top priorities and challenges for the urban local bodies in the context of the limited institutional and financial capabilities (Government of Rajasthan, 2018). McDonald et al. (2011) observed that financial limitation in the construction of infrastructure will affect patterns of water scarcity, with richer cities with more resources able to construct a more robust urban water infrastructure and thus escape water scarcity. In the absence of the same, the limited expansion of water infrastructure and poor maintenance of an existing infrastructure also enhance water stress in the concerned urban areas. Reddy (2010) notes that water losses lie in the range of 40-60 per cent

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in Rajasthan, ‘with more than 60% of these losses being due to technical reasons (leaking pipes, poor quality construction of storage, improper installation of machinery, etc.)’. Numerous characteristics of current urban planning and development drive vulnerability, including weak regulation. For instance, the lack of enforcement of building codes, planning permission, and regulatory investment, often linked to corruption, allow the transfer of risk (adapted from UNISDR, 2015). According to a report by McKinsey (2010), a considerable investment, to the tune of 1.2 trillion dollars, will be needed in India to fulfill the requirements of the projected 68 million plus cities (up from 42 in 2010) by 2030. Despite this excellent and opportunistic picture, Indian cities fail to deliver their residents’ basic standard of living. In the coming years, as per the McKinsey report (2010), the demand for every critical service will increase five- to seven-fold in cities of every size and type, and at the current rate of investment, Indian cities are expected to woefully fall short of what is necessary to sustain prosperous cities (McKinsey Global Institute, 2010). Hence, it is not wise for investment to build a vulnerable profile of the towns; instead, investing in making the cities resilient will go far in the future in terms of saving money in time and again relief and reconstruction work. This is due to water-related disasters like urban floods and water stresses. Urban development in developing countries is socially segregated, characterized by unequal access to urban areas, infrastructure, services, and security. Low-income households are often forced to occupy exposed areas with low land values, efficient or non-existent infrastructure and social protection, and high levels of environmental degradation (UNISDR, 2015). Up to 90 per cent of people in urban areas in low-income countries live in unsafe, exposed housing developing a pattern of spatially and socially segregated disaster risk (UNISDR, 2015). In other words, the spatial characteristics of a place, coupled with the socio-economic dynamics of its inhabitants, induce a different level of disaster risk, and with varying resilience, based on the inherent coping capacities, which are differently equipped. One physical manifestation of increasing inequality levels in urban areas is that the phenomenon of gated communities has become more evident in the last two decades. These communities share similar characteristics such as separation from neighboring land by fences, walls, or other constructed or natural obstructions, including symbolic barriers, and filtered or selective entry using mechanical, electronic, or human guardianship as access-control

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elements. Hence, this study intends to analyze their water consumption pattern, supply sources in the wake of water infrastructure reach to these areas and inherent resilience levels, and the potential to manage water stress in the long term. Moreover, the study also intends to assess the theoretically vulnerable regions by evaluating key network water infrastructure parameters and their inherent resilience levels. The ensuing pattern of urban development due to formal or informal periurbanization processes is characterized by the displacement of the population, industries, and services from the city center to the periphery and the creation of new centers with their own economic and social dynamics. Compared to the upscale suburbanization of developed countries, the periurban areas in developing countries have become divided cities, characterized by spatial segregation along socio-economic lines. These large peri-urban areas consist of informal land-use patterns, a lack of infrastructure, poor or non-existent public services, low-quality housing, and families living in poverty.

III. Discussion and Analysis Vulnerable areas: Core settlements at risk In the wake of development trends, especially in developing countries, due to poor planning strategies and developmental goals, the resources and infrastructure are concentrated in a few urban centers, leading to centralized and compact development. As cities continue to expand, the demand for land increases, citing more development, and the urban poor tend to settle on higher-risk land. The settling of communities in high-risk areas is often a result of rapid and uncontrolled urbanization accompanied by increased competition for land, decreased vegetation cover, changes in land use and more significantly, variability in climate. These drivers alter population distribution, relative wealth, and disaster risk over a short time horizon; when combined with inadequate urban management, these drivers will continue to exacerbate existing risks to natural hazards. Over time, such urban centers become problematic in terms of city management and the provision of a safe and healthy lifestyle for their inhabitants. The concentration of development, and economic activities, primarily seen in the Central Business District, gives rise to a population in a limited area, which under little enforcement of regulations generally turns out to be unsustainable in the long run for infused resources. This said, the condition of the urban water supply infrastructure is no different. In the absence of

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due up-gradation, the areas suffer a setback in the form of reduced supplies, pressure issues, and delayed frequency. Aspiring and aggressively expanding cities transform into urban agglomerations, engulfing neighboring settlements and rural areas on the city fringe, which already have many problems to cope with due to the unplanned and unregulated development. Hence the highly dense areas have a far more exposed population and a more significant influence on urban risk drivers. In contrast, the urban poor living in nearby regions in terms of informal settlements, mostly illegally in middle- and low-income countries’ cities and peri-urban areas, are particularly vulnerable due to their tendency to reside in high-risk areas and faulty shelters, having limited access to primary and emergency services, and a general lack of economic resilience. Vulnerable areas: Peripheral settlements at risk In the wake of the rising demand for housing, an alarmingly increased volume of the housing stock is constantly being supplied to the market to satiate its need. This housing stock lacks basic urban service connections amid many flouted norms and regulations. Urban poverty and a weak, inept financial framework make the procurement of loans very difficult for houses aligned with the areas having urban service provisions. Hence, many Indian cities with overall housing markets have many urban residents, mainly from low- and middle-income groups, excluded from the formal sector. Bangkok had its drainage channels occupied by the urban poor owing to the intensified consumption of land uses, thus resulting in frequent events of urban flooding. This kind of development, inviting multiple issues, is a result of improper land management. Piece-meal and leap-frog developmental trends of urban areas indicate the lack of strategic planning that most of our cities are experiencing. Moreover, urban services have generally poorly serviced such locations due to cost restrictions and sometimes feasibility issues (which the development authority tends to overlook and mostly misfire on the integrated development concept). With city expansion taking place under the influence of economic or political considerations often outweighing considerations of risk, the peripheral populations are living under vulnerable conditions for the above reasons. In megacities, peripheral area populations have witnessed an annual growth rate of 10-20 per cent, but the urban services, including water supply provisions, take years to plan and realize.

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Vulnerable areas: Informal settlements at risk Most of the urban poor consume their income to ensure daily survival amid the rising cost of urban living. Hence, they tend to overlook the change in behavior risk demand to provide better sustenance. On the other hand, the informal sector is the worst sufferer of the disaster impacts in the wake of the limited assets and resources like houses, services, and basic infrastructure. The section of the society constituting the urban poor has minimal resources and tends to be housed in sensitive areas, typically unsafe for human settlement, and without any structured provision of water, sanitation or electricity. This makes them highly vulnerable to natural calamities and climate changes. Such situations coupled with weak absorption and coping capacities render communities vulnerable. This group of urban dwellers is highly susceptible to water stress due to poor water quality (primarily open source), insufficient quantity (during dry months), etc. Even the environmentalecological balances in the local context are disturbed by residing in such locations. Many of the world’s urban poor suffer from dysfunctional urban water services to achieve, e.g., increased and more equitable access to water, better treatment of wastewater, and better quality water. With India’s 24 per cent urban population residing in slums, there is an ardent need to address the above concerns for this population. In addition, however, it is also imperative to assess what are the qualities, factors, and capacities, and also in what variable numbers are the different people, households, and society, due to which they are relatively more or less resilient in comparison to others since the study explores the concept of urban resilience to address the vulnerabilities of different socio-spatial groups.

IV. Conclusion This chapter elaborates on the urban vulnerability profile regarding water stresses. Moreover, it stresses the causal factors adding to water vulnerability in particular metropolitan areas. It has been highlighted that the highly dense urban cores are vulnerable due to their limited service expansions and high water consumption density due to commercial and residential activity. The peripheral areas are vulnerable due to the mismatch between the pace of urban development and the provision of urban water services, which also stresses groundwater. Also, informal areas are at risk due to poor urban infrastructure and the limited economic capacity of

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residents. Hence strategies must be evolved with a focus on more vulnerable areas to enhance the resilience of overall urban settlements.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13.

14.

Alley, W. M. (2009). Ground Water. Encyclopedia of Inland Waters, 684-690. doi:10.1016/B978-012370626-3.00015-6 Government of Rajasthan. (2018). Rajasthan: Urban Water Policy. Jaipur: Government of Rajasthan. Jorgensen, B. S., Martin, J. F., Pearce, M. W., & Willis, E. M. (2013). Predicting Household Water Consumption with Individual-Level Variables. Environment and Behaviour. McDonald, R. I., Douglus, I., Grimm, N. B., Hale, R., Revenga, C., Gronwell, J., & Fekete, B. (2011). Implications of fast urban growth for freshwater provision. Ambio, 437-447. McKinsey Global Institute. (2010). India’s urban awakening: Building inclusive cities; sustaining economic growth. Mumbai: McKinsey and Company. Niti Aayog. (2018). Composite Water Management Index. New Delhi: Govt. of India. Patraa, S., Sahoob, S., Mishraa, P., & Mahapatra, S. C. (2018). Impacts of urbanization on land use /cover changes and its probable implications on local climate and groundwater level. Journal of Urban Management. doi:10.1016/j.jum.2018.04.006 Reddy, V. R. (1996). Urban Water Crisis: Rationale for Pricing. Jaipur: Rawat Publishers. UNISDR. (2015). Making Development Sustainable: The Future of Disaster Risk Management. Global Assessment Report in Disaster Risk Reduction 2015. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR). Water Footprint Assessment Tool. (n.d.). Water Footprint Assessment Tool. Retrieved from Water Footprint: http://www.waterfootprintassessmenttool.org/national-explorer WaterAid. (2016). Water: At What Cost? The State of the World’s Water 2016. WaterAid. WaterAid. (2019). Beneath the Surface: The State of the World’s Water 2019. WaterAid. World Health Organization (WHO); United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). (2021). Progress on household drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene 2000-2020: Five years into the SDGs. Geneva: Licence: CC BY-NCSA 3.0 IGO. World Resources Institute. (2015). Ranking the World’s Most Water-Stressed Countries in 2040. WRI. Retrieved from https://www.wri.org/blog/2015/08/ranking-world-s-most-water-stressedcountries-2040

CHAPTER NINE CULTURAL AND CREATIVE INDUSTRIES: EXPLORING CONNECTIONS WITH CULTURAL HERITAGE HARVEEN BHANDARI1, KANIKA BANSAL1 AND SUNANDA KAPOOR2 1

CHITKARA SCHOOL OF PLANNING & ARCHITECTURE, CHITKARA UNIVERSITY, PUNJAB, INDIA 2 MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR, INDIA

Abstract Amidst the globalization and urbanization of the 21st century, cultural heritage is being widely recognized as a manifestation of the socio-cultural values of a society. These cultural values of heritage are deeply embedded within the creative industries, which is why UNESCO has re-coined the term creative industries as ‘Cultural and Creative Industries’ (CCIs). These industries include various subsectors and disciplines like architecture, art, design, filmmaking, music, drama, etc., and have the ability to enhance the attractiveness of cultural heritage for the associated community and visitors, thereby resulting in increased tourism. Recently, the CCIs have been seen as a catalyst to boost the regional as well as the national economy and play a significant role in offering tools to experience design and safeguard cultural heritage. Such industries can be used as a means for ensuring and enhancing heritage sustainability and impacting and redefining sustainable experiential tourism, thereby moving ahead on the path of sustainable development. However, even though the CCIs have gained economic importance worldwide, the research available on these industries is still in its early stages because of long-term ignorance by the governments and policymakers. The active involvement of local government, academic institutions, and society as the three main stakeholders of CCIs will stimulate sustainable tourism and preserve cultural heritage. Future policy

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formulation in the CCIs for safeguarding the cultural heritage can be based on innovative and creative approaches in cohesion with active and creative stakeholders. Keywords: creative industries, cultural industries, cultural heritage, sustainability, stakeholders

I. Introduction ‘Cultural industries’ and ‘creative industries’ are concurrently accepted globally when discussing future economic scenarios but rarely is there is a universally defined explanation of the uniqueness and distinctiveness between the two (Hani et al., 2012). Cultural industries encompass all such industrial units which combine the ‘design, manufacture, and sale of creative products/contents, with copyright, that are intangible and have cultural associations’ (UNESCO, 2005). Such products can be generalized as goods or services. The UNESCO 2005 Convention on ‘Safeguarding of Cultural Expressions’ defined cultural industries as enterprises that create and disburse cultural items or allied services having a specific characteristic and communicate cultural expressions, regardless of their commercial value. However, creative industries as a term emerged as a characteristic of a creative economy that blurred the fine line between cultural and economic whose outcomes are significant due to their aesthetic rather than solely functional uses (Rantisi et al., 2006). The term ‘creative industries’ was believed to have varied definitions until the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) standardized its scope and definition (UNCTAD, 2008). The concept of creative industries was developed to comprehend an extensive range of knowledge-based activities with a high scope for generating revenue, including the formation, production, and delivery of intellectual, intangible and tangible artistic goods and services (Dharmani et al., 2021). Such industries comprise small, dynamic businesses that function within a systematically organized chain of inter-related activities wherein marketing, and distribution, in addition to creation and manufacturing, are crucial links in this chain for products that have high reliability in encapsulating consumer sensitivities (Pratt, 1997). Many studies have highlighted the economic significance of such cultural and creative industries (CCIs) that extends beyond the creation of cultural goods or the generation of employment facilities for creative skilled individuals (Potts and Cunningham, 2008). It plays a vital role in accelerating and supporting the transformation of the entire economy.

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The Creative Industries Task Force Mapping Document (CITF) 1998 integrated a number of activities such as advertising, filmmaking, the fashion industry, architecture, arts and crafts, the music industry and television, etc., into the creative industries (Cunningham, 2002). Over the past decade, the creative industry sector has witnessed major increases in employment generation and exports as such industries are the pioneers in income generation in various countries across the world (Abraham, 2020). Scott (2006) posited that creative industries inspire innovation and growth leading to the formulation of the ’new economy’. Cunningham et al. (2008) stated that ‘these industries have active and not simply constant economic value that contributes to the overall profitability and adds to growth and expansion in addition to their cultural and societal contributions’ and hence such industries have a significant role in safeguarding and promoting culture and cultural heritage. Further, seeing the similarities between the two, the Cultural Framework drafted by UNESCO proposed the usage of the term ‘cultural and creative industries’ (CCIs) and described it as including ‘those formally structured sectors that produce or reproduce, advertise, distribute, or otherwise commercialize items, services, or content with artistic and cultural roots’ (UNESCO, 2009). Despite the growing economic importance of the CCIs, governments, and policymakers around the world have long ignored the CCIs and the research on such industries is still in its infancy.

II. Literature Review Scientific Approach to the CCIs The idea of creative industries originated as ‘cultural industries’ in 1947 and transformed into CCIs to take a leap towards the culmination of the 20th century with the solitary purpose of strengthening the economy of the developed countries (Bilan et al., 2019). The Creative Economy report of UNESCO (2013) classifies CCIs into various sectors and sub-sectors and brings out various indicators that check the success and efficiency of these creatively diverse industries (Oad et al., 2018). While Slusarczyk (2018) defines CCIs as a system-based factor that promotes socio-cultural development, another group of ardent researchers (Zachorowska-Mazurkiewicz and Sierotowicz, 2017) have comprehended these industries through their historical timeline and unique characteristics. Yet another array of these industries is to understand their role in the city and regional development and the development of global CCIs through regional and local economic development (Zelazny, 2017). For the purpose of this study, the scientific

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approach to CCIs was analyzed through the existing models developed in the existing research bank. Classifying Cultural and Creative Industries CCIs are broadly classified into two categories based on two unique approaches namely the industry-based concept and the employment-based concept. The industry-based concept is derived from four models, namely, the symbiotic texts model, the concentric circle model, the WIPO copyright model and the UNCTAD model, that classify the sub-sectors of creative industries within their parameters (Bilan et al, 2019). The Symbiotic Texts Model portrays the cultural processes of society through the production, broadcasting, and display of symbolic messages or texts by means of media, press, and film. They categorize CCIs into corecultural (advertising industries, internet, music, etc.), peripheral-cultural (comprising creative arts), and borderline-cultural industries (including sports, fashion, and software). The Concentric Circle Model is based on the core of CCIs that lies in the distinct attributes and the cultural values of creative goods as an outcome of these industries. These divide the sub-sectors into primary creative industries (music, literary, visual, and dramatics), core-cultural industries (films, libraries, and museums), wider-cultural industries (heritage services, publishing, sound, etc.), and related industries (architecture, advertising, design, fashion). This model overlaps the study by David Thorsby in the way that the CCIs are organized hierarchically such that creativity in its truest form is embedded in the core-traditional art forms building a strong nexus with cultural heritage (UNESCO, 2021). The WIPO Copyright Model has inherent characteristics for creative industries which work towards the manufacture, dissemination, and dispersal of copyrighted products/content. This further sub-divides the CCIs into principal copyright enterprises (advertising industry, film, and music industry, publishing, etc.), interdependent-copyright industries (musical instruments, photocopiers, blank recording material, etc.), and restrictedcopyright industries (fashion, film, architecture, etc.). The UNCTAD Model distinguishes the downstream activities (marketdriven like advertising, media, and publishing) from the upstream ones (traditional-cultural activities like visual/performing arts). They are further grouped into heritage (cultural sites, traditional expressions, etc.), arts (visual, performing, photography, etc.), media (publishing, print, press,

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books, etc.), and functionally creative industries (design, architecture, advertising, and other creative services like digital industries). The employment-based concept is dependent on a set of five defining criteria that ascertain the cultural connect and creativity of an occupation namely – a novelty in the process of creation, resistance and resilience to mechanization and a non-recurring/non-repetitive function, and it does not merely involve an interpretation of the product or service but is a novel contribution to the existing legacy of the value chain (Bakhshi et al., 2013). An occupation meeting four of the five criteria qualifies to be included in the CCIs (Bilan et al., 2019) for example, architects, artists, actors, choreographers, interior designers, animators, etc. KEA, 2006 Model – The divide between the sector, sub-sectors, and distinguishing characteristics of the creative industries, core arts, and cultural industries forms the basis of this unique model reproduced in the European Commission Report in 2006. Table 1 presents the comprehensive categorization of the creative sector based on the KEA model. Category Creative Industries

Cultural Industries

Core Arts

Characteristics Non-cultural sectors though based on creative skills and workforce Copyright-based industrial sectors involving mass reproductions Non-industrial sectors where copyright is optional

Sectors Architecture Design Advertising Television Radio Film and Video Videogames Music Books and Press Visual Arts Performing Arts Heritage

Sub-Sectors Design sectors like Interior Fashion Graphic Product Live as well as recorded music Publishing books and magazines Paintings Sculpture Photography Crafts

The Work Foundation Model – This model is an extension of the Thorsby concentric circle model with four concentric rings, categorizing the CCIs into core creative fields (lying at the core and including the arts and original products), cultural industries (including classic industries like music, industries, computer games), creative industries and activities (original products mixed with functionality like architecture, advertising, etc.) and

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the outermost ring or part of the creative industry that contributes to the economy. Existing research shows that all of the above models address the complexity involved in the CCIs and associate various types of creativity such as scientific, economic, and cultural creativity with technological creativity at the core of the connection (Jocic, 2019). Recent research substantiates that CCIs when integrated with cultural heritage act as significant drivers of social development through their inherent potential for innovation which accelerates competitiveness.

III. Methodology The current research on ‘cultural and creative industries (CCIs)’ uses an extensive literature review as a tool to understand the historical developments in the sphere of CCIs, the various scientific models adopted to define their scope and assess their contribution, and the role of various agencies in the field of CCIs. In order to create theoretical frameworks and develop conceptual models, it is essential to synthesize research findings to present evidence on a meta-level and identify areas that require additional study (Snyder, 2019). In this regard, proper procedures must be followed for any research to be conducted, and measures must be taken to guarantee that the review is accurate, precise, and reliable. The quality of an academic review is determined by what was done, what was discovered, and how well the findings were reported (Moher et al., 2009). In recent times, it is highly challenging to stay at the cutting edge of research, keep abreast of best practices, and evaluate the body of evidence in a certain field of research wherein the literature review becomes a more useful research technique than ever (Snyder, 2019). Scholars/researchers review the existing literature studies and assess and incorporate the information/data and insights obtained from theoretical studies in the form of research studies that serve as valuable additions to the existing knowledge base (Bowen, 2009). Hence, the current study has been built on a literature review and divided into sections that describe the scientific models adopted globally; the methodology; the global creative economy and the CCIs discussing their impact on the employment sector; CCIs as a savior of cultural heritage elaborating the chief stakeholders involved; the impact of CCIs on social development; and a conclusion is drawn.

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The Global Creative Economy and the CCIs Globally, CCIs have geared up over recent years because of their immense potential for fueling employment, human-centric development, and promoting innovation as well as promoting cultural diversity, social inclusion and environmental sustainability (Liu, 2017). They are considered to be a very significant sector globally as they contribute more than 6% to global GDP and contribute from 2% to 7% to the GDP of economies of different nations accounting for about 29.5 million employments throughout the world (UNESCO, 2021). The UNESCO report on ‘Cultural Times’, which was the first worldly plan for CCIs launched in 2021 advised that CCIs are generators of a huge economy to the tune of US$ 2,250 billion annually and provide employment to a little less than 30 million people accounting for 1% of the global active population. These soaring figures bring out the significance of the revenues generated by such culturally vibrant and creative industries as they exceed the combined revenues generated by the car industry and telecom services of the USA, Japan, and Europe which employ 25 million people versus 29.5 million jobs in creative industries (Montalto et al., 2019). The research report also stated that on a global scale, almost 51.2 million of the population self-registered as fulltime/part-time/interns working in the CCIs on LinkedIn which constitutes only about 20% of the global workforce (UNESCO, 2021). The past two decades have witnessed instrumental growth not only in terms of advanced economies across the globe but also in associated economic gains through these industries and their sub-sectors in many developing countries (Bilan et al., 2019). While analyzing the CCIs through the lens of economic contribution, eleven sub-sectors namely architecture, advertising, gaming, books, movies, music, newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and performing arts are largely considered. These sectors have generated revenue to the tune of US$ 2,250 billion, with employment for as many as 29.5 million persons with the Asia-Pacific or the APAC functioning as the largest creative industries market internationally followed by Europe, and countries such as North America, Africa, and some Middle Eastern countries as the fifth-largest contributor to the CCIs economy of the world (Lhermitte et al., 2015). However, it is estimated that a global contraction of US$ 750 billion in the GVA (gross value added) produced by CCIs was experienced when compared to the GVA in 2019 with the highest magnitude in the United Arab Emirates, Thailand, and Poland (UNESCO, 2021). These statistics represent a substantial hit to these culturally significant CCIs in the wake of

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the pandemic of 2019 to continue their long-term sustenance socially as well as culturally. The report also highlighted how employment opportunities in this sector will vary in 2020. An AHRC-funded project by Owen et al. (2020), has been instrumental in outlining the unusual employment patterns within the CCIs in 2020. Figure 1 illustrates the 05-year average of skilled workers/employers quitting these industries quarterly vis-à-vis the quantum of people exiting between the quarters October 2019 to December 2019 and July 2020 to September 2020 (Owen et al., 2020).

Figure 1: Effect of COVID-19 on the workforce leaving CCIs

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While there are a lot of studies on the economic outlook of CCIs in many of the developed and developing countries across the world, nothing much has been documented and researched with respect to the culturally creative sector in India specifically while overlaying its benefits for cultural heritage. In the Indian context, a country that is believed to be fast developing, CCIs’ contribution is as low as 0.95% of GDP with a significant share of 0.5% of GDP contributed by motion pictures and the television sector amounting to US$ 8.1 billion and supporting 1.8 million jobs (Oad et al., 2018). An NWO (Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research) funded research study on creative industries in India, states that these industries have remained a largely ignored sector both in research and policy, and no headway as such has been seen to promote this as an integrated sector (Shaban and Vermeylen, 2015). An emerging and developing country like India is yet to shape policies and frameworks that support the growth and promotion of the Indian creative industry, though there have been laws enforced for protection: the National Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), the Copyright Act, and the IT Act 2000 (Oad et al., 2018). As per Matthew (2021), India’s creative manufacturing sector employs about 40 million people, both part-time and full-time, in a country with a 5000-year artisanal heritage. A further 12 million youth will join the workforce every year for the next 15 years. Manufacturing automation is becoming more popular, implying large investments in the sector, but with an inverse relationship to employment. The Government of India's ‘Make in India’ initiative places a strong emphasis on technology and automationdriven industries that do not result in a considerable rise in employment rates. In contrast, India’s traditional, local craft manufacturing industry is labor-intensive and also has the capacity to employ large numbers of the population. Further, it involves comparatively economical capital expenditure, tooling, and low energy costs allowing for the creation of more jobs with less capital investment, and a smaller environmental footprint. CCIs as a savior of Cultural Heritage Cultural heritage as defined by UNESCO now includes tangible and intangible heritage that is common to all cultures across the world. The cultural heritage encompasses all artistic and representative material signs transferred on by the previous generations to the new ones in various cultural groups and, consequently to the whole of mankind (Jokilehto, 2012). The preservation of this cultural heritage includes the ‘safeguarding of the physical/tangible heritage of different cultural groups namely their edifices, structures and cultural sites, and communities’ (Hani et al., 2012).

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It also includes the preservation of culturally rich landscapes, tangible artifacts, and archives, as well as intangible ones such as folklore, and community rituals. The CCIs, offering tools for experience design, are simultaneously manufacturing merchandise that relies on attracting and exploiting consumer sensibilities. In this regard, it is said that heritage sustainability can be ensured by the use of creative industries as they can also influence the growth of sustainable experiential tourism. Also, architecture, local art, crafts, folklore, etc., enhance heritage attractiveness for the community concerned and increase the number of visitors, leading to the upscale development of the heritage audience (Jelincic, 2021). The three important stakeholders that should be a part of the process of safeguarding cultural heritage through CCIs include the local government, academic institutions, and the concerned society (Hani et al., 2012). The Role of Government A concerned local government is believed to have a significant role in the preservation of its particular cultural heritage. The government makes policies for preserving and managing cultural heritage. Jelincic (2021) conducted a study to evaluate the effect of CCIs on cultural heritage preservation at the policy level. The policies made by the government and the regulatory bodies control/regulate the number of heritage sites, as well as the visitor numbers to any heritage sites. Further, the branding aspect includes the number of programs planned at heritage sites and the use of heritage for photo/film shoots, etc., which add to the vibrancy of the heritage and its popularity to attract national/international tourists. The government also makes a significant contribution to the promotion of the distribution and sale of products/artifacts manufactured by local creative industries. The government policies are significant in promoting the products to the international market as well as increasing international tourism. Hence, the local, regional, and national governments become the key stakeholder in the safeguarding of any cultural heritage through creative industries. Collaboration with Academic Institutions Cultural heritage preservation is critical in light of the increased demand for integration and expertise in higher education. It is critical to link the university’s academic curriculum to cultural heritage in an interdisciplinary fashion in order to stimulate heritage value for sustainable times ahead. Heritage awareness and teaching will strengthen the need for collaborative

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efforts between heritage professionals and people in academia to achieve the common goal of heritage preservation. The academic institutes will also create an enabling environment for CCIs by facilitating appropriate and good-quality educational programs on heritage management and skill development programs to train the cultural heritage workers (Hani et al., 2012). These industries use human capital wherein heritage education and awareness play a major role. Involvement of the Local Community The local community is not only an important stakeholder but also the most important custodian of cultural heritage. These local people are well-versed in all traditional heritage-related practices and knowledge that have been bestowed on them by past generations. They contribute to the economic value generated by CCIs by introducing a culture that is restricted and known to the local community to a wider community. A number of outreach methods need to be devised to involve more and more people from the local community to participate in heritage-related activities such as exhibitions, music shows, etc., which also helps to create a sense of belonging for the heritage. Impact of Cultural and Creative Industries CCIs comprise one such industrial sector that is not much affected by external crises as compared to others due to its unique resilience (Herbane, 2019). The flexibility and multiplicity of its activities are the chief reason behind this and because of the diverse range of activities such as folk art, crafts, etc. CCIs are regarded as culturally robust and a creative sector contributing immensely to inclusive yet sustainable growth (UNESCO, 2021). A number of firms and enterprises, specifically the ones in the culturally creative sectors, were forced to prompt actions and create novel, extra-resilient methods of functioning because of the unforeseen and unprecedented impact of the pandemic in 2019 (Ivanov, 2020). Resilience acts as the key component for any functional system and organization to withstand the long and short impact of disasters (Hynes et al., 2020). Internationally, the effect of the global pandemic of 2019 can be witnessed in the manner that social capital was being formed and preserved as it resulted in restricting bonding and networking between the communities and the creative workers (Torres et al., 2019) which further led to increased demand for novel and innovative business models for creative industries.

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A significant number of previous research studies have substantiated the economic competence and importance of CCIs and their influence on valueadded production, increased employment, and national and international exports (Pratt, 1997; Markusen and Schrock, 2006). Some of the recent studies reveal some forms of socioeconomic organization exhibited by such industries such as strong relations among the ‘creators, producers, and buyers’ (Rantisi et al., 2006). This building of relations, face-to-face interaction, and communication promotes trust and a smooth exchange of information, thereby reducing the risks associated with market uncertainty, and promoting innovation, creation, and experimentation as a more feasible, practical, and worthy endeavor. Table 1: CCIs’ Economic and Non-Economic impacts on Social Development S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

Economic Impacts

Non-Economic Impacts

Increased GDP or GVA (Gross Value Added)

Promoting integration of marginalized groups including social cohesion Incepting novel value systems

Building International Trade and Business position and competitiveness of a country Expediting Employment opportunities and prospects Promoting regeneration of creative cities and their branding Attracting global business and investment

Asserting excellence, talent, and creativity Stimulate unique cultural diversity, national pride, and identity as well as distinctive cultural groups Enabling innovation and creativity

IV. Conclusion CCIs have a very important task of offering livability as they have a strong connection with heritage. Also, heritage cannot be stagnant but it is a live symbol of the past and living evidence of a community/cultural group’s identity related to their present-day living styles. Various disciplines, such as architecture, art, design, filmmaking, music, drama, etc., can be widely used to enhance the attractiveness of heritage for the associated community and visitors, thereby increasing tourism at such sites and generating increased

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employment opportunities side by side to increase economic growth. Considering the tourism market scenarios, prior to the pandemic, the overtourism trends also require a re-modeling as the need is to offer memorable individual or customized experiences and the CCIs have a major role in offering tools for experience design (Jelincic, 2021). Such industries can be used as a means for ensuring and enhancing heritage sustainability and impacting and redefining sustainable experiential tourism thereby moving ahead on the path of sustainable development. To ensure cultural heritage preservation and its sustainability and guarantee its impacts on culture, economy, society, and our environment it is crucial for the government to bring in new policies, involve academic institutions to create heritage awareness, generate skilled creative labor, and also involve the local community. All these three stakeholders can promote the expansion of sustainable tourism and preserve cultural treasures. Policy formulation in the CCIs for safeguarding the cultural heritage in the future can be based on innovative and creative approaches in cohesion with active and creative stakeholders. CCIs are one of the major and most forward-thinking job creators as well as one of the primary architects of a ‘new economy’ (Scott, 2006) and will be instrumental to pave the way for growth and innovation and aid in the achievement of the United Nations’ famed SDGs (UNCTAD, 2008). Given these considerations, the policymakers and industry must aim to boost the CCI market. Another important aspect is the vision and mission of the CCIs as most culturally creative industries target only profit-making as their chief goal but do not visualize the preservation and valorization of their own culture. Cultural heritage has a crucial role in regional development and resilience. It creates jobs, influences tourism development and entrepreneurship, and hence brings more income for the local community as well as government tax revenues. Further, social cohesiveness, inclusion, involvement, and local community well-being are all indicators of its role in social sustainability.

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CHAPTER TEN READING ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE AS LIVING STORIES! 1

RITU SHARMA1 MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR

Abstract Architecture emerges from the need for shelter, rises to aspirations and emotions, is expressed as an art form and experienced through the senses while it is appreciated for its heritage value as it traverses the timeline. With the evolution of human settlements, architecture served as a marker of the human presence and gained the status of ‘monument’ on national and international scales. As the built component is considered as a ‘static’ attribute of architecture, the space and its associated function get transformed in response to the varied interactions and confront people over the period of time. With the changing social fabrics and patterns, people are displaced for various reasons and tend to be in constant search of the native with reference to the connection they make with a particular place. This can be considered as one of the purposes of tourism. The study intends to understand the connection between people and places with reference to tourism specifically and explores the idea of looking at architecture through the lens of the ‘experiential story’. The study dwells on the existing body of scholarly work in the field of heritage and stories by finding the common ground between the two areas. The derivation of this parallel approach carries the potential of encouraging responsible community participation in heritage conservation and management.

I. Introduction Tourism in India is rapidly growing in various dimensions across regions, geographies and cultures. The traditional theme of pilgrimage and travel has gradually been paralleled by recreation and ‘escapism’ bringing in a major

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transformation in the purpose and destination of travel. Once there were cultural pathways connecting the pattern for ‘sacred’ places through intangible associations, which now seem to have entangled with the network of tourist trails. Yet, what remains constant is the component of architecture, as a significant indicator of the peculiar geography while standing for its unique expressions highlighting the cultural history. Thus, tourism associated with architectural heritage, in the form of monuments and archaeological sites, is a well-established behavioural trend and a wellstudied area of interest by various disciplines. ‘Architecture’ and ‘heritage’ are terms which have several perspectives and interpretations yet they are widely accepted perceptions. Considering the evolving nature of tourism there are some themes and subthemes to be noted, such as eco-tourism, heritage tourism, treks and camping. Taking an overview of what the tourists are interested in, one finds that places of scenic splendour and architectural wonder occupy the preferential place on the itinerary. With the increasing demand for the facilities and counting the number of visitors, the expanding infrastructure development and tourist facility centres seem to be another area of concern in terms of environmental impact raising an inquiry about ‘the carrying capacity of any place.’ Following the ‘preservation’ and ‘conservation’ address, ‘information’ and ‘interpretation’ become integral components of a travel experience. The literature review presents a spectrum of viewpoints on this thought while it constructs a comprehensive picture of the existing body of work in the field of architectural heritage tourism. On this premise, one can investigate the relevance of the purpose of travel and the form of engagement between a tourist and ‘the place’. In the context of architectural heritage tourism, the experience of space through immersive interaction holds the key position in this entire discussion. The proposed study derives its focus from the ‘participatory’ tourism approach and makes an attempt to read architectural heritage as a montage of tales connected and choreographed through story trails.

II. Literature review The historical genesis of tourism underlines the search for ‘places’ of cultural power (Lasansky and McLaren, 2004). Architectural heritage becomes a significant feature being the visible and tangible component. Monuments are adored for their quality of withstanding the test of time and the association with the past life when they were built and actively occupied. The transformation in the socio-political context and physical surroundings

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is seldom reflected through these ‘frozen’ entities perceived in isolation from their dynamic setting. How long can these representatives from the past stand for their authenticity in the ever-changing settings recreated to accommodate contemporary aspirations? Such architecture is appreciated for its value in the past and the glory it once celebrated but gets detached from its living setting and acts like a static backdrop. There are several major devices and services plugged in to bring life around these ‘sites’. Some of these sites are rendered with a set of ‘interpretive material’ in the form of information booklets, boards and panels, documentaries, and displays of local crafts. Sometimes performing art forms are employed as a medium of communication through light and sound shows, live performances of folk music, dance, or drama. Some of the heritage sights are associated with the celebration of cultural fairs and festivals conducted on special occasions. Heritage walks and guided tours are yet some more attempts to enhance the experience of a specific place (Schumann, 2015). As a genesis of anthropological history, architecture is, in fact, an integral component of our cultural identity and thus becomes inseparable from life (Nuttgens, 1995). Originating as a shelter for refuge against predators, and evolving as a device for survival, today ‘architecture’ is a known and established professional field after traversing a long progressive journey that initiated with a simple, singular volume to become a complex interplay of space composition. Serving as a container of human activities, emotions, associations and aspirations, architecture also stands for the identity of the place, communities, culture and traditions. Thus, the engagement of humans with built space can be estimated as being as old as their own existence. Apart from the preservation, conservation and management of heritage values, assets and resources, their interpretation needs to be considered of equal significance (Nuryanti, 1996). With reference to the argument by Buzinde and Santos, ‘the dialogic meaning’ connecting visitors to the ‘place’ poses a potential area of research as the existing knowledge has predominantly considered the management concerns on priority (Staiff et al., 2013). Graceful aging with time brings importance to buildings which further transforms obsoletion. The ‘story’ of transcendence through several generations gets embedded in their evolutionary image which keeps them alive and worthy of investing interest in contemporary societies. They gain the notable power of influencing minds across various spectrums of people and communities.

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A well-narrated story can be the best way of engaging the human mind. Timothy and Boyd (2006) argue about the subjectivity associated with authenticity which questions the generalized approach to understanding a phenomenon as a fact. Each one of us is a storyteller. There are several reasons for bringing in stories as a medium of communication. A story is one of the most effective tools and a medium of sharing as well. But essentially it opens up avenues for the imagination and room for fiction. It serves as an interesting link between the real and imaginary. This ability and art of storytelling make an essential trait of our distinct identity in the biotic world. What makes a good story? Shawn Callahan (Business storytelling, 2015) states that ‘one cannot understand a story without understanding memory’. Matthew Woodget (Memory and storytelling, 2020) frames the idea of storytelling ‘as this kind of brain hack, where you configure certain data to be retained’. Kenneth (1997) studies ‘the effectiveness of storytelling in its engagement’. A great story can be the one that communicates the ‘moral’ or in other words, it is ‘a story with purpose’. Plot, context, drama, and characters can be seen as some of the embedded elements of any act of storytelling. Marco Frascari, a notable architect, theorist and educator once wrote that ‘Architecture is embedded storytelling,’ while he advocated and reciprocated the same idea through his work (Emmons et al., 2016). The quote ‘form follows fiction’ by the renowned architect Bernard Tschumi strongly showcases his thought on the integral nature of the story with architecture. Recent discussions have been based on the narrative quality of architecture which reads the space through sequential unfolding, an iterative journey and designed pauses. The level of interest can be maintained by structuring nonlinear events (Kimber, 2010). Thus, one can introduce the concept of ‘spatial storytelling’ as a new perspective to this discussion (Lyu, 2019). Architecture can be perceived as having the form of a story experienced through multiple senses, though visual aspects are the most prominent ones. The architectural heritage has the ability to hold and capture the genesis of a place which can be revealed by the spatial organization, order and feel. A built environment carries the potential to link the past, present and future marking its presence on the chronological timeline (Wallace, 2007). The architect Yatin Pandya confirms the concept of ‘spatial narratives’ as ‘emotionally charged’ space. He believes that the designer includes cryptic messages while crafting the built space and the user gets an opportunity to

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decipher the same, thus striking a connection between conceptualization and the perceivers, considering space as a common platform for interaction.

III. Objectives and Methodology The study makes an attempt to question the relevance of architectural heritage in contemporary settings from a tourism perspective. It further intends to explore the concept of the ‘participatory’ engagement of tourists with the architectural heritage by addressing the potential idea of reading architecture as a story. The methodology for the study is based on a systematic literature review and observational on-site study for the case studies in discussion.

IV. Discussion The proposed study can be further illustrated by means of bringing in some case studies from the various geographical and cultural contexts dotted across India. For instance, the world heritage site of Kailash Temple at Ellora can be perceived as a story of paradox where one may keep wondering whether the form and experience are a result of an ‘extracted solid or enclosed void’?

Image 1: Kailash Temple, Ellora, Maharashtra (Source: Ar. Samruddha Mogal)

In another instance, intelligent resource management and engineering innovation are manifested as a comprehensive whole with artistic expression at Mandu. The central concern of bringing and retaining water in this place takes the form of an interesting spatial narrative.

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Image 2: Water channel, Mandu, MP (Source: Ar. Samruddha Mogal)

One more example comes with a special mention when we talk about the Taj Mahal at Agra. How about looking at this whole design as a place that instigates an inquiry about the perception of form and the organising proportions, setting up the order and finally achieving a perfect frame?

Image 3: Taj Mahal, Agra (Source: Ar. Samruddha Mogal)

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Some stories can be looked at as a reflection of people’s minds. Perhaps, multi-layered and quizzical, the way one may observe the composition of Amber Fort; a set of concentric rectilinear enclosures like several small stories placed within a large story.

Image 4: Amber Fort, Jaipur (Source: Author)

Several places are more effectively experienced through the engagement of all senses and traditional temple architecture could illustrate the same. Walking barefoot brings the feel of touch to the consciousness; and the strong visual axis compels the maintenance of the visual tracking. This could further be rendered through iconography. The peculiar aroma evokes a unique emotional association with the premises. The sound of the bell sets the mood to enter the enclosure. The ‘prasad’ garnishes this mystical journey by adding the element of flavour to this multisensory participation.

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Image 5: Temple Shikhar, Nashik. (Source: Ar. Samruddha Mogal)

The scale of these tales may expand and cross several regional boundaries to form trails and networks. The mythical path engraved in the minds of people through the epic of ‘Ramayan’ becomes a journey that can be mapped as a series of events visualized at different locations.

Image 6: Kalaram Temple, Nashik (Source: Ar. Samruddha Mogal)

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Image 7: Ganga River, Ghats and temples at Varanasi. (Source: Ar. Samruddha Mogal)

There could be stories connecting the physical to the metaphysical and one of the notable places is the Varanasi ghats. The simple rhythmic arrangement of steps provides graceful access to the sacred waters of River Ganga yet represents an interface between the human world and the spiritual realm in the belief system.

V. Conclusion Mythological references, beliefs and faith, historical events, or archaeological conjectures are some of the predominant associations that define the heritage value of any monument or built heritage site. The sense of wonderment and magic that one feels at the places in discussion instigate several questions around the creation of such marvels which certainly go beyond logical reasoning and analysis. Yet, the seemingly abandoned site or old buildings with adaptive reuse are not just the remnants of the past but they are living stories in the present with an evolving interpretation and connections with the changing settings and transforming values. The approach integrates the old with the contemporary resulting in a synchronized co-existence providing opportunities for evolving meanings. Architecture forms a backdrop for human activities. Responsive architecture is a true reflection of regions, societies and cultures. The human mind shapes its built environment and then this built environment nurtures human thoughts. It is not just a building craft, but a branch of science dealing with

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proportions, scales, structure, ergonomics and services too. Above all, it’s an art of representing notions. It’s a gesture that celebrates relationships and associations. Ajit (2017) deliberates on the perception of architecture as a multisensory experience that interlinks with the emotions and responses similar to enduring and engaging stories. The study is an attempt to highlight a perspective through which the timeless association between humans and their living environment enhances the traveling experience.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

Alvarez, Maria D., Frank M. Go, and Atila Yüksel (2016), Heritage Tourism Destinations: Preservation, Communication and Development. USA and UK: CAB International. Emmons, Paul, Marcia F. Feuerstein, and Carolina Dayer. (2016) Confabulations: Storytelling in Architecture. Taylor & Francis, Kimber, Lee. (2010) Truth in Fiction: Storytelling and Architecture. Master's Thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, Lasansky, Medina, and Brian McLaren. (2004) Architecture and Tourism: Perception, Performance and Place. USA: Berg, Lyu, Fangqing. (2019) Architecture as spatial storytelling: Mediating human knowledge of the world, humans and architecture. Frontiers of Architectural Research: 275-283. Nuttgens, Patrick. (1995). The Story of Architecture. London: Phaidon Press. Schumann, Ronald L. (2015). Historic landscapes as cooperative animation: Exploring networks of memory with photographic methods In Social Memory and Heritage Tourism Methodologies, by Stephen P. Hanna, Amy E. Potter, Arnold Modlin, Jr., Perry Carter and David L. Butler, 71. NY: Routledge, Staiff, Russell, Steve Watson, and Robyn Bushell. (2013) Heritage and Tourism: Place, encounter, engagement. Edited by Russell Staiff, Robyn Bushell and Steve Watson. USA and Canada: Routledge. Wallace, Claire Nicole (2007). Storytelling through Architecure. Supervised Undergraduate Student Research and Chancellor’s Honors Program Projects, Knoxville: TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange.

CHAPTER ELEVEN DESIGN, EMOTIONS, AND THEORIES OF PRODUCT EMOTION: A REVIEW GAURAV VAIDYA1 AND PRATUL CH KALITA2 1

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FASHION TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL, INDIA 2 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY GUWAHATI, ASSAM, INDIA

Abstract In the design process, aspects of form and aesthetics are always carefully considered, along with technical functionality. If only functionality were the requisite aspect of the design, there would only be one design for each product. However, people demand variation in product design to satisfy their emotional needs. Moreover, market research has shown that the number of consumers who decide solely based on pure facts is extremely small, and mostly they decide based on their emotions. As consumers become increasingly aware, functionality and usability are considered to fundamentally exist in products, and consumers desire to fulfil their superior requirements, i.e., emotional needs. Thus, the emotional aspect of the design has been considered as significant in design education, practice, and research in the recent past. In this context, it becomes essential to comprehend the fundamental terminology of emotion and how design affects the consumer’s emotional response. In the chapter, we analyse the basics of emotion research to comprehend and evolve a viewpoint investigating associations between design, emotion, and consumer reactions. It includes reviewing and critically analysing influential research and concepts formerly put forward in the domain of emotional design. On the basis of the reviews, we enlist the advantages and limitations of each

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reviewed theory. The current study would be helpful while designing products that evoke envisioned emotional responses.

I. Introduction Every product intended to be designed must fulfil the three basic requirements. First, the design must be useful. In other words, it should perform the intended task. Second, it should be usable and simple to understand. Finally, it should be desirable (Sanders, 1992). In the case of a new category of products, initially, their usefulness is exceptionally high. However, as the age of the category of product increases, the market becomes mature, and technically similar products co-exist. In such situations, simple functionality becomes the norm, and the desirability aspect becomes an important differentiator. The human desire for purchasing, owning, and using a product is an emotional need that is complex and multi-layered. Research shows that emotions dominate our decision-making (Reeves & Nass, 1996) as they stimulate behaviour. Thus, designers must learn to identify and use the emotional considerations appropriate for the context. Therefore, first, it is essential to understand the basic terminology used in emotion research and its connection with design. Previous research in design and emotion has resulted in several seminal theories of product emotion. These theories must be analysed critically to design products that elicit the intended consumer emotional responses. In this regard, the current study investigates the theories of product emotion to understand the layered phenomenon of product emotion through the perspective of various researchers. The learning gained from these investigations will help to design products that evoke the desired emotional responses.

II. Methodology of Literature Review The current study investigates the following fundamental questions through a literature review: 1. What are the constructs in emotion research? 2. How are emotions and design related? 3. What are the existing theories, concepts, and models exploring the concept of emotional design? An online database search was performed with the search terms ‘consumer emotions,’ ‘emotional design,’ and ‘cognitive response.’ The research

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articles were then filtered based on specific criteria. The shortlisting conditions were: (a) English language articles, (b) occurrence of key terms in the article keywords or title, (c) availability of the complete text, and (d) relevancy of the article for the current context of the investigation. A total 133 research articles were identified in the initial search. 56 articles were shortlisted based on the shortlisting criteria. The shortlisted articles were analysed comprehensively to answer the research questions proposed at the start of the section. The analysis of shortlisted articles resulted in three categories that are (1) constructs in emotion research, (2) the relation between emotion and design, and (3) theories of product emotion. The literature review is also categorized based on these three categories. A detailed elaboration of the methodology is also shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Detailed Methodology (Source: Author)

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III. Literature Review Review of Constructs in Emotion Research In emotion research, the terms 'affects' and 'emotions' are the most equivocal terms. Hayes-Roth and colleagues (Hayes-Roth et al., 1998) and Arnold (1960) utilize the terminology 'affect' and 'emotion' identically. According to Calvo and D'Mello (Calvo & D’Mello, 2010), 'emotion research' and 'affective science' are identical. Keltner and others (2014) also view affect and emotion as synonyms. However, they claim that the term 'affect phenomena' has now been used as a broad term inclusive of anything that deals with emotions, moods, character, and preferences. Arnold (1960) terms emotion as the type of behaviour toward an object spontaneously evaluated as good, or away from an object spontaneously evaluated as destructive. Additionally, the literature (Norman, 2004; Lucas & Diener, 2000) affirms that emotions alter the way that humans contemplate and act as continuous guides to proper behaviour. Desmet also agrees with this perspective, and he argues that emotions produce quick bodily reactions arising according to the circumstances (Desmet, 2003). These bodily reactions change the condition of the physical body (Carlson, 1997) and give the advantage of deciding what to do at the time of important events (Ekman, 1999). Emotional responses are physical responses reflected in the body (Hampton, 2015). As emotions are coded in the genes, they are usually universal to humans (Dewey, 1934). Goleman (1995) argues that the emotional and rational parts of the brain typically work in unison. Emotion informs the rational mind, and the rational mind processes the inputs from the emotional feed. Moreover, emotion succeeds over reason every time in a conflict situation between the two (Roberts, 2004). Relation between Emotion and Design According to Luckman, the process of design is nothing but the transformation of gathered and processed data in the form of needs, limitations, and knowledge into possible solutions according to the designer's considerations to achieve the necessary capability features (Luckman, 1967). In the literature (Schon, 1984), design is termed as a 'reflective practice,' a form of knowledge creation by 'reflecting-on-action' and 'reflecting-in-action.' Since every decision defines the subsequent action taken, each design phase is highly significant (Schon, 1984). Furthermore, product design creates a new

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product consisting of 'functional' and 'emotional' attributes. Consequently, function and appearance have great importance in the design of a product. According to Ashby and Johnson (2003), functionality and usability tend to be found in the lower part of 'the requirements pyramid,' and consumer satisfaction (emotional need) is in the top portion of the pyramid. As consumers are becoming more and more aware, functionality and usability are considered to exist in products fundamentally, and consumers desire to fulfil their superior requirements, i.e., emotional needs (Demirbilek & Sener, 2003).

Figure 2. Requirements Pyramid (Source: Ashby and Johnson, 2003)

In order to cater to consumers' emotional needs, a designer must have a prior understanding of how design decisions affect consumer emotional responses (Vaidya & Kalita, 2021). Previous research in product design and emotion has resulted in the development of various theories of product emotions. A comparative study of these theories of product emotions would be beneficial for comprehending this complex phenomenon of product emotion. Therefore, through this study, we attempt to review seminal theories of product emotion and list the advantages and limitations of each approach.

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Theories of Product Emotion The analysis of five seminal theories of product emotions is presented in this section. Though many theories are available in the literature, the following five theories of product emotions are identified and examined: (a) emotional design, (b) appraisal theory, (c) pleasure model, (d) technology as experience framework, and (d) product personality assignment. These theories are relevant for the current context; first, because all five have explored the complex phenomenon of layered emotional responses, and second, because they all have, in different ways, attempted to establish links between sources of product emotions and their relevance to product design. Each theory mentioned above has its own positives. It is essential to study these theories to get an improved understanding of the phenomenon of emotional response to design for better emotional product design. Emotional Design Product appearance (i.e., the visual design of the product) is a communication channel between the designer and the user. Product appearance is the key that governs the consumer interpretation of the product. Crilly and colleagues propose a framework for design as a process of communication that consists of five elements, namely the design team (source), product (transmitter), environment (channel), senses (receiver), and response (destination) (Crilly et al., 2004). In this process, the design and manufacturing of the product are the producer's responsibility. The design team codes the intended message into the product by manipulating its geometry, measurements, surface quality, materials, colours, visuals, details, etc. The consumer interacts with the product in a specific environment, which can be termed as a channel. The consumer’s senses receive the message transmitted by the product, and the product perception is formed, which results in the consumer cognitive response. Although all human senses impact the consumer reaction to the design, it is accepted that the visual sense contributes the most to the process (Schroeder, 2002; Postrel, 2004), and product style usually refers to visual style (Baxter, 1995). Monö suggests that the product form that the eye sees generates the viewer's expectation of what other senses will ascertain (Monö, 1997). Thus, product appearance has to strike a chord that conforms with other human senses (Smets & Overbeeke, 1995). Norman (2004) categorized the human attributes of response in three emotional levels according to the processing that is carried out inside the

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brain. The levels are visceral, behavioural, and reflective. He further mapped these three levels to product characteristics forming three elements of emotional design, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Three Elements of Emotional Design (Source: Norman, 2004)

Norman further explained that visceral design deals with appearance (i.e., visual design) and how consumers evaluate the product appearance through their senses. The human response to objects that offer food, warmth, and protection is usually positive, as humans are genetically programmed through evolution. Behavioral design refers to the pleasure and effectiveness relating to the utilization of an object that consumers find easy to operate or gives them a sense of satisfaction. Such products are generally liked more than those having usability issues. Finally, reflective design has to do with interpretation, understanding, and reasoning. The consumer may appreciate even a useless product if it has the ability to elicit memories, tell stories or enhance the consumer self-image. Appraisal Theory In contrast to the concept of Norman's three levels of emotional design, Hekkert and Desmet (2002) proposed the appraisal theory. According to this theory, the consumer's appraisal is the factor that governs emotion elicited by the design outcome. In the experimental model, Hekkert and Desmet divided product emotions into five categories. The model shows that although a product might evoke numerous emotions, the underlying procedure which induces emotion in consumers is universal.

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Figure 4. Model of Product Emotions (Source: Hekkert and Desmet, 2002)

This theory resembles Lazarus' theory of emotion which states that the experience of emotion depends on how an individual cognitively appraises or labels the experience. The appraisal of an event depends upon previous experience, current circumstances, and cultural background (Lazarus, 1991). Though the proposed model highlights the cognitive process of emotion generation through appraisal, it does not provide much empirical evidence verifying the connection between the design and emotional responses. Pleasure Model Jordan (2005) proposed the pleasure model. He argued that designers need to move beyond the functionality and usability approach to design. He proposed a pleasure-based approach in which the focus is on the pleasure aspect of designing product experience. His model classifies four different pleasures. Physio-pleasure is associated with pleasure obtained from product interaction through our senses, e.g., the tactile pleasure of holding a remote control and the olfactory pleasure of smelling hot coffee. Sociopleasure is related to joy obtained from our relationships with other people. Sometimes products encourage social interactions, and the pleasure derived from these interactions facilitated by products is termed socio-pleasure. For example, a bakery shop owner may provide a service that facilitates a small public get-together – 'An evening with Cake.' Psycho-pleasure is to do with cognitive and emotional responses. In order to use a product, it may be essential to have a certain level of cognitive ability, and product experience may elicit some emotional reactions. Ideo-pleasure is related to peoples' values. For example, a product manufactured from biodegradable material pertains to the value of environmental responsibilities of the consumer. Although the pleasure model encourages designers to consider product attributes that can exhibit pleasurable experiences in consumers, it does not deal with the biological process of pleasure. Moreover, the model proposes a structured approach to the issue of product pleasure experience and product acceptance based on pleasure. Still, the other dimensions of emotion (e.g., boredom, pride, fascination) remain unexplored.

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Technology as Experience Framework This model was established by McCarthy and Wright (2004), and it analyses elements of consumers' experience with technology in different phases of engagement with it. The model talks about four threads of overall consumer experience. The 'sensual thread' is comparable to the visceral level described in Norman's model. For example, children get intensely engrossed in mobile games with all their senses to the extent that they cannot be attentive to any activity around them. The 'emotional thread' is related to the impact of product use on consumer emotions; for example, irritation caused by an unresponsive computer. The 'compositional thread' involves the relationship between the whole experience and its elements as the consumer makes sense of it. For example, a mechanic is working on an engine with his passion and commitment to his own handiwork. Each passing moment while working gives him joy and shapes the overall experience in the way of expressing himself. The 'spatio-temporal thread' relates to the effect of space and time on the consumer experience. For example, some people choose a quiet place to experience the joy of reading an exciting novel. The framework gives a holistic perspective on consumer experience and its threads. However, the threads mentioned in the framework are not mutually exclusive, and they have a considerable overlap. For example, both the sensual and emotional threads deal with the emotional impact of the product use, and one can be unclear in categorizing such consumer experiences based on the threads mentioned. Moreover, the role of the human senses in each thread is not described with clarity. Product Personality Assignment Phillips Design originally developed the approach of 'Product Personality Assignment' (PPA). In a pleasure-based approach, the products are seen as 'living objects.' PPA forms an extension of this idea and proposes that products possess traits that make their personalities. The proposed idea seems over-imaginative as, in a true psychological sense, the products do not have their personalities. However, people may assign personalities to products, such as unhelpful, funny, calm, etc., based on their reflection of human qualities on to products. For example, an earlier study by Joran reports that one of the participants refers to his radio as an 'old friend.' Another participant in the same study reveals that she punishes her stereo by thumping it for ruining cassette tapes. The approach demonstrates that different individuals are likely to allocate equivalent personality attributes to the same product, but it falls short in linking personality attributes to product preferences. Moreover, designers having no psychological background

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may find it challenging to understand the model of personalities proposed by PPA.

IV. Discussion The present chapter covers fundamental terminologies in emotion research and a review of five seminal theories for emotional product design. The first two theories (viz. emotional design and appraisal theory) outlined in this paper are effective in lifting the layers of elementary cognitive and emotional processing that is carried out inside the brain. In contrast, the other three theories are mainly related to the categorization of the consumer emotional experience with the product. For better comprehension, Table 1 given below describes the benefits and drawbacks of the studied theories. Table 1. Benefits and Drawbacks of Five Theories of Product Emotion Theory Emotional Design

Benefits Clarifies cognitive processing that is carried out inside the brain at different levels.

Drawbacks Unable to establish empirical methods to evaluate emotional responses validating the model. Appraisal Explains the underlying process It does not provide much Theory of emotion generation through empirical confirmation appraisal. verifying the connection between design and emotional responses. Pleasure Model Describes a systematic Not able to explain approach to the issue of product cognitive information pleasure experience. Explains processing and multiple product acceptance based on dimensions of emotion. pleasure. Technology as Explains the consumer Unable to explain the Experience experience in different phases emotion generation Framework process and the role of of engagement with human senses in each technology. phase. Product Effectively relates the visual Not able to establish a Personality design of a product with link between personality Assignment individual personalities and attributes and product emotions. preferences.

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V. Conclusion Emotions impact the consumers’ product choices and purchase decisions. Therefore, designers try to create a design that elicits consumers’ preferred emotional responses. A product that evokes desirable emotional responses in consumers will ensure a stronger consumer-product connection. However, understanding the consumers’ emotional response to a product is highly complex. Therefore, the current study explores the literature in the domain of design and emotion to understand the basic terminology used in emotion research. Moreover, the study also sheds light on the relation between emotion and design through a series of arguments put forward by previous researchers. Finally, the current study critically analyses the seminal theories of product emotion to understand the complex phenomenon of layered product emotions. The analysis has resulted in comparing the benefits and drawbacks of each of the theories. The study increases our understanding of the relation between emotion and design. The learning gained from this can be utilized effectively by designers to discover opportunities in new product development.

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Arnold, M. B. (1960). Emotion and personality. In emotion and personality. Columbia University Press. 2. Ashby, M., & Johnson, K. (2003). The art of materials selection. Materials Today, 6(12), 24–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1369-7021(03)01223-9 3. Baxter, M. (1995). Product Design: A practical guide to systematic methods of new product development (First). CRC Press. 4. Calvo, R. A., & D’Mello, S. (2010). Affect detection: An interdisciplinary review of models, methods, and their applications. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 1(1), 18–37. https://doi.org/10.1109/T-AFFC.2010.1 5. Carlson, R. A. (1997). Experienced cognition. In Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 6. Crilly, N., Moultrie, J., & Clarkson, P. J. (2004). Seeing things: Consumer response to the visual domain in product design. Design Studies, 25(6), 547– 577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2004.03.001 7. Demirbilek, O., & Sener, B. (2003). Product design, semantics and emotional response. Ergonomics, 46(13–14), 1346–1360. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140130310001610874 8. Desmet, P. (2003). A Multilayered Model of Product Emotions. The Design Journal, 6(2), 4–13. https://doi.org/10.2752/146069203789355480 9. Dewey, J. (1934). Art as Experience. Penguin. 10. Ekman, P. (1999). Basic Emotions. In T. Dalgleish & M. J. Power (Eds.), Handbook of Cognition and Emotion (pp. 45–60). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/0470013494.ch17

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11. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Bloomsbury Publishing. 12. Hampton, D. (2015). What’s The Difference Between Feelings And Emotions? https://www.thebestbrainpossible.com/whats-the-difference-between-feelingsand-emotions/ 13. Hayes-Roth, B., Ball, G., Lisetti, C., Picard, R. W., & Stern, A. (1998). Panel on affect and emotion in the user interface. International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces, 91–94. https://doi.org/10.1145/268389.268406 14. Hekkert, P., & Desmet, P. (2002). The Basis of Product Emotions. In W. S. Green & P. Jordan (Eds.), Pleasure with Products, beyond usability (pp. 60– 68). Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780203302279.ch4 15. Jordan, P. (2005). Designing Pleasurable Products (First). Taylor & Francis eLibrary. 16. Keltner, D., Oatley, K., & Jenkins, J. (2014). Understanding Emotions. J. Wiley & Sons. 17. Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and Adaption. In Oxford University Press. 18. Lucas, R., & Diener, E. (2000). Subjective emotional well-being. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of Emotions (Third Edit, pp. 471–484). The Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/2076468 19. Luckman, J. (1967). An Approach to the Management of Design. J Oper Res Soc, 18(4), 345. https://doi.org/10.1057/jors.1967.68 20. McCarthy, J., & Wright, P. (2004). Technology as Experience. The MIT Press. 21. Monö, R. (1997). Design for Product Understanding - The Aesthetics of Design from a Semiotic Approach. Skogs Boktryckeri. 22. Norman, D. (2004). Emotional Design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things. New York: Basic Books. 23. Postrel, V. (2004). The Substance of Style: How the Rise of Aesthetic Value Is Remaking Commerce, Culture, and Consciousness. Harper Perennial. 24. Reeves, B., & Nass, C. (1996). The Media Equation: How People Treat Computers, Television, and New Media Like Real People and Places. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37705092 25. Roberts, K. (2004). Lovemarks: The Future Beyond Brands. PowerHouse Books. 26. Sanders, E. (1992). Design Management Journal Converging Perspectives: Product Development Research for the1990s. Design Management Research, 3(4). www.dmi.org 27. Schon, D. (1984). The Reflective Practitioner. Basic Books. 28. Schroeder, J. E. (2002). Researching Visual Consumption. In Advances in Consumer Research (1st ed., Vol. 32). Routledge. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203471630 29. Smets, G. J. F., & Overbeeke, C. J. (1995). Expressing tastes in packages. Design Studies, 16(3), 349–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/0142-694X(94)00003-V 30. Vaidya, G., & Kalita, P. C. (2021). Understanding Emotions and their Role in the Design of Products: An Integrative Review. Archives of Design Research, 34(3). https://doi.org/10.15187/adr.2021.08.34.3.5

CHAPTER TWELVE A TEACHING APPROACH FOR TEXTILE WASTE MANIPULATION UPCYCLED SURFACE DESIGN: AN APPROACH TO SENSITIZE SUSTAINABILITY 1

DURE SHEHWAR MOHIBI1 ASST. PROFESSOR, FASHION DESIGN, SCHOOL OF DESIGN, AJEENKYA D Y PATIL UNIVERSITY

Abstract The fashion industry is one of the most significant manufacturing industries comprising niche segments. This is a field where art is converted to design following various stages. Over the period, it has transitioned to the fast fashion industry. The consumer's relentless drive for newness has brought us to overproduce and over-consume, leading to waste. The entire process of the garment's life cycle, right from the fiber stage to the final execution, which includes the pre- and post-consumer waste, requires planning for wastage control. Raw materials in the logistic network end up as surplus before a garment or product reaches the consumer. Perhaps little attention is given to waste management or control in the industry. The responsibility to approach sustainability in the garment life cycle not only lies with the people working in the industry but also with the aspiring fashion students who become part of it. The students enrolled on design courses understand and learn new skills which enable them for practical application. In this journey of learning, they are not aware of the intensity of waste generation to meet the unsatisfied demands in fashion. Apart from the glitz and the glamour of the industry, it has become the need of the hour to make them aware of ways to reduce waste and find methods to create a productive circular economy.

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The explorative study examines how students can become aware of the environmental pollution caused by the textile and fashion sector and follow techniques to identify waste generation from the surroundings and give them a second life through surface design methods. The design module aims to sensitize the raw minds to sustainability through the approach of upcycling and redesigning to craft creative knit surface structure designs following the traditional hand knitting and crochet techniques. Keywords: surface textures, structure designs, upcycle; teaching-learning; waste identification, knitting

I. Background of the study The study is an outcome of mentoring design students to sensitize them towards sustainability. With the various approaches towards this, the one used to give them an experience was upcycling through the means of redesign. Fashion design students, in their journey toward attaining skills and knowledge about the subject, are not aware of the hazards created by the industry in giving glamour to the world unless they are exposed to the working life. It has become the need of the hour to not only give a theoretical understanding about sustainability but also open the creative minds to inculcate the same in the process to the maximum possible level. They are not aware of the waste generation at various levels and in the entire process of creating a garment. Thus, the current chapter describes the teaching method adopted through surface ornamentation from upcycled waste to create textures with a practical application. The research is an explorative study.

II. Purpose of the Study In the fast fashion world, it is not just the people working in the fashion industry but also the young aspirants like design students who need to be made conscious of and responsible towards green manufacturers and consumers by sensitizing them about the waste upcycling approach of sustainability.

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Image 1: Collected Fabric T-shirts to create a knit based upcycled collection

III. Literature Review The reviewed literature has helped to assess the organizations, entrepreneurs, and industries engaged in the upcycled products focusing on surface ornamentation to manage the waste generation at various levels in the process of creating a garment. The literature also talks about the teaching pedagogy for sustainability. One million tons of textile wastage constitutes most of the household chunk. On average, in the world, a garbage bin finds 3% of waste by weight from fabrics alone. This means there is enough waste out there that can and is being recycled for the purpose of re-utilization. The textile industry focuses on two major types of waste management, i.e., pre-consumer and postconsumer waste. Pre-consumer waste is obtained while manufacturing processes like stitching, cutting, or weaving are being created (3). Post-consumer waste includes household items or garments that are stained or torn, or that the holder does not need anymore, and has decided to discard. Out-of-fashion and damaged clothes also fit this category. These textiles are passed on to family members or friends, donated to charities, in rare cases, and also given out to textile banks. 50% of recycled and 50% of reused textile waste become a part of the world's mixed textile surplus (3). Rag graders are the heroes who manage the post-consumer waste. The waste sorting process is carried out by many new emerging companies in the textile industry. These establishments obtain, sort, process, and distribute the products of post-consumer waste to different markets. Sorting materials from the waste is the first step made available for different sources. The textile waste is separated manually depending on the fabric,

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fibers, and quality or condition. Separation is done under two categories, i.e., wearable textiles and non-wearable textiles. The following comprehensive research study talks about the various approaches toward sustainability. Upcycling is a method of treating an item to make it better than the original. In the example of clothing, this is often taking something that does not fit or is stained/torn and re-fashioning a wearable product from it. Upcycling clothes not only creates interest in consumers but also in the product's life to keep up with the fast-changing trends. The fast fashion game has also led to a greater consumption of fashion products leading to further use of resources and wastage. This leads to the interest in upcycling as a way of sustainability. This can be done by redesigning outdated fashion products. The redesigning will reduce the dependence on natural resources and enhance the reuse of items by increasing their aesthetic value (2). Upcycling can be done by using either pre-consumer waste or a combination of both pre-consumer and post-consumer waste. Pre-consumer leftovers are produced while items are being manufactured, such as the pieces of fabric left over after cutting out a pattern, and post-consumer waste is an outcome from the finished product reaching the end of its useful life for the consumer, such as a T-shirt that does not fit anymore. ‘Manufacturers and designers in the mainstream fashion industry discard on an average 15 percent of materials en route to production’ (13). The following are two industry-based examples of organizations and designers who upcycle waste. Project 1000 is an organization in Maharashtra that works with a weaker section of people with the aim of empowering them. Activities are designed to enhance their creativity along with starting them on a journey of selfemployment. The organization, with its work, aims to revive the traditional art of weaving on wooden looms, wherein the assembly of human artistry and imperfection over the mechanical precisely renders an exceptional allure to every product, making them fashionable to both the weaver and the patron. Thus, every article is a piece of art (7).

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Image 2: Upcycled Products from Project 1000 and Tejal Keyur Textiles

All products are made from 100% natural cotton, aligning with our goal of sustainability and eco-friendliness. Additionally, all yarn used for knitting is obtained from upcycled factory waste. Ms Tejal Keyur, a textile designer from the National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad, has taken up the initiative of upcycling and transforming discarded fabric waste into extremely durable and aesthetically pleasing soft vessels, bags, purses, carpets, and more. Textile waste is the third-largest source of municipal waste. It contains textiles made out of natural and synthetic fibers. A little of the waste is recycled or repurposed, but a huge quantity ends up in landfills where these textiles require years to decompose leading to soil and water pollution (8). A tiny step towards environmental sustainability is achieved by extending the life and value of the post-consumer textile goods through upcycling into new products. Our effort towards making these discards look appealing is achieved by turning them into beautifully handcrafted products (8). Lisa Konno is one such sustainability conscious entrepreneur, a fashion artist from Amsterdam, who uses design to tell socially relevant stories, like the massive second-hand clothing dump in Africa. She started in 2015 by making collections from textile waste. Another example of a brand that imbibes sustainability in their work is the brand Psychic Outlaw, https://www.psychicoutlaw.com/, which creates the best quilted and patchwork designs. This brand creates happy, handmade clothing using vintage and antique textiles (8). The research paper about a fashion institute in Dubai sheds light on the sustainable design practices by the design students.

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The current industrial fashion education paradigm is reaching its end, and new patterns are emerging to address the socio-economic, human, and environmental concerns related to the fashion industry. Gen-Z designers, therefore, need to be trained and prepared to face the fashion industry, including all its challenges and opportunities in the technologically advanced but resource-constrained future. The design projects at the College of Design at the American University in the Emirates in Dubai explore the application of garment construction sustainability concepts of zero-waste, upcycling, and reconstruction with sustainable design practices. The project implicates the design and execution of a collection by undergraduate fashion design students. The student work is centered on design concept, material, process, and professional sustainable practices. The research outcomes are used to shape and enhance future fashion design projects/assignments based on the best sustainable practices and current fashion trends to promote sustainable design (14).

IV. Methodology The fashion design course broadly empowers the learners to appreciate the workings of the fashion industry collaboratively. Learning to create fresh designs leads to the use of fresh materials and, in turn, a greater use of resources. These resources need to be managed and used consciously. As an example, different studies give different estimates of the total number of garments produced globally, falling between 80 billion and 150 billion pieces a year before the coronavirus crisis hit. The 2020 Preferred Fiber and Materials Market Report reveals that the global fiber production has doubled in the last 20 years, reaching an all-time high of 111 million metric tons in 2019, and pre-COVID-19 results indicate a potential growth to 146 million metric tons by 2030. Not all textile fiber gets used in fashion, but by an estimate, at least a third of it does, given the volumes of new garments produced globally (15). Thus, students need to be sensitized and given an explanation of the important concept of sustainability to make them responsible and conscious manufacturers of design. This leads to making them aware of the pre- and post-production waste before they can find ways to manage the waste through various approaches to sustainability. A batch of 30 students in the final year of Textile and Apparel Design, Institute of Fashion Technology, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, were exposed to the concept of sustainability and were given a small activity to create textile surfaces from wastes.

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The pedagogy adopted to sensitize students was based on being collaborative, integrative, and reflective. The students were asked to work in groups of four to five to solve the problem of waste, conceive ideas for managing the waste through the upcycling approach, and redesign supporting sustainability. Research was done on various designers who practice sustainability through various approaches like recycling, upcycling and redesigning. Associating the concepts in the surface exploration activity from waste and reflective pedagogy were achieved by classroom discussions on the progression of the work. Initially, they were made to explore surfaces with basic techniques which suited the best raw material like patchwork, Applique, surface structures, and ornamentation from the collected textile and non-textile waste at the home level led to the selection of the one best-suited technique from around 20-25 samples explored with the practical output. The selected sample was explored further at this stage. Here the knitted surface design of a group was selected. Raw materials for creating knitted surfaces and structures were explored and decided on, like cotton and knitted t-shirts. Design development was also done at this stage, which best suited the surface design. The third stage was collecting t-shirt waste at the industry level that was sorted and cleaned. The material was dyed to the agreed color palette as the garments collected were white. The next part was the creation of knitted garments, followed by the dyed tshirts being cut into strips of ½, 1 and 1½ inches, stretched to create the knitted yarn and segregated in monochromes of color as shown in the images below. The short-length fabric strips were joined by knots to create long-length strips.

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Image 3: Depicting the collection of knitted t-shirts to create fabric strips acting as knitting yarns. Source: Students Textile and Apparel Design, Institute of Fashion Technology

The fabric strips were given to skilled knitters to knit and create garments. Certain textures like a short fringe as a part of the design was created after the garments were created, as depicted in the pink and grey fabric strip ball image. The exposure to waste collection as a first-hand experience and a preexercise helped students to open their minds and get sensitized at stage one. The waste included old unused garments from home or its surroundings. This was followed by the approach to managing waste. Various surface exploration techniques suitable for the raw material collected for surface ornamentation helped the reflection on the concept. The research and presentation of the approach for sustainability in the fashion industry helped the learners to apply it in the practical scenarios, associating it to the exercise of making surface textures from waste knitted

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t-shirts. The joint intellectual effort by the students helped to use the postconsumer waste, i.e., t-shirts, to upcycle it using the hand-based skill of knitting, and creating beautiful surface and structural designs. The surfaces had beautiful knotting and fringing textures. The textures are an add-on to the knitted structure. Closed and open knitted structures were also a wonderful exploration of the surface design. 100 kg of old t-shirts were converted to 6 fashion garments. The aesthetic skills were reflected in the design collection through textured yarns, knotted surfaces, and a pastel color palette following the forecasted color trend of 2020 in tints and shades of blue, purple, green, and peach. The process of creating surface designs with hand knitting and crochet made students appreciate and value hand skills. An appreciation of the rawness and imperfections, and the story behind the making also added to the learning.

Image 4: Knitted surface textures. Image Source: Students of Textile and Apparel Design, Institute of Fashion Technology

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The only drawback analyzed was that the weight of the garments was too heavy. The process of sensitizing sustainability also reflected that zero waste is hard to achieve. There will always be some amount of waste generation which needs to be managed. Upcycling is an approach toward sustainability that challenges the designers to bring out creativity while also increasing the life of the existing product, thus slowing the new production.

Image 5: Some Garment Designs from the Knitted design collection of upcycled knitted t-shirts. Image source: Students, Textile and Apparel Design, Institute of Fashion Technology

V. Results of the Study Waste is not waste until we consider it as such. The outcomes of the current study are based on the process of waste management of post-consumer waste. The explorative study aims to sensitize design students to the concept of sustainability through various techniques to become responsible future designers. The results of the study are positive in the process of both teaching and learning. Sustainability can be taught with a lot of fun-based learning and explorative activity to the design students rather than making it mundane. The study helped learners to learn numerous ways of practically applying approaches to sustainability in various stages of garment design. The identification of waste and its thoughtful application through various techniques helped

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students to understand the optimization of waste. Upcycling waste as an application to create surface design and, in turn, garment design helped students to value the concept of sustainability. In order to be explorative and bring newness to the design, the students' research on knitting and color palettes along with the surfaces was strong. The study facilitated reflected that sustainability was always a part of the Indian culture, and it should not be considered as a trend but a way of life. The study sheds light on upcycling, which helps to extend and increase the shelf life of discarded post-consumer products. The exercise also assisted the students in imbibing methods of sustainability which can help to reserve the new usage of natural resources.

VI. Conclusion The teaching pedagogy with the practical application through surface textures from waste was a fruitful and fun learning activity for the students. The interesting outcomes in the surfaces excited them to enjoy the process and not consider waste as waste but to give it a second life through creativity. Thus, it can be seen as a signi¿cant and distinctive contribution to sensitizing aspiring fashion students toward sustainability and preparing them to be responsible and conscious green manufacturers and consumers at the same time.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Agarwal S. Volume 1 pp 95-102, Sustainable Development and Social Responsibility. (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-32922-8_8) http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1247142& dswid=8482. https://www.fibre2fashion.com/industry-article/7279/recycling-andupcycling-in-the-apparel- industry https://www.circulardesign.org.uk/research/ten/ https://www.arts.ac.uk/data/assets/pdf_file/0021/260625/SDI_Earley_3.4_tag ging.pdf https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322728121_Revisiting_upcycling_p henome na_a_concept_in_clothing_industry https://project1000.org.in/project-1000/ https://www.ta-daan.com/10-upcycling-designers/

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10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

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https://www.fibre2fashion.com/industry-article/6901/post-consumer-wasterecycling-in textiles#:~:text=The%20Pre%2Dconsumer%20what%20is,or%20weaving%2 0is%20 going%20on.&text=Post%2D%20consumer%20waste%20can%20be,and%20 has%20 decided%20to%20discard .https://www.commonobjective.co/article/fashion-and-waste-an-uneasyrelationship https://www.iitms.co.in/blog/importance-of-pedagogy-in-teaching-andlearning-process.html https://www.encyclopedia.com/fashion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcriptsand-maps/fashion- industry https://www.triplepundit.com/story/2014/upcycling-new-wave-sustainablefashion/58691 https://www.triplepundit.com/story/2014/upcycling-new-wave-sustainablefashion/58691 https://reverseresources.net/news/how-much-does-garment-industry-actuallywaste#:~:text=Different%20studies%20give%20different%20estimates,befor e%20the%20corona%20crisis%20hit

CHAPTER THIRTEEN UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF VISUALISATION IN GENERATING AN IMPACT ON INDIAN COMMUNICATION DESIGN HEMANG ANGLAY1 1

GLS UNIVERSITY

Abstract An experience through visuals is the key to capturing the imagination. It is a play of the subconscious that gets triggered when we interact with certain visuals and at times they are accompanied by a text (typography). And, in that very moment, a call for action gets initiated. It works both ways; either we experience these kinds of situations or we do not. In the second case, it ignites our aspirations and lures us to create a niche. That’s why we often get to hear the expression, ‘visual treat’. Ferdinand de Saussure and Charles Sanders Peirce’s model of reading visuals gives a clear understanding of the visual model of socio-cultural integration. This research covers the impact of visualization on communication design. Visualization is a fusion of various visual graphics that enhances communication design. References of visual branding selected from various ‘new age mediums’ of communication, created and adapted by two globally distinguished Indian communication design studios are taken as case studies and will be the area of discussion. The objective of this study is to understand value chain creation with respect to visualization as a tool to generate an impact in the process of communication design, the modalities of its market integration, and how it plays a major role within the larger network of socio-cultural integration. The area that will be dealt with is the importance of visualization in adding

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value to the existing trend forecast in the communication design industry. This analysis will be set on a specific timeline. The methodology involves qualitative data analysis through a case study of the two communication design houses, located in India. Interviews and visual documentation of creators and team members will be covered. The expected outcome will be a study to understand the integration of graphic elements and text in communication design which encompasses diverse visual cultures, relevant in Indian graphic design influencing global scenarios. This research will provide insight into the visual impact of promotional design in the area of communication design. Its distinctive approach will benefit start-up communities and the visual design industry as well as design research scholars. Keywords: visualization; communication design; value; branding; sociocultural integration

I. Introduction The Indian oral tradition of education as well as the narration of stories very interestingly code and help in decoding some of the modern meanings. India has gone through various phases in terms of evolution in visual perception and communication. Vedas, Upanishads, Scriptures, and Samhitas are an amalgamation of various Shruti (heard) and Smriti (remembered) texts. Now is the time of globalization and universalization. Technology and media are using a lot of newer mediums to communicate meaningful agendas as well as propaganda. Icons and mnemonics help in visual communication as a universally accepted visual language plays an important role in communicating the same concept, idea, or indication. Indian government policies and initiatives such as ‘vocal for local’ and ‘make in India’ are driving an intangible force of indigenous skill development and appreciation received globally.

II. Sustainable Visual Communication When everyone indulges in sustainability worldwide, is there also a need for us to think about sustainable visual communication? For example, Amul Girl is a version of this, as for more than fifty years it has been an iconic representation of pop culture in advertisements that went

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viral as soon as it was launched around 53 years ago. Also, the ways of communication in the campaign have remained unaltered over these years (India Today, 2016). Another example is by R. K. Laxman who created the common man who was revisited in many avatars every single morning by his fans (Nudd, 2019).

III. Organic Images and Manmade Images As we say, ‘quote unquote’, organic images are natural images. Decoding from abstraction is a complex phenomenon. People have learned this by using various experiments and based on certain experiments they have formulated visual theories. Dreams are a sequence of images put together. They form either a story or a narrative.

Figure 1: Photograph by Johan Hilliard. Four similar images in different compositions: 1) Crushed, 2) Drowned, 3) Burned, 4) Fell

In 1974, John Hilliard, an artist from the UK, captured cause of death with four images of a human body covered in a sheet. These images were processed from the same negative. They were all communicating with a slight differentiation. This was created by cropping the print which changed its context. The title given to each image was indicating a narrative: ‘crushed’, ‘drowned’, ‘burned’, and ‘fell’. There was the realization that the body was identical in all four images (Powell M., 2016).

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IV. Materials and Methods The methodology involved is qualitative data analysis through a case study of the two said communication design organizations, located in India. Interviews and visual documentation of creators and team members are covered. In a competitive global economy, the design creates the key differentiator for products and services in any given market place. National design policy encourages strategic design. That design is the driver of innovation is recognized as a key differentiator for enabling space for a competitive edge to products and services. Innovation in entrepreneurial methodology and manufacturing processes acts as an important strategy. The brand-driven value chain and intellectual property development including design registrations need to be fostered as core strengths of Indian manufacturing and service industries. India needs to aim at becoming a leading influencer of global design (National Design Policy, 2007).

V. Case Study I Design Studio 1, New Delhi This design studio is about 22 to 23 years old, maybe even older than that. The studio is sector agnostic which means it works across the business industries, including government and non-government sectors. So, that's the wide gamut of work that it does. The overall philosophy of the design studio is about understanding the pulse of the customer, or the targeted audience and the complexities attached to it especially in a country like India, because its projects are reasonably medium to large scale projects, pan India and sometimes going global. So, how do you create communication to cater to such a wide group of sometimes diverse people? Many times, when you're looking at connecting with people at a deeper level as a product, service, or social initiative, or as behavioral change, then these things become very complex. The time for deciding which medium to choose depends on the project because nowadays there is basically less and less print media as such, right? Fewer publications are being printed and we support that from a green perspective, but there are certain times when printing is a must. So, it all depends on what is the exercise and what sort of output is needed and where we will find the right time and place to inject that particular research or

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criteria. When it comes to mediums, this is applicable across all mediums. People consume digitally nowadays and that is where we can catch them more frequently. Talking about the challenges faced, the client prepares a document and says ‘abhi kal chaap do’ (which means ‘print it tomorrow’), because they think that it is a control P activity. So that's the major problem. The other problem compared to publishing is in the digital context, as of course, printing is more extensive and more strenuous. Otherwise, as design studios have experience of the industry and also with maturity, it is they who advise the client on everything, so fewer challenges are faced, and the challenges are internal. The biggest challenges are how is that benchmark managed internally or what is the intent of the exercise; also, the client has a broader intent, and sharpens that intent. To match that intent or deliver that intent becomes a tough challenge sometimes. There is a thought process behind the emotional connection in most of the projects. A thirty-second advert can bring tears to the eyes. The challenge from that perspective is whether a person sometimes forgets why they are crying. What is the product being talked about and also, the story takes over the product in that sense. In many cases, there are few advertisements that are so good that they connect directly to the product in every sense. Similarly, design has the same problem in that the true connection happens very rarely and unless those things are attempted, the exercise may bring some emotion, but it may not bring the necessary impact. That's the aspect of the emotive connect. However, the emotive connect is imperative which means it is critical for somebody to connect with whatever is being communicated so that they can be at one with that communication, they can put them in there, and they connect with that communication because it affects them. But what overrides everything is the impact. And will a person act on it? So that's another challenging factor. So it is like saying that we have put one million posters all across the country, and you're happy with this, but then you have to do an impact study to see what is the created impact and has it brought behavioral change in sales, and things like that. Some communication may just entice you to act on it just once and the next time you will drop it because your experience with that action is not good enough. So, you have to make sure that what you are talking about has got the connect, has got the wow factor, has got everything inside, and when they experience it then it is matching that experience or that promise, and thereby there is a sense of

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continuity or change in terms of behavior. In that sense, continuity in terms of a purchase or service prevails. Here are the two projects where we made very unique contributions in the context of managing the aspect of diversity as a large part of India connects to a health program. This is the Ayushaman Bharat program and the studio said, how can you place one logo and expect people to connect with it emotionally or connect so meaningfully that it becomes unique? And so, the studio just came up with the idea of a simple system where you give freedom to the local artisan with few constraints. So, the constraints were color and how to create space or mark a space correctly and then we told them you can mark it in any way you want because no two buildings are alike, right? The health centers are not alike. Yes, the windows and doors are small and large. So, it should be a free-to-use system and the artist decides on the local artisan. So, then he says okay, and then we say okay, you can make this or afterwards you can make the painting because the paintings are related to health and we have given them tools like a grid system to develop those, or copy those illustrations, and then we fill the blank spaces with the works of local artisans. So where we think the achievement happens is first of all Raju who's a painter in Madhubani or someplace or some district in Gujarat. He paints it with his local art. But neighboring community people will recognize the painter. This is where the emotional connect happens and where the socalled sense of ownership and belongingness comes in and that ownership only happens if there's a belief system in place. So, that was a job to brand it and to make it recognizable and make people own it. Now the aspect of ownership, the aspect of emotional connect, the aspect of making it diverse, was never the brief and was never the intent of the client. That is where the difference lies between the commissioner and the designer and the designer needs to have extremely wide and broad perspectives to be able to deliver an output. In the case of the Ayushaman Bharat project, a request was made to the government for an impact study. The studio had also reached out to international bodies for independent funds as we know that a third party does an impact study, but then COVID hit us. So, the studio couldn't do that even though it very strongly proposes to do impact studies on all projects when it comes to business or the corporate sector. The strategy for the studio to differentiate its work is nothing other than raw honesty, and a very high level of integrity. It likes ambidexterity which means everyone likes doing many things. And thereby the studio is also

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designed in such a fashion that it does many things. So, it has architects, product designers, communication people, graphic designers, strategy people, and researchers, making it a very powerful team. This also allows the studio to apply itself very differently compared to a lot of design firms, which are vertical-centric. The design studio as a team thinks of intangibility and this is something that always needs to be confronted in terms of articulation and thinking. Today's science allows the measurement of a lot of intangibilities, but not every job can afford to get into measurements. The other aspect is the more you understand every intangible factor then the better position you are in to articulate it, but not from a measurement perspective. This is more in terms of meeting those known criteria because everything needs to be addressed. Storytelling is one of the best ways to incorporate emotion in visual design. Storytelling that is contextual to the person with whom we are talking is well received. Again, knowing the emotional world of this particular person is critical so you build your story around those emotions, and touchpoints. Relevance to the subject matter is critical to create a better impact. The desired reaction is the catch-out here. Hence, relevance becomes a critical component. So, the desired output has to be relevant to the desired emotion. That’s where we think the criticality lies. Design Studio 1 envisioned and created a cohesive, purposeful and peopleoriented branding system for the Partners’ Forum 2018 in New Delhi. It was to engage the Pipli craft persons to produce the entire conference’s peripherals by handcrafting. It brought the conference message of ‘power of partnership’ alive through the engagement of craftsmen and their crafts. ‘“This branding system becomes distinctive both in how it has been approached and executed, in its very essence bringing out the forum theme”, says the Founder of Design Studio 1.’ Participation at the Conference Approximately one thousand members of the Partnership for Maternal, Newborn and Children’s Health from 77 countries met in New Delhi for the fourth Partners’ Forum. The forum’s six core themes and twelve case studies showcased their achievements and success stories. The design showcased this cross-sectoral intervention (Branding for the greater good, 2018).

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Figure 2: The logo was co-created with Pipli Craftspersons’ Partner’s Forum 2018, New Delhi

VI. Findings of the Study The implementation of visualization is one of the most important areas of approval for the human senses. It changes one’s perception of the entire range of products. It also affects the perceived value of the product. The visual strategy also helps in increasing the visibility of the product towards the target audience, impacts the overall branding and helps in creating a value chain. With its kind of visualization process, this design studio in different places in the country sensitizes and connects with the people and the surrounding community. It showcases the relation with everyone as a viewer. It enforces a sense of belonging and infuses acceptability and value as well as boosts identity amongst the local dwellers too, with its visual impact. Everyone wants to tell good stories, and gives them amazing stories to tell. To communicate a design with an emotional connection is to tell a story. It will only connect when it’s personalized. When you do it yourself, even those imperfections are intrinsic to that product. It’s a signature beyond functionality.

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VII. Outcome of Visual Design Strategy Both the Ayushaman Bharat and Partner’s Forum projects resulted in making connections with the people targeted, as the overall brand initiatives were improved and they were engaged in the process of creation. The visualization also showed how socio-cultural integration within a community can be used to create focused communication and the engagement of people was incorporated to influence and create a value chain of visual communication. The visualization showcases a directed sustainable approach towards the execution of both projects: Ayushaman Bharat and the Partner’s Forum 2018 conference branding.

VIII. Case Study II Design Studio of Ahmedabad Another design studio in Ahmedabad has the potential for imagination, creation and implementation with its core philosophy of listening, designing and delivering (Who we are, 2020). This design studio was started in the year 2012. In the current scenario, this studio is now one of the leading agencies in Gujarat because the services offered are not just in one domain. Services range from brand consultancy to signage. It has been involved in big markets in Surat, as well as 70 tourist destinations in Gujarat. It has done a couple of projects in Delhi. It has done work on signage in Dahod city. It is also into product design; furniture design which is very specific to the letter press. The journey was good from 2012 to 2021 including the time of COVID and there has been fun on the journey, slowly adding a lot of brands to the business and cruising towards a good future. When one of its clients from Rajkot, who is very enterprising, approached the design studio and said they were getting into beverages, the studio mentioned that popular brands were already available in the market as competitors. But the client was very confident and wanted to make their brand visible in the market. To establish a brand in such a competitive market is a tough thing. So the client’s brief was that an English name had to be given as a brand name. So the design studio gave them a lot of options but then finally got it down to one name, which looked and felt more

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Spanish. The design studio team didn’t want the feeling of a local name. So the studio wanted to show international flair, which was added pressure as it needed to make its mark in the market in terms of strategy and design capabilities to sustain and grow the brand in the market. The design studio team wanted that wow factor or that emotional angle; because until and unless you touch, see and feel the thing you will not connect because that’s the basic instinct of a human being. What happens when you go to the distributors and just say we have products and keep those bottles on the table? Instead of that, the studio has designed amazing packaging which connects to the person to whom they are given. And when they can choose it, and lift it up, it connects instantly. When showing this packaging, they had also designed a brochure or a gimmick; it’s like magic, if you pull that brochure the brand name vanishes and all the drinks that they are offering appear in the picture. While holding this brochure, one needs to pull the paper to see the magic. Everybody loves magic from their childhood so this was very magical. Distributors started asking for the brochure. They started entertaining the client. They started asking for the product. The product started moving. The studio did large formats, banners, billboards, a billboard campaign, a print campaign, and advertisements and while working, the design studio realized that there was one flavor which was very well taken up in Gujarat. Billboards were very successful. Many vehicle graphics were done with that model and it was so successful that a popular brand had to re-launch its other brand. So this is a good case study where local flavors challenged international companies. After four years it is the fastest growing beverage company in the western part of India. Digital media were available, and the studio would have created that magic in digital media, but if you do digital media, which platform do you use? Either you will show it on your mobile or your marketing person will show it on a laptop or whatever media they are carrying or iPad or whatever. But at the end of the day, you are not giving anything to the listener, to your target audience. You can give this magical brochure to the person. He receives it. That is the benefit of print media and that’s the best thing for brand recall. The studio faced a lot of difficulties because when you want to create the magic you have to be innovative. There were a lot of challenges in diecutting and many challenges in post-production, but when working with the printers and the die-guys, you know, they were taught with patience. And

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definitely on technical grounds it is very clear, that the vendors were helped to create this input and definitely, it worked. As human beings, when we are amused, the brand will become a mark on our minds. If we give you a moment that surprises you or increases your anxiety or increases your laughter or fun, you will remember that for a lifetime. So, this excitement helped the studio to keep the client’s brand in the minds of the target audience. And they kept, you know, pulling that card and kept enjoying. So, it’s a long-lasting impact. The design studio undergoes a process, particularly for any brand that brings out a different creativity. With one of the brands, the problem was the distributors that were already distributing for international brands like Coke and Pepsi. Why would they listen? Why would they pay attention to a local brand? So, it was more necessary for them to create all these inputs to make a mark on their heart and mind and give the studio a chance. So that was the window that the studio had to open with all of the inputs, and it did that successfully. To do this, it had to really go back to the drawing board, understand and visualize that the design studio input creates the output of connection, and it should not be a normal box or a normal launch brochure. It should have that wow factor. To discover the reactions of the viewers and customers it was necessary to keep interacting with the clients at regular intervals. At meetings probably twice or three times a month, feedback was regularly taken up on how the target audience was behaving. Another client came to the studio with a briefing of a unique product from the segment called upcycling. This is like, you know, using old newspapers or using rags and converting them into pencils and pens. Their core value was to teach kids of this generation of the importance of saving our environment. The studio designed a new logo which was application friendly and if you look at it carefully it has that naughtiness in the emotional angle of the brand which shows a small kid, a small monkey. Starting from there, they moved ahead. And their earlier packaging was very boring. The label or packaging is important because it connects emotionally when you are going into the retail space where ten other products are lying. The kid will go and pick up the packaging that he/she connects with. So, a very different level of packaging was made, and this was hexagonal packaging because the product demand was eco-friendly. So, the packaging was made of bagas paper which is again environment friendly, and it had two lids to push and pull onto it so that kids can reuse this as a pencil box.

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Reusing the packaging was best even though it was made with eco-friendly paper and while designing the packaging motifs were added which kids will emotionally connect with and connect to their activities. The packaging was innovative as there was a problem while designing the packaging. The biggest challenge was showcasing the product inside the pack. A die-cut area was innovated into which a pencil can be pushed. One pencil is kept in the packaging yet you cannot pull out that pencil. It’s part of the packaging. The look and feel, and the print area on the packaging, were very important to add a lot of emotive motifs with which kids will connect. Giving back to the environment, sowing that seed back into the soil and giving back to the earth, you know, and enjoying the garden or the flower also cultivate a relationship of ownership. The studio focused on design strategy and branding consultancy for differentiating the work. There is also a need to align with the client for helping them with marketing strategy and sales strategy. This includes understanding their problems, why the product is not moving or when the product is facing a problem. The design team thinks that the studio should also offer design management services, which are probably not billed. They know that the studio is getting more benefits rather than just providing the design. The design team thinks that design plus strategy is the important factor that separates them. The design studio thinks more about the emotional background. It needs to work on the emotions of the target audience. Before this, it was also mentioned that those emotional things sustain us and they are rather intangible because they remain for a longer time. They will stay till the person is emotional. They are banging on the drum of emotional storytelling so that the communication is more sustainable. There was the challenge of how to reach the target customer or understand the reach, or correctly say what was the desired reaction from the target audience. The studio just showed a father crying, on a jewellery billboard, so there was no need to show jewellery in a jewellery advert. It was a challenge so the studio designed this campaign where it’s a black and white picture of a father’s face and a tear falling from his eye. And that shows his care for his daughter. They showed the brand logo and said that tears are more valuable than diamonds. So come to Puja diamonds to pamper your daughter or something like that. There was a variation in the campaign showing the brother and father. The girl receiving the jewellery was not shown and thereby it targeted the intangible emotional connections.

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One private company approached this design studio in 2019 as even though they had a unique and good quality product, they were not yet running in the market (sales were not increasing). Despite unique technology, they were not able to market their products properly. They were not going the way of supply chain management (CNF agents/distributors). The design studio suggested sustainable re-branding. This included phase one packaging for market behaviour testing (small batch); final packaging design (ready for market – domestic and international); marketing collaterals; website (e-commerce), selling it on the online marketplace (Amazon.in); a festive pack design or combo pack (targeting corporates for bulk gifting); social media marketing (reaching the target audience on a low budget); point of purchase for retail shops (high-end grocery); and participation in events or trade shows for promoting products.

IX. Findings of the Study The visual display of contextual images on the packaging is very important to weave a narrative that will directly connect with the viewers. This connection was one of the key factors for chiselled communication in the case of one brand and the packaging redesign of another brand. The craft of contextual communication gave an opportunity to visualize elements of communication. This provided a narrative for that visual communication in both brands. The emotional connection with the views was achieved in terms of ways of executing the inputs of communication as in the case of one brand, and the local cultural context was given more importance, and in the case of another brand the visuals were selected with respect to the audience it was going to cater to in offline as well as online mediums.

X. Outcome of the Visual Design Strategy Outcomes are as follows: x There was an increase in sales. There was an improvement in brand awareness and product visibility also improved in the market. Exports started (with the help of a new packaging design) with online sales. x There was financial stability within the organization. New product planning and a plan for phase II started to improve the market reach.

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x Retail sales improved as Mumbai city was added, apart from the existing market. x Within the country, sales gained momentum with the help of newer approaches of using cultural or traditional motifs or handwork in the collection. x Online sales started on a daily basis to bring financial stability to the organization.

XI. Analysing the Value Chain of Visual Communication Regarding the impact of visualization on product promotion, from the above case studies we get many clues as to how the process of visualization acts as an integral part of the conceptualization of any idea. It has the power to connect with the thoughts of people and a commoner can relate to it in such a way that the interest of the target audience can be converted into a call for action. It is not limited to any media or mediums per se as it has the essence of touching or engaging the audience by connecting or converting their emotions. Different media pave the way to tangible mediums so that the intangibilities of the visualization can reach the specific target audience. As we have elements of design and elements of composition the question arises, can we or rather should we consider visualization as one of the elements of communication? The storytelling, narrative, display, and visibility of any communication depend on how well it is visualized because it converts the intangible imagination into a tangible picture. Visualization in every sense is influential in enhancing the perceived value of communication and thereby directly impacts the brand and its value creation. The factors which influence any storytelling come from the society, culture and traditions of a particular community or area, and help in better connecting that audience. This continuity of value addition helps in creating a robust value chain of visual communication. The market thrives on visual appeal. It creates and sensitizes emotional threads in the minds of the viewer. When it appeals to people, they feel its relevance and it impacts or rather initiates the decision-making about the subject in the visual. The brand is a mindset that is formed by the visual imagery floating in and by the targeted media. The continuity of relevant imagery defines its repercussions, relevance, and impact.

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XII. Conclusion and Suggestions Indian values are impacting global perspectives. Sustainability and value creation have become important areas supporting the call for action. Aspirations are blending toward One Nation One World. Visualization creates and sensitizes emotional threads in the mind of the viewer. The brand is a mindset that is formed by the visual imagery floating in and by the targeted media. The continuity of relevant imagery defines its repercussions, relevance and impact. There are many organizations that work in different sectors and contribute to the industrial and cultural growth in India. They can conduct a sort of holistic approach towards their communication strategies placing the visualization process at the forefront. This will also integrate an inclusive development towards a stronger visual culture around us. The market place and media industry are full of organized and unorganized sectors. Therefore, newer areas, such as the recognition of visual culture, the recognition of traditional knowledge in the education system, awareness and education for budding designers and the promotion of visual imagery in urban, local and global markets/spaces become important. They will become the areas of concern to be dealt with for a sustainable futuristic environment where visualization has an important role to play as the guiding map.

XIII. Acknowledgement I would like to thank my guide Dr. Avani Desai and my mentors Dr. Mihir Bholey and Dr. Gayatri Menon. I am also thankful to my colleague Dr. Ayon Sarkar, who helped me in articulating my thoughts, and I am grateful to the teams of Lopez Design, Gurugram which is engaged in experimental projects related to visual communication design and visual culture, and Three Dot Designs, a studio based in Ahmedabad which works on the projects related to visual design strategies. Finally, thanks are also due to all my friends and family who have supported me in this endeavour.

References 1.

IndiaToday.in (2016), https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-currentaffairs/story/10-common-man-sketches-by-r-k-laxman-you-shouldnt-miss839025-2016-10-24 (accessed 16 May 2020).

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Nudd, T. (2019), https://musebycl.io/advertising/story-amul-girl-indias-adicon-who-was-ahead-her-time (accessed 26 May 2020). Powell, M. (2016), https://www.slideshare.net/MelaniePowell1/a2-photography-exam-2016truth-fantasy-and-fiction (accessed 22 May 2020). National Design Policy (2007) http://www.nid.edu/Userfiles/NationalDesignPolicy.pdf13. Who we are (2020), https://www.threedotdesigns.com/aboutus.php (accessed 18 May 2020).

CHAPTER FOURTEEN A PROPOSAL FOR A COLLECTION OF BAGS MADE FROM AN ORIGINAL RECYCLED PLASTIC

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LÍVIA JULIANA DA SILVA SOLINO1, ALINE GABRIEL FREIRE1, ANTÔNIA LINDEMERES DA SILVA BESSA1, FLÁVIA CARLA DA SILVA1 AND ÍTALO JOSÉ DE MEDEIROS DANTAS1

INSTITUTO FEDERAL DO RIO GRANDE DO NORTE (IFRN) CAMPUS CAICÓ DEPARTAMENTO DE TÊXTIL E VESTUÁRIO

Abstract Growing concern for the environment is directly related to the increase in pollution. One of the leading products found in dumps is plastic bags. This item caused a revolution in commerce as it could be passed on to the customer without additional costs, becoming a constant presence in several types of retail outlet, and bringing practicality to the packaging of products. Despite the advantages listed, the indiscriminate use of bags also brought disadvantages, as their resistance to time and the environment, in addition to their improper disposal, has caused damage to nature, as they are one of the residues that cause the most negative impact and degradation to the environment. Given the problem, that is the daily increase in the degree of pollution in the world, it becomes essential to create alternatives that seek to rebalance the environment, adopting ecological measures, especially in the textile industry, which is the second greatest polluter. Therefore, this chapter aims to present a collection of bags developed from recycled plastic material. It has been found that the material developed has an affordable cost, a good appearance, and excellent durability, making it possible to

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introduce a sustainable and quality material to the market.

I. Introduction The growing concern for the environment is directly related to the increase in pollution. According to the Environment Program (UNEP) report of the United Nations (UN) Assembly of the year 2017, in 80% of the world's cities, the air quality does not reach adequate health parameters. The report also reveals that 80% of the sewage produced on the planet is dumped into nature without treatment. Environmental pollution is responsible, each year, for about a quarter (12.6 million) of all human deaths. The growing generation of waste, especially in large urban centers, worries environmentalists. One of the leading products found in dumps is plastic bags. Created in 1962 by the Englishman Alexander Parkes, plastic bags caused a revolution in commerce as they could be passed on to the customer without additional costs, becoming, in a few years, a constant presence in several types of retail outlet, bringing practicality to the packaging of products. Despite the advantages listed, the indiscriminate use of bags also brought disadvantages, as their resistance to time and the environment, in addition to their improper disposal, has caused damage to nature, as they are one of the residues that cause the most negative impact and degradation to the environment (Oliveira et al., 2012). According to Neto et al. (2011), the material used to manufacture the bags supplied by supermarkets is responsible for 37% of the plastics found in urban waste worldwide. In turn, according to Chaves (2019), Brazil is the fourth highest generator of plastic waste and the one that recycles the least, resulting in a significant impact on biodiversity since these are the main items causing clogs in the water passages of culverts and streams, contributing to the retention of garbage and the flooding of cities in rainy periods. Beyond this point, plastic has also become an environmental problem because it pollutes oceans and rivers, as it takes about 450 years to decompose, and the chances of causing an imbalance in the marine ecosystem are high when animals swallow it and die. On the other hand, the high level of consumption in postmodern societies contributes significantly to environmental wear and tear. Industries drive commerce around the world, encouraging unbridled consumption. In the fashion industry, this high volume of purchases is the flagship of a productive model known as fast fashion, gaining space in the market and consumers' lives due to its practicality, low cost, and information on fashion

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and trends (Solino et al., 2015). Due to the characteristics of this production model, garments are discarded at a higher speed. Fast fashion contributes to the increase in the volume of textile waste during the manufacturing process. Since the cycle works quickly, the products are generated at the same speed at which they are consumed (Fletcher and Grose, 2012). Textile waste, in Brazil alone, is estimated to be about 175 thousand tons discarded annually; only 20% is reused or recycled (Simon, Toledo, and Moreira, 2019). Thus, this high volume of waste causes environmental impacts such as water contamination, and air and soil pollution, consequently influencing human health. Afonso Cauteruccio, president of Greenaccord, a Christian non-governmental entity that works to raise awareness of the environmental issue, in an article published by Vatican News (2020), also states that in 2019 it took less than eight months for humanity to use all available natural resources of the planet for the year. The reverse effects of the concept of environmental preservation bring direct and immeasurable consequences for human life and the significant impact of biodiversity worldwide. Given the problem of the daily increase in the degree of pollution in the world, it becomes essential to create alternatives that seek to rebalance the environment, adopting ecological measures (Wu and Li Li, 2020; Silva et al., 2021), especially in the textile industry, which is the second greatest polluter (Chen et al., 2021). Considering the excessive production of waste generated by the industry and the reduction of the life cycle of fashion products, some measures have emerged to reduce these pollution levels. One of them is eco-design, a process that includes environmental aspects whose main objective is to develop products and services that will somehow reduce the use of nonrenewable resources or even minimize their environmental impact during their life cycle. Thus, due to its feasibility, low cost, solidity, and use worldwide, and given the context presented, it is necessary to think of solutions for the reuse of plastic and the reduction of industrial waste. With this, there is a need to rethink recycled plastic itself as a raw material to promote eco-design and contribute to increasing sustainability and minimizing environmental impacts. Therefore, this chapter aims to present a collection of bags developed from recycled plastic material.

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II. Theoretical framework In recent decades, plastics have revolutionized life in society. Thompson et al. (2009) report in their work that, on the first page of the book ‘Plastics’ by Yarsele and Couzens, it is said that the applications of plastics are practically inexhaustible. Moreover, this remains a reality in 2021, as plastics are present in almost every sector of society, including clothing, sporting goods, buildings, automobiles, airplanes, and medical applications. The diversity and versatility of polymers grow increasingly, and they appear in various applications from hospital products and packaging to high-tech parts, such as those used in space equipment, benefiting, and making life more practical (Andrade, 2019). According to the study promoted by the United Nations (UN) in 2019, around 12% of most urban solid waste is made from various plastic components. 40% of garbage in the world is burned, raising an alert for the need for the sustainable management of plastic. Considering its entire life cycle, the incineration of plastic is one of the primary sources of air pollution. It threatens vegetation and human and animal health by releasing toxic gases into the atmosphere (UN, 2019). In addition, plastic bags, when not incinerated, generally take an average of 400 years to decompose (Nascimento, 2011). Over the years, environmental problems have grown incessantly, causing the degradation of ecosystems. However, the indiscriminate use and disposal of plastic bags has been one of the main problems for the marine and terrestrial environment. Even though plastic bags are banned in some countries, approximately 42 million kilograms of this material are released into the seas annually, causing several living beings' death. At sea, thousands of animals mistake these objects for food, especially birds, whales, seals, and turtles, and, for this reason, they end up suffocating when ingesting the packages. Sea turtles are the ones that most confuse plastic bags with jellyfish and end up dying. When they ingest this material, there is a blockage in the intestine obstructing the digestive system (Guimarães and Albuquerque, 2010). In Brazil, in 2019, 29.5 million tons of urban solid waste, including plastics, ended up in landfills or controlled landfills, places that do not have a set of systems and measures necessary to protect people's health and the environment from damage and degradation (ABRELPE, 2021).

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The UN Environment, in a publication carried out in 2019, points out that measures to ban or reduce the consumption of single-use plastics also help to combat air pollution. This aims to reduce waste generation through technical and managerial actions, and one of the solutions for the accumulation of plastics is the circular economy, which is characterized as an alternative to the linear production chain. This model works to predict the reuse of inputs, aiming at reducing the generation of waste and the impacts on the environment caused by economic growth. The circular economy concept has been expanded, and one of its main pillars is recycling (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017). Recycling is a way to reduce the impacts caused by the production of plastics, as recycling saves energy and natural resources, generating financial and environmental gains (Andrade, 2019). According to Valle (2002), cited by Orikassa and Piva (2014), this aims to reduce the generation of waste through technical and managerial actions that may be related to the source, avoiding the formation of waste by recycling and internal reprocessing techniques. Despite the possibility of plastic generating benefits when reused, plastic constitutes one of the materials with the lowest recycling rates since it is an unbreakable element, resistant to low temperatures, with high chemical resistance. The reduced value of this indicator is related to the low value paid for the volume collected and, in other situations, it is due to the difficulty of collecting large amounts. This is unlike metals (beverage cans, among others) that have a better commercial value, as they are easier to handle and send to recycling depots, making metals the type of material with the highest volume of collection and shipment for recycling (Czapski, 2006 apud Dias and Teodosio, 2006).

III. Characterization of the recycled material The material used to make the samples was recyclable low-density polyethylene (LDPE) plastic in a black color (Figure 1a). At this stage, it was chosen to make three groups of samples to test the different levels of resistance, texture, and thickness of the material. The procedures were carried out in the laboratory, where two layers of the plastic material were cut which were 36 cm wide and 42 cm long. The procedure was repeated by cutting two more layers of plastic. For the four- and eight-layer samples, we added four more layers of plastic (Figure 1b), and the pressing process was carried out to obtain the material.

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First, the samples with two layers were placed separately in the press with sulfurizing paper (butter) on both sides at a temperature of 120°C to unite the plastic layers, to obtain a material similar to leather. The same procedure was repeated for the samples of four and eight layers; finally, all the samples were cut in specific sizes for each type of test.

Figure 1: a) Raw plastic, b) Plastic after going through the process in the press. Source: Authors

Three different samples were prepared, formed with 2, 4, and 8 layers of pressed plastics (Fig. 1b). Then, washing resistance tests were carried out; abrasion resistance, grammage, pressing, and tear resistance (Figure 2). The objective was to analyze the material's applicability in the development of fashion products. Based on the results obtained, it was found that the eight-layer material showed good resistance and was ideal for making products with higher durability. So, the item chosen for the collection was bags, as they have a structure that does not need to mold to human forms, thus facilitating their modeling. Another point is that the material developed has a texture like leather to manufacture this type of product. The results of experiments with the material will not be explored in depth for this scientific chapter. The focus of this work is to propose a collection based on this material.

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Suitable for use in accessory parts Two layers Four layers

Plastic

Less malleable and leatherlike in appearance

Eight layers Very strong, suitable for long-lasting products

Figure 2: Infographic of the application of recycled plastic material in product design. Source: Authors

Given the data obtained from the tests carried out with the samples, it was observed that two layers had a low resistance to washing, presenting small changes after their third washing, where small openings were found with friction, but these samples had a better result with the loss of mass. With this result, the two-layer swatches are suitable for trims, raincoats, umbrellas, bag holders, car trash cans, aprons, tool belts, accessories such as tiaras, and caps because the samples are classified as lightweight, which means that this is a more malleable, flexible, and ideal material for making the products mentioned above. The four-layer sample was also classified as lightweight, with good resistance to washing. With this result, the samples with four layers are suitable for making pants, jackets, skirts, dresses, and shorts because this sample showed that even when less flexible than the two-layer sample, the resistance is much more significant, and its appearance is very similar to leather. Samples with eight layers were chosen to make the bags, as the sample was observed to have superior resistance to the other analyzed samples, in washing, mass loss, and tear resistance. Therefore, we can conclude that the eight-layer samples are resistant and ideal for long-lasting products, such as bags, wallets, belts, backpacks, and soft lining.

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IV. Bag collection proposal For the development of the mini collection of twelve bags, 3D geometric figures were chosen as the theme of the collection, allowing the imagination to flow and an exploration of shapes not yet seen in the Brazilian fashion industry. The 3D shapes and the tested material have a meaningful relationship; that is, both have a variety of possibilities during product development. Bags are an essential accessory in everyday life; with aesthetic and practical functions, they complement the image, subject to variations in fashion trends that change from season to season. For the elaboration of the collection sketches, the shapes of the various sizes of architectural bags were united with different handles for use in everyday life and formal events (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Bags used as a conceptual reference. Source: Prepared by the authors according to research conducted on Pinterest

Figure 4: Semantic panel of the bag collection proposal in this chapter. Prepared by the authors according to research conducted on Pinterest

A semantic panel was built to develop the models of the bags (Figure 4). The panel represents the geometric shapes as a link between the invisible

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and, at the same time, visible change. In this way, the geometric figures are present in our daily lives; and we seek to align the recycling symbol with the geometric shape, which represents change and balance – the leaf animal inside the recycling symbol represents this shift. In the conceptual collection, it was possible to explore several models, from the lightest to the most structured, and it was proven that the material is compatible with different models and proportions, and able to meet a variety of segments. Next, the 12 bag models developed for a mini-collection will be presented, whose theme inspired the striking presence of lines and geometric shapes. In creating the collection, the bagswere divided into lines, the first being composed of small bags, ideal for formal events (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Design proposals for the bags made from recycled plasticmaterial. Source: Prepared by the authors

All models produced were inspired by everyday geometric objects, such as lamps, vases, and paintings, and through the elements of the visual language of the products, it was possible to conceive the elaboration of twelve models

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with striking and modern textures. Of the twelve models, three were chosen to be made. The chosen models represent the theme of triangular geometric shapes in the architectural forms. The different handles are represented with pearls and chains in different colors from the color of the bags, and the selected models are for all types of occasions present in the collection.

Figure 7: Bag collection photoshoot. Source: Prepared by the authors

For the modeling of each piece, the molds were made in paper and passed to pressed plastic; soon after, the cuts and folds were made in the plastic where the sewing stitches would be. It was impossible to baste the material because of the risk of damaging it. Finally, the sewing was done.

Figure 6: Bag prototypes developed. Source: Prepared by the authors

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V. Final considerations The present chapter aimed to study the development of a recyclable plastic material with a leather appearance, to be transformed into fashion products. Through a bibliographic review, the usability of the plastic bag was detected in several areas, but no scientific works with the same format presented in this project have yet been found. To achieve the objective, it was necessary to carry out the following steps: a literature review, market research, material characterization analysis, a determination of the applicability to fashion products, the development of a mini-collection, an evaluation, and analysis of the results achieved. It was found that the material developed has an affordable cost, a good appearance, and excellent durability, making it possible to introduce a sustainable and quality material to the market. Finally, the present research reached the intended objectives and opened the way for a more in-depth study to improve the material developed. The difficulties in developing this work concern handling the material and the experience of sewing this recycled plastic. Moreover, the moment experienced by the COVID-19 pandemic made it challenging to access machinery and university laboratories. For future works, there will be studies of new ways of handling in modeling and sewing; the applicability to other types of fashion products; analysis of other types of plastic bags; analysis of layer variations, temperature, and pressing time; and the possibility of color and texture variations, with the ability to produce countless varieties in fashion products in general, accessories, personal protection equipment, and utilitarian products, among others.

References 1. 2. 3.

ABRELPE. (2021). Panorama dos Resíduos Sólidos no Brasil [Overview of Solid Waste in Brazil]. Avaliable at: abrelpe.org.br/panorama/. (Accessed: 30 March 2022). Andrade, R. D. S. (2019). Processos de reciclagem de polímeros termoplástico [Recycling processes for thermoplastic polymers]. BA Dissertation. Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte. Chaves, L. R. (2019). Plastic Planet: Invented a century ago, the polymeric material that at first seemed to make modern life so much easier has now

A Proposal for a Collection of Bags Made from an Original Recycled Plastic 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11.

12.

13.

14. 15.

16.

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become a major environmental problem. Revista Pesquisa FAPESP, 281(1), 1-1. Chen, X., Memon, H. A., Wang, Y., Marriam, I., and Tebyetekerwa, M. (2021). Circular Economy and Sustainability of the Clothing and Textile Industry. Materials Circular Economy, 3(12), 4-9. Czapski, S. (2006). PET reciclado ainda é alvo de rejeição: indústria teme reação do público a fibras reaproveitadas [Recycled PET is still rejected: industry fears public reaction to reused fibers]. Valor Econômico: Valor online, 911(4). Dias, S., L. F., and Teodósio, A. S. S. (2006). Estrutura da cadeia reversa: “caminhos” e “descaminhos” da embalagem PET. Produção, 16(3), 429-441. Ellen Macarthur Foundation. (2017) The New Plastics Economy – Catalyzing action. Reino Unido, available at: https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/thenew-plastics-economy- catalysing-action (Accessed: 30 March 2022). Fletcher, K., and Grose, L. (2012). Moda & Sustentabilidade – design para Mudança [Fashion & Sustainability – design for change]. São Paulo: Senac. Guimarães, L. D. D., and Albuquerque, E. C. B. S. (2010). Embalagens plásticas num contexto maior [Plastic packaging in a larger contexto]. In: Proceedings of the II Seminário Nacional de Educação Profissional e Tecnologia. Nascimento, B. (2011) O impacto das sacolas plásticas [The impact of plastic bags]. United Nations. ONU Meio Ambiente alerta para poluição causada pela queima de lixo plástico [UN Environment warns of pollution caused by burning plastic waste]. Avaliable at: https://nacoesunidas.org/onu- meio-ambiente-alerta-parapoluicao-causada-pela-queima-de-lixo- plastico. (Accessed: 30 March 2022). Neto, H. H. P., Rangel, S. A.; Correa Sobrinha, M. A., Delatorre, A. B., Aguiar, C. J., and Rodrigues, P. M. (2011). Sacolas Plásticas: Consumo Inconsciente [Plastic Bags: Unconscious Consumption]. Perspectivas Online: Biológicas e Saúde, 1(3), 50-70. Oliveira, L. L., Lacerda, C. S., Alves, I. J. B. R., Santos, E. D., Oliveira, S. A., and Batista T. S. A. (2012). Impactos ambientais causados pelas sacolas plásticas: o caso campina grande - PB. BioFar: Revista de Biologia e Farmácia, 7(1), 1-12. Orikassa. T, and Piva, C. (2014). Sacolas Plásticas. Sua utilização na visão de diferentes autores [Plastic bags. Its use in the view of different authors]. Revista de Ciência Gerencias, 16(24), 8-19. Silva, A. L. P., Prata, J. C., Walker, T. R., Duarte, A. C., Ouyang, W., Barcelò, D., and Rocha-Santos, T. (2021). Increased plastic pollution due to COVID-19 pandemic: Challenges and recommendations. Chemical Engineering Journal, 45, 126683. Simon, F., Toledo, G., and Moreira. (2019). Indústria da Moda é a segunda que mais polui o meio ambiente [Fashion industry is the second most polluting the environment]. Available at: https://noticias.r7.com/brasil/industria-da-moda-e-a-segunda-que-mais- poluio-meio-ambiente-19082019/. (Accessed: 30 March 2022).

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17. Solino, L. J. S., Gonzálvez, M. O. A., Siqueira, M. E. M., and Nascimento, W. A. (2015). Fast-Fashion: uma revisão bibliográfica sistemática e agenda de pesquisa [Fast-Fashion: a systematic literature review and research agenda]. Revista Produção Online, 15(3), 1021– 1048. 18. Thompson, R. C., Moore, C. J., Saal, F. S., and Swan, S. H. (2009). Plastics, the environment and human health: current consensus and future trends. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci., 364(1526), 2153–2166. 19. Valle, C. E. (2002). Qualidade Ambiental: ISO 14000. São Paulo: Editora Senac. 20. Viatican News. (2020) Dia da Sobrecarga da Terra, cada vez mais antecipado. 2020. 21. Wu, J. X., and Li, L. Sustainability Initiatives in the Fashion Industry. In Riccardo Beltramo, Annalisa Romani, and Paolo Cantore (Eds.), Fashion Industry: An Itinerary Between Feelings and Technology (pp. 3-20). IntechOpen, United Kingdom.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN CONSUMER BEHAVIOR TOWARDS THE ADOPTION OF SUSTAINABLE CLOTHING PRATIBHA MISHRA1 AND MADHURA YADAV1 1

MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR

Abstract Fashion is the world's second most polluting sector, accounting for 20% of the world's wastewater crisis and 10% of carbon emissions. Fast fashion has become the first choice of consumers, especially those among the young generation, because of its easy availability, low cost, trends, and many more. Using sustainable, recycled, upcycled, or second-hand clothing can help to minimize carbon footprints by 82 per cent, and this type of clothing will surpass fast fashion in the coming years, alleviating the water crisis caused by fashion waste. Sustainable practices in clothing are expected to expand rapidly in the near future, as they will address not only environmental sustainability but also social and cultural sustainability. There are many studies by various scholars on the impact of fast fashion, consumer behavior and sustainable clothing. This chapter will review the studies of various scholars to understand fast fashion, sustainable clothing consumption and the various sustainable practices. Keywords: sustainability; youth; climate change; behavioral intention; upcycling; second-hand clothing; slow fashion

I. Introduction The phrase ‘fast fashion’ was first used by The New York Times in late 1989, when a popular fast fashion brand opened a store in the United States of America. According to this source, it takes 15 days for a fast fashion garment to go from the thoughts of a stylist to the sale of the product itself

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in a store. This was the period when this brand was pioneering the concept of ‘fast fashion’ (Sitaro et al., 2020). Bhardwaj and Fairhurst (2010) opined that the phenomenon of fast fashion is a form of economic activity that makes it possible for everyone to dress according to the most recent fashion trends. According to the McKinsey Global Fashion Index report (2019), the fashion segment has grown 21% in the last three years, and the overall fashion segment rose between 3.5 and 4.5% in 2019. Many fast fashion brands can produce replicas of fashionable trendy designs and get them on the market at the fastest speed (Elrod, 2017). According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2017), the current system to produce clothing is extremely harmful and contaminating. It is estimated that one year after production, 50 per cent of the clothing made from nonrenewable resources is thrown into landfills or incinerated. This occurs within the same time frame as production. In recent years, the fashion industry has been facing tremendous criticism due to its environmental impact. It was mentioned by UN Climate Change news (2018) that the industry produces 10% of global CO2 emissions (4-5 billion tonnes annually). When compared to the situation 15 years ago, the global clothing utilization rate, which can be defined as the typical number of times an item of clothing is worn before it is discarded, has decreased by 36%. For instance, the average amount of time that people spend wearing clothes in the United States is only about a quarter of the global amount. The same pattern is emerging in China, where the amount of time spent wearing clothes has dropped by 70 per cent over the course of the past 15 years (Ellen, 2017). According to Niinimaki et al. (2020), the worldwide fashion industry is indeed a major consumer of water, up to 79 trillion liters per year, responsible for approximately 20 per cent of industrial water pollution from textile treatment with dyeing contributing approximately 35 per cent (190,000 tonnes per year) of oceanic primary microplastic pollution, and produces enormous quantities of textile waste (>92 million tonnes per year), the majority of which is either thrown into landfills or burnt, including unsold products. The business model of fast fashion is responsible for serious problems both with the environment and with ethics (Elrod, 2017). The drastically high demand for the fashion industry is caused by the emergence of fast fashion which is frequently offering low-cost and trendy garments. The concept of ‘fast fashion’ roils around the consumer’s behavior and is predicated on frequent consumption and impulsive purchases, instilling a sense of urgency

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when making a purchase (Niinimäki, 2018). The world’s top global greenhouse gas emitters are China, the USA, the EU and India and they are also the top producers of garments. It is a bitter truth to accept that the production of a cotton t-shirt requires 700 gallons (3000 liters) of water and a pair of jeans requires 7600 liters (Niinimäki et al., 2020). The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN, 2017) also shared in its report that in the ocean 35 per cent of all microplastics are due to synthetic textiles like polyester. These microplastics are very tiny pieces of plastic that never biodegrade. Various studies show that consumers purchased 60 per cent more clothes in 2014 than they did in 2000 and discarded 85 per cent of them the next year (Remy, et al., 2016). Therefore, in this environment, consumers' environmental and ethical concerns are very important. That's why the study of consumer behavior for any product is critical for producers, and retailers achieving sustainability. It is very important to understand how individuals buy, what they buy, when they buy, and why they buy. Understanding the consumption patterns, preferences, and motivations of consumers, as well as the purchasing processes and shopping behaviors of consumers, is very important. Niinimäki et al. (2020) opined that the rising environmental impact (and awareness thereof) can be attributed to the substantial increase in clothing consumption and, therefore, textile production (Fig. 1). Global per-capita textile production, for instance, has increased from 5.9 kg to 13 kg per year over the period 1975-2018 (Peters et al., 2019). Similarly, global consumption has risen to an estimated 62 million tonnes of apparel per year and is projected to reach 102 million tonnes by 2030 (Global Fashion Agenda (GFA) & The Boston Consulting Group (BCG), 2017). As a result, fashion brands are producing almost twice the amount of clothing today compared to the year 2000 (Remy et al., 2016 & Ellen Mac, 2017). Due to this unsustainable consumption pattern, the entire world is facing various environmental issues. However, sustainable practices present an opportunity to address a large number of environmental issues that are connected to production and excessive consumption. The solution for this is usually considered to be environmentally friendly practices. However, adopting environmental practices has its own set of challenges like industry readiness for a high level of investment, and consumer acceptance and willingness to participate in the same. Sustainable consumer behavior is one of the major key points.

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Fig. 1: Source Niinimäki et al., 2020

Globally, there is a consensus to change consumer behavior and practices to minimize the harmful effects of overconsumption. In this context, Niinimäki et al. (2020) mention that if the overconsumption of clothes continues in the same way… this is going to be a major threat to the environment. Sustainability in the fashion industry is gaining momentum. Companies that specialize in fast fashion have come under fire for the rapid increase in material waste as well as the way they conduct business within their factories. To combat these problems, retailers of fast fashion have been trying to increase the number of corporate social responsibility projects they are involved in, in order to create a positive image for their brands. For instance, when one famous fast fashion brand was accused of using child labor, involvement in the organic cotton hoax, and having an uncomfortable working environment in its factories, the company made an effort to salvage its brand image. It has recently introduced a line of organic clothing as well as a clothing recycling program (Todeschini et al., 2017). Through this program, customers who give away their used clothing to H&M are eligible to discount offers on new items from its fast fashion line and it recycles the

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used clothing. The fashion industry is the second largest one and its addressing of sustainability is a big question. Considering the current scenario, the fashion industry and sustainability contradict each other as the fashion industry is catering to low cost and easily available short-lived clothing and sustainability is concerned with longevity. However, sustainable fashion consumption can be challenging to achieve because there are a number of obstacles that make it difficult for it to advance further. Research conducted by Connell (2011) uncovered both internal and external obstacles to the consumption of clothing that is sustainable as a practice. Internal barriers which are directly related to consumers include non-concern behavior for the environment, inadequate knowledge about consumption’s impact on the environment, undesirable attitudes toward sustainable clothing, and demographic segmentation such as age group, gender, and education level. Connell (2011) did a thorough study and identified internal barriers, such as an absence of information and/or misinterpretation about the effects of production on the environment and also a wrong perception of sustainable fashion being unfashionable, badly fitted, and uncomfortable. External barriers are those that relate to the industry as a whole and include a lack of awareness about the harmful impact of the fashion industry on the environment (Harris et al., 2015). The cost of environmentally friendly clothing and prevalent social and cultural norms are examples of external barriers, which are defined as factors that are unrelated to individual consumers. The following are examples of the external barriers that were also identified: inadequate accessibility of sustainable clothing outlets; limited available options; unavailability of required sizes and fit; lack of monetary resources; inaccessibility to purchase more luxurious sustainable fashion; improper display of environmentally friendly products in second-hand stores; and social stigmas regarding conventions of dress as per professions (Harris et al., 2015). All of these factors contribute to a lack of confidence in the market for sustainable fashion. It is very evident that most consumers have limited knowledge of the environmental impacts of clothing. Due to the lack of awareness about ethical clothing, consumers are unable to make sustainable choices. Therefore, there is a small market for sustainable fashion products.

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According to Ekstrom and Salomonson (2014), recycling and reusing clothing would be an environmentally responsible approach to engaging with the overconsumption of fashion items. This is because the manufacturing of textiles and clothing requires a significant number of natural resources and this will help to save resources for the future.

II. Discussion and conclusion The use of upcycled, recycled, and second-hand clothing, also known as sustainable clothing practices, can help us to reduce carbon footprints. Additionally, the use of sustainable clothing will overtake fast fashion in the coming years as a result of the water crisis that is caused by fashion waste. Therefore, researchers in the field of clothing studies have been busy recently conducting a variety of studies on the sustainable consumption of clothing products (SCCP) from the perspective of consumers (Park et al. 2021). x

Second-hand clothing

Second-hand clothing has had cultural and social value from ancient times. But due to the availability of fast fashion products, and their low cost, this practice is fading out. According to Yang et al. (2017), in 1960, second-hand department stores, delivery stores, and charity shops were all considered to be legitimate enterprises. However, today, second-hand clothing can also be purchased from online auction sites, thrift stores, vintage warehouses, flea marketplaces, charity stores, and community thrift stores (Pierce and Paulos, 2011). This is more environmentally friendly, encouraging consumers to shop for previously owned garments (Yang et al. 2017), as shown in Figure 2. Consuming clothing that has been previously owned not only helps to lengthen the merchandise's lifespan but also benefits the environment because it prevents certain articles of clothing from being dumped in landfills. Nevertheless, not all actions associated with second-hand consumption are motivated by concern for the environment. For example, some consumers take pleasure in cultivating a unique aesthetic for themselves, while others look for unique, authentic, and high-quality items. In addition to being a cheaper alternative to shopping in a mall, second-hand stores are also affordable for shoppers with lower incomes (Pierce and Paulos 2011).

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Figure 2: Thrift stores and flea markets in Mumbai. Note: Adopted from Dasgupta, Anupriya 3

x

Ethical Fashion

The rise of what is known as sustainable or ethical fashion can be seen as a reaction to the conventional production methods and their devastating effects on the environment and society. It seeks to accomplish these goals by providing a forum for traditionally underserved communities and artisans, ensuring fair treatment for workers, and reducing adverse effects on the environment. Ethical fashion is dependent on consumers making conscious purchasing decisions. This conscious purchasing behavior can be influenced by designers to a certain extent; however, active participation by customers is essential. In contrast to standardization and fleeting fashion trends, it places a premium on quality in terms of both its aesthetics and its construction. Worldwide, more or less all fashion brands, be they haute couture houses or fast fashion brands who dominate the fashion industry are involved in unethical production practices. Now various concerned organizations, influencers, and brands have started acknowledging and taking action toward spreading awareness of these matters to consumers. Figure 3 illustrates a movement that states that ‘Ethical Fashion Starts with You.’

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Figure 3: Ethical Fashion Starts with You. Note: Adopted from Stinson, Rachel 4

x

Slow Fashion

After the introduction of the slow food movement in 2010, the ‘Slow Movement’ was identified in other sectors such as Slow Design, Slow Fashion, Slow Production and Slow Retail, etc. These movements inherited and shared similar goals and promoted deacceleration of the fast-paced processes. At the same time, the slow approach ensured a good quality of life for the people involved at every stage of making and buying (Fletcher, 2010). Dr. Kate Fletcher is credited with coining the term ‘Slow Fashion’ in 2010. She did so after making a comparison between the eco/sustainable/ethical fashion industry and the Slow Food movement (Fletcher 2010). In her comparison, Dr. Fletcher highlighted the similarities between the two movements in terms of the processes and products involved. Even though it has not yet been formally acknowledged and established as a fashion industry, Slow Fashion is quickly becoming a more environmentally friendly alternative to the fast fashion industry. The concept of ‘Slow Fashion’ is an entirely new approach to the fashion industry that places an emphasis on the industry's connection to human needs, awareness, and responsibility. Slow Fashion is an approach to the design, production, and consumption of clothing that considers the industry's effects on both society and the natural world (Fletcher, 2008).

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Recycling or donating clothes

Overconsumption is not suitable in the long run and recycling clothes is one of the solutions to address the problem (Cohen, 2011; Jackson, 2009). Recycling clothes can help in reducing the generated waste of textiles, which in turn reduces the negative impact that increased consumption has on the environment (Britwistle & Moore, 2007). According to Ekstrom and Salomonson (2014), the reuse and recycling of clothing can extend both the product's useful life and the material's overall life cycle as shown in Figure 4. Concerned consumers are aware of the sustainability practice of donating their unwanted clothing to charity shops. At the charity shops, the clothes are categorized, and then sold at cheaper prices, sent to developing countries for reuse, or sent to recycling plants for further processing (Britwistle and Moore, 2007). Both reuse and recycling of clothing have benefits that are valuable from economic and environmental standpoints.

Figure 4: Indian vendor, Manju, makes wool umbrellas by recycling. Note: Adopted from The Guardian 1

When it comes to being socially responsible and environmentally friendly, the international fashion industry comes up against a number of obstacles. In particular, the model of fast fashion is responsible for a significant amount of carbon emissions and creates a number of concerns related to the environment and society. It's possible that initiatives focused on corporate

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social responsibility and sustainability can assist in the fight against inequality in the fashion industry, in addition to helping to improve standards and behavior. This is because the current law only provides limited protection of rights in the fashion industry and is often ineffective in improving the behavior of corporations. Therefore, in order to minimize the impact of the fashion industry, consumers need to understand the complexities of the fast fashion model and should be more inclined towards sustainable practices in sourcing, production, distribution, marketing, and consumption practices, and legal reforms. In this way, they will increase support for businesses that pursue more sustainable practices. This is crucial to achieve the goal of reorienting the fashion industry and consumers towards more sustainable procurement, manufacturing, supply, marketing, and consumption practices. Businesses that implement such slow fashion/sustainable/ethical practices have the potential to serve as a model for the development of the fashion industry on a global scale. There is a need to educate customers about the importance of opting for sustainable clothing that meets the highest environmental standards and is long-lasting throughout its life cycle. Consumers must understand that it is their obligation to protect the environment by purchasing ecologically friendly goods.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Bairagi N. (2017). Recycling of Post-Consumer Apparel Waste in India: Channels for Textile Reuse. J Textile Sci Eng 8: 331. Bick, R., Halsey, E., and Ekenga, C. (2018). The global environmental injustice of fast fashion. Environmental Health 17, 92. Birtwistle, Grete and Christopher M. Moore (2007), “Fashion Clothing – Where Does it All End Up,” International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 35 (3), 210-216. Ekström, K. M., & Salomonson, N. (2014). Reuse and recycling of clothing and textiles—A network approach. Journal of Macromarketing, 34(3), 383399. Brundtland, G H (1987). Our Common Future: The World Commission on Environment and Development, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cohen, Maurie J. (2011), “(Un)sustainable Consumption and the New Political Economy of Growth,” in Beyond the Consumption Bubble, Karin. M. Ekström and Kay Glans, eds. New York: Routledge. Jackson, Tim (2009), Prosperity Without Growth: Economics for a Finite Planet. London: Earthscan.

Consumer Behavior Towards the Adoption of Sustainable Clothing 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

24. 25. 26.

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Cohen, Maurie J., (2011). (Un)sustainable Consumption and the New Political Economy of Growth, in Beyond the Consumption Bubble, Karin. M. Ekström and Kay Glans, eds. New York, NY: Routledge. Connell, K.Y.H., (2011). Exploring consumers’ perceptions of eco-conscious apparel acquisition behaviors. Social Responsibility Journal, vol. 7, pp. 61–73. Dahlbo, H., Aalto, K., Eskelinen, H. & Salmenperä, H. (2017). Increasing textile circulation — consequences and requirements. Sustain. Prod. Consumption 9, 44–57. Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2017). A New Textiles Economy: Redesigning Fashion’s Future. Available online: https://www. ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/publication) Elrod, Cassandra. (2017). The domino effect: How inadequate intellectual property rights in the fashion industry affect global sustainability. Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 24: 575–96. Fletcher, K., (2008). Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design Journeys. Earthscan, London and Sterling. Fletcher, K., (2010). Slow fashion: an invitation for systems change. Fashion Practice, vol. 2, pp. 259–266. Fletcher, K., and Grose, L., (2012). Fashion and sustainability: Design for change. London, England: Laurence King Publishers. Global Fashion Agenda (GFA) & The Boston Consulting Group (BCG),2017. Pulse of the fashion industry. globalfashionagenda.com https://www.globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-ofthe-Fashion-Industry_2017. Harris. F., Roby. H., and Dibb. S., (2015). Sustainable clothing: challenges, barriers and interventions for encouraging more sustainable consumer behavior. International Journal of Consumer Studies, vol. 00, pp. 1-9. Niinimäki, K. (2018). in Eco-Friendly and Fair: Fast Fashion and Consumer Behaviour eds Becker-Leifhold, C. & Heuer, M., Routledge 49–57. Niinimäki, K., Peters, G., Dahlbo, H. et al (2020). The environmental price of fast fashion. Nat Rev Earth Environ 1, 189–200. Online resources Park, S., & Lee, Y. (2020). Scale Development of Sustainable Consumption of Clothing Products. Sustainability, 13(1), 115. Peters, G. M., Sandin, G. & Spak, B. Environmental prospects for mixed textile recycling in Sweden.ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7, 11682–11690 (2019). Pierce., James, and Eric Paulos. (2011). Second-hand interactions: Investigating reacquisition and dispossession practices around domestic objects. Paper presented at SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Vancouver, BC, Canada, May 7–12; pp. 2385–94. Remy, N., Speelman, E. & Swartz, S. (2016). Style that’s sustainable: A new fast-fashion formula. McKinsey. Sitaro, T. D. (2020). Fast Fashion and Sustainability-The Case of Inditex-Zara. Sorensen, K., & Johnson Jorgensen, J. (2019). Millennial perceptions of fast fashion and second-hand clothing: an exploration of clothing preferences using Q methodology. Social Sciences, 8(9), 244.

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27. Todeschini, Bruna Villa, Marcelo Nogueira Cortimiglia, Daniela Callegaro-deMenezes, and Antonio Ghezzi. (2017). Innovative and sustainable business models in the fashion industry: Entrepreneurial drivers, opportunities, and challenges. Business Horizons 60: 759–70. 28. Yang, Shuai, Yiping Song, and Siliang Tong. (2017). Sustainable retailing in the fashion industry: A systematic literature review. Sustainability 9: 1266. 29. Online References 30. “Waste Is so Last Season: Recycling Clothes in the Fashion Industry.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 26 Feb. 2015 (https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainable-fashionblog/2015/feb/26/waste-recycling-textiles-fashion-industry). 31. Dasgupta, Anupriya. “Thrift Stores and Flea Markets to Check out in Mumbai.” SPark, 29 Mar. 2021, https://spark.spit.ac.in/thrift-stores-and-flea-markets-tocheck-out-in-mumbai/ 32. Stinson, Rachel. “Ethical Fashion 101: The Top 5 Ethical Issues in the Fashion Industry.” Eco Warrior Princess, 23 Oct. 2018 (https://ecowarriorprincess.net/2016/09/ethical-fashion-101-the-top-5-ethicalissues-in-the-fashion-industry/). 33. Mc Kinsey,2019: https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/industries/retail/our%20insight s/the%20state%20of%20fashion%202019%20a%20year%20of%20awakenin g/the-state-of-fashion-2019-final.ashx

CHAPTER SIXTEEN BUSINESS RESPONSIBILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY REPORTING: HOW PREPARED ARE REAL ESTATE COMPANIES? SIDDHANT WALIA1 AND SNEH SINGH1 1

MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR

Abstract A business owes specific responsibilities to its stakeholders and society in general. The disclosures required under applicable legislation allow stakeholders to keep track of the company's progress both financially and non-financially. Investors have recently been more aware that society in general and the environment, in particular, are part of the stakeholders' chain. People worldwide are increasingly examining a company's influence on the climate and other sustainability considerations. The Global Responsibility Initiative's sustainability standards (GRI standards) are the world's first and most widely acknowledged sustainability reporting standards. India, too, has its history of rules for non-financial reporting of sustainability, and over the years, sustainability reporting standards have evolved. The most recent change in the Indian sustainability reporting mechanism, which will come into practice for the top thousand companies by market capitalization in the financial year 2022, is the business responsibility and sustainability report (BRSR), a giant leap from the existing business responsibility report (BRR). Through the BRSR, India is moving towards a more comprehensive sustainability reporting system that will be more aligned with international standards. The real estate sector is a significant contributor to global carbon emissions through building construction activities, so it bears a great responsibility for sustainability reporting. In this study, the authors have analyzed the top fifteen real estate companies by market capitalization to assess their current state of

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sustainability reporting and, through this, to understand their preparedness for the upcoming BRSR. Keywords: sustainability reporting, real estate companies, business responsibility and sustainability report (BRSR), non-financial reporting, Global Reporting Initiative

I. Background The sustainability reporting landscape rapidly evolves worldwide as the sustainable development and climate change movements gain traction. Investor pressure has expedited this trend, and corporations are now required to declare their sustainability performance to maintain stakeholder transparency. Companies worldwide have developed sustainability reporting frameworks for measuring, monitoring, and revealing their environmental, social, and governance (ESG) performance. Global ESG/sustainability disclosures and frameworks for standardization, such as the Sustainability Accounting Standards Board (SASB) and Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), require businesses to disclose their sustainability performance based on specific parameters.

II. History of Sustainability reporting in India The National Voluntary Guidelines (NVGs) on corporate social responsibility, issued in 2009 by the Ministry of Corporate Affairs, were the initial step toward sustainable reporting in India. In 2012 SEBI introduced new rules for the top 100 listed companies ranked per market capitalization, obligating them to file a business responsibility report (BRR) along with an annual report while incorporating the NVGs. In 2014, with new rules for corporate social responsibility (CSR) and government-mandated CSR, India became the first country to legislate CSR. In the 2015 filing, the BRR was mandated for the top 500 listed companies per their market capitalization, further extended to the top 1000 listed companies in 2019. In 2017 the SEBI circular introduced voluntary integrated reporting for the top 500 listed companies. In 2019 the MCA came up with national guidelines on responsible business conduct (RBC) that were designed to be used by all companies. In 2021 SEBI introduced the business responsibility and sustainability report (BRSR), replacing the BRR for the top 1000 companies

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based on market capitalization, and set a date for its mandatory implementation by them from FY 2022 [1].

III. New Reporting standards: Business Responsibility and Sustainability Report (BRSR) Based on the framework of the NGRBC, the MCA established a Committee on Business Responsibility Reporting in 2018 to finalize formats for business responsibility reporting for companies. The Committee recommended that the BRR should be renamed the BRSR, with disclosures based on ESG parameters, with influential organizations engaging holistically with stakeholders and going beyond regulatory compliances in business measures and reporting in its 'Report of the Committee on Business Responsibility Reporting' (the Committee Report). From the FY 2022-23, reporting will be mandatory for the first 1,000 listed businesses (based on market capitalization), while disclosure will be voluntary in the FY 202122. As a result, the committee invites enterprises to report their FY 2021-22 performance to be better equipped to use this framework in the future. Table 1: Chronology of Sustainable reporting in India Year 2009 2012 2014 2015 2017 2019 2019 2021

Important events National Voluntary Guidelines (NVG) Business Responsibility Report (BRR) Mandatory Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) BRR extended to 500 listed companies Introduction of Integrated Reporting (IR) MCA released National Guidelines on Responsible Business Conduct BRR extended to 1000 listed companies SEBI introduced new sustainability standards – the BRSR.

IV. Literature Review – Sustainability reporting of Real Estate Companies The real estate industry is responsible for around 39 per cent of global carbon emissions [2], and thus, it is essential to adopt sustainability reporting in this sector. In India, the real estate contribution is about 6 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) [3]. It is the second largest

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employment sector [4] which indicates the importance of its sustainability for the long-term well-being of Indians. Internationally, researchers have studied the issue of sustainable reporting in the real estate sector. The study findings of Iona‫܈‬cu, Elena, et al. revealed a significant gap between the stated objectives and actual actions of real estate enterprises regarding their policy towards sustainable development [5]. Ansari et al., in their paper, have shown empirically that the corporate valuation of real estate companies is positively influenced by sustainability and its communication [6]. Pike, J., in his paper, emphasized decarbonized real estate in light of what transpired during the COVID-19 pandemic and highlighted the role of the investor community in pushing toward this [7]. Goubran et al. proposed a map of the sustainable real estate system considering an evolving understanding of sustainability [8]. In the Indian scenario, Kumar K. analyzed the top hundred companies listed on the national stock exchange of India and observed inconsistency in their sustainability reporting practices and that no statistically significant difference exists between private and government-owned companies [9]. Aggarwal P. et al. analyzed the 60 top listed Indian companies in their study and observed no linkage between sustainability reporting and profitability; they also observed that many sustainability parameters are not addressed by most of the Indian companies analyzed in the study [10]. In the Indian context, academic research about sustainability reporting in the real estate sector is nonexistent to the best of the author's knowledge. This study is an effort to fill some of this gap. The following section discusses how we conducted qualitative analysis for this research.

V. Methodology In this qualitative study, we have analyzed data from 15 top real estate companies based on market capitalization (except for the real estate investment trust (REIT) and purely building construction contracting companies) that are amongst the top thousand listed companies that, as per the new SEBI guidelines are encouraged to voluntarily publish their sustainability measures in a business responsibility and sustainability report (BRSR) from the FY 2021 and mandatorily publish them from the FY 2022. The data have been collected from annual reports, sustainability reports, business responsibility reports (BRR), and official websites of these companies. The collected information has been further summarized in a tabular format in three sections: 'sustainability report status,' 'accessibility on the official website' and 'international standard for sustainability reporting followed' (Table 2).

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Table 2: Summary of a qualitative assessment of the top fifteen real estate companies Company Name

Market Cap* (Rs. crore) [28]

Sustainability report status (As per company)

Accessibility on official website

PDF [11][12]

94,024.72

Separate report published

Available

Microtech Developers [13] Godrej Properties Ltd. [14][15]

49,525.34

Separate report published

Available

44,081.96

Separate report published

Available

Oberoi Realty [16]

34,960.36

An annual report

Prestige Estate [17]

19,578.08

An annual report

Not mentioned

Phoenix Mills [18]

18,216.15

Reporting as part of the BRR annual report Reporting as part of the BRR annual report Reporting as part of BRR annual report

Follows Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) Not mentioned

Not mentioned

Brigade Enterprises Limited [19]

10,963.96

Separate report published

In the annual report/a separate section for the ESG Available

Sunteck Realty Limited [20]

7,090.38

Reporting as part of the BRR annual report

An annual report

The international standard followed (Name of the bar) Follows Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) Not mentioned

Follows Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) Not mentioned

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Sobha Limited [21]

6,495.52

A separate report was published (available information from 2011-12)

Report from 2011-12 is available

Indiabulls Real estate [22]

5,240.71

Available as BRR

Puravankara Limited [23]

2,561.22

An annual report

Not mentioned

Ganesh Housing Corporation Limited [24]

2,543.31

Not available

Not mentioned

DB Realty [25]

2,525.82

Not available

Not mentioned

Kolte-Patil [26]

2,227.31

Not available

Not mentioned

Omaxe [27]

1,704.63

Reporting as part of a business responsibility report both in an annual report and separately Reporting as part of the annual report Slight discussion about sustainability in the annual report Not available in the annual report or as a separate report Reporting as part of the BRR annual report Reporting as part of the BRR annual report

Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) is followed in a report from 2011-12 Not mentioned

Not available

not available

*As per the national stock exchange (NSE) data for the market capitalization of listed companies as on 31 March 2022.

VI. Analysis of collected data Out of the top fifteen listed real estate companies, only four companies follow globally recognized sustainability reporting standards from the GRI; one of these companies last updated its sustainability report in 2011-2012 as per the availability on its official website. Only five companies have

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separately published a sustainability report as per their response to a question in the business responsibility report (BRR). Two companies have not published any status regarding sustainability measures in either an annual report or a separate report. Ten companies have reported on their sustainability measures only as part of the mandatory BRR. These data illustrate that most of these companies are currently not following international sustainability reporting standards, in line with which a new reporting system has evolved; this highlights the presence of a big gap between the expectations of policymakers and actual deliverance from real estate companies when it comes to sustainability reporting.

VII. Conclusion The new sustainability standards are more comprehensive and in line with international standards; the top 1000 real estate companies will have to adhere to them in their sustainability reporting. However, the analysis based on the top fifteen real estate companies indicates that only a few companies follow any internationally recognized sustainability standards, and most real estate companies are merely filing the mandatory business responsibility report, which is inadequate today. The companies should be more forthcoming in adopting international standards as their valuations are also positively impacted, as indicated by studies. However, these companies still have a long way to go in executing sustainability reporting preparedness.

References 1. 2.

3.

4.

PWC. (n.d.). An attempt to mainstream ESG. Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.pwc.in/assets/pdfs/consulting/esg/business-responsibility-andsustainability-report.pdf Boland, B., Levy, C., Palter, R., & Stephens, D. (2022, 15th April). Climate risk and the opportunity for real estate. McKinsey & Company. Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/real-estate/our-insights/ climate-risk-and-the-opportunity-for-real-estate The real estate industry will see a structural boom in this decade. Hindustan Times. (2021, 20th May). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.hindustantimes.com/brand-post/real-estate-industry-set-to-see-astructural-boom-in-this-decade-101621511415147.html#:~:text=Presently %20contributing%206%2D7%20percent,Foundation%20(IBEF)%20recent% 20report. Real estate is the second-largest employer in the country, says Hardeep Singh Puri. ANI News. (2021, 27th December). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/real-estate-is-secondlargest-employer-in-the-country-says-hardeep-singh-

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Chapter Sixteen puri20211227214142/#:~:text=New%20Delhi%20%5BIndia%5D%2C%20D ecember,opportunities%20in%20Jammu%20and%20Kashmir. Iona‫܈‬cu, E., Mironiuc, M., Anghel, I., & Huian, M. C. (2020). The Involvement of Real Estate Companies in Sustainable Development—An Analysis from the SDGs Reporting Perspective. Sustainability, 12(3), 798. Ansari, N., Cajias, M., & Bienert, S. (2015). The value contribution of sustainability reporting-an empirical evidence for real estate companies. Journal of Finance and Risk Perspectives, 4(4), 190-205. Pike, J. (2020). The future of sustainable real estate investments in a postCOVID-19 world. Journal of European Real Estate Research. Goubran, S., Masson, T., & Caycedo, M. (2019). Evolutions in sustainability and sustainable real estate. In Sustainable real estate (pp. 11-31). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. Kumar, K. (2022). The emerging phenomenon of corporate sustainability reporting: Evidence from top 100 NSE listed companies in India. Journal of Public Affairs, 22(1), e2368. Aggarwal, P., & Singh, A. K. (2018). CSR and sustainability reporting practices in India: An in-depth content analysis of top-listed companies. Social Responsibility Journal. DLF. (n.d.). DLF annual report-20-21. Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.dlf.in/annual_docket/DLF-Annual-report-2020-2021-Final.pdf Environment, social and governance - DLF. (n.d.). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.dlf.in/pdf/ESG-Report.pdf MACRO TECH developers limited - s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com. (n.d.). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/lodhagroup.in-tfz/Annual+Report.pdf Godrej properties | top real estate developer in India. (n.d.). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://d1jys7grhimvze.cloudfront.net/backoffice/data_content/annual_report/ Annual_Report3.pdf Godrej properties sustainability report. (n.d.). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://d1jys7grhimvze.cloudfront.net/backoffice/data_content/press_pdf/GPL _-_Q1_FY22_PR1.pdf Oberoi Realty Limited - Annual Report 2021 - Color Pages. (n.d.). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.oberoirealty.com/pdf/2020/Oberoi_Realty_Annual_Report_2020 -21.pdf Above and beyond - prestigeconstructions.com. (n.d.). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.prestigeconstructions.com/admin/uploads/investors/financialperformance/2020/annual/annual_report_fy_2021.pdf the phoenix mills annual report-2021. (n.d.). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.thephoenixmills.com/InvestorFiles/a3f57174-97c1-46f3-927438e167b43af1.pdf brigade ent. (n.d.). Brigade Enterprises Limited Annual report-2021. Retrieved 26th April 2022, from

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https://cdn.brigadegroup.com/assets/docs/investor/annual-reports/bel-annualreport-2020-21-12082021.pdf Sunteck Realty ltd annual report-2021. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.sunteckindia.com/pdf/investor-relations/financial/2021/AnnualReport-2021.pdf Sobha Limited - Annual report 2021. (n.d.). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.sobha.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/sobha-sustainabilityreport.pdf India bulls real estate-annual report 2021. Indiabulls Real Estate. (n.d.). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.indiabullsrealestate.com/SierraVizag/disclaimer.php Agility, digitality, Versatility- Purvanakara Annual report 2021. (n.d.). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.puravankara.com/backend/assets/uploads/investors_reports/3753 45c4ea660801dea9f961e9023334.pdf Plan. Prepare. Proceed. - Ganesh housing annual report 2021. (n.d.). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.ganeshhousing.com/assets/main/pdf/annual-report/20202021/Annual-Report.pdf DB reality Annual Report 2021. (n.d.). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.dbrealty.co.in/pdf/DB-Reality-Annual-Report-2020-21.pdf Kolte Patil Annual report-2021. Kolte Patil. (n.d.). Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.koltepatil.com/assets/Annual_Reports/flipbook/Kolte_Patil_2020 -21/mobile/index.html Omaxe Limited Annual report-2021. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.omaxe.com/investor/annual-report NSE India. (n.d.). All companies are based on market capitalization. NSE India. Retrieved 26th April 2022, from https://www.nseindia.com/regulations/listingcompliance/nse-market-capitalisation-all-companies

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN INDIA: A STUDY OF GOVERNMENT SCHEMES POST COMMENCEMENT OF JNNURM RAUNAK PRASAD1,2 AND RINA SURANA2 1

2

MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR, INDIA MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, JAIPUR

Abstract In India, rising urbanization and limited employment opportunities have resulted in an exponential increase in rural-urban migration. As a result, housing demand in Indian cities has surged due to the increasing migration from rural to urban areas in search of employment and economic development opportunities. Housing demand has increased for all income categories but has been a particular concern for the poor due to the rising urban land costs and the poor's inability to construct for themselves. As a result, there has been unlawful encroachment on public space, the formation of urban squatters, significant slum development, and an unhealthy environment for India's urban poor. Acknowledging the seriousness of the issue, the Government has attempted to fulfill the housing demand of the urban poor and slum dwellers over time by implementing various programs and initiatives to provide them with affordable housing. The study examines multiple affordable housing schemes and programs, as well as the significant challenges that have prevented these schemes from addressing rising urban housing demands, particularly following the liberalization of the Indian economy. Keywords: housing, affordable housing, economic liberalization, housing schemes, policies, urban poor

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I. Introduction The Government of India's Economic Liberalization strategy, which began in the last decade of the previous century, resulted in a new model for the Indian economy, which became service-oriented and market driven. As a result, it can now afford to put a larger emphasis on ‘Inclusive Economic Development’ by extending the role of private investors and allowing FDI. This has provided a foundation for improved urban economic opportunities. However, to attract domestic and international private investment, cities need better urban infrastructure and housing. During the seventh five-year plan (1985-1990), India began to prioritize housing shortages and check slum development. For the first time, in 1987, the Draft National Housing Policy (DNHP) acknowledged shelter to be a basic human necessity. Finally, in 1988, the National Housing Policy (NHP) was presented, focusing on land, materials, funds, and technology, and targeting poverty reduction. The NHP of 1994 aimed to enhance the amount of land covered by basic infrastructure and services to ensure that everyone could live in a healthy environment. The National Housing and Habitat Policy (NHHP) of 1998 emphasized the supply of high-quality, costeffective housing to the poorer sections of society. The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy (NUHHP-2007) is the first policy explicitly designed for metropolitan regions. The policy enumerates the roles and responsibilities of the Government in public housing and specifies regulations for affordable housing in urban areas. The focus shifted to the urban poor in 2005 with the launch of the Jawahar Lal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), aimed at upgrading urban infrastructure and providing affordable housing in urban areas. It was established to support and accelerate urban changes in order to construct 1.5 million affordable homes in 65 cities between 2005 and 2012. It is further divided into four sub-missions as listed in Table 1.

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Further, in 2011, the Government introduced Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY) to eradicate the growth of slums and increase the supply of housing with a basic infrastructure, which was later succeeded by Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) in 2015. The Government has been introducing various housing schemes and programs in a continuous effort to provide a formal living environment to the poor. However, the form and parameters of these programs reveal variations in emphasis, funding, and financing methods, among other things.

II. Housing ‘Housing’ is the plural form of ‘home’ or ‘dwelling,’ and it is designed to provide shelter for humans. It is the assemblage of structural components to provide shelter, ensure the safety and security of its people and their belongings, and protect them from the whims of nature. Housing is always planned to include a wide range of auxiliary services, infrastructure, amenities, and community facilities critical to societal progress. Infrastructure services such as roads, water supply, sewage disposal, solid waste management (SWM), recreational facilities, education, and healthcare facilities are frequently included.

III. Affordable Housing According to the Oxford Dictionary, affordable housing is ‘the housing type that may be afforded by poor or middle-income persons, valued below the average market value as part of the policy provided by the competent authority’ (Oxford, n.d.). Another tool for evaluating housing affordability is the price-income ratio, which is the ratio of the current market price of the unit to the household's annual income (Norazmawati & Rahim, 2015).

The Government has constantly redefined ‘affordable housing’ in response to the programs it has implemented, but it generally employs the three criteria below to define housing affordability. 1. The beneficiaries' income 2. The size of the residential unit 3. The sum of money needed for housing.

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‘Affordable housing’ is defined as housing that meets any affordability criterion, which may include the buyer's income category, the dwelling unit area required, or the buyer's capacity to pay EMIs based on yearly income (MoHUPA, 2008). For example, a project is only certified as affordable if 35 per cent of the total dwellings are created for the economically weaker sections (EWS). Similarly, the ‘Housing for All’ and PMAY Scheme rules are based on income and house size (MoHUPA, 2016). Table 2 shows the criterion for various income levels, as well as the range of areas regarded as affordable for that income group: Affordable housing, in general, is designed to provide people with moderate or low incomes with an acceptable quality and quantity of living space that includes all essential services and infrastructure.

IV. Demand for Urban Affordable Housing in India India's population is 1.21 billion people, according to the 2011 census, with urban agglomerations housing 31.15 per cent of the population, 17.4 per cent of which live in slums and squatter settlements. According to the National Housing Bank (NHB), the rate of urbanization is expected to surpass 50 per cent by 2050. The graph in Figure 1, depicts India's rate of urbanization since independence. Rapid urbanization is one of the most fundamental factors driving demand for affordable housing. The migration of individuals from rural settlements to urban regions for better living opportunities is one of the primary causes of urbanization. However, most of these individuals have limited financial resources; those who can pay minimal rents are compelled to live in squalid and overcrowded circumstances, while others live in squatter settlements and slums. According to census data, the slum population was 52 million in 2001, increased to 65.5 million in 2011, and was expected to reach 105 million by 2017. Table 3 shows the increase of slum reporting towns and the slum population over the past decade, as assessed by the 2001 and 2011 censuses. According to the 2011 census, over 17.4 per cent of the entire urban population live in slums (Figure 2).

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The housing crisis in India is exacerbated by homeless people or households. Because they are homeless, they are outside the grasp of any social or political intervention. Most importantly, due to a lack of personal data and poor repayment ability, individuals do not match the qualifying criteria for most housing schemes. Table 3 displays the statistics on the homeless people and households based on census data from 2001 and 2011. Table 3 shows the rise in the number of homeless people, particularly in urban areas, which has increased by 37 per cent over the last decade, representing the migration pattern of the country. According to a study issued by the National Building Organization (NBO), MoHUPA for the 12th five-year plan (2012-17) in 2012, the urban housing deficit comprises four major components, as indicated in Table 5 (MoHUPA, 2012).

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The housing shortfall is around 18.8 million houses, out of which almost 96 per cent are in the EWS and LIG of society as shown in Figure 4 (MoHUPA, 2012).

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The unprecedented influx of migrants working in the service and tertiary sectors to cities, combined with the slow pace of the housing supply, has forced the urban poor to live in unsanitary, congested, and unplanned areas, lowering their quality of life and resulting in the formation of slums and squatter settlements inflating the demand for affordable housing.

V. India's institutional structure for providing affordable housing Government Schemes Affordable housing in India is generally considered as a scheme extending housing provision to the masses in urban areas through economical means. In central Government, the housing in urban areas is monitored by the 'Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation' (MoHUPA), and in the rural areas it is governed by the 'Ministry of Rural Development'. The Government defines the scheme guidelines and then provides financial assistance to states and territories to help them expand further. The 'Department of Urban Planning and Housing' oversees the organizing and implementing of central and state plans at the state level, with organizations like state level housing boards constructing them. However, the operational execution of the programs is the responsibility of urban local bodies (ULBs) such as development authorities, housing boards, and urban improvement trusts. Private sector players and practice Through a combination of incentives, programs, and policy reforms, the Government has encouraged international investors and private industry to engage in affordable housing. The following are a few of the factors that are pique their interest: 1. 2. 3.

Raising foreign and private investments through economic liberalization (1992). The public-private partnership (PPP) is promoted through policies laid down under the NUHHP (2007). Developers are provided with the transfer of development rights (TDR) and compensation with an extra floor area ratio (FAR)/floor space index (FSI) (MoHUPA, 2007) (MoHUPA, 2015).

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4.

5.

Financing and facilitating institutions like various NGOs, international development organizations, microfinance agencies and the NHB, were made accessible (Gopalan & Venkataraman, 2015). Subsidies in the interest rate and tax (IBEF, 2012).

Besides government-provided incentives, the following market-linked indices have led to private-sector engagement in affordable housing. 1. The drop in demand for high-end real estate in 2008-09 (Gopalan & Venkataraman, 2015). 2. The availability of affordable and easy-to-acquire suburban land. 3. Profitable returns on real estate investment and the first-mover advantage. The JNNURM encourages the involvement of the private sector in infrastructure and housing development, which is later strengthened in programs such as RAY, AHP and PMAY. Adding to the development, the guidelines for a comprehensive PPP model for affordable housing were announced in September 2017, detailing the scope of work, funding strategy, project structure, and beneficiary criteria (Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, 2017).

VI. Objectives of Affordable Housing Programs Housing policy was first implemented in May 1988. Table 5 summarizes the housing policies and programs that have been implemented to date:

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Table 5: Housing policy framework and programs in India (Author). Basic Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP 2005-12 extended to March 2017)

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BSUP, a mission under the JNNURM was introduced in December 2005 to cater to the rising demand for affordable housing in urban India. The scheme focuses on checking the growth of slums in the city by the provision of organized housing units together with basic physical infrastructure such as access roads, water supply, sewers and drains, electricity, etc., and essential social infrastructure such as schools, hospitals, open areas, security, etc. (MoHUPA, 2009). The scheme also sets down the guidelines for providing secured tenure to beneficiaries. The scheme was launched in 2005 and was set to function until 2012, but the scheme received two consecutive extensions, to 31 March 2015 and 31 March 2017 respectively, to complete the construction of projects sanctioned until March 2012 (MoHUPA, 2015). Table 6 shows 63 target cities listed by the National Steering Group for the application of the scheme.

Table 6: Selection criteria of BSUP cities (MoHUPA, 2009) The central government, state/ULB/parastate, and beneficiaries share the financial liability of the mission. The grants vary from 50-50 to 80-20, the former for million-plus cities, and the latter for other selected cities. The others in north-eastern states and Jammu and Kashmir are 90-10 respectively (MoHUPA, 2009). Integrated Housing and Slum Development Program (IHSDP 2005-14 extended till March, 2017) The scheme was introduced to provide slum level infrastructure with adequate shelter for the slum dwellers. It subsumed two of the previous schemes, the National Slum Development Program (NSDP) and Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana (VAMBAY). The scheme focused on improving the living conditions of slum dwellers by giving them adequate shelters equipped with basic amenities.

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The IHSDP encompassed all towns and cities that were not part of the BSUP. The allocation of funding under the IHSDP is distributed in the ratio of 80:20 between the centre and the state/UT, with special states (hilly states and north-eastern states) receiving 90:10. A minimum of 25 square meters of area should be built, preferably with two rooms, a kitchen, and a toilet. The central subsidy allocation for a housing unit is established at Rs.1,000,000, with the excess cost to be covered by the state, ULB, or other developing body, which has the discretion to determine higher unit prices for the home and basic infrastructure (MoHUPA, 2009). Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY 2011-22) RAY was announced in 2009 to further strengthen the vision of a slum-free India by providing decent shelter with essential amenities to the slum dwellers and urban poor. It addressed the necessary amendment in the policies to increase the supply of affordable housing and develop a structured framework that enables the urban poor to access basic city-level services (MoHUPA, 2013). The scheme was implemented in 2013 and later succeeded by PMAY in 2015. The financing pattern of the grants is explained in the table below. The scheme was launched under RAY on 3 September 2013 to control the growth of slums by providing affordable housing through PPP models. Centre-sponsored financial support of Rs. 75000 was extended to the EWS and LIG sector for dwelling units with a carpet area of 21-40 square meters built under such a project. Projects were a mix of EWS, LIG and MIG units with 60 per cent of the FAR/FSI reserved for the construction of units with a carpet area not exceeding 60 square meters. The execution of the project was subjected to state/UT responsibility through partnership with the private or public sector including parastatal agencies (MoHUPA, 2013).

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Table 7: Financing pattern of the grants in RAY (MoHUPA, 2013) Affordable Housing in Partnership (AHP)

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Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Housing for All (PMAY 2015-22) This is an ongoing scheme which aims to fulfill the entire urban housing demand by 2022. Central financial assistance is provided to the state level implementing agencies for the execution of projects under four different verticals as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Four different verticals of PMAY

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In the four sub-missions, the CLSS is completely funded and implemented by the central Government. The execution of PMAY is planned in three phases from 2015 to 2022, covering 500 class I cities (MoHUPA, 2015). ISSR using land as a resource The primary goal is to redevelop the existing slum area using public-private partnership (PPP) strategies. The centre pays a slum rehabilitation grant of Rs. 1,000,000 to the state/UT for building the dwellings under the plan. The project's financial and technical feasibility is assured by implementing numerous planning standards such as: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Controlled or relaxed density, Provision of more FAR/FSI or TDR, Allowing the commercial use of a portion of the land, Encouraging diversified land use on the site.

Affordable Housing Through the CLSS Under the CLSS, the Government grants home loans to the qualifying urban poor (EWS/LIG) for the purchase or construction of a home (MoHUPA, 2018). The model employs 4,041 statutory towns as per the 2011 census, with an addition of 274 towns declared separately by the state administration in October 2017. Table 8 provides an overview of the scheme's various qualifying conditions. Under this vertical, the subsidy amount is computed in the form of net present value (NPV) at a discount rate of 9 per cent providing the maximum subsidy amount of up to Rs. 2,67,000 if the loan is taken for a maximum tenure of 20 years.

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Table 8: Eligibility criteria for the subsidy of various income groups under CLSS (MoHUPA, 2018)

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AHP with Public and Private sectors The AHP facilitates the construction of EWS houses through various partnership models between states/UTs/ULBs/parastates and the private or public sector. Under this vertical, the Government provides the financial assistance of Rs. 1.5 lakh per house in the projects having at least 35 per cent of total houses in the EWS category or at least 250 EWS houses constructed in a single project (MoHUPA, 2015). In order to further curtail expenses, the state/UT provides a concession and subsidy to the land cost and is exempt from various approval costs and stamp duty, taxes, etc., making it more accessible to the beneficiaries. Figure 4 depicts the roles of different authorities during the stages of implementation, allocation, and sale. The sale price of the houses is fixed by states on a no-profit, no-loss basis in the projects implemented by states/UTs/ULBs/parastates without the private sector. However, in the projects implemented with the private sector, the allotment is done by the private sector to eligible beneficiaries and states fix the sale price after factoring in incentives provided by the center/state/UT/ULB. Subsidy for BLC This component facilitates central assistance of Rs. 1.5 lakh to beneficiaries of the EWS category for the upgradation of their current residence or the construction of a new dwelling unit. People who would not have benefited from the mission's other components have now been included, thus broadening the mission's scope. Slum dwellers who have authorized and proper land ownership documents can also improve their homes. PMAY is equipped with two new tools: a ‘Management Information System (MIS)’ and the ‘Space Technology Tools (Geo-Tagging)’ to disseminate current information on sanctioned projects, beneficiary lists and survey details, and to ensure openness in the program. Through geo-tagged images, the progress of work under the vertical of 'Beneficiary Driven Construction' can be tracked. In addition, the Government added a technological component to the initiative by launching the 'Technology Sub-Mission,' which includes two programs: the global housing technology challenge (GHTC) and the demonstration housing project (DHP). Both the GHTC and DHP aspire to promote creative, environmentally friendly, cost-effective, and quick construction methods in the building process.

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VII. Progress of various housing schemes in India Table 9 illustrates that these programs typically take longer to execute than the allotted period. For example, the first two programs, BSUP and IHSDP, were supposed to finish in 2012 but were extended until 2017 and are still falling short of their goals. Similarly, RAY was launched in 2009 but entered the implementation phase after four years. As of February 2022, about 48 per cent of the houses under PMAY have been built, 34 per cent are under construction, and 18 per cent of the dwellings are not yet under construction (Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, 2022).

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Table 9: Progress of programs (Author)

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Figure 6 shows the bifurcation of the houses constructed under different verticals of PMAY. The beneficiaries benefiting most lie under the vertical of beneficiary-led self-construction.

PROGRESS OF DIFFERENT VERTICALS OF PMAY TILL FEB' 2022 ISSR AHP

CLSS 33%

ISSR 9% AHP 11%

BLC 47%

Figure 6: Vertical wise progress of the PMAY scheme till February 2022

IX. Shortcomings of the Program Restricted funding has limited the scale of the project and its ability to provide basic infrastructure to the occupants. These programs fell short of their goals for a variety of reasons, including a scarcity of urban land in the city center, rising costs, a lack of efficient control and administration, and the participation of many implementation agencies. Location of projects away from of the city centre Resettlement for the urban poor is influenced by many factors, including finance management and project quality. A few of these factors are listed below: 1. Access to basic services

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2. Connectivity of the project to their workplace and the availability of public transport 3. Safety, security and the living environment in the project 4. The availability of physical and social infrastructure (hospitals, schools, markets, etc.) in the vicinity of the project (Gopalan & Venkataraman, 2015). Hence the location of the project is an important parameter in the scheme's success. Presently most of the projects are in peri-urban areas, away from the dense city as space is easy to acquire and has better affordability. Basic infrastructure and utilities are lacking in many places, making it difficult to live a healthy lifestyle. Local internet and public transit are both limited. As a result, prospects for the EWS and LIGs to achieve a new life are limited, as they rely on home-help work and other low-wage jobs to supplement their income. These problems lead to the construction of ‘isolated housing,’ which has poor end-user demand, resulting in the accumulation of unsold inventory even months after a project's completion, or the establishment of ‘ghost townships,’ where investors acquire residential units but they are never occupied (Das, Karamchandani, & Thuard, 2018). Uneven land distribution in cities contributes to land scarcity in city centres, as a major proportion of land parcels is designated for public institutions such as railways, ports, and defence authorities. Slums and squatter communities are subject to the creation of these large non-saleable land pockets, which are typically difficult to maintain and govern. In the end, the Government normalizes these settlements by providing little or limited infrastructure development (Gopalan & Venkataraman, 2015). Limited access to funding for developers and recipients Funding for an affordable housing project is drawn from a collective investment of central agencies, the private sector and end users. However, the funding is constrained due to the rapid fluctuation in construction indices and the varied income of the end user has restricted in-time output for private investors. The rapidly rising cost of land, labor, materials, and other services impacts the cost of project construction. The long and elaborative clearance and approval process consumes more than two years, due to which the private sector fears investing in such a project (Deloitte, 2016). Aside from low profit margins and project delays, private investors are hesitant to invest in such projects because they are concerned about receiving prompt payment from the relevant Government.

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Obtaining a loan is difficult, even for beneficiaries, particularly for those in the EWS group, because they lack a consistent source of income or cannot offer proof of income when working in the informal or unorganized sector (Gopalan & Venkataraman, 2015). Public awareness and engagement in program design and execution Slum dwellers and residents of informal settlements are often unaware of their rights, privileges, and advantages under these schemes, which prevents them from participating in the scheme's development and execution (Deloitte, 2016) (Thomas & Prem, 2018). As a result, guidelines are developed that do not consider the end user's demands. As a result, the end user’s sense of ownership is hampered even after they have settled into such initiatives because of unclear scheme guidelines. Lack of Institutional Capacity The guidelines framed at the center and state levels display a clear vision for infrastuctural development; however, the lack of a workforce and expertise at the local level (ULBs drastically) hinders the pace of execution and implementation (Deloitte, 2016). Moreover, the Government does not pay enough attention to the duration of these programs during the implementation period. Due to the unavailability of specialized monitoring equipment to measure the pace and quality of physical improvement at the outset, they could not meet their targets within the time frame allotted. Multiple agencies are involved in the decision-making process After any scheme's announcement, ample time is consumed in its preparation and implementation. One reason for this is the ‘involvement of multiple agencies in decision making and lack of coordination between them’. Multiple agencies are involved in the verification process and getting a clearance certificate, including the environment, fire, revenue, electricity and water departments. Multiple approval agencies and a lack of delegation diffuse the responsibility of the concerned establishments. This further results in delays in project completion, inflating the project cost due to prolonged interest on the land, the bribes collected along with a loss of opportunity, and the cost and manpower in making multiple visits to the department (Ram & Needham, 2016).

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Unclear regulation and lack of transparency in the process further deepen developers' problems. City-specific documents such as the Master Plan, Zonal Plans, and Building Byelaws often overlap the national guidelines (Gopalan & Venkataraman, 2015). Separate agencies are responsible for identifying beneficiaries and allocating housing, resulting in thousands of empty residential units. As shown in Figure 6, under the PMAY-BLC, the applicant waits for a fair amount of time while the application is passed from one desk to another.

Figure 7: Process of Application under Beneficiary led individual construction (Author)

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Security of tenure Apart from affordability and adequacy, legitimacy, secured tenure or ownership rights are identified as one of the major problems associated with affordable housing in India. UN-Habitat describes this as an effective safeguard against forceful eviction and long-term tenure security (Bhan, Anand, & Harish, 2014). However, the scheme guidelines have little or an incomplete explanation for the tenure and ownership rights of the beneficiaries. This has resulted in the non-cooperation of beneficiaries in the resettlement or investment in such projects. The BSUP scheme aims to provide housing with basic services and secured tenure and titles to all identified urban poor. The process was first initiated by providing notifications to non-notified areas, due to the complexity and lengthy timeline of the process. However, until such notifications were made, a substantial number of beneficiaries were shut out of these services and were compelled to live in Jhuggi-Jhopdi (JJ) clusters that were not notified. This is evident in the Census of 2011, which found that over 37 per cent of slums are classified as ‘identified,’ meaning that they have not been notified or recognized by the Government. Furthermore, the plans grant partial ownership and prevent inhabitants from selling or renting their homes, preventing them from relocating to slums.

X. Conclusions The literature study demonstrates the shortcomings in the guidelines and implementation process of housing schemes in India. The program starts with the definition of ‘affordable housing,’ which serves as the foundation for identifying beneficiaries and stakeholders, developing a policy framework, and implementing it. Before adopting or formulating any definition or guidelines, it is necessary to understand critical components such as who should be subsidized (the poor), their affordability (payback capabilities), what should be subsidized (property, buildings, services, amenities), and various financing sources (loan, repayment terms and conditions, subsidy, partnerships). The guidelines should be revised on a regular basis based on the lessons learned and the results of past programs. It is observed that limited access to financing agencies, high project costs, relocation to inconvenient sites, relatively low public participation and a constant fear of eviction have led to restricting the interest and trust of beneficiaries in the scheme. These schemes require constant participation by and support from the end users to achieve their objectives. The inclusion

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of specific tools in the guidelines for holding one-to-one interviews, public meetings, social audits, workshops, etc., with the user group can help to arouse their interest in the scheme. Their organized interactions will help to collect the data pertaining to their requirements, occupation, culture, behavior, and other social strata. The study will be useful in realigning a scheme's aim, objectives, and implementation methods. The tool will help in embracing people's confidence and trust in the institutions and their schemes thus fulfilling the goal of community participation. The framework of these programs must be comprehensive, considering the people's convenience. It should emphasize the encouragement of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and community-based organizations (CSOs) to participate in the planning and implementation phases. As a result, the program can be tailored to meet the needs and demands of the community. For example, in Pune, ‘community participation and increased municipal capacity’ resulted in faster project progress and completion (Mitlin, Burra, Menon, & Patel, 2015). This creates a demand for more specialists and professionals to join the workforce to increase urban municipal governments' capability. With proper funds, management and implementation teams should improve the institutional capacity and guarantee coordination among the numerous engaged players. Only after examining the end user's wants and requirements should the project site be chosen. At the planning stage, resources and services that support their livelihoods should be identified. If migration is unavoidable, city governments should ensure that vital amenities are connected and easily accessible. To considerably reduce spending, arrangements should be made to cover rising expenses and the availability of transit housing. The program should make it easy to obtain a loan by providing adequate documents and a transparent process so that even low-income households may benefit. Price escalation clauses should be incorporated in government-funded projects to safeguard beneficiaries, contractors, developers, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) against rising construction costs owing to delays in funding and approval processes, resulting in lost time. Residents should be assured of their ‘title or property rights through appropriate resettlement strategy.’ They should be empowered with the right to buy or sell their house, protection against eviction and protection against market induced displacement. This will not only aid in developing a sense of ownership, but it will also aid in the community's social development, thereby boosting the residents' quality of life.

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Finally, it is vital to recognise and analyse the multidimensionality of people's lives and their incomes. Their housing preferences and desires, as well as the physical and social infrastructure requirements and livelihood patterns, should all be investigated. A one-size-fits-all method should be changed to a specific design approach for better results. Also, there is a need to conduct the post occupancy evolution of previous affordable housing projects to access the living conditions and satisfaction level of occupants. This will assist in pinpointing the exact needs and direct shortcomings in the scheme guidelines and will help in overcoming them in the future schemes. In terms of business, real estate accounted for 6.3 per cent of Indian GDP in 2013-14, with 7.6 million jobs, and it is expected to grow significantly to nearly 13 per cent by 2025 (CBRE Report, 2017). Adding affordable housing to its portfolio would not only expand the housing market's scope but would also broaden the customer base among society's LIG and EWS. It is important for decision-makers to understand that organized housing is not just the mere addition of shelter over the heads of the poor, but the intention is to provide them with a conjunctive environment of societal development, hence aligning the policies and overcoming the shortcomings to achieve the same. Although the contribution of the poor is significant in keeping up with the daily pace of work, these schemes are full of hope for their promising and safe future.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Berry, M. (2003). Why is it important to boost the supply of affordable housing in Australia—and how can we do it? Urban Policy and Research, 413-435. Bhan, G., Anand, G., & Harish, S. (2014). Policy approaches to affordable housing in urban India - problems and possibilities. Bangalare: Indian Institute for Human Settlements. Bhattacharya, K. P. (1998). Affordable Housing and Infrastructure in India. Reliance Publishing House. CBRE Research. (2017). Indian Real Estate in 2017 & Beyond. London: CREDAI. Das, C., Karamchandani, A., & Thuard, J. (2018). State Of Low Income Housing Finance Market. Mumbai: FSG. Deloitte. (2016). Mainstreaming Affordable Housing. Deloitte. Department of Urban Development and Housing. (2015). CMJAY - focoused on EWS and LIG housing (For Urban areas of Rajasthan). Government of Rajasthan. Gopalan, K., & Venkataraman, M. (2015). Affordable housing: Policy and practice. IIMB Management Review, 129-140.

268 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

14.

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

Chapter Seventeen IBEF. (2012). Affordable Housing in India: Budding, Expanding, Compelling. IBEF. Kundu, A. (2011). Trends and processes of urbanisation in India. Urbanization and Emerging Population Issues - 6. Mahadevia, D., Datey, A., & Mishra, A. (2013). Foisting Mass Housing on the Poor: Lessons from Social Audit of BSUP. Ahmedabad: CEPT University. Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. (2017). Public Private Partnership models for Affordable Housing. Government of India. Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. (2022, Feburary 21). PMAY (U). Retrieved from https://pmay-urban.gov.in/: https://pmay-urban.gov.in/uploads/progress-pdfs/621485e4df09f-PMAYU_Achievement-21-02-2022.pdf Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation. (2015, May 12). Office Memorandum. Retrieved from https://mohua.gov.in: https://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/1JnNURM_Extention_1617.pdf Mitlin, D., Burra, S., Menon, G., & Patel, S. (2015). Lessons from India's Basic Services for the Urban Poor programme. Effective states and Inclusive Development. MoHUPA. (2007). National Urban Housing and habitat Policy. New Delhi: Government of India. MoHUPA. (2008). Affordable Housing for All. Government of India. MoHUPA. (2009). Modified guideline BSUP- JNNURM. Government of India. MoHUPA. (2009). Modified Guidelines for IHSDP - JNNURM. New Delhi: Government of India. MoHUPA. (2012). Report of the Technical Group on Urban Housing Shortage (TG-12). Government of India. MoHUPA. (2013). Affordable Housing in Partnership- Scheme Guidelines. Government of India. MoHUPA. (2013). Rajiv Awas Yojana - Scheme Guidelines 2013-2022. Governement of India. MoHUPA. (2015). PMAY- Housing for all (Urban) Scheme Guidelines. Government of India. MoHUPA. (2016). Pradhan MAntri Awas Yojana (urban) - Housing for All. New Delhi: Government of India. MoHUPA. (2017). Pradhan mantri Awas Yojana (Urban) - Housing for All, Credit linked subsidy scheme. Government of India. MoHUPA. (2018). Amemdment in carpet Area for MIG in CLSS, PMAY. Delhi: Government of India. MoHUPA. (2018). Data Resource cum Monitoring Centre, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban) - Housing for All. New Delhi: Government of India. MoHUPA. (2018). Monitoring report, Basic Services for urban Poor, JNNURM. Government of India. MoHUPA. (2018). Monitoring report, Intergrating Housing & Slum Development Programme, JNNURM. Government of India.

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30. Norazmawati, M. S., & Rahim, A. (2015). Price to Income Ratio Approach in Housing Affordability. Journal of Economics, Business and Management, 1190-1193. 31. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. (2013). Primary Census Abstract for Slum. New Delhi: Government of India. 32. Palayi, A., & Priyaranjan, N. (2018, January). Affordable Housing in India. RBI Bulletin, pp. 13-25. 33. Ram, P., & Needham, B. (2016). The provision of affordable housing in India: Are commercial developers interested? Habitat international, 100-108. 34. Sivam, A., & Karuppannan, S. (2002). Role of state and market in housing delivery for low-income groups in India. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 69-88. 35. Thomas, S., & Prem, A. (2018). Affordable Housing: The Indian perspective & future outlook. JLL.

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN REGENERATION OF DEFUNCT URBAN INDUSTRIAL AREA: A SUSTAINABLE APPROACH SANJEEV PAREEK1 AND MANOJ KUMAR2 1

2

MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR, INDIA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PATNA

Abstract Most industrial areas in the world were developed on the periphery of cities. However, due to the rapid growth and expansion of the cities from their historical nucleus, these areas became engulfed by the ever-increasing city boundaries. The sole purpose of these industrial estates was economic benefits, with little importance given to the social and environmental parameters in their design and development. Industries degenerated and became defunct due to unpleasant haphazard growth, anti-social activities, unorganized informal settlements, and ecological degradation that affected surrounding areas. To overcome these issues, various strategies such as reconstruction, revitalization, renewal and regeneration have been suggested by different authors. Regeneration was considered as one of the holistic development strategies, but little research has been done on the regeneration of industrial areas. Three examples of different contexts have been identified to find their issues and strategies. Various urban design tools and techniques have been utilized to regenerate these areas. These areas have been converted from dark and inactive spaces to highly active ones. One such case is the Jhotwara industrial area in the northern part of Jaipur in India. It was developed in 1966 for iron, agro- and chemical-based small and medium manufacturing industries on the outskirts of Jaipur. As the city expanded, it gradually became an integral part surrounded by high density residential areas. Due to different market forces and policies, around 40% of industries are in the defunct stage. Some industries are pollutant in nature,

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so these are an environmental threat to the surrounding residential area. On one side, the residential area is increasing day by day but with no recreational and other facilities and on the other hand, a substantial chunk of the land parcel with old industrial buildings is underutilized. This area requires a new vision, and therefore further investigation is necessary to provide design solutions and guidelines for the regeneration of the industrial area. Various surveys and mapping at the city level, meso level, and site level have been done to understand the present status of the industrial area. Urban design tools and techniques identified through case studies have been used to regenerate the Jhotwara industrial area and its surrounding location. Urban design guidelines have been provided. This study will be utilized for other defunct industrial regions in various parts of India and overseas. Keywords: evolution of industries, defunct, issues, regeneration, jhotwara, design tools jhotwara

I. Introduction The industrial revolution created a new kind of city – the industrial city – first in England, and then across continental Europe, North America and around the world. Industrialization propelled urbanization directly: sites near raw materials or sources of water power became more valuable and centralized industries were established, bringing a new need for more and more workers. It opened unique employment opportunities; people could get the product at a cheaper rate and it was considered to be the new era of globalization. It brought innovation that gradually mechanized agriculture and led to a dramatic increase in productivity. Therefore, it reduced labor needs in agriculture and forced rural workers off the land and into the cities in search of industrial work. On the other hand, rapid urbanization saw massive overcrowding, terrible congestion and pollution, and the pervasive danger of fire and disease as in the U.K. Therefore, a slum with unhygienic conditions prevailed in industrial cities and hampered the quality of life of people. So, the term ‘urban regeneration’ evolved after the Second World War in Europe and Britain, mainly after the industrial city’s decline. Since then, government policies have focused on improving societies (Sally Mc Donald and Naglis Malys, 2009). This enhances physical, social, economic and environmental improvement. The resulting enhancement increases new investment and new opportunity as the urban environment once again becomes full of life.

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It can be seen in the regeneration project of Kings Cross London, the redevelopment of textile mills in Mumbai and other projects around the world. Moreover, the following initiatives have taken place 1. Different economic and social policies were created and implemented to address the economic, social, environmental and physical decline of the post-industrial city in the U.K. Urban regeneration is an attempt to reverse the decline by improving both the physical structure and more importantly and inclusively, the economy of those areas (Lichfield, 1992).

Fig. 1: Regeneration strategies in the U.K. Source (Lawless, 1989)

Different authors also commented that it is a comprehensive vision and action that leads to the resolution of the urban problem and brings out lasting improvement holistically and this has the active participation of different stakeholders.

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II. Literature reviews Three examples have been identified: 1. Textile mill Mumbai, India; 2. Kings Cross, London; and 3. Industrial area Vadodara, Gujarat. Different strategies have been identified for the regeneration of industrial areas. All these strategies have been combined and converted into various design tools. 1. Textile Mill, Mumbai Girangaon is a small village characterized by the industrial architecture of more than 50 mills. Over 600 acres of land were dedicated to textile industries in the early 19th century. Girangaon was home to thousands of mill workers and their families. This area is currently well connected with the Mumbai mass transit system and is located near the central business district of Mumbai city. The site is surrounded by a low rose, high density residential area (Chawl) and vibrant mixed-use development ranging from small shops and offices to ample commercial space. The textile mill declined due to various reasons such as heavy taxation, labor strikes and an economic slump in the textile market.

Fig. 2: Textile mill location Source-www.millmumbai.tiss.edu

This area became dark and dingy, and many anti-social activities began to develop. High-price land was left unutilized and became an unsafe place for the surrounding residents. The architect and planner Charles Correa's study report (1996) proposed the redevelopment of mill lands through various parameters.

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Redefining the Edge condition and Adaptive reuse

Fig. 3: Existing – Isolated Street Fig. 4: Proposal – Reuse of mill area. Source-www.millmumbai.tiss.edu

Establish connector roads (Nodes) and Mixed used development

Fig. 5: Existing – Inner isolated area Fig. 6: Proposal – Nodes at various intervals with mixed-use development

Open spaces proposal

Fig. 7: Proposal – Green spaces have been created with a swimming pool

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Fig. 8: Textile mills proposal – Urban Form

This proposal has documented various pointers such as the existing physical and social infrastructure, public amenities, existing condition of the mill structure, connections and ownership pattern. Moreover, various design tools and techniques such as redefining connection systems by introducing different nodes, urban forms related to mixed-use development, and open spaces and adaptive reuse have been worked out. 2. Kings’ Cross Industrial area, LondonThis is located in the southern part of the U.K. It is surrounded by railway yards and a road network. The Regent Canal lies inside the site. It was considered to be the most significant plot of brownfield land in central London. It was previously known as railway land. It is an important industrial heritage site surrounded by a railway yard and mixed-use development.

Fig. 9: Existing Urban void grain Source: King’s Cross Central Consultation

Issues The area was identified as being isolated and considered as an urban hole in a dense fabric.

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Fig. 10: King’s Cross existing layout Source: King’s Cross Central Consultation

This area was considered as a barrier to the surrounding area. It was not developed due to some policy interventions. Various issues such as isolated and unutilized areas in the surroundings, a lack of affordable homes and unemployment, illegal activity and health issues were found in due course of time. Different stakeholders came together and proposed a new vision for this derelict industrial area. The following approaches have been applied. Redefine connections

Fig. 11: Existing – Isolated area Fig. 12: Proposed - New routes planned

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Public realm

Fig. 12: Proposed layout with green space Fig. 13: King’s Cross proposal Source: King’s Cross Central Consultation

Building use and volume The proposed vision was to build a new urban quarter with high density and mixed use in a piece of the city that fits into the context. Various urban design tools and techniques were proposed to redefine connections within the site and the surrounding areas. The public realm was redefined by infusing different public spaces between the building blocks. Building use with volumes was worked out. Adaptive reuse of heritage industrial buildings was proposed. Industrial area Vadodara, Gujarat This is located in the southern part of Vadodara, Gujarat. The site is located on Bhailaamir Road. Alembic Company started manufacturing a pharmaceutical product in Vadodara. This site was chosen for industrial development. Labor accommodation, schools and offices were also provided within the site. It was planned for the city's outskirts, but this area is now part of the urban area due to rapid urbanization. This area was considered as a scary place and acted as a barrier space for the surroundings. The following parameters have been identified.

Fig. 14: Existing Industrial location, Source: My livable city, October-November 2019

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Redefine connections

Fig. 15: Proposal

Source: My livable city, October-November 2019

Adaptive Reuse The existing defunct industrial area has been converted into art galleries.

Fig. 16: Proposal – Adaptive reuse Source: My livable city, October-November 2019

Design approaches such as redesigning the pedestrian space and landscape court, adaptive reuse of the industrial buildings and redefined connections within the site and the surroundings have been proposed.

III. Study area and data The site is located adjacent to Deharkebalaji, Jhotwara railway station in Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. The total site area is 181 hectares. 160 plots were planned for small and medium manufacturing industries, but some of the plots were subdivided into smaller plots, so at present there are 200 plots and in these plots, approximately 120 units are in use. The total plot sizes range from 0.2 hectares to 5.5 hectares. Around 40% of the industrial units have been in the defunct stage for the last ten years and they occupy about 50% of the area. Jhotwara industrial area is one of the oldest industrial areas

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along with the V.K.A. industrial area, 22godown and the Sudarshan Pura industrial area.

Fig. 17: Site Location (Jhotwara industrial area location map)

It was planned in 1966 by the R.M.I.D.C., Jaipur as the peripheral control belt of Jaipur city as mentioned in the existing land use map 1971, Jaipur. People from nearby villages and towns, Begas, Kalwar, Sirsi and Chomu, began to migrate in search of employment. As a result, residential colonies began to establish around the industrial area. Due to rapid urbanization, this area is surrounded by high density residential areas. At the initial stage, the labor class was purely dependent on these industries. Still, at present, the dependency has decreased by up to 10 to 15% and young generations are working in different sectors including IT, banking, education, the hospitality sector, etc. RIICO took over these industries in 1980. It lies on the northern part of Jaipur’s municipal boundary and it comes under ward number 7 on the Jaipur municipal corporation ward map; this ward has a population density of 38.5 people/hectare (JNN ward map). The V.K.A. industrial area and the newly developed Sarana Ungar industrial area are around 2 kilometers away from this industrial area. Initially, planning was for hardcore manufacturing industrial units and other facilities were not thought of, but in the present scenario, mixed-use development, the commercial area is coming up. Some of the old industries have been transforming into new enterprises, for example, service centers, e-commerce go-downs, etc. The site is well connected by the Kalwar Road, Sikar Road and Delhi-Ajmer Expressway. Goods movement is done through the Sikar and Delhi-Ajmer Expressway. The site is surrounded by low rise housing (mostly G, G+1) with a small plot size (30-50 yards) and a high density residential area. The residential area is segregated from the industrial area by a high wall and service road. The following issues have been identified:

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1) This is defunct industrial land with derelict industrial buildings – a void urban grain; 2) This is a barrier zone for the surrounding area; 3) There is a lack of public amenities and recreation activities for workers and residents; 4) There is uncontrolled building conversion and encroachments; 5) There is environmental degradation; 6) Road connections and nodes are not properly defined; 7) Developments are haphazard; and 8) This is an unsafe environment due to criminal activities.

IV. Urban design tools and techniques The physical movement of goods, public transport and private vehicles was used to understand the accessibility of the Jhotwara industrial area to other parts of the city and surroundings. The built fabric at the miso scale and site scale was prepared through GIS software to understand the different building uses, typologies, heights, and social profiles of the site and the surrounding level. The industrial area has been designated as an active and defunct industrial area. Social parameters have been prepared at the city level, surrounding level and site level. Other economic and environment parameters such as the land price, major employment generator industries, resident working profile, green cover, polluting industries and other environmental degrading agencies have been worked out.

V. Urban design Analysis and Synthesis City Level study Residential, commercial, institutional and recreational facilities have been proposed within 3 to 4 kilometers of the sites. There is no proposal for the site itself. Subsequent studies have taken place, including a detailed analysis of the master development plan 2025. This states that this area will be used within the industrial land use zone. No policy guidelines have been proposed. This area would function without a deep understanding of its present issues and its future implications. The crucial urban land has been ignored.

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Fig. 18: Jaipur Master plan – 2025 proposal

Miso level study Various high-density residential colonies have been developed around the site. The site comes under ward 7 as per the Jaipur Nagar Nigam ward map. The overall ward density is only 70 persons per hectare compared to the 250 persons/hectare residential density of Man Sarovar, Jaipur.

Fig. 19: Density Mapping of Jaipur Source: Jaipur Nagar Nigam ward map

The ward density is lower due to the unutilized industrial site area. There is an immense opportunity for the industrial area to develop its industrial base, and some of the uses having a high-density approach can be accommodated in this area. This area presently acts as a void grain surrounded by high-density residential areas.

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Fig. 20: Figure ground Analysis

Site level Study A different study has been done to understand the existing situation of the site.

Fig. 21: Ownership and Vacancy rate mapping

The site was planned with big industrial plots. The industrialist was given these industrial plots at a subsidized rate and with 50 years on the lease. The industries were established due to a good connection with a proper road and rail network. The site was situated on the outskirts of the city limits. Due to urbanization, the area became part of the city fabric. Around 98% of the industrial land is in private hands and private industrialists are not using this land because they have either shifted their industries or they have reduced their production due to transport timing restrictions (goods vehicles are prohibited between 9 am and 9 pm), stringent government environmental policies, labor strikes, etc. So, the

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industrial transformation from manufacturing to e-commerce, true values, etc., has been found.

Fig 22: -Major employment generator and Subdivision mapping

The industrial plot area ranges from 2000 square meters to 1.5 hectares. High walls surround these plots, so the edge condition of the industrial area is very active and not connected to the surrounding streets. Block sizes are enormous, so when moving along the road, one cannot connect. So, this is creating a very unsafe environment for pedestrians. From the economic point of view, the site is situated in high density residential fabric and it is well connected with different major road networks. The land price per revenue record is 50000 Rs. per square meter on a prominent roadside and 30000 Rs. per square meter on a minor roadside. Three significant industries are functioning with heavy investments.

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Fig. 23: Economy and Edge condition

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VI. Design Approaches and Guidelines This industrial area requires a strong vision: ‘Integrated development and humanized industrial estate to cater to the need of the community within and around such that the estate becomes an integral part of the city fabric.’ The following design guidelines can be adopted: Pedestrian priority streets need to be derived through existing pedestrian connections. Goods vehicular movement needs to be kept on the periphery to reduce clashes between pedestrians and vehicular movements. Industrial plots need to be redesigned to get the same number of plots with the same proportions. Pedestrian priority streets need to be designed in such a way that they can connect industries as well as have all of the basic amenities and facilities in the same stretch. The corners of all industrial blocks need to be provided with mixed-use areas to make the edges active. An IT area and other mixed-use developments need to be proposed to make the area more active and economically feasible for present and future needs. Household industries need to be provided along with an existing residential area for more employment generation and value addition for the inhabitants. Workers’ housing needs to be provided. Recreation facilities need to be equally distributed in the surrounding area as well as in the industrial area. More compact development with a live, work and play concept needs to be provided.

VII. Conclusion The chapter concludes that industrial areas within the city highlighting the degraded and derelict regions can be used to cater to the city's requirements. This requires a vision to facilitate the existing surroundings of an immediate land area. The industrial site can act as potential land for the developers and

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planners to give back to the city. This area, if connected, can serve as a prime land parcel for the participation of government and private developers. A study of the ground scenario suggests that this land is becoming derelict and if it is not correctly designed, it will lose its significance as an industrial area. So, different strategies and approaches are provided to create a role model for any industrial area of a similar nature. The immediate context needs to be closely examined to offer other uses conducive to the immediate context. A comprehensive approach to uplift and facilitate the surroundings should be the concept behind the proposal. The integration of live, work and play to provide a livable neighborhood, a network of green corridor spines and the creation of different activity nodes can be the key ideas to attract footfall in the project. It needs to satiate the needs of the present as well as the future. It will create a safe, secure and active environment with 24-hour activities. As a result, more inclusive and sustainable development will happen to cater to the needs of the younger generations of the lower strata of society.

References 1. 2.

Cabe, June 2003, Building sustainable communities. Peter 2015, The planning & politics behind Kings cross, The bartlette. School of Architecture UCL, Bartlette omega program 3. Argent’s George, July 2001, principle for a human city, developer kings cross, London. 4. Alembic real estate & landscape architects lanarch, Art& culture as generator of urban redevelopment, my livable city, Oct-Nov-2019, viewed on 12.02.20. 5. http://scholorworks.umass.edu/thesis/722. 6. Vinay’s 2014,” revitalizing Mumbai textile mill lands for the city, master thesis, Massachusetts university, Massachusetts. 7. Ramakrishna, N2014,” redevelopment of industrial lands in urban area, Journal of institute of town planner, vol.8, no1, pp 95-106. 8. Ridhima, K2018, closing of textile mills: A breakthrough in the real estate or curse to Mumbai, International Journal of current research, vol.10, no 08, pp72641-72648. 9. International journal of sciences: Basic& applied research (IJSBAR) (2013), Vol.12, no.2, pp176-181. 10. Township policy 2010, dept. of U.D.H & L.S.G. Rajasthan 11. Lorraine Farrelly 2019,’ regeneration of industrial area’ stoa workshop, UK. 12. Lalit Batra 2009,’ A review of urbanization & urban policy in post-independent India’ CSLG/WP, New Delhi.

CHAPTER NINETEEN THE IMPACT OF URBAN TRAFFIC JAM: A REVIEW ROHIT MATHUR1 AND ROLI RAI2 1

MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR, INDIA 2 ASCELA ADVISORS, GURUGRAM

Abstract Urban road traffic jams have become synonymous with urban living. Urban road traffic jams have perplexed town planners since time immemorial. Modern metropolitan regions demand a good mobility infrastructure, especially roads to allow ease of movement of the masses during rush hours. With the advancement in electronic technology, many urban mobilityrelated issues could be easily resolved. But, it is important to first understand the problem in its entirety before devising a technology-based solution. This review attempts to develop an understanding of the effects associated with the urban road traffic jam on the metropolitan region’s environment, society, inhabitants and economy. A content analysis-based methodology is adopted for this review work. The content analysis focuses on the study of previously published reports by governmental and nongovernmental agencies, conference publications, journal articles, and books of repute. Through this study, it became clear that urban road traffic jams not only cause transit delays but also have an adverse effect on the metropolitan region's social environment, inhabitants, economy, and nature. Based on the study, in the conclusion section, appropriate suggestions are made for the concerned authorities so as to assist them in decision-making to reduce the adverse effects of urban road traffic jams in the metropolitans in the future. Specific domains that require further research are also shared with the readers so they can pursue research in the domain of interest.

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I. Introduction Urban planning plays a vital role, not just in planning a new section of a metropolitan city, but also in the overall economic growth of the metropolitan area. This is especially true for a developing country like INDIA. INDIA has a very high urban population density which keeps on increasing with each passing year owing to better career prospects. As per NASSCOM’s latest report (NASSCOM, 2019), i)

The capital city of INDIA, New Delhi and its surrounding region experienced a 2.1-fold increase in population density from 1981 to 2011. ii) From 2000 to 2016 road infrastructure doubled and private vehicles increased five times. iii) It is also expected that India will be home to more than 600 million metropolitan inhabitants by 2030.

The aforementioned facts bring up a very important realization and that is infrastructural development is not able to keep pace with demand, especially in the case of the road infrastructure of metropolitan cities of INDIA. This therefore creates more chances of urban traffic jams. As per the Transportation Research Board, USA (Weisbrod, Vary, & Treyz, 2001) road traffic congestion may be defined as mentioned below. Traffic congestion is defined as a condition of traffic delay (when the flow of traffic is slowed below reasonable speeds) because the number of vehicles trying to use the road exceeds the traffic network capacity to handle them. Most of the time, a traffic jam is considered as just a delay during transit from source to destination. A closer look at traffic jams reveals a lot more than what meets the eye (Dewees, 1978). Researchers in their scholarly works have attempted to externalize the cost of traffic jams and congestion not only in terms of time delay but also, in terms of accident cost, pollution, fuel consumption (Luo, Juan, Sun, & Jia, 2007), and more as discussed in the subsequent sections of this chapter. The primary objective of this chapter is to develop an understanding of how urban traffic jams affect: i) ii) iii) iv)

The environment of the metropolitan region. Society as a whole. The individual resident of the metropolitan region. The economy of the metropolitan region.

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Section 2 presents the methodology adopted for this review. Section 3 highlights the impact of urban traffic jams on the environment. Section 4 focuses on how society as a whole is affected by urban traffic jams. Section 5 concentrates on the adverse effects on the individual due to urban traffic jams. Section 6 highlights the impact of urban traffic jams on the economy. Section 7 presents the conclusion.

II. Methodology This review is based on content analysis, pertaining to the theme, which is the effect of urban traffic jams with a focus on metropolitan cities. The review has included a study of data and facts from several published sources of repute including reports from government, semi-government and private organizations. The review also includes inputs from previously published journal articles and reputable books in the concerned area of urban planning.

III. Impact on the environment Traffic jams have a huge impact on the environment of the surrounding area. They are not only a source of air pollution (Zhang & Batterman, 2013), but also, of sound pollution (Samal, Mohanty, & Santhakumar, 2021). Excessive heat from the vehicles adversely affects the ambient temperature (Chen, Yang, Zhu, Wong, & Ren, 2021) as well. Heat release: Most of the time, vehicles stranded in a jam keep the air conditioning unit on to avoid suffocation. This results in the heating of the environment due to heat exchange from the air conditioning unit. Most commuter vehicles are doing the same thing at the same location which results in a significant collective heat release into the local environment. A recent study performed in Hong Kong shows that vehicle heat emissions have a more significant impact on the urban air temperature during weekdays than at weekends when there are fewer vehicles on the road, with a strong influence on locations in the vicinity of the road network (Chen et al., 2021). Sound Pollution: Sound pollution is generally not considered to be as significant as air pollution, but figures suggest that it must also be given its due credit, as a significant total of the world population suffer from deafness due to sound pollution (Samal et al., 2021). Due to traffic jams, it is not only vehicle

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occupants who complain about headaches and hearing loss but also residents of the locality. A study done in Chattogram City in Bangladesh shows that urban residents are exposed to high noise levels which exceed the limits set by the WHO (Masum et al., 2021), thus, adversely affecting residents and commuters. Air Pollution: Air pollution is yet another challenge that claimed over a million lives in 2017 (NASSCOM, 2019). A significant component of air pollution worldwide is due to vehicles (Swami, 2018). The worst hit areas globally are the urban areas. Urban localities have a high population density amalgamated with a high density of vehicles and this is the cause of approximately 25 per cent of fine particle pollution (United Nations Environment Programme (2021), 2021). Precious human life is thus exposed to toxic pollutants. Around 20 per cent of cities scanned for air quality index (AQI) monitoring on March 02, 2022, at 4 pm reported poor air quality averaged over the past 24 hours which indicates that people who may have prolonged exposure to such conditions may experience breathing discomfort (Board & Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, 2022). Young children and the elderly are at greater risk than the rest of the age groups, due to air and sound pollution (Krzyzanowski, Kuna-Dibbert, & Schneider, 2005). Vehicles stuck in traffic jams continuously release exhaust gases which include oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, lead and fine particles (Samal et al., 2021). These gases not only hamper the commuters but also the nearby vegetation as shown in the following table. The most affected crops by high SO2 amounts in the environment are cucumber, spinach, cotton, wheat, barley, and apple (Swami, 2018). Table 1. Impact on the environment S. No.

Exhaust Gases

1.

SO2

2.

NO2

Adverse Effect on plants (Swami, 2018) x chlorosis x dwarfing x retarded photosynthetic rate x chlorosis x leaf spotting x growth is suppressed

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IV. Impact of traffic jams on the society In a study conducted in Oyo State, Nigeria (Raheem, Olawoore, Olagunju, & Adeokun, 2015), researchers found that due to jams, an increase in onroad accidents was observed. Traffic jams also led to increased fuel consumption, environmental pollution and the behavioural issue of road rage in commuters. Another important point that was brought forth was that potholes and a lack of earmarked parking spaces led to increased transit times for commuters and, at times, jams (Raheem et al., 2015). Poor on-road conditions were found to be one of the reasons for jams in the US as well (Blincoe, Miller, Zaloshnja, & Lawrence, 2014). Choi et al. (Choi, Coughlin, & D’Ambrosio, 2013), based on 4 years of wellbeing data from the Gallup–Healthways survey for the United States concluded that the on-road jam not only influences commutation time but also affects the subjective well-being of society. In 2019, on-road crashes cost $278 billion in the US alone and approximately 26 per cent of the cost was born by the employers (Safety, 2021), thus, negatively impacting the social well-being of the residents and commuters. A study was conducted in Mauritius, to examine the effect of traffic jams on society as a whole (Vencataya, Pudaruth, Dirpal, & Narain, 2018). 100 respondents participated, chosen on the basis of their commutation route. The study reported that participants felt that due to jams more on-road accidents were occurring and emergency vehicles were also facing difficulty in movement (Vencataya et al., 2018). This, in turn, led to the permanent or temporary disability of commuters which had an adverse effect on their work pattern. On-road accidents involving parents affect young children emotionally and also economically, if they are the primary income source of the family (Khan et al., 2018) This, then, affects the future of society.

V. Impact of traffic jams on an individual Individuals are not just bothered about transit delay; when thinking of commutation, a lot of negative emotions suddenly sprout, like anxiety, anger, a feeling of fatigue and stress (Choi et al., 2013). The implications of traffic jams, as categorized in the following section are based on the effect on human health, relocation and social behaviour.

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Health: Vehicles stuck in a jam halt for a comparatively long time at one spot cause the excessive emission of exhaust gases like NO2, SO2, CO2, and CO, in a particular congested zone which results in the inhalation of more exhaust gases by the urban population in the vicinity than by people living further away from the spot. A simulation study by Zhang and Batterman (Zhang & Batterman, 2013), showed a non-linear increase in health risk for on- and near-road commuters with small increases in traffic volume, due to the NO2 emitted by on-road vehicles. The frequent breaking, gear shifts, and use of the accelerator by vehicle drivers at congested locations result in excessive physical tiredness (Samal et al., 2021). Researchers in India (Pratama, Arliansyah, & Agustien, 2019), with the help of a survey, considered the impact of congestion on the health of individual commuters. They reported that 81 per cent of the commuters were affected by congestion. The commuters experienced issues related to breathing (Zhang & Batterman, 2013), eye problems, headache, physical tiredness, excessive sweating and psychological issues like stress (Raheem et al., 2015), lack of concentration, hearing loss, and learning difficulties (Masum et al., 2021). Around the world, air pollution causes a significant number of premature deaths every year (Bernardo, Fageda, & Flores-Fillol, 2021). Relocation Dilemma Due to traffic jams, individuals prefer to relocate (Sweet, 2014) nearer to their workplace, thereby causing skyrocketing property costs due to the lack of available infrastructure and high demand. This leads to a dilemma of whether to live in a locality that suits the pocket or to live near the workplace. If the decision is to live in a location that suits the pocket, then the cost to be borne by the commuters is to be part of the jam twice a day for as long as the individual works at that location. Due to the pollution, commuters avoid the use of cycles or walking to the nearby shops to avoid exposure to degraded environmental conditions thereby contributing to an increase in the pollution and traffic congestion (Antoci, Galeotti, & Radi, 2011).

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Social Behaviour Humans are social beings. The current traffic congestion is indirectly impacting socialization, thus negatively impacting human behaviour. A survey (Choi et al., 2013) highlighted that an adult working person spends, on average, less than thirty minutes per day socializing with close friends and family members. As a result, they are deprived of a sense of belonging which makes them feel unhappy. A survey of 100 people in Mauritius (Vencataya et al., 2018), was conducted to understand whether traffic jams adversely affect the test subjects’ social life or not. It was found that more than 80 per cent of the participants agreed that traffic congestion affects their social life negatively.

VI. Impact of traffic jams on the economy Studies found that commuters are forced to spend comparatively more time commuting, which results in excessive fuel utilization, and excessive vehicle operating costs, which in turn negatively affects the economy. Commuters thus lose precious business hours daily, which could have been utilized for productive work thereby negatively impacting the economy (Samal et al., 2021). A scholarly work attempted to find the relationship between fuel consumption and the economy under traffic congestion conditions (Muneera & Karuppanagounder, 2018). The work researched direct and indirect matrices that would give a sense of how congestion is affecting fuel consumption and how fuel consumption is affecting the local economy. A study highlighted that the cost of the daily commutation between the same source and the destination varies depending upon the on-road congestion condition (Khan et al., 2018). The most cost-effective form of daily commutation could be via local public transport buses. During peak traffic hours these buses offer no relief to commuters and take more time to reach the desired destination due to congestion; thereby forcing commuters to take private means of transportation which are more costly in comparison to public transport services. This affects the overall purchasing power of an individual commuter and negatively impacts their purchasing capacity, thus, adversely affecting the local economy.

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Researchers in their scholarly work found that on-road congestion leads to the wastage of working hours which leads to degraded productivity, thereby negatively impacting the economy (Pratama et al., 2019). Work presented by Sweet (2011) attempted to categorise the impact of traffic congestion in first order and second order impacts. In transit delay was categorized as the first order impact. The second order included the economic growth of the area and collaboration among economies. It also highlighted that the focus of stakeholders is not on the eradication of jams and congestion, but it is now more focused on the adaptation of the prevailing chaos. Studies have shown (Wickens & Wiesenthal, 2005), that traffic jams lead to frustration in commuters especially the drivers as they start seeing other vehicles as just obstacles in their path. They lose their humane sense and don’t behave appropriately with other commuters. The jam also results in an increase in anxiety levels of the commuters including before the journey starts. People start having doubts regarding the travel time, and there are adjustments to be made in the departure time so as to enable them to reach their destination in time. All this anxiety and frustration results in a lot of stress and discomfort.

VII. Conclusion This review has highlighted that on-road jams are a common problem that every country in the world is struggling to mitigate. This work also highlights that on-road jams not only result in commutation delays but they also have an adverse effect on individuals, society, nature and the economy of the metropolitan region. To reduce the adverse effects, the following steps are proposed: i) New policies need to be formed and executed meticulously. ii) Government must facilitate entrepreneurs and firms to manufacture electric two-wheelers, as two-wheelers create more air pollution than four-wheelers, as highlighted by the NASSCOM report (NASSCOM, 2019). iii) The maintenance of road infrastructure should be done as and when required and monitored diligently. iv) The use of wireless sensor-based technology in monitoring and controlling road transportation is still largely missing in India and must be taken up at the earliest time.

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v) The construction of buildings with residents towards the top, offices in the middle and shops and restaurants near the ground floor must be encouraged. Further research may be carried out in the following directions: i)

Research on how animals residing in congestion-prone areas, especially stray animals and pets, are coping with pollution caused during rush hours. ii) Research on increasing urban green cover by employing aeroponic or hydroponic vertical towers to grow plants like Mirabilis, Ficus, Mangifera, Tectona and Polyathia, which inhibit the propagation of dust and pollutant gases in the atmosphere (Swami, 2018).

References 1. 2.

3.

4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

Antoci, A., Galeotti, M., & Radi, D. (2011). Financial Tools for the Abatement of Traffic Congestion: A Dynamical Analysis. 389–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10614-011-9294-7 Bernardo, V., Fageda, X., & Flores-Fillol, R. (2021). Pollution and congestion in urban areas: The effects of low emission zones. Economics of Transportation, 26–27(May), 100221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecotra.2021.100221 Blincoe, L., Miller, T. R., Zaloshnja, E., & Lawrence, B. A. (2014). The economic and societal impact of motor vehicle crashes, 2010. In The U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (Vol. 2015). Board, C. P. C., & Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, G. of I. (2022). Air Quality Index on March 02, 2022. Chen, X., Yang, J., Zhu, R., Wong, M. S., & Ren, C. (2021). Spatiotemporal impact of vehicle heat on urban thermal environment: A case study in Hong Kong. Building and Environment, 205(July), 108224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108224 Choi, J., Coughlin, J. F., & D’Ambrosio, L. (2013). Travel Time and Subjective Well-Being. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2357(1), 100–108. https://doi.org/10.3141/2357-12 Dewees, D. N. (1978). Simulations of traffic congestion in Toronto. Transportation Research, 12(3), 153–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/0041-1647(78)90118-1 Khan, S. I., Khan, A., Sarker, M. N. I., Huda, N., Zaman, M. R., Nurullah, A. B. M., & Rahman, M. Z. (2018). Traffic Congestion in Dhaka city: Suffering for City Dwellers and Challenges for Sustainable Development. European Journal of Social Sciences, 57(1), 116–127. Retrieved from http://www.europeanjournalofsocialsciences.com/

296 9.

10.

11.

12. 13. 14.

15.

16. 17.

18.

19. 20. 21. 22.

Chapter Nineteen Krzyzanowski, M., Kuna-Dibbert, B., & Schneider, J. (2005). Health effects of transport-related air pollution. In M. Krzyzanowski, B. Kuna-Dibbert, & J. Schneider (Eds.), World Health Organization (1st ed., Vol. 1). Denmark: World Health Organization. Luo, Q., Juan, Z., Sun, B., & Jia, H. (2007). Method Research on Measuring the External Costs of Urban Traffic Congestion. Journal of Transportation Systems Engineering and Information Technology, 7(5), 9–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1570-6672(07)60035-X Masum, M. H., Pal, S. K., Akhie, A. A., Ruva, I. J., Akter, N., & Nath, S. (2021). Spatiotemporal monitoring and assessment of noise pollution in an urban setting. Environmental Challenges, 5(May), 100218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100218 Muneera, C. P., & Karuppanagounder, K. (2018). Economic impact of traffic congestion- estimation and challenges. Trasporti Europei, 1(1), 1–19. NASSCOM. (2019). MAKING URBAN MOBILITY SUSTAINABLE, SEAMLESS AND SAFE. Pratama, A. R., Arliansyah, J., & Agustien, M. (2019). Analysis of Air Pollution due to Vehicle Exhaust Emissions on The Road Networks of Beringin Janggut Area. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1198(8), 082030. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1198/8/082030 Raheem, S. B., Olawoore, W. A., Olagunju, D. P., & Adeokun, E. M. (2015). The Cause, Effect and Possible Solution to Traffic Congestion on Nigeria Road (A Case Study of Basorun-Akobo Road, Oyo State). International Journal of Engineering Science Invention, 4(9), 10–14. Retrieved from www.ijesi.org Safety, T. N. of E. for T. (2021). Cost of Motor Vehicle Crashes to Employers 2019. Samal, S. R., Mohanty, M., & Santhakumar, S. M. (2021). Adverse Effect of Congestion on Economy, Health and Environment Under Mixed Traffic Scenario. Transportation in Developing Economies, 7(2), 15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40890-021-00125-4 Swami, A. (2018). Impact of Automobile Induced Air Pollution on roadside vegetation: A Review. ESSENCE International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation, 9(1), 104–119. https://doi.org/10.31786/09756272.18.9.1.113 Sweet, M. (2011, November 5). Does traffic congestion slow the economy? Journal of Planning Literature, Vol. 26, pp. 391–404. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885412211409754 Sweet, M. (2014). Traffic Congestion’s Economic Impacts: Evidence from US Metropolitan Regions. Urban Studies, 51(10), 2088–2110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098013505883 United Nations Environment Programme (2021). Actions on Air Quality: A Global Summary of Policies Programmes to Reduce Air Pollution. Vencataya, L., Pudaruth, S., Dirpal, G., & Narain, V. (2018). Impacts of Traffic Congestion on the Society, Economy and Individual: A Case of Mauritius as an Emerging Economy. Studies in Business and Economics, 13(3), 230–242. https://doi.org/10.2478/sbe-2018-0045

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23. Weisbrod, G., Vary, D., & Treyz, G. (2001). NCHRP Report 463, Economic Implications of Congestion (Vol. 463). 24. Wickens, C. M., & Wiesenthal, D. L. (2005). State driver stress as a function of occupational stress, traffic congestion, and trait stress susceptibility. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 10(2), 83–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9861.2005.tb00005.x 25. Zhang, K., & Batterman, S. (2013). Air pollution and health risks due to vehicle traffic. Science of The Total Environment, 450–451(1), 307–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.01.074

CHAPTER TWENTY AN OVERVIEW ON URBAN PUBLIC SPACE DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN MEDIUM-SIZED TOWNS AKSHAY1 AND MADHURA YADAV1 1

MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR, INDIA

Abstract This review aims to advance understanding of the geographic, social, and economic variables influencing inclusive public open spaces in mediumsized towns. According to the examined literature, the concept of inclusivity in a public open space suggests that it should be accessible based on physical, social, economic, and environmental elements. When reviewing the existing literature, it is found that there is sufficient data for quantitative processes but a lack of information for the qualitative side of creating inclusive public spaces. The analyzed data also reveal a shift in urbanization from the metro and mega cities to medium-sized towns in India, which still needs attention. The urban design process can be a helpful tool to address this shift and might lessen the urbanization burden on mega and metro cities. Keyword: Medium-sized towns, public space, SDGs, Urbanization

I. Introduction Public open spaces are important as they serve as a crucial equivalence to the more stationary locations for work routines and home life because they are dynamic areas that adapt with changes in the economic, technical, and social conditions. Francis defines urban open space as a publicly accessible open space that is created and developed for human activities in urban environments (Francis, 1987). Additionally, Francis’ definition is based on the work of Kevin Lynch, who contends that accessible open areas are open.

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This means that the areas must always be open to the public; for example, a mall and all other commercial, administrative, etc., active built public spaces that are closed at night are not included in the definition. According to the Danish architects Juul and Frost (Juul Frost Architects, 2009), public spaces in cities have historically served as gathering spots for people because of the intrinsic diversity they offer, enabling individuals of diverse interests, ages, and socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds to interact. While discussing the public open space, it also becomes important to discuss its nature of inclusivity. Various kinds of factors have been discussed during the study of the available literature, which can be categorized into five major sections: physical, social, economic, access to activities and discussion or intercommunication and access to information (Akkar, 2016). The factors are elaborated with the help of examples in the later sections of the chapter. It is necessary to respond to the existing policies for urban public space making and prepare a framework that could help in the sustainable development of urban areas. The framework of attributes like walkable (Fernández & Escampa, 2019), connected, opportunity, sociable, suitable, permeable, choice, safe, available, openness, supported, attractive, etc., can be a helpful tool from secondary case studies which are then arranged in different categories of urban design principles like diversity, governance, accessibility, and human scale and needs (Cartlidge, Armitage, & Hare, 2015) (Hidalgo, Berto, & Galindo, 2006) (George & Kini, 2015). Sustainable development goal number 11 also has a list of targets which includes accessible, safe, and inclusive public spaces (Mitra & Bardhan, 2017). Post pandemic there has been a shift of ideology on the design of public open spaces and making them livable too (Gosling & Walker, 1992). Now high-density public spaces need to be avoided (Elsayed, 2020) (Abusaada & Elshater , 2020). It can become important to set guidelines for an inclusive public space design.

II. Methodology A systematic literature study approach was chosen, augmented by narrative reviews of the most frequently referenced works in the area, to offer a thorough overview of the research topics. The major goal of the research is to identify and comprehend the process of urbanization relating to the inclusiveness of public open spaces in medium-sized towns. The information was accumulated from several study papers on the topic, published at conferences and easily accessible on the research websites,

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ever since the term urban design was coined (1956). The subject-related publications were found using keywords, and were then examined to gain a deeper grasp of the topic. The research is limited to the inclusiveness of public open spaces in developing nations only.

III. Literature Review Type of Public Open Spaces To have a better understanding of inclusiveness, it is important to categorize public open spaces. A global toolkit to categorize public spaces defines them as: banners of urban civility, urban commons, generators of income, investment and wealth creation, producers of environmental sustainability, increasing transportation efficiency, improving public health, enhancing safety, promoters of equity and social inclusion, tools for women and agefriendly cities, opportunities for generating citizen involvement, and generators of great cities (United Nation, 2015). Further, this categorization can be synthesized as physical, social, economic, and environmental (Akkar, 2016). The physical dimension of public open space can be parks, squares, streets, and other urban places that are owned or managed by the public authority and to varied degrees open to everyone which are frequently considered to be public space (Parkinson, 2012). But when the social dimension for a public open space is discussed, it is based on the ability to welcome and facilitate interactions amongst persons of various backgrounds: age, color, ethnic group, cultural identity, class, and gender (Van Melik & Spierings, 2020). Interventions in public spaces may have an adverse effect on inclusivity and run the danger of alienating particular groups of people. It is not necessary to take a normative approach of recommending how inclusive planning should be done; instead, highlighting some of the ways that researchers have tried to classify the criteria for assessing inclusive public spaces and the suggested procedures for achieving more inclusive public spaces and averting future exclusion will be beneficial. Any criterion for inclusivity in the public space, according to Staeheli et al., must be understood in the context of community and social norms, claims of legitimacy, and existing property relationships that collectively establish unique ‘regimes of publicity’ that grant access to space in varying degrees (Staeheli, Mitchell, & Nagel, 2008). Németh proposes a typology of bridging spaces, where new activities or users are planned to avoid the

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exclusion or excessive policing of previously present marginalized or minority groups, and bonding spaces –smaller spaces of community integration – as one context-specific solution to actively making public space as accessible as possible (Németh, 2020). This concept of proactive thinking in inclusive urban design could be effective in a planning setting (Marcuse, 2009). Urban sprawl lengthened travel times and reduced pedestrian access, spatial planning became car-oriented, and contemporary mono-functional land use reduced the importance of cities in terms of public urban life (Jacobs, 1961). As a result, the planning agenda began to ignore the human aspect of public urban space (Gehl, 2010). The interplay between humans and the physical environment is thought to be the cause of human behavior in urban settings (Mehta, 2007). One of these socio-spatial characteristics that is viewed as a core value in public space is the ability of people to access and use space regardless of their age, gender, class, ethnicity, or religion because it contributes to safety, livability, and vitality, as well as the symbolic elements of the inclusive public urban space (Carmona, 2010). Various kinds of case studies across the globe have been conducted, and various models are also being suggested by taking urban design principles as the basic driving tool for making urban public spaces livable, safe, resilient, and sustainable. Ahmed S. Abd Elrahman and Moureen Asaad (2020) discuss the causes of the gap between theory and practice of urban design for creating public spaces through a critical analysis of the theoretical principles governing the process definition, objectives, stakeholders, process flow, relationship with other disciplines, and relationship with urban planning. Although urban design was created to close the historical gap between urban planning and architecture, it has not proven to be effective in actual use. Historical evidence shows that urban design is much more relevant to architecture than urban planning. Urban design and planning are inextricably linked in practice because they are two sides of the same object — the physical public realm — and because of their shared interdisciplinary character and common customer, the public. However, the theoretical foundation of urban design is unrelated to urban planning, and it is suggested that this may be the cause of the current practice gap, where it is discovered that the theoretical aspirations of urban design are not achieved. Despite all of these negative

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examples there are some very good examples where the actual purpose of urban design has led to a highly successful example of bridging the gap (Moureen, 2018). This shows that the core of theory may be further updated and altered to adequately fit within the present state of the art by incorporating fresh experiences of success into the current theoretical framework of the urban planning process. In a study of Riyadh city on rehumanizing the public spaces, it is evident that the public spaces are segregated based on gender due to religious factors. The study is limited to streets of the urban fabric. Although the streets are well designed to cater for public activities, women are not allowed to become part of the public realm due to cultural barriers. A section of the street with a right of way of 60 meters is divided into 3 parts: 20 meters on either side for sidewalks, and another 20 meters for vehicular movement. The open spaces of these 20-meter sidewalks are designed to be a public realm of mixed gender quality. To counter this created mixed public realm the designers have managed to maximize the walking distance of women to the indoor public spaces like the mall and restaurants. But due to the interference of the religious police this space for walking has also become male dominated and gives a feeling of insecurity and becomes part of the public realm. The insecurity and unsafe character of a public open space is not only due to religious or social parameters, but can also be due to the physical attributes. In a study from Sweden, it is evident that public open spaces like parks, plazas, and streets are not felt to be inclusive due to their lower visibility and legibility (Jacobs, 1961). Factors like garbage vandalism, noise pollution, parking in the commercial streets, overgrown trees, etc., also contribute to unsafe, non-walkable, unhygienic, and inaccessible spaces contributing to the non-inclusiveness of public spaces (Iqbal, 2017). This is counter managed by the provision of redesigning parks with park furniture for interaction between groups and individuals, fewer foliage trees or regularly maintained trees with more foliage. The cafes, retail outlets, restaurants, and other businesses on the streets are designed in such a way that they have eyes by providing a greater open surface area to the facade of the building mass facing the street and making them more visible and safer. Garbage vandalism is managed by the provision of garbage bins at all possible locations in spatial planning and design. The mixed-use development of urban public open space has been emphasized to encourage a safe environment (Iqbal, 2017). All of these solutions have led to a greater

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inclusiveness of the urban public space in terms of the accessibility of hygiene, surveillance, and a safer environment. From a physical design standpoint, accessibility in public spaces is crucial. Everybody should feel welcome and at ease in a public setting. Two viewpoints can be used to view accessibility. Visitors may encounter physical or metaphorical barriers when trying to enter or stay at a location. Accessibility in terms of the physical environment is occasionally equated with the absence of barriers and impediments. Instead, perceived accessibility refers to how everyone feels about the location. Olsson suggested that an accessible and well-planned public space must be recognized as open and attractive while describing accessibility in the public urban area. The presence of other people is seen as the essential component and a requirement for a well-functioning city to be attractive. Olsson criticized urban events including sporting and cultural events as being unsustainable ways to improve accessibility and attractiveness in the city. M. Carmen Hidalgo, Rita Berto, Maria Paz Galindo and Anna Getrevi (2006), in their research, examined two distinct groups of individuals and five different situations. Here, the first research study included individuals from Italy, whereas the second study included adults from Spain. Scenarios were surveyed and examined based on common attributes of measurement for understanding the restorativeness of a public space, categorized as attractive and unattractive. This categorization was also based on a survey of the various typologies of public spaces: cultural and historical, housing, recreational, industrial, administrative and services. The study found that the cultural and historical areas are attractive and have a greater value of restorativeness, whereas places like housing and administrative and service places are the least attractive and have a lower value of restorativeness (Hidalgo M. C., Berto, Galindo, & Getrevi , 2006). The second empirical research study examined how the spatial configuration of a public space and its urban design features interact with one another and with the public's access to amenities, facilities, and activities. The case study was drawn from Australia and the international urban design standards were investigated together with the needs of healing spaces and locations. The research of the guidelines concentrated on identifying the types of urban design principles that support equal rights to public use of the space and pedestrian accessibility to the restorative benefits of the location. The aim was to create a model for urban design rules that would control accessibility to welcoming, secure, and pleasant areas for walkable communities with

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restorative ideals, where their design, planning, and governance would lessen conflict among various groups (Cartlidge, Armitage, & Hare, 2015). The previously mentioned cases are public spaces before the pandemic. Now there is a special need to look forward and think of spaces which can also cater to pandemic situations like COVID-19. Eslam N. Elsayed in 2020, in his research, suggested an alternative way for public space design by mentioning the safe physical distance in socially active places of 1-2 meters, as recommended and the transmission of communicable diseases like COVID-19. In the selection of the case study, the author considered the attributes of a mixed activity space that has the following functions: social, cultural, recreational, and religious. In addition, the author wanted to search for people’s understanding of the usage of public space, so he also considered the educational level of the user as one of the attributes in the selection of the case study. The author decided to include the Smash Sports Club, Cairo, Egypt as a case study, which has many sample surveys. An analytical study covered current observations, mathematical studies, interviews, questionnaires, and the division of the mixed-use space into different parts/categories. Observation and analysis concluded with the user generally not following the instructions/rules as given by the respective authorities by making different excuses like talking about their high immunity and the age group they belong to, and asking, if authorities are already taking care, why should they also have to practice the same? So, the redesigning of open spaces, the involvement of an urban designer, the rearrangement of street furniture and elements considering the preventive measures as suggested by the WHO and the respective country medical or health councils, can be considered as the approach towards changing the living and use pattern of users of a public space (Elsayed, 2020). In a research paper by Hisham Abusaada and Abeer Elshater on ‘COVID19’s challenges to urbanism: social distancing and the phenomenon of boredom in urban spaces’, the authors talked about the change in activity patterns in the urban spaces at this time. Compact cities, where numerous people and cyclists are frequently crowded tightly together, have particularly severe difficulties. Changes in the design and usage of the urban fabric are required to provide the more open public spaces necessary for social distancing; new design standards allowing flexibility and a variety of uses must be developed. There has to be a change in how sidewalks and other public places are used. Designers must also take societal well-being into account. Just relying on the existing standards, directives, and toolkits for urban design won't be sufficient. Stereotypes and repetitive design methods can be avoided. To humanize the new urban environment brought

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about by social distancing, a familiarity with prior design objectives will be just as crucial as difference. A collection of public open spaces might be represented by computer simulations in various cities, eras, and cultures. The outcomes of arranging urban public spaces in accordance with ethnographic data on the social dimension, which depend on the minimum distances necessary for convergence, and on the expansion of outdoor space, would be represented by urban planners and designers (Abusaada & Elshater , 2020). Inclusiveness of Public Open Spaces in medium-sized Indian Towns According to the 2014 Urban and Regional Development Plan Formulation and Implementation (URDPFI) guidelines from the Indian housing ministry, there are three types of open spaces: recreational, organized green, and other common spaces (like undeveloped lands and open spaces like floodplains and forest cover in plain areas). The URDPFI recommendations are used for land-use planning by all urban local authorities (Ministry of Urban Development, TCPO, 2014). When open spaces are delineated on land plans, their purposes according to land use have been established. But it's also crucial to realize that the functions of open space, distinguished by little to no human intrusion, are essential to the preservation of nature. Thus, the ‘supply of recreation services to society and conservation of natural resources’ are two purposes of open spaces (Maruani & Amit-Cohen, 2007). Although there isn't a clear worldwide standard for how much room should be available per person, international organizations have provided some recommendations. In metropolitan settings, the World Health Organization (WHO) has established a minimum standard of nine square meters of open space per person; the UN has put this standard at 30 square meters; and the EU deems 26 square meters of open space per person to be acceptable. Planning organizations in India adhere to the URDPFI recommendations, which state that 10-12 square meters per person are ideal (Ministry of Urban Development, TCPO, 2014). This can be particularly seen in regard to the metropolitan areas rather than medium-sized towns. The lack of a practical approach by a development authority and the acceptability of urban development policy, schemes and guidelines are just a few of the causes that have led to the absence of inclusiveness in public open spaces (Mankikar, 2020). India is one of the leading urbanizing nations in Asia and amongst the low-middle income countries in the world. India is urbanizing at a rate of 2.76% per annum (Census of India, 2011). Nearly half of the 7933 towns that are classified as urban have census town status and continue to be managed as rural entities. If nothing changes, the

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nation may develop into a sanctuary for haphazard urbanization (NITI Aayog, 2021). This has led other small and medium urban centers to suffer, resulting in spatial planning distress leading to migration of the population and creating a situation for less urbanization in small and medium towns and distress to mega-urban centers for their outgrowth (Shaban & Narnaware, 2019). This one-sided approach at the policy level raises questions regarding sustainable regional development in India. Table 6: SDG-11 and related schemes for Indian Towns (Source: Targets from the list of SDG-11, URL: https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal11, accessed on 10 February 2022, Associated Program/schemes from NITI Aayog, 2021) Targets No.

Associated Program / Schemes

11.1

Housing for All (PMAY)

11.2

Public transportation strengthening through JNNURM scheme in most of the metro and mega cities in India.

11.3

-

11.4

HRIDAY, AMRUT

11.5

City Disaster Management Plans for Mega cities in India

11.6

Swachh Bharat Mission

11.7

-

11.a

AMRUT

11.b

City Disaster Management Plans for Mega cities in India

11.c

-

Towns falling under the category of medium towns have less funding, ultimately leading to unregulated development (Shaban, Kourtit, & Nijkamp, 2020). This compromises the effectiveness of the governance of these towns and the development of the social and physical infrastructure which is an integrated part of public open spaces. There are 3894 of these towns, according to the Census of India 2011, implying that 50% of the urban centers in India do not have a sufficient focus on regulated urban governance and development. Urban centers often lack the necessary civic

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infrastructure and amenities, and opportunity. This scenario sets up a situation where people move to mega-urban centers that are meant to have effective governance but fall short owing to difficulties with crowding in public areas, which produces insufficient living conditions, traffic jams, and increased demand for essential urban services and amenities (Sattar, 2014), allowing policymakers to focus solely on the issues in large metropolitan centers. According to the report submitted to the United Nations by the Research and Information System for Developing Countries (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2019), India is one of the low-middle income countries (developing nation) that is going to provide a major contribution to global urbanization. It also reported that for sustainable growth, it will need to look at the decentralization of development. As a result, it needs to move towards the small and medium-sized towns. Additionally, the data reviewed show medium-sized Indian towns are unexplored relating to inclusive public space making and need consideration as there is a shift of urbanization to medium-sized towns from metro and mega cities (NITI Aayog, 2021). The functional public open spaces in Indian medium-sized towns are school playgrounds, main market streets, and neighborhood parks (Mehta, 2007). However, the school playground can be disregarded as its function cannot be treated as public open space. The remaining two can be considered for further study. Neighborhood parks are now becoming more inclusive in terms of their accessibility (NITI Aayog, 2021). Still, it is a concern that they are lacking in terms of safety. The poor funding as discussed previously, does not allow for their maintenance, and other solutions as discussed above. The Indian scenario of the management of public open spaces allows stray animals to be an integral part, which makes is it more difficult for humans to feel safe. Vandalism through advertisements and posters on the boundary walls and an inappropriate proportion of hoardings has made for a bad overall experience in a streetscape (Urban Design Group, 2011). Town-level recreational ground has a weekly vegetable market and temporary festival celebrations during the year. Most kinds of town have spatial planning around a market street, and due to a lack of jurisdiction in terms of design and maintenance the inclusiveness of the public open space of the market is affected. The main attributes affected are walkability, accessibility, and the vehicular movement corridor for traffic (Mitra & Bardhan, 2017).

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As per the research report on India’s response to the sustainable development goals, at a national level NITI Aayog can only respond to 62 targets, which means that the point of concern is the development process, whereas for SDG-11 making sustainable cities and communities, only 4 targets can be marked with the help of current policies and frameworks. The report also lacks the provision of any data on public open space planning and design and the provision for quality urban places (Research and Information Division, 2019).

IV. Discussion Inclusiveness in public open space is a worldwide phenomenon gained through the practices in the different previously mentioned categories: recreational, transport, or green spaces. According to the above-mentioned literature studies, urban design plays a vital role in designing the spaces through varied dimensions i.e., physical, social, economic, environmental, and technological. Case studies suggest that to make a public open space inclusive, the major physical attributes can be walkability, welcomeness, usability, and universal accessibility. Social attributes are safety and security, attractiveness, and cultural activity. Environmental factors are healthy for walk and play, less noise pollution, optimized light pollution in the night times, etc. Economic factors are ease for doing business, and for street vendors, and businesses on streets to face the street. The overall combination of these factors can be helpful in achieving inclusivity in public open spaces. As described by Shaban (2019), substantial work in India is focused on public open space guidelines for megacities and metro cities. The medium towns I in India are underexplored. The absence of urban development guidelines for these medium towns leads to inadequate urban infrastructure and amenities. Non-inclusiveness is a factor in the public open spaces of medium-sized towns, as reported in the reform in urban planning – the final report by NITI Aayog. The research gap can be easily identified, as the framework of urban development guidelines mentioned in the above section only discusses the target areas for megacities and metro cities. Few cater for the medium towns I in India. As reported by the RIS, in their report ‘India and Sustainable Development Goals: The Way Forward,’ the urbanization rate of megacities and metro cities in the last decade is lower than that of the decade before and the medium towns now have a higher priority to gain better livelihoods and

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living conditions. Urban design as a helpful tool seems to be underexplored when it comes to the medium towns in India, as suggested in the above sections. Urban design techniques can help in bridging the gap between urban planning techniques and architectural practice, with the development of guidelines for medium towns in India.

V. Conclusion In the Indian context, urban design can be seen as one of the most powerful driving disciplines that can help to achieve inclusive public open spaces. While urban planning is looking for solutions that fit the city, architectural concepts have their focus on buildings, rather than on the relationships of the public realm. The new or fresh introduction of attributes can be proposed as per the need and shortcomings of the available schemes, programs, and policies. After the compilation of all attributes in the chain of urban design principles, their strength can be examined based on surveys or interviews, through a pilot test among the stakeholders, like urban designers, planners, developers, and end users (Hussain, Javadi, Andrey, Ghaffar , & Labonté , 2020) (Brandão, Brandão, Ferreira, Travasso, & Remesar , 2017). Accordingly, the final set of urban design guidelines can be proposed to make public open spaces inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Abusaada, H., & Elshater, A. (2020). COVID-19’s challenges to urbanism: social distancing and the phenomenon of boredom in urban spaces. Akkar, Z. M. (2016). New-generation Public Spaces – How ‘Inclusive’ Are They? Brandão, P., Brandão, A., Ferreira, A., Travasso, N., & Remesar, A. (2017). What is public sapce’s service value? Some relevant questions. Carmona, M. (2010). Contemporary Public Space, Part Two: Classification. Journal of Urban Design. Cartlidge, N., Armitage, L., & Hare, D. O. (2015). Urban design guidelines for places with restorative values. Census of India. (2011). Census of India. Retrieved from Census of India: http://www.censusindia.gov.in/DigitalLibrary/MFTableSeries.aspx Denis, E., & Gnanou, K. M. (2011). Toward a better appraisal of urbanization in India, A fresh look at the landscape of morphological agglomerates. European Journal of Geography. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2019). World Urbanization Prospects, The 2018 Revision. Newyork: United Nations.

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9. Devis, K. (1965). The Urbanization of Human Population. 10. Elsayed, E. N. (2020). The Effect of Social Distancing on the Utilization of Open Spaces Case Study: “Open Social Spaces at Smash Academy Club”. 11. Fernández, D. B., & Escampa, M. H. (2019). Walkability in The Historic City Of Oaxaca, Mexico. 12. Francis, M. (1987). Urban open spaces. Journal Advances in environment, behaviour and design. 13. Gehl, J. (2010). Cities for people. Washington D.C.: Island Press. 14. George, R. M., & Kini, D. K. (2015). Formulating Urban Design Guidelines for Optimum Carrying Capacity of a Place. 15. Gosling, M. C., & Walker, A. J. (1992). Energy efficiency within the urban design process. 16. Hidalgo, M. C., Berto, R., Galindo, M. P., & Getrevi, A. (2006). Identifying attractive and unattractive urban places: categories, restorativeness and aesthetic attributes. 17. Hussain, S., Javadi, D., Andrey, J., Ghaffar, A., & Labonté, R. (2020). Health intersectoralism in the Sustainable Development Goal era: from theory to practice. 18. Iqbal, A. (2017). Park Matters: Studies on Safety and Property Values. KTH Royal Institute of Technology. 19. Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities (Reissue edition). NewYork: Vintage. 20. Juul Frost Architects. (2009). The City's Room 2 - The Known in the Strange. Fonden til udgivelse af Arkitekturtidsskrift, Copenhagen. 21. Mankikar, S. U. (2020). Formulating open-space policies for India’s cities: The case of Mumbai. Occasional Paper, Observer Research Foundation. 22. Marcuse, P. (2009). From critical urban theory to the right to the city. In Cities for People, Not for Profit: Critical Urban Theory and the Right to the City. London: Routledge. 23. Maruani, T., & Amit-Cohen, I. (2007). Open Space Planning Models: A Review of Approaches and Methods. Landscape and Urban Planning. Landscape and Urban Planning, Science Direct. 24. Mehta, V. (2007). Lively Streets: Determining Environmental Characteristics to Support Social Behavior. Journal of Planning Education and Research. 25. Ministry of Urban Development, TCPO. (2014). Urban and Regional Development Plan Formulation and Implementation Guidelines (URDPFI). Government of India. 26. Mitra, P., & Bardhan, D. (2017). Tracing the Importance of Safety Audit in making Inclusive Cities: A step towards Smart Cities. 27. Moureen, A. (2018). Bridging the gap between urban planning and urban design processes: developing a framework for the Egyptian context. 28. Németh, J. (2020). Bridging and bonding: public space and immigrant integration in Barcelona’s el Raval. In M. Vikas, & D. Palazzo, Companion to public. London: Routledge. 29. NITI Aayog. (2021). Reforms in Urban Planning In India - Final Report. New Delhi: Government of India.

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30. Parkinson, J. (2012). Democracy and Public Space: The Physical Sites of Democratic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 31. Research and Information Division, L. S. (2019). Research Note on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Achievements of India. New Delhi. 32. Sattar, S. (2014). Homelessness in India. Shelter. 33. Shaban, A., & Narnaware, P. (2019). In People-Centred Social Innovation: Global Perspectives on the. In S. Banerjee, S. Carney, & L. Hulgard, Innovations in Multistakeholder Partnerships for Sustainable Development. London, UK: Routledge. 34. Shaban, A., Kourtit, K., & Nijkamp, P. (2020). India’s Urban System: Sustainability and Imbalanced Growth of Cities. Sustainability 2020. 35. Staeheli, L., Mitchell, D., & Nagel, C. (2008). Making Publics: Immigrants, Regimes of Publicity and Entry to ‘The Public’. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space. 36. United Nation, D. o. (2015). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved from United Nations, Sustaianble Development Goals: https://sdgs.un.org/goals 37. Urban Design Group. (2011). What is Urban Design? Retrieved from http://www.udg.org.uk/about/what-is-urban-design 38. Van Melik, R., & Spierings, B. (2020). Researching public space: From placebased to process-oriented approaches and methods. In M. Vikas, & D. Palazzo. London: Routledge.

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE INFLUENCE OF CONFLICT OVER THE TEMPLES OF SRINAGAR: BEFORE AND AFTER THE EXODUS 1

SMRITI SARASWAT1 MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR, INDIA

Abstract The exodus has always been an important part of history in various parts of the world. In the same way, it happened in Kashmir in the period 19891990. Most Kashmir Pandits in the Kashmir Valley left in 1990 after extreme violence swallowed the state. Regardless of Hinduism, Kashmir's Pandit community occupies an unmistakable position in Kashmir's society. Kashmir has always been a mariculture society that lived together with complete amity. But unlike other communities, Pandits became the victims of the 1989 violence. These displacements are believed to be a significant factor in the rupture of cohesive fabrics in Kashmir society. In this violence, Kashmir went through a lot of cultural changes. This chapter focuses on the impact of the conflict when the Kashmiri Pandits migrated in large numbers to various parts of the country. There was an impact on tangible heritage, especially the temples left by Kashmiri Pandits. Much of the current focus is on identifying and knowing what happened to these temples and what impact this mass migration had on the people who lived in the area at the time. The chapter explains the status of these temples, how they survived all these years, and how they are currently protected under various government and non-government agencies such as the ASI (Archaeological Survey of India), state-protected or locally safeguarded by the people.

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I. Introduction Kashmir, 'Paradise on Earth,' was once a state where different communities lived peacefully in harmony and brotherhood, but in 1989, it became a place of militancy and terrorism (Dar, 2016). Hindus in the Kashmir Valley were forced to flee because of being targeted by Islamic militants in late 1989 and early 1990. In the early 1990s, thousands of Kashmiri Pandits left their hometowns and moved to other parts of India following state-wide violence. What led to the mass migration of Kashmiri Pandits was the situation of open revolt (Bhat, 2012). With the spread of violence, Kashmir was in a tense state, especially considering that the first targets were Hindu officials. The group killed Pandit Tika Lal Taploo, a defender and prominent leader of the Janata Party in Jammu and Kashmir, on September 14, 1989, in front of several witnesses. For the first time, any Kashmiri Hindu was targeted. Pandits felt they were unsafe in the valley and could be targeted at any time. The killings of Hindus in Kashmir continued, including many prominent people (Tikoo, 2012). The departure of Pandit was an apparent cause of community intimidation designed to drive Hindus out of the valley (Kaul, 1991). Currently, there is an impact on the built and unbuilt heritage of Kashmir. For example, the mosque was used as a warning center to threaten Pandits in Kashmir, and many temples were destroyed or damaged because they belonged to the Pandits (Bhat, 2012). The study area is shown in Figure 1. It shows the location of the city of Srinagar on a map of Jammu and Kashmir.

Figure 1: The current map of Jammu and Kashmir (U.T) and Ladakh (U.T). The location of Srinagar city has been marked on the map. Source: Google maps

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Srinagar is the largest city in Jammu and Kashmir, India, and it is a summer capital. It is in the Kashmir Valley on the Jeram River banks, an Indus River tributary. The city was established by Kashmiri Pandits, who built many temples on the Jhelum Riverfront. Figure 2 shows the flow of the Jhelum River from the northwest to the southeast. Srinagar temples were affected during the mass migration of Kashmiri Pandits during the period 1989-1990 (Sharma R. , 2015).

Figure 2: Map showing the political boundary of Srinagar city with the Jhelum River flowing from northwest to southeast. Source: Google maps

Another reason to select this region is that the city has a lot of temples under Kashmiri Pandit patronage. But unfortunately, most of the temples were affected during the conflict of the period 1989-1990, and the maximum impact was observed in this region (Sharma R. , 2015). Therefore, the chapter will also focus on what happened and why to these temples during and after the mass migration of Kashmiri Pandits. The study systematically enlists and maps potential temples which can be classified as being publicly or privately owned, and holding national, state, and local importance in Srinagar city. Research has been done by historians and scholars who were focused only on politics, socio-culture, religion, etc. However, the study of the influence of the exodus on the built heritage of temples has never been done or discussed. Therefore, this chapter will discuss important temples that were altered at the time of the exodus in Srinagar and how the Kashmiri people are reviving them today. It will also acknowledge the views of the Kashmiris who left their land during the mass migration.

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Through this research study, the intent is to analyse the impact of mass migration on the temples of Srinagar and how this conflict scenario affected the culture and people of the region. Due to the vast area of study, this chapter will focus only on the core city of Srinagar. This is located in the Kashmir Valley on the banks of the Jhelum River.

II. Methodology This investigation is performed by following the steps below. Figure 3 shows the methodology of the research treatise. The details of each step are described below.

Figure 3: Methodology of the Research

1) Preliminary Stage: Deciding on the research problem and setting the aims and objectives to start the study; understanding the impact of the exodus on the tangible heritage (temples) of the city of Srinagar and the status of these temples. 2) Literature Review: An overview of the current knowledge of the exodus, the tangible-intangible heritage of Srinagar, culture, etc., will help to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps related to the research. The resources are on the impact of escapes, cultures, communities, and mass migration heritage worldwide.

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A review of books, magazines, articles, blogs, journals, etc., highlights the influential elements that are useful for the research. Finally, existing research knowledge is connected with current research topics. 3) Data collection and Analysis: Data collection of primary and secondary sources is achieved as shown in Figure 4. The primary method involves direct communication with respondents; personal interviews with people living in Srinagar or those who experienced an escape between 1989 and 1990. Secondary data refer to data already collected and analyzed by researchers and scholars. These include books, magazines, articles, escape-related research treatises, Kashmiri Srinagar temples, and more. After the data collection, the information analysis must be done for the research study.

Figure 4: Data collection tools and methods

4) Conclusion/Inference: This includes research discussion and analysis, as well as research conclusions or inferences.

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III. Literature Review The review includes various books, journals, and research papers by authors and scholars with current knowledge, including substantive discoveries and theoretical and methodological contributions to research. In this current study, the literature about the exodus, insurgency, and conflicts that impact the culture, temples, and community of Srinagar (shown in Figure 5) is examined thoroughly, which helps to gain a better understanding of the topic. The highlights of all referenced books/journals are as follows.

Figure 5: Literature Review

The exodus and its impact on cultural heritage The mass migration of Kashmiri Pandits was one of the turning points in the history of Kashmir. There are a lot of tangible and intangible traces of forced migration heritage at the site of departure. Reasons for historic migrations give a better understanding of the past but more clearly draw parallels between past and present (Bartolini, 2016). The immigration of groups and communities can affect mental health, as well as cultural norms, religious practices, loss of social support systems, adaptation to new cultures, and changes in identity and self-conception. Hence, migrants experience stress. For example, Jews in Eastern Europe migrated in the second half of the 19th century to escape both religious persecution and

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poverty. As a result, Jews arrived in Britain both before and after World War II (Bartolini, 2016). The migration process is described as occurring in three main stages. The first stage is pre-migration and includes migration decisions and preparations. The second stage, migration, is the physical relocation of an individual from one location to another. The third stage after immigration is defined as the ‘absorption of immigrants within the social and cultural framework of the new society’ (Cuno, 2018). Migration involves losing familiar things such as language attitudes, values, social structures, and support networks. Culture has been defined in different ways, for instance, culture is learned, passed down from generation to generation, and includes social beliefs and values. Culture has been described as a shared function that connects people to the community (Bartolini, 2016). Similarly, religious ceremonies and ideas are essential to an individual's cultural identity. Religion can maintain values within the community and foster a sense of belonging to the place. The monument/cultural place projects the idea of an experienced, sociable place. It constitutes an authentic product with various historical and social deposits. This is seen perfectly in the case of Srinagar, where Kashmiri Pandits left their identity in the form of temples. Ancient, monumental, architectural, and material cultures can convey meaning and symbolize things with images that can be easily printed on the human mind (Faucault, 1984). Therefore, temples played a vital role in creating fixed moral values. The temple marks the area with permanent and durable traces that form the basis of the memory and historical cohesion of the city of Srinagar. The preservation and maintenance of historic buildings are not only a monumental act but also contribute to the formation of stimulants that facilitate efforts to recognize the course of history and the continuation of a particular location (Bitsani, 2016). The city's cultural and architectural heritage and listed buildings form an essential link between the artistic and contemporary environments of the past (Swyngedouw, 2011). The ‘Kashmir issue’ has not received much attention and covers other controversial aspects whose roots have been deeply buried over time. The relation between religion and conflicts in Kashmir is explained by Rai (Rai, 2018). It focuses on understanding the legitimacy of the sovereignty, territory, and governance that formed the Kashmiris long before 1947. The

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article ‘Kashmir: From the Clan Kingdom to the Rebellion’ (Rai, 2018) explains that affairs began around August 14-15, 1947, which led to further conflict in 1989. The journal article 'Exodus of Kashmiri pandits and its impact' (Bhat, 2012) explains the mass migration in Kashmir in 1990. Various incidents and political scenarios are discussed in the journal article, giving an idea of what was happening in Kashmir then. It is written from the perspective of Kashmiri Pandits who had to leave their land in the Kashmir exodus. The escape of Kashmiri Pandits in 1990 was interwoven with the political history that emphasized the differences between most Muslims in the valley. These differences affected the people who lived in Kashmir during the escape. The protection of cultural heritage in conflict zones is necessary and has been discussed by international communities for the last few years. The destruction of monuments erases history and causes irreparable harm to people's cultural and religious entities worldwide. To protect such heritage, local people and governments should take responsibility to protect the cultural heritage (Cleere, 1984). In 2014, then UNESCO Executive Director Irina Bovoka called the destruction of cultural heritage ‘cultural genocide’ and ‘cultural eradication.’ Heritage protection must, therefore, be integral, and the destruction of cultural heritage is a crime against humanity. Therefore, in the case of Srinagar, when Kashmiri Pandits left, the built heritage was affected during the mass migration of people and communities and should also be protected. The temples were heavily affected, and local people are now trying to revive these temples for the sake of their consciousness. The temples of Srinagar Few temples were modified/destroyed during the conflict after Kashmiri Pandits emigrated from the city of Srinagar. As soon as the Pandits left, the temples were abandoned. Pandits later revived these abandoned urban temples with the help of locals. Government and other non-governmental agencies were later involved in funding these temples and making them work for people, tourists, and more.

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The case studies of a few temples are in accordance with their protection status today. Many temples are ASI (Archaeological Survey of India) protected and possess national importance, meaning no further infrastructure changes are observed in this category. The second category comprises stateprotected temples, which have state importance; and the third category comprises locally protected temples which are essential to the local people of the city. ASI protected Temples: Temples of national importance are included on the ASI Conservation List, Srinagar Circle. The on-site temples are Shankaracharya Temple, Bohri Kadar Ancient Temple, Hari Parbat, and Pandrethan Temple.

Figure 6: List of temples which were affected in the period 1989-1990 Source: Author

These temples are protected, and no outsiders can work in them (shown in Figure 6). State-protected Temples: The important temples in the state are included on the state protection list. These temples are funded by the state and local governments of the city of Srinagar. Temples such as Sri Ram Mandir, Sri Raghunath Mandir, and Shital Nath Mandir are under state protection (Figure 6).

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Locally protected Temples: These are temples in the area, and the people of the community and surrounding houses protect the temples. Locals and nongovernmental organizations raise funds to revive these temples. Shree Ram Mandir, Shiv Mandir in Chota Bazaar, Ram Krishna Ashram, and Arya Samaj Mandir are well-known examples (Figure 6). The following table shows the different ASI protected, state-protected, and locally protected temples during the exodus of 1989-1990. Theory relating to temples of Kashmir is essential for the current study as it explains the culture of people at that time. Virender Bangroo, in 'Temple architecture of Kashmir' (Bangroo, 2008), discusses the foreign influences on or interactions with the temple's architecture. The cultural traditions are East Asian, West Asian, and Central Asian architecture. The grooved columns and triangular pediments are Greek, the cell peristyle is Roman, the trefoil niche is Gandharan, the sculptures of curtains and tunics are from Iran and Central Asia, and the sculptures are from China (Bangroo, 2008). There was continuous exchange on cultural and religious fronts as this was the meeting place of the cultural waves. The Valley of Kashmir is briefly described by the geography, culture, and difficulties faced by the Kashmir people under the control of the Dogra tyrant (Lawrence, 1895). Figure 7 shows a list of temples affected during the 1989 escape from Srinagar, followed by each influencing factor and the level of damage caused during and after the escape. The table also shows the funding agencies behind these temples, such as local government and local people. Temples affected in 1989, Srinagar Figure 8 shows a list of temples affected during the 1990 escape from Srinagar, followed by each influencing factor and the level of damage caused during and after the escape. The table also shows the funding agencies behind these temples, such as local government and local people.

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Figure 7: Table of Temples and influencing factors

Figure 8: Table of Temples and influencing factors

Temples affected in 1990, Srinagar Key sources include personal and telephone interviews with people directly related to Kashmir and the views of Kashmiris who left the land during the mass migration. According to the discussions, when asked about their

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memories of the Kashmir conflict in the period 1989-1990, most people talked about the political parties who ruled at that time, which led to the start of the insurgency in Kashmir, and further led to the departure of Kashmiri Pandits in the period 1989-1990. When asked for views about other communities or neighbourhood reactions to this event, interviewees said that Kashmir has always been a mixed culture community that used to live peacefully and they helped each other in such situations. Similarly, the neighbourhood helped Kashmiri Pandits in any way they could at the time of the exodus. However, a Muslim family has taken care of a few temples, for example, the Kheer Bhawani temple, which shows the unity among the people of Srinagar. In the same way, the culture is best represented at Hari Parvat, which has temples, mosques, and Gurdwara on the same hill (shown in Figure 9). The ancient temples of Hari Parvat are of historical and religious value. Therefore, when the temple was affected during the mass migration of Kashmiri Pandits in 1989, the temple was taken care of by other communities living around the temple. Due to its local importance, this temple is on the ASI conservation list (Srinagar Circle). The hill consists of: Durrani Fort: The first fortress on the premises was built in 1590 by Emperor Akbar of the Mughal Empire. Akbar built the fortress' outer walls as part of a plan for a new capital called Nager Nagor. But the project was never completed. The current fort was built in 1808 in the reign of Shuja Shah Durrani (Kak, 1933). Sharika Temple: Another name for the hill is Pradyumna Peeth. There is a Shakti temple, considered to be sacred by Kashmiri Pandits. Shakti is worshipped under Jagadamba Sharika Bagawati (or simply Shakti) and is depicted as a seated 18-armed Shri chakra (Kak, 1933). Muslim Shrines: To the south of Hari Parvat is Makhdoom Sahib, the shrine of Hamza Makdhoom, a 16th-century Kashmir Sufi saint known locally as Hazrat Sultan and Sultan-Ul-Arifeen. Another hill's southern slope shrines are dedicated to the 17th-century Sufi saint Shah Badakhshi (Kak, 1933). Gurdwara Guru Nanak Dev Hari Parbat: Guru Nanak visited this place in the early 16th century. Where he sat down and talked to people, General Moh, Akbar's Ata khan, who built a fort here according to Akbar's orders, attached a pedestal. The small Gurdwara in the area was constructed when

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Guru Har Gobind visited here, and it exists with the Nishan Sahib (Sikh flag), and is managed by the locals (Kak, 1933).

Figure 9: Map Showing Hari Parvat Source: Author

Sri Shital Nath Temple Sheetleshwar Sheetalnath is a pre- and proto-sacred temple of Kashmir. The temple faces west, and to its east and south flows the ‘Chandra-Kulya’ known now as ‘Pstoot-Kulya.’ In fact, during the prehistoric period, the entire place was a high lake famously known as ‘Ahlaadmatt.’ Over time, the name morphed into ‘Gunda Ahalmar.’ Neelmata-Purana, the twothousand-year-old historical document, includes a description of this temple site (Ganjoo, 2006). The royal historian of Sultan Zain-Ul-Abideen of Kashmir, Jonaraja, specifically mentions the names of the Bhairava temples of Hetkeshvra and Sheetleshwara, which confirms their importance during the fifteenth century when Kashmir was under the Sultan's rule. The ancient temple on the site was deliberately destroyed during the Afghan rule, as mentioned by R. K. Parimoo in his chronicles. The attached Havan Shalla, along with its Hindu neighbourhood, was again damaged by arsonists, creating a crisis for Hindus in 1990.

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Concomitant to these events, the sacred temple of Sheeteshwar Sheetal Nath became a natural platform for the freedom of expression of the Kashmiri people. Given the national, spiritual, and historical stature of Shital Nath, it served as a hub of resistance during the infamous ‘Parmishori Case’ when seven Kashmiri Pandits laid down their lives and thousands more accrued atrocities at the hands of the state government, to somehow preserve the dignity of the community, or what was left of it. Three samadhis live at the north-western corner of the Shital Nath ground (Ganjoo, 2006). Shital Nath Temple was abandoned after the Kashmiri Pandits' departure. The temple was damaged in 1990, including its main entrance and the court inside where the idol sits. However, due to its historical importance, people living nearby revived the temple by collecting funds among themselves and making it accessible to local people. The temple is open to all and maintained by local Pandits. Ramkrishan Temple and Ashram Swami Shivananda laid the foundation stone for the temple on March 13, 1929. This temple has been crucial to the people of Srinagar and it was destroyed in 1989 in a conflict. The temple was destroyed by arson, which affected the main hall and entrance porch of the temple. Since the temple has great value to the locals, much effort has been made to revive the temple. As a result, the local people and non-governmental organizations collected funds to restore it (Kapur, 2019). Ramakrishna Mission was started in 1957 and became a branch of the Ramakrishna Mission in 2008. It includes activities like, ವ ವ ವ ವ

A charitable allopathic dispensary. Publication of several books on Sanskrit hymns, prayer anthologies, and the condensed gospel of Sri Ramakrishna in Kashmir. A library and reading room with 3026 books and 12 periodicals and newspapers. Welfare activities providing educational assistance to poor students, and medical and financial aid, and distributing clothing to the poor.

Today, Ram Krishan Mission is one of the successful revivals of the temple and Ashram in Srinagar city, and it is maintained by the Ashram and Temple Trust formed by local people.

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IV. Discussion The investigation began to clarify the impact of the conflict over the temple of Srinagar in Kashmir and how it affected the people, the intangible cultural heritage, and the culture that continue in the same area. During my research, I learned about the psychology behind targeting temple structures that were important to the once-majority Srinagar immigrant group in Kashmir. This study also shows that the functioning of cities changes when certain groups decline and are lost. The escape or mass migration of Kashmiri Pandits from Srinagar between 1989 and 1990 is one of the turning points in the history of the city of Srinagar. After their departure, Kashmiri temples and houses remained abandoned in the Kashmir Valley. Most temples along the Jhelum River were remodeled and attacked during the mass migration. Factors that affected these temples included explosions, arson attempts, and rocket attacks that caused minor and massive damage to these temples. This investigation has shown that governments and non-governmental agencies were involved in funding these temples and making them work for people, tourists, etc. Depending on their importance, the various protection categories are ASI protection, state protection, and local protection. Research shows that Kashmir was a mixed-cultural community that always lived peacefully and people helped each other in such situations. This is best represented in Hari Parbat, where the temples, mosques, and Gurdwara are on the same hill. Due to its high religious and historical value, the temple was taken care of by other communities living around Hari Parbat. The Temple of Ram Krishna and Ashram is one example of how a temple was revived by the efforts of local governments and locals. It is now part of the Ram Krishna mission, which includes clinics, libraries, and reading rooms. In addition, it includes welfare activities by providing education, medical care, and financial support to poor students. The research has shown that the tangible heritage of the temple was affected by the escape that took place between 1989 and 1990. Still, due to its high historical, religious, and cultural value, the heritage was resurrected/recovered by the efforts of the government, non-governmental organizations and the locals of Kashmir.

V. Conclusion Throughout this study, ‘migration’ has suggested a spontaneous departure, which most Kashmiri Pandits would naturally deny. Many Kashmiri Pandits prefer the term asylum or exile as a more accurate description of their

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situation and their characterization as ‘refugees’ and ‘refugees in their own country.’ In addition, there was religious indoctrination by abusing mosques and other available platforms to scare secular Muslims. Due to the temple's high historical and religious value, governments, nongovernmental and local agencies have made great efforts to protect the disappearing layers of heritage and take the initiative to revive important temples. However, all temples of the Kashmiri Pandit family were destroyed, and the locals took over these houses. Other surviving temples were protected by local governments, non-governmental organizations, and people living in the area. Many temples have been attacked since 1990, but even today, some temples, such as the Shiv Mandir in Chota Bazaar, are still under threat, and attempts to throw stones are still seen. Other famous temples affected were Sharika Devi Temple, Durga Nag Temple, Maa Jwala Mandir, and Bhuteshwara Temple. In a few cases, the temples were used for different purposes. For example, some temples were turned into mosques, such as Narparisthan Temple, which became Muslim Ziarat, and Skanda Bhawan which became Ziarat of Pir Mohd Basseer. Maha Sri Temple was turned into a cemetery. This has completely changed the layers of buildings in the area. This shows how conflicts affect certain heritage areas, especially temples, in the case of Srinagar. The area where there used to be many temples has completely changed. The identity of the place has been lost. The guardians of this constructed heritage have migrated to other lands. Cultural heritage has been affected and has disappeared. Since then, Srinagar has always been a multicultural community, and Pandits were left in the valley with the help of other neighbors to preserve the temple built heritage. Kashmiri Pandits, who left during the mass migration, grew up in its rich culture and are still connected to the region and the temples of the area. However, few Kashmiri Pandits currently settling in different parts of the country have sought to preserve the temple heritage. Recently, Kashmiri Pandits have demanded the passage of a Bill for Kashmir shrines and temples, saying it would ensure the protection and conservation of temples in the Kashmir Valley. The Bill will help to preserve and protect the temples and shrines of the Kashmir Valley by establishing a trust. State governments need to act swiftly to rebuild trust between communities. The resurrection of temples and shrines will give locals in the area job opportunities.

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It can be concluded that the people of Srinagar are aware of the heritage around them. The value of the historic temples is extremely high; hence, they want to protect them. They feel proud to preserve their cultural heritage for Srinagar and Kashmir’s living, and future generations.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

Tikoo, C. T. (2012). Kashmir: Its Aboriginies and Their Exodus. Lancer Publishers. Kak, R. C. (1933). Ancient monuments of Kashmir. London: The India society 3, Victoria Street. Sharma, R. (2015). The ancient temples of Jammu and Kashmir. Bartolini, F. (2016). The Heritage of Displacement: Forced Migration in the Mediterranean through History. 377-381. Cuno, J. (2018). Our responsibility to protect cultural heritage in conflict zones. Faucault, M. (1984). Of other spaces: Utopias and heterotopias (Des Espace Autres, March 1967). 46-49. Bitsani, E. (2016). Migration memory, cultural heritage: A vehicle of the intercultural identity of a city. The case study of the Eastern Greek Community and the Greek museums of Trieste, Italy. Swyngedouw, E. (2011). Designing the post-political city and the insurgent polis. Civic city cahier. London: Bedford press. Rai, M. (2018). Kashmir: From princely state to insurgency. Bhat, G. (2012). The Exodus of Kashmiri Pandits and its impact. 103. Cleere, H. (1984). Approaches to the archaeological heritage. Bangroo, V. (2008). Temple architecture of Kashmir. Lawrence, W. (1895). The Valley of Kashmir. London: Henry Frowde Oxford university press warehouse. Baden, S. (2019). The book of Exodus. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Dar, V. (2016). Exile Narratives of Kashmiri Pandits. Agra: Faculty of Arts Dayalbagh Educational Institute. Kapur, M. (2019). A timeline of key events that shaped the unique identity of Kashmir within India. Kaul, P. (1991). Crisis in Kashmir. Suman publications sole distributers. S. Shekhawat. (2009). Conflict induced displacement: The pandits of Kashmir. Tikkoo, P. (1979). Story of Kashmir. Light and life Publisher. Edward, C. (2018). Cultural genocide and the protection of cultural heritage. Sharma, V. (2018, February 18). Times of India. Baweja, H. (1993, February 28). Times of India. Bhugra, D. (2005). Migration, cultural bereavement, and cultural identity. Berry, J. (1992). Berry J. Poortinga Y. Segall M. Cross-cultural psychology: research and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bose, S. (1997). The challenge in Kashmir: democracy, self-determination, and a just peace. New Delhi. Metcalf, B. (2006). A Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge Concise

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Histories). New York: Cambridge University Press. 27. Varikoo, K. (2010). Religion and Security in South and Central Asia. 28. Singh, D. (2014, November 21). Reinventing Agency, Sacred Geography, and Community Formation: The Case of Displaced Kashmiri Pandits in India. 29. Chowdhary, R. (2015). Jammu and Kashmir: Politics of identity and separatism. 30. Mahadevan, P. (2011). The Politics of Counterterrorism in India: Strategic Intelligence and National Security in South Asia. 31. Verma, P. (1994). Jammu and Kashmir at the Political Crossroads.

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO CHALLENGES IN RESTORATION OF KASHI MUGHAL MINIATURE PAINTING UMA SHANKAR PRABHAKAR1, KUSUM KANWAR1 AND SAMPATH KUMAR JINKA1 1

MANIPAL UNIVERSITY JAIPUR, INDIA

Abstract In India, various painting styles like Jain, Buddhist, Mughal, etc., have developed since ancient times, with improved styles seen today. Traditional painting styles such as Madhubani and Patchitra adapted themselves to different mediums over time. They seem to have survived, while other traditional painting styles like Manjusa, Mithila style painting, etc., seem to going through a difficult phase. The Mughal miniature style of painting that started from the time of the Mughal emperor Babur is not being practiced much now. The study focuses on a family which worked in the Mughal miniature style of painting in Varanasi (earlier known as Kashi) and developed it into a style named Kashi Mughal Miniature, a mixture of the Mughal style and regional characteristics of Varanasi. This style is carried further by the present generation, but the artist and style struggle for existence. The chapter tries to portray the changes that the style has gone through, and the problems faced by the artist to bring recognition for the Kashi Mughal Miniature style.

I. Introduction India is a multicultural country where many art styles have originated or developed into a more refined artistic style. Some of the styles seem to have prevailed and gained popularity. However, other art styles have lost importance, and even if they survive, they are facing hardships in their

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existence. One such art style is Kashi Mughal Miniature, prevailing in Varanasi, which is the refined style of Mughal art and this seems to be on the verge of extinction as it is being practiced by only one family in Varanasi. The family is trying hard to preserve and regain the importance of this art style by participating in various exhibitions and facing several challenges. In this chapter, the artists are contacted, and interactions with them are presented to help them understand the various methods employed by the community in preserving this traditional cultural art style.

II. Literature review Mughal art developed as an important art style across the world, providing ground for religious, cultural, and social unity in India. This style had its origin in the time of Babur, who brought illustrated manuscripts with him when he came to India. Babur and the later Mughal Emperor rulers interested in art provided shelter to the artists who painted pictures relating the life events of emperors. The Mughal style of painting reached its zenith during the period of Jahangir, and it was called the golden period of the Mughal style of painting. Jahangir himself was a writer and painter and he provided sufficient space for all artists by setting up studios for their exploration. Apart from male artists, a few female artists like Saifabano, Nadirabano, and Rukaiyabano were also involved in painting. The paintings' themes covered the emperors' life events, and the artists also showed interest in painting portraits, birds, animals, and architecture with more refinement. The vivid use of color and painting minute details were the key features of the paintings during that period. The artists used natural and mineral colors in their paintings, gaining a sophisticated technique in due course. The artists started incorporating borders with intrinsic and minute details. These borders included illustrations of leaves, flowers, geometric shapes, etc. Compared to the Persian style of painting, this style showed the use of shadow, a distinctive feature, and the depiction of trees and clouds showed a realistic approach. The human faces were depicted inside poses. The overall aesthetic of the painting lies in the implementation of the details and the color scheme of the painting. After reaching its peak during the Jahangir period, this art style started to decline under the rule of later emperors. In the 18th century, Jawan Bakhsh, a Mughal emperor, was the pioneer along with artists, in incorporating Mughal art in Varanasi [1]. The first artist of the Sikkhi generation, as shown in Fig. 1, Ustad Sikkhi, the regional artist of Varanasi and a practitioner of the Rajasthani style of painting, took

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lessons from an imperial artist of the Mughal style of painting, Ustad Lalji Musavvar and implemented it in his paintings [2].

Fig.1 Sikkhi generation

Ustad Sikkhi’s work shows an interplay of the Mughal style and the culture of Varanasi. Ustad Sikkhi’s son Ustad Batohi took this style to regions of Bihar and painted murals; the remains of his works are no longer available. Later, the Mughal style infused with the culture of Varanasi was carried forward by Batohi’s son Ustad Moolchand with the knowledge of refined brushwork along with the technique of preparing Wasli paper. Wasli was a special handmade paper prepared during the Mughal period in the 10th century for making miniature paintings [3]. Some of Moolchand’s works also included fine experiments combining the Mughal style features of fine lines and thick borders, and Varanasi regional art depicting Devi Matangi with ornaments, as shown in Fig 2. He has also depicted portraits and mythological themes on elephant teeth.

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Fig. 2: Devi Matangi Painting, Ustad Moolchand

In the 19th century, when Varanasi became one of the major centers of the company style of art under Maharaja Narayan Singh, Ustad Moolchand continued practicing his style [4]. He made paintings related to Indian Gods and Goddesses, as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3: Painting of Ustad Moolchand depicting the mythological theme

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Later, the demand for these paintings saw a decline resulting in the poor conditions of the artists, forcing them to choose different trades for their livelihood [5]. Despite such poor conditions, Moolchand transmitted his skills to one of his sons, Ram Prasad. In 1906, Ram Prasad gained patronage from an eminent artist Rajkrishna Das who supported and uplifted him to prepare copies of Mughal paintings [6]. Ram Prasad experimented with and developed paintings visualizing themes related to mythology, as shown in Fig. 4 and portraits as shown in Fig. 5, and he implemented architecture into his paintings.

Fig. 4. Lord Shiva, Painting by Ustad Ram Prasad on Elephant Teeth

Fig. 5: Portrait by Ustad Ram Prasad

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Ram Prasad also worked on elephant teeth in minute detail. Among his famous works are Descent of Ganga, Shivatandav, and the series of Umar Khayyam. This developed art style was further carried on by his son Ustad Sharda Prasad [7]. He was employed at Bharat Kala Bhawan, Varanasi, and prepared copies of paintings using the knowledge acquired from his father under the guidance of Rajkrishna Das. Ustad Sharda Prasad himself prepared his art materials, such as brushes, paper, and colors from minerals. His paintings covering vivid mediums of various sizes such as hardboard, cloth, canvas, and wood are preserved in Bharat Kala Bhawan, Varanasi, and some private collections. After he died in 1981, the style was carried further by his sons Ustad Mukund Prasad and Gopal Prasad. The elder son Ustad Mukund Prasad worked as an artist at Bharat Kala Bhawan and is still contributing his efforts to the museum, while Gopal Prasad worked as a teacher at Rajasthan College of Art, Jaipur. Both are still practicing this 250year-old Kashi Mughal Miniature style, and Ustad Mukund Prasad has passed the knowledge to his children Vanshshri and Ankit Prasad [8]. At present, Ustad Mukund Prasad is trying hard to uplift and preserve his art. His son, Ankit Prasad, being a graduate of applied arts from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, is devoting his time to promoting and refining this art style. The artist displays his paintings in exhibitions to showcase the changing phases and development of Kashi Mughal Miniature art. One such article printed in a local newspaper about the development of Kashi Mughal Miniature painting through his exhibition display is shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6: Article on the Kashi Mughal Miniature Painting Exhibition in the local newspaper

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The art style seems to depict some changes in theme and style. This chapter discusses, in contrast, the challenges faced by the artist in uplifting and promoting the Kashi Mughal Miniature art style.

III. Objectives x To identify the changes in the Kashi Mughal Miniature style. x To discuss the challenges faced by the artists in uplifting Kashi Mughal Miniature style. x To identify the measures taken by the artist to promote this art style. x To provide suggestive measures for uplifting and promoting the Kashi Mughal Miniature style.

IV. Research Methodology The study is based on primary data collected through a telephonic interview with Mr. Ankit Prasad and secondary data from the literature available to date. The excerpts from the recorded audio were analyzed and recorded.

V. Discussions As per the telephonic interview with Mr. Ankit Prasad about the Kashi Mughal Miniature style’s origin, development, and features, the artist stated that the Kashi Mughal Miniature style of painting is about 250 years old and was started by Ustad Sikkhi. Mr. Sikkhi was a regional artist of Varanasi practicing Rajasthani style but later he developed an interest in Mughal miniature style. The influence of the Patna style of art, like the depiction of daily activities and portraits as themes, can also be seen in his works, but the details and execution of his painting solely depict the Mughal style. Mr. Sikkhi also depicted Hindu mythology and elements of Varanasi like Lord Shiva, and elements of Varanasi architecture in the Mughal style in his paintings which was named the ‘Kashi Mughal Miniature’ style of painting. Over a period, changes were made to the material used, and borders and themes of the paintings. Earlier, gold was used in the borders of the paintings. However, due to the high price of gold, the usage of gold is not seen in present-day paintings. There was a phase in Kashi Mughal Miniature when copies of the paintings were prepared, but Mr. Gopal Prasad made paintings incorporating his visualization. In the Kashi Mughal Miniature paintings, women are shown wearing the Banarasi Saree. The patterns in the paintings carry the elements of Varanasi.

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The technique of preparing the painting is also different and involves the following steps: x The first step involves making an outline sketch on the right side of the paper. x Then the opposite side of the paper is rubbed with glass marble to fix the sketch. x After rubbing, the base color is filled in the drawing and left to dry. x Once the colors over the drawing are dried, the opposite side of the paper is again rubbed with glass marble to fix the colors. x The drawing details are done with colors, and again, the opposite side of the paper is rubbed with glass marble. x Then the final outline and details are done, and the painting is left to dry. x Finally, the opposite side of the paper is again rubbed to fix the color, and the painting is ready. Materials used: In an overview of materials utilized to make the paintings, the artists said that mineral colors are used for painting, and babul glue is used for binding the colors over Wasli paper (a paper created by pasting layers of paper using gum and this has archival qualities), which is also prepared by the artist himself. Further, he mentions that a major problem is with the availability of materials such as paper, brushes, and color. The brushes are an essential tool for painting. Synthetic brushes are available on the market, but they do not fulfill the requirement as fine detailing could not be done with them. So, the artists themselves prepare these brushes from squirrel hair. Preparing traditional Wasli paper takes time, so the artists use available cartridge, ivory, and other papers. As the process involves rubbing the paper with marble or stone, there may be a chance that the work gets damaged. So, handmade papers like Sanganeri and Nepali paper are often used for painting as these papers provide a suitable ground for fixing color in the process. For completing a single painting, the artist mentions that a trained artist needs regular practice and the devotion of a minimum of 4 to 5 hours. The time also depends on the size of the painting and the number of elements in the painting, and it costs more to prepare the painting using gold and natural colors.

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Themes of the paintings: The early themes of Kashi Mughal Miniatures were limited to mythological themes, portraits, and the Hindu God and Goddess with Mughal style features. However, to keep pace with the changing scenario and to preserve the style, the artists tried to incorporate contemporary themes and elements into the style, further experimenting with the shapes of the surface of the painting. Measures taken to uplift the art form: Mr. Ankit Prasad is interested in opening a school so that interested people who know about this art can learn from these artists. Many international tourists visiting Varanasi have tried learning this art style. The artist is also interested in digitalizing the art form for commercial utilization. Social media platforms and workshops have been used to promote this art. Figures 7, 8, and 9 show glimpses of the workshops organized by the artist at Vasanta Women's College, Varanasi. Contemporary artworks of the artist: Figures 10 to 13 show some of his contemporary artworks.

Fig. 7.

Fig: 8

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Fig. 9. Dr. Alka Singh, Principal, Vasanta Women's College, welcoming the artist

Fig. 10: Painting depicting Mr. Ankit Prasad making a painting

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Fig.11: Experiment with the shape of the Painting surface

Fig. 12: Depicting traditional themes in a contemporary style

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Fig. 13: Painting showing Bani-Thani booking a cab

VI. Conclusion Based on the findings of the interview of the artist and articles published in the local newspapers of Varanasi, it can be concluded that the Kashi Mughal Miniature style of painting is a rare art style in our traditional culture and it is facing hardships in its existence. Therefore, digitalization and the commercial utilization of the Kashi Mughal Miniature could help the artist. Moreover, the artist can increase the frequency of exhibitions and workshops and use social media for its promotion.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

A living hereditary artist of the Mughal School, Secretary Lalit Kala Academy, Jaipur House, New Delhi Gupta Dr. Gaurishankar, an article titled “Ustad of Kashi painting style”, in the local newspaper of Varanasi. “Wasli.” 2021. Wikipedia. January 14, 2021. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasli. Ganeshan Dr. Radhakrishna, an article titled “Artist of Kashi Mughal style” in a local magazine titled “Think Thought”. Ąĸ ˋøĭĚıøĈĭ. 2017. “øĭĚı øı ĮĐĮȅ Įýũøĕĭ: ðø ĕIJɑ Ğļćı Įęēĭĝć» Kashikatha.” Kashikatha. August 11, 2017. http://kashikatha.com/kashismural-painting-is-a-fading-legacy/.

342 6. 7. 8.

Chapter Twenty-Two ǛļȖċĭđĊIJ. 2016. “ÿŃúĸ-çÿĭĉı đŐ øĭĚı øı øĕĭ øĭ Ēļúĉĭċ» Kashikatha.” Kashikatha. December 25, 2016. http://kashikatha.com/kashis-art-andfreedom-movements/. Mishra Anand, “250 years old Mughal art is alive in Varanasi”, an article published in the local newspaper of Varanasi. Mishra Anand, “250 years old Mughal art is alive in Varanasi”, an article published in the local newspaper of Varanasi.

CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE THE INDIAN SARI: NARRATIVE OF CREATIVE FUTURES 1

VAIBBHAVI PRUTHVIRAJ RANAVAADE1 CHITKARA SCHOOL OF DESIGN, CHITKAR UNIVERSITY

Abstract The Indian fashion system has seamlessly assimilated contemporary innovation. While its ample symbolism generates intrigue and interest in its rich heritage, its adaptability to the evolving patterns of the era of globalization reflects the conceptual and semiotic shift in its interpretations of contemporaneity. Indian sari fashion seeks to create a design environment, where the future strengthens with validation from the past and the past is 'reinterpreted and rediscovered' for the sustainable creative future. The sari’s symbolism and function embedded in cultural norms, inherited through heritage and tradition, denote the various rites of passage; its contemporary language depicts fluid drapes and innovative lines and patterns created by the geometry of the warp and weft yarns and borders, establishing a modern language through an intriguing semiology. The study aims to decode sari semiology, through the design culture across the passage of time, analyzed in terms of sari denotation and connotation as a fashionably relevant garment within today's urban consumer's perspectives. The chapter presents the varied sari symbology and aesthetics through photographic references as interpretations of the visual culture of the sari. The communication of the sari in the context of the society and culture model unfolds a semiotic approach to decode the nuance of the Indian fashion statement as embedded in popular culture. Keywords: Multi-cultural; Visual language; Semiology; Innovation; Indian fashion system

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I. Introduction In India wherever one goes, one finds women wearing the sari even in the twenty-first century. For them, it is not a costume or an outfit for a show. It is a part of their lives, and few would seldom question the reason why they wear it. A few women may find it cumbersome to drape it every morning; some may complain about the physical discomfort of moving about in the sari. Even today in the face of globalization many Indian women associate with the sari. One may come across several research studies carried out on designing and developing various apparel categories, documenting changes in fashion trends and the documentation of traditional textiles, but little research has been conducted on the semiology of Indian apparel or costumes, especially the Indian sari. Reviewing the theories for fashion change and the reasons that explain the changes occurring in the world, it is compelling to understand the semiotic interpretations of the Indian sari. The study specifically aims to review the changing sari trends and factors that affect this change, while at the same time conserving the heritage costume tradition of sari draping and textiles. The objective of the study is to understand the semiology of fashion apparel specifically the sari. The purpose of this study is to recognize what the sari means for Indian women, the Indian fashion system, and industry. The sari has been worn for several thousand centuries, across the Indian subcontinent and has been adapted to the changing socio-political scenarios over these centuries. It is essential to understand the semiology of the garment which is woven in two dimensions and draped in more than 108 ways in three dimensions (Kapur, 2010). Worn by women pan India, each sari is a unique expression of the wearer. The tacit meaning of the sari as a fabric, a garment, a cultural symbol, heritage textile, sheer utility, national identity, and sustainability needs to be studied. This study dwells upon the semiotic study of the Indian sari which is an integral part of the Indian fashion system with a special emphasis on womenswear. There is an opportunity for an in-depth study of the Indian fashion system and this research makes the documentation of the changing sari styles accessible but also gives the meaning, symbolism, tacit meaning, and evolution of the sari. It also reveals the factors involved in its evolution.

II. Methodology A qualitative approach is used for this study on the semiology of the Indian sari since the paradigm of qualitative research includes a focus on process

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versus product or outcomes. The qualitative paradigm also focuses on an individual's experience and description of life, and situations and since this study explores individual perception and non-verbal meaning-making, the qualitative approach is best suited to this goal. A research design was developed to cover all aspects to be studied as identified in the objectives and scope of the research. Exploratory research which would be corelational in its approach to study and establish relationships between varied aspects of factors influencing apparel selection was found to be most appropriate for the envisaged study. Such a derivative, descriptive and qualitative research study would be able to provide the necessary insights and a deeper understanding of the evolution of the drapes, grooming practices, and styling of the Indian sari and relate it to semiotic theory for fashion. From the viewpoint of the application of findings, the research is more applied than conclusive, as the conclusions are a result of testing theories. Secondary research comprised of a literature review of semiotic theory. The data were collated and analyzed to reach conclusions through theory building and the theory testing approach. All data were further analyzed and decoded for creating models which supplement an illustration of the robust outcomes of the study and formulate a theoretical framework for the Indian fashion system. The systematic methods adopted for the literature review and collecting background study material will benefit fashion students, researchers, and academicians for further research. This study was initiated by carefully looking at multi-disciplinary research in the areas of anthropology, sociopsychological aspects of clothing, sociology, psychology, semiology of fashion, non-western fashion, historical references, and evolution of the sari and fashion in India, as well as business and trend reports of the sari industry. For this research, the study of Indian costume traditions and cultural practices around the Indian sari was undertaken, which revealed several variations in design through the influence of the socio-cultural ethos and local environment in its totality. The distinction of the Indian fashion system is embedded in popular culture through visual media like family albums, films, magazine articles, red carpet appearances, etc., and these were carefully gathered. The data collected through visual and literary references on the costume traditions were studied in detail for non-verbal meaning-making and specific communication.

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III. Review of Literature This study has been taken forward based on the work of scholars from diverse backgrounds: the communication theorist McLuhan was ahead of his time, writing about technology in the 1960s, and his arguments seem even more relevant today in the internet age. McLuhan argues that the proliferation of electronic technology has extended our biological senses of sight and sound beyond their normal range. He is saying that through technology such as the telephone or television we can communicate instantaneously across the globe, which consequently impacts the speeding up of the global economy and social life. McLuhan argues that due to technology and its instant communication we feel as close to someone on the other side of the globe as if they were in our village. Therefore, we can understand why McLuhan says we are in a 'global village'. With easy access to the internet, communication is in real time without a lag (McLuhan, 1988). The French postmodern theorist Jean Baudrillard in the 1980s stated we now live in a world increasingly dominated by images and signs, which have become our primary reality. They are simulations of reality, and we, therefore, live in a state of hyper-reality, which has no reality beyond itself. We can use Las Vegas and Disney World, METAVERSE, and VR-virtual reality as examples of hyper-reality as they do not refer to reality (Baudrillard, 1988). S. B. Kaiser in the symbolic interaction (SI) theory of 1997, proposes that fashion change thrives on cultural tensions that contribute to individual articulations of styles that are at least initially ambiguous. These negotiations, she says, enable fashion subjects to grapple with ongoing cultural tensions in subtle but complex ways and because these underlying tensions are never completely resolved, the process of fashion change continues endlessly (Kaiser, 1997). The sari remains the biggest clothing category as Indian women and the sari form the core of history and legacy. That's what the numbers suggest. Saris dominate the women's ethnic wear segment with a 53 per cent market share, while the salwar-kameez constitutes 38 per cent of the women's ethnic wear market. The remaining 9 per cent is contributed by petticoats and blouses (Kumar, 2013). There are a few designers and brands that have experimented and taken this category to a newer level. Indian fashion designers have become popular

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across the world for their ethnic wear lines, Indian bridal wear, and Bollywood collections. Satya Paul was one of the first designers to come out with prints on saris, which were abstract, geometrical, and completely in sync with color and fabrics. Brands like Anokhi and Fabindia have greatly helped in popularizing ethnic wear, which has been sourced from handloom clusters following the traditional methods of vegetable dyeing, hand block printing, etc. The preference for salwar-kameez and saris is a regional choice. In the northern regions of India, it is the preferred apparel for both regular and festive occasions as it has been a traditional garment across generations. Even other regions prefer saris for special occasions. While tier-I cities tend to be strongly governed by a traditional usage of the sari, the ethnic wear category is increasingly becoming the most sought-after category, as it offers both convenience and conformity. Thus, the focus tends to be on comfort fabrics, such as cotton, with the mid-fashion quotient. Research on non-western fashion systems and the semiology of fashion apparel is of recent origin. Many fashion scholars and costume historians have researched non-western fashion, the semiology of fashion, fashion systems, and case studies on other fashion systems from non-western countries like Japan, Morocco, etc., and written extensive accounts. These are a rich source of information about the evolution of their costume traditions, influences of western fashion, globalization, supply chains, and the development of their unique fashion systems. The review provided the background and justification for the research undertaken. All relevant research was summarized, and a further evaluation of the collated work was commenced. The review of the literature focusing on the background, relevance, and history of the Indian sari, the semiotics of fashion apparel, and semiotic theory, has been collected from books, journals, and private photographs. Some of these documents are available and serve as an important source of information on semiotic theories, and nonverbal communications by the ethnic fashion systems. These accounts were studied, and formed a vital part of the secondary research to gain insight into the semiotic meanings conveyed by fashion apparel and interpreted by the onlooker. This research chapter is based on an unpublished Ph.D. thesis written by Ranavaade, V. submitted to The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, ‘A Semiotic study of the Indian Sari’, and all the models and conclusions are cited from the main findings of the study.

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The fashion system Barthes' book and his theory of the semiology of fashion had a profound impact on the field of fashion (Barthes, 1990). Fashion, he argues, is the product of the social relations and activities that are involved in putting an outfit together. Fashion is actualized through the way the garments are worn. Barthes makes a distinction between three kinds of garments: The Real garment. The Represented garment. And the used Garment corresponds to the process of production, distribution, and consumption (Craik, 2009). To develop this, Barthes drew on the discipline of semiotics. Semiology is the science of forms or signs, and in the case of fashion, the forms relate to garments, details, and accessories, and the modes of clothes. If we conceive of elements as signs, we can see how they compose a language of clothes (langue) and the clothed body of an individual constitutes a specific statement by way of the choice and arrangement of clothing (parole). To understand this, we need to break down the idea of a sign into two components: The signifier – Physical referent The Signified – A mental concept implied by the signifier. We instinctively read contextual grammar into our clothing encounters. This contextual reading is a code or set of shared rules that enable us to connect the signifier with the signified contextual codes that might include primness, authority, formality, practicality, relaxation and hostility. Some codes may be localized, embedded in a subculture, adopted as a national dress, or worn across the globe. Thus, we need to think of another level of signification: Denotation – refers to the straightforward meaning that we attach to clothing.

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Connotation – refers to the symbolic embedded meanings of an item of apparel or how it is worn (Craik, 2009). Hall writes on matters of interpretation and gives an explanation of connotations and denotation: ‘When we speak it is important for interpretation to know not just "what is said" (denotation) but "how it is said" (connotation). When we wear clothes, it is important not just "what we wear" (denotation, i.e., a sari) but "how we wear" (connotation, i.e., formal, casual, flamboyant, sensual look sari)’ (Hall, 2012). The below model was based on literary and visual references and detailed observations about the sari. The below model depicts a chronological change in sari draping styles with historical and socio-political changes in the Indian subcontinent. A semiotic theory of fashion explains fashion as a system of signs, symbols, and communicative meaning-making that sees items of apparel as a language with a grammar that is composed of symbolic codes. Understanding internal and external fashion flows is central to the understanding of fashion cycles and systems (Craik, 2009). Slade in his case study on Japan argues that modernity stimulates tradition, for in modernity progress is constantly sought, yet constantly questioned, undermined, and remodeled. Modernity everywhere, he says, repeatedly clothes itself in reconstructions of the past, recreating a national costume and inventing national traditions to authenticate the very idea of the nation itself. Simultaneously, the significance of place increases with globalization because it represents a threat due to the speed and flexibility with which ideologies and goods flow across national boundaries (Slade, 2009). These theories have helped in gaining an understanding of the semiology of fashion apparel. The way we classify things is important. The need for classification is clear in many human fields. Progress itself seems to depend on it. However, while certain things seem to be amenable to classification, others do not (Hall, 2012).

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Model 1: Sari Connotation and Denotation Model Copyright © by Dr Vaibbhavi Pruthviraj Ranavaade, 2017

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For instance, the sari example has been explained below: What sort of draped apparel should we classify as a sari? Here are some possible responses: All drapes that are worn by women – PUBLIC. All drapes that women call a sari – EXPERT. All drapes that I call a sari – SELF. All drapes that are sold in the market as a sari – INSTITUTION. All drapes that are called a sari by designers – DESIGNER. All drapes that common sense tells us are a sari – COMMON SENSE. All drapes that have the intrinsic properties of a sari – QUALITIES OF OBJECT. All drapes that cause a sari-like reaction from the viewer – AESTHETIC RESPONSE. Gestures are rich in meaning as a condensed non-verbal source of communication; they appear to be a trouble-free way to express approval or disapproval, affection and disaffection, and assent or dissent. Some gestures have universal meanings, and some seem to have different meanings in different contexts. Some simple gestures can produce grave misunderstandings in the wrong way (Hall, 2012). The below framework built for this study on Hall's matrix on ‘Matters of interpretation’, allows an understanding of the communication of the sari in terms of the wider context of society and culture. It was developed after detailed observations and photographic interpretation of the phase II findings. Ethnic outer and over garments like shawls, cardigans, vests, and shrug jackets can be worn over the sari. Different saris for each fashion subcategory in the Indian fashion system are treated as a semantic unit and their communication in the context of society and culture is decoded in the model below.

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Model 2: Communication of the Sari in the context of society and culture. Copyright © by Dr Vaibbhavi Pruthviraj Ranavaade, 2017

IV. Conclusions This study dwells upon the semiotic study of the Indian sari which is an integral part of the Indian fashion system with a special emphasis on womenswear. There is an opportunity for an in-depth study of the Indian fashion system and this research makes the documentation of the changing sari styles accessible. However, it also explains the symbolism, tacit meaning, and evolution of the sari. It also reveals the factors involved in its evolution. It has been observed that the new Indian designers are making

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efforts to reintroduce and reinvent the sartorial sari to make it more meaningful in the current context and a dynamic garment for the modern Indian youth. Young Indian designers are making efforts to produce unique modern-day reflections of the Indian sari while retaining the heritage and cultural values through its traditional textiles, motifs, and crafts. Documentation in terms of databases or models becomes an essential reference point for future research and helps in creating the Indian fashion vocabulary. Indeed, the reinvention of the sari is the reflection of the modern, more culturally rooted youth. The sari is central to the narrative of the creative futures of the Indian fashion systems. Alongside Indian designers who have realized the impact of the powerful drape, the western interpretation of the drape has also led to the creation of newer variants. These collectively lead to an understanding of the fluid nature of fashion identities in the post-modern globalized world.

References 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Baudrillard, J. (1988). The system of objects. In J. Thackara (Ed.), Design after modernism: Beyond the object (pp. 171-182). New York, NY: Thames & Hudson. Lurie, A. (2000 [1981]). The language of clothes. New York: An Owl Book/Henry Holtz. Craik, J. (2009). FASHION The Key Concepts. Oxford New York: Berg, Hall, S. (2012). This Means This, This means That: A User’s Guide to Semiotics. 2nd Edition, Kaiser, S. B. (1997). The Social Psychology of Clothing: Symbolic Appearances in Context. New York, NY: Fairchild. Kapur, C. R., (2010). Saris-Tradition and Beyond. New Delhi: Luster press Roli. Kumar, R. (2013). (With inputs from Technopak Advisors), Diversity in India’s Ethnicity. Images Business of fashion, 14 (9). McLuhan, M., & Powers, B. R. (1989). The global village: Transformations in world life and media in the 21st century. New York: Oxford University Press. Ranavaade, V, (2017) Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. A Semiotic study of the Indian Sari. Slade, T. (2009). Japanese Fashion: A cultural History. Oxford, New York:Berg.

CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR VISUAL ANALYSIS OF THE MODES OF COMPOSITION IN THE WOODCUTS AND ETCHINGS OF ARTIST SOMNATH HORE 1

NAMRITA SHARMA1 AND UTPAL BARUA1 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY GUWAHATI, ASSAM, INDIA

Abstract Continuous experimentations with methods and materials of printmaking as well as grappling with the problem of visual objectification of his experiences in the most expressive way led the visual artist Somnath Hore to carve his place in the field of Indian printmaking as one of the most versatile artists. Hore first started to experiment with the medium of printmaking in the 1940s while studying at the Government College of Arts and Crafts, Calcutta but the woodcuts available for study are from the period of the late 1940s to the 1950s. This chapter attempts to analyse the visual style of Somnath Hore through modes of composition and representation of the elements in the woodcuts and etchings.

I. Introduction In the field of visual art, the medium of printmaking blossomed much later in India. It had been used commercially for various reasons but the use of the medium for its graphic qualities in terms of artistic expression was perhaps first initiated by Gaganendranath Tagore in around 1917-18. The development of printmaking in India is due to the contribution of a few artists, including Somnath Hore. He is known to be at the forefront owing to his versality in various mediums of printmaking. He initially experimented in woodcuts and linocuts during the 1940s and later worked in monochrome etching, multi-colored etching and aquatint, and lithography and worked

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with cement cast molds for paper pulp prints known as ‘Wounds’. It is his constant urge to innovate the technical process and transform the pictorial elements in the works which made him one of the prominent artists in the Indian and international circuits of visual art (Ray, 1981). The eminent artist Benod Behari Mukherjee aptly wrote in his essay called ‘Silpa Jignasa’ about the correlation of memory, experience of the objective world and its contemplation by the artist in his works of art. According to him, memory lies at the root of experiences. It is because of memory that we tend to remember the sensation of diverse things, sounds and colors leaving a mark on our minds. These sensations are then transformed into motifs which contribute to the making of an image of the actual form. The ‘shapes’ and ‘forms’ are undoubtedly, the artist’s basic stimuli. Form and gesture, emotional impulse and contemplative vision, can be called the inner stuff or content and the techniques that make its body because that is what gives the idea/feeling a physical form (Mukherjee, 2006). Here, the form of an artwork means the way in which its details are organized (Munro, 1943). Hore’s childhood was filled with painful experiences of the Second World War as his own village was targeted by Japanese bombings during the early 1940s. A direct encounter with death, dead bodies, burnt houses and the pain caused to his poor compatriots, triggered a young Somnath to express his own feelings and document the entire scenario in the form of visuals (Ray, 1981). Later, the Bengal Famine (1943) which affected Bengal, and parts of Bihar and Orissa led him to volunteer for relief camps run by the Communist Party of India. Here, his skill in drawing was recognized and he was put under the tutelage of Chittaprasad Bhattacharya (another artist and member of the CPI) to visit villages and document the situation through sketches and drawings which were published in Janayuddha (CPI’s weekly newsletter). These two major events altered the course of visual arts in Bengal and introduced the element of social consciousness into the works of the artists (Hore, 1995).

II. Literature Review Early Experimentations Printmaking was introduced to Hore while he was studying at the Government College of Art and Crafts (1945) in Calcutta, and he learned his first lessons in wood engraving from Safi Uddin Ahmed (another prominent printmaker of Bangladesh) and lessons in drawing from Zainul Abedin (Ghosh, 1995). Somnath Hore had worked as a visual reporter for

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the Communist Party of India (CPI) where he had documented the Bengal Famine under the tutelage of Chittaprasad (a prominent artist and member of the CPI) and the Tebhaga movement. The Bengal famine, the Tebhaga and Tea Garden Journal started him on a journey to push himself in a need to have command over visual representational techniques (craftsmanship). These are initial academic works in treatment whereas in his woodcuts of the early 1950s, influences of the expressionist artist/printmaker Kathe Kolwittz in terms of light and shade and Chinese woodcuts are evident. Some of these prints are connected with the Tebhaga movement (December 1946) and sketches of the Tea Garden Journal (1947) (Hore, 2011). However, it is said that he engrossed himself in experimentation with the medium and its possible effects on the visual outcomes to develop his own visual vocabulary. With these continuous experimentations, the artist understood that the acquired skills and thematic explorations are not the ‘only’ components in the synthesis of a meaningful work of art. He had explicitly mentioned in his own writings that the theme should not prevail because if this happens, sentimentalism tends to saturate the work which builds up an obstacle to a thorough understanding of the pictorial values (Hore, 2009). Modern Indian Art and Somnath Hore Somnath Hore belongs to the time when the Indian socio-political situation was changing steeply. With Independence, India was partitioned into India and Pakistan (West Pakistan and East Pakistan – now Bangladesh). After gaining independence, there was the question of how to put the country on the track of modernization through industrialization. The challenging nature of the country’s demographics and Nehru’s vision for India’s advancement in science and technology had to proceed in parallel. Indian visual culture did not remain untouched by this as the artists/architects/filmmakers responded to these transformations in science, technology, and politics in their own manner (Brown, 2009). The involvement of Hore to signify the sufferings and resistance of humans in his imagery slowly filtered throughout his career. The scholar Devika Singh (2017) writes about the importance of Hore’s artistic response along with that of other eminent artists – K. G. Subramanyan and Bhupen Khakar – during the Bangladesh Liberation War of the 1970s. The role of conflict and violence in the face of famine, bombings, war and partition of India into Pakistan and Bangladesh has been interlinked with critical details of its aftermath upon the south Asian artistic community. It is interesting to see how politics subtly influenced the pictorial language and how the experimentations with materials/forms defied the European and North American aesthetical classifications. It

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connects the chaos happening at the Indian societal level to the Bangladesh Liberation War in which India intervened through its military power to drive West Pakistani forces out of partitioned Bengal (present day Bangladesh). The connection logically relates to the migration of people from the then East Pakistan (Bangladesh) to India to escape execution thus changing the whole course of the history of both nations, India and Bangladesh. Through the Wound series – paper pulp prints, the author tries to relate the painful memories of Japanese bombings in Chittagong and the Bengal Famine which the artist experienced, as he was born and brought up in those surroundings in the violence and unrest of 1969 and the 1970s. The artist was concerned with the issue of suffering humanity and carried the haunting memories of his past throughout his life in the form of a single metaphor called Wounds (Singh, 2017). The chapter will concentrate on the early beginnings, i.e., the late 1940s to 1950s, looking at the available image samples of the woodcuts and etchings which the artist created, to understand the progression pictorially. The artist worked until his death in 2006 but all of these periods are not considered here because this study is to understand the initial experimentation phase of the artist in two mediums only as he was simultaneously practicing in woodcut and etching. The Concept of Form in Graphic design The term ‘form’ means a three-dimensional entity in visual arts/graphic design when studying the visual elements. However, since the authors are aiming to analyse the stylistic aspects of the above-mentioned creative works, it becomes essential to clarify that the term ‘form’ is taken from linguistics, meaning a method of orderly arranging ideas or elements in a work of art. A painting or a graphic print or any other aspect of visual art may contain two factors: 1. Presented factors: shapes, colours, and lines, etc. 2. Suggested factors: events, objects as perceived by the viewers. 3. The visual language is different for each artist due to the way he/she chooses to arrange those elements as well as the manner in which those elements are depicted. The method used for analysing the stylistic aspects of the works of Somnath Hore is descriptive analysis through modes of composition. The four principal modes of composition are: utilitarian or functional, expository, representative and decorative/thematic (Munro, 1943).

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Aesthetic Morphology

Presented + Suggested Factors

Compositional Modes Utilitarian, Representative, Expository & Decorative/ Thematic Fig. 1. Parts of Aesthetic Morphology

Frame of Reference: The impression of the outer boundary of the print has been taken as the frame of reference to further understand the layout of the visual elements. This frame of reference gives a demarcation of the visible boundary for understanding the arrangement of formal elements and their orientation (Wong, 1991).

Fig. 2. Frame of reference – Black dotted lines Image Source: Catalogue – Seagull Foundation for the Arts (2011)

III. Materials and Methods Hore believed that merely concentrating on the subject/theme does not amount to a high-quality work of art. He opined that constant involvement in the evolution of formal elements is necessary to effectively express the message in the form of visuals. His works have been looked at through the

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lens of political, technical, and conceptual enquiry whereas the formation of his visuals also demands attention, as those elements tend to be the basis of his unique aesthetical perception. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to analyze the visual style of Somnath Hore through the modes of composition and representation of the elements in the woodcuts and etchings. From 1947 onwards, Hore started taking an interest in printmaking and pursued it seriously. The digital images and exhibition catalogues of the selected body of woodcuts and etchings have been collected from the Seagull Art Foundation, Kolkata which has published widely about the artist. This study is limited to the selected samples of works (available in the form of a catalogue) produced between the late 1940s and the 1950s to understand how Somnath composed the visual elements in his own way. According to the eminent scholar and Hore’s close friend, Pranab Ranjan Ray, it was from 1951 onwards that the artist started experimenting extensively in the medium of printmaking to develop his own visual idioms. To understand the arrangement, the composition was divided according to the rule of thirds as it is the easiest and preferred method used by artists for composing their works.

Fig. 3. Wood Engraving by Somnath Hore. Early 1950s Image Source: Catalogue – Seagull Foundation for the Arts (2011)

Analysis: Compositional interpretation The late 1940s to the early 1950s – woodcuts (background and observations): The artist first started learning wood engraving as taught by his teacher, Safi Uddin Ahmed, while he was a student at the Government College of Art, Kolkata (Calcutta). Many of the engravings were done by referencing his own sketches created during the Tebhaga Revolt. Hore rendered these prints with fully detailed figures against the backgrounds with an emphasis on the anatomy of the human form and the movements and proportions of the body. Here, in these visuals, Hore has used detail in terms of depicting the

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figures with various objects to define the surroundings and to build a narrative. These works are horizontal and vertical as well as oval layouts in terms of the frame of reference (the boundary in which the picture has been created). The three portraits are detailed – the drapery (cloth) has been shown with thick and thin line strokes. The faces have been created with a zoom-in view with each wrinkle apparent, showing the age of the person. There is no variation in line per se in terms of tones as in woodcut, the tones are created with thin and thick lines combining as opposed to etching or watercolor where a single line can have a variation of tone (the degree of darkness or lightness). Somnath Hore has chosen different angles in his composition and his figures are not static. The postures of the figures engage a viewer. In certain compositions, he has carved out a thick scoop of area of the matrix to show the figure through white with a contrasting black background and a foreground without much variation in the thickness of lines just like a stencil cut. However, when dealing with a group of figures in his composition, the lines become finer and thinner as opposed to single or double figure arrangements. The early works focus on a certain figure made bigger in the composition as compared to other elements. These compositions are compact because of being organized in a closed irregular polygon frame within the main frame of reference. The background and the figures are given equal importance in terms of details/carving out the form due to which certain parts of the figures tend to mix with the texture created or another form. This problem of mixing the figure with other parts of the compositions seems to lessen at a later stage of his woodcuts when he employs thin and long, fine strokes to depict the figures as well as other details in the background and foreground, but the details are everywhere. The visual texture in the initial period consists of a combination of irregular grain-like cut-outs along with broad line strokes with blunt edges due to the use of a u-shaped tool for carving the block of wood. The compositions are memetic representations of human suffering or daily life events in village surroundings. Some of the compositions are outdoor landscapes with figures marching or engaged in work and some show indoor environments. The portraits do not have any detailed background as represented in other compositions of this time.

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1. Use of thick, blunt strokes. 2. Close up view with details in the figure. 3. Frame of Reference. (Dotted Rectangle) Fig. 4. Wood Engraving by Somnath Hore. Early 1950s Image Source: Catalogue – Seagull Foundation for the Arts (2011)

The mid- and late-1950s (woodcuts + etchings): The representation of the human form started becoming less detailed in terms of using strokes to build light and shade within and beyond the form. The earlier woodcuts focused on building the figure, each having a detailed muscle formation which starts to reduce in this period as evident by the available samples of work. There is a play in denoting the body parts by the exaggeration of areas joining one body part with another; for example, the ribs and the stomach region have been squeezed to heighten the physical appearance of hunger-stricken bodies in his etching called Children, created in the year 1958. The shape of the head is oval, the edges are soft, and the contours of the body parts are curvaceous and elongated. Multiple and overlapping lines are used to create the shaped region. The features are denoted by simple shapes. The shapes denoting various body parts are not totally flat, and they have been rendered by foreshortening and perspective to evoke interest. The majority of the works have full female figures in a seated posture, reclining on a bed with entangled lines. Out of 12 etching compositions, three are non-human figures and the rest are human. From the mid-1950s onwards, the human figures (female) are mostly nude. Visual Texture: The function of the line is to create the human figure as well as the texture. Apart from line textures, the artist has used various materials to imprint their texture on to the matrix/printing surface. The textures chosen are rough and uneven to create an uncomfortable visual.

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Chapter Twenty-Four

1.

Use of thin liner strokes.

2.

Close up view with fewer details in the figure. Frame of Reference (Dotted Rectangle)

Fig. 5. Etching by Somnath Hore. Mid-1950s Image Source: Catalogue – Seagull Foundation for the Arts (2011)

IV. Findings The transition in style from the mid-1950s onwards is evident because the lines of one part or element are extending to other parts or elements of the composition. The figure is simplified through the elimination of details of all body parts and reducing them to simpler organic shapes; in other words, there is a suggestion of figures without actual details. Certain parts of the body are elongated and exaggerated by making the outlines curvier than the actual proportions. The artists played with the edges and the joint areas to form pointed sharp figures. Apart from playing with the joints, there is an overlapping of the figure boundaries to entwine them, creating wire-like figure structures. Single, double and group compositions to the late 1950s indicate the number of figures in the composition created by the artist.

V. Conclusion The study concludes that the artist was constantly using different modes of composing visual elements as well as shifting the style of expression by creating changes in the shape of the figures. Hore started to eliminate the details just to concentrate on the main figure in his compositions. Studying these various modes of composition may help visual design students to explore the various possibilities of picture-making processes to further enhance their visual vocabulary.

References 1.

Ray, P, (1981), Hunger and the painter: Somnath Hore and the wounds. Cressida Transactions, 1(2), 203.

Visual Analysis of the Modes of Composition in the Woodcuts and Etchings of Artist Somnath Hore 2.

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Mukherjee, B. B., (2006), Chitrakar: The Artist. Kolkata, West Bengal. Seagull Books Pvt Ltd. 3. Munro, T. (1943), Form in the arts: An outline for descriptive analysis. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 2(8), 5-26. 4. Hore, S. (1995), Wounds, exhibition catalogue, CIMA Gallery, Kolkata, W.B. 5. Ghosh, M. (1995), Somnath Hore: His Life and Art. Samakalin Bhaskarya, pp 101-122. 4th edn. Pratikshan Publications, Kolkata. 6. Hore, S. (2009), My Concept of Art. Kolkata, West Bengal. Seagull Books Pvt Ltd. 7. Hore, S. (2011), Somnath Hore: Prints, Drawings, Posters [Exhibition catalogue], 17 February-1 March 2011. Kolkata, West Bengal. Seagull Foundation for the Arts. 8. Singh, D. (2017), Indian Art and the Bangladesh War: Somnath Hore, KG Subramanyan and Bhupen Khakhar in a Time of ‘Upheaval and Chaos’. Third Text, 31(2-3), 459-476. 9. Brown, R. M. (2009), Art for a modern India, 1947-1980. Duke University Press. 10. Wong, W. (1991), Principles of two-dimensional design. John Wiley & Sons.