The Excavations of San Giovanni di Ruoti, Volume III: The Faunal and Plant Remains [3rd Revised edition] 080204865X, 9780802048653

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The Excavations of San Giovanni di Ruoti Volume III The Faunal and Plant Remains M..R. MacKinnon

This third volume of+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++eries deals with the social, economic, and environmental information derived from the analysis of zooarchaeological and palaeobotanical remains found at the fourth-century AD southern Italian villa of San Giovanni di Ruoti. The excavations, which took place over a seven-year period, have revealed a series of three Roman villas, which span the period from the beginning of the first century AD to the middle of the sixth century. Volume I in the series examined the villas and their environment; Volume II examined the small artefacts found. In this third volume, MR. MacKinnon, A. Eastham, S.G. Monckton, D.S. Reese, and D.G. Steele use the large collection of organic evidence obtained from the site, including mammal and bird bones, shells, land snails, and plant remains, to provide information on late Roman diet, food preparation, economics, trade routes, taxation, local environment and climate, agricultural economy, and animal husbandry of the time. With both technical analysis and an interpretive component, the book offers various reconstructions of Roman life, often in combination with quotations from ancient literary sources, allowing this work to appeal to both the specialist and layperson alike. This thorough and detailed analysis represents an important advance in the study of faunal and botanical data in Roman archaeology in Italy, and will be an invaluable resource for all environmental and classical archaeologists. M.R. MACKINNON is an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Winnipeg.

PHOENIX Journal of the Classical Association of Canada Revue de la Societe canadienne des etudes classiques Supplementary Volume XL Tome supplementaire XL

M.R. M A C K I N N O N

The Excavations of SAN GIOVANNI DI RUOTI Volume III The Faunal and Plant Remains with contributions from A. Eastham S.G. Monckton D.S. Reese D.G. Steele ALASTAIR M. SMALL and ROBERT J. BUCK General Editors

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS Toronto Buffalo London

www.utppublishing.com © University of Toronto Press Incorporated 2002 Toronto Buffalo London Printed in Canada ISBN 0-8020-4865-X

(oo) Printed on acid-free paper

National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data Small, Alastair The excavations of San Giovanni di Ruoti (Phoenix. Supplementary volume ; 33, 40 = Phoenix. Tome supplemental, ISSN 0079-1784 ; 33, 40) Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: v. 1. The villas and their environment / with contributions from B.C. Akroyd ... [et al.] - v. 2. The small finds / CJ. Simpson ; with contributions from R. Reece, J.J. Rossiter - v. 3. The faunal and plant remains / M.R. MacKinnon ; with contributions from A. Eastham ... [et al.] ISBN 0-8020-5948-1 (v. 1) ISBN 0-8020-0631-0 (v. 2) ISBN 0-8020-4865-X (v. 3) 1. San Giovanni di Ruoti site (Italy). 2. Ruoti (Italy) - Antiquities, Roman. 3. Excavations (Archaeology) - Italy - Ruoti. I. Buck, Robert J., 1926II. Simpson, CJ. (Chris J.), 1946- . Small finds. III. Small, Alastair. Villas and their environment. IV. MacKinnon, Michael R. (Michael Ross), 1966- . Faunal and plant remains. V. Series: Phoenix. Supplementary volume (Toronto, Ont.) ; 33, 40. DG70.S238S53 1994 937'.7 C94-931383-1 Rev.

University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial assistance to its publishing program of the Canada Council for the Arts and the Ontario Arts Council. This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Humanities and Social Sciences Federation of Canada, using funds provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial support for its publishing activities of the Government of Canada through the Book Publishing Industry Development Program (BPIDP).

CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS x LIST OF TABLES xi LIST OF FIGURES xiv PREFACE xvii ABBREVIATIONS xxix 1. The Animal Bones by M.R. MacKinnon

3

A. Introduction 3 B. Methods 5 1. General recovery 5 2. Recovery in middens 6 3. Identifications 8 4. Quantification 9 5. Aging and sexing 11 6. Measurements 13 7. Taphonomic measures 14 8. Butchery and meat weights 14 9. Pathologies 16 C. Results 17 1. General recovery and quantification 17 2. Recovery and quantification in middens 18 3. Taphonomy 22 a. Carnivores 23 4. Cautionary notes 28 5. Frequency of species 28 6. Principal domesticated animals 31 a. Cattle 31 (1) Frequency 31

vi

Contents

(2) Body parts 31 (3) Age 34 (4) Sex 34 (5) Size 35 (6) Pathologies 36 b. Sheep/Goats 37 (1) Frequency 37 (2) Body parts 38 (a) Carnivore activity and (b) Differential deposition (3) Age 46 (4) Sex 48 (5) Size 50 (6) Pathologies 50 c. Pigs 50 (1) Frequency 50 (2) Body parts 51 (a) Carnivore activity and (b) Differential deposition (3) Size 58 (4) Age 62 (5) Sex 66 (6) Pathologies 68 7. Other domesticated animals 70 a. Equids 70 (1) Identification 70 (2) Body parts 70 (3) Age 70 (4) Size 71 b. Canids 71 c. Cats 71 8. Wild mammals 72 a. Deer 72 b. Lagomorphs 73 c. Brown bear 73 d. Bat 73 e. Porcupine 73 f. Dormice 73 g. Other rodents 74 (1) Mole 74 (2) Shrew 74 (3) Vole 74 (4) Rat 74 (5) Mice 74 9. Other animals, except birds 75 a. Fish 75 b. Reptiles 76 c. Amphibians 76 10. Butchery and meat cuts 76

the sheep/goat sample 40 43

the pig sample 54 57

Contents vii a. Cattle 77 b. Sheep/goats 78 c. Pigs 79 d. Other mammals 81 e. Meat cuts 82 11. Diet 83 12. Spatial patterning of bones 86 D. Discussion and Interpretations of the Faunal Sample 94 1. UNID component 94 2. ID component 95 a. Introduction 95 b. Wild species 96 c. Domestic mammals 98 (1) Minor domesticates: equids, dogs, cats 98 (a) Equids 99 (2) Cattle 100 (3) Sheep/goats 102 (4) Pigs 107 3. Butchery 116 4. Preservation of meat 118 5. Cooking and consumption 120 E. Conclusions 121 Appendix 1 Measurements of mammalian bones and teeth, arranged by taxon, part of skeleton, and period / phase 124 Appendix 2 M3+measurements from domestic and wild pigs from various archaeological sites 165 Appendix 3 Scientific nomenclature of mammalian taxa listed in this report 166 Appendix 4 A human foetus from a midden of Period 3B+by D.G. Steele and M.R. MacKinnon++167 2. The Avian Remains by A. Eastham 171 A. Domesticated bird species 171 1. Callus gallus, domestic fowl 171 a. Domestic fowl bones from the occupation areas 172 b. Topsoil finds 172 c. Period 1 172 d. Period 2 173 e. Period 3 173 (1) Period 3A 174 (2) Period 3B 174 f. The midden deposits 175

viii

Contents

2. Anser anser, domesticated goose of greylag type 178 B. Wild bird species 179 1. Notes on the avian aspects of the ecological background 179 2. Site study 180 a. Midden 4 182 b. Midden 5 182 c. Midden 6 183 3. Species notes 183 a.++++++++++++++++++trel 183 b. ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++Quail 184 c. Columbidae++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 184 d. Piciidae: Picus viridis, Green woodpecker; Dendrocopos medius, Middle spotted woodpecker 184 e.+++++++++++++++ylark 185 f.+++++++++++++++++++allow 185 g. Anthus campestris I spinoletta, Tawny / Water pipit 185 h++++++++++++++++echat 185 i. Turdidae:+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++Song thrush 185 j. Lanius minor, Lesser grey shrike 186 k. Musicapa striata, Spotted flycatcher 186 1. Paridae:+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 186 m. Emberiza calandra, Corn bunting 186 n. Fringillidae: Serinus serinus, Serin; Carduelis cardulis, Goldfinch; Carduelis Moris+, Greenfinch 186 o. Passer domesticus, Sparrow 187 p. Oriolus oriolus, Golden oriole 187 q. Corvidae: Garrulus glandarius, Jay; Corvus monedula, Jackdaw 187 C. Summary 187 3. Marine and Freshwater Shells by D.S. Reese 189 4. Land Snails by M.R. MacKinnon 195 A. Introduction 195 B. Methods 195 1. General recovery 195 2. Identifications and quantification 197 3. Environmental reconstruction 197 C. Results and discussion 197 1. General environmental reconstruction 197 2. Rooms 199 3. Food species 199 D. Conclusions 200 5. Plant Remains++y S.G. Monckton++01 A. Wood charcoal 201

Contents ix 1. Methods 201 2. Results 202 3. Patterns in wood charcoal deposition B. Charred seeds 206 1. Methods of analysis 206 2. Results and comments 206

203

BIBLIOGRAPHY 217 ILLUSTRATIONS 227 INDEXES 251 Index of Rooms 251 Index of Features 252 Index of Literary Sources and Inscriptions 252 General Index 253

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLANS 1. General map of south Italy 229 2. The drove-roads of Basilicata and western Apulia 230 3. Overall plan of the site with room numbers 231 4. Plan of the villa of Period 1 232 5. Plan of the villa of Period 2A 233 6. Plan of the villa of Period 2B 234 7. Plan of the villa of Period 2C 235 8. Plan of the villa of Period 3A 236 9. Plan of the villa of the early subphase of Period 3B 237 10. Plan of the villa of the late subphase of Period 3B 238 11. Plan of the middens 239 PLATES 1. Examples of 'chop' marks on bone caused by cleaver or chopper 240 2. Examples of 'cut' marks on bone caused by knife 241 3. Pig humerus showing destruction of proximal end caused by carnivore gnawing. Distal end has also been chopped through 242 4. Dorsal edge of cattle metacarpal from Period 3A showing excess bone growth 243 5. Sheep/goat metatarsal with hole drilled through ventral surface 244 6. Pig mandible from Period 3B with crowding of dentitio+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 4 has been twisted in a buccal direction 245 7. Healed fracture in canid metatarsal bones from Period 2 246 8. Red deer metacarpal from Period 3B sawn at an angle on both sides of its proximal end to form an edge 247 9. Red deer metatarsal from Period 3B with 'gouge' marks on its midshaft 248 10. Dog imprint in tile 249 11. Sheep/goat imprint in tile 250

TABLES

1.1. Area and volume of Middens 1, 4, 5, and 7 6 1.2. Analysis of soils from contexts in four Period 3B middens 7 1.3. Volume of soil and portions screened in Middens 1, 4,+++++++ 8 1.4. Fusion-stage age brackets for pigs and sheep/goats 11 1.5. Developmental stages of mandibular teeth of pigs 12 1.6. Developmental stages of mandibular teeth of sheep/goats 12 1.7. Wear stages of maxillary canines of male and female pigs 13 1.8. Screened and unscreened contexts, bone and NISP 18 1.9. Number and frequency of taphonomic agents on pig elements 21 1.10. Number and frequency of taphonomic agents on mammalian ID and UNID elements from Midden 5 22 1.11. Numbers of mammal, amphibian, reptile, and fish bones (NISP) and minimum numbers of individuals (MNI[min]) by period 26 1.12. Parts of the cattle skeletons by number of identified fragments (NISP2) and minimum number of individuals (MM) 30 1.13. Ratios of ageable mandibles: fusion points of long-bones for Period 3B cattle 31 1.14. Cattle wear stages of individual teeth (following Grant 1982) 32 1.15. Cattle bone-fusion data 32 1.16. Means, variances, ranges, and sample sizes for cattle measurements 35 1.17. Withers heights of cattle based on coefficients 36 1.18. Number of elements identified as shee++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++6 1.19. Parts of the sheep/goat skeleton by number of identified fragments (NISP2) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) by period 37 1.20. Total number of sheep / goat teeth (NISP2) by period 38 1.21. Parts of the sheep/goat skeleton by minimum number of individuals (MNI) and with correction factors applied to compensate for differential preservation 41 1.22. Parts of the sheep/goat skeleton by minimum number of individuals (MNI) and with correction factors applied to compensate for differential preservation 42 1.23. Ratios of ageable mandibles: fusion points of long-bones for sheep/goats from P3B deposits only 43 1.24. Sheep/goat wear stages of individual teeth (following Grant 1982) 44 1.25. Sheep/goat wear stages of individual teeth (following Payne 1973, 1987) 44 1.26. Developmental and survivorship statistics for sheep/goats using NISP, MNI(max), and MNI(min) values 45

xii Tables 1.27. Sheep/goat kill-off pattern deduced from both single teeth (dp4/P+++++++++d teeth (dp4/P4 and++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 3) in mandibles, using system suggested by Payne (1973) 46 1.28. Sheep/goat bone-fusion data 49 1.29. Means, variances, ranges, and sample sizes for sheep/goat measurements 49 1.30. Withers heights of sheep/goats, calculated on the basis of the coefficients of Teichert (1975) 50 1.31. Parts of the pig skeleton by number of identified fragments (NISP2) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) by period 51 1.32. Total number of pig teeth (NISP2) by period 52 1.33. Percentage of carnivore gnaw marks on pig elements by period 54 1.34. Parts of the pig skeleton by minimum number of individuals (MNI) and with correction factors applied to compensate for differential preservation 55 1.35. Ratios of ageable mandibles: fusion points of long-bones for pigs by period 56 1.36. Ratios of ageable mandibles: long-bones for pigs by period 57 1.37. Means, variances, ranges, and sample sizes for pig measurements 59 1.38. Mean lengths o++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 3s from wild and domestic pigs 59 1.39. Withers heights of pigs based on factors of Teichert (1969) 62 1.40. Wear stages of individual pig teeth (following Grant 1982) 62 1.41. Developmental and survivorship statistics for pigs using NISP, MNI(max), and MNI(min) values 63 1.42. Pig kill-off pattern deduced from eruption sequence of deciduous teeth (dp4, dil7 di2)+and permanent replacement teeth (P4, llt I2)++63 1.43. Pig bone-fusion data 66 1.44. Pig sex ratio 66 1.45. Parts of the equid skeleton by number of identified fragments (NISP2) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) by period 69 1.46. Approximate ages of equids, based on dentition and fusion data 70 1.47. Withers heights of equids, based on size categories of Vitt (1952) 71 1.48. Number and frequency of saw, chop, and cut marks, as well as total number and frequency of elements butchered for cattle, sheep / goats, and pigs among periods 75 1.49. NISP, NISP2, MNI(max), MNI(min), and corresponding frequencies of principal wild and domestic mammals consumed 83 1.50. MOW values and frequencies for domestic and wild mammals consumed 84 1.51. MOW and meat estimates (in kilograms) and relative frequencies of these values for cattle, sheep / goats, and pigs, based on the MOW system, King's (1985) estimates, and Barker's (1982) estimates 85 1.52. NISP of mammalian taxa by phase and room number for Period 1 86 1.53. NISP of mammalian taxa by phase and room number for Period 2 87 1.54. NISP of mammalian taxa by phase and room number for Period 3A 88 1.55. NISP of mammalian taxa by phase and room number for Period 3B 88 1.56. Foetus bones recovered 167 2.1. Bones +++++++++++occupation areas 172 2.2. Distribution o+++++++ones by room in Periods 1A and IB 172 2.3. Callus bones from occupation levels of Periods 2A and 2B 173 2.4.+++++++++++++++nes from Period 2.5++++++++ones from Period 3A 173 2.6++++++++++++nes from construction and occupation levels of Period 3B+ 2.7. Callus bones from Period 3B/D levels (by room) 174 2.8. Distribution of Callus bones in midden deposits 175 2.9. Analysis of Callus bones from Midden 6, according to size categories 176

Tables xiii 2.10. Distribution of avian wild species 180 2.11. Wild bird species from Midden 4 181 2.12. Wild bird species from Midden 5 182 2.13. Wild bird species from Midden 6 183 3.1. Marine and freshwater molluscs from San Giovanni (stratified and unstratified) 190 3.2. Chronological distribution of marine shells at San Giovanni 191 3.3. Site distribution of marine shells at San Giovanni 191 4.1. Number of snails collected per species and context at San Giovanni 196 5.1. San Giovanni wood charcoal 209 5.2. San Giovanni cultigens 213 5.3. San Giovanni fleshy fruits 214 5.4. San Giovanni crop weeds 215

FIGURES

1.1. Percentage of isolated incisors by taxon and period 5 1.2. Plan of the middens 6 1.3. Relative frequency of ID and UNID bones by counts and weights 15 1.4. Relative frequency of four skeletal categories of UNID pieces from medium-sized mammals 16 1.5. Relative frequency of four skeletal categories of UNID pieces from large-sized mammals 16 1.6. Relative frequency by weight of four skeletal categories of UNID pieces from medium-sized mammals 17 1.7. Relative frequency by weight of four skeletal categories of UNID pieces from large-sized mammals 17 1.8. Total number of bone pieces collected/m3+of screened and unscreened portions of four middens 18 1.9. NISP/m3+of screened and unscreened portions of four middens 18 1.10. NISP and UNID count in four middens 19 1.11. NISP and UNID weights in four middens 19 1.12. Average weight/identified (NISP) and unidentified (UNID) bone from screened and unscreened contexts in four middens 20 1.13. NISP for large and small animal taxa from screened and unscreened contexts in four middens 20 1.14. Frequency of carnivore gnaw marks on bones of various taxa from Midden 5 24 1.15. Percentage of teeth expressed as a proportion of all teeth and postcranial bones (NISP2 values used) 24 1.16. NISP frequencies of vertebrates by period 25 1.17. Relative frequency of principal domestic and wild species by period, based on NISP values 27 1.18. Relative frequency of principal domestic and wild species by period, based on MNI(min) values 27 1.19. Variation in NISP, NISP2, MNI, and MNI(min) frequencies for pigs, sheep/goats, and cattle 29 1.20. MNI(min) frequencies for cattle, sheep/goats, and pigs by period 29 1.21. Shape of cattle metacarpals 33 1.22. Shape of cattle metatarsals 33 1.23. Size of cattle metacarpals 35 1.24. Size of cattle metatarsals 35 1.25. Percentage survival of sheep/goat elements by period 39

Figures xv 1.26. Survivorship of sheep/goats based on NISP counts 47 1.27. Survivorship of sheep/goats based on MNI counts 47 1.28. Survivorship of sheep/goats based on MNI(min) counts 48 1.29. Percentage survival of pig elements by period 53 1.30. L and WP measurements in++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 4 of wild and domestic pigs for Periods 2, 3A, and 3B 60 1.31. L, WA, and WP measurements in Mj of domestic and wild pigs for Periods 2, 3A, and 3B 60 1.32. L, WA, and WP measurements in+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 2 of domestic and wild pigs for Periods 2, 3A, and 3B 61 1.33. L and WA measurements in+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 3 of domestic and wild pigs for Periods 2, 3A, and 3B 61 1.34. Survivorship of pigs based on NISP counts 64 1.35. Survivorship of pigs based on MNI counts 64 1.36. Survivorship of pigs based on MNI(min) counts 65 1.37. Pig: percentages of mandibular canines per developmental stage and sex in Period 2 67 1.38. Pig: percentages of mandibular canines per developmental stage and sex in Period 3A 67 1.39. Pig: percentages of mandibular canines per developmental stage and sex in Period 3B 67 1.40. Pig: percentages of maxillary canines per developmental stage and sex in Period 2 68 1.41. Pig: percentages of maxillary canines per developmental stage and sex in Period 3A 68 1.42. Pig: percentages of maxillary canines per developmental stage and sex in Period 3B 68 1.43. Location of butchery marks on cattle, pig, and sheep/goat skeletons from Period 1 76 1.44. Location of butchery marks on cattle, pig, and sheep/goat skeletons from Period 2 76 1.45. Location of butchery marks on cattle, pig, and sheep/goat skeletons from Period 3A 77 1.46. Location of butchery marks on cattle, pig, and sheep/goat skeletons from Period 3B 77 1.47. MNI counts for bones associated with various cuts of meat for cattle 81 1.48. MNI counts for bones associated with various cuts of meat for sheep/goats 82 1.49. MNI counts for bones associated with various cuts of meat for pigs 83 1.50. MOW frequencies of domestic and wild mammals by period 84 1.51. MOW frequencies of pigs, sheep/goats, and cattle 85 1.52. Idealized pig survivorship plot compared to MNI(min) plots from Periods 1, 2, 3A, and 3B 108 4.1. Relative frequency of land snails per ecological group and period at San Giovanni 198 4.2. Number of snails per ecological group recovered in rooms at San Giovanni 198 5.1. Comparison of total wood charcoal percent contributions of fragments with percent of proveniences (ubiquity) 202 5.2. San Giovanni wood charcoal by period 202 5.3. Oak and beech contributions to layer types 203 5.4. Comparison of wood charcoal in layers related to construction and destruction of buildings 204 5.5. Comparison of wood charcoal from build-up, midden, and occupation layers 204 5.6. Comparison of wood diversity in layer types 205 5.7. Wood charcoal, illustrating the relative dominance of rooms and middens by oak and beech 206

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PREFACE

This volume on our excavation of the Roman villa at San Giovanni di Ruoti contains five chapters++wo are by Michael MacKinnon, the descrip tion+and discussion of the animal bones, and of the terrestrial molluscs; Anne Eastham treats the bird bones; David Reese the marine and freshwater+hells; and Stephen Monckton the plant remains.+n addition, an appendix by Gentry Steele and Michael MacKinnon discusses the remains of a foetus found in one of the middens. This is the third in the series of volumes in which the results of the excavation will be published.++olume I, already in print, deals with the site and its setting, both in space and time: the geographical and historical background; the buildings, their functions, and their development by periods; the present state of the remains and their original appearance (with conjectural reconstructions)++he mosaics, and significant arte facts for determining the chronology of the site; the stratification and its interpretation. Volume II, also in print, catalogues the small finds, the lamps, and the coins and discusses their chronological,++rtistic, and historical significance. A fourth volume will deal with the pottery and glass. The publication as a whole will provide a comprehensive corpus of material that will illuminate the social and economic life of this Roman villa. It will also provide comparative material for the study of other villas, especially in Italy. The site lies near the western watershed of the Lucanian Apennines in a rather inaccessible

valley, 25 km northwest of Potenza (see Illustrations+Plan 1). The river that runs below the site, the Fiumara di Avigliano, is a tributary of the Platano, itself a tributary of the Sele, which flows into the Tyrrhenian Sea a little to the north of Paestum; but communications along the river are interrupted by a precipitous and almost impassable+gorge cut by the Platano through the massif of Monte Marmo; and the easiest access to the site is not from the Tyrrhenian but from the Adriatic coast, by way of the valleys of the Ofanto and the Fiumara di Atella, and over an easy pass at San Cataldo, 2 km north of the site. Another track must have led eastwards by way of the headwaters of the Fiumara di Avigliano+to link with the Via Herculia, 9 km distant from San Giovanni as the crow flies. The road ran southwards to the Ionian Gulf at Heraclea, and north to Aequum Tuticum (Plan 1). There it connecte+++ith the Via Appia that led to Beneventum+and Rome. It was put together under the Tetrarchy at the turn of the third / fourth century from a number of existing roads (Buck 1971), and maintained as a via publica with staging points at intervals for the imperial post, and probably for the transportation of taxes in kind. The site also lies within easy distance of a network of drove roads (Italian+++++++++++. connected the summer grazings on the Apennine watershed with winter grazings in the plains. In recent times, a major tratturo ran eastwards from the watershed above Avigliano across several

xviii mountain ridges to Tolve and Gravina, where it connected with another++++++++at led north wes++o the North Apulian Plain (the Tavoliere) and southeast to the coastal plain at Metapontum (Plan 2). These tratturi were in use at least from the Aragonese period until the land reforms of the 1950s, but they follow the natural lines of communications and are probably of much greater antiquity (see below, p. xxii). The site could, therefore, be connected to long-distance markets, but transportation must have been slow and expensive. The Via Herculia and the subsidiary roads which served it must have been suitable for the heavy ox cart++++++++++t Cato records as typical of Lucania (Agr. 135.1; Excavations vol. I, 35); but progress by ox cart was particularl++low, and lighter and more valuable commodities+will have been transported by baggage animals, which must also have been used on rougher tracks where carts could not go. Mules or donkeys might be organized in trains, driven by muleteers.1 The remains of three villas were found at San Giovanni, from three different periods, superimposed+on one another (Plan 3). The villa of Period 1, which was established there around the beginning of the first century AD, was a building of no great architectural merit (Plan 4). It did, however, possess its own water mill for grinding grain (perhaps the earliest so far discovered) and its own kiln for making tiles. Several inscriptions of the first century AD found nearby show that some families in this area, including perhaps the owner of our villa, had connections with families of curial class who governed the local municipalities+Buck and Small 1985). This villa of Period 1 was abandoned about AD 220, and remained disused until about AD 340, when part of it was repaired and reoccupied++he new period of occupation (Period 2) lasted until ca. AD 400, and during this time the buildings were drastically altered on at least three occasions (Plans 5, 6, and 7). None of these alterations shows any attempt at architectural pretension, and it is probable that the economic

Preface life of the villa was maintained at a relatively low level. The most important period of the villa (Period 3) began early in the fifth century, when the remains of the previous villa were mostly destroyed,+and a much grander new building was erected, with architectural details typical of Late Antiquity. The period divides into two halves (Period 3A and Period 3B). The initial buildings (of Period 3A) were damaged around AD 460, probably in an earthquake (Plan 8). The main hall, the praetorium, was then demolished, and several new structures, including a ne+++raetorium+with an upper floor, were added, adjoining the existing buildings. The rebuilt and extended villa (of Period 3B) was a tightly organized complex+of buildings of considerable architectural sophistication (Plans 9 and 10). It fell gradually into decay in the early sixth century, and was destroyed ca. AD 540, perhaps in the Gothic Wars. Throughout Period 3, mounds of waste were piled up in and around the villa, and as the building fell increasingly into decay in Period 3B, the rooms in the central part of the site became+n effect bunkers for the storage of the site's refuse (vol. 1,81,102,120). Nine of these middens were differentiated (Plan 11). They consisted of friable black soil rich in carbon, bone, and shell, which in some rooms was mixed with rubble from the decaying structure. Since part of the purpose of the excavation was to produce information on the rural economy,+a policy of sieving as much as possible of stratified soils was adopted from the start with the aim of recovering the maximum amount of faunal material. Two large sieves were constructed++efore the beginning of the dig, with meshes of 5.0 and 2.5 mm. In fact, the heavy clay soils that are the norm at San Giovanni were almost impossible to sieve in the finer mesh, and could only be sieved with difficulty in the coarser one. Sieving the clay soils was therefore a slow process. Nevertheless an estimated 2% of these soils, which include almost all the soils of Periods 1 and 2, was screened. Fortunately the

1 There was a guild of muleteers at Potenza: C/L X.143. For mule trains in Apulia and the hinterland of Brundisium, see Manacorda 1994, 79-90.

Preface xix soils from the all-important middens of Period 3 were much softer and finer in texture, and both sieves were used throughout the excavations of these middens. At a rough estimate, approximately++6% of the midden soils was sieved, resulting+in a greatly enhanced recovery of small bone. In all over 50,000 animal bones or bone fragments++ere collected, weighing over 1000 kilograms.+The work of registering and cataloguing+this enormous quantity of material was carried+ut over a number of years, first by Gentry Steele (Steele 1983), and his colleagues Peter Bobrowski++oss MacPhee, and Cristi Assad (Assad 1986); and more recently by Michael MacKinnon, who wrote his master's thesis on the analysis of the animal remains from four of the middens of Period 3 (MacKinnon 1993). MacKinnon builds on this earlier work in his much more extensive analysis of the mammalian bones in this volume. The bird bones, which provide especially interestin+++vidence for the environment, have bee analysed by Anne Eastham, who has also studied the modern setting of the site to compare it with what can be reconstructed of the habitat of the wild birds in antiquity. Throughout the excavation, Stephen Monckton+wet-sieved samples of important layers to recover carbonized plant material. A preliminary++port has been published by Lorenzo Costantini and deals with the material from the first four years of excavation (Costantini 1983). We have drawn on it extensively in this introduction.++he final report on the totality of this material could not unfortunately be prepared+++++me for this volume, but it seem unlikely that it would greatly alter the results of the preliminary report. They are to a large extent confirmed by Monckton's analysis, published+n this volume, of the plant remains from 64 soil samples that were sorted visually in Toronto, and by his brief report on a small sample+rom the limited excavation of 1994 (Monckton++995, 72). In addition to the carbon collected++y flotation, larger fragments of wood carbon were picked out by hand during the course of the excavation. Monckton's analysis of part of this material throws light both on the wood used for building materials and on the

variety of tree species that grew in the vicinity of the site. The wet-sieving also produced great quantities++f minute snail shells. These, together with larger shells collected without sieving, were sorted and classified by Martin Bishop, and counted by Angela Kalinowski. They are discussed++++his volume by Michael MacKinnon Since snails are particularly sensitive to local climatic+or environmental changes, they provide in teresting evidence for conditions in and around the villa. The last category of evidence discussed here is that of the marine shells, which were recovered+n surprising quantities, especially in the middens of Period 3. They are analysed here by David Reese. They provide interesting evidence for the transportation of perishable foodstuffs from the sea to this far-inland site. The environment of San Giovanni today has been discussed by Ian Campbell and Stephen Monckton in volume I (7-18). There is still much forest in the area around San Giovanni, especially++n the steeper slopes and higher tops. Oaks predominate up to about 1000 m, and beeches above that. The area is well watered by natural springs, and the local climatic conditions favour a variety of crops, within the limits imposed++y heavy winter snowfalls and summer drought. The Pliocene clays and sandy shales that form the lower slopes of the valleys are not easy to plough (on some small holdings they are still worked with the++++++r mattock), but they are not infertile, and once worked produce good crops of barley, durum wheat, and oats. Vines are cultivated, but the area is marginal for olives, and only a few olive groves are found, mostly on the south-facing slopes of Castelluccio di S. Sofia, 2 km west of the site. All in all, it is a relatively fertile enclave in the Lucanian mountains, and has long supported scattered rural settlement, in addition to a population of several thousands living in the towns of Ruoti and Avigliano, and in such smaller hamlets as Zipariello and San Cataldo, respectively about 1 and 2 km from the site (to name only the closest). At the present time most of the land around Ruoti is still farmed in small parcels, in some cases still at subsistence level. The main prod-

xx ucts are now cow's milk (for a cheese factory at Ruoti), wine (for local consumption), and grain. There are a few flocks of sheep and goats, kept locally throughout the year. This pattern of agriculture may seem traditional, but it has been greatly affected by various agricultural reform++arried out under the fascist regime and in the post-war period. The riforma agraria of the 1950s had a particularly drastic impact, for it abolished transhumance and led to the splitting up of large estates into marginally productive small holdings. Mechanization, which effectively reached the area in the late 1970s, is bringing great changes to the landscape, as roads are bulldozed, and fields of rough pasture are deep ploughed and sown - encouraged by the Common+Agricultural Policy of the European Economic++ommunity (now the European Union), which favours cereal cultivation and dairy production++he contemporary pattern of agriculture is, therefore, a misleading guide to the traditiona++orms as they existed in the last century and earlier. To understand the agricultural capacity of the area in the pre-modern age, we can refer to the admirable study of the history of the rural economy of Ruoti published by Gerardo Salinard+++1973. His statistical tables show that the balance between the main elements in the agricultura+++oduction was never static. Between 1753 and 1959 the amount of arable land fluctuated+considerably, but overall there was a great increase, with the total area under cereal production+nearly doubling between 1929 and 1959. The amount of pasture fluctuated inversely and decreased from 1176 ha to 80 ha between 1929 and 1959. Between 1753 and 1959 there was a marked decrease in the category of vineyards or olive groves (but they must have been mostly vineyards), and a less pronounced but nonetheless++onsiderable decrease in forest (Salinardi 1973, table, p. 128). The figures for domesticate++animals show especially clearly the drastic+changes that have taken place since the early 1950s. The numbers of cattle have continuously increased, whereas those of horses / mules, pigs, and sheep / goats all reached their maximum be-

Preface tween++951 and 1954, and fell to less than half by++++++++ules are now rarely seen at Ruoti and pigs have almost disappeared. Sheep's milk ricotta cheese, once widely available in the area, is now difficult to find. In what may be described as the traditional economy, which was limited by the natural capacity++f the area to meet the market demands o the time, and wherein tools and methods were used that have changed little if at all since the Roman period, the main elements in the production+were swine, sheep/goats, cereals, and vines. The relative importance of each of these varied over time, depending partly on populatio+pressures, and partly on transportation costs and market demands. Any long-term shift from one form of land use to another is likely to have left clear traces in the geomorphological record of the area. Ian Campbell's study of the geomorphology of the area around San Giovanni (vol. I, 11-12) has shown that there is the same sequence of sedimentation and infilling in the valley bottoms followed by renewed incision by the riverbed that has been observed in many other Italian valleys+Vita-Finzi 1969). Since the most likely cause of the sedimentation is silting brought about by agricultural processes, the sequence suggests a long phase of intensified agriculture (and probably+eforestation) followed by a phase of agricultura++nactivity in which the river cut back into the sediments deposited in the previous phase. The beginning of the phase of agricultural activity+an reasonably be dated within the Late Iron Age, but it is more doubtful when the turning point should be placed that marks the beginning of the phase of inactivity. It may have varied from one region (or even one river valley) to another, and is usually taken to mark the onse++f the Middle Ages (as is suggested in vol. I, 12), but the evidence for agricultural change published in this volume suggests that it could be dated as early as the end of the third century AD. It is unlikely that the climate of the Roman period was significantly different from what it is today, since the birds and snails, which are

2 Pigs totalled 881 in 1952 and 400 in 1960; sheep and goats 4440 in 1953 and 2098 in 1960; Salinardi 1973, table, p. 146.

Preface xxi especially sensitive to variations in the climate or environment, were found then as now. The wild birds must have been killed in the surrounding++ountryside and brought to the villa by cats, or by human beings for eating. They point to a variety of habitats in the vicinity of the villa: some are woodland birds, others are from open country, pasture lands, orchards, or cultivated fields. They show that the countryside around San Giovanni was used for a variety of purposes in Late Antiquity, just as it is now. The carbonized wood remains also indicate a large degree of environmental continuity. Then, as now, the dominant species were oak and beech, which must have provided much of the timber for the roof and upper floors of the late Roman villa, as well as for the furniture. But various++ther species, including pine and fir, elm, ash, poplar, birch, lime (Monckton, this volume), maple, and ironwood (Monckton 1995, 73) point to the mixed character of the woodland around the site. The forests sheltered a variety of wild animals, especially the red and roe deer, and of course the brown bear and porcupine attested by the bone remains of Period 3B. But although the climatic conditions seem to have changed little if at all, other evidence points to significant developments in agricultural productio++within the periods of the villa. This mus be attributed partly to improvements in agriculture++nd partly to major social and economic changes. It is possible to establish some developments in the cultivation of cereals and other crops betwee++Period 1, on the one hand, and Periods . and 3, on the other. Lorenzo Costantini (1983) has suggested that cereal cultivation was still in an experimental phase at San Giovanni in Period 1, with barley (Hordeum vulgare}, rye (Secale cereale), and four types of wheat - emmer (Triticum dicoccum++spelt (Triticum cf. spelta), durum (Triticu. durum), bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) - all being++ultivated. Einkorn (Triticum monoccum) is also attested in Period 1, but in such insignificant amounts as to suggest that it was not deliberately cultivated. In Periods 2 and 3 bread wheat came to be preferred as the species best suited to the

local climatic conditions, and emmer and spelt were progressively abandoned. Barley, however, continued to be a staple crop. Various nitrogen-fixing plants were also grown. Lentils are attested in Period 1 (Costantin++983, 87, 90) and Period 3 (Monckton, this volume). Peas may not have been introduced until Period 2 (Costantini 1983, 87, 90). Both must have been grown for human consumption. Other species are attested in all three periods: Horse bean+++++++++++re probably intended for human use, though they were also fed to horses (Helmqvist 1977, 274-276). Bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia) was most probably a fodder crop, though it could also be eaten by humans (ibid., 276-277). Alfalfa or medic (Medicago sativa) can only have been grown as a fodder crop.3 The presence of these leguminous plants suggests that some system of rotation was practised at the site, in all periods. Vines (or at least grapes) were found in all three periods, but olives are attested in the sample++o far analysed only in Period 3. Monckton notes that the olive pits in his samples (from Period 3A) were crushed and concludes that the olives were pressed at the site. They were presumably+grown in the vicinity, though probably+not in large quantities, since, as has been said, the area is marginal for olive cultivation. The hazelnuts (Costantini 1983, 90, Period 3), almonds+(Monckton 1995, 72, Period 3), and cherries++Monckton, this volume, 207, Period 3B) were probably grown for human consumption. The crab apples (Malus sylvestris) and elderberry (Sambucus nigra) were more probably hedgerow trees, though their fruits may have been eaten (Monckton, this volume, 207, Period 3B). The faunal remains are more suitable for statistica++nalysis, as Michael MacKinnon argues in this volume, and they show much more pronounced+changes between Period 1 and Periods 2 and 3. Swine were by far the most important animals in the economy of the villa in all periods, but their predominance increases remarkably betwee++hese periods. Sheep and goats are second in importance in all periods, but decrease as a proportion of the total, with a pronounced drop

3 Costantini 1983, 88, 90, reports it only from Periods 1 and 2; Monckton has it also in Period 3A (this volume, 207).

xxii occurring after the end of Period 1. Cattle lag far behind the caprines and pigs in all periods, but their numbers too drop significantly after the end of Period 1. In addition, Anne Eastham points out that two breeds of domestic fowl were kept at San Giovanni in Period 3. These trends imply a significant change in land use between the end of the second century AD and the middle of the fourth. In particular, the increase in the importance of swine suggests that there was a corresponding increase in forest cover, since forest, especially of oak and beech, was the best environment for raising pigs, which could be fed off acorns and beech mast and could root among the trees for other sustenance. The drop in the number of cattl++robably implies a reduction in the amount of cultivated land, since cattle were most important as draft animals for pulling the plough; and the reduction in sheep equally implies a reduction in the importance of pasture. In all probability, therefore, forest expanded in Late Antiquity at the expense of both pasture and arable land. This is to a large extent borne out by the field survey carried out by Claude Roberto, and published in preliminary form in volume I (19-36), which shows that the number of sites occupied within 6 km of San Giovanni declined from 26 in the latter part of Period 1 (ca. 70-220 AD) to 6 in Period 2 (ca. 350-400), increasing again to 12 in Period 3 (ca. 400-550). If one bears in mind that Period 2 is much briefer than the other two periods, and that not all sites need have been occupied for the whole duration of any period, the increase from Period 2 to Period 3 is perhaps illusory. It is in any case clear that there was a drastic reduction+n the number of sites occupied between the end of Period 1, ca. 220, and the beginning of Period 2, ca. 350. The extension in the forest cover that made possible the expansion of pork production was presumably a consequence of the abandonment of so many sites; for abandoned land reverts rapidly to forest in this area. It is this change that suggests that the turning point between infill and incision in the geomorphologica++ecord should be dated to this time. The expansion of the forest cover was only the precondition for the expansion of swine raising+There can be no doubt that what made the

Preface increase in pork production desirable if not necessary+was the imposition of the pork levy on communities in the south Italian regions. This was instituted by Aurelian and consolidated by the fiscal reforms of Diocletian. Under these reforms,++ucania had to supply+++++++igs for the dole at Rome. Initially the pigs were driven live to the Roman market. A reflection of this may be seen in the faunal remains at San Giovanni,++or the disproportionately large number of males represented at the site suggests that the more docile females were preferred for driving to Rome (MacKinnon, pp. 109, 115-116 below). Pigs, of course, can be unruly animals, and the large numbers driven along the roads to Rome must have been a public hazard. Another consequence of the new tax measures is likely to have been a reduction in the role of transhumance, as pigs replaced sheep in importance+n the mountains of Lucania. This is to some extent confirmed by the faunal evidence from San Giovanni, which seems to suggest that long-distance transhumance was no longer practised+t the villa in the Late Antique period (MacKinnon, this volume). The field survey currently being carried out by members of this team in the valley of the Basentello, at the eastern edge of Lucania, gives a wider picture (Small et al. 1998). The area is crossed by the tratturo or drove road that linked Avigliano and the summer grazings above San Giovanni with Gravina in Apulia. In the Roman period there was a string of sites, mostly villas, situated on low hills above the Basentello river. These exploited the rich arable land below, but they left a band devoid of habitation++pproximately 2 km wide on either side of the++++++++++ll probability, therefore, the drove road was already in existence, and the vacant band on either side of it was reserved for grazing sheep. This pattern changed in the Late Antique period, when a number of new sites were founded within the reserved band, suggesting that it was no longer necessary to allocate+uch a large space for transhumant flocks. Gabba has argued that the importance of transhumance in the Apennines diminished progressively++etween the fourth and sixth centuries++D, as a consequence of a complex of economic factors. He specifies the decline of the

Preface xxiii central power, the reluctance of the rich to invest capital in Italy, the decline of the centralizing function of Rome and its market, and the predominancn+certain areas of imperial pro++perties++which facilitated the re-emergence of col lectiv+forms of exploitation of the soil and nonindustrialize++pastoralism. These factors led, in his view, to a return to a more primitive system+of exploiting woodland and pasture in the Apennine area.4 The evidence from San Giovann++nd the Basentello valley confirms the idea that long-distance transhumance declined in Lucani++n Late Antiquity but suggests a rather differen++ontext. The decline was no doubt brought about in part by the dwindling of the Roman wool market; but it coincided with the development+of alternative forms of land use - pig raising in the mountains, and grain-growing in the Basentello valley - which were designed to meet the fiscal requirements of the state.5 The initial requirement of the pork levy was pigs for the provisioning of Rome. The animal+++ere presumably driven from San Giovann++o the Via Herculia, and thence to Beneventum++nd Rome. During the course of the fifth and sixth centuries, however, the population of Rome declined drastically,6 and Cassiodorus in AD 533 / 537 writes of the levy of pigs from Lucania to support the city as a memory of the past ('Apparet, quantus in Romana civitate fuerit populus ... Hinc enim fuit, ut montuosa Lucania sues penderet' [Cassiod. Var. 11.39]). Nevertheless, swine production increased still further at San Giovanni, at least in relation to other forms of agricultural production, in Perio+++B (ca. 460-540 AD). The explanation mus be that part or all of the production was directe+++sewhere. Some of the meat raised in tax from Lucania may have been diverted to the court at Ravenna, along with supplies levied in north Italy (for which see Cassiod. Var. 12.26, AD 533-536), for there was relatively easy ac-

cess+from San Giovanni to the ports on the Adri ati++oast, and some features of the architecture show that there were connections between San Giovanni and Ravenna (vol. I, 28, 100, 117, 140, 269 n. 3). But the most probable recipient is the Ostrogothic army. Pork in some form had been a regular part of the diet of the Roman army at least since the middle of the fourth century (below p. 120). After the end of the Empire in the West in AD 476, the Germanic kings who ruled Italy maintained a large army in the north, which had to be supplied from the resources of the peninsula. Theoderic's invasion of Gaul in 507-511 caused serious problems of provisioning+++hich were partly solved by bringing in foodstuffs from Lucania and Bruttii (Cassiod.+Var. 3.8; Ruggini 1961, 262). Although Cassiodoru++oes not specifically say so, the fact that the supplies were to come from these provinces, which were taxed principally in pork, suggests that the provisions were in the form of preserved pork, which could be shipped to Gaul b++aviculari+++++++++++++++++Ruggini 1961, 273). part of the pork levy from south Italy was converted+at that time to preserved meat destined for the army, this circumstance may explain why preserved meats seem to have partly replaced live animals for export at San Giovanni in Period 3B (MacKinnon, pp. 119-120 below). Preserved meats, whether in the form o+++++++++ams, or sausages, would be easier to transport, and better suited to an army on campaign, than live animals. The tax in pork gave rise to constant controversie+++++++++++++++++++++++++arii, the swineherds responsible for collecting the tax. Theoderic first allowed those who wished to do so to pay an equivalent sum in gold, then made payment in gold compulsory (Cassiod. Var. 11.39; Ruggini 1961, 312-313). Much, if not all, of the gold levied from the possessores must have been used by the suarii to purchase pigs on the

4 Gabba 1988, 140-141: 'Deve essere invece ritornato, nelle aree appenniniche, a prevalere il tipico sistema silvo-pastorale arcaico.' 5 For the suggestion that the Basentello valley was transferred, together with Metapontum, from Lucania to Apulia in Late Antiquity for fiscal reasons, see A. Small, 'L'ltalia meridionale nell'eta tardo-antica. II territorio: Basilicata. Ricerche archeologiche nella valle del Basentello e a San Giovanni di Ruoti/ i+++tti del XXXVIII Convegno di Studi sulla Magna Grecia, 3 October 1998 (Naples 2000), 331-342. 6 The decline seems certain, though estimates of its gravity vary widely. For a cautious view, see Barnish 1987, 160-165.

xxiv open market. Villa owners who could produce a surplus of pork may well have found swine raising a profitable business, and Barnish (1987, 166-167) has suggested that the higher ratio of pig bones to those of other species in the midden++f Period 3B at San Giovanni points to cash cropping prompted by this enactment. Certainly the owner of San Giovanni had the means of purchasing luxury products from outside+he local or regional economic system. The Gaza amphorae found in contexts of Period 3B show that Palestinian wine was being imported to the site in the late fifth and early sixth centurie++++eed 1986, 123, and vol. I, 105 no. 158). The most abundant imported luxury, however, is the oysters (analysed in this volume by David Reese), which were consumed in striking quantitie++++Periods 3A and 3B, in spite of the remotenes+++f the site from the sources of production+++he best oysters in Italy were raised on the Tyrrhenian sea, especially at Circeii, and in the Lucrine lagoon (Hor. Sat. 2.4.33 [Circeii]; Juv. 4.142 [Circeii and Lucrine rocks]; Plin++H 9.168 [Lucrine]); but the oysters from Brundisium++ere also good (Plin+++++++9), and this is the most probable source of the oysters consume+++++an Giovanni, since, as we have seen the main direction of trade is likely to have been to the Adriatic coast. Oysters were a symbol of luxury associated with the great gourmets of the Late Republic. They were only moderately expensive+++++++++ut their transportation to San Giovanni from the coast must have involved a long and costly journey.8 The importation of oysters and of Gaza amphora+++ust be set against the virtual cessation of imports of red-slipped pottery from North Africa and Asia Minor in Period 3B (Freed 1986). As Freed has pointed out, the place of the imported+wares was filled by the regional Late Roman Painted Common Ware, which was made

Preface at Calle near Tricarico, and no doubt elsewhere in central and eastern Lucania (Di Giuseppe 1998, 735-752). The cessation cannot be explained simpl++n terms of the interruption of supply by the Vandal conquerors of North Africa (as we once thought), for African red-slipped pottery continued+++each the major cities such as Naples, Canosa, and Venosa, as well as villas situated on or near the coast (Tortorella 1998, 51-54; Volpe 1996, 324). Rather, it must be accounted for in terms of changes in the local or regional conditions. One factor must have been the decline in the fortunes of the smal+++++++++++ho had traditionall++managed commerce at the local level Their role was affected by the increasing tendency+f great landowners to abandon cities and live on their rural properties, so depriving loca++commerce of incentive. The problem was o concern to the government of Athalaric, who instructed+++verus, the governor of Lucania and Bruttii, to order the possessores and curiales of the province to spend most of their time in the cities (Cassiod. Var. 8.31, AD 526-527), no doubt with little effect. As Ruggini has argued (1961, 305), the centre of gravity was shifting from the cities to the countryside, with the result+hat trade was becoming increasingly limited.+The role of the negotiatores began to be taken over by regional fairs, such as the one at Marcellianum in the Tanagro valley in Lucania, described by Cassiodorus (Var. 8.33, AD 527), where exchanges were probably carried out by the++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ likely to be robbed. Brigandage in the countryside was a problem throughout Late Antiquity (Volpe 1996, 276-280; Giardina 1992, 819-820), and it is likely to have increased as more land reverted to forest. Richer++++++++++++o dealt in com modities such as oysters and Palestinian wine, could no doubt afford to employ men to defend

7 The maximum price permitted in the Diocletianic Prices Edict of AD 301 for 100 oysters was 10++++++++++++++++++I, 828;+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ximately 70 litres) of wheat or lentils, or the wages and subsistence of a farm labourer for four days. The price must be for oysters at source, exclusive of transport. 8 The figure in the Prices Edict suggests that 100 oysters was a normal consignment. Uncrated, they would have weighed approximately 20 kg. Crated they would probably have been a load for a single ass. Since the maximum cost for an ass load in the Prices Edict was ++++++++++mile (sect. 17.5), and the journey from Bari (the nearest point on the Adriatic coast to San Giovanni) was approximately 100 Roman miles, the oysters may have quintupled in price between the coast and San Giovanni.

Preface xxv themselves and their wares against brigands and thieves, whereas smaller merchants may have decided that the forests of the south Italian countryside++ad become too dangerous to penetrate. Another factor may have been the gulf that was opening between lifestyles in the cities and in the countryside. Athalaric's letter to the governo++f Lucania and Bruttii (cited above) emphasize++he cultural backwardness of th+possessores++nd curiales who isolated themselves from the cities, rejecting the delights of urban life. The problem was no doubt increased by the fact that the Germanic settlers lived on rural estates rather than in the cities and preserved many of their own traditions. We have already suggested that th+++++++++++++ Giovanni was Germanic rather than Roman in origin, and that he dined according to Germanic custom, sitting at a long table, rather than reclining to eat.9 He may well have had no need or use for imported Roman fine wares. A problematic feature of the economy of San Giovanni throughout Period 3 is the fact that no coins certainly contemporary with the villa were found in the excavation, even though a large amount of the midden soil was sieved. There was no single reliable source of bronze coinage in Italy in the fifth and early sixth centuries (cf. Reece's remarks in vol. II, 84-85), and the distribution of the coins is rather erratic; nevertheless+coins of the period have been found in abundance on some rural sites, as at San Giusto near Lucera in Apulia (Siciliano in Volpe 1998, 251-259), or at San Vincenzo al Volturno (Hodges and Rovelli 1998, 245-246). The contrast between these and San Giovanni is significant, for at both San Giusto and San Vincenzo there were importan+palaeochristian churches that served a villa and vicus, whereas at San Giovanni the villa stood in isolation. At the other two sites many of the coins were found in or around the church. Most are small bronze pieces+++++++++++ may

have been given to the church as alms, or as gifts to the treasury. Some at S. Vincenzo were buried in graves, perhaps as part of the funerary ritual (Hodges 1997, 53). Whatever the circumstances in which they were deposited, it seems probable that nummi were in regular use for buying and selling in the vici that the churches served. By contrast, the absence of small coins at San Giovann++s likely to imply that produce was not traded there for cash by the local people. San Giovanni is anomalous in other respects as well. We have referred to San Giovanni as a villa, for it was clearly an aristocratic, freestanding++uilding in the open countryside, and its wealth evidently lay in its livestock, especiall+++gs. But although it has some of the feature+of a traditional Roman villa, such as a bath suite, it has others, such as its narrow open-air corridors and light wells, and its living quarters on an upper floor, that make it quite unlike any villa of the early or middle empire, although it may have resembled some of the villas of the Late Roman or Vandal period in North Africa, to judge by representations on mosaics (Small 1983, 38; vol. I, 87, 89, 100). More significantly, it appears from the trial excavation carried out in++++++++at the villa of Period 3 never had a+++++++++++++ough the division of a villa into a+++++++++++++ere the landlord lived, and +++++++++++++++e the slaves lived and where agricultural processes were carried out, had been basic to the concept of a villa since the time of Cato (Agr. 3-4; cf. Varro Rust. 1.13.6; Col. 1.6). Moreover, since no trace of agricultural+ools other than prongs, which probably belonged to pitchforks used for moving hay to feed the horses (Simpson, vol. II, 48), were found in any of the excavations, it is very unlikely that such routine activities of arable cultivation as ploughing, hoeing, and harvesting were carried out from the villa buildings. The villa at San Giovanni+++++++++++++++++++++++ars rustica;

9 Vol. I, 4-5. The Germanic character of the dominus in Period 3B is also supported by some of the artefacts: see Simpson's remarks in vol. II, 27 no. 62 (brooch), 28 no. 70 (gold bracelet), 32 no. 109 (buckle tongue), and 58 no. 375 (projectile head). 10 A trench 23 m long and 2-3 m wide was excavated outside the eastern gateway of the villa of Period 3B, roughly parallel to the perimeter wall of the building and ca. 6 m east of it. The configuration of the hillside is particularly suitable for a building at this point, but the excavation revealed only terrace walls and an outdoor floor of white limestone chips and fragments of tile; Small, Simpson, Monckton, and MacKinnon 1995.

xxvi for several other villas of the Late Roman perio++ither had no agricultural buildings, or were separated from them by a considerable distance (Vera 1995b, 344-345; Volpe 1996, 200-201); but it provides a particularly clear example. Nevertheless, the evidence of the bird bones and carbonized seeds (including the field weeds) points to cultivated land in the close vicinity of the site. The most obvious inference from this must be that the arable land around San Giovanni+was cultivated, not by the staff of the villa but by others, most probably peasants - coloni who lived in their own settlements, where they kept their own implements and draught animals. In all probability some of them lived in a+icus, which was situated some 700 m north-west in an area known as San Pietro. The site is likely to have been connected with the villa since the beginning of Period 1, and it is probable that the early villa owners were buried there (Buck and Small 1985). It was a large site, as we know from the survey carried out by Claude Roberto and her team (Roberto 1984, 113-116, site 81; further publication pending), some four ha in area, which yielded 200 kg of brick and 410 fragments of pottery, including thirteen of Late Roman Common Painted Ware. The remains of a kiln and great weights of slag show that industria+processes were carried out on the site. This phenomenon - the development of vici as the place where the labourers on a villa lived and where industrial processes were carried out - is well attested in Late Antiquity. As estates were decentralized, and landlords rented out land to colon+++ther than cultivating it with slaves who lived in the villa, the pars rustica lost its importance++++++++++ained, even taking over some o the economic functions of the city.11 We may surmise+hat coins are missing at San Giovanni because++was in the vicus that goods were bought and sold for cash. There are few traces of horses in the faunal remains found in the middens at San Giovanni, but this has no value as negative evidence, becaus++he middens are composed largely of food

Preface remains, and horses were not normally eaten in Roman Italy (MacKinnon, this volume, p. 99). In fact, there can be no doubt that horses were kept in the villa, at least in Period 3B when the row of rooms that forms the front elevation of the site was adapted to create four stalls, each for two horses, wit+++++++++++++++rs and drains typical of Roman stables (vol. I, 98). Two spurs found in contexts of this period confirm that horses were used at the site (vol. II, 57-58, nos. 373, 374); and it seems most likely that the carbonized oats, which were found especially frequently in contexts of both phases of Period 3 (Costantini 1983, 88; Monckton 1995, 72; this volume, p. 207), were destined as feed for the horses. Indeed, the fact that oats are well attested in the midden of Period 3A suggests that horses were already stalled somewhere in the villa of that time. The fact that the building of San Giovanni was specifically planned to accommodate horses at a time when various imperial edicts limited the use of horses to individuals of high social status, or to government officials who had need of horses to perform their duties (Buck 1983, 25, 39; Volpe 1996, 276), strongly suggests that San Giovanni was the seat of an aristocrat or a local administrator (probably Germanic as we have already suggested) who was responsible for the fiscal arrangements in this area, and who used the horses for visiting the+++++d farms in the vicinity to make sure that the peasants were producing the commodities (presumably chiefly but not exclusively swine) out of which the taxes were paid.12 The animal stalls and storage rooms that occupied the central and western parts of the villa (vol. I, 95-97) may have held the live animals, preserved meat, and other products for transmitting to the central authorities, or for selling++hen the market was advantageous. In other words, the Late Antique villa at San Giovanni was primarily a processing and administrative+centre rather than an agricultural or commercial one. It is likely to have functioned as the nucleus of a massa fundorum - a conglomera-

11 For the increased importance of vici in Late Antiquity, see Vera 1995a, 198, 208; 1995b, 343; Volpe 1996, 147-196. 12 For the Late Antique villa as an administrative centre, especially for the collection of produce in kind, see Vera 1995b, 348-350; Volpe 1996, 199.

Preface xxvii tion of estates which might include a number of dependent villages and farms; and the large apsidal hall that constituted its praetorium was the residence of the dominus of the whole property.13 The development of the massa reflected both the dwindling role of cities, and the rising power of potentates in the countryside. It emerged as the normal form of administrative unit in the Italian countryside in Late Antiquity, especially

on lands of the Roman church++++++++xxxiv. Jones 1964, 786). In outlying areas where the central power was not strong, the system must have been fragile, and it is probably symptomatic of the administrative difficulties of the Ostrogothic rulers that the fabric of San Giovanni began to crumble soon after the beginning of the sixth century (vol. I, 5, 100-102).

A.M. Small R.J. Buck

13 For the apsidal hall as the praetorium of the building, see Small 1983, 32 and vol. I, 91; for the praetorium in the context of a massa, and for the development and organization of the massa in Late Antiquity, see Vera 1995b, 342, 346, 350.

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ABBREVIATION+S

The abbreviations are, generally, those used in L'Annee Philologique. Abbreviated but readily understandable journal titles (e.g.,++++++++++++++++++++++++++ not listed here. Journals that may be unfamiliar to classical archaeologists are cited unabbreviated. A]A AmAnt BAR Current Anthr EMC+ JAScien+ JFA+ PBS++ RStLig+ World A

The American Journal of Archaeology American Antiquity British Archaeological Reports.++xford Current Anthropology Echos du Monde Classicjue I Classical Views Journal of Archaeological Science Journal of Field Archaeology ++++++++++++++++++++++++ Rivista di Studi Eiguri World Archaeology

Abbreviations for ancient authors and related documents: Apic. Calp++el. Cassiod. Var. Cat+++++ CIE Codex Theod. Col. ESAR

Apicius++e re cocjuinaria Calpurnius Siculus+Eclogues Cassiodorus, Variae ++++++++++++++++ Corpus Inscriptionum Eatinarum Codex Theodosianus Columella, De re rustica Tenney Frank, An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome (6 vols): Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1933-1940 Hor++arm. Horace,+Carmina Hor+++at. +++++++++ Juv. Juvenal Lib. Pont. Liber Pontificalis Macrob++++++++++++++++urnali+++a Mart. Martial, Epigrammata Pallad. Palladius, Opus agriculturae

xxx Abbreviations Pers. Petron. Sat. Plin. NH Varr++Rust+

Persius+Satires Petronius, Satyricon Pliny, Naturalis Historia Varro+De re rustica

Abbreviations for the subdivisions of the periods of San Giovanni: PI Pl/B Pl/D Pl/F PI/I Pl/O P2 P2/B P2/C P2/D P2/F P2/I P2/O P2B/B P2B/C P2B/F P2C/B P2C/F PSA P3A/B P3A/C P3A/D P3A/F P3A/I P3A/M1 P3A/M1A P3A/M1B P3A/O P3A/RF P3B P3B/B P3B/C P3B/D P3B/F P3B/I P3B/M2 P3B/M2E P3B/M2N P3B/M4 P3B/M5 P3B/M5T P3B/M6

Period 1 Period 1, Build-up Period 1, Destruction layer Period 1, Floor Period 1, Infill Period 1, Occupation layer Period 2 Period 2, Build-up Period 2, Construction layer Period 2, Destruction layer Period 2, Floor Period 2, Infill Period 2, Occupation layer Period 2B, Build-up Period 2B, Construction layer Period 2B, Floor Period 2C, Build-up Period 2C, Floor Period 3A Period 3A, Build-up Period 3A, Construction layer Period 3A, Destruction layer Period 3A, Floor Period 3A, Infill Period 3A, Midden 1 (general) Period 3A, Midden 1A Period 3A, Midden IB Period 3 A, Occupation layer Period 3A, Reconstruction floor Period 3B Period 3B, Build-up Period 3B, Construction layer Period 3B, Destruction layer Period 3B, Floor Period 3B, Infill Period 3B, Midden 2 (general) Period 3B, Midden 2 east Period 3B, Midden 2 north Period 3B, Midden 4 Period 3B, Midden 5 Period 3B, Midden 5, upper Period 3B, Midden 6

Abbreviations xxxi P3B/M6A P3B/M6B P3B/M7 P3B/M8 P3B/M9 P3B/O P3B/RB P3B/RD P3B/RF P3B/RR TO

Period 3B, Midden 6, early subphase Period 3B, Midden++++ter subphase Period 3B, Midden 7 Period 3B, Midden 8 Period 3B, Midden 9 Period 3B, Occupation layer Period 3B, Reconstruction build-up Period 3B, Reconstruction dome Period 3B, Reconstruction floor Period 3B, Reconstruction road surfacing Topsoil

Abbreviations are commonly used in the text in relation to the zooarchaeological data. Most of these occur in the tables and figures. Abbreviations for zooarchaeological quantifiers used here are as follows: ID MNI MNI(max)

MNI(min) MOW n/a NISP NISP2 UNID

Identified elements (=NISP) Minimum number of individuals = MNI(maximum); total of all MNI values for each phase within a period, with each phase treated as a separate unit but with all materials from within each phase pooled together, no matter where they originated at the site = MNI(minimum); MNI as calculated by pooling the data from all phases within one of the four main recognized periods Meat and offal weight (cf. Vigne 1991) not available Number of identified specimens (i.e., count of the actual number of identified separate pieces of bone recovered) Number of identified specimens, as calculated counting even the individual teeth in the mandibles and maxillae (cf. Albarella 1993) Unidentified elements

Unless specifically indicated as otherwise, the following are abbreviations used for the various skeletal elements: dp I

deciduous premolar incisor (permanent)

M P mand. max.

molar (permanent) premolar (permanent) mandibular maxillary

Superscript and subscript numbers refer to individual maxillary and mandibular teeth, respectively, thus: M2 M2

Maxillary second molar Mandibular second molar

All abbreviations for osteological measurements follow the system of von den Driesch (1976).

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The Excavations of San Giovanni di Ruoti Volume III The Faunal and Plant Remains

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1 The Animal Bones M.R. MacKinnon

A. INTRODUCTION The analysis of animal bones from ancient sites is an essential part of any multidisciplinary archaeologica++enture. Through this study the faunal analyst, or zooarchaeologist, is able to provide information pertinent to the interpretation of the ways of life and the activities in the past of humanity+This information can range from establishing the abundance of species present at the site to determining the specific roles animals played in the ancient economy, geographic area, or culture. It is information that may not be available from the analysis of other ecofacts or artefacts. For this reason any complete archaeological study attempting to understand past human cultures should incorporate a zooarchaeological analysis, if bone remains are recovered. Faunal studies of sites of the Roman period in Italy have not been numerous despite their recognize++otential. Although faunal remains from Roman period sites in England have received intense analysis, for a variety of reasons classical archaeologists working in Italy have commonly focused their research on the study of architectura++nd artefactual remains. With a few notable exceptions, the bones that have been published have been of somewhat limited value. Perhaps the greatest problems restricting any detailed and integrative analysis of faunal remain++om sites of the Roman period in Italy, and indeed anywhere, are insufficient sample sizes and limited chronological precision. Without a

significantly large database and good temporal markers it is difficult to derive solid conclusions about the role and importance of animals in the lives of an ancient culture and how these may have developed or changed over time. Any archaeological+site that can overcome these problems opens itself up to the expansive potential that a zooarchaeological analysis can contribute. San Giovanni di Ruoti is such a site. The faunal material from San Giovanni is important+or a number of reasons. First, from the outset of the excavations the contribution of anima++ones to cultural reconstructions was realized,+and every effort was made to collect and analyse them in conjunction with all other artefacts++nd ecofacts. The entire villa and part of its surroundings were excavated (see vol. I), so that no material lies hidden in areas of the villa unearthed. Second, most of the material derives from relatively intact middens, or garbage deposits++nd presumably represents the original waste discarded by the occupants of the site. In this way the bones serve as a direct link to the disposal activities of the Roman occupants at the site, activities that themselves are tied in with ancient diets and economies. Thus, San Giovanni is well suited to provide details for our growing++nowledge about the diet and economy of Roman Italy. Third, these deposits are well dated, the majority to very specific and tight age ranges. Careful excavation reduced the threat of tempora++ontamination of levels, while the dating of layers relied on information derived from in-

4 The Animal Bones tensive analyses of artefacts and structures. This care in dating allows comparisons of assemblages of animal bone from different periods of time delineated at the site to be presented without the problem of temporal ambiguity or contamination+++inally, the sample of bones collected from the site is certainly large enough to permi+++atistical analyses and reduce the chance of drawing tainted conclusions on a small and possibly skewed faunal assemblage. There is a scarcity of large collections of animal bones recovere+++om Roman period sites in Italy, especiall++ural sites, but at the same time a desire to understand the animal economy of these regions. The sample from San Giovanni is ideally suited to provide this essential information. Since San Giovanni is an archaeological site of the historical period, information pertaining to the role of animals in Roman farming practices may be derived from ancient literary records, particularly++e agricultural accounts of such Roman writers as Cato, Varro, Columella, Pliny the Elder++nd Palladius. Additional information can be extracted from the legal records in the Roman Law codes (Buck 1983), and from the recipes of Apicius (Flower and Rosenbaum 1958). Yet even when they are amalgamated these sources are far from complete, and inherent biases and their advocacy of various agricultural theories imped++n unquestioning acceptance of their dicta (MacKinnon 1999). The agricultural writers are selective in their recordings, which in turn are derived from ethnocentric and area-specific vantage+oints. Law codes are essentially prescriptive rather than descriptive. Clearly, then, the credibility++f these sources must be measured against the archaeological record (see MacKinnon 1999 for an integrated study of zooarchaeological and ancient textual data for animals in Roman Italy). My quantitative study of the mammal remains from San Giovanni will provide a basis from which to derive comparisons between the theory as presented in these ancient literary records and the actual and quantifiable practice as revealed through zooarchaeological analyses. This chapter presents a detailed study of the remains of the mammal bones recovered during excavations at San Giovanni di Ruoti. Through an analysis of the recovered faunal material, I

quantify and interpret the contribution of these mammals to the economy and diet of the occupant++++he site. Fish, reptile, and amphibian bones are also dealt with in this chapter; these were, however, recovered in much smaller numbers+han mammalian bones. The avian remains are discussed in chapter 2. The main aims of my study are, first, to examin+what people were eating at San Giovanni, and to determine the relative or potential contributio+++f meat to the diet; second, to study techniques of butchery, methods of food preparatio++++d manner of garbage disposal in the set tlement; third, to reconstruct the environments as based on the ecology of the various species represented++ourth, to ascertain whether seasonal patterns of animal exploitation existed; fifth, to provide information for determining the relationshi+++f the animals with humans in dietary, economic+and social matters. Here, I intend to asses+he role of domestic and wild species in the. economy. In addition, I will investigate issues of trade, choice of species, and the use of animal+++d their products. My sixth aim is to documen++he incidence and prevalence of skeletal pathologies and to determine the general state of health of the animal. Seventh, I wish to examin++hanges in any of the above topics over the three periods of occupation at the site in orde++o obtain a better idea of developments and alterations through time. Finally, I test these argument+and conclusions against the dicta of the ancient agricultural writers in order to decipher possible discrepancies between theory and practice++oncerning the role of mammals in Roman farm-villa economy and diet. It must be stressed, however, that the anima++conomy of Italy is a regional phenomenon, and San Giovanni was only a very small part of the Roman world. While the potential to reconstruc++spects of ancient life at this particula+++la in southern Italy during ancient times has been facilitated by the large and informative+aunal sample recovered, the results of this analysis should not be extrapolated to explain economies and diets over the whole of Roman Italy. The economy of Roman Italy is a fascinating++ut complex, topic that requires much more integrative and interdisciplinary research if we

The Animal Bones 5

Fig. 1.1 Percentage of isolated incisors by taxon and period Note: The percentage of isolated incisors is (MNI of incisors / [MNI incisors + MM dp / P+ MNI Mj ++++++++++++ M 2 + MNI M3] x 100).

are ever to quantify and qualify the contribution and role of animals (see MacKinnon 1999 for a step in this direction).

B. M E T H O D S 1. General recovery The investigators were especially interested in studying the economy of this ancient Roman farm complex, and made every effort to collect biologica++nd environmental data from the site. Faunal remains were recovered during all seasons of excavation and from the entire area of excavation. Recovery methods included trench collection based on visual inspection and dry sieving. The relative merits and disadvantages of both these techniques are well documented (among others, Barker 1975; Clason and Prummel 1977; Gordo++++3; Grayson 1981; James 1997; Payne 1972; Schaffer 1992; Schaffer and Sanchez 1994; Steele 1983; and Thomas 1969). Some authors (Clason and Prummel 1977; Gordon 1993; Grayson 1981; James 1997; Payne 1972; Schaffer 1992; Schaffer and Sanchez 1994; and Thomas 1969) have discussed+the failure of trench collection techniques in the recovery of small, inconspicuous elements and fragments, which subsequently may bias the sample towards an over-representation of large species. They assert that the primary benefit of

sieving deposits is to eliminate this bias and produc+++more representative sample. Steele (1983), on the other hand, drawing from his experiences at San Giovanni, expresses confidence in the success of visual trench-inspection techniques in recovering small bone elements and fragments, provided the excavators are aware, informed+f osteological morphologies, meticulous, and vigilant. Although parts of deposits from San Giovanni were screened through 5 mm and 2.5 mm sieves (the soil from the deposits of Periods 1 and 2 was hard-packed and therefore not sieved; midden soil was easily sieved), Steele cites the recovery of hundreds of chicken bones, smaller bird bones, and bones from small field mice and moles without the use of sieves as partial support of his position. A further study revealed there was no great difference in the relative frequencies of animals of comparable sizes picked visually from trenches and recovered from sieves (cf. Barker 1975). He thus contended that visual inspection for bone at San Giovanni has not significantly skewed the recovery of domestic animals (Steele 1983, 77). I have performed a subsequent test to check whether recovery methods were different for the materials from different periods. Fig. 1.1 depicts the relative frequency of isolated deciduous and permanent incisors for the three principal taxa represented from the three periods (cf. Albarella and Davis 1994). These are small teeth that may

6 The Animal Bones

Fig. 1.2 Plan of the middens

easily be overlooked in the trench or lost through sieves. The higher frequency of isolated sheep incisors recovered in period 2 may suggest a more thorough recovery of small bones from this period, but this is not supported by comparative++nalysis of the pig incisors. Excluding thi anomaly, it appears that recovery of isolated incisor+(and hence recovery in general) was fairly uniform among periods. The higher frequency of pig incisors (relative to the other species) is due to the large size of these teeth compared to the molars, while the lower frequency of the sheep incisors is likely due to their smaller size, relative to molars. The sample of cattle incisors is too small for definite conclusions.

2. Recovery in middens Middens containing vast amounts of bones are especially important to faunal studies for severa++easons. First, they often provide enough debris and material to afford a statistically significant sample size for analysis. Second, their accumulation is frequently attributed to animal processing and domestic waste. In other words,

the materials within provide direct indications of ancient diets and the economic patterns of the occupants at the site. They are often intentional accumulations of trash made by the inhabitants, as opposed to random and haphazard scatters of material that litter other regions of the site. Finally, bones within middens are generally well preserved, owing to the fact that often they accumulate++nd are subsequently buried within a relatively short time. Thus, post-depositional loss of materials is generally not as pronounced as among other less protected archaeological deposits. TABLE 1.1 Area and volume of Middens 1, 4, 5, and 7 Approximate Approximate Midden Period area (m2) volume (m3) 1 Period 3A 116 17.1 4 Period 3B 68 6.5 5 Period 3B 50 11.5 7 Period 3B 84 18.9

A total of nine middens was excavated at San Giovanni, and their location is shown in Fig. 1.2. Middens 1 and 2 date to Period 3A, whereas Mid-

The Animal Bones 7 TABLE 1.2 Analysis of soils from contexts in four Period 3B middens Midden

pH

N

Ph

K

Ca

Mg

Zn

Fe

Mn

Cu

Organics

3 layer 534

7.6 mod. alk.

low

>150 very high

248 high

>4000 very high

355 high

>2.00 high

>20.0 high

10.0 high

2.0

>7.0%

3 layer 534

8.0 mod. alk.

low

>150 very high

240 high

>4000 very high

350 high

>2.00 high

>20.0 high

10.0 high

2.0

>7.0%

4 layer 428

8.0 mod. alk.

low

>150 very high

288 high

>4000 very high

395 high

>2.00 high

>20.0 high

10.0 high

2.0

>7.0%

5 layer 555

8.1 mod. alk.

low

>150 very high

284 high

>4000 very high

350 high

>2.00 high

>20.0 high

9.3 high

2.0

4.30%

5 layer 580

8.0 mod. alk.

low

>150 very high

236 high

>4000 very high

365 high

>2.00 high

>20.0 high

6.1 high

2.0

6.40%

5 layer 580

8.2 mod. alk.

low

>150 very high

232 high

>4000 very high

295 high

>2.00 high

>20.0 high

8.8 high

2.0

>3.04%

6 layer 488

8.0 mod. alk.

low

>150 very high

228 high

>4000 very high

370 high

>2.00 high

>20.0 high

10.0 high

2.0

>7.04%

6 layer 514

8.0 mod. alk.

low

>150 very high

240 high

>4000 very high

350 high

>2.00 high

>20.0 high

10.0 high

2.0

>2.40%

Notes++++d. alk. = moderately alkaline. All values are expressed in parts/million (PPM) unless otherwise noted. Alkaline soils generally develop in calcareous environments (Shackley 1975) and tend to facilitate preservation of soil, whereas a high acid pH in soils causes decomposition of bone and plant material. Nitrogen (N), organic phosphorus (Ph), and potassium (K) are supplied to soil from fecal matter or organic matter (Buckman and Brady 1969). High values would indicate abundant floral and/or faunal materials. Both organic matter and nitrogen are easily lost through oxidation and leaching (ibid.), therefore low values may be expected if material was exposed.

dens 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 were deposited during Period 3B. Dating of the middens is based on cerami+materials. No middens were found datable to Period 1 or 2. Middens were often a source of accumulated waste that later could be spread out over cultivated fields, a common practice accordin++o the ancient agronomists. At San Giovanni, this is likely to have been performed during Period++++and 2, but less so during Period 3.+ is very unusual to find large midden deposits inside a Roman villa, and their presence among the deposits from Period 3 might suggest that the fields during this time were not cultivated to the same degree as those of Periods 1 and 2. As a further test of recovery, I have carried out a quantitative analysis of several midden deposits++hoosing Middens 1, 4, 5, and 7 because they represent a fairly complete sample of midde++material from Period 3A and Period 3B. Table 1.1 records basic information about the approximate spatial area and volume. Soil analyses+or several contexts and layers within Mid-

den++and 5 were performed at the Geology Lab-+ oratory of Texas A&M University. These results, given in Table 1.2, suggest a uniform midden soil type. The soil within the middens was generally dark in colour, often greasy, crumbly in texture, and moderately alkaline. Nitrogen levels were relatively low, but the levels of other inorganic minerals were relatively high. It is assumed that the pedology and micromorphology of each midden+were similar, though these remain to be tested. The dense concentration of faunal remains in midden soils warranted screening, especially when great control was required in extracting ever++it of material from these dumps. Fortunately, the rich, black, crumbly soil could be put through even the finer mesh with ease, as long as it was reasonably dry. In addition, some contexts from within midden deposits were floated in an effort to extract the maximum amount of environmental information within strict controls. In all cases, the entire midden was excavated, except Middens 2

8 The Animal Bones and 5, which could not be because of time constraints. To attempt to quantify the volume of soil in the middens and the proportion screened and floated is problematic. In some cases the volume of soil screened and floated was recorded, but this was not done systematically, and so statistica++nalyses of the recovered remains are difficult to apply. Furthermore, in the postexcavation++nalysis, several layers in various parts of these middens were combined when they were determined to be contemporaneous. This complicated matters in that often some of these layers were screened while many of the newly combined contemporaneous layers were not. In other cases, varying proportions of the soil from a given layer were screened. Without complete records of the volume of soil within the middens and of the quantity screened it is necessary to calculate rough model++++he middens and their associated layers in an effort to estimate soil volumes. I attempted this for four of the more important middens: Middens 1, 4, 5, and 7. Spatial dimensions of each of these middens were obtained from the site map, and depth from the section plans. I constructed very rough three-dimensional model++f these four middens based on the limited information available, which I used to estimate the volume of soil within each midden. Simila+models and soil-volume estimates were derived++or unquantified screened layers. The fi n++++sults, presented in Table 1.3, are the estimate+++olumes of the amount of soil making up the midden, and the proportion that was screened.

TABLE 1.3 Volume of soil and portions screened in Middens 1, 4, 5, and 7 Midden

Total volume of soil (m3)

Volume of soil screened (m3)

Percent screened

1 4 5 7

17.1 6.5 11.5 18.9

1.6 2.3 3.1 1.9

9.4 35.4 27.0 10.0

3. Identifications I made several levels of identifications. First, 'unidentified++UNID) elements were distinguished from 'identified' (ID) elements. I subdivided the UNID elements into four categories - rib, longbone++ertebrae, and other (primarily pieces from the cranium, scapula, and pelvis) - on the basis of morphological characteristics. These were furthe+categorized as deriving from medium-sized mammals or large-sized mammals. The vast majority++f the UNID bones could be grouped into one of these two size categories. UNID bones from small-sized mammals were not quantified+++nce most of these were minuscule fragments. All of the ID elements were quantified and further studied to determine species, anatomical element and proportion preserved, side, age, sex, butchery, condition, and measurements, where possible. Most of the ID material had been previously reviewed and catalogued by Steele or Assad. Where possible, this material was checked by me, with the help of the comparative faunal collectio++++the University of Alberta and a numbe of guides to the identification of animal bones (Amorosi 1989; Barone 1976; Cornwall 1956; Hillso++990,1992; Pales and Garcia 1981; Pales and Lambert 1971; Schmid 1972). Caprine elements were distinguished as to species using the criteria described in Boessneck (1969), Kratochvil (1969), Payne (1969,1985), and Prummel and Frisch (1986). Where possible, the following parts of the skeleton were identified as either sheep or goat: horn core,+++++++++++++ 3, dp4, scapula, distal humerus, radius, proximal ulna, metapodials, proximal femur, distal tibia, calcaneus, astragalus++elvis, and all phalanges. In addition, attempts were made to separate sheep from goat metapodials using the metrical tests suggested by Payne (1969). The shape of the enamel folds (Eisenmann 1981) was used to identify equid teeth to species. Only molar teeth that could be securely classified as such were considered. All post-cranial bones were identified simply as 'equid/ Small rodents were distinguished to species primarily on the basis of their molar teeth (Hill-

The+Animal Bones 9 son 1990). Post-crania+++++++++++++corded as 'Miscellaneous small rodent/ but not subdivided. 4. Quantification I calculated both the number of identified specimen+++ISP) and the minimum number of individual++MNI) for the most common and/or significant taxa. The NISP is the total number of elements of each species or taxonomic group in the fauna+sample, regardless of side, age, and sex. It is simply a count of the number of fragments of each taxon's element of study in the sample++++re are many problems with this method (as discussed in Grayson 1984 and Klein and Cruz-Uribe 1984). In general, NISP values are particularly vulnerable to effects and degrees of fragmentation in the sample, which are different for each animal and site. Fragments are usually ignored or treated the same as whole bones. As a result, NISP will often exceed the actual number of individuals considerably, because its calculation++oes not discriminate between the bones of the same or a different carcass. Therefore, one could easily count the same animal several times. NISP also automatically weights a species accordin+++++e number of quantifiable bones in its skeleton. Animals with more identifiable parts will usually be over-represented, and animals with fewer identifiable parts under-represented (Daly 1969). Furthermore, NISP gives larger values++r taxa tending to reach the site whole than for those butchered elsewhere and reaching the site in parts. Despite these problems, NISP may be an adequate measure to demonstrate the rank order of abundance of species and broad pattern++++he assemblage profile (Winder 1991). Since I was dealing principally with mammals, all of which generally contain the same number++f identifiable bones (except for minor dental++ifferences), I chose NISP as a quick and efficient indicator of abundance and rank for species. NISP was counted in two ways. NISP is a count of the actual number of separate pieces recovered, whereas NISP2 was calculated counting++ven the individual teeth in the maxillae and

mandibles (cf. Albarella 1993). Thus, the NISP count of a mandible with four teeth is 1, while its NISP2 count is 5 (i.e., four teeth + the mandible fragment itself). The MNI calculation is based on the most commonly retrieved element of each taxon in the sample. In its traditional form (Klein and Cruz-Uribe 1984) it is a raw count of the number of individuals necessary to account for all the identifiable bones. Often it incorporates information++n the age and sex of the animals, in an effort to categorize individuals accurately and to avoid unnecessary overestimation (often the case with NISP) or underestimation (often the case in the MNIs that do not use age and sex subcategories) of species. Various modifications of the MNI method have been proposed over the years (Binford++978,1981,1984,1988; Bokonyi 1970; Casteel 1977a, 1977b; Chaplin 1971; Grayson 1973, 1978, 1979), including methods that incorporate procedure++or matching paired elements, and integrat++he Lincoln (or Peterson) index (Fieller and Turner 1982; Krantz 1968; Poplin 1976; Turner and Fieller, 1985; Wild and Nichol 1983; Winder 1991). The assumption is that MNI numbers reflect original kill ratios, without the interdependence difficulties inherent in NISP values. Two main biases++++e encountered, however. First, MN cou+nt I s ar e subject to the problem of aggregation , in that they vary depending on how the faunal material from a given site is divided into smaller aggregates++ccording to tempora++++++++++++++ (Grayson 1984). Second, any count of a particular+bone that has, as a result, been naturally or artificially increased relative to other less biased++ones will skew MNI numbers (Gilbert and Singer 1982). Despite these problems MNI values were calculated+++r the San Giovanni fauna. Since the sample is large, those modifications to the MNI method that attempt to correct for this first bias were not used. It was felt the problem of aggregation++ould be controlled by calculating MNI at two levels and comparing the values and frequencies+++NI(max) (or simply MNI) is a total of all MNI values for each phase within a period+++ith each phase treated as a separate unit but with all materials from within each phase

10 The Animal Bones pooled together, no matter where they originated around the site. Thus, MNI(max) or MM for Period 1 = MNI(P1/B)+ MNI(P1 /C)+MNI(P1 /O)+MNI(P1 /D) No materials in infill levels (i.e., PI/I, P3A/I, P3/I) were used in any MNI or MSP calculations,+because there was a threat of contamina tion+MNI(min) values, on the other hand, were calculated by pooling the data from all phases within one of the four main recognized periods (i.e., Periods 1, 2, 3A, and 3B). For Period 1 it can be expressed as: MIN(min) for Period 1 = MNI(P1/B+P1/C+P1/O+P1/D) MNI(min) values, therefore, controlled for the possibility that material from anywhere around the site, as well as from any phases within a broad time frame, could be mixed. They should then record the absolute minimum number of individuals present within a single period. I attempted to compensate for the second bias to MNI counts, that of artificial increment of some bones over other, but generally only as this relates to natural factors. A detailed analysis of the taphonomic agents that acted to destroy bones differentially was undertaken, and survivorship+++tentials of various skeletal elements were determined for the two main domesticates at the site - pigs and sheep / goats. In addition, MNI(min) counts were also recorded for each skeletal element of cattle, pig, and sheep/goat, and these in turn were compared to MNI(min) and MNI(max) values as calculated using all the bones of the particular species. In some cases MNI values for certain elements of a particular species were 'corrected' to compensate for differentia+preservation relative to other elements of that species. The MNI method chosen is one of the more common and conservative measures and follows the principles outlined in Klein and Cruz-Uribe (1984). It incorporates information on the age and sex of the animals and side (either left or right) of the element, where possible. I tried to match fragments from single elements, to pair elements that were likely from the same animal, and to fit loose teeth into appropriate mandibles or maxillae, in an effort to avoid counting the same animal twice. The majority of MNIs were

derived from dental elements, in which pig and sheep / goat dominated. It was felt that a scheme for aging these teeth would be beneficial for separating++ese taxa into smaller aggregate groups, wherein MNIs could be calculated based on each developmental stage represented. This method was not feasible for all taxa; however, efforts were made broadly to age elements from other taxa where possible, and this information was taken into account when MNIs were calculated. Age-related changes in bone morphology and size and in the fusion of epiphyses were the criteria used to demarcate representative elements++to juvenile, immature, or adult categories+++hich in turn formed aggregate groups from which to derive MNI counts. The total MNI for each taxon was the sum of all the separate MNIs from each aggregate age group or developmenta++age for that particular taxon. The formul++++ployed was MM = max. (Left, Right). In cases where the side was indeterminate I allocate+++qual numbers to each side. No overlap+among age groups or developmental stages was tolerated. In this way, the problem of counting++lements from the same animal which as a factor of differential growth may lie in separate+age groups or developmental stages was controlled. Other quantification techniques employed in zooarchaeology - such as: (1) the relative frequenc+++r RF method (Gilbert, Singer, and Perkins 1981; Perkins 1964), sometimes also referred+to as the 'Total Minimum Animal Units' or TMAU (Chase and Hagaman 1987); (2) systems of weighing categorized groups of bone (Casteel 1978); and (3) Utility Indices ('Modified General Utility Index' or MGUI [Binford 1978, 1981; Lyma++985,1992] and Meat Utility Index [Metcalfe and Jones 1988]) - were not used in the analysis of the San Giovanni faunal material. These methods+are not universally practised and, as far as I am aware, have never been applied in studies of Roman period sites, at least in Italy. Consequently,+s their inclusion here might bring unnecessary+onfusion, I have not used them+. Initial efforts were made to quantify the UNID elements; however, because there were enormous+umbers of tiny pieces (less than 2 cm), I later decided to study only a sample of the total

The Animal Bones 11 UNID in order to gain some understanding of relative proportions. UNID counts were made of elements from all Period 1 and Period 2 contexts (excluding infill deposits), from all contexts in Middens++++++++++++++++om sampled context++mong the remaining Period 3A and Period 3B deposits. In addition, the UNID remains from Period 1, Period 2, Midden 1, Midden 5, and a sample from Midden 6 were further classified as rib, long-bone, vertebra, or other skeletal part, from medium- or large-sized animals. The methodology used for quantifying species that incorporates two types of NISP calculations (i.e., NISP and NISP2) and two types of MNI calculations (i.e., MNI and MNI[min]), the latte++++which incorporated information on aging and sexing of species, should limit problems of quantification. Klein and Cruz-Uribe (1984, 35) and Crabtree (1990, 161) advocate that such a combined use of NISP and MNI statistics is a good solution to the dilemma of the individual problems plaguing each. Therefore, in conjunction+++se sources of information applied to the faunal sample from San Giovanni should provide the proper context in which to make interpretations++bout the representation and quantity of species present, and to derive conclusions about the diet and economy of the site. 5. Aging and sexing The age at death of the animals was calculated in two main ways: first, on the basis of the fusion stage of post-cranial bones, and second, on the basis of dental eruption and wear sequences of mandibular teeth. The fusion stage of post-cranial bones was recorded for all species. An epiphysis was describe+++s 'fused' when it remained joined to the diaphysis, even though the line of fusion might not be fully closed (I did not distinguish a 'semi-fused' category to refer to this state). I further aged 'unfused' specimens as noticeably fetal or recently newborn (on the basis of the presence of juvenile cortex), or simply older than that. In fact, the main problem with all fusion data is that animals can only be said to be older or younger than a certain age, but by how much is unknown.

While the sequence of epiphyseal fusion is constant for each species, the absolute ages may vary considerably. I have used information from various sources (Amorosi 1989; Silver 1969) to designate broadly three fusion stages for pigs and sheep/goats (Table 1.4). Approximate absolute ages are given solely as a guide. TABLE 1.4 Fusion-stage age brackets for pigs and sheep / goats Fusion stage Pigs Young

Middle

Old

Fusing epiphyses Distal humerus Proximal radius Proximal phalanx 2 Pelvis acetabulum Distal metacarpal Distal tibia Distal fibula Distal metatarsal Proximal phalanx 1 Proximal calcaneus Proximal humerus Proximal and distal ulna Distal radius Proximal and distal femur Proximal tibia

Sheep/Goats Young Distal humerus Proximal radius Pelvis acetabulum Distal metacarpal Middle Distal tibia Distal metatarsal Proximal phalanx 1 Proximal phalanx 2 Old Proximal humerus Proximal and distal ulna Distal radius Proximal and distal femur Proximal tibia Proximal calcaneus

Approxima+te age of fusion by 1 year

by 2-2.5 years

by 3-3.5 years

by 1 year by 1-2 years

by 2.5-3.5 years

Several established systems of aging mandibular+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 4s, P4s, and molar++++attle, caprines, and pigs were used. In all cases, both isolated teeth and those in mandibles were considered. In the first system, tooth-wear stages follow Grant (1982, 1985) for cattle, pigs, and sheep / goats. In the second system, they follow+Payne (1973,1987) for sheep/goats. In addition to the systems above, I devised my own, in an effort to incorporate information

12 The Animal Bones TABLE 1.5 Developmental stages of mandibular teeth of pigs Stage

Description

1 2

dc, di2+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ fetal-newborn 4 unerupted or in process of erupting, but not in occlusal position dc an+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1-3 months 3 are slightly worn. dp4 is in occlusal position, but with no or minimal wear. dil7 di2, dp2+++p3, and Mj are unerupted. dc and++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 3-6 months 3 are moderately worn. dilr di2/ dp2, and dp3 are erupting and may show slight wear if in occlusion early++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 4 is exhibiting slight wear on the occlusal surface. Mj is erupting but not in occlusal position. dc and+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 6 months-1 year 3 are heavily worn, dij, di2/ dp2/ dp3, and dp4 exhibit moderate wear on the surface. Mj is on occlusal position and exhibits slight wear.+++++++++++++++++++++ a, I3, and M2 are unerupted. C may be in early eruption. dp2/ dp3++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++to+++++++++++++ ++++++++ heavily worn. C,++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ l7 and I3 are erupting and have replaced dc, dilr and di3 respectively. M! shows slight to moderate wear.+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 2 is erupting, but not in occlusal position. P2, P3,++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ +++++++++++ wear. MI is worn++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 3 is erupting but not in occlusion. di2 is heavily worn. I2++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ wear+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 2 and I3 show moderate wear. Ma is worn flat on the occlusal surface. M2 shows moderate wear, but the apices of the cusps still project above the occlusal plane++++++ 3 is in the occlusal position, but shows only minimal wear. Moderate to heavy wear is shown on C, Ij, ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 2.5-3.5 years 2, I3, P2, P3/ and P4. Ml is worn virtually to the gum line.+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 2 is worn to a flat occlusal plane. M3 exhibits slight to moderate wear. M+ is worn to a flat occlusal plane. 3.5+ years

3 4 5 6 7

8 9

Approximate age

TABLE 1.6 Developmental stages of mandibular teeth of sheep/goats Stage

Description

1 2

Fetal or newborn in beginning stages of deciduous dentition. No wear on any ++++ Deciduous dentition erupted and in occlusion, dij+++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 2, dp2, and dp3 exhibit slight to moderate wear++++++++++++++++++++++++++di 3 is slightly worn. Mj is erupting. Early stages of eruption for Ij an++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 2. Heavy wear on remaining deciduous teeth. Mj slightly worn, dc and+++++++++++++++++++ 3 are moderately worn. Deciduous dentition exfoliated++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 3 may still be present but is heavily worn. Early stages of eruption fo++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 2, P2/ P3, and possibly P4 and M3, with pointed forms for all. I+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ position++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ lx I2, P2, P3, Mj, and M2 show early stages of slight wear. Cemento-enamel junction on all cheek teeth is plainly visible. Slight to moderate wear on+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ a, I2, P2, P3, M:, and M2. P4 and M3 exhibit slight wear. P2, P+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 3, and P4 have replaced dp2, dp3, and dp4 respectively. Moderate to heavy wear o++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ l7 I2, P2, P3, Ml7 and M2. Moderate wear on P4 and M3. Pronounced heavy wear on all teeth, with the exception o++++++++++++++++++++ 4 and M3, which show moderate to heavy wear.

3 4 5 6 7 8

Notes for Tables 1.5 and 1.6 dc di dp C I P M

deciduous canine deciduous incisor [first (dij); second (di2);++ird (di3)] deciduous premolar [second (dp2);+hird (dp3)++ourth (dp4)] permanent canine permanent incisor [first (I^; second (I2)+third (I3)] permanent premolar [second (P2);++++++++++++++(P4)] permanent molar [first (Mj); second (M2+++hird (M3)]

Approximate age +fetal-newborn birth-6 months 6 months-1 year 1.5-2 years ++++ears 3-4 years 4-5 years 5+ years

The Animal Bones 13 about the eruption and wear of all mandibular teeth, and not just++++++++++++++++++++++ 4/ P4, and molars. Two systems++re described, one for pigs, the other for sheep / goats. The developmental scheme for pigs (Table 1.5) is generally the same as that used in a preliminary analysis of the material from San Giovann++y Steele (1983). It has been enhanced, however++++y inclusions of incisor and canine teeth. The sequence for sheep/goats (Table 1.6), by contrast, is based on Grant's and Payne's schemes referred to above, as well as on information about dental eruption contained in other sources (Amorosi 1989; Moran and O'Connor 1994). Two points must be made regarding the developmenta++tages described above. First, although all teeth, including those in mandibles and those isolated and outside the mandibles, could potentiall++++++igned to a stage, many incisors were not, particularly those of sheep / goats, simply becaus++hey were often difficult to place with great confidence. Second, it should be noted that specifi+++ges for time of death cannot be established for the sample from San Giovanni. The reason for this is that 'different breeds mature at different rates and it is not known which breeds were being raised in southern Italy during this time' (Steele 1983, 79). Nevertheless, rough estimates of chronological-age correlations for each stage based on comparisons with modern breeds (Steele 1983; Moran and O'Connor 1994) are presented in Tables 1.5 and 1.6. The animals at San Giovanni were probably selected throughout the ages to mature and breed rapidly. Sexual data were recorded where possible, based on morphological and size differences among the representative bones that are characteristic of sexual dimorphism. There are only a few osteological differences between male and female sheep/goats (Boessneck 1969; Prummel and Frisch 1986). Of these, the shape of the pelvis and the shape of the astragalus proved most useful with the material from San Giovanni. For pigs, it is possible to distinguish boars and sows on the basis of upper and lower permanent canines. In addition, in their absence, one can determine the sex of pig mandibles and maxillae fragments on the basis of the size and shape of the canine alveolus. For all other species any distinction of

sexes had to rely on the separation and clustering of groups based on metrical analyses. Research on cattle metapodials, in particular, shows such a pattern++Higham 1968; Higham and Message 1969 Howard 1963; Maltby 1979; Thomas 1988). I have assumed, throughout, equal ratios of male and female animals at birth for all species considered in this report. Thus, the sexual data presented should relate directly to cultural and natural variables++ffecting the animals after birth and not t any genetic factors acting to favour male or female offspring. In an attempt to obtain a profile of the assemblag+++f pig deaths, I combined aging and sex data in the analysis of pig canine teeth. Both the developmental stages for mandibular canines as described above (Table 1.5), and similar stages based on the eruption, size, and wear of maxillar++anine teeth (Table 1.7), were used. Maxillary teeth were assigned to one of four developmenta+++ges based on the criteria in Table 1.7. The stages are meant as relative guides and do not necessarily relate directly to absolute ages. Wear patterns, in particular, are quite variable, depending+on diet. It is assumed that these differences were negligible and that the pigs at San Giovanni consumed similar materials. TABLE 1.7 Wear stages of maxillary canines of male and female pigs Stage

Description

Approximate age

I

Permanent canine (C) unerupted or erupting C exhibits slight wear C exhibits moderate wear C exhibits heavy wear

6 months-1 year

II

III

IV

1-1.5 years 1.5-2.5 years 2.5-3.5+ years

6. Measurements Measurements of animal bones can often assist in separating different species or sexes within a species, as well in the assessment of size variations among breeds. The measurements taken on the sample from San Giovanni are listed in appendix 1. In general, these follow the system suggested by von den Driesch (1976), but with some exceptions: pig measurements follow Payne and Bull (1988); equid cheek teeth follow Davis (1987) and Levine (1982).

14 The Animal Bones Wild and domestic pigs were distinguished on the basis of measurements, especially those of the teeth. Control measures for wild and domestic individuals follow Payne and Bull (1988). Several calculations using the various measurement+++ere performed in an effort to estimat++eneral size, robusticity, or withers heights. Formulae for withers-height calculations are summarize+++von den Driesch and Boessneck (1974). In the San Giovanni analysis I have used the withers-height coefficients of Fock (1966), Zalkin (1960), and Matolcsi (1970) for cattle, Teichert (1975) for sheep/goats, Teichert (1969) for pigs, and Vitt (1952) for equids.

7. Taphonomic measures Various taphonomic details were recorded by Assad+1986) in her analysis of part of the San Giovanni+sample of ID pigs. These included natural factors such as carnivore gnawing, rodent gnawing++ost-depositional etching, and breakage due to surface exposure, as well as cultural factors such as cut and saw marks, and fresh breaks incurred during the course of excavation. In addition++vidence for burning or spiral fracturing of the bone was recorded but it was not always possible to determine if these effects were caused by human activity or were simply the result of natural occurrences (e.g., accidental fire for burning+or trampling by animals to produce spiral fractures). I studied the remainder of the ID bone from the entire sample to determine evidence of taphonomic++actors. My study was, however, not as detailed as Assad's work; carnivore gnawing, rodent gnawing, cut and saw marks, and burning++ere described and quantified. General notes were made about the incidence and prevalence of the other factors to get some sense of the overall state of preservation of the bones. A portion of the UNID sample from Midden 5 was also analysed by Assad (1986) to determine the effects of the various taphonomic factors listed above. Most faunal reports provide little information++bout the UNID material, aside from basic frequencies and weights. This ignores an often substantial and potentially important source of taphonomic information.

8. Butchery and meat weights This is a complex topic, because there are many factors that affect the availability of different kinds of meat or other animal resources and the decisions made by the producers and consumers. Huelsbeck (1991) discusses these. One prime factor+s choice (Huelsbeck 1991, 64). In many cases the occupants of a site prefer certain meats for consumption and export others as part of an economic++r trade system. Depending on external or internal demands and choices they may choose to utilize local environments or intensify butchery practices. A series of social, economic, political, and preferential factors must be considered in determining the pattern of butchery and exploitation of resources. However, central to all this is an analysis of cut and saw marks on the elements themselves to determine frequencies. Which animal++nd which elements show butchery marks? How does this pattern compare with those of other contemporary sites? What resources or types of meat were favoured according to the frequency of butchery marks? These are several of the question+++at can be answered from an analysis of butchery marks and practices. Utilization and exploitation of resources were addressed through a study of elemental representation++nd meat yields. Certain areas of the mammalian skeleton are associated with prime meat cuts. These include those bones associated with the chest and back, such as the ribs and vertebrae,+s well as the forequarters (i.e., scapula and humerus) and the hindquarters (i.e., pelvis and femur). These regions are the tastiest and meatiest portions of the animal. Mid-limb areas, around the radius, ulna, tibia, fibula, are secondary cuts that produce a poorer quality of meat than the prime cuts. Lower limb areas are the poorest cuts of meat. Here meat is sparse and not as palatable as elsewhere. Finally, the head region, while not producing high-quality cuts of meat, does contain the jowl, brain, and tongue, all of which can be eaten. A detailed analysis of patterns of butchery was undertaken in an effort to understand the processes and technology involved in the butchery+++carcasses and the subsequent exploitation of resources at the site. Butchery marks were

The Animal Bones 15

Fig. 1.3 Relative frequency of ID and UNID bones by counts and weights described as 'chop' if they were noticeably deep, and v-grooved (i.e., caused by a cleaver or chopper++ee Plate 1), 'cut' if they were shallow (i.e., caused by a knife; see Plate 2), and 'saw' if a saw had been applied. Their position was recorded in all cases. Estimates of the weight of the meat provide some idea of the minimal amount of meat represented++y the sample of bones and thus aid in th reconstruction of ancient diets. These estimates were calculated in several ways. First, species MNI counts were multiplied by the meat weight estimate proposed by Barker (1982) for the principa++omesticates only: Roman cattle (225 kg), pig (45 kg), and sheep / goats (30 kg). Second, species MNI counts were multiplied by the meat-weight estimates proposed by King (1985) for Roman cattle (175 kg), pigs (63 kg), sheep / goats (27.5 kg and red deer (150 kg). Finally, the meat and offal weight (MOW) method proposed by Vigne (1991) was applied to the principal domesticates. This method takes into account the body size and kill-off patterns in an effort to obtain a more realistic estimate of available meat. It must be stressed, however, that the potential meat weights and multiplication factors used in all of the above calculations are to be viewed as relative rather than absolute figures. The combined information obtained from studie++++utchery and meat yield can assist in answering++ertain questions about the economy and culture at the site. A surplus of animals

and meat beyond the dietary requirements of the estimated population at the villa (20-30 people [Freed 1982]) implies a connection with an outside market where excess goods could be sold, given, or traded. Quantifying this surplus, and determining exactly what was exported are topics of consideration that can be addressed by faunal analysis. If animals were transported whole to market towns, then at San Giovanni one would expect to find few bone remains among the sample. Alternatively, absence of bones could represent a relatively poor contribution of animals to the economy, or simply indicate that excavations failed to unearth the remains, which may have been deposited outside the area. In that case, unless other indications, such as large stable or stall complexes, or an abundance of harnessin++evices or other animal-related artefacts, are discovered, it may be difficult to discern the exact significance of a lack of animal bones. On the other hand, if select pieces of meat were exported from San Giovanni, then one would expect the sample recovered to display a majorit++++ertain elements, probably those related to poor meat areas such as the skull and limb extremities. In this context, the absence of bones associated with primary cuts would indicate that these animals were likely selectively chosen and butchered at the site in preparation for export. Finally, if processing and curing of meat off the bone occurred at the site before export, one might expect the sample to display a more balanced

16 The Animal Bones

Fig. 1.4 Relative frequency of four skeletal categories of UNID pieces from medium-sized mammals Notes: Period 3A represented by sample from Midden 1; Period 3B represented by samples from Middens 5, 6, and 7. Samples sizes (n) given in legend.

Fig. 1.5 Relative frequency of four skeletal categories of UNID pieces from large-sized mammals Notes++Period 3A represented by sample from Midden 1; Period 3B represented by samples from Middens 5, 6, and 7. Samples sizes (n) given in legend.

representation of elements, since only the meat and not the associated bones would be exported. In addition, one might expect a greater accumulatio++f tools for skinning the animals and cutting the meat, as well as areas in which to dry and salt or smoke the meat.

9. Pathologies The incidence and prevalence of pathological conditions++n bones give information concerning the state of health and nutrition of the animals (Baker and Brothwell 1980). Any pathological

The Animal Bones 17

Fig. 1.6 Relative frequency by weight of four skeletal categories of UNID pieces from medium-sized mammals Notes+Period 3A represented by sample from Midden 1; Period 3B represented by samples from Middens 5, 6, and 7.

Fig. 1.7 Relative frequency by weight of four skeletal categories of UNID pieces from large-sized mammals Notes++eriod 3A represented by sample from Midden 1; Period 3B represented by samples from Middens 5, 6, and 7.

condition was recorded and the probable cause explained.+

C. R E S U L T S 1. General recovery and quantification The relative frequency of ID and UNID bone

counts among the three periods is shown in Fig. 1.3. Frequency values for the corresponding weights are also shown in Fig. 1.3. The results suggest a fairly consistent level of identification. The fact that the ID rate ranges from 13% in Period 3A to 19% in Period 1 indicates that in terms of actual numbers the sample was dominated by UNID pieces. ID weights, on the other hand, were more variable, ranging from 37% in

18 The Animal Bones

Fig. 1.8 Total number of bone pieces collected/m++f screened and unscreened portions of four middens

Fig. 1.9 NISP/m+++ screened and unscreened portions of four middens

Period 3A to 56% in Period 2, but the difference is not so striking as to invalidate comparisons among the periods. Although the samples are quite fragmentary, as the high incidence of UNID pieces shows, the degree of fragmentation appears to be uniform throughout. The relative frequency of UNID bone counts by skeletal category and size grouping is shown in Fig. 1.4 (medium-sized mammals) and Fig. 1.5 (large-sized mammals). This is expressed by weight of the UNID pieces and shown in Fig. 1.6 (medium-sized mammals) and Fig. 1.7 (large-sized mammals). In all of these figures the pattern is generally the same for all periods. Long-bone fragments predominate in both numbers and weight. The order among the remaining+categories fluctuates depending on the period, but each rarely exceeds 20% of the total. Vertebrae tend to be poorly represented in all periods.

Overall, the screened contexts produced a significantly+reater number of bone pieces and NISP per unit volume of soil than did the unscreened contexts. This is expressed as a ratio in Table 1.8.

2. Recovery and quantification in middens Figs. 1.8 and 1.9 depict the total number of pieces of bone collected +++++++++++++++++r the screened and unscreened portions in Middens 1, 4, 5, and 7. The numbers within the bars are the total number of bones (Fig. 1.8) and the NISP (Fig. 1.9) per unit volume of screened or unscreened soil from each midden.

TABLE 1.8 Screened and unscreened contexts, bone and NISP Ratio of no. of bones Ratio of NISP from screened context / from screened context / Midden unscreened context unscreened context

1

4 5 7

7.7/1 14.5/1 13.4/1 8.8/1

5.0/1 6.6/1 7.7/1 6.6/1

Careful excavation techniques, using screens, should limit biases inherent in recovery. The results of my sampling and recovery analyses indicate that screening is a highly effective and integral measure in the recovery of small bones, be they tiny unidentified fragments or elements from small or inconspicuous animals. However, it is also effective in the retrieval of identified bones from larger animals. It is likely that the greater number of bones recovered during screening relativ++o trench inspection methods lends itself readily to a proportionately greater number of both identified and unidentified bone fragments being recorded from screened contexts. Whateve++he case, the fact that screening was not employed in a systematic or ubiquitous man-

The Animal Bones 19

Midden

Midden

Fig. 1.10 NISP and UNID count in four middens

Fig. 1.11 NISP and UNID weights in four middens

ner is one uncontrollable bias which should be taken into consideration before a discussion of the represented taxa ensues. If we consider the care in excavating as noted by Steele (1983), it is unlikely that recovery biases have significantly or drastically skewed the relative frequencies of the domestic mammalian taxa, all of which are medium- to large-sized animals. In support, Barker's (1975) research concurs that although the numbers of bones recovered are certainly augmented when screening is undertaken, the relative frequencies of medium- and large-sized mammals (as recorded from their NISP values) are not significantly altered. The information in Table 1.8 further suggests that, in terms of total number of bones collected, Middens 4 and 5 are closely related. Similarly, Middens 1 and 7 are also more closely related than either is to Midden 4 or 5. Similar ratios among all middens occur, however, when NISP values are compared. The differences in the number of pieces collected may be explained in terms of the degree of fragmentation. Perhaps Middens 4 and 5 were subject to forces or activities that caused a greater degree of fragmentation among the bones, thus boosting the number of pieces to larger proportions than in Middens 1 and 7. Their deposits were more concentrated, thus more fragments were collected per unit volume of soil, and more fragmentary, tiny pieces were

collected from screened contexts. The similarities++mong the NISP ratios in Table 1.8 may be explained in terms of the capacities of the faunal analyst, and by the representation of identified bone elements and fragments. Certain elements and fragments are more easily identified, while some fragments can never be accurately identified to specific levels. It is likely that these factors would be constant regardless of the midden analysed++t is inferred, therefore, that there would be an equal chance of identifying fragments and element+++all four middens, whatever the method of recovery employed, since this is contingent on the incorporation of recognizable morphological characteristics, which allow each specimen to be accurately identified by the analyst. Thus, any sample containing all bones fragmented beyond recognition would not be able to include any NISP values. Fig. 1.10 displays the total count of NISP and total count of the number of unidentified bones recovered from the four middens. The number of unidentified pieces and fragments clearly outnumber++he total NISP. This is not uncommon; many faunal reports (including Steele 1983, on San Giovanni) calculate similarly low percentages+f the contribution of NISP to the total bone count. When, however, the weights of each category++re recorded and displayed (Fig. 1.11), it is evident that the total weight of all the NISP

20 The Animal Bones

Midden Fig. 1.12 Average weight/identified (NISP) and unidentified (UNID) bone from screened and unscreened contexts in four middens

Midden Fig. 1.13 NISP for large and small animal taxa from screened and unscreened contexts in four middens

contributes a larger portion of the overall weight of bone accumulated. Again this is common among faunal analyses. Identified bone specimens+are usually large or whole skeletal pieces with a greater weight than the often tiny and lightweight unidentified fragments. When the average weight per bone is recorded for identified and unidentified bone from both screened and unscreened portions, a consistent

pattern develops, for which there is no significan++ifference among middens. Fig. 1.12 shows that in all middens, on average, identified bones from unscreened contexts were the heaviest, followed++y identified bones from screened contexts++hen unidentified bones from unscreened contexts, and, finally, the lightest bones: unidentifie++ones from screened contexts. This pattern clearly shows that, typically, identified bones are

The Animal Bones 21 TABLE 1.9 Number and frequency of taphonomic agents on pig elements Period 2

Period 1

Period 3A*

Period 3B**

Agency

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

Carnivore chewed Rodent chewed Post-depositional etching Spiral break Exposure Break/cause unknown Fresh break Burned

17 0 41

35 0 84

56 2 110

40 1 79

31 0 53

51 0 87

357 14 868

39 2 95

1 4 18

2 8 37

11 14 81

8 10 58

5 3 36

8 5 59

45 68 603

5 7 66

2 1

4 2

14 3

10 2

3 0

5 0

106 23

12 3

Sample size

49

* Midden 1 only

139

61

914

** Middens 4, 5, and 7 only

larger and heavier than unidentified bones, which is a principle frequently dismissed as commonsensical+However, this pattern also ranks both NISP and UNID from screened contexts as lighter in weight than their contemporaries from unscreened+ontexts. Again, this asserts the efficacy of screening over visual trench inspection techniques+in obtaining tiny and inconspicuous bones and fragments. It has generally been suggested that screening+nables the archaeologist to recover a greater number of bones from smaller animals. The idea has been that tiny elements and fragments, which can easily go unnoticed during trench excavation,++ill be captured in screens. Fig. 1.13 depict+++e NISP distributions for small and large animals from screened and unscreened portions of the middens. Large animals are arbitrarily those species larger than a typical 'loaf of bread/ whereas small animals generally fall below this designation. Middens 4 and 5 exemplify the idea that screening is a necessary part of the recovery++f the smaller animals. About one-quarter to one-third of the soil in these middens was screened (see Table 1.3), and on average a much greater accumulation of NISP from smaller animal++as encountered. Since less than 10% of the soil was screened from Middens 1 and 7, however, it is likely that screening here would not produce a comparable tendency for the recovery of small animals. Nonetheless, screening did assist in the

recovery of smaller animals in Midden 7, and to a lesser extent in Midden 1, since the small animal NISP/screened volume values are about double what would be expected if screening had no effect on recovery. Finally, the sampling and recovery analyses performed on the sample of four midden deposits reveal similarities among the middens irrespectiv++++he actual taxa represented within them. The plots for Middens 1 and 7, depicted in Figs. 1.8-11, closely resemble one another. Similarly, the plots for Middens 4 and 5, depicted in Figs. 1.8-11, are generally alike. Whether these parallels+re due to correlations in the amount of soil screened within each midden (Middens 1 and 7: 25% screened), or to size differences among them (Middens 1 and 7 are the largest in terms of space and volume), or to functional differences among them, cannot be fully ascertained. It is likely that all the factors contributed in some degree to this separation. The fact that Middens 4 and 5 are contained within rooms, whereas Middens 1 and 7 were spread over larger areas with few or no confining limits or walls (see Fig. 1.2), suggests a spatial distinction between these two related groups. This pattern could very well have a cultural significance, in which case the taxa and element representations may be related to functional differences among the middens. The occupants may have preferred to dispose of rubbish in an abandoned room,

22 The Animal Bones TABLE 1.10 Number and frequency of taphonomic agents on mammalian ID and UNID elements from Midden 5

Pig

Sheep / goat

UNID medium mammal

Agency

#

%

#

%

#

Carnivore chewed Rodent chewed Post-depositional etching Spiral break Exposure Break /cause unknown Fresh break Burned

111 4 406

25 1 91

69 1 104

59 1 89

397 2 1343

9 58 366

2 13 82

12 5 58

10 4 50

50 9

11 2

12 13

10 11

Sample size

446

117

Cattle

UNID large mammal

UNID misc. mammals

#

%

#

%

#

%

26 0.2 88

23 1 42

52 2 95

53 155

33 97

66 372

17 99

535 6 1461

35 0.5 96

5 10 20

11 23 45

81 8 151

51 5 95

1 1 377

0.2 0.2 100

13 84

1 5

8 8

18 18

6 30

4 19

20

5

%

1526

inside the villa, which may explain why more rubbish was thrown into Middens 4 and 5. In turn, perhaps the occupants preferentially disposed of selective refuse in certain middens. However, arguing against the idea of functional differences characterizing the middens is the apparent homogeneity+n taxa and element content among them. All certainly contained domestic and butchery refuse that may be used to reconstruct the diet and economy of the site. Homogeneity is further suggested by the similarity among the survivorship++lots for pigs (Figs. 1.40-42) and caprines (Figs. 1.31-33) for each midden and period. Whateve++e case, the sampling and recovery analyses suggest that caution should be employed in comparing+he results of all the middens and periods. 3. Taphonomy The results of Assad's (1986) taphonomic analysis of the pig bones are given in Table 1.9. This is based on a sample of 49 bones from Period 1, 139 bones from Period 2, 61 bones from Midden 1 (here representing Period 3A), and 914 bones from Middens 4, 5, and 7 (here representing Perio++B). It is often suggested or assumed that broken bones in faunal samples are the result of cultura+++ivities such as butchering, marrow extraction++++one-grease processing (Bokonyi 1984; O'Connor 1982; Prummel 1975). Although most

44

160

377

of the San Giovanni bones are broken, no substantia++vidence exists to suggest this resulted solely from cultural activities. As shown in Table 1.9, the percentage distribution of these taphonomic variables+among the periods is very close, which led Assad (1986,83) to conclude that there is 'little differenc++n the overall frequencies of occurrence of the ... taphonomic categories examined' (among the periods). However, on closer inspection there are some differences to note. First, there appears to be a greater degree of post-depositional etching on the bon+++ecovered from the midden deposit when they are compared to those collected from other contexts. This is probably due to soil difference+-+the midden deposits are assumed to be richer in nutrients and with a more active or abundant flora. The results of the several soil composition tests (see Table 1.2) lend support to the chemical similarity++++++idden soils+. The greate++++++++++++++++++ebris, oarganics++nd floral activity in the middens might also attract more rodents. Although there are relatively++w examples of rodent-gnawed bones, the majority of these do derive from the middens. This would tend to support such a hypothesis, but may also be a factor of the increased sample sizes among the middens. The results of the taphonomic analysis of part of the ID and UNID portion from Midden 5, shown in Table 1.10, are generally similar to those from the study of the pig remains. The high incidence

The Animal Bones 23 of post-depositional etching suggests two points. First, that these agents do not discriminate among bones and will therefore affect all bones regardless++f size, shape, or animal from which they derived. Second, that the bones affected were buried for quite some time, since these agents primarily act in an underground medium. In order to obtain some understanding of the relative amount of time the bones were buried, the incidence of surface exposure was measured. The degree and intensity of exposure is a good measur++f the amount of time bone has been at the surface, subjected to the elements. Above-ground weathering often produces longitudinal breaks in the bone and tends to erode the bone rapidly (e.g., Behrensmeyer 1978; Lyman 1994). Some weatherin+++ccurs after burial, but it is slight when compared to that of bones exposed on the ground surface for extended periods of time. The amount of surface exposure on the pig remains ranges from 5% in Period 3A (i.e., Midde++++to 10% in Period 2 (see Table 1.9). These results lend support to the hypothesis that the faunal material was not exposed at the surface for an expansive period of time, but was quickly buried. The midden materials have the lowest exposure values, which probably indicates that rapid accumulation of debris and / or a sheltered environment in these areas protected many of the bones. Those deriving from non-midden area+++ould likely have been exposed for greater lengths of time and/or subjected to more intense conditions, such as rain and sunlight. Similarly low levels of exposure are noted for most of the ID and UNID sample studied from Midden 5 (see Table 1.10), with one exception. Cattle remains show a higher degree of exposure than any other taxon. Perhaps the relatively larger bones of cattle protected many of the smaller bones from other animals, and endured the brunt of surface exposure in the process.

a. Carnivores Damage to bone by carnivores can range from little to total destruction of elements and assemblages++++ong others, Binford 1981; Brain 1976 1981; Haynes 1980,1981,1982,1983; Lyman 1994; Marean and Spencer 1991; Payne and Munson

1985; Stallibrass 1990). Typically, greater destructio++ccurs at the ends of long bones, where cancellous+issue is concentrated (Plate 3), and among the smaller bones that are worth crunching, while survival is probably better for bones that are both large and strong, or too small and not worth the effort involved (Payne and Munson 1985). Bones also tend to be damaged to a higher degree when they are chewed on at carnivore denning locations++s opposed to retrieval or kill sites (Binford 1981; Haynes 1982). Finally, although dogs may uproot buried bones, the presence of carnivore marks generally indicates that the bones had been unburied for some length of time. The results of the taphonomic analysis of the pig remains (Table 1.9) as well as the ID and UNID sample from Midden 5 (Table 1.10) indicat+++high incidence of carnivore activity durin+++ll periods. This is especially concentrated in the middens, where over 25%, and often over 35%, of the bones collected have been gnawed. And these figures, while moderately impressive++urely underestimate the real frequency of gnawed bones, since many bones had probably been completely destroyed or at least highly fragmented+eyond recognition by carnivore activity. Stallibrass (1990) noted that the destructive capabilitie++++even a small dog on boiled juvenile pig bones were considerable enough to render most of them unidentifiable fragments, and as cooked bone may be even less attractive to carnivores+ompared to raw bone (with its marrow and bone-grease intact), one can imagine the potentiall++reat destructive power of dogs on uncooked+bone. The vast majority of the recovered faunal material from San Giovanni is highly fragmentary+and probably too fragmentary to have been caused by human agents alone. In fact, the relatively high occurrence of spiral breaks among the various taxa, a modification often assumed to relate to human breakage to extract marrow, may in fact often be caused by carnivores, since they, too, have been shown to be able to cause breaks in this manner. Clearly, carnivores were important agents in the destruction of the sample from San Giovanni, and their effects must be considered in any analysis of the recovered faunal remains. Two points, however, are puzzling and would tend to lessen the importance of carnivores to

24 The Animal Bones

Fig. 1.14 Frequency of carnivore gnaw marks on bones of various taxa from Midden 5

Fig. 1.15 Percentage of teeth expressed as a proportion of all teeth and postcranial bones (NISP2 values used)

this sample. First, while widespread effects of crushing, gnawing, and comminution of bones by carnivore teeth and jaws are apparent, relatively few elements or fragments showed evidence of surface corrosion damage as caused by digestion or partial digestion. Perhaps dogs were thorough digesters and/or were cautious in their choice of bones to avoid vomiting. Second, canine remain++re very infrequent throughout the site, which might suggest that few dogs were kept. Either these few dogs were quite destructive or, more likely, dogs were buried outside the villa and their carcasses not placed among the refuse accumulating in the middens. It is possible that dogs could have had fairly easy access to discarded material at San Giovanni if they were kept as pets, or otherwise allowed to wander freely through parts of the villa. Dog prints on tiles collected from Period 3B deposits

imply that they were at least free to roam around the villa during that time. The exact location of their dens cannot be determined, but it is probable that these were situated near the midden areas, perhaps in a corner of the abandoned hallways or rooms close to where refuse was to accumulate later or had been accumulating. In this way they would have unhindered access to discarded bones and no worry about transporting them any great distance. Dogs are not the only bone-chewing animals. Pigs, too, may consume any type of soft- and hardtissu+++ganic remains (Grigson 1982; Jones 1986) and are often overlooked as a taphonomic agent. In experimental work conducted by Greenfield (1988), bones of cattle, pigs, and sheep were fed to domestic pigs in a modern Serbian village. The pigs proved to be highly destructive agents and consumed over 90% of the sheep and pig bones,

The Animal Bones 25

Fig. 1.16 NISP frequencies of vertebrates by period

but less than 10% of cattle bones. They preferred 'the bones of smaller species and bones or bone parts that have a higher content of soft cancellous material' (Greenfield 1988,473). The abundance of pig remains at San Giovanni makes it therefore necessary to determine the role of pigs in the destruction of bone material. A sample of the gnawed bones was re-analysed for evidence of pig tooth marks on the surface, as well as for damage patterns similar to those observed by Greenfield (1988). No tooth marks of pigs were found; all of these exhibited pit and puncture marks characteristic of carnivore and not omnivore teeth. However, Greenfield (1988, 476) only noted+++++++++++++arks left on only afeiv bones (emphasis mine). Damage patterns did not appear to reflect those shown in Greenfield's experiment. Elements from large animals were extensively gnawed (see Fig. 1.14), while many of the pig and sheep/goat bones survived. While these observations do not totally discoun++e role of pigs in the destruction of the sample of bones recovered from San Giovanni, pigs do not appear to have been as important as dogs, and may not have been agents at all.

First, it is unlikely that pigs would have been allowed to rummage as freely as dogs around the villa, especially in the interior. Second, very few, if any, rooms that could be considered sties were identified. Thus, it appears that the majorit++++pigs, and probably all, were kept outsid++he villa complex. Finally, pigs do not seem to bother with, or dig up, old bones, as dogs do (Greenfield 1988, 475). Therefore, unless they were given immediate access to discarded bone material at this site, it seems unlikely that they could be important destructive agents. If they were given first access to discarded bone refuse and left unchecked, we might expect fewer bones of smaller animals to be recovered, and this is not the case. In order to test further for differences in preservation among the three periods, the degre+++++agmentation of the sample (much of which was probably caused by carnivore activity+++as also measured by the frequency of teeth (Fig. 1.15), using only the sample of pig, sheep/goats, and cattle remains. The high percentage++f teeth, many of which were isolated from the mandible or maxilla, indicates a high degree of fragmentation for all periods. Teeth

26+The Animal Bones TABLE 1.11 Numbers of mammal, amphibian, reptile, and fish bones (MSP) and minimum numbers of individuals (MNI[min]) by period MNI(min)

NISP PI 2 6

P2 3 10

PSA 20

P3B 11 98

2 1 1 1 1 1 12 -

P3B 544 1333 183 26 6677 75 16 7 52 7 78 64 5 2 3 2 2 5 41 7 30 4 29 6 18 3 10 79 72 7 152 15

7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -

30 5 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 6 -

49 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 -

241 3 2 1 4 1 10 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 17 2 12 3 18 4 10 1 2 47 45 2

-

2

-

2

840

1005

9114

20

63

85

477

-

2 2

-

14 4 10

-

1 1

-

3 1 2

Total reptiles Tortoise Lizard

1 1 -

2 2 -

-

14 13 1

1 1 -

1 1 -

_ -

3 2 1

Total fish

-

9

1

54

-

3

-

6

Taxon Cattle Sheep/Goat Sheep Goat Pig/Wild boar Equid Dog Cat Red deer Roe deer Lagomorph Hare Rabbit Wolf Brown bear Mole Shrew Bat Porcupine Dormice Garden dormouse Edible dormouse Hazel dormouse Vole Bank vole Savi's pine vole Northern water vole Black rat Mouse Wood mouse House mouse Miscellaneous smal++odents Human

PI 16 34 1 108 1 6 6 1 1 1 1 5 -

P2 59 159 5 411 119 35 3 13 2 9 9 1 2 2 2 17 17 5 3

PSA 59 205 23 23 612 8 5 1 8 1 16 16 1 1 -

Total mammals

178

Total amphibians Frog Toad

generally survive well because they are harder and relatively unpalatable to+++++++ayne and Munson 1985, 35), and so it is assumed that their higher incidence reflects increased or intensified carnivore activity. The values are fairly consis-

tent++is, therefore, suggested that there are no significan+differences in patterns of preservation amon+++riods. Thus, the three periods may be mor++++++++++pared without considering this factor.

The Animal Bones 27

Fig. 1.17 Relative frequency of principal domestic and wild species by period, based on NISP values Note: NISP sample sizes: Period 1 = 172; Period 2 = 812; Period 3A = 917; Period 3B = 8739.

Fig. 1.18. Relative frequency of principal domestic and wild species by period, based on MNI(min) values Notes: MNI (min) sample sizes: Period 1 = 19; Period 2 = 54; Period 3A = 78; Period 3B = 371.

In sum, the data suggest that taphonomic agents acted on the faunal materials recovered from all periods and contexts at San Giovanni. Most of the bones collected seem to have been sheltered from processes of elemental weathering

but not from carnivore activity. Carnivore damag+++as particularly widespread and destructive; dogs appear to have acted in fairly equal capacitie+++roughout all phases of occupation at the site. Pigs do not appear to be responsible for much

28 The Animal Bones destruction, if any at all. Finally, the vast majorit+++f bones, regardless of the context or period from which they were collected, underwent some degree of post-depositional etching, largely due to the action of plant roots and related organic acids, but as Assad (1986, 106) notes there was 'no visible patterning in the distribution of any modification or group of modifications for any particular element/

4. Cautionary notes Two points must be made before the data are analysed. First, an outstanding characteristic of the animal bones from San Giovanni is the great variation in sample sizes. Period 1 and Period 2 produced significantly fewer bone remains than Period 3, while the latter period is dominated by the great amount of bone recovered from the Period 3B deposits. Because of this disparity, any comparisons between these three periods can only be made with considerable caution. Generally++++s assumed that larger samples mor reliably represent reality, or at least they lend themselves more readily to unbiased statistical analyses. A second characteristic of the faunal material+++hat they derive from varied contexts. Although++ese materials may have undergone simila++ost-depositional processes, as outlined above, by no means does this circumstance imply that they were deposited under similar conditions or for similar reasons. The samples recovered from the middens have the greatest direct link to human activity, since they are assumed to contain discarde++efuse from a variety of activities involving++nimals and their products (i.e., principally wastes from meals or from animal-processing operations+++herefore, economic and dietary reconstruction+++sed on these samples are generally valid. The link between scattered bones recovered++rom non-midden deposits (such as those found from Periods 1 and 2) and the occupants of the site during those periods, however, is doubtful++resumably, the site occupants from Periods 1 and 2 did not reside among their own animal bone garbage. Aside from the occasional scrap neglecte++uring the cleaning of floors, or that which might have been disposed of in an untidy area, or that which was incorporated into the build-up

of a floor (i.e., Pl/F, P2/F), much of this was surely deposited after occupation ceased, either by humans or carnivores. For this reason, Period 1 faunal materials most probably indicate patterns of disposal from a time when that villa was in decay. Similarly, Period 2 faunal materials most probably indicate patterns of disposal during the later deterioration phase of that period. In fact the bulk of the materials recovered, excluding the midden deposits, derive from the destruction layers of each period (i.e., Pl/D, P2/D, P3A/D, and P3B/D). I suggest that nearly all non-midden materials accumulated over the relatively short intervals of time while the villa was in a state of decay. During these phases, tidiness may not have been a concern, and garbage could have been more easily disposed of in and around the villa, especially if it was only temporarily inhabited by squatters or vagrants. There was enough of a gap between settlement phases for squatting activity to occur between Period 1 and Period 2, and after Period 3B, but evidence for continuous occupation++f the villa between Period 2 and Period 3A, as well as between Period 3A and Period 3B, negates such activity at those times. Thus, while the faunal materials from Period 2 and Period 3A probably relate closely to those associated occupation+phases, the recovered remains from Perio 1 and Period 3B need not necessarily reflect the economic activities or diets of the occupants of those associated villas described in volume I.

5. Frequency of species The identification and quantification results shown in Fig. 1.16 reveal that, in terms of NISP values, mammals dominate over all other classes of vertebrates represented from the site during all periods. Frequency values are given in order to display trends and facilitate overall comparisons, regardless of the scale of operation suggested by total sample sizes, although these varied quite considerably (i.e., Period 1: n=195, P2: n=889, PSA: n=l,049, P3B: n=ll,711). Period 1 includes materia++om Pl/B, Pl/F, Pl/O, and Pl/D. Period 2 includes that from P2/B, P2/C, P2/F, P2/O, P2A/B, P2B/B, P2B/F, P2C/B, P2C/F and P2/D. Period 3A includes remains from P3/O, P3A/B, P3A/C, P3A/F and RF, P3A/O and P3A/D, as well as Middens 1 and 2. Finally, Period 3B

The Animal Bones 29

Fig 1.19. Variation in MSP, NISP2, MM, and MNI(min) frequencies for pigs, sheep/goats, and cattle Note++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++he no t eare show atha demarcate ostth n individual dyb them for each taxon can be better depicted.

Fig. 1.20 MNI(min) frequencies for cattle, sheep/goats, and pigs by period

includes material from P3B/B, P3B/C, P3B/F, P3B/O, P3B/RF, P3B/RR, Middens 3 to 8, and P3B/D. Remains recovered from all infill levels (i.e., PI/I, P2/I, P3A/I, P3/I) have not been used

in any of the analyses because there was a possibilit+++at they contained redeposited materials+of uncertain date and so might contaminate results.

30 The Anima++ones TABLE 1.12 Parts of the cattle skeletons by numbe++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ NISP Skeletal part

PI

P2

Horn core Cranium 1 Maxilla 2 5 Max. teeth Mandible 1 2 Mand. incisors 5 Mand. cheek teeth 3 Scapula 2 Humerus Proximal Distal 9 3 Radius 2 Proximal 5 2 Distal 3 3 Ulna 2 Proximal Distal 3 Pelvis 3 Femur Proximal 3 Distal 5 Tibia 2 Proximal 1 Distal 1 Astragalus 1 Calcaneus 3 1 Patella Metacarpal 2 3 Proximal 3 1 3 Distal Metatarsal 2 1 Proximal Distal Metapodial Proximal Distal 4 Carpal /Tarsal Phalanx 1 3 1 Phalanx 2 Phalanx 3 2 Atlas 1 2 Vertebrae Sacrum Note++++++++++++++nfused are notepiphyses counted.

MNI PSA 1 2 3 1 2 4 2 3 1 2 4 3 3 4 1 4 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 4 5 6 2 2 3 -

Table 1.11 breaks down the vertebrate classes represented in Fig. 1.16 (excluding birds) into more specific taxonomic categories, and displays the respective NISP and MNI(min). This informatio+++s been summarized in Figs. 1.17 and 1.18, which depict the relative frequencies for NISP

P3B 7 7 48 43 8 76 15 17 2 9 16 10 6 14 8 1 11 22 9 9 22 6 13 13 15 1 29 16 12 34 15 14 11 9 8 60 46 20 22 3

PI 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 -

P2 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -

PSA 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 -

P3B 3 3 5 6 3 9 5 6 1 5 8 8 4 5 5 1 3 5 4 5 8 3 6 10 9 1 11 10 7 10 9 10 5 5 2 8 6 4 3 1

and MNI(min) values for three general groups: (1) the three principal domesticates (pig, sheep/goat, cattle), (2) other domesticates (dogs, cats, equids), and (3) the principal wild mammals that may have been hunted or otherwise exploited by the occupants (deer, lagomorphs, bears, dormice).

The Animal Bones 31 TABLE 1.13 Ratios of ageable mandibles: fusion points of long-bones for Period 3B cattle Mandible stage : Fusion point

Approximate age

Mandible stage

Fusion point

3.5 years

3 years). Comparison+++ere made on two levels: (1) assuming preservation conditions and recovery techniques were relatively similar for all bones and during all periods; and (2) compensating for potential increased destruction of certain elements by carnivore++++++ng the multiplication factors from Table 1.21. The results, presented in Table 1.23, seem to support the hypothesis that differential depositio++++++++p/goat carcasses took place at the site, at least during Period 3B. Both 'young' and 'old' mandibles clearly outnumber their respective++ng-bone affiliates, even when correction factors are implemented to compensate for potentia+++creased destruction of long-bones over mandibles. This difference is even more dramatic

44 The Animal Bones TABLE 1.24 Sheep / goat wear stages of individual teeth (following Grant 1982) Wear stage

Wear stage Tooth Period dp4

P4

M!

PI P2 PSA P3B

a b

c d

1 3

2

1

PI P2 P3A P3B PI P2 P3A P3B

f g h j k 1m n o e++++++++++++++++++++ 2 1 2 3 3 11 15 6 4 2 3 2 1

Tooth Period

a b

M2

1

PI P2 PSA P3B

4

Mi /2 PI P2 PSA P3B

1 1 1 2 1 1 7 9 9 12 4 4 5

M3

1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 1 6 5 3 4 14 32 9 4 5 10 8 1

c d

e

f

g h j k

1m n o

1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 3 3 4 1 1 1 4 10 7 16 14 33 11 2 2 4 1 1 1

1

1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 1 3 1 2 11 14 8 10 9 15 8 1 1

PI P2 PSA P3B

+++++Both teeth in mandibles and isolated teeth are included. All unerupted teeth as well as unworn teeth are recorded as 'a.' TABLE 1.25 Sheep / goat wear stages of individual teeth (following Payne 1973, 1987) Wear stage 0

Tooth Period PI dp4 P2 PSA P3B P4

Mj

M2

M1/2

M3

1 2 3 4+++++5

7

1 2

1

2

8

9

1 1

2 1

1

PI P2 PSA P3B

11

2 5

3 1 2 2

2 2 9

1 3 3 46

4

1 1 1 2 1 6 1 3 6 11 8 15

2 2 45

2

1

2 1

5

PI P2 PSA P3B

1

1 3

1

PI P2 PSA P3B

5

3

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 2 1 1 1 2 1 + + + 5 7 3 2 2++++++1 1 2

1

2 8

3

PI P2 PSA P3B

PI P2 PSA P3B

6

1 1 1 1 15

1 3 4

2

5

2 6 14

2

1 1 1 4

1 1

1 2 2

1 1

1 2

2 2 10

1

3

1 1 2 1 1 1 9 10 5 2

1

2

1 1 2 11

1 2 20

1 3

1

1

Notes: Both teeth in mandibles and isolated teeth are included. All unerupted teeth as well as unworn teeth are recorded as '0.'

The Animal Bones 45 TABLE 1.26 Developmental and survivorship statistics for sheep / goats using NISP, MNI(max), and MNI(min) values (based on 8-stage developmental sequence outlined in Table 1.6 above) Developmental stage 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Total

Period 1 (93%) NISP % surviving MNI(max) % surviving MNI(min) % surviving

0 100 0 100 0 100

1 92.3 1 90.0 1 83.3

4 61.5 2 70.0 1 66.7

3 38.5 2 50.0 1 50.0

3 15.8 3 20.0 1 33.3

1 7.7 1 10.0 1 16.7

1 0.0 1 0.0 1 0.0

0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

13

Period 2 (79%) NISP % surviving MNI(max) % surviving MNI(min) % surviving

0 100 0 100 0 100

2 95.1 1 94.7 1 90.0

11 68.3 4 73.7 2 70.0

0 68.3 0 73.7 0 70.0

12 39.0 6 42.1 3 40.0

5 26.8 2 31.6 1 30.0

8 7.3 4 10.5 2 10.0

3 0.0 2 0.0 1 0.0

41

Period 3A (94%) NISP % surviving MNI(max) % surviving MNI(min) % surviving

0 100 0 100 0 100

8 87.3 5 81.5 3 85.0

0 87.3 0 81.5 0 85.0

10 71.4 5 63.0 5 60.0

12 52.3 3 51.9 3 45.0

20 20.6 7 25.9 4 25.0

10 4.8 4 14.8 4 5.0

3 0.0 3 0.0 1 0.0

63

46 87.7 21 83.3 14 82.7

48 76.1 22 68.7 12 70.4

44 65.5 19 56.0 13 57.1

106 39.9 27 38.0 20 36.7

81 20.3 26 20.7 19 17.3

53 7.5 16 10.0 9 8.2

31 0.0 15 0.0 8 0.0

414

Period 3B (82%) NISP % surviving MNI(max) % surviving MNI(min) % surviving

5 98.8 4 97.3 3 96.9

10 6

19 10

27 20

150 98

Not++++++++++++++++++++++++++ld values in parentheses indicate percentage of total sample of teeth that dan tha wer tuse could ednthi i s be analysis.

if all teeth could be used, since the sample of mandibles used clearly underestimates the actua++umber of ageable specimens. If all teeth were used and the results still compared to+orrecte+++ng-bone MNI values, ratios of 'young' mandibles: 'young' long-bones would be ca. 3:1, and those of 'old' mandibles: 'old' long-bones ca. 5:1. Thus, regardless of their age, many more sheep / goat heads, or at least mandibles, appear to have been discarded among the rubbish in the Period 3B deposits, while their corresponding long-bones had been removed from the site.

As a control the MNI value for mandibles that had not reached stage 6 of the developmental+++heme was compared with MNI val ue++++++he unfused equivalents of the fused 'old' long-bones used in the above calculations (i.e.,++++++++++++++++++++++++ fused distal radius, un fused proximal ulna, un fused proxima++emur, and un fused proximal tibia). All of these values should record the minimum number+f sheep/goats under ca. three years. These results, too, are heavily skewed in favour of mandibles. This skewing might possibly suggest

46 The Animal Bones TABLE 1.27 Sheep / goat kill-off pattern deduced from both single teeth (dp4/P++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ using system suggested by Payne (1973) % killed within age range

Cumulative % killed

Approximate age

4d P 4 4P 4

50.0% 50.0%

50.0%

2 years

0-2 years >2 years 2-3 years 3-5 years 6-10 years >10 years

4dp 4 9+++++++ M 3 (7 aged)

30.8% 69.2% 19.8% 29.6% 9.9% 9.9%

30.8%

2 years

0-2 years >2 years

5dp 4 8P 4

38.5% 61.5%

38.5%

2 years

0-2 years > 2 years 2-3 years 3-5 years 6-10 years >10 years

5dp 4 14++++++++ M 3 (11 aged)

26.3% 73.7% 13.4% 46.9% 13.4%

26.3%

2 years

0-2 years >2 years

62dp 4 55++4

53.0% 47.0%

53.0%

2 years

0-2 years >2 years 2-3 years 3-5 years 6-10 years >10 years

62dp 4 94+++++++++++ 3 (78 aged)

39.7% 60.3% 10.8% 30.2% 15.5% 3.8%

39.7%

2 years

Period

Age ranges

Tooth

P2

0-2 years >2 years

PSA

P3B

Wear stage

2-4 5-10 11G >11G

2-4 5-10 11G >11G

2-4 5-10 11G >11G

50.6% 80.2% 90.1% 100.0%

39.7% 86.6% 100.0%

50.5% 80.7% 96.2% 100.0%

3 years 5 years 10 years >10 years

3 years 5 years 10 years >10 years

3 years 5 years 10 years >10 years

Note: Unwor++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 4s are included and wear stages follow those of Payne (1973).

that taphonomic factors may have acted exclusively++++he destruction of long-bones. It is conceivable that full sheep / goat carcasses were originally deposited but that taphonomic conditions+strongly supported the preservation of mandibles while simultaneously destroying the majority of long-bones. If so, this destruction appears to have acted in an extraordinary manner, in which presumably more resistant, larger, and durable fused long-bones were especially attacked, while relatively more of their unfused affiliates survived. But this is most improbable. This exclusively taphonomic scenario is unlikely++erhaps the best explanation of the sheep / goat body part pattern observed in Period 3B involves a combination of differential deposition++nd differential destruction. I suggest that at least some partial carcasses of sheep/goats,

in many cases just the skulls, were disposed of in the Period 3B middens at San Giovanni. Taphonomic agents acted to destroy many of the long-bones from the full carcasses disposed of, while relatively more mandibles survived, due to their durability and to the inflated numbers present as a result of differential disposal.

(3) Age The wear stages according to the systems devise++++Grant (1982) and Payne (1973,1987) for individual mandibula+++++++++++++++++++ 4s, P4s, and molars are given in Tables 1.24 and 1.25 respectively, while Table 1.26 records the NISP and MNI values for the mandibles and isolated mandibular teeth assigne++o my eight-stage system. Survivorship statistics, as based on the wear stages of Payne (1973, 1987), are given in Table

The Animal Bones 47

P1:NISP P2:NISP PSA: NISP P3B:NISP

Developmental stage Fig. 1.26 Survivorship of sheep/goats based on NISP counts

PI: MM P2:MNI P3A:MNI P3B:MNI

Developmental stage Fig. 1.27 Survivorship of sheep/goats based on MNI counts

1.27. Period 1 has not been included because of the small sample size. There is variation depending+++++++++++++++++++++++++whether P 4 or M3 is taken as the indicato++++individuals older than two years. I have chosen to use the++++++++++++++++++++++ 3 values as the better indicato+++++dividuals over two years and subsequently++vided this into age brackets as based on+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 3 wear states. The results indicate that in Periods 2, 3 A, and 3B sheep / goats were killed (or died) at all ages, but very few survived beyon+++n years; generally over 80% were killed before they had reached five years. The statis-

tic++uggest that relatively more of the younger sheep/goats (i.e., 1.25 years

dp4 P4

0-1.25 years >1.25 years 0-1.75 years >1.75 years

PI

From Table 1.41 it is apparent that pigs were being killed, or died, at all wear stages. However++ery few of these teeth within each cate-

gory++re extensively worn. This would suggest that most pigs did not reach elderly ages. Mean wear stages for each tooth are as follows:+++++ 4 wear stage e and f+++++++++++++++++++++ 4 - b and c;Ml-e and f; M2 - c and d+++++++++++++++++++++++++ 3 - b and c. Although exact chronological+ages are difficult to determine, these data suggest that most of the pigs died around two years of age. In addition, there is no bimodality to the pattern that might suggest a seasonal cull. Apparently, pigs were killed at all ages and durin+++ll seasons. Table 1.42 considers the sequence of eruption for pigs' teeth and groups these according to the deciduous and permanent premolars and incisors.+The approximate age for the replacement of the deciduous tooth by the permanent tooth

64 The Animal Bones

Fig. 1.34 Survivorship of pigs based on NISP counts

Fig. 1.35 Survivorship of pigs based on MNI counts

is given as a rough dividing line. Although frequencies++ry, the pattern is generally the same - the majority of the pigs died after 1.25 years, with roughly about 60% surviving beyond 1.75 years. This supports the claim that the bulk of pigs survived at least to middle age. The information in Table 1.41 supports that of Table 1.42. It shows that pigs were killed at all stages of life, from birth through adulthood, but not in equal numbers at each stage. It appears that the majority of the sample was killed during+evelopmental stages 5 through 8, but e+spe-

cially+n stages 5 and 6, where anywhere from one-third to one-half of the deaths occurred, depending++n the period. Steele (1983, 80) observe a similar pattern. He states that 'animals killed at this time were reaching their point of skeletal maturation' (ibid.). Furthermore, 'animals killed before these stages were killed before full body size had been attained, and animals killed (after stage 8) had long since ceased to gain in most body dimensions' (ibid.). The survivorship plots, Figs. 1.34-36, mimic the information presented in Table 1.41. These

The Animal Bones 65

Fig. 1.36 Survivorship of pigs based on MNI(min) counts

curves plot the relative percentage of the total sample of pigs that survived through time. Fig. 1.34 uses the NISP derived percentages, Fig. 1.35 uses MNI(max) derived percentages, and Fig. 1.36 uses MNI(min) derived percentages. If most of the pigs died, or were killed, very early in life, then the plotted lines would drop down the graph rapidly. On the other hand, if animals were allowed to reach maturity before they were killed, then these plotted lines would parallel at, or very near, the 100% line until stages 8 and 9 were reached, at which point they would drop rapidly (Steele 1983, 80). Neither of these idealize++cenarios is depicted in the figures. Rather, it appears that pigs were killed during all stages of life. The largest portion died during developmenta+stages 5 and 7, where the graphs have the steepest downward slope. The comparison of these survivorship curves and the statistics presented in Table 1.41 suggests that there is a slight difference in survivorship between the periods represented. Period 3B appear+++contain a larger percentage of pigs that survived to later developmental stages than in other periods. The indication from a visual inspectio++f these plots is that relatively more older pigs were being slaughtered during Period 3B than during the earlier periods. However, when the MNI(min) totals are amalgamated into two categories, 'young' pigs (Stages 1-5) and 'old' pigs

(Stages 6-9), and the periods compared, a++++++ of 2.79 (p=0.05) denotes that there is no significant difference in survivorship of pigs among the periods+Thus, despite visual indication suggesting the contrary, statistical tests support the hypothesis++hat slaughtering practices did not chang. significantly among periods, at least in terms of the ages of pigs at death. The bone-fusion data for pigs are presented in Table 1.43. The results are not of much help for Periods 1, 2, and 3A because sample sizes are too small. The Period 3B data, however, generally support the results of the dental analyses. They suggest that anywhere from 28% to 71% of the pigs had died before ca. one year as based on the frequencies of unfused early fusing epiphyse++i.e., distal humerus, proximal radius, pelvis acetabulum, and phalanx 2). Between 52% and 91% of the pigs did not survive to ca. two years of age as based on the frequencies of unfused epiphyses that normally fused in the 2-2.5 year bracket (i.e., distal tibia, calcaneus, distal metapodials)++inally, between 87% and 100% of the pigs did not survive to ca. three years, as based on the frequencies of unfused late-fusing epiphyses (i.e., proximal humerus, distal radius, proximal ulna, proximal and distal femur, and proximal tibia). If these values are averaged, then the age profile would be as follows: 50% of the population would be killed during their first year, 72% would

66 The Animal Bones TABLE 1.43 Pig bone-fusion data Period 2

Period 1

Period 3B

Period 3A

Skeletal part

#Fus

#Un

#Fus

#Un

#Fus

#Un

#Fus

Vertebra Scapula distal Humerus proximal Humerus distal Radius proximal Radius distal Ulna proximal Pelvis acetabulum Femur proximal Femur distal Tibia proximal Tibia distal Fibula Calcaneus Metacarpal distal Metatarsal distal Metapodial distal Phalanx 1 Phalanx 2 Phalanx 3

1 1 2 1 1 -

2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 -

2 1 1 1 1 5 2 1 1 1

3 4 4 1 4 2 2 4 2 1 1 4 7 1 4 1 -

5 1 3 4 1 1 1 2 1 2

2 10 1 4 2 2 1 4 2 6 12 11 1 3 4 -

2 36 1 20 11 2 18 2 12 3 22 7 14 10 8

% Fus 64 29 46 0 10 72 0 13 0 48 0 10 21 9 0 33 67

#Un 7 20 7 48 13 13 19 7 11 13 10 13 21 28 84 68 14 28 5 -

%Un 36 71 54 100 90 28 100 87 100 52 100 90 79 91 100 67 33

Notes: Fus = fused; Un = unfused. Fused and fusing epiphyses are amalgamated. Only unfused diaphyses, not epiphyses, are counted.

hav++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++two years,-and-95%+would have been killed before they had reached+three years of age, while 6% of++++++rd+would+++ain ages older than three years. Although these figures suggest that relatively++ore younger pigs (i.e., 10.

The evidence of the maxillary canines is less conclusive. Males predominate in Periods 2 and 3A, but the ratio is fairly equal in Period 3B. Male maxillary canines are not as dense as their mandibular counterparts, and it is possible that many did not preserve. Figs. 1.37-42 display the frequencies of male and+emale mandibular and maxillary canines re-

The Animal Bones 67

Fig. 1.37 Pig: percentages o +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ per developmental stage and sex in Period 2

Fig. 1.38 Pig: percentages of mandibular f mandibular canines canine per developmental stage and sex in Period 3A

Developmental stage

Fig. 1.39 Pig: percentages of mandibular canines per developmental stage and sex in Period 3B

spectively for the various developmental stages, for Periods 1, 3A, and 3B. Although sample sizes vary, and that of Period 2 is small, the data show that generally both males and females were killed at all ages (following eruption of the canine at Stage 4), young and old. They also suggest, however++hat there is a difference in the mean age at which male and female pigs were slaughtered. In all periods and phases males were killed at

younger ages than females, and this trend is eviden++or both mandibular and maxillary canine teeth. There is slight variation in the pattern for each period, however. The mean for female mandibular+canines in Period 2 is between Stages 7 and 8, but this appears to decrease in Period 3A to between Stages 6 and 7, and to Stage 7 in Period 3B. A decline in mean age is also evident in the analysis of the female maxillary canines, accord-

68 The Animal Bones

Fig. 1.40 Pig: percentages of maxillary canines per developmental stage and sex in Period 2

Fig. 1.41 Pig: percentages of maxillary canines per developmental stage and sex in Period 3A

Fig. 1.42 Pig: percentages of maxillary canines per developmental stage and sex in Period 3B

ing to which average values decrease from Stage III/IV in Period 2 to Stage III for both Period 3A and Period 3B. This might suggest a change in pig husbandry between Periods 2 and 3. The data for male pigs also show a declining pattern in mean canine age from Period 2 to Period 3, but this is not as apparent as in the females+++ean rnandibular age falls from between Stages 6 and 7 in Period 2 to Stage 6 in both Period 3A and Period 3B, but mean maxillary age remains fairly central at Stage II throughout all these periods.

(6) Pathologies

Only a few pathological signs were visible in the analysis of the pig remains. As the majority of the sample was composed of dental elements, it was not surprising to find pathological conditions++oncentrated here. Examples included on. pig mandible from Pl/O that showed substantial tooth crowding in the area of++++++++++++ 3-M2. Another pig mandible, this time from P3B/D levels, also showed marked dental crowding in the C-M2 area. The condition was severe enough to cause P4+++++wist in a buccal direction (Plate 6). Fi-

+++++niml Bones.+++ TABLE 1.45 Parts of the equid skeleton by numb+++++++++++++++++++++++++ and minimum number of individuals (MNI) by period NISP2 Skeletal part

PI

Cranium Maxilla Max. teeth Mandible Mand. incisors Mand. cheek teeth Scapula Humerus Proximal Distal Radius Proximal Distal Ulna Proximal Distal Pelvis Femur Proximal Distal Tibia Proximal Distal Astragalus Calcaneus Metacarpal Proximal Distal Metatarsal Proximal Distal Metapodial Proximal Distal Carpal /Tar sal Phalanx 1 Phalanx 2 Phalanx-3 Atlas Vertebrae

+

+ + + +

1 +

+

+

+ +

+ -

+

_ -

+

P2 1 1 7 4 11 28 2 + +

+ 3 1 1 1 1

+

1 ^ +

+ _

1 3 j

+

1

-

+ +

+ + +

+ + + + + + +

+ + +

+ + 4 3 2 6 6 1 4 2 3 3 5 1 2 1 37

PSA 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -

MNI P3B

PI

P2

PSA

P3B

4 29 1 3 10 3 6 2 1 1 4 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 3 3 3 2 3 1 -

+ _+ +

1 ^ 2 2 3 5 2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -

+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ + 1

+

-

+

+ + + +

+ +

+ -

+

+

+ + -

+ +

+ + + + +

+ +

+ +

+

_

+

+

+

+ + 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

+

1 2 1 1

+

+

2 2 1 3 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 | 1 2

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

are not counted. Note: Unfused epiphys+++++++++++++.

nally, a maxillary canine of a sow from Midden 4 showed signs of hypoplasia. The only abnormality found on the post++.o+++++++nes was a healed fracture at the proximal end of a second metatarsal recovered from P3B/D deposits. These data suggest two points. First, in gen-

++++.e San Giovanni pigs were in good health, although the incident of hypoplasia noted above suggests at least one occurrence of stress or mal+++++++++cond, the evidence for dental crowd+++++uld suggest that domestic pigs were kept, since this is a condition characteristic of the domesticatio+++++++,

70 The Animal Bones TABLE 1.46 Approximate ages of equids, based on dentition and fusion data Period

Element

Criteria

Approx. age

PI

M3

Well worn

>10 years

P2

Metacarpal 2, phalanx 1 Deciduous dentition Mlr M2 MI+++.., M Mj o+++.2

Unfused epiphyses 2 sets of mandibular dis and dp++++ ++.erupte ++..54 ..2+++++++,,,, + Mi:H=39.4+++++++++++++++++. H=29.0

4-5 years

P3B

P2

H=47.8 P2:H=49.8+++++.+++ H=30.8

6 years 8-9 years 12 years

p2 / p 3 P2

+++++.

6-8 years 10 years 14 years

Note: H =crown height as measured by Levine (1982)

7. Other domesticated animals

a. Equids (1) Identification Eighteen specimens of equid could be definitely identified as horse on the basis of the great length of the cheek teeth and the distinctive pattern of enamel folds on these teeth. One of these horses came from Period 1, seven from Period 2, and ten from Period 3B. Despite frequent references to donkeys and mules in classical agricultural writings, no trace of either could be found at San Giovanni. Although their sizes varied, morpho+++++++..ll metapodials recovered were more similar to those of horse than donkey. The remain+++.lements could not be distinguished with cer+++++.nd are simply termed 'equid/ However, the absence of any donkey bones among those that could be identified to species suggests that many, if not all, of these 'equid' bones derive from horses. (2) Body parts The distribution of the various equid body parts by period is listed in Table 1.45. The relatively great number of equid bones from Period 2 de+++++.s quite evident, as is the predominance of teeth in all periods. The distribution of equid elements in Period 2 warrants separate analysis. Here, the presence of all parts of the equid skeleton, including ver-

++++++uggests that this represents a burial, or at least disposal, of a minimum of two complete horses. The distribution of equid body parts from the other periods is skewed towards dental elements and limb extremities like the metapodials, astra+++++.arpals/tar sals, and phalanges. The pat+++++.wever, is not as dramatic as that exhibited for the teeth of pigs and sheep / goats. Rather, as in the case of cattle, the equid post-cranial bones are slightly better represented than the teeth. This is probably because of an increased chance of survival of these elements, facilitated by their larger size and generally older age, relative to the bones of the smaller animals. In any case, the fact that various parts of equid skeletons are present in Periods 1, 3A, and 3B suggests that these re++++++erive from different individuals, rather than from a few buried skeletons, as in Period 2. In addition, only 5% of the equid bones from Period 3B levels came from any of the middens.

(3) Age A breakdown of ages of equids from each pe+++...s listed in Table 1.46. The eruption, wear sequence, and crown height of the mandibular and maxillary teeth provided most of the spe++++,,,formation. Mature equids predominate, the majority of which are older than eight to nine years. The only young individuals present are two from Period 2 that are less than two years old, on the basis of the deciduous dentition. One

The Animal Bones 71 of these is probably less than one year old, since there is very little wear on the teeth. Fusion data are not much help, since relatively few long-bones were recovered. Generally, all epiphyses of long-bones were fused, which in++++++.n age older than four to five years. ..he only unfused elements were a distal metacarpal 2 and a proximal phalanx 1, both from Period 2. Since these elements fuse in the first year, they suggest the presence of at least one young foal in these levels. (4) Size Individual measurements of equid teeth and bones are listed in appendix 1; withers heights (in both cm and converted to hands), as calcu+6+++.sing the coefficients developed by Vitt (1952), are given in Table 1.47. Samples are too small to allow effective comparisons among pe++++++ut when all measurements are pooled it is apparent that there is a great deal of size variation. Equid withers heights in this sample range from