The Fisher Site: Archaeological, Geological and Paleobotanical Studies at an Early Paleo-Indian Site in Southern Ontario, Canada 9781951519964, 9780915703418

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at locality 1 (see Plate 7.2).

Right: In situ Fossil Hill Formation chert from the Collingwood area

Above: Early Paleo-Indian artifacts of Fossil Hill Formation chert from the Fisher site (see Plate 7.1).

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Right: Photom icrographs of Fossil Hill Formation chert from the Collingwood area (see Plate 7.4).

Above: Macroscopic views of Fossil Hill Formation chert from the Collingwood area (see Plate 7.3).

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Memoirs ofthe Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan Number 30

The Fisher Site Archaeological, Geological and Paleobotanical Studies at an Early Paleo-Indian Site in Southern Ontario, Canada

by Peter L. Storck with contributions by Betty E. Eley Q.H.I. Gwyn I.H. McAndrews Andre Nolin Andrew Stewart John Tomenchuk Peter H. von Bitter

w

ROM Co-published by the Royal Ontario Museum with the support of the Ontario Heritage Foundation

Ann Arbor 1997

©1997 by the Regents of the University of Michigan The Museum of Anthropology All rights reserved The publication of this monograph was supported by funds from the Royal Ontario Museum and a grant from the Ontario Heritage Foundation

Printed in the United States of America ISBN 978-0--915703--41--8 (paper) ISBN 978-1-951519-96-4 (ebook) Cover design by Katherine Clahassey. The University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology currently publishes three monograph series: Anthropological Papers, Memoirs, and Technical Reports. We have over seventy titles in print. For a complete catalog, write to Museum of Anthropology Publications, 4009 Museums Bldg., Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1079. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Storck, Peter L. The Fisher site : archaeological, geological, and paleobotanical studies at an early Paleo-Indian site in southern Ontario, Canada/ by Peter L. Storck, with contributions by Betty E. Eley ... [ et al.]. p. cm. - (Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan ; no. 30) "Published with the support of the Ontario Heritage Foundation." Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-915703-41-6 (pbk.: alk. paper) 1. Fisher Site (Ont.) 2. Paleo-Indians-Ontario-Simcoe (County) 3. Stone implements-Ontario-Simcoe (County) 4. Excavations (Archaeology)-Ontario-Simcoe (County) 5. Geology, Stratigraphic-­ Ontario-Simcoe (County)-Quaternary. 6. Paleobotany-Ontario­ Simcoe (County)---Quaternary. 7. Simcoe (Ontario: County)­ Antiquities. I. Eley, Betty E., 1922- . IL Title. III. Series. GN2.M52 no. 30 [E78.05] 96-43314 971.3'17-dc20 CIP The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of the ANSI Standard Z39 .48-1984 (Permanence of Paper)

Contributors (Institutional affiliation at the time of completion of the revised manuscript)

Betty E. Eley

Research Assistant, Department of Invertebrate Palaeontology, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto

Q.H.l Gwyn

Professor, Departement de geographie et teledetection, Universite de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec

IH. McAndrews

Curator, Department of Botany, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto

Andre Nolin

Departement de geographie et teledetection, Universite de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec

Andrew Stewart

Research Associate, Department of New World Archaeology, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto

Peter L. Storck

Curator, Department of New World Archaeology, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto

John Tomenchuk

Research Associate, Department of New World Archaeology, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto

Peter H. von Bitter

Curator, Department of Invertebrate Palaeontology, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto

Contents Frontispiece Contributors, v List of Figures, ix List of Plates, xi List of Tables, xiii Acknowledgments, xv

PART I THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE FISHER SITE

Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5

Introduction, 3 Site Location, Physical Attributes and Structure, 9 Description of the Artifacts and Debitage, 45 A Parametric Use-Wear Study of Artifacts from Areas C and C-east, 95 John Tomenchuk Inter-Area Assemblage Patterning and Site Formation, 163 Andrew Stewart

PART II THE GEOLOGICAL AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT OF THE FISHER SITE AND SURROUNDING REGION

Chapter 6 Chapter 7

The Late Quaternary Geology of the Fisher Site, 191 Andre Nolin and Q.H.J. Gwyn Fossil Hill Formation Chert at the Fisher Site: Geological Source and Significance, 223 Peter H. von Bitter and Betty E. Eley

PART

III

OVERVIEW

Chapter 8

Discussion and Conclusions, 239

References Cited, 283 Appendix I

Pollen Analysis at the Fisher Site, 295 J. H. McAndrews

Appendix II

Artifact Catalogue, 299

vii

List of Figures 1.1. 1.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 5.1 5.2 5.3

Map showing location of the Fisher site, 4 Yearly progress of archaeological investigations at the Fisher site, 6 Map showing the topography in vicinity of the Fisher site, 10 Contour map of the Fisher site, 11 Distances between artifact concentrations, 13 Distribution of artifacts in Area B (northwest) excavation grid, 26 Distribution of artifacts in Area B (southeast) excavation grid, 27 Distribution of artifacts in Area C excavation grid, 28 Distribution of artifacts in Area C-east excavation grid, 29 Distribution of artifacts in Area D excavation grid, 30 Distribution of artifacts in Area F excavation grid, 31 Distribution of artifacts in Area b excavation grid, 32 Distribution of artifacts in Area c excavation grid, 33 Density distribution map of artifacts/debitage in Area B (northwest) excavation grid, 34 Density distribution map of artifacts/debitage in Area B (southeast) excavation grid, 35 Density distribution map of artifacts/debitage in Area C excavation grid, 36 Density distribution map of artifacts/debitage in Area C-east excavation grid, 37 Density distribution map of artifacts/debitage in Area D excavation grid, 38 Density distribution map of artifacts/debitage in Area F excavation grid, 39 Density distribution map of artifacts/debitage in Area b excavation grid, 40 Density distribution map of artifacts/debitage in Area c excavation grid, 41 Plans and profiles of Features 5 and 6, Area F excavation grid, 42 Schematic diagram showing the limits of visibility of the surrounding terrain from Areas B, D, F, I, J, K, L, d, 43 Map showing source of Fossil Hill Formation chert, 47 Diagram of preform showing selected attributes, 48 Diagram showing sequence of flake removal, 59 Metric attributes of concave scrapers (notched flakes and spokeshaves), 81 Cross-section views of wedges and wedge penetration, 99 Experimental correlation between microchip radius and force direction, 102 Confidence thresholds of use-force determinations imposed by "natural" microchipping of unused debitage, 108 Parametrically analyzed artifacts from Area C, 110 Nonparametrically and parametrically analyzed artifacts from Area C, 111 Tools from Area C subjected to qualitative use-wear analysis, 112 Diagram of gravers used in rotary motion for manufacturing discs, 113 Bivariate distribution for force and hardness of tools used for longitudinal cutting, Area C, 114 Bivariate distribution for force and hardness of tools used in filleting scup fish, 116 Bivariate distribution for force and hardness of butchering tools, Area C, 117 Bivariate distribution for force and hardness of orthogonal cutting tools, Area C, 118 Spatial distribution of parametrically analyzed artifacts, Area C, 123 Area C-east tools subjected to parametric use-wear analysis, 128 Area C-east tools subjected to qualitative use-wear analysis, 129 Bivariate distribution for force and hardness of Area C-east tools used for longitudinal cutting, 130 Bivariate distribution for force and hardness of Area C-east tools used for orthogonal cutting, 131 Bivariate distribution for force and hardness of Area C-east butchering tools, 131 Location of prehension polish on dorsal and ventral faces of Area C-east worked flake, 132 Distribution of presumed haft-related polish on end scraper, Area C-east, 134 Crack velocity patterns determined from experimental pressure, indirect percussion and percussion flaking, 135 Comparison of flute crack velocities, Area C-east points and experimental tools, 136 Spatial distribution of parametrically analyzed artifacts from Area C-east, 139 Identification by parametric use-wear analysis of wood species worked in Areas C and C-east,141 Spatial distribution of principal assemblage-areas, 164 Proportional distribution of artifacts in four activity sets, 171 Plots of expected mean richness and actual richness for seven assemblage-areas, based on activity sets, 172 IX

5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 7.1 7.2 7.3 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 A 1.

Plots of expected mean evenness and actual evenness for seven assemblage-areas, based on activity sets, 172 Proportional distribution of artifacts in eleven classes, 173 Plots of expected mean richness and actual richness for seven assemblage-areas, based on artifact classes ,174 Plots of expected mean evennness and actual evenness for seven assemblage-areas, based on artifact classes, 174 Plot of debitage weight against size of excavated area for seven assemblage-areas, 175 Two models of assemblage formation, 178 Plots of six assemblage-areas relative to the first two principal components, 182 Plot of percentage occurrence of projectile points and preforms for six assemblage-areas, 183 Plot of percentage occurrence of preforms and cores for six assemblage-areas, 183 Links between principal assemblage-areas, 186 Place names mentioned in Chapter 6, 192 Map of sedimentary units in the study area, 194 Variation in granulometric indices of the matrix of selected samples of sedimentary units, 199 Variation in granulometric indices of the matrix and coarse fraction of selected sedimentary units, 200 Granulometric curves from samples of beach deposits in sedimentary units 3Al and 3A3, 202 Sedimentary facies in the vincinity of Area C-east, 203 Paleocurrents measured in the offshore bar, the spit, and beach deposits in the study area, 204 Plot of means and standard deviation for matrices of selected sedimentary units, 209 Plot of means and skewness for matrices of selected sedimentary units, 210 Plot of skewness and standard deviation for matrices of selected sedimentary units, 211 Plot of skewness and graphic kurtosis for matrices of selected sedimentary units, 212 Location map of altimetry stations in the study area, 213 Elevations of strandline features on and in the vicinity of the Fisher site, 216 Paleogeography of the pre-Main Algonquin water plane 11,300 B.P., 217 Paleogeography of the Main Algonquin water plane between 11,300 and 10,500 B.P., 218 Paleogeography of the post-Main Algonquin water plane, 10,500 B.P., 219 Map of southwestern Ontario showing Chapter 7 place names, 224 Chert-bearing geological units of the Collingwood and Lake Simcoe areas, 226 Localities 1 to 4 with in situ exposures of Fossil Hill Formation chert, 227 Locations of archaeological sites mentioned in Chapter 8, 240 Banding orientation on projectile points and preforms, 242 Artist's interpretation of the appearance of the Fisher site area at the time of a lake at the intermediate level strand line, 248 Locations of matching artifact fragments in Area C-east, 255 Map of Fisher site showing locations of "primary knapping" and "fluting" assemblage-areas, 256 Maps of Fisher, Thedford II and Parkhill sites showing locations of artifactJdebitage concentrations, 262 Maximum width of Barnes fluted points from Thedford II, Parkhill and Fisher sites, 267 Basal width of Barnes fluted points from Thedford II, Parkhill and Fisher sites, 268 Maximum width of Barnes fluted points from two assemblage-areas and two regions at Fisher, 269 Basal width of Barnes fluted points from four assemblage-areas and two regions at Fisher, 270 Basal depth of Barnes fluted points from five assemblage-areas and two regions at Fisher, 271 Length of preforms from Fisher and Thedford II ,279 Width of preforms from Fisher and Thedford II, 280 Pollen diagrams from the Fisher bog and Edward Lake, 296

x

List of Plates 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9

3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 4.1-4.46

Oblique aerial view of Fisher excavations in 1978,14 Individual shown recording surface finds, 24 Use of motor driven screen in Area F,24 Cores used for production of flakes, 50 Category I and II preforms, 52 Category III and IV preforms, 56 Fluted point fragments showing facial preparation prior to fluting, 57 Fluted point fragments showing parallel collateral flaking, 58 Unfinished fluted points, 62 Longitudinally fractured fluted projectile point fragments, 63 Finished fluted projectile points, 64 Miscellaneous projectile points, 74 Miscellaneous artifacts, 75 Bifacially worked scrapers, 75 Beaked scrapers, 77 Combination spokeshavelbeaked scraper, 80 Concave scrapers, 80 Gravers, 83 End scrapers, 84 Miscellaneous artifacts, 85 Flake cutting/scraping tools, 90 Possible burin, 91 Utilized flake, 91 Hammerstone, 94 Brewerton corner-notched projectile point, 94 Photomicrographs of use-wear damage/technological features 4.1-4.3 4.4-4.6 4.7-4.10 4.11-4.20 4.21-4.24 4.25-4.27 4.28-4.32 4.33-4.35 4.36-4.38 4.39-4.40 4.41-4.46

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5

Double-spurred graver, 146 Utilized flake, 147 Blocky debitage,148-149 Flakes, 148-149 Experimental tools,152-153 Beaked scraper, 154 Flake gravers, 155-156 Pointed flake, 156-157 Worked flake, 157-158 End scraper,158-159 Fluted point,159-161

Contact between sedimentary units 3AI and 3A2 at southern margin of site, 215 Contacts between sedimentary units in the vicinity of Area C-east, 215 Molluscs found 40 cm below surface of gravelly sands in the principal offshore bar, 220 View of gravels at pebble fabric site I, 220 Erosion scarp of glacial Lake Algonquin, southeast of Fisher, 221 Early Paleo-Indian artifacts of Fossil Hill Formation chert from Fisher, 225 In situ Fossil Hill Formation chert at locality I, 229 Macroscopic views of Fossil Hill Formation chert, 230 Photomicrographs of Fossil Hill Formation chert, 231 Acritarchs from Fossil Hill Formation chert, 232

xi

List of Tables 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 3.34 3.35 3.36 3.37 3.38 3.39 3.40 3.41 3.42 3.43 3.44 4.1

Location and size of artifact concentrations, 12 Frequency distribution of artifacts among 19 concentrations, 15 Frequency distribution of debitage among 19 concentrations, 16 Frequency of debitage in four chert types among 19 concentrations and two collecting localities, 17 Frequencies of artifacts in four prinicipal chert types in Area B, 18 Frequencies of artifacts in four principal chert types in Area C, 19 Frequencies of artifacts in four principal chert types in Area C-east, 20 Frequencies of artifacts in four principal chert types in Area D, 21 Frequencies of artifacts in four principal chert types in Area F, 22 Frequencies of artifacts in four principal chert types in Area b, 23 Frequencies of artifacts in four principal chert types in Area c, 24 Feature record, 25 Compass orientation and limits of nonvisible terrain from highest artifact concentrations, 44 Categories of stone types used in tool making at the Fisher site, 46 Attributes of single platform, tabular cores, 48 Attributes of multiple platform, tabular cores, 49 Attributes of multiple platform, spheroidal cores, 49 Attributes of category I preforms: initial edging, 52 Attributes of category II preforms: initial percussion shaping (leaf-shaped), 53 Attributes of category II preforms: initial percussion shaping (unclassified), 54 Attributes of category III preforms: thinning, 55 Attributes of category IV preforms: trimming by pressure retouch, 56 Frequency of occurrence of fluting platform type in Areas B, C-east and D, 61 Estimated failure rate in fluted point manufacture, 63 Key to symbols in Tables 3.13-3.20, 65 Data on fluted projectile points from Areas A, C, E, F, K, b, c, d (measured samples), 66 Data on fluted projectile points from Area B (measured sample), 67 Data on fluted projectile points from Area C-east (measured sample), 68 Data on fluted projectile points from Area D (measured sample), 69 Data on fluted projectile points from Areas A, C, E, F, K, b, c, d (unmeasured samples), 70 Data on fluted projectile points from Area B (unmeasured sample), 71 Data on fluted projectile points from Area C-east (unmeasured sample), 72 Data on fluted projectile points from Area D (unmeasured sample), 73 Distribution of unidentified projectile point fragments, 75 Metric attributes of bifacially worked scrapers, 76 Number of unidentified bifacially worked artifacts, by area, 76 Unidentified bifacially worked artifacts of exotic chert types, 76 Beaked scrapers: evidence of tip damage from use-wear, 78 Beaked scrapers of exotic chert types, 78 Metric data on beaked scrapers, 79 Number of spokeshave scrapers and notched flakes, by area, 81 Spokeshave scrapers and notched flakes of exotic chert types, 82 Number of gravers, by area, 82 Characteristics of step-fracture damage on graver spurs, 82 Inferred motions employed in using same graver spur, 85 Inferred motions employed in using different graver spurs on same artifact, 86 End scraper types, 86 Number of end scrapers, by area, 87 End scrapers of exotic chert types, 88 Location and metric attributes of leaf-shaped flake cutting/scraping tools, 88 Number of flake cutting/scraping tools, by area, 88 Flake cutting/scraping tools of exotic chert types, 89 Number of worked and utilized flakes, by area, 92 Worked flakes of exotic chert types, 92 Utilized flakes of exotic chert types, 93 Number of unidentified unifacially worked artifacts, by area, 93 Unidentified unifacially worked artifacts of exotic chert types, 94 Penetration resistance values from experimental work on selected substances, 103

xiii

4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 7.1 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6

Hardness values for selected species of wood, 104-105 Frequency of outlier microchip maxima in samples of experimental and archaeological material,107 Frequency of task-related functional edges from Area C, 109 Calculations of edge-loss on tools from Areas C and C-east, 120 Spawning habits and environments of freshwater species of fish from glacial Lake Algonquin, 124 Frequency of task-related functional edges from Area C-east, 137 Indices of internal functional cohesion for three Paleo-Indian tool types from the Fisher site, 000 Artifact and debitage frequency by assemblage-area, 164 Frequencies of thirteen classes of artifacts, 166 Percentage of artifacts by class and area, 167 Composition of four activity sets, 168 Frequencies of artifacts in four activity sets and seven assemblage-areas, 169 Percentage of artifacts in four activity sets and seven assemblage-areas, 169 Weight of debitage by debitage category in seven assemblage-areas, 175 Percentage weight of debitage by debitage category and assemblage-area, 176 Linear correlation coefficients for II artifact classes, 180 Component loadings by artifact class, 181 Distribution of preforms in Areas C and C-east by manufacturing stage, 184 Weight of artifacts and debitage in five raw material categories and seven assemblage-areas, 185 Proportion of weight of artifacts and debitage in five raw material catgories, 185 Frequencies and percentages of artifacts made from exotic cherts, 187 Mean and standard deviation of the Folk granulometric indices for selected sedimentary units, 196 Comparison of the characteristics of Newmarket till in the study area, 198 Granulometric characteristics of beach deposits in the study area, 201 Variables used in the factor analysis, 206 Variables and their communalities associated with the five factor analysis of the sedimentary units, 206 Factor scores of the sedimentary units with respect to each of the factors, 207 Correlation coefficients and equations for each of the sedimentary environments, 208 Classification of altimetric data, 214 Stratigraphic section at locality I, 00 Comparison of tool assemblages at the Fisher and Thedford II sites, 236 Motions employed in use of expedient tools, blocky debitage, gravers, and beaked scrapers, 238 Use-wear identification of worked substances, 238 Distribution of blocky and reduction fragments, and evidence of biface production, 251 Frequencies of artifacts from different areas on the Parkhill site, 257 Ratios of debitage to tools on Fossil Hill Formation chert at Fisher and Thedford II sites, 000

xiv

Acknowledgments

This very long and complex project only happened, and was completed, because of the assistance of a large number of people. Foremost among these are the late Mr. and Mrs. Reg Fisher, the former landowners of the farm on which the Fisher site is located. Without their permission to work on the land, the site would never have been discovered, let alone excavated. Other people crucial to this project were, of course, my colleagues who helped research and write this volume: Betty Eley, Q.H.l Gwyn, IH. McAndrews, Andre Nolin, Andrew Stewart, John Tomenchuk, and Peter von Bitter. I would like to thank them once again, and in this prominent place, for agreeing to be part of this project, for their contributions to it, and for their tremendous patience during the long, long time it took to see this work through to publication-14 years of patience from the last year of excavations in 1980 to the completion of the final revised manuscript (in April of 1994), seventeen years if we include the three even longer years (at least to an author) from the completion date of the revised manuscript until publication (anticipated, as I write this, to be in March, 1997). Of course the research would not have been conceivable if the data hadn't first been excavated, and otherwise obtained, from the ground. And for doing the basic shovel and trowel work and other field tasks I thank the 38 members of the four field crews: in 1975 (the discovery crew): Theresa Ferguson, Lome Fromer, Lawrence Jackson, Steven Scharbach, and Catharina van Waarden; in 1976 (the initial exploration crew): Thomas Andrews, Ellen Badone, Gary Coupland, Marc Lamontagne, Paul Morris, Leonora Talevi, Lorraine Underell, and James Weyman; in 1978 (the extensive excavation crew): Jane Edward, David Gillespie, Lawrence Jackson, Jennifer Kottick, Kenneth Lister, William Moss, William Newhook, Susan Ralph, Richard Sanders, Donald Slater (assisting IH. McAndrews), Marianne Stopp, Andrew Stewart, and John Switzer; and in 1980 (the "wrap-up" excavation crew): Marilyn Bettridge, Pat Boyer, Julie Cormack, Cathy D'Andrea, Gordon Dibb, David Goldberg, Rita Granda, Andrew Hinshelwood, Mima Kapches, Daniel Kerr, Christine King, Thomas McGreevy, and Kathy Mills. Once the archaeological material was out of the ground, a number of people were involved, for varying lengths of time, in the critically important tasks of washing and cataloguing the artifacts and preparing the data for both analysis (in part through computerization) and final presentation in this volume. These people include, in rough chronological order of their involvement: Lawrence Jackson, Arthur Roberts, and Andrew Stewart (all of whom contributed to the computerization and/or processing of various kinds of data), Ingrid KritschArmstrong (who drafted plans of artifact distributions), Bill Robertson and Brian Boyle (ROM photographers) and Allan McColl (ROM darkroom technician), Emile Huston (ROM artist, who prepared fmal versions of the maps, plans, and tables), and Catherine Farley (a freelance artist, who prepared Figures 3.3 and 8.3). Unseen behind all of the above-mentioned work, of course, is the money. For even if the people were willing, nothing would be possible without adequate funding. I was very, very fortunate, and am pleased to acknowledge, the financial support of the Royal Ontario Museum (for all four field seasons), the Canada Council (1975 and 1978), the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (1980), and the Province of Ontario (1976, through the Ontario Experience Program of the Youth Secretariat). Additional support was required to publish the results of the research and I am pleased to acknowledge the Ontario Heritage Foundation, the Museum of Anthropology at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, and the Royal Ontario Museum. At the ROM, I am grateful to Sandra Shaul, Head of the Publications Department, for her part in negotiating the joint publication with the Museum of Anthropology and Glen Ellis, Managing Editor in the same department, for his guidance during the publication process. I am also indebted to Saryu Kanani, a computer specialist in the xv

Information Technology Services Department, her husband, Gord, and her daughter, Zilu, for their critical assistance in converting the text and tables (and cleaning up the resulting mess) from my older word processing program to the one used for publication purposes. At the Museum of Anthropology, I am grateful to Dr. John O'Shea, Director, for his support of the joint publication effort and to Dr. Henry Wright III, Curator and colleague in Paleo-Indian research, for his initial encouragement to submit the manuscript to the Museum. Sally Horvath, Head of the Publications Department at that institution, performed her work as editor and production manager uniquely. Finally, I would like to thank the several anonymous academic reviewers who prompted me and my co-authors to rethink what we wrote and make (we trust) improvements in our work and presentation. As a final note, I would like to acknowledge the ongoing support of the Royal Ontario Museum, not only for this project, but for the larger research program of which it was a parta program concerned with the peopling and early occupation of Ontario during the late Pleistocene. I initiated this research program nearly three decades ago, shortly after accepting a position as Assistant Curator at the ROM in the Office of the Chief Archaeologist, headed by Dr. A. D. Tushingham. In this last circumstance I was truly fortunate. Because of his faith in a young would-be scholar, his readiness to leave his desk at a moment's notice to help solve my problems (over coffee and tea in a calm comer of his office), and, especially, his patience during the nearly barren early years of my new research (contrasting starkly with the remarkably productive deposits of the centuries-old city of Jerusalem-his own research interest at the time), I gratefully dedicate this volume to Dr. A. Douglas Tushingham, former Chief Archaeologist, former Board Member and Honorary Trustee of the Royal Ontario Museum, distinguished scholar, mentor, and gentleman. Peter L. Storck December, 1996

xvi

Part I

The Archaeology of the Fisher Site

CHAPTER

1

Introduction

The Fisher site is a large Early Paleo-Indian site located in the southern Georgian Bay region of south-central Ontario, Canada (Figure 1.1). This monograph is a detailed, multidisciplinary report on field investigations that were conducted at that site, and in the general region, between 1975 and 1980. In addition to the archaeological work (encompassing both systematic surface collecting and extensive block excavations), field investigations also included geological and paleobotanical studies to interpret the local physical and broader paleoenvironmental context of the site, as well as a geological study of the regional bedrock to determine the relationship of the site to the source of the chert used for toolstone. At the end of field investigations, the Fisher site was known to consist of 19 discrete areas of artifactldebitage concentrations distributed over an area of around 22 hectares, which had produced nearly 1500 artifacts (including 156 fluted points and point fragments of a single type) and over 30,000 pieces of debitage, all presumably deposited by people belonging to the same Early Paleo-Indian "culture," known as the Parkhill complex. The Parkhill complex was initially identified in the late 1960s and early 1970s (see, for example, Roosa 1977a, 1977b; Wright and Roosa 1966; and, for a recent overview, Deller and Ellis 1992b). This complex is presumed to be temporally intermediate between two other Early Paleo-Indian complexes currently recognized in Ontario: Gainey (possibly the earliest because of its technological affinities to Clovis) and Crowfield (possibly the latest because of its advanced fluting technology which involves multiple fluting and the production of extraordinarily thin points). The intermediate status, technologically and temporally, of the Parkhill complex, characterized by the Barnes point type, is suggested by the Barnes fluting technology which is more evolved than Gainey and comparable with a post-Clovis, or Folsom, fluting technology in western North America (for a recent overview of these typological arguments see Deller and Ellis 1990, 1992a). Unfortunately, it has not as yet been possible to obtain radiocarbon dates for the Gainey, Parkhill, and Crowfield complexes, nor have the latter been found in a stratigraphic context that would establish their relative ages.

Because of the greater number of sites and larger point samples and tool assemblages, the Parkhill complex is much better known in Ontario than Gainey or Crowfield. However, only a few Parkhill complex sites have been excavated extensively, notably the Parkhill site itself (for the most recent interpretation of the site and references to earlier work see Deller and Ellis 1992a) and the nearby Thedford II site (Deller and Ellis 1992a), both located in extreme southwestern Ontario (Figure 8.1) and approximately 175 kilometers from the Fisher site. Thedford II may have been a short-term, single event occupation by a group of several families who arranged their individual camps around a central, communal work area. The Parkhill and Fisher sites are much larger and more complex and represent either repeated occupations by small groups of families or, perhaps less likely, single occupations by larger aggregations of families or bands. Of the two large sites, the Fisher site has been more extensively excavated and, with this publication, will be the first large Parkhill complex site to be reported in detail. It is also the first site of this complex in Ontario to have been studied extensively geologically. Although many sites of this complex are presumed to be associated with glacial Lake Algonquin, only the Fisher site has been studied sufficiently to reconstruct the geological setting of the site and its relationship to Lake Algonquin (or an as yet unidentified glacial lake, should Algonquin prove older than currently thought). This geological setting, correlated with paleoecological data, provides a basis for estimating the younger limiting age of the Early Paleo-Indian occupation at Fisher, and the Parkhill complex generally. Considered in the context of the Early Paleo-Indian occupation of the Great Lakes region and the northeast generally, this report on Fisher is only the third detailed report on a large, multi-area site since the publication of the Shoop site in 1952 (Witthoft 1952). The Vail and Debert sites are the other two large sites published in detail (see, respectively, Gramly 1982 and MacDonald 1968). In fact, this report is the first on a multi-area Canadian site since the Debert report in 1968. Thus, the Fisher site provides important interregional comparative data concerning occupational behavior on large sites. Fisher 3

4

Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, No. 30

,,

,,

,,

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,

aeolgian Bay

Laka Huron

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SOkm

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Figure 1.1. Location of the Fisher site in south-central Ontario.

may be particularly interesting in this regard since it may have been occupied later, and by a different cultural group, than the other large sites in the greater northeast (see Dincauze 1993). In addition, since Fisher may have been intermittently occupied over a lengthy period in connection with chert procurement and subsistence activities, it also provides important comparative data concerning regional land-use patterns.

technology, and cultural-ecological adaptations of Early Paleo-Indian peoples in southern Ontario (Storck 1974a, 1974b, 1979, 1982, 1984, 1993). The following discussion provides a brief overview of the history of work on the site, the research potential of the artifact material, and an explanation of the organization of this monograph. The 1975 Field Season

History of Field Work at the Fisher Site

The Fisher site was discovered and excavated as part of a long-term Royal Ontario Museum research program, initiated in 1970, which is concerned generally with investigating the age,

The Fisher site was discovered in 1975 during the second year of survey work along the abandoned strandline of glacial Lake Algonquin in south-central Ontario (see Figure 1.1). As an approach to survey work, the focus on this late glacial strandline

The Fisher Site-Storck

had been successful the preceding year, leading to the discovery of the Hussey site in the southern part of the Algonquin basin (Storck 1979). In 1975 the survey was extended northwestward toward the Georgian Bay region, and the Fisher site was discovered a short distance southwest of the community of Stayner in Nottawasaga township, Simcoe County. The site is on me with the Heritage Branch of the Ontario Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Recreation and has been assigned the Borden number BcHa-45. The Fisher site is situated on a terrace and the crest of a knoll between the elevations of approximately 236 meters (77 5 feet) and 251 meters (825 feet) above sea level. This high ground is adjacent to (west of) a low-lying marshy area which, ip. tum, is bordered on the east by glaciolacustrine or localized pond deposits and former offshore bars identified with glacial Lake Algonquin (Burwasser 1974a). The site was surface-collected on two occasions in 1975: at the time of discovery on May 26th and the following day when I visited the site with the "discovery crew" for further documentation. Artifacts and waste flakes were concentrated in three areas: two partially overlapping areas (A and C) on a lower terrace adjacent to the marshy area, and a third area (B) on the crest of a high knoll farther back from the strandline (Figure 1.2A). It was noted at the time that, of the diagnostic artifacts, the single graver, all four fluted point fragments and four of the seven channel flake fragments occurred on the knoll (Area B) suggesting that somewhat different flint knapping activities may have occurred there as compared with the other two low-lying areas (A and C). The total surface collection in 1975 consisted of 92 artifacts and 309 pieces of debitage.

The 1976 Field Season Extensive test excavations were conducted at the Fisher site in 1976. The objectives of that work were to gain an idea of the research potential of the site by determining the content of the artifactldebitage concentrations discovered up to that time and whether any other concentrations were present. Excavations were conducted over a period of seven weeks by a crew of eight. A total of 204 square meters was excavated in Area B and 186 square meters in Area C. These excavations were very productive; Area B, for example, produced over 5000 pieces of debitage and 208 artifacts including various types of cores, bifacially worked preforms, fragments of fluted projectile points broken during manufacture and use, single and multiple spurred gravers, end and side scrapers, beaked scrapers, and miscellaneous retouched tools. In addition, two new artifact concentrations were discovered: Area E in the north field between Areas A and B, and Area D on the edge of the south field (see Figure 1.2B). Unfortunately, this area and the entire south field were planted in grain so that the size and probable content of the area could not be determined, and the field could not be investigated for other possible artifact concentrations.

5

The 1976 test excavations indicated that some of the artifact concentrations contained abundant material and further documented intra-site differences in artifact and debitage content which was initially suggested by the surface collections. Unfortunately, no subsurface features such as firepits were discovered which would help to date the occupations, but, because of the abundance of the artifact material, which implied intense occupational activity, more extensive excavation to fmd subsurface deposits seemed warranted. Additional fieldwork was also needed because no attention had yet been given to the possible relationship between the site and the former glacial lake that presumably occupied the marshy area adjacent to the site. Since Burwasser (1974a) identified the glaciolacustrine deposits with Lake Algonquin, and that lake may have existed during the span of Early Paleo-Indian occupation in North America, the two events overlapping from approximately 11,500 to 10,400 years ago, there was a strong possibility that the occupation of the Fisher site was both contemporaneous with and in some way related to that glacial lake. Finally, although five artifact concentrations had been discovered and a sixth was suspected, little attention had been given to determining the size of the site, and, since the south field was scheduled to be planted in com in 1978, widespread surface collecting, if not additional excavation, would be possible for the first time in that direction.

The 1978 Field Season For the reasons mentioned above, a multidisciplinary project was conducted at the Fisher site in 1978 with support from the Royal Ontario Museum and a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. The fieldwork involved extensive ex~avations as well as geobotanical, paleontological, and geological studies conducted by J. H. McAndrews and Peter von Bitter of the Royal Ontario Museum and Q. H. J. Gwyn and one his students, Andre Nolin, of the Universite de Sherbrooke. The objectives of this research were: (1) to obtain additional archaeological information from a large number of artifact concentrations concerning intrasite differences in artifact content, (2) to excavate large contiguous areas in the most productive artifact concentrations to provide the greatest opportunity to uncover firepits and/or other features containing charcoal for dating purposes and animal bone for identification, (3) to conduct geobotanical and geological studies to determine the age and vegetational history of the former pond located between the site and the Algonquin barrier bar and to determine the geological setting of the site with respect to the Algonquin strandline, and (4) to conduct micropaleontological studies of the cherts used at the site to determine their geological age(s) and possible bedrock source(s) of origin. The 1978 field season was very productive. The western and southern limits of the site were determined by widespread surface exploration, and a total of 14 new artifact concentrations were discovered: nine on the Fisher property (Areas B-east, C-east, F, G, H, I, J, K, and L) and five on an adjacent property

6

Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology. No. 30

1975

A

former pond

1976

B

1978/80

Coutts farm

c

corn

Fisher farm

L

I.·/··rl '- - ', /:; /V

OF FLAKE REMOVAL 1. Facial view

2.

Side view

59

Percentage of total number of specimens (n=31)

Q!

'/

Q!

rotation

2. Rotation from one face to opposite face

KEY

c=J /JEEj

Obverse face Reverse face

Platform Force

" " basal nipple

c \

I

~

CROSSSECTION

OBVERSE FACIAL VIEW

SCHEMATIC UNFOLDING

KEY TO SYMBOLS: -

-

-

ESTIMATED ORIGINAL SHAPE

~ LATERAL FRACTURE .,,:,""\ ..,:. a ~ '::::~:~.

•

'-

-

-..J

OBVERSE FACE

FLAKE REMOVAL SEQUENCE A/B 1st a-b 2 nd PLATFORM

=

=

PLATFORM AND DIRECTION OF FLAKE REMOVAL

Figure 3.3. Schematic diagram showing method of platform selection and sequence of flake removal prior to fluting (reproduced courtesy of the Eastern States Archaeological Federation). Facial view (1) and side view (2) of preform illustrating a flaking pattern based on the use of platforms ( • ) formed by the intersecting margins of adjacent flake scars on Face A to remove flakes from the opposite Face B. B, 1) Sequence of flake removal based on rotation of preform about the plane of the same face. B,2) Sequence of flake removal based on rotation of preform from one face to the opposite face. C) Drawing of unfinished, broken fluted point (midsection and tip) exhibiting pattern of flake removal illustrated in A and B,l. A)

60

Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, No. 30

because the platforms were often too weak (having been "undercut" by the negative bulbs of the respective flake scars) to sustain the force needed to remove flakes from the opposite face and, secondly, were located too low relative to the face being flaked. In most instances, the type of platform preparation and sequence of flake removal described above was observed on unfinished specimens and represented the final flaking sequence prior to fluting. In two instances the technique was also used in the final trimming of points which were not fluted. Tip Preparation Prior to Fluting (sample size: 33)

flaking on the beveled face of the preform to lower this edge and isolate a small cone-shaped projection centered over the medial ridge of the face to be fluted. The nipple was further isolated by the removal of one or several flakes ("guide flakes") from both corners of the nipple on both faces of the preform. On the unfinished specimens on which this attribute is present, the base of the nipple ranges from 3.0 mm to 8.5 mm in width. Depending on the stage of the fluting process, the apex of the nipple may occur below, in line with, or above the level of the corners of the base. The channel flake bases indicate that the nipple was heavily ground, presumably to withstand the force used in fluting. In instances of multiple fluting on the same face, the second nipple was apparently set up over one of the lateral margins of the first flute scar. This is particularly well illustrated on one channel flake base which retains a remnant of the lateral margin of a flute scar from an earlier fluting attempt.

The nature of tip preparation prior to fluting is indicated on 28 tip fragments which were broken by reverse hinge fractures during the fluting process and by five complete specimens which were broken by reverse hinge fractures or transverse breaks after fluting, but before final retouching. There is considerable variation in the treatment of the tip. Frequency of Single Versus Multiple Fluting (sample size: 36) Almost half in the total sample (14, or 42.4%) were not speOf the 36 finished specimens that exhibit this attribute, 33 cially modified, beyond the amount of flaking required to shape the preform, to prepare the tip to withstand stress during (91.6%) were fluted at least once on both faces and three (8.3%) the fluting process. Four of the tips are sharp, six are slightly were fluted on only one face. Nine (25.0%) of the 36 specimens convex, and two are straight (roughly perpendicular to the long exhibit two flute scars, one specimen on both faces, and eight axis of the preform). Two specimens have tips formed by a specimens on one face only. Of the latter, one was unifacially reverse hinge fracture from a previous fluting attempt on the fluted and seven were bifacially fluted. In instances of single fluting, the flute scars are nearly as opposite face. Five of the 14 specimens exhibit step fractures or flake removals on the tip, presumably due to the rebound wide as the point, especially near the base, and extend from (through contact with an anvil) of forces applied during the one-third to two-thirds (more commonly) the length of the fluting process. point. In instances of multiple fluting, the flute scars are Sixteen specimens (48.4%) were heavily ground, presumably roughly equal in width and length and together may be only to strengthen the tip and prevent damage due to contact with slightly larger than single flute scars. an anvil. The tips range in shape from straight to pointed. Only three specimens (9.0%) show any sign of deliberate Characteristics of Channel Flakes beveling and, of these, only one was beveled in the direction of the face to be fluted, possibly to cause the channel flake to terChannel flakes also provide useful data on the fluting minate before reaching the tip (see Crabtree 1966). The tip had process. Although none of over 1000 channel flakes from the not previously been beveled toward the opposite face. The two Fisher site is complete, the two largest reconstructed flakes other tip fragments were beveled toward the face opposite that (both from Area B: catalogue numbers 978.127.1633/135511657 being fluted. One of these tips exhibits damage due to contact and 975.246.1121113/1141726) are impressive, being, in the one with an anvil. None of the beveled specimens was ground. case, 46.5 mm long and 10.5 mm wide and, in the second case, 56.3 mm long and 13.5 mm wide. These channel flakes are Basal Preparation Prior to Fluting (sample size: 12) longer than all examples of finished, complete points from the site. Fluting was accomplished from a very carefully shaped and Several channel flakes from Areas Band D also exhibit fragground striking/pressure platform or basal nipple. The use of a mentary scars from previous fluting attempts which occur: (1) basal nipple for fluting is indicated on twelve unfmished speci- on one side of the channel flake in question (on ten channel mens which retain the platform, or remnants of it, as well as on flake fragments from Area B and two from Area D), (2) centhe bases of the channel flakes themselves. Prior to the fluting tered over it, but producing narrower scars (on four fragments attempt, the nipple was prepared by beveling the base in the each from Areas B and D), or (3) in both locations (on one direction away from the face to be fluted. This was presumably fragment from Area B). done in order to move the edge of the base on which the nipple Table 3.10 presents data on the configuration of the remnant was to be prepared to a position closer to, or on the same plane of the fluting platform (basal nipple) on channel flake bases of, the face to be fluted. The nipple was shaped by continuous from Areas B, C-east, and D. It is of interest to note that

The Fisher Site-Storck Table 3.10.

61

Frequency of occurrence of fluting platform "type" (longitudinal-section) in Areas B, C-east and D.

longitudinal-section of channel flake base

Area B

C-East

D

CD1-

--'

~

@

indeterminate

totals

2 (2.9)

34 (48.6)

15 ( 21.4)

14 (20.0)

5 (7.1)

70 (100.0)

2 (10.0)

9 (45.0)

4 (20.0)

4 (20.0)

1 (5.0)

20 (100.0)

29 (47.5)

10 (16.4)

12 (19.7)

(5.0)

7

(11.5)

CD

3

61 (100.1)*

ventral lip

@ bulb of applied force ( ) percentage

*

due to rounding

between 45% and 49% of the fluting platforms exhibit, in cross-section, a pronounced lip on the ventral face of the channel flake but no apparent swelling or bulb of applied force. Between 16% and 22% of the fluting platforms exhibit both features. Comparable frequencies of these two platform configurations on specimens from Areas B, C-east, and D suggest that the same forces and fluting techniques were used in the three areas, and in roughly similar proportion. Parametric data presented by Tomenchuk in Chapter 4 suggests that two projectile points from Area C-east were fluted using indirect percussion. Unfortunately, the parametric data cannot be used at present for interpreting the significance of the morphological attributes seen on channel flake bases and there was insufficient time to apply the parametric approach to other fluted points from this area to determine whether indirect percussion was the only technique used in the fluting process.

Evidence of Stresses Produced During the Fluting Process (sample size: 55) Six types of damage or failure caused by the fluting process have been identified: (1) transverse breaks, presumably due to

bending stresses or flaws in the raw material, (2) snapped tips, also probably resulting from bending stresses, (3) reverse hinge fractures caused by an incorrect angle in the application of the force used to remove a channel flake (see Plate 3.6a, c, d, e), (4) pressure damage to the tip caused by the rebounding of forces through contact with an anvil, (5) longitudinally split bases (plate 3.7a, b), and (6) crushed fluting platforms (basal nipples). The most common failure was the reverse hinge fracture which occurred on 30, 53.5% of the unfinished specimens. Snapped tips occurred next in frequency, being present on 12 specimens, or 21.4%, of the total sample. There is a very low frequency of pressure damage to the tip resulting from contact with an anvil (7 specimens, or 12.5%), especially considering the fact that almost one-half of the tips from unfinished points were not specially prepared, through blunting and grinding, for the fluting process. This suggests that the possibility of damaging the tip during the fluting process was of relatively minor concern either because it was a relatively low risk due to the way in which the fluting was accomplished or because the damage would be so minor as to be easily repaired. There also appear to be surprisingly low frequencies of longitudinally split

62

Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, No. 30

f

g

h

o

o 1 2 3 4 5 ~cm Plate 3.6. Examples of unfinished fluted projectile points. a) 975.246.54, B-surface b) 978.127.1282, B-N2W7, F c) 975.246.518, B-N3W9, A d) 978.127.1653, B-N2W7, E e) 978.127.1643, B-N2W7, F f) 978.127.1466, B-NIE1, G g) 975.246.605, B-N4W9, E h) 975.246.6291527, B-N4W7, G1N3W9, B

i) 978.127.1802, D-N2W2, C j) 978.127.1041, D-surface k) 978.127.224/323/239/91, C-east-S1W2, AlSIWI, ClNIW2, I1NIW1, C t) 978.127.3411223, C-east-S2W2, B/S 1W2, A m) 978.127.873/876, D-N2EI, B/N2EI, C n) 975.246.53, B-surface 0)978.127.1607, B-testsquare2, D

The Fisher Site-Storck

Table 3.11.

63

Estimated failure rate in fluted point manufacture.

AREA

a

o

1

2

Finished Points Unfmished Points Totals Failure Rate (%)

b

3

4

5

em

Plate 3.7. Examples of longitudinally fractured fluted projectile point fragments. a) 978.127.1962, E-surface b) 980.85.888, c-S2E3, 0

bases (2,3.5%) and damaged fluting platforms (4, or 2.60/0 of a total of 155 channel flake bases). Both may relate to the way in which the force for channel flake removal was applied. Failure Rate

An attempt was made to estimate the failure rate in fluted point manufacture for the three most productive and intensivelyexcavated areas of the site (Areas B, D, and C-east; Table 3.11). To do this it is necessary to compare the total number of unsuccessfully fluted preforms with the number of points that were actually finished. These comparisons require a number of assumptions: 1) The respective point samples from Areas B, D, and C-east are the product of single manufacturing events and are statistically representative of the three areas and the site as a whole. 2) The number of unsuccessfully fluted preforms can be determined from the number of unfmished point fragments (after refitting all broken specimens). 3) The total number of points manufactured can be determined from the number of fmished points that were damaged during use and discarded. (This assumes that all of the discarded points were returned to the site and ultimately recovered in the archaeological sample and, secondly, that the purpose of fluted point manufacture at this site was to replace points broken during use rather than to increase the number of points in the tool kit). 4) Unmatched fragments represent separate artifacts. Artifact fragments that could not be identified as to manufacturing stage were not included in this analysis. For the three most productive areas of the site, the failure rate in fluted point manufacture ranges from 510/0 to 750/0, with an average of approximately 630/0 (see Table 3.11). Unfortu-

B

n

~

25 26 51 51

13 23 36 64

4 12 16 75

nately, because the assumptions underlying the above calculations cannot be tested with the archaeological data at hand, it is not possible to say whether the estimated failure rates are realistic or even the correct order of magnitude. It is interesting to note, however, that a contemporary experienced knapper attempting to replicate Folsom points reported a failure rate of approximately 270/0 when using unifacial preforms and greater than 650/0 when using bifacial preforms (Flenniken 1978:478). This estimated failure rate of 650/0 compares quite closely with the 630/0 average failure rate in Areas B, D, and C-east at the Fisher site where bifacial preforms also seem to predominate. While these comparisons are intriguing, they must also be regarded cautiously because of weaknesses in the archaeological data, wide variation in the results obtained by experimental knappers (see, for example, Boldurian et al. 1985, 1986; Gryba 1988, 1989; Sollberger 1985, 1989; Sollberger and Patterson 1986), and the difficulties of comparing experimental and archaeological data. Finishing Attributes (sample size: 13)

After the fluting process was completed, any existing remnants of the fluting platforms (nipples) were removed, and the base acquired its "U-shape" or concave appearance. Four out of 13 finished basal fragments on which this attribute can be observed exhibit full or partial basal grinding. The inside margins of the ears were almost always ground suggesting that they were in contact with the sinew bindings. The lateral margins of the point, particularly near the base, were trimmed to remove irregularities and subsequently ground, again possibly to prevent the bindings from being cut. Final Appearance of the Fluted Point ( sample size: 14)

Since all of the complete fmished points exhibit impact damage or evidence of resharpening, the only indication of the original appearance of the blade and tip prior to use is that provided by four complete, unfmished specimens (for a representative example see Plate 3.8j). These artifacts had been bifacially fluted and were in the advanced stages of fmishing before they were broken by lateral snaps, presumably during the course of fmal trimming. Because of the minor amount of work yet required to finish these specimens, their fmal appear-

64

Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, No. 30

e

g

h

f

k

1

2

3

4

5

em Plate 3.8. Examples of finished fluted projectile points. a) 978.127. 1297, B-test square 9, C b) 975.246.971, E-surface c) 978.127.1198, D-NIW2,1 d) 978.127.54, C-east-S2W3, F e) 975.246.474, B-N3W8, A f) 978.127.1654, B-N2W7, E

ance would probably not have differed greatly from their present state. The points range from 45.0 mm to 80.0 mm in length, 17.0 mm to 23.0 mm in maximum width (occurring at approximately the midpoint of the specimen), and 5.0 mm to 7.0 mm in thickness (also occurring at the approximate midpoint of the specimen). The blade tapers gradually and smoothly from the midpoint to the tip. The angle of divergence of the sides from the tip to the midpoint ranges from 15 to 25 degrees. The thickness/width ratios of 13 finished specimens (with the thickness measurement taken, where necessary, across rather than above the flute scars) ranges from 1:2.36 to 1:4.25, with a mean of 1:3.34. The majority of the basal fragments of finished points exhibit a distinct "waist," the narrowest part of which occurs a short distance above the base. On 19 specimens, the waist ranges from 12.0 mm to 18.0 mm in width, with an average of 14.2 mm. Below this, the sides frequently flare outward again forming distinct ears. The basal depth on nine specimens ranges from 1.0 mm to 4.0 mm with a mean of 2.7 mm. Maxi-

g) 980.85.355 (basally thinned), b-S3E2, F, Feat. 5 h) 978.127.1144, D-N2W3, I i) 975.246.575, B-N5W7, E j) 978.127.168011439, B-surface, test square 9, G k) 978.127.1042, D-surface I) 978.127.674, D-N2W4, F

mum basal width at the ears ranges from 13.5 mm to 18.5 mm, with a mean of 15.1 mm. Additional data on all categories of fluted projectile points are presented in Tables 3.12-3.20. Non-fluted, Lanceolate Projectile Points (sample size: 2; Plate 3.9) One artifact (Plate 3.9f) appears to be unfmished since the facial flaking does not extend fully across the obverse face, and the tip and base have not been thinned. The point was made from a flake of Fossil Hill chert and is 55.5 mm long, 20.0 mm wide, and 5.0 mm thick. The curvature of the flake is still visible, and some cortex is present on the obverse face. Portions of the artifact exhibit parallel, collateral flaking. No lateral or basal grinding is present. The second artifact (plate 3.9g) appears to be finished since the tip is sharp, and the lateral edges have been trimmed by secondary retouch. The point is made of Bayport chert (lithic category 16) and is 45.0 mm long, 19.0 mm wide, and 5.5 mm

The Fisher Site-Storck Table 3.12.

65

Key to symbols in Tables 3.13-3.20 (data on fluted projectile points).

,J..

t

A P c cx s u n ?

lateral grinding terminates below distal end of flute scar lateral grinding extends beyond distal end of flute scar lateral grinding and flute scar are approximately of equal length attribute absent attribute present concave convex straight "U" shaped basal nipple (or remnant) present presence or absence of attribute indeterminate

thick. The point was basally thinned by the removal of a single flake on the obverse face (extending 13.0 mm from the concave base) and two flakes on the reverse face (extending 9.5 mm from the base). The blade exhibits parallel, collateral flaking. No lateral or basal grinding is present. Unidentified Projectile Point Fragments (sample size: 24; Table 3.21; Plate 3.9) The artifacts in this category include one basal fragment, one midsection fragment, and 22 tip fragments. These fragments are most likely from advance-stage preforms or unfinished fluted points although none exhibit flute scars or reverse hinge fractures that would indicate fluting attempts. Only one tip exhibits heavy grinding, possibly in preparation for fluting. The remaining tips exhibit sharp edges, frequently with step fractures, possibly resulting from damage during fluting attempts. Most of the tips are quite small but four of the larger specimens exhibit parallel, collateral flaking similar to that on many unfinished fluted points. One fragment (978.127.1277) is made of lithic category 1 chert and the remainder are of Fossil Hill chert. Projectile Point on Channel Flake (Plate 3.10a) The base of this artifact is missing, the fracture suggesting an old break (not due to cultivation or screening during excavation). The lanceolate shape of the remaining portion suggests that the artifact may have been a miniature, albeit nonfunctioning, projectile point. The artifact was made on a channel flake by unifacial flaking on the ventral surface of the flake. The artifact is 9.5 mm in maximum width, 2.0 mm in thickness, and is made of Fossil Hill chert.

Bifacially Worked Scrapers (sample size: 4; Table 3.22; Plate 3.11) Three of these artifacts appear to have been made from broken preforms that were reworked. The fourth artifact is a fragment of a large flake that was minimally shaped by large flake removals on the margin of both faces prior to secondary retouch. The secondary retouch on all four artifacts consists of fine unifacial flake removals along short segments of one or several edges. The high angle and asymmetry of retouch suggests that these recycled artifacts served as scrapers. One scraper (Plate 3.11 b) was made from a broken leaf-shaped preform (category IV) and another (Plate 3.11a) from a broken ovoid preform (category IV). The nature of the preform from which the third artifact in this category was made (975.246.968) cannot be identified. All of the artifacts are made of Fossil Hill chert. Fragments of Unidentified Bifacially Worked Artifacts (sample size: 124; not illustrated; Tables 3.23 and 3.24) These artifact fragments are too small to identify the tools from which they are derived. A total of 108 fragments are of Fossil Hill chert and 16 are of exotic cherts (see Table 3.24). Beaked Scrapers (sample size: 48; Tables 3.25-3.27; Plate 3.12) This tool type is defined by the presence of a cutting or scraping tip which is plano-convex in cross-section, usually steeply retouched, and frequently quite thick; hence the term "beaked." The tip was usually prepared by steep, unifacial flaking on the dorsal surface of a thick flake along both sides of a ridge between adjacent flake scars or along the sides of two converging ridges. These ridges, as well as the thickness of the

66

Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, No. 30

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~

.c

.

H

-'8 '011

'"c

~~

.c

raw luteri.}

~~

rDs3l1 lUll

75-BO

(complete) N2W9. E

975.246.553 918.121.14)9/1680

978.127.16'1

.. , .. ,

~

16.0 '.0 3.5

fest sq. 9. G 5.517.0 5. , 3.5 4.0 N2W7, D. ree t. 4 9.511.0

176.127.1584

NSWID,r l4.0 16.

'178.127.1487

surface

, .0

19.

6.0 5.0

Test sq.? ,C

17.

N'We, A

1A.

, .0 • .5 , .0 3.5

A

· ~ j

j !l.0

t

14.5 15.0

•

15.0

e

· e

j 16.0

•• 0 A

1.0

e

A

1

1

•

1

1

A

1

A

A

1

1

?

1

2

1

2

1

1

P

P

P

ross! J Ifill

P

P

P

0-5

ronil Hill

? ?

P

P

FOllsi I Hill

p

P

r088i1

P

P

1f111

20-25

foad J Hill

40_45

(Mid-section lind dlatal freqnente) 978.121.1297

975.246.476

Test sq.), "

?713.127.J519

N4W~,

nS.246.604

[

NSH7,[

775.266.7al

SHll,r

975.246.51

17.

• .0

15.0

surface N}\;a ,A

975.246.614 '17S.246.663

N3W7 I A

'17B.127.1309

N2W7, A

918.121.1358

N2WO, C

l1B.127.lJ01

j

j j

j

~

2 )3.0

c

15.0

u

3.0 1).5 H.O 14.

14.0

Test sQ.9,8

978.127.1681

surface

918.127.1654 91'>.246.809

N:!W7,I:,rcat.4

lJ.5 14.0 15.5 16.

S2WI,C

91S.121.1472

NIEI. H

918.127.1578

N5WIO,A

Q1'.246.52

sur face

P

e e e e

3.0

•

A

A

P

A

I

•1

P

A

1

2

3. ,

A

A

1

1

I.,

A

A

1

1

A

e

3.0 3.0

c

1.0

P

e e e

2

A

2.>

P

3.0

P

A A

• A

P

fOl!!Jllli J HilJ

p

fouil

1

P

1

1

1

snapped t.hrouQh bllse P

2

e

I I

P

I I

I I

I I I

2. ,

P

eor fragment A

1

1

P

1

1

P

1 ';-20

0-'

Hill

?

fO!lsi I Hill

?

rOllsi 1 Ifill

20-25

f05!1i 1 Hill

0-'

ross 11 lUll foasl1

0-5

Hill

?

foss! 1 lUll

?

Onondllfjl!l I;ett)e Point cat.egory 2_ c.tegory 24 fossi I IHII

.sr fragment P

D. ,

P

1

2

OnondftrJIII

P

p

1

P

p

p

0 1

roaaU Hll1

P

1

1

P

p

P

,

r 08s11 Hll1

P

p

A

P

P

P

16.5 6.0 5.0

(bess) fregntents)

?7>.246.S75

.. ,

j

P

?

r038i 1 11111

0-'

fossil Hill

'j-l0

JNISIl[J) _. _... _.. _ UNf ------- - - - (basal fragMental

975.246.53 ?7S.127.J70S

surface

A

?H.246.62.9/527

N4W7,G/NJW9,B

3.n 5. ,

• .0

S2WI,A

"18. I"l1. 1466

NIEI,e

·70.127.1H9

lest sq. 5 ,f

23.( 5.n

'7R_ I:?1-1607

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'In. 266.605 "r;..:46.6~,}/f13S

A

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e

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• A

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3.0

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Hi 11

?

rosst I Hill

?

fossil

P

1

1

P

P

1 1

A

P

P

p

fossil Hi 11

n5-'90

?

P

P

P

fossi 1 Hill

0-'

A

2

P

p

P

category 16 Fo!!si I liill FossJ 1 Hill

H-60

roast 1 Ilill

'0 0-;

P A

A

11.0 17.5

nIpple snapped

P

n

A

5.0

N4W9, [

1

1

p

1

p

p

P

P

P p

p

P

P

A

A

2

1 2

A

A

1

1

1

1

f09sJ I IHII FOS9i I IfiJl

not meosur@d

17. S 6.0 ;.

,

P

Fos~dl

N2W9. G

Hi I!

17,}.2'46.~'l6/6J!"l

-.,-

Q1L246.6)">

-,,_.

NoW? I I

fogai 1 IHlt

-"-

8urrec@

h:tltt Ie Point

'11'J. 24(,.7(,

,0;,-60 ? ?

INOET[RHINI\NT

(mid-section and distol rragmental '17 So. 266. ':.J 2' NSW9,O '17).2'46.303

n n

'nS.127.169S

ST AG(

1A.

S2WI,O

NJl-IB,I/NJ~J7.D

r

os~1i

1 lIiIJ

, ,

(bl'J991 rraqments)

'7711.127.1636

SlWI,D

'115.246.633

N4W7,

"73.1n.1275/1J74 17').

2~6.

HPJ

•• r

t

rnW7. [/N2Wa, A S2E 1,(

A

c: "> c: E "... " ... .." U

scars

of flute

number

SIW3, I

SIW3, C

".

"c:

""

-;; ...

-.,

-;;

. .c "... .... ....... .," ... ....... c: '" " .cE ... ...c: ... ., co c: c: ... '" ., " ... c: ., ... ... u . ., .,... ., ...c: ..... u " ....'" oc: .," ...c "... m... ... ::> " '" '"c: "c: ... .,... ....::> " ...u .,"co ....co ... .,... ..... ..."-'"c: ....co ..... ....,::> ., .... ". "" " .c"co "co .cco ....... '" " -"

::>

'" c

J::.

.

c: c

.

-"

... '" .,u c:

.," .,J::.

....

> c

~

-"

..""

978.127.IBB7 978.127.1894

978.127.1144 N2W3, I mid-section and distal fragments

(complete)

fINISHED

J::.

E

co

-

E

'"c: ... ....,u ...."

.c:

E

-., .,

::> E

::> E

e e ....x

...x ... x co

E • ::> E

.....

.,"" ::> .......

.'"

..". u

...c: .".c:

C>

Metric and other data on fluted projectile points (measured sample) from Area D.

fluted Projectile Points (measured sample) Area D

Table 3.16.

--

P

P

P

P

P

?

P

P

P

P

P

r

P

" "

Q.

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

co

"

Q.

C'

"c:

P

P

P

P

0 E

J::.

Q.

....

P

."

"." ">

.c:

raw material

~

?

fossil Hill fossil Hill

0-5

side removed

fossil Hill

0-5 fossil Hill

fossil Hill

?

?

category 19

?

fossil Hill

H-40

?

?

?

30-35

?

20-25

0-5

?

?

15-20

0-5

c ..

."

.,c:.,... ...." ....co

c: 0 0"

.... .,,, co >

fossil Hill

fossil Hill fossil Hill

fossil Hill

fossil Hill

fossil Hill fossil Hill

fossil Hill

category IB

fossil Hill

I:ettle Point

fossil Hill

ca:'e(]ory

fossil Hill

fossil Hill

fossil Hill

"

...c.c""

....

co c

c

- ... -... ., U)

~

'C

c" J::.

...."x ...u

c: c: "'''' 0'"

"" ...." ..... "... " ., co c: " .c."" " "

u

. . ......, ~

.,

......

by

E

""

co -"

"" ... "E .,"::> "... ".co

0

eads) removed

i

I

~

~

...~

f

~

~

~

~

~ II>

Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, No. 30

70

Metric and other data on fluted projectile points (unmeasured sample) from areas A, C, E, F, K, b, c, and d.

Table 3.17.

.....0 ..............

.. .... ............

........

0

~

fluted Projectile Points (unmeaaured sample) Areas A,C,E,f,K,b,c,d

:J

....c:

o ., cuD .. cu

.0 OJ

. .........

.....

• lice

c:c:

.... c:

...... "'. c:o.. ... :JII

... 0. o~

.. 0

GI

ce

.... 11 "0 OJ

980.85.303

.

......c:

'"

c: ....

.,

1:.11

., .. II"

.. 0.

..

II " >0.. II~

fINISHED (basal fraqments) Area b,S2El,H,feat.4

..

.s:::

.....,x .....0

~

c: c: "''''

0 ·... ... "0 "0

.

.....0.0

......,

c: 0

... ..

....... ... .....

Fossil Hill

?

Fossil Hill Fossil Hill

?

.... .....,

0

.. > ........ c: ....

.... ....... ....

e

3:

0"

UNFINISHED (basal fragments) 980.85.888

Area c,S2E2,d

p

980.85.840

Area c,SlE3,A

P

978.127.1962 975.246.1005 975.246.986 970.127.554 975.246.956 980.85.24 980.85.120 978.127.2109 975.246.1113 978.127.2052 975.246.932 980.85.1013 980.85.153 980.85.356

(mid-section fragments) Area E,surfsce (distsl fragments) Area E,surface Area E, Tr.l,S' Area F ,SlWI,C Area F,surface Area b,surface Area b,S2El,C Area d,aurface STAGE INDETERMINATE Area C,N4El-G Area K,surface Area C,N5W1,D Area b,S2El,C Area b,S2E2,G Area b,S3E2,Si,Feat.5

P

P

p I' p

P ?

Fossil

~lil1

Fossil Ifill Fossil Hill Fossil Hill Fossil Hill Fossil Hill category 16 Fossil Ilill Fossil Hill Fossil Hill category 27 I:r.t t Ie Point OnOnda'lB category 18

?

? ?

65-70 ? ?

0-5 90

Z5-30 10-1)

RE-~JORKED

975.246.957

Area F,surface

Kettle Point

*Tr.I,5-Trench 1, subun1t 5

flake blank selected for the tool, were probably intended to pro- the flake blank. This retouching may have been intended to vide strength to the cutting/scraping tip. In the majority of reduce undesired curvature of the flake blank or irregularities instances, the ventral surface of the tool was not modified, and produced by markedly undulating ripples. Whatever the reathe flat or slightly undulating surface of the flake blank pro- son, the flaking produced the same plano-convex cross-section vided a cutting plane similar to that of an end scraper. Several that is observed on unifacially prepared artifacts. The beaked scrapers can be subdivided into two categories: artifacts, however, were retouched to some extent on the planar (1) artifacts that were shaped about the circumference (total: surface, which in most instances, is also the ventral surface of

71

The Fisher Site-Storck Metric and other data on fluted projectile points (unmeasured sample) from Area B.

Table 3.18.

....u

co ..... -Pi

.... ~

.....o .... co

~

Q)

..r:

en u x .....

-Pi

co

Fluted Projectile Points (unmeasured sample) Area B

0

C'I C'I

C

c

O-Pi

r-I "0

"0 .....

r-I Ctl

'Pi ~ Q)

Q)

0..0 C 0 0 .... 'Pi

....co e

.... -Pi

3:

-Pi r-I

co ~

....

co

Q)

:>

c .... Q) ~

o

co

Q) ~

UNFINISHED (distal fragments) 978.127.1453

surface N5W7,H N3W8,H

975.246.563 975.246.485 978.127.1241 975.246.388 975.246.667

Test sq.1,A N4~J7 ,C N6W7,E

978.127.1608 975.246.593 975.246.518

Test sq.2,D N4W9,B N3\.tJ9,A

975.246.612 975.246.468

N4W9,H N4W8,A

978.127.1282 975.246.708 975.246.821 978.127.1643 978.127.1653 975.246.571 978.127.1651

N2W7,F

975.246.168

S2El,B SIEl,E N21J.J7 ,E,Feat.4 N2W7 , E, Feat. 4 N2W9,I N2t1l7,F,Feat.4 S3E2,B

Fossil Hill Fossil Hill

60-65 80-85

Fossil Hill

?

Fossil Hill Fossil Hill Fossil Hill Fossil Hill category 14

75-80 ? ?

85-90

Fossil Hill

0-5

Fossil Hill Fossil Hill Fossil Hill

65-70 5-10

Fossil Hill Fossil Hill Fossil Hill category 1

0-5

Fossil Hill Fossil Hill Fossil Hill

?

? ? ?

? ?

(mid-section fragments) 975.246.418 978.127.1400 975.246.54

N5W8,H Test sq.5,F

Fossil Hill

40-45

Fossil Hill

?

surface

Fossil Hill

0-5

Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, No. 30

72 Table 3.19.

Metric and other data on fluted projectile points (unmeasured sample) from Area C-east.

+> 0

ID ..... •.-1

..., f.< ID .....

o

+> f.
. Because the shear wave velocity varies from with equal intensity and duration). A parametric analysis was conducted to determine the mag- one type of silicate to another, it is customary to leave the paranitude of the force(s) which created the polish on the lateral meter in its decimal ratio form in order to facilitate comparison edges. Because both lateral edges were intentionally retouched, of results. Several series of experiments were conducted to determine these forces must be estimated indirectly. This is done by first measuring the mean lateral wedge angles (37.5° and 44°) and the characteristic crack propagation speed generated by three the corresponding mean penetration depths (2.85 mm and 2.35 different flaking techniques: pressure, indirect percussion, and mm). Using these figures in Equation 5 produces values of direct percussion. The results are illustrated in Figure 4.20, 1.673 Nand 1.747 N, respectively. These values differ by less which shows the change in crack speed (C/CZ> over the length than 5% and, therefore, must be regarded as representing iden- of the crack (cT ) (see also Tomenchuk 1988). The illustration tical loads. This suggests that the zonal polishes may be the for each flaking technique (load condition) summarizes a minresult, not of use-wear during butchering activities, but of imum of four tests which were used to calculate a mean crack damage caused by immobilizing the point in either a haft or a speed (solid line) and the standard deviation (stippled zones) vice during the fluting process. If this interpretation is correct, above and below the mean (Tomenchuk 1988:105). Figure

The Fisher Site-Storck

A

.3~--------------~---------------r

'"

t)

.(;.2

.8.

'tI

'" "e "

....1

o

10

20

30 40 50 60 crack length (c T )

PRESSURE

70

80

FLAKING

B

.3r---------------------------------~

-..!::..2'"

·U

.

i

c.

...'" .1 "~ "

o

w

~

~

~ ~ 80 crack length (c T )

ro

80

00

100

INDIRECT PERCUSSION FLAKING

C .3.-----------------------------------,

135

4.20A illustrates the pattern for the crack propagation speed produced by pressure flaking using a copper tipped chest crutch. Two of the test results were estimated from high-speed photographs published in Crabtree (1968). The results from two other tests were obtained from the analysis of Wallner lines and fracture wings on two obsidian blades which were removed from a core by Terry Aldritt for the purpose of an earlier study. Figure 4.20B illustrates the pattern for crack propagation speed produced by John Shae using Tixier's sous Ie pied indirect percussion technique to remove five obsidian blades from a core. Figure 4.20C illustrates the pattern for crack speed which the author produced by direct pt:rcussion using a siltstone hammer to remove four obsidian blades from a core. The data described above are useful for interpreting the technique used in fluting two projectile points from Area C-east (978.127.54 and 978.127.298). Both projectile points exhibit four or more fracture wings along the medial length of at least one of the flute scars and these features provide an estimate of crack propagation speed (lines C and D in Figure 4.21). The profiles of these two lines are very similar to the patterns produced by indirect percussion (see Figure 4.20B). Additional support for this interpretation is provided by estimates of crack propagation speeds obtained by the author from two experimental projectile points of Fossil Hill Formation chert that were fluted by indirect percussion (lines A and B in Figure 4.21). Despite the slight discrepancies between the crack velocity profiles obtained from the prehistoric and experimental artifacts, the data indicate very strongly that some form of indirect percussion was used to flute the two projectile points from Area C-east . Higher-Order Functional Interpretations

-

-;S.2 ~

The pursuit of analytic objectives involving aggregates of chipped stone tools require second- and higher-order inferences. This section examines the empirical basis for the several second-order interpretations attempted in this study.

"""~ "

Activities and Activity Areas in Area C-east

·U

'tI

'" .1

o

w

~

~

~ ~ 80 crack length (c T )

ro

80

00

~

DIRECT PERCUSSION FLAKING note: C/C 2 = ratio of crack speed to shear wave velocity

Figure 4.20. Crack velocity patterns determined by experimental pressure, indirect percussion, and percussion flaking (based on Tomenchuk 1988: Figs. 3-5).

The following interpretations about specific task-related activities in Area C-east are based for the most part on artifacts that were analyzed using the parametric approach (see Figures 4.15-4.17). Table 4.7 presents, in descending order of abundance, the tasks represented by the functional edges of artifacts, or employed units. In addition, qualitatively assessed functional edges from Area C-east, which are almost exclusively gravers, are also included in this table, as well as in Figures 4.15-4.17, to provide a more comprehensive picture of the range of activities performed in the activity/occupation area. From the data in Table 4.7, Area C-east could be characterized as primarily a butcheringlhide processing station despite the preponderance of wood, bone, and antler working. The latter activities are probably directly related to the manufacture

136

Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, No. 30

.3 A

....>-

.

c

g Q)

>

Q)

, "1 I ICI 1 I

.2

>

CD "-

s:. fI)

1

-

.". ", '. "

I

1

CD

Q)

C

\

o

/

\ I \ I \ \

G)

..

\

o

•o

o

....

I

I

N

~~

'(3

1

/

0

>

..lII:

o

... o

I

.1

•

;

+, ". ",-D

/ """" I '

I

""-

I

-....

..

i/

'.

/

Y

C

.,/

, ':.I!

I

I I

II 1 "

CD

____--------.A

""".B .

;111

~

~

I

""I "'1.

o o

...

CD

C

o o

10

20

30

40

% of

50

60

70

80

90

100

total crack length (Ct)

Figure 4.21. Crack velocity patterns generated by indirect percussion fluting on experimental artifacts (A and B) compared with estimated crack velocities determined from archaeological material (C and D). A, B) C)

0)

channel Oake scar produced on experimental fluted points of Fossil Hill Fonnation chert channel Oake scar on complete Outed point (978.127.54) channel Oake scar on broken fluted point (978.127.298)

and repair of tools and weapons. In addition to the two gravers (specimen numbers 23 and 29), used ostensibly to sever the binding that secured stone tools in their hafts, spent fragmentary fluted points which may have been broken during hunting activities, coupled with the abundant evidence of fluted point manufacture, indicate that a significant amount of weapon repair occurred in Area C-east. The distribution of 34 artifacts identified with particular tasks is plotted in Figure 4.22. This distribution indicates considerable overlapping of activities in Area C-east. Whether all or part of the overlapping can be attributed to postdepositional disturbances is unknown. Nevertheless, there is some spatial evidence for the presence of special activity areas. For

example, artifacts used for working bone (identified by the letter B) are restricted to squares NI W2 (subunits B, E, and 1) and NI WI (G). In addition, several butchering and hide working tools (identified by the letters T and H, respectively) occur in squares SIWI (subunits A, B, C, and D) and NIWI (subunit H). Finally, a cluster of four tools used for wood working (identified by the letter W) occur in the southwestern part of Area C-east (square S2W2, subunits E and F). Two of the specimens (21 and 22) were used in a counterclockwise direction and one (20) was used in a clockwise direction. Because of the close spatial association of the tools, it is conceivable that two individuals were engaged in the same task at the same time.

The Fisher Site-Storck Table 4.7.

rank order

137

Frequency of task-related functional edges from Area C-East.

activity

frequency

specimen (data-point) number wholly or partially parametrically analyzed

non-parametrically analyzed 21, 22, 28, 30

1

wood working

13, 16/16' , 18118' , 20

2

bone working

3A, 3B, 7A, 7B, 7C, 10, 11, 12

3

antler working

1, 2, 14, 15, 17

4

hide processing 9, 31, 32, 33

5

butchering

6

tool/weapon repair

7

unknown

Note:

wood working tools used in a paring motion have both a longitudinal and orthogonal cutting component. These tools are identified 16/16' and 18/18'.

8

5 5

2S

4,5,6,9

8

Amount of Hide Dressing in Area C-east Four scrapers from Area C-east were determined from use-wear analysis to have been used in processing hides. Three of these provide estimates of edge loss resulting from that activity (see Tomenchuk 1979 for discussion of the procedure). Edge loss calculations for the three hide scrapers are presented in Table 4.5. Values for edge bluntness (the average cross-sectional radius of curvature of the functional edge) range from 0.136 mm to 0.615 mm. These figures clearly demonstrate that the scrapers were lost, discarded, or abandoned after reaching different levels of dysfunction. Table 4.5 illustrates that volumetric loss on the three artifacts ranges from 0.035 mm3 to 1.9225 mm3. The range of weight loss for these artifacts is 0.0896 mg to 4.9261 mg. The range for volumetric loss is consistent with estimates of edge loss presented for other archaeological material by Brink (1978) and Tomenchuk (1985). It has been determined from experimental data that the linear blunting rate for a tool made of Fossil Hill Formation chert used to remove the hair and flesh from the hide of white-tailed deer (Odocoi/eus virginianus) is 1.584 mg/mm3 . At this rate of blunting, the combined edge loss for the three hide scrapers from Area C-east (9.7316 mm3) would, if the tools were used during the same episode of occupation, represent the amount of work required to dress the hides of five adult white-tailed

8

4

23,29

2

24,26,27

4

deer. If these tools had been used on hides from caribou rather than deer, then the combined edge loss from the three scrapers suggests that perhaps as many as seven adult caribou hides may have been processed (assuming that a caribou hide is approximately two-thirds the size of a deer hide). It must be emphasized that this estimate is an absolute minimum for the following reasons. First, the linear blunting rate model underestimates the actual quantity of work performed. Second, if these tools had been resharpened earlier, the amount of work which was performed prior to the last rejuvenation episode cannot be determined. Third, other formal tools not included in this analysis may also have been used for processing additional hides. For these reasons, the total amount of skin dressing in Area C-east must remain unknown. Season of Occupation in Area C-east Parametric use-wear analysis indicates that antler was worked in both areas C and C-east and, therefore, that one or more species of cervid was hunted by the Fisher site occupants. Perhaps the most likely cervid is caribou (Rangifer tarandus) whose skeletal remains have been identified at Paleo-Indian sites such as the Holcombe Beach in Michigan (Cleland 1965; Fitting et al. 1966), Bull Brook in Massachusetts (Spiess et al. 1985:147), Whipple site in New Hampshire (Spiess et al. 1985:146), the Dutchess Quarry Caves in New York state

138

Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, No. 30

(Funk et al. 1969; Funk et al. 1970), and at the Udora site in Ontario (Spiess and Storck 1990; Storck and Spiess 1994). Despite the fact that little is known about the migratory habits of Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene-age caribou in Ontario, the species was probably available to Paleo-Indian hunters for protracted periods of time throughout the year (see Storck 1982:23; Peers 1986; but cf. Jackson 1988). Of possible significance for establishing the season of occupation at Area C-east is the fact that use-wear analysis indicates that three of the four tools used in butchering may have sustained contact with immature bone. If this bone was from caribou, as the evidence discussed above suggests, and immature animals were being processed, then Area C-east may have been occupied during the late summer or early fall. Binford's (1978) observation on seasonal variability in Numamuit hunting patterns appears especially germane to the question of the season of occupation at Area C-east on the Fisher site. Binford writes: Age was a matter that hunters could not give information on, since they did not make note of an animal's age beyond distinguishing whether an animal was a calf or a mature animal. Calves are considered only as sources of skins for clothing in late summer and early fall. At that time, they are killed selectively for clothing but not normally butchered for food. Generally only the head is taken; it is considered tender and something of a treat. [Binford 1978:86; emphasis added]

Ethnographic observations by others tend to corroborate Binford's statements. For example, David Hoffman (1976:70-71) reports that the hides for the inner parka worn by Inuit "were taken from calves killed in early August at which time the hair is shortest." Elsewhere, in reference to caribou hunting in August of 1925 by Eskimos in the Coronation Gulf area, Hoare, a wildlife biologist (1926; cited in Kelsall 1968:220), reports: I secretly visited all these hunting camps and found in the vicinity dead and rotting carcases [sic] scattered over a large area. It appears that the lean cows so killed were left purposely to rot while the fat bulls that were found were made into dry meat. The fawns were eaten then as a delicacy. Only the fawn skins were then fit for clothing, so the skins of cows and bulls were wasted.

Assuming, then, that the hide working tools from Area C-east were used to process the hides of immature caribou during the season of the year when the pelage was in prime condition, it is suggested that this area of the site was occupied during the late summer or early fall. Minimum Number of Tool-Users at Area C-east Figure 4.15 illustrates the distribution of values of applied force derived from several tools from Area C-east. Excluding the single datum point 8, a regression line was calculated and plotted through the remaining data points using the following equation:

P, ~ (1.5219 X IO')Q, - 0.1818

The calculated correlation coefficient of 0.6124 is significant at 0.1 > P > 0.05. Note that the regression line intersects the Qr axis at a Qr value of 0.1195 x 105 N/m2 and would project beyond into what is termed the fourth quadrant, missing the experimental point of convergence at p. = 0.0745 Nand Qr = - 0.508 x lOS N/m2. Because the regression line deviates considerably from the experimental point of convergence and because the scatter of the data points about the regression line itself exceeds the empirical limit of ±0.6 N, the data used to generate the regression line probably represents the presence of more than one individual. The bivariate plot of longitudinal cutting tools from Area Ceast (Figure 4.15) indicates that the tools were used by a minimum of two individuals. Individual I is represented by the near vertical line on the left side of the figure (with a slope of 3.767). Six or seven functional edges (2, 7, 10, 11, 18, 19 and possibly 8) were used to work bone, antler, wood, and hide. Individual II, on the other hand, is represented by the long diagonal line on the right of the figure (with a slope of 0.5875). The zone of dispersion encompasses four functional edges (1,3, 16, and 17) reflecting three distinct activities: bone, antler and wood working. It is apparent that the full range of activities was performed by both individuals. Owing to the minimal "cutting" strength required, hide preparation cannot be ascribed unequivocally to either individual. Interestingly, the provenience of most of the tools associated with the two individuals (2, 7,10,11, and 18 associated with the one individual in Figure 4.15 and 1, 3, 16, and 17 associated with the other individual) indicates that considerable mixing of the two samples has occurred. If not a result of plow disturbance, the mixing could indicate that the individuals were involved in coordinated activities. Additional insights into the identity of the tool-users and their relation to each other is provided by the observations that were made concerning the kinematics of tool use. For example, on the basis of the location of wear on specimen 3 in relation to overall shape of the tool, it would appear that the individual who used the implement (the stronger of the two) was righthanded. Also, the direction of predominant torque applied through six peripheral cutting tools from Area C-east is divided equally between clockwise (e.g., specimen 20 in Figure 4.13 and specimens 26 and 28 in Figure 4.14) and counterclockwise rotation (e.g., specimens 21,22, and 30 in Figure 4.14). Of special interest is the cluster of four wood working tools in square S2W2, subunits E and F (see Figure 4.22). The fact that two of these specimens (21 and 22) were used in a counterclockwise direction while another (20) was employed in a predominantly clockwise direction affirms the presence of both left- and righthanded individuals. The spatial overlap here and elsewhere in Area C-east would seem to indicate either that two or more individuals worked together on specific tasks or that each tool-

The Fisher Site-Storck

139

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Figure 4.22. Spatial distribution of parametrically and qualitatively analyzed artifacts from Area C-east. Artifacts are identified by numbers (see also Table 4.7). Letters designate substances worked by the tools: A) antler or hardwood B) bone H) hide L) binding

user performed similar (or identical) suites of tasks at the same location but at different times. Because of the tight clustering of certain tools, especially those from square S2W2, subunits E and F (see Figure 4.22), the former explanation seems more plausible despite the possibility of some disturbance by plowing. Parametric Identification of Wood Used in Areas C and C-east

This section first examines the reliability of wood identification using the parametric approach in use-wear analysis and then goes on to discuss the identifications of the species of wood worked by the inhabitants of the Fisher site.

T) butchering W) wood (both hard and 80ft) U)unknown.

As presently developed, the parametric approach uses estimates of wood hardness derived from use-wear evidence to identify the species of wood which may have been worked by stone tools. Since there is considerable overlap in hardness values (fable 4.2) among the 23 tree species which hypothetically could have been available to the occupants of the Fisher site (see Appendix I), our ability to make firm identifications is limited. Other factors which affect wood hardness, such as variable moisture content, contribute further to the difficulty of wood identification. Earlier in this chapter it was mentioned that dessication below the fiber saturation point results in changes in the mechanical and physical properties of wood. Most live conifers

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Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, No. 30

possess a lower moisture content than live broadleaf species (U.S. Forest Products Laboratory 1974, Chapter 3:6). Coupled with their generally greater porosity and lower density, conifers tend to reach the critical fiber saturation point much more quickly than broadleaf trees. In most woods, the fiber saturation point is around 30% moisture content. Typically, for every 1% decrease in the moisture content below the fiber saturation point, a 3% increase in hardness occurs. There is a critical period of time between the state of fiber saturation and the so-called equilibrium point (beyond which no further drying occurs) when wood hardness values change erratically, thus making species identification unreliable. Hardness values tend to stabilize at the fiber saturation point and also, albeit at somewhat higher levels, at the equilibrium state. In temperate zones, the equilibrium moisture content fluctuates seasonally. In general, conifers reach the equilibrium moisture content much more rapidly than broadleaf species. Given the number of variables affecting the apparent hardness of wood, species identification is clearly a difficult task. Figure 4.23 plots the mean and standard deviation of the end- and side-load hardnesses for 23 species of wood listed in Table 4.2. The statistical dispersion of green state (fiber saturation) hardness values are depicted by solid lines; the statistical scatter of dried hardness values (to 12% moisture content) are indicated by dashed lines. Gaps between the solid and dashed lines represent the range of intermediate hardnesses separating fibre saturation and 12% moisture content. For comparison, the 16 tools (with a total of 18 functional edges) thought to have been used for wood working are plotted along the horizontal hardness scale in the center of the figure. Standard letters are used to identify specimens from Area C; italics, to designate specimens from Area C-east. Tools used for longitudinal cutting are correlated with side-load hardnesses while tools used for orthogonal cutting are correlated with end-load hardnesses. Because wood is an anisotropic material it will exhibit differences in strength and mechanical properties along at least two of its three separate axes. At 12% moisture content, the end-load hardness of most unseasoned species of wood is invariably greater than the side-load hardness for those same species (Table 4.2). The magnitude of the difference between the end- and side-load hard-

ness values is, to some extent, species-specific for a given state of dessication. In principle, therefore, longitudinal and orthogonal cutting tools used to work the same species of wood are expected to yield two clusters of hardness values whose respective means and corresponding differential will be diagnostic of the particular species. Unfortunately, variability in moisture content among specimens of the same species will not only contribute to an increase in the scatter of hardness values but will also skew the respective means and the resulting differential between the means. And since variable moisture content is probably more the norm than the exception in characterizing the state of wood used prehistorically, a certain amount of inherent ambiguity is to be expected in the data. Hardness values for the substances worked by tools from areas C and C-east at the Fisher site fall into five clusters: three clusters of tools used for longitudinal cutting (I, II, and III) and two clusters of tools used for orthogonal cutting (Ia and IIa). The two end-load clusters in Figure 4.23 (Ia and IIa) are correlated with side-load clusters I and II, respectively. Side-load cluster III ostensibly lacks a complementary match, suggesting perhaps that despite the intervening gap, clusters II and III form a continuum. Projecting the hardness values obtained from the Fisher artifacts onto the hardness values for the various species of wood produces several areas of overlap which are highlighted by the stippled tone. At the lowest end of the hardness scale is an isolated value (20A) which has been attributed to stripping bark (see earlier discussion of platform flake 975.246.217b and b2 from Area C). This lone value is disregarded in the following discussion. Concerning the species of wood indicated by clusters I and Ia in Figure 4.23, the only candidates falling within the limits of both end- and side-load clusters are unseasoned jack pine and black spruce. The significance of complementary clusters II and IIa is, unfortunately, much more difficult to interpret. The only species of wood that occurs within the limits of the complementary hardness clusters is white elm. This identification is unlikely to be correct since white elm did not migrate into southern Ontario until mid- to late postglacial times, thus significantly postdating the presumed late glacial/early postglacial age of the Early Paleo-Indian occupation of the Fisher site. A

Figure 4.23 (facing page). Identification by parametric use-wear analysis of wood species worked in Areas C and C-east at the Fisher site. Data points in italics are from artifacts from Area C-east; all other data points are from Area C. A) eastern white cedar, Thuja occidentalis B) balsam fir, Abies balsamea C) eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis D) tamarack, Larix laricina E) jack pine, Pinus banksiana F) red pine, Pinus resinosa G) eastern white pine, Pinus strobus H) black spruce, Picea mariana J) red spruce, Picea rubens 1) white spruce, Picea glauca K) basswood, Tllia americana L) beech, Fagus grandifolia

M) white birch, Betulapapyrifera N) yellow birch, Betula alleghaniensis 0) slippery elm, Ulmus rubra P) rock elm, Ulmus thomasii Q) white elm, Ulmus americana R) silver maple, Acer saccharinum S) sugar maple, Acer saccharum T) black oak, Quercus velutina U) bur oak, Quercus macrocarpa V) red oak, Quercus rubra W) white oak, Quercus alba

The Fisher Site-Storck

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280

Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, No. 30

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The Fisher Site-Storck

important criterion for site selection, it does not, however, appear to have been associated with a particular occupational activity, at least insofar as this is reflected in tool assemblage composition, since no single activity occurs exclusively on the highest portions of the site. In addition to subsistence considerations, the Fisher site may also have been positioned so as to provide access to toolstone located in the Blue Mountain uplands approximately 25 km northwest of the site. Limited survey work in the lithic source area has produced evidence that Early Paleo-Indian peoples visited the area, presumably for obtaining toolstone, but, up to the present time, only workshops have been discovered. These contain evidence of chert reduction and preform manufacture but no other tool making or occupational activities. This suggests that the lithic source area was exploited by specialized task groups based at more general purpose sites. The location of the Fisher site, situated on a lake margin and presumably near abundant fish and land mammal resources, may have been a compromise: positioned so as to provide food resources for the band as a whole and, at the same time, ready access to the lithic source area on the uplands to the west for a smaller number of individuals acting on behalf of the band. This study, in addition to documenting a large and complex Early Paleo-Indian site of the Parkhill complex, also highlights gaps in our knowledge of that cultural complex and underscores the need for further research on certain key topics or issues. Perhaps of greatest concern archaeologically is our continuing lack of knowledge of the age of the Parkhill complex and the nature of its relationship to the two other proposed Early Paleo-Indian complexes in Ontario: Gainey and Crowfield. In order to resolve this problem we need a representative sample of single component sites in several geological/paleo-environmental situations for each proposed complex as well as stratified sites with superimposed cultural material, all containing datable organics in good contexts as well as faunal preservation. We are still too dependent on surface or near-surface archaeological material from mixed, multicom-

281

ponent sites which contain only lithics. These latter sites were discovered through long-term, systematic survey work and, considering the large number of sites that have been found and the nature of the research questions that have and are being dealt with, this work has been highly successful. However, to avoid generating new data with the same limitations we now face in existing collections, we need to expand our survey work and subsurface exploration in ways that will improve our chances of discovering buried and stratified sites and sites with preserved organic materials. At the very least, this will require extensive coring and backhoe trenching in the vicinity of known sites and, at its most complex, comprehensive programs of subsurface investigations in sedimentary environments (such as river valleys) where deeply buried sites may theoretically be found. In addition to improved archaeological data, we also need more control over the geological and paleoenvironmental history of the late glacial/early postglacial period in Ontario. Specifically, the problems relating to the age and history of Lake Algonquin and the post-Algonquin lakes need resolution so that the strandlines associated with archaeological sites may be identified and used to provide reliable geological "base dates" for human occupation. We also need the resolution of conflicting interpretations over the structure of late glacial/ early postglacial plant communities in southern Ontario. Much of the "pollen work" that has been done on this subject is strongly oriented toward geological problems (such as the timing of deglaciation and the history of glacial lakes) and, therefore, with issues of chronology, biostratigraphy, and correlation. There is a need for problem oriented and synthetic research focused on specific paleoecological problems, such as the timing and process of "forestation" during the late glacial/early Holocene. Certainly, until such time as the plant communities of this period are more fully characterized and understood it will not be possible for archaeologists to place early human occupation in anything other than a tentative and rudimentary environmental context.

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1988a "The Early Paleoindian Occupation of Ontario: Colonization or Diffusion?" In, Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Paleoecology and Archeology of the Eastern Great Lakes Region, edited by R. S. Laub, N. G. Miller, and D. W Steadman, pp. 243-50. Bulletin Number 33, Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. 1988b "Recent Excavations at the Udora Site: A Gainey/Clovis Occupation Site in Southern Ontario." Current Research in the Pleistocene 3:23-24. 1991 "Imperialists Without a State: The Cultural Dynamics of Early Paleoindian Colonization as Seen from the Great Lakes Region." In, Clovis Origins and Adaptations, edited by Robson Bonnichsen and Karen Turnmire, pp. 153-62. Center for the Study of the First Americans and Department of Anthropology, Oregon State University, Corvalis. 1992 "Report of Field Work Conducted Under Licence 92-004: 1992." Report on file, Ontario Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Recreation, Toronto. 1993a "Should It Be The Beach or the Mountains This Year?" Royal Ontario Museum Archaeological Newsletter. Series II, No. 50 (January). 1993b "Recent Investigations at the Thomson Site Complex, Ontario, Canada." Current Research in the Pleistocene 9:38-39. Storck, P. L., Q. H. J. Gwyn, A. Nolin, J .H. McAndrews, and P. von Bitter 1978 "Preliminary Report on the Fisher Project." Unpublished report on file, Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, and Department of New World Archaeology, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. Storck, Peter L., and Arthur E. Spiess 1994 "The Significance of New Faunal Identifications Attributed to an Early Paleoindian (Gainey Complex) Occupation at the Udora Site, Ontario, Canada." American Antiquity 59(1):121-42. Storck, Peter L., and John Tomenchuk 1990 "An Early Paleoindian Cache of Informal Tools at the Udora Site, Ontario." In, Early Paleoindian Economies of Eastern North America, edited by K. B. Tankersley and B. L. Isaac, pp. 45-93. Research in Economic Anthropology, Supplement 5. Storck, Peter L., and Peter H. von Bitter 1981 "The Search Changes Direction: Ice Age Man in Ontario." Rotunda 14(3):28-36. 1989 "The Geological Age and Occurrence of Fossil Hill Formation Chert: Implications for Early Paleoindian Settlement Patterns." In, Eastern Paleoindian Lithic Resource Use, edited by Christopher J. Ellis and Jonathan C. Lothrop, pp 165-89. Boulder: Westview Press. Taylor, F. B. 1913 "The Moraine Systems of Southwestern Ontario." Transactions of the Canadian Institute 10:57-78. Telford, P. G. 1976 "Paleozoic Geology Collingwood-Nottawasaga, Ontario." Ontario Division of Mines, Map 2341.

Southern

Telford, P. G., I. J. Bond, and B. A. Liberty 1974 "Paleozoic Geology of the Collingwood-Nottawasaga Area, Southern Ontario." Ontario Division of Mines, Preliminary Map P. 954, Geology Series, scale 1:50,000. Terasmae, J. 1968 "A Discussion of Deglaciation and the Boreal Forest History in the Northern Great Lakes Region." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Ontario 96:31-43. 1980 "Some Problems of Late Wisconsin History and Geochronology in Southeastern Ontario." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 17:361-81. 1981 "Late-Wisconsin Deglaciation and Migration of Spruce into Southern Ontario, Canada." In, Geobotany IL edited by Robert C. Romans, pp. 75-90. London: Plenum Press.

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Terasmae, 1., and H. L. Matthews 1980 "Late Wisconsin White Spruce (Picea glauca [Moench) Voss) at Brampton, Ontario." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 17:1087-95. Thomas, David Hurst 1976 Figuring Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1983 "The Archaeology of Monitor Valley I. Epistemology." Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 58, I. 1989 "Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Cultural Geography." In, Quantifying Diversity in Archaeology. edited by Robert D. Leonard and George T. Jones, pp. 85-91. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thompson, W. 0. 1937 "Original Structures of Beaches, Bars, and Dunes." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 48:723-52. Timoshenko, S. P., and 1. N. Goodier 1970 Theory of Elasticity. Third edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Tomenchuk, John 1979 "The Calculation of Edge Loss on Chipped-Stone Tools Resulting from Use." In, Lithic Use-Wear Analysis, edited by Brian Hayden, pp. 123-32. New York: Academic Press. 1982 "A Use-Wear Analysis of the Fisher Site Lithic Component: A Progress Report." Report No. ARG-171. On file, Ontario Heritage Foundation, Toronto. 1983 "Predicting the Past: Examples from the Use-wear Study of Selected Chipped Stone Tools from Two Epipaleolithic Occupations in Israel." In, Traces d' Utilisation sur les Outils Neolithiques du Proche Orient, edited by M. C. Cauvin, pp. 57-76. Travaux de la Maison de I'Orient. 1985 The Development of a Wholly Parametric Use-Wear Methodology and Its Application to Two Selected Samples of Epipaleolithic Chipped Stone Toolsfrom Hayonim Cave. Israel. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto. 1988 "Effects of Loading Rate on the Reliability of Engineering Use-Wear Models." In, Industries Lithiques: Traceologie et Technologie. edited by Sylvie Beyries, pp. 99-114. British Archaeological Reports, International Series, No. 411, Oxford. Tomenchuk, John, and John Medley "The Correlation of the Cutting Coefficient and the Fracture Angle n.d. of Microchips Along the Service Edge of Flint Blades." Manuscript on file, Department of Anthropology, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Ontario. Tomenchuk, John, and Peter Storck. 1996 Single- and Double-Scribe Compass Gravers: Two Newly Recognized Paleoindian Tool Types. Manuscript on file, Department of Anthropology, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Ontario. Tringham, Ruth 1972 "The Function, Technology and Typology of the Chipped Stone Industry at Bylany." In, Die Aktuelle Fragen der Bandkeramik. edited by 1. Fitz, pp. 143-48. Szekesfehervar. Trubowitz, Neil L. 1978 "The Persistence of Settlement Pattern in a Cultivated Field." In, Essays in Northeastern Anthropology in Memory of Marian E. White, edited by William E. Engelbrecht and Donald K. Grayson, pp. 41-66. Occasional Publications in Northeastern Anthropology 5. Franklin Pierce College, Rindge, New Hampshire. Tsirk,Are 1979 "Regarding Fracture Initiation." In, Lithic Use-Wear Analysis, edited by Brian Hayden, pp. 83-96. New York: Academic Press. Underhill, James C. 1986 "The Fish Fauna of the Laurentian Great lakes, the St. Lawrence Lowlands, Newfoundland and Labrador." In, The Zoogeography of

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Yergeau, M. 1975 Contribution aI'Etude Morpho-Sedimentologique du Bassin du Birchton. Region de Sherbrooke. Memoire de M.A., Departement de Geographie, Universite de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec. Youngs, R. L. 1957 "Mechanical Properties of Red Oak Related to Drying." Forest Products Journal 7(10):315-24.

Zingg, T.R. 1935 "Beitrag sur Schotteranalyse Schweiz." Mineral und Petrog. Mitt. 15:39-140.

ApPENDIX

I

Pollen Analysis of a Sediment Core from a Bog Adjacent to the Fisher Site J. H. McAndrews The objective of the pollen study was to determine the age and vegetational history of the basin between the archaeological site and the former bar of glacial Lake Algonquin (see Figure 7.2, sedimentary unit 3Bl, and Figure 7.15) and the chronological relationship of the two geological features with the archaeological site. The basin is presently a peat bog dominated by shrub willows (Salix), bullrush (Scirpus), sedge (Carex) , cattail (Typha), and goldenrod (Solidago). The southernpart of the basin is vegetated with a white cedar (Thuja) forest. Four cores were lifted from the bog with a 5.0 cm diameter piston sampler. The maximum penetration was 53 cm. The upper 29 to 37 cm was black amorphous peat. Below this was 4.0 to 8.0 cm of organic pond silt which overlies silty sand. The total stratigraphic sequence, although shallow and simple, records the development of a peat bog from a pond. Pollen analysis was done on 13 levels from core 3 (Figure AI). Unfortunately, the pollen and spores were not well preserved. The pollen sum, excluding aquatic pollen and spores, was about 100. The microfossil concentration was estimated by spiking a measured sediment volume with a known number of Lycopodium clavatum spores. Pollen density was low, varying from 3,000 to 104,000 mL-l. Four pollen zones (McAndrews 1981) are present and correlate with the lithology. Zone I, the spruce zone, is confmed to the sandy silt horizon. This zone is dominated by pine (Pinus; 50%) and spruce (Picea; 30%) with small amounts of herbs such as Gramineae (grass) and Cyperaceae (sedge family). Of special interest is the presence of spores of Selaginella selagino ides (20%). This fern ally of subarctic calcareous fens is often associated with frost-heaved soils in the zone of continuous permafrost. Zone 2, the pine zone, is contained in the organic silt horizon. This zone is dominated by pine (75%) with little else of significance except Cupressineae (cedar-juniper; 2.0-6.0%). Due

to poor preservation, the pine pollen could not be distinguished as to species (white pine or jack pine), and thus subzonation is not possible. Zones 3 and 4 are confined to the peat. These zones are dominated by Acer (maple), Tsuga (hemlock), Ulmus (elm), Betula (birch), Tilia (basswood), and Pinus. Zone 4, represented only by a surface sample, is distinguished by Ambrosia (ragweed; 9.0%). Zone 3 has peaks of such spore-producing bog species as Dryopteris (shield fern), Lycopodium (club moss), Sphagnum (peat moss), and Osmunda cinnamomea (cinnamon fern). Pollen of the insect-pollinated compositae is abundant, as is that of Cyperaceae. Among the woody plants of wetlands only Larix (tamarack) is sufficiently represented by pollen to suggest that it grew on the site. Pollen and spores from the surface sample reflect the modern local vegetation with high percentages of Salix, Tubuliflorae (goldenrod), and Cyperaceae. Despite poor preservation, the pollen content of the core reflects both regional and local vegetation. Zone 1 probably represents a spruce dominated forest-tundra. The spruce was probably confined to warm, protected sites. The abundant pine pollen reflects the openness of this lakeside habitat rather than the presence of pine trees; at that time pine forests probably occurred south of Lake Ontario. Pine trees replaced spruce at the boundary between pollen zones I and 2, an interval that dates 10,550 B.P. at nearby Edward Lake (Figure AlB; see also McAndrews 1981). The absence of macrobotanical material from the Fisher core precludes identification of the local vegetation but the organic silt indicates that during the spruce zone the present-day bog was a shallow pond and not part of a larger water body. The boundary between pollen zones 2 and 3 is dated at approximately 7,500 B.P. at Edward Lake and, by extrapolation, also at the Fisher bog. Pollen zone 3 represents a modern mixed forest dominated by beech, maple, hemlock, elm, basswood, and white pine. The

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A em

42 46 50

B Edward Lake • 14

C years

m

-I

, • • • 1• • •

c

, 'jO • J ••• ~ ••••••••.

I ,I

•

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'

;

l'

b 0

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3 0

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C. Manville e/ al

Figure AI. Pollen diagrams from the Fisher bog and Edward Lake, Ontario. "Tourbe," in the left column of diagram A, is a French term for peat, "Ss" is silty sand and "sS" is sandy silt.

The Fisher Site-Storck

abundance of basswood pollen and paucity of beech pollen may be an artifact of preservation rather than a reflection of the relative abundance of those trees. The peat in this zone represents a fen with abundant ferns. There is little or no evidence for local trees (except tamarack) or shrubs. Pollen zone 4 represents the modern shrubby fen surrounded by cultivated fields supporting ragweed. The basal sandy silt reflects a relatively high energy environment, perhaps with waves from Lake Algonquin occasionally breaking over the barrier bar into the lagoon. The lithology of the Fisher pollen core indicates that Lake Algonquin receded from the area during the interval between pollen zones 1 and 2, dated about 10,500 B.P. The subsequent pond

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persisted for 3,000 years but was replaced by a fen 7,500 B.P. due to a lowering of the water table probably caused by warming climate. McAndrews and Jackson (1988) show that postglacial probocidian fossils in south-central Ontario all occur either above Lake Algonquin or in deposits attributed to that postglacial lake (the "Egypt" mammoth southeast of Lake Simcoe) and therefore date to pollen zone 1, the spruce zone. In southcentral Ontario where the Fisher site occurs, mammoth fossils are more common than mastodont remains. Thus, if the Early Paleo-Indian occupants of the Fisher site were contemporaneous with Lake Algonquin, mammoth would probably have been a locally available prey animal.

ApPENDIX

II

Fisher Site Artifact Catalogue This is a catalogue of all artifacts obtained during excavation and surface collecting in each of 19 assemblage-areas on the site (A through L, B-east and C-east, and a through e). The following information is presented: Columns 1 and 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5

the nature of the artifact (type and category) the total number of artifacts ofthat type/category in the assemblage-area the provenience (surface or excavation grid and square/sub-unit designation, such as B-N4W8, H) the catalogue number (such as 975.246.683 or 978.127.1679), with raw material type, if exotic, given in square brackets (for key to material types, see Chapter 3); all other artifacts are of Fossil Hill Formation chert.

2 4

12

4

Category I

Category II, leafshaped

Category II, unclassified

Category III, leafshaped

bifacially worked preforms

2

multiple platform, tabular multiple platform, spheroidal

975.246.692 978.127.1676 975.246.390

surface surface N4W8,H N3W6,A N4WI0,C surface S2Wl,F surface surface Test Square 7,HlN2W8,E NIEl,E S2Wl,F surface N5W9,A

975.246.683 975.246.784 978.127.1547 978.127.1679

978.127.1693 978.127.1427

975.246.97 [#14] 975.246.63 975.246.99 975.246.464 978.127.1619 975.246.656 975.246.88 975.246.710 978.127.1675 975.246.86 978.127.126911 356[#2] 978.127.1463

surface

surface Test Square 5,H N4W6,C SIWLC N3W6,C surface

978.127.1421

Test Square 2,E N4WI0,C 975.246.406

975.246.797

S2E3,0

978.127.1248

worked flakes utilized flakes NIW8,A

not itemized not itemized

spokeshave low angle retouch 2 7

975.246.24 975.2463 975.246.13 975.246.15 975.246.29 978.127.2122 975.246.7 978.127.2049 [#7]

surface surface surface surface surface surface surface surface

flake cores

AreaB

concave scraper flake cutting/scraping tool worked/utilized flakes

975.246.27

7

surface

unidentified bifacially worked artifact fragments

Area A

tips

mid-section fragments point on channel flake * bifacially worked ovoid scraper unidentified bifacially worked * artifact fragments

unidentified projectile point fragments

Category IV, ovoid

Category III, ovoid Category III, unclassified Category IV, leafshaped

43

5

2

2

N5WIO,E NIW1,C surface SIWl,F N6W7,H SIEl,G surface surface N3W9,H Test Square 7,G S1E2,E N3W9,1 N2W9,E S2El,H N2W8,E

N2W8,G

surface

surface

N4W6,F

N3W9,H

N3W8,B N4W8,E N3W9,AJ N3W8,0 N5W7,0

N4W8,A Test Square 5,A N2W7,D (Feat. 4) N2W7,E

N4W7,A N4W8,F

N3W9,D S2El,1

surface

N4W8,H N3W9,H

975.246.716 975.246.569 975.246389 975.246387 978.127.1351

978.127.1277 [#1] 975.246.478 975.246.451 975.246.5621 491 975.246.579 [#16] 975.246.402 [#24] 975.246392 [#16] 978.127.1674 [#1] 978.127.1694 [#8] 978.127.1343 [#14] 978.127.1556 975.246.588 975.246.226 975.246.408 975.246.37l 975.246.74 975.246.227 978.127.1687 975.246.567 978.127.1423

978.127.1660

975.246.471 978.127.1396

975.246.101 975.246.742 [#2] 975.246.618 975.246.442

975.246.62[#7]

975.246.463 975.246.566

c.....

C

~

C

c.....

~

~

c C'

~

~

S.

;:lI

~

~

§

~

~

~

~ ::s-

-

~.

c

~

c

beaked scrapers 5

3 6

4

Category l,a

Category 1,b

Category 2

Category 3,a

N3WlO,F surface N4W8,A S2El,GI SIEl,B N2W7,FIH Feat. 4 S3E2,C N2W9,E SlEl,G S2Wl,B N2W7,F (Feat.4) Test Square 9,F N5WlO,G surface

S3E2,C N2W8,A surface

Test Square 9,F N4W9,C surface N4W9,B N3W8,G Test Square 2,F N6W7,G NIW8,A N4W8,F SIEl,H SIE2,F S2E2,1 surface N2W9,H N2W7,E N2W7,F (Feat. 4) N5W8,A S2Wl,G Test Square 6,G N5W8,E S3E2,0 N2W9,E surface SIEl,E

978.127.1591 978.127.1695 [#8]

978.127.1319

975.246.412 975.246.363 975.246.365 975.246.95 975.246.820 [#7] 975.246.760 978.127.1371 978.127.1485 [#14] 978.127.1504 978.127.2135 975.246.473 975.246.3801 817 978.127.1636/1 612 975.246.763 975.246.407 975.246.74 978.127.1702 978.127.1649

975.246.422 978.127.1541 978.127.1330

975.246.399 978.127.1250 975.246.1310 975.246.394 975.246.761 975.246.397 975.246.79 975.246.396 978.127.1278 978.127.1640

975.246.370 975.246.228 975.246.594 975.246.391 978.127.1408

978.127.1315

end scrapers

gravers

concave scrapers

four spurs Category 1

two spurs three spurs

one spur

notched flakes

Category 3,b spokeshaves

1 5

1 3

26

3

1 5

S2E2,GI SIEl,E N3W8,G surface surface Test Square 12,0 Test Square 12,0 N4W8,I N4W8,0 N2W9,G N5W8,l surface N5W8,1 N5W8,B N5WlO,H N4W9,A N5W8,B N4W7,CIH

S2E2,F SIEl,O N2WI0,C surface N5W7,H surface surface S2El,1 N4W9,I N3W9,0 N5W8,E SlEl,E surface N2W8,01 N2W7,E surface N2W8,G N5W8,0

N2W7,E S3E3,G N2W8,E surface

surface

S2E2,C S2El,C

975.246.460 975.246.449 975.246.556 975.246.1302 975.246.77 975.246.414 975.246.432 978.127.1593 975.246.595 975.246.431 975.246.6221 627[#14]

978.127.1523

975.127.795 975.246.732 [#7] 978.127.1270 [#8] 978.127.1276 975.246.359 978.127.1353 975.246.245 [#8] 975.246.1297 975.246.1290 978.127.1497 978.127.1682 975.246.544 978.127.1686 978.127.1688 975.246.777 975.246.614 975.246.529 975.246.437 975.246.823 978.127.1696 978.127.1380/1 281 975.246.98 978.127.1349 975.246.429 [#8] 975.246.8061 822 975.246.490 975.246.59 978.127.1450 978.127.1522

~

*

c.....

~

I.....

.....

~

.....

-.

~r ~

~

~

~

~

worked flake

worked/util ized flake

utilized flakes

Category 3,a high angle retouch

end scrapers flake cutting/scraping tool worked/utilized flakes

beaked scrapers

Category II, unclassified Category III, leafshaped Category 2 Category 3,a

bifacially worked preform

Areal

Category 1

Category 1 utilized flake

*

end scraper

AreaH

end scraper worked/utilized flake

AreaG

unidentified unifacially worked artifact fragments

utilized flakes

4

1 2

13

80

(exotics only itemized)

978.127.1985 978.127.2090 978.127.2091 978.127.1983 978.127.2093

978.127.1979

surface surface surface surface surface surface

978.127.1980

978.127.1987 [#8]

978.127.1992

978.127.447 978.127.537 978.127.632 978.127.2042 978.127.522 978.127.2021 978.127.594 978.127.476 978.127.399 978.127.546 978.127.2162 975.246.1312

surface

not itemized

surface

surface not itemized

S2Wl,A SIWl,D SIW2,B SIWl,C SIWl,I NIW1,F N2E2,G NlEI,D NIW2,D NI\YI,B NIW2,F surface

978.127.496 [#8] (exotics only itemized) NIW1,F 978.127.2022 [#8] NIEl,D 978.127.472 [#8] NIW1,B 978.127.420 [#8] SIW2,B 978.127.633 [#8] NIE1,I 978.127.453

surface

AreaJ

bifacially worked preform unidentified bifacially worked artifact fragment

Area a

unidentified unifacially worked artifact fragment

end scraper flake cutting/scraping tool worked/utilized flakes

bifacially worked preform unidentified bifacially worked artifact fragment concave scrapers

AreaL

unidentified projectile point fragment worked/utilized flakes

AreaK

flake cutting/ scraping tool

surface surface

Category III, leafshaped

*

*

worked flakes utilized flakes

978.127.2009 978.127.2000 978.127.2014 978.127.1995 [#16]

978.127.2016

978.127.2004

978.127.2053

978.127.1991

978.127.2065 [#14] 978.127.1952 [#14] 978.127.2092 [#14]

978.127.2126

978.127.2125

not itemized (exotics only itemized) NIWI,L 978.127.1883 [#14] NIWI,G 978.127.1878 [#14] surface 978.127.2001

NIWI,G surface NIW1,A NIW1,E

notched flakes

2 6

NIWI,C

*

Category 2 low angle retouch

surface

Category II, leafshaped

2

not itemized not itemized

worked flake utilized flakes 1 3

surface

surface

tip

high angle retouch

surface

surface

surface

~

;0;-

~

0

iV:l

V:l

-....

...t'\o

~

~ ~

980.85.121 [#7] 980.85.375

S2EI,C S3E2,E (Feat. 5) surface S3E2,F (Feat. 5) S3E3,D

spokeshave notched flakes

1 spur

gravers

Category 2

Category Ib

6

1 4

2

980.85.548

S3E2,F, (Feat. 5) S3E2,F (Feat. 5) S3E2,F, (Feat. 5) S3E2,G S2El,F S3E2,1 S2EI,G S3E2,F (Feat. 5) S3E2,B S2EI,C SIE2,H surface S3El,A surface S3E2,E (Feat.5) S3E2,E (Feat. 5) 980.85.462

980.85.174 980.85.934 980.85.927 980.85.2098 980.85.965 980.85.26 980.85.370

980.85.154 980.85.129 980.85.183 980.85.133 980.85.367

980.85.368

980.85.414

980.85.186[#7]

S3E2,D

*

980.85.144

978.127.2136 980.85.355 [#16] 980.85.187

980.85.156

978.127.2139

978.127.2141

978.127.2197 980.85.1

S2E2,H

surface

surface

surface surface not itemized not itemized

S2E2,C 5

3

1 1 2 5

unclassified

tip

category III, ovoid finished

category II, unclassified

multiple platform, tabular category 1

one spur two spurs worked flakes utilized flakes

concave scraper

denticulated scraper

beaked scrapers

non-fluted lanceolate projectile point unidentified projectile point fragments bifacially worked scraper unidentified bifacially worked artifact fragments

bifacially worked preforms

flake core

Areab

worked/utilized flakes

gravers

unidentified unifacially worked artifact fragments

worked/utilized flakes

miniature end scraper flake cutting/scraping tools

end scrapers

*

utilized flakes

worked flakes

low angle retouch

*

high angle retouch

Category 2

Category 1

980.85.372

980.85.371

980.85.931 980.85.978 980.85.127 980.85.369

980.85.373

S3El,H surface S3E2,B/C, (Feat. 5) S3E2,F, (Feat. 5)

980.85.366

980.85.275 978.127.2202 980.85.376[#8]

980.85.923 980.85.134 [#14] S2E2,H 980.85.956 4 S3EI,B 980.85.166 [#14] S3E2,E 980.85.374 (Feat. 5) [#16] S2El,C 980.85.122 [#34] S2E2,1 980.85.161 (only exotic material itemized) 21 S2E1,D 980.85.1012 [#7] S2El,F 980.85.942 [#24] S3E2,1 980.85.1010 [#7] S3E2,F 980.85.467 (Feat. 5) [#14] S2El,1 980.85.947 [#14] S2E2,G 980.85.955 [#33] S3E2,E 980.85.582 (Feat. 5) [#14] 44 S3EI,B 980.85.1011 [#7] 7 S3E2,E 980.85.178 [#34]

I 2

2

2

S3E2,F (Feat. 5) S2EI,B S3E2,A S2E1,E S3E2,F (Feat. 5) S3E2,F (Feat. 5) S3E2,F (Feat. 5) SIEI,H S2El,G

~

c:::. """

~

~

C'

c::l '15 (:)

•;;.

~ ::s

§"'

~

"'

;;.

~

~.

(:)

~

...... """ c:::.

Category 1 high angle retouch

worked flakes utilized flakes

end scraper flake cutting/scraping tools

worked/utilized flakes

flake cutting/scraping tool worked/utilized flake

Areae

1 I 3

978.127.2146 [#14] 980.85.998 978.127.2114 980.85.851 980.85.988 980.85.1004 980.85.803 980.85.892 [#14] 978.127.2115 980.85.908

980.85.800

not itemized

utilized flake

surface surface surface not itemized not itemized surface 978.127.2201 [#1]

980-85.914 978.127.2119 980.85.915

bifacially worked preform

Walker ProEe!1)'

(area unspeci ed)

Brewerton Corner Notched projectile point

980.85.982 980.85.170

980.85.845 [#24] 980.85.826

Miscellaneous

980.85.569

surface S3E2,F not itemized (only exotics itemized) SIE2,I 980.85.989 [#14]

not located

2

2 12

1 3

S2E2,B surface SIE2,G SIE2,F S2E2,D surface S2E3,F

high angle retouch

*

Category 3,c worked flake utilized flake

worked/utilized flakes

unidentified unifacially worked artifact fragment

Category I

end scrapers

Aread

spokeshave one spur two spurs

surface

Category I,a

concave scraper gravers

surface

*

NIE3,H

possible Late PaleoIndian (plano) projectile point base beaked scraper

SIE3,B

(Feat. 4)

S3EI,B/C

Category II, leafshaped Category III, unclassified

*

bifacially worked preforms

Areac

hematite

S3E2,E, (Feat. 5) S3E2,A

Category II, unclassif

surface

surface, approximately 50 meters northeast of AreaC-east

978.127.2108

975.246.1 006 [#8]

........ \Jw

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T·

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