The Foundations of Latin [Reprint 2018 ed.] 9783110892604, 9783110172089

Citation preview

The Foundations of Latin

w DE

G

The Foundations of Latin

by

Philip Baldi

Mouton de Gruyter Berlin • New York

2002

Mouton de Gruyter (formerly Mouton, The Hague) is a Division of Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin. An earlier version of this work was published in 1999 as volume 117 of the series Trends in Linguistics - Studies and Monographs.

® Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines of the ANSI to ensure permanence and durability.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication-Data Baldi, Philip. The foundations of Latin / by Philip Baldi. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 3-11-016294-6 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN 3-11-017208-9 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Latin language - Grammar, Historical. 2. Indo-European languages - Influence on Latin. 3. Inscriptions, Latin - Italy. 4. Italy - Languages. I. Title. II. Series. PA2071.B35 1998 475-dc21 98-51324 CIP

Die Deutsche Bibliothek -

Cataloging-in-Publication-Data

Baldi, Philip: The foundations of Latin / by Philip Baldi. - Berlin ; New York : Mouton de Gruyter, 2002 ISBN 3-11-017208-9 br. ISBN 3-11-016294-6 Geb.

© Copyright 2002 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, D-10785 Berlin All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Cover design: Sigurd Wendland, Berlin. Printed in Germany.

Preface Generations of students of Indo-European linguistics and of the Classics have been initiated to the history of the Latin language according to a familiar model. Most start with Palmer's The Latin language. The curious journey through Buck's Comparative grammar of Greek and Latin and Meillet's Esquisse d'une histoire de la langue latine. The committed know that the real answers lie somewhere in Sommer—Pfister's Handbuch der lateinischen Lout- und Formenlehre, and especially Leumann's Lateinische Laut- und Formenlehre, to which we might now add Sihler's massive revision and rewrite of Buck, the New comparative grammar of Greek and Latin. Specific interests and particular issues may take the serious to the works of Meillet—Vendryes, Devoto, Pisani, Niedermann, Prosdocimi and many others. But the road becomes rocky beyond Palmer, and without some specialized guidance or training, even the most ardent enthusiast of the history of Latin will find some of the issues impenetrable. Many give up on the topic, convinced that the arcane methodology and specialized techniques of Indo-European linguistics place the details beyond the grasp of the everyday scholar and ambitious student of IndoEuropean or classical studies. In the United States, students of the Classics and the basic Indo-European foundations of Latin have relied primarily on Palmer and Buck. Each of these fine volumes has undeniable merits and strengths, and an equal number of evident flaws and weaknesses. The same is true of other synthetic accounts of the history of Latin. In some, there is no information on methodology and basic assumptions of historicalcomparative research; in others there is a lack of discussion of the sources of information on which the historical linguistic analysis of Latin and the other Indo-European languages is based; in still others there is a lack of cultural and historical perspective, with the history of Latin presented as if the language had no speakers; most lack a coherent treatment of the inscriptional tradition, and of the non-Latin Italic languages; and in none of them is there a serious treatment of historical syntax, i.e. the evolution of Latin sentence structure from its Proto-Indo-European beginnings. In fact, not one of the available resources addresses the total picture of the history of Latin, methodologically, linguistically, materially and culturally, from its Indo-European origins up to the time when it starts to move in the direction of the Romance languages. When I began this project over a decade ago, I imagined that The foundations of Latin would fill all the gaps in the previous literature, and add a few original twists of its own. It is my hope now that it will fill some of the gaps, and still add some original twists. This volume includes an account of historical linguistic methodology and the Indo-European family of languages which surpasses that found in comparable works. I have tried to justify linguistic details essential to the precise understanding of the history of Latin and the other Indo-European languages, and to

vi

Preface

be explicit and current on matters relating to the inscriptional and philological record, and on the connections of Latin with other Indo-European languages. And I have attempted to provide up-to-date analysis and commentary which I hope makes the material contained in this volume considerably more than a reshaping of the known facts. But gaps remain, the major one of which is a coherent treatment of historical Latin syntax. After writing a lengthy outline, I realized that the subject was so vast and fraught with theoretical and methodological peril that it would be pointless to undertake a synthesis in a volume of this sort. Phonology is manageable; once the theoretical decisions are made (such as whether to include laryngeals, glottalized consonants, voiceless aspirates, etc.), the details follow in a more or less straightforward manner. Morphology is more challenging, owing to the large number of morphological elements in a language of the Indo-European and Latin type, but it is nonetheless finite. Syntax, however, is vast and laden with conflicting data, and its analysis depends on crucial theoretical assumptions and subtle grammatical judgments. Historical syntax is particularly treacherous, for not only must a theoretical model be selected and justified, it must be appropriate for both the protolanguage and the target language, and the processes connecting the two must be stated with the same explicitness as those detailing the historical phonology and morphology. In effect, the syntax of Proto-Indo-European would have to be reconstructed before the historical syntax of Latin could be written. I realized that this cannot be accomplished in a synthetic account of the history of the language. It must be treated in a volume of its own. This book is not intended to be a replacement for other volumes on the history of the Latin language. Leumann and now Sihler, for example, will continue to be primary sources on highly specific matters of phonology and morphology; Pisani will continue to provide the most comprehensive (though dated) account of the inscriptional record; and Niedermann will remain a capital resource of phonetic detail. At the same time, it is my expectation that specialists and non-specialists alike will find information and detail in these pages which they won't find outside the technical literature, and a synthesis of method, theory, data and analysis which is unavailable elsewhere. It is my hope that future generations of scholars will add The foundations of Latin to the list of standard resource works on the history of this fascinating language.

Contents Preface List of

v figures

xiii

List of maps

xiii

List of plates

xiv

List of tables

xv

Acknowledgments

xvii

Credits

xix

Abbreviations and symbols

xxi

Transcription conventions

xxiii

Chapter 1 Indo-European and the Indo-European languages 1.1. Introduction 1.2. Methodological preliminaries 1.3. The comparative method and the regularity principle 1.3.1. Challenges to the comparative method and the regularity principle 1.4. The method of internal reconstruction 1.5. Genetic classifications and family trees 1.6. The Indo-European language family 1.6.1. Indo-Iranian 1.6.2. Greek (Hellenic) 1.6.3. Italic 1.6.4. Anatolian 1.6.5. Tocharian 1.6.6. Celtic 1.6.7. Germanic 1.6.8. Slavic 1.6.9. Baltic 1.6.10. Armenian 1.6.11. Albanian 1.6.12. Fragmentary languages 1.6.13. The centum-satem dialect distinction

1 1 2 3 14 20 21 23 23 25 28 29 30 31 32 34 34 35 36 36 38

viii

Contents

1.7. Aspects of Proto-Indo-European culture and civilization 1.7.1. The homeland 1.7.2. Lexical reflections of PIE culture 1.8. Summary

39 39 45 46

Chapter 2 An outline of Proto-Indo-European 2.1. Phonology 2.1.1. Segmental phonology 2.1.2. The glottalic theory 2.1.3. The phonological system of PIE 2.1.4. Accent 2.1.5. Summary 2.2. Morphology 2.2.1. Nominal and pronominal morphology 2.2.2. Verb morphology 2.2.3. Ablaut 2.3. Syntax 2.3.1. Inflection in PIE 2.3.2. PIE syntax 2.4. Summary

47 49 49 52 58 64 65 66 67 71 76 77 79 80 91

Chapter 3 Ancient Italy and its Indo-Europeanization 3.1. The European Stone Age and its reflection in Italy 3.2. The Metal Ages 3.3. Rome 3.4. The Etruscans 3.4.1. Theories of Etruscan origins 3.5. The people of ancient Italy 3.6. Summary

93 96 98 104 107 109 112 117

Chapter 4 The languages of ancient Italy 4.1. Sources of information 4.2. Samples of the Italic languages 4.2.1. Aequian 4.2.2. Faliscan 4.2.3. Latin 4.2.4. Marrucinian 4.2.5. Marsian 4.2.6. Oscan 4.2.7. Paelignian 4.2.8. Sabine 4.2.9. South Picene

118 118 121 122 123 125 126 128 129 132 134 134

Contents

ix

4.2.10. Umbrian 4.2.11. Vestinian 4.2.12. Volscian 4.3. Samples of non-Italic languages 4.3.1. Celtic 4.3.2. Independent IE languages 4.3.3. Non-IE languages 4.4. Interrelationships within Italic 4.4.1. Areal/chronological classifications 4.4.2. Genetic classifications 4.4.3. Proto-Italic 4.4.4. Non-Roman elements in Latin 4.5. Relationships between the Italic and other Indo-European languages 4.5.1. Old European, or the civilization of the northwest 4.5.2. The relationship between Italic and Germanic 4.5.3. The relationship between Italic and Celtic 4.5.4. The relationship between Latin and Greek 4.6. Summary

136 140 140 142 142 147 160 167 167 168 180 181 183 183 185 186 189 195

Chapter 5 Materials for the study of Latin 5.1. Samples of Latin inscriptions, with commentary 5.1.1. The Castor and Pollux dedication 5.1.2. The Duenos inscription 5.1.3. The Garigliano bowl 5.1.4. The Forum Romanum cippus 5.1.5. The Lapis Satricanus 5.1.6. Epitaph from the Scipionic sarcophagus 5.1.7. Dedication to Hercules by M. Minucius 5.1.8. The Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus 5.1.9. The Carmen Arvale 5.1.10. Epitaph from Rome 5.1.11. Commemorative tablet to L. Aemilius Paulus 5.1.12. Dedicatory inscription from Aeclanum 5.1.13. The Puteolan funerary tablets 5.2. Continuous texts 5.2.1. An excerpt from the Law of the Twelve Tables 5.3. Literary texts 5.3.1. Cato 5.3.2. Testimony of grammarians 5.4. Spoken Latin 5.4.1. Literary reflections of spoken Latin 5.5. Graffiti

196 196 196 197 200 202 204 206 207 208 213 215 216 217 217 218 218 219 219 220 227 228 235

x

Contents

5.5.1. CIL 4.1904 5.5.2. CIL 4.3948 5.5.3. CIL 4.1173 5.6. Letters 5.6.1. Claudius Terentianus 5.6.2. A letter from the archive of Flavius Cerialis 5.7. Summary

236 236 237 237 237 240 241

Chapter 6 The development of the Latin phonological system from PIE 6.1. The vowels and laryngeals 6.1.1. The PIE vowels and diphthongs in Latin 6.1.2. The Latin vowel system 6.1.3. The Latin accent 6.2. The consonants 6.2.1. Resonants 6.2.2. Obstruents 6.2.3. The structure of the Latin consonant system 6.2.4. Phonological processes affecting consonants in Latin: Assimilation, dissimilation, metathesis, epenthesis, and the simplification of consonant clusters 6.3. Summary

242 242 242 250 268 270 270 277 290

Chapter 7 The development of the Latin morphological system from PIE . . . . 7.1. The parts of speech 7.2. Nouns and adjectives 7.2.1. Nominal and adjectival derivation 7.2.2. Nominal inflection 7.2.3. The development of Latin nominal inflection from PIE 7.3. Pronouns 7.3.1. The personal pronouns 7.3.2. The development of the PIE personal pronouns into Latin 7.3.3. Possessive pronouns (adjectives) 7.3.4. Non-personal pronouns 7.3.5. Indefinites, interrogatives, and relatives 7.3.6. The development of the PIE interrogative and indefinite pronouns into Latin 7.3.7. Pronominal adjectives 7.4. Comparison of adjectives 7.4.1. Comparative 7.4.2. Superlative 7.5. Adverbs 7.6. Numerals

300 300 300 300 309 312 336 337 338 341 342 345

293 298

347 348 349 349 350 350 351

Contents

xi

7.6.1. The Latin numerals 7.7. Undeclined forms 7.7.1. Particles 7.7.2. Preverbs and prepositions 7.7.3. Conjunctions 7.7.4. Interjections 7.8. The verb 7.8.1. General characteristics of the PIE verb 7.8.2. Active and non-active in early PIE 7.8.3. Voice in classical PIE 7.8.4. Tense/aspect in classical PIE 7.8.5. The development of voice and tense/aspect from early PIE to classical PIE 7.8.6. From PIE to Latin 7.8.7. Mood in PIE 7.8.8. Person in PIE 7.8.9. Other characteristics of the PIE verbal system 7.8.10. PIE verbal morphology and its development into Latin 7.8.11. Personal endings 7.8.12. The development of the PIE endings of the present and aorist into Latin 7.8.13. The endings of the perfect in PIE 7.8.14. The development of the personal endings of the perfect into Latin 7.8.15. The development of the personal endings of the PIE middle into Latin 7.8.16. Deponent and middle in Latin 7.8.17. The Latin tenses 7.8.18. The moods 7.8.19. Nominal forms of the verb in Latin 7.9. Summary

389 392 396 .400 406 409

References

411

:

352 358 358 358 361 361 361 361 362 364 365 365 366 368 368 368 370 383 385 386 387

Classical sources cited

444

Indexes of forms 1. Latin-Faliscan 2. Albanian 3. Anatolian 4. Armenian 5. Baltic 6. Celtic

445 445 482 482 483 484 485

xii

Contents

7. Germanic 8. Greek 9. Indo-Iranian 10. Other Italic 11. Non-Italic IE of Italy 12. Non-Indo-European 13. Romance 14. Slavic 15. Tocharian 16. Proto-Indo-European

487 491 497 502 505 506 506 506 507 508

Index of authors

515

Index of classical references

520

Index of subjects

522

List of figures 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 2.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 6.1 6.2 7.1

Comparative alignment of nasal segments Triangulation of nasal segments Reconstruction of *m and *n Reconstructing *s A family tree of the Indo-European languages The structure of the late Indo-European verb Poultney's classification of the Italic languages Coleman's classification of the Italic languages The relation of Latin and Faliscan Proto-Italic and the relation between Latin-Faliscan and Oscan-Umbrian A family tree of the Italic languages The Classical Latin vowel system Alternation of long segments The development of tense/aspect and voice from early PIE to Latin

12 12 12 13 22 75 169 170 171 181 181 250 262 367

List of maps 1 2 3 4 5

Distribution of Indo-European languages, ca. 500-100 Proposals for the Indo-European homeland Cities and regions of ancient Italy Tribes of ancient Italy Languages of ancient Italy

B.C.E.

37 40 105 113 119

List of plates 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Faliscan:,Ceres Marracinian: Aes Rapinum Marsian: Inscription from Antinum Oscan: Tabula Bantina Paelignian: Herentas South Picene: Castignano stone Umbrian: Tabulae Iguvinae Vestinian: Inscription from Navelli Volscian: Tabula Veliterna Gaulish/Latin: Bilingual inscription from Todi Lepontic: Vergiate stone Messapic: Inscription from Ceglie Messapico North Picene/Latin: Bilingual inscription from Pesaro Raetic: Caslir situla Raetic: Paletta di Padova Sicel: Centuripa vase Venetic: Epitaph from Padua Latin: Castor and Pollux dedication Latin: Duenos inscription Latin: Forum Romanum cippus Latin: Lapis Satricanus Latin: Epitaph from the Scipionic sarcophagus Latin: Dedication to Hercules Latin: Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus Latin: Carmen Arvale Latin: Commemorative tablet to L. Aemilius Paulus

124 127 129 130 133 135 138 141 141 144 146 151 153 155 156 157 159 197 198 203 205 207 208 209 214 216

List of tables 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6

Some basic Indo-European terms 8 Selected lexical items illustrating the comparative method 11 Nasals aligned for comparison 11 13 Selected Indo-European cognates Multilateral comparison 16 Examples of reconstructed Proto-Nostratic 17 Schleicher's reconstructed system 50 Vowel strengthening in Sanskrit 50 Brugmann's reconstructed system 51 Lehmann's reconstructed system 53 Szemer6nyi's reconstructed system 53 "Grimm's Law" and the Armenian consonant shift 54 The glottalic model of PIE stop consonants 55 The phonological system of PIE 59 The development of the PIE phonological system in selected languages 62 A root/inflectional accent (hysterodynamic) noun (' foot') 65 A root/inflectional accent verb (' turn') 65 Reconstructed case endings 68 Examples of noun inflection: *h1dont-lh1dent- 'tooth' 69 Examples of personal pronoun inflection 70 The indefinite/interrogative *kve-!k*i71 Verbal categories in selected IE languages 72 Selected verbal endings 74 The present of the verb *hjes- 'be' in PIE and selected languages 76 The present of the verb *htei- 'go' in PIE and selected languages 76 Qualitative ablaut 77 The development of the alphabet 120 Conway's classification of Prae-Italic and Italic languages 168 Pulgram's classification of Prae-Italic and Italic languages 168 Greek loanwords in Latin 192 PIE vowels and diphthongs 242 PIE resonants and obstruents 271 Classical Latin consonants 291 Nominal inflection in PIE 310 The Latin o-stem declension 312 The Latin a-stem declension 317 The Latin third declension consonant stems 322 The Latin i-stem nouns of the third declension 327 The Latin «-stem nouns of the fourth declension 330

xvi

7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 7.20 7.21 7.22 7.23 7.24 7.25 7.26 7.27 7.28 7.29 7.30 7.31 7.32 7.33 7.34 7.35 7.36 7.37

List of tables

The Latin fifth declension The PIE personal pronouns The Latin personal pronouns The declension of is, ea, id The Latin interrogative/indefinite The Latin relative The PIE interrogative/indefinite *kue-!kviThe PIE adjective/relative *kyo-/klfeh2-/kyoThe numbers 1-10 in PIE Interjections Categories of the Latin verb Sample paradigm: The present indicative active of *htes- 'be* Sample paradigm: The present indicative active of *bher- 'carry* Latin conjugation types Third conjugation inflectional types The personal endings of the present and aorist active The personal endings of the PIE perfect active The personal endings of the PIE middle A sample of direct middles A sample of indirect middles A sample of reciprocal middles A sample of deponent verbs with recoverable middle meaning A sample of deponents with no recoverable middle meaning The Latin passive perfect tenses The PIE subjunctive and Latin future of 'to be' The PIE subjunctive of *bher- 'carry' The PIE optative and Latin subjunctive present of 'to be' PIE active imperative endings PIE middle imperative endings Latin active imperatives Latin deponent/middle imperatives

333 337 337 342 346 346 346 346 352 361 369 371 371 373 374 384 387 389 393 393 393 396 396 400 401 401 401 404 404 404 404

Acknowledgments A project that takes as long as this one tends to involve a significant number of people. Since beginning The foundations of Latin in 1987,1 have solicited the advice, opinions, and criticisms of many individuals. Because of the complicated nature of this book, and the different viewpoints which each colleague has brought to the task of commenting on its content, it has not been possible to accept every one of their suggestions. I hope each will understand why I have on occasion chosen to ignore, or to circumvent, their good counsel. It goes without saying that none of them is responsible for the errors or misjudgments which remain, especially because they all saw the work at different stages in its development. Five colleagues stand out for special mention. Harm Pinkster (Amsterdam), Theo Vennemann (Munich), Frits Waanders (Amsterdam), Gary Miller (Florida), and William R. Schmalstieg (Penn State) read all or most of the manuscript in one of its early stages. Their advice has been invaluable, and their influence is everywhere. Archie Allen, Joseph Cotter, David Engel, Garrett Fagan, Aristoula Georgiadou, Paul Harvey, and Stephen Wheeler, my Classics colleagues at Penn State, have given me advice on technical matters in Greek and Latin. Alfred Bammesberger (Eichstätt) commented on an early draft of the chapters on phonology and morphology. James Mallory (Belfast) provided a critical reading of material on archaeology and the homeland question, and generously allowed me to make use of his maps of IE languages and proposals for the homeland. Bruce Campbell (Drake) commented on an early draft of the first five chapters. Christian Lehmann (Bielefeld) advised me on the letter of Claudius Terentianus. Snezana Milovanovic (Newfoundland) critiqued an early draft of the section on the PIE verb. I have profited from exchanges with Brent Vine (UCLA) and Rex Wallace (Massachusetts) on certain epigraphical matters, and Rama N. Sharma (Hawaii) on some Sanskrit details. Pierluigi Cuzzolin (Pavia) made me aware of the discovery of the Garigliano Bowl. Joe Eska (Virginia Polytechnic) advised me on some recent Celtic finds, and Konrad Koerner (Ottawa) provided information on aspects of the history of Indo-European scholarship. Werner Winter (Kiel), the editor of the series in which this book is appearing, gave a critical reading of the entire manuscript, and shared his vast knowledge of the field of Indo-European linguistics in his review. To him I am particularly grateful. David Lembeck (State College) executed the graphics work, and Jeaninne Schonta of Penn State's Deasy Cartography Lab prepared the maps; both endured my nagging corrections and revisions. Melinda Blough (Penn State) helped with literary citations and philological corrections. The entire manuscript was formatted and set by Peter T. Daniels, whose expertise extends beyond typesetting and into technical matters of linguistics. Thanks are also due to several organizations and institutions. The Dutch National Science Foundation (NWO) granted me a Research Fellowship for a semester in

xviii

A cknowledgments

Amsterdam in the Winter-Spring of 1987, where I began this undertaking. The Institute for the Arts and Humanistic Studies of Penn State University (Stanley Weintraub and George Mauner, Directors) awarded me a travel grant in the Summer of 1991 to begin inscriptional research, and to spend the summer at the University of Amsterdam. The same organization contributed funds toward the expense of preparing the maps for this volume. The Department of Classics at the University of Amsterdam provided me an occasional home away from home, in the most congenial and supportive surroundings imaginable for a visiting colleague. The National Endowment for the Humanities awarded me a Faculty Fellowship for 1994-1995, which allowed me to take off the entire academic year to work on this book. The Office of Research and Graduate Studies of Penn State's College of the Liberal Arts (Raymond Lombra, Dean) awarded me a research and travel grant which allowed me to spend three weeks in Italy in the Summer of 1994 to secure photographs of inscriptions, and to have maps and other graphics work prepared. During the Spring of 1996 I held the Fulbright Chair in Historical Linguistics at the University of Naples, where I completed a good deal of the rewrite of the manuscript. Thanks also to my parents, John and Fran Baldi, who accompanied me to Italy in the Summer of 1994 and not only shared their passion for the country, but also helped to navigate the occasionally treacherous Italian museum bureaucracy. Final thanks go to my wife, Teri Lindner. She has been with this project from the beginning, through good times and bad. Fortunately, the good times have far outnumbered the bad. The good times include summers in Amsterdam and inscription hunts in Italy, where she took photographs and shared my joy at seeing and touching some ancient monument. On a daily basis, however, they include the infectious enthusiasm and inspiration which she imparts to those around her. Special thanks, and a blanket exculpation, to Brent Vine ( U C L A ) , who drew my attention to a number of errors of detail in the hardcover edition, most of which I have been able to correct in the paperback. State College September, 1998

Credits Photographs and reproductions Item Plate 1

Language/title Faliscan

Plate 2 Plate 3

Marrucinian Marsian

Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate

Oscan Paelignian South Picene Umbrian Vestinian Volscian Gaulish/Latin Lepontic Messapic North Picene/Latin Raetic Raetic Sicel

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Plate 17 Plate 18

Venetic Latin

Plate 19

Latin

Plate 20

Latin

Plate 21 Plate 22

Latin Latin

Plate 23

Latin

Plate 24

Latin

Plate 25

Latin

Plate 26

Latin

Source Soprintendenza Archeologica per llìtruria Meridionale, Rome After Mommsen, Die unteritalischen Dialekte, Plate XIV Agence Photographique de la Réunion des Musées Nationaux, Paris. Musée du Louvre Soprintendenza Archeologica di Napoli e Caserta, Naples Soprintendenza Archeologica di Napoli e Caserta, Naples Museo Archeologico, Ascoli Piceno Foto Gavirati, Gubbio Soprintendenza Archeologica di Napoli e Caserta, Naples Soprintendenza Archeologica di Napoli e Caserta, Naples Musei Vaticani, Rome Civiche Raccolte Archeologiche di Milano Biblioteca Comunale "Marco Gatti", Manduria Museo Archeologico Oliveriano, Pesaro Museo Nazionale, Trento Museo Civico, Padua After Conway—Whatmough—Johnson, The Prae-ltalic dialects of Italy, vol. 2, p. 446 Museo Civico, Padua From Gordon, Illustrated introduction to Latin epigraphy, plate 1, with permission of the author and the University of California Press From Gordon, Illustrated introduction to Latin epigraphy, plate 2, with permission of the author and the University of California Press From Gordon, Illustrated introduction to Latin epigraphy, plate 3, with permission of the author and the University of California Press Archivio Fotografico Vasari, Rome From Gordon, Illustrated introduction to Latin epigraphy, plate 4, with permission of the author and the University of California Press From Gordon, Illustrated introduction to Latin epigraphy, plate 5, with permission of the author and the University of California Press From Gordon, Illustrated introduction to Latin epigraphy, plate 6, with permission of the author and the University of California Press From Gordon, Illustrated introduction to Latin epigraphy, plate 49, with permission of the author and the University of California Press École Française d'Archéologie, Athens

xx

Credits

Alphabetic chart Table 4.1

The development of the alphabet

After Almar, Inscriptiones Latinae, p. 10

Abbreviations and symbols Languages Alb. Arm. AS Att. Av. Bret. CLat. Cret. Dor. Eng. Etr. Falisc. Fr. Gaul. Germ. Gk. Gmc. Goth. Heb. Hier. Hitt. Horn. Icel. IE Ion. IT.

It. Lat. Latv. Lemn. Lesb. Lith. Luw. Mir.

Albanian Armenian Anglo-Saxon Attic Avestan Breton Classical Latin Cretan Doric English Etruscan Faliscan French Gaulish German Greek Germanic Gothic Hebrew Hieroglyphic Hittite Homeric Icelandic Indo-European Ionic Irish Italian Latin Latvian Lemnian Lesbian Lithuanian Luwian Middle Irish

Myc. Norw. O-U OCS OE OHG OIc. Olr. OLat. OLatv. OLith. OPers. OPruss. OSax. Osc. OWel. Paelign. Phry. PIE Praen. Rom. Russ. Sab. Skt. Slov. Span. Tibur. Toch. Umbr. Ved. Ven. Volsc. Wei.

Mycenaean Norwegian Oscan-Umbrian Old Church Slavic Old English Old High German Old Icelandic Old Irish Old Latin Old Latvian Old Lithuanian Old Persian Old Prussian Old Saxon Oscan Old Welsh Paelignian Phrygian Proto-Indo-European Praenestine Roman Russian Sabine Sanskrit Slovene Spanish Tiburian Tocharian Umbrian Vedic Venetic Volscian Welsh

indicates an ungrammatical string indicates a reconstructed form indicates an impossible form is replaced by develops from

> [ ]

develops into indicates phonetic representation indicates phonemic representation indicates orthographic representation

Symbols t * ** -»