The Education of Children in Geographically Remote Regions Through Distance Education [1 ed.] 9781617354557, 9781617354533

Citation preview

Lopes O’Donoghue O’Neill

• De nitions of key terms used regarding distance education; • An overview of different contexts within which distance education is provided internationally; • A literature review on theories of distance education, associated pedagogical issues, the use of technology, issues faced by distance education teachers, and issues faced by the parents of geographically isolated students; • An account of the role distance education has played in providing an education for many of Australia’s geographically isolated students; • An account of the establishment of the Schools of Isolated and Distance Education (SIDE) in Western Australia; • The organizational structure and functions of SIDE, the functions performed by its teachers, and the role of the home supervisors; and • An exposition on the current issues for key stakeholders at SIDE; The book also outlines a variety of implications for schools like SIDE which operate across the world.

THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN IN GEOGRAPHICALLY REMOTE REGIONS THROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATION

Each year several books are published on distance education. Many of these are prescriptive texts, advocating “best practice” models with regard to distance education (online/ exible/dual mode/blended learning) programs overall, or speci c aspects of distance education such as de nitions of the term distance education. Such valuable works need to be complemented by comprehensive explorations of this incredibly diverse yet little known aspect of education, especially in the case of primary and secondary school students in countries such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the USA, and South Africa. This book is one response to the need which exists. It provides

THE

EDUCATION OF CHILDREN IN GEOGRAPHICALLY REMOTE REGIONS THROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATION

Perspectives and Lessons from Australia

Elaine Lopes, Tom O’Donoghue, and Marnie O’Neill

IAP—INFORMATION AGE PUBLISHING P.O. BOX 79049 CHARLOTTE, NC 28271-7047 WWW.INFOAGEPUB.COM

Safety Area: All Text, Logos & Barcode should remain inside the Pink Dotted

Bleed Area: All Backgrounds should extend to, but not past, the Blue Dotted

The Education of Children in Geographically Remote Regions through Distance Education: Perspectives and Lessons from Australia

The Education of Children in Geographically Remote Regions through Distance Education: Perspectives and Lessons from Australia

Elaine Lopes, Tom O’Donoghue and Marnie O’Neill Graduate School of Education The University of Western Australia

INFORMATION AGE PUBLISHING, INC. Charlotte, NC • www.infoagepub.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lopes, Elaine. The education of children in geographically remote regions through distance education : perspectives and lessons from Australia / Elaine Lopes, Tom O’Donoghue, and Marnie O’Neill. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-61735-453-3 (pbk.) -- ISBN 978-1-61735-454-0 (hardcover) -ISBN 978-1-61735-455-7 (e-book) 1. Distance education--Australia. 2. Education, Rural--Australia. I. O’Donoghue, T. A. (Tom A.), 1953- II. O’Neill, Marnie H. III. Title. LC5808.A8L67 2011 371.350994--dc22 2011012501

Copyright © 2011 Information Age Publishing Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America

CONTENTS

1.

Introduction ................................................................................... 1

2.

Context ..........................................................................................15

3.

Literature Review ..........................................................................41

4.

Background of the Schools of Isolated and Distance Education ........................................................................73

5.

Functions of the Schools of Isolated and Distance Education ......................................................................107

6.

Issues ...........................................................................................143

7.

Summary, Discussion and Conclusion.........................................165 References ...................................................................................185 Index............................................................................................215 v

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION Australia is a vast, sparsely populated land and from an early date this created problems in terms of providing educational facilities. As part of the solution, the nation has had a long tradition of using distance education methods to provide an education for its isolated primary and secondary school students. Right up to the present, each state in the nation has continued to develop its distance education program to suit its particular circumstances. However, despite such efforts by successive governments, concerns remain. Western Australia, perhaps more than any other state, epitomizes the problems inherent in having a large land area with a highly urbanized population and a small but scattered rural one. In the 2006 census the state had an estimated population of 1.96 million people living in an area of 2,532,400 square kilometers, approximately one third of Australia’s total land area, with 1.45 million (74%) living in the capital city, Perth (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009). By 2008, the population had risen again, driven by a resources boom; in the 12 months to March 2008 Western Australia experienced the highest rate of growth of any state, at 2.6%. The population residing outside the Perth metropolitan area, while small, is widely The Education of Children in Geographically Remote Regions through Distance Education: Perspectives and Lessons from Australia, pages 1–14 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

1

2 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

scattered. It is with the proportion of this population, living primarily in remote regions, that Western Australia’s Schools of Isolated and Distance Education (SIDE) are principally concerned. Western Australia established a Correspondence School in 1918 for students living in remote locations. The unique geographical characteristics of the state had an impact on the development of that school, as had particular individuals such as the school’s first Principal, who served for 33 years (Calzoni, 1991). The policies of the state’s Education Department also influenced the particular educational focus of the school and continue to do so. A major development was the establishment of SIDE in 1995. Since then, the staff at SIDE has investigated and developed ways of providing students with innovative educational materials in an effort to ensure that the best possible services are provided. Also, until very recently, SIDE has been the sole provider of distance education materials for isolated primary and secondary school students in Western Australia. Despite its innovative nature, very little research has been conducted on SIDE. The research project reported in this book is one contribution to rectifying the deficit. It had three main aims. The first was to develop an understanding of the background to SIDE. This was deemed important, not just because such a history is interesting in its own right, but also because the past can impact on the present and, as a result, needs to be considered when dealing with contemporary issues (Aldrich, 1996). Secondly, the research project sought to develop an understanding of the functions of SIDE as manifested at its central campus. In this, the focus was mainly on the teachers, who provide educational programs for a diverse client base in various learning environments. The rationale for pursuing such an aim arose out of a recognition that it was likely, as in many educational organizations, that the teachers at SIDE often perform tasks in their work which extend well beyond the functions laid down in “job descriptions,” whilst also realizing that many expected functions might not be performed for a variety of reasons (Brennan, 2000). It was also recognized that it is important for policy makers to have an understanding of the reality of such day-to-day operations of an institution like SIDE and the roles that the teachers carry out, so that informed decisions can be made relating to the actual nature of work performed. The third aim of the research was to develop an understanding of the issues which present themselves for the teachers working at the main campus of SIDE in providing an education for their students. This aim acknowledged that these issues play a large part in guiding teachers’ actions, and that any proposals aimed at improving the work of an organization like SIDE are unlikely to be successful unless teacher perspectives are taken into account. The remainder of this introductory chapter presents an overview of the book. First, it establishes some definitions regarding key terms used. Sec-

INTRODUCTION • 3

ondly, a brief overview of the context is presented. This is followed by a synopsis of the literature pertaining to distance education. Then, an outline of the research approach adopted is presented. Finally, an overview of the structure of the book is outlined. All of these areas are dealt with at a general level in this chapter, but are discussed in greater depth in later chapters.

DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS From the outset, it is necessary to clarify key terms used throughout this book. This is because some of them, such as “distance education,” are understood by various people to mean various things. To illustrate this point, it is helpful to recall Keegan’s statement that “distance education” is “characterized by confusion over terminology and by lack of precision” (1986, p. 17) on what areas of education are being discussed and what areas are being excluded. Five terms in all are defined: “conventional education,” “correspondence education,” “distance education,” “rural and remote,” and “isolation.” 1.

2.

3.

Conventional Education: Kaye and Rumble (1979) define conventional education as “instruction in a school, college or university setting, where teacher and students are physically present at the same time at the same place” (p. 22). Also, it is often referred to as face-to-face learning. It is the form of education that the majority of students experience in most schooling systems. Correspondence Education: The term correspondence education is often seen as being synonymous with distance education. However, there are important differences between the two. As used in this book, correspondence education refers to the provision of education through the use of printed materials only. Distance Education: Distance education “denotes the forms of study not led by teachers present in class-rooms, but supported by tutors and an organization at a distance from the students” (Sewart, Keegan, & Holmberg, 1983, p. 1). In the past the term correspondence education has been used. With the augmentation of the written word with audio and video recordings, TV, radio programs, communication by telephone, and various uses of the internet, however, the term distance education is now deemed more appropriate. Nowadays, a variety of learning strategies are utilized, a number of which possess some characteristics in common with conventional education. In addition, some institutions previously known as distance education providers now incorporate face-to-face lessons in their courses in an ef-

4 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

fort to increase the success rates of their students (Peters, 2001). The distinction between distance education and conventional education has been made clear for over 25 years. In 1983, it was contended that the method of communication is the main difference between them. This was explained as follows: In the contiguous learning environments, communication is personal and face-to-face; in the non-contiguous environments communication may be personal and face-to-face for limited periods of time, but it is largely written, mechanical, electronic or some other means of communicating at a distance…Learning is fundamentally an individual process and each person enters the process with techniques and levels of achievement uniquely his [sic] own. (Sewart, Keegan & Holmberg, 1983, p. 2)

4.

5.

Within this book the term “distance education” is used to refer to the provision of educational materials and support by teaching staff for primary and secondary school students at a distance, with the students rarely, if ever, having face-to-face contact with their teachers. Rather, they generally have contact through telephone conversations and email correspondence. Rural and Remote: The terms rural and remote are often used synonymously to denote non-urban settings. Again, debate on the distinction has a history of at least 25 years. For example, Sheppard (1983) suggested that “rural” is a quality, rather than a geographical place. Eleven years later, the Ministerial Review of Schooling in Rural Western Australia, in the report Schooling in Rural Western Australia (Ministerial Review of Schooling in Rural Western Australia, 1994), classified everything outside of the Perth metropolitan area as rural. This includes towns like Mandurah and Bunbury which have reasonably large populations; in the 2006 census just five towns recorded a population of over 20,000: Albany, Bunbury, Busselton, Geraldton, and Mandurah. By this definition, 99% of Western Australia’s land area is considered rural (Ministerial Review of Schooling in Rural Western Australia, 1994). In delineating “rural and remote,” the authors of the report considered any place more than a few hours from Perth by road as being remote. Within this book, however, rural and remote are taken to be synonymous. Isolation: This term comes from the Latin insulates, meaning made into an island. Isolated students were once recognized purely on the basis of being geographically isolated. Nowadays, this understanding has been broadened to encompass students who are isolated for other reasons such as social, physiological, psychological,

INTRODUCTION • 5

and ideological. Keegan (1986) raised this point over twenty years ago as follows: Only in Australia, Canada and some developing countries does distance education belie its urban origins in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany and the United States to embrace vast distances—and even in Australia and Canada 50% to 70% of enrolments are normally from major cities. (p. 36)

Here Keegan implies that many students enrol in distance education programs at the post-secondary level for reasons of convenience rather than isolation.

CONTEXT Soon after the settlement of Australia’s various colonies in the early years of the 19th century, settlers began to spread out, searching the hinterland for suitable agricultural land. Population dispersal immediately caused problems in supplying services, including education (Barcan, 1980). Measures designed to address the disadvantage experienced by students in Australia’s remote and rural areas included the establishment of one-teacher schools and half-time schools, the introduction of itinerant teachers and tent schools, and the building of boarding schools (Browne, 1927; Mossenson, 1972). Distance education was another method adopted to provide an education for students in rural and remote locations. Yet, despite these efforts, the plight of such students remained problematic and was the focus of numerous reports and inquiries commissioned at both state and national levels. In the past 15 years, concerted attention has been paid to this aspect of education nationally and state-wide (HREOC, 2000a; MCEETYA, 2001; Ministerial Review of Schooling in Rural Western Australia, 1994; Rural & Remote Education Advisory Services, 2000; Stokes, Stafford, & Holdsworth, 1999; Young, 1998). The reports produced have generally highlighted the fact that students in rural and remote areas experience difficulties in gaining access to appropriate educational facilities. Thus, compared with their urban peers, many consider that they remain distinctly disadvantaged. Nevertheless, Australia’s use of distance education methods to teach primary and secondary school students has been groundbreaking, and the nation’s Distance Education Centres (DECs) continue to be at the forefront of innovation in the field. The DECs in each state have worked to develop educational options for their students. In Western Australia this is mainly done through the curriculum prescribed for all schools (government and independent) regardless of location and is guided by the Curriculum Frame-

6 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

work (Curriculum Council, 1998). However, because all schools are able to adapt their curriculum to reflect their particular ethos and the community which they serve, SIDE, the only state-run DEC, responds accordingly, taking advantage of this provision. Geographically isolated students in Western Australia, of course, are not compelled to enrol with SIDE. Indeed, they have a number of educational options. For example, they can attend boarding school, and if they do their parents are entitled to receive some financial subsidies through the Assistance for Isolated Children Scheme or AICS (Centrelink, 2007). SIDE (see Fig. 1 for organization) is the primary provider of distance education for school-aged students in Western Australia. It consists of schools located on six campuses. Together, these schools provide educational materials and support for the state’s isolated students who are located in various settings not only within the state, but also nationally and internationally. The main campus of SIDE is located at Leederville, in the capital city of Perth. Associated with it are five Schools of the Air (SOTAs), each of which operates out of a rural centre: Carnarvon, Kalgoorlie, Kimberley (Derby), Meekatharra, and Port Hedland. The SOTAs provide educational materials and support for primary-aged students within their catchment areas in isolated regions of the State (see Figure 2). Students enrolled with a SOTA participate in “on-air” lessons in their year groups. These lessons are scheduled for one hour a day at a

SIDE

Primary School

Middle School

Postcompulsory School

Indian Ocean Schools

School of Instrumental Music

Schools of the Air

Carnarvon Secondary School

Cocas Island

Meekatharra

Christmas Island

Derby Port Hedland Kalgoorlie

FIGURE 1. Overview of the Schools of Isolated and Distance Education

INTRODUCTION • 7

FIGURE 2. Catchment Areas of SIDE’s Six K-7 Campuses in Western Australia. (Source: Carnarvon School of the Air, 2008)

set time. Until recently, the lessons were held over the Royal Flying Doctor Service’s high frequency (HF) radio infrastructure. Beginning in early 2004, new computer-based communications were trialled at the Kalgoorlie SOTA, with similar facilities being phased in at the other SOTAs by the end of that year. The on-air lessons provide an opportunity for the students to seek help with any difficulties they may be experiencing and to participate in communicative activities with their peers. Students are also expected to complete the equivalent of the daily workload in a conventional school. The materials for this are provided by SIDE and the on-air lessons are designed to complement them. The work of these students is marked by the SOTA teacher. The central campus at Leederville provides primary education for the south-west of Western Australia, as well as nationally and internationally, and secondary education across all of Western Australia, and also nationally and internationally. The SOTAs provide primary education only, for the various districts other than the south-west of Western Australia. The teachers at SIDE include kindergarten, primary, and secondary school-trained teachers, with the secondary school teachers covering the full spectrum

8 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

of subject specialties taught in any large conventional secondary school in Western Australia. Each teacher is expected to promote a curriculum that supports the state’s Curriculum Framework (Curriculum Council, 1998) as prescribed by the Curriculum Council and the Department of Education and Training (DET). The daily routines of the teachers at SIDE are somewhat different from those of teachers in conventional schools. Their students are not physically present. Indeed, they are situated in a wide variety of settings, with different resources available to them, a situation that must be taken into account when planning lessons. Other considerations that must be kept in mind when planning lessons are the levels of confidence and commitment to the program of home supervisors. Primary school students, whether they are studying through one of the SOTAs or through the Leederville campus, rely heavily on the support of their home supervisor, be that a parent or governess. The role of the home supervisor is labour intensive, requiring motivation, organization and commitment. This role is often stressful for parents as many of them lack the necessary experience and education. Furthermore, it can be difficult for them to separate the dual roles of parent and teacher (Yourn, 2003). The main campus of SIDE is located in Leederville, Perth, and houses the primary and secondary schools, the administration, and the Resource Centre. The Director of SIDE has responsibility for quality assurance across the six campuses, though each school has its own principal. Since the establishment of SIDE in its original guise as the Correspondence School, a number of factors have impacted on it. A shift in the understanding of “isolation” has allowed students to enrol in SIDE for reasons other than geographic isolation. At the same time, ongoing developments in communication technology and ways of delivering educational materials to students, both near and far, have changed the way SIDE’s teachers work. Further, the schools have undergone a process of restructuring. All of these factors contributed to pulling SIDE together into a single, albeit complex, inter-related structure.

OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE In general, literature on distance education has been dominated by research on the post-secondary school sector and on areas such as pedagogy (Beitz & Snarponis, 2006; Peters, 2001), technology (Boylan & Francis, 1999; Dunn, Gibson, Bohaty, Merritt, & Witherspoon, 1999; Sweetman, & Tomlinson, 2000), and course design (Keegan, 1983; Kuntz, 1998). Conceptual work has also been undertaken on definitions of such terms as isolation and distance education (Squires, 2003). Particular Australian research

INTRODUCTION • 9

has tended to focus on rural and remote education (Alston & Kent, 2003; Arnold, 2001; Squires, 2003; Turney, Sinclair, & Cairns, 1980; Yarrow, Herschell & Millwater, 1999), rather than specifically focusing on distance education. Post-secondary school distance education has become a major area of growth in education internationally, potentially offering huge financial rewards for institutions that provide it. Hence, by 2000, it had become a key focus of much research (Smith, 2000). The development of new flexible modes of delivery, such as the internet and email, has helped to boost enrolments in post-secondary school distance mode courses. Students in these courses are not necessarily geographically isolated, but are often simply taking advantage of the flexibility offered by such courses in terms of time and location (Peters, 2001). Much of the literature on tertiary distance education focuses on pedagogy and has involved a great deal of debate among some of the experts in the field (Holmberg, 1981; Keegan, 1986; Moore, 2003; Peters, 2001) as to appropriate teaching methods for distance education. This usually also involves consideration of exactly what constitutes distance education. Some institutions just produce distance materials and disseminate them, whilst others incorporate some face-to-face contact hours, recognizing that students need more than just course materials in order to successfully complete their courses (Peters, 2001). Also, approaches to course design are, to some degree, tied to the literature on distance education pedagogy. Again, on the whole, research literature in this area has tended to focus on the post-secondary sector. Literature concerned with the development of new technology in distance education also tends to focus on the impact and benefits for postsecondary institutions. There have, however, been a number of articles on the use of new technology by the various DECs around Australia, a few of which have focused on Western Australia. The DECs are often at the forefront of trialling new technology as part of their endeavour to ensure improved educational opportunities for their students. Also, many innovations now used at the post-secondary level were first used at primary or secondary levels. Literature on the education of primary and secondary school children in rural and remote areas in Australia, as well as on students at the post-secondary level, is substantial. Indeed, there is even a journal dedicated solely to the subject entitled Education in Rural Australia. In 2000, an issue of this journal (vol. 10, no. 1) featured a number of reports by student-teachers on their experiences in rural and isolated schools. Furthermore, the Journal of Research in Rural Education had a special edition in 2003 (vol. 18, no. 3) titled “Bush Lessons Down Under: Educational Experiences in Regional, Rural and Remote Australia.” Articles on the experience in Australia also

10 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

appear from time to time in Distance Education: An International Journal. As its name implies, this journal is dedicated to exploring issues related to distance education around the world. Another publication devoted to this field is the Quarterly Review of Distance Education. Despite its title, however, very few of the articles published in this journal consider K–12 distance education, with most focusing on the post-secondary sector and its use of distance education. Over the past 30 years, the needs of specific groups of children in rural and remote regions of Australia and Western Australia have occasionally been the focus of research. This includes research on preschool children (Farrell, 2004; Lee & Wilks, 2007; McDonald, 2008), indigenous children (HREOC, 2000a; Tripcony, 2002), children with disabilities (Barrie & Tomlinson, 1985; Douglas, 1989; Du Plessis & Bailey, 2000), travellers (Birch, Lally, & Tomlinson, 1986; King, 1984; Rahmani & Scherer, 1982) and gifted children (Allen, 1992; Maltby & Beattie, 1996; McLoughlin, 1999). Also, in 1985, Tomlinson, Coulter and Peacock conducted a comprehensive study of primary school-level distance education in Western Australia. Furthermore, there has been a number of state and national government reports on educational provision for students in rural and remote areas. Most of these reports make only a brief reference to the role that distance education has played in supporting teachers and students in rural and remote schools. They do, however, indicate an awareness of the problems inherent in educating isolated students. Nevertheless, some have argued that only limited improvement in the situation followed (Lake, 2000; Rural and Remote Education Advisory Service, 2000). Recently, there has been very little research which has focused on the provision of distance education for school-aged students, or on the provision of distance education to students other than those living in geographically isolated regions. Equally, in Australia generally and Western Australia particularly, very little has been reported on the views of teachers and students involved in distance education (Penhalver, 1990). Some exceptions are the valuable background work provided by White’s (1962) History of Correspondence Education in Western Australia, Eakins’ (1964) History of the Western Australian Correspondence School, Vidovich’s (1984) policy analysis of distance education developments in the state, and Calzoni’s (1991) study of the origins, history and development of the SOTA in Western Australia. As indicated earlier on, this brief overview of the relevant literature is explored more fully in Chapter Three. Here, however, it is important to acknowledge that, overall, while distance education plays an important and unique role in the provision of education for Western Australia’s isolated students, very little research attention has focused on this aspect of K–12 education in the state. Accordingly, this work on the background, functions, and issues relating to SIDE, with particular reference to its main

INTRODUCTION • 11

campus at Leederville, was deemed timely, and not only for the Australian scene, but to provide perspectives which could be instructive to those involved in distance education across the world. This was reinforced on recognising the advances in technology being used at SIDE, the broader spectrum of students the school now caters for, the influence of the Curriculum Framework (Curriculum Council, 1998) and other changes in the education system in Western Australia, and changes within SIDE itself. The outcome, it is hoped, will be of value to SIDE and its teachers, as well as to other providers of primary and secondary level distance education in Australia and overseas.

THE RESEARCH PLAN AND METHODOLOGY At all levels of distance education there are questions about the appropriateness of programs, the methods used and the limits of what can be achieved. A number of studies have explored how distance education can be developed to offer maximum advantage to students (Brennan, McFadden & Law, 2001; Honey, 2001; Peters, 2001). Most investigations, however, have focused on distance education at the post-secondary level and there has been little research at the K–12 level. More specifically, very few studies have been conducted on the use of distance education with K–12 students in Western Australia, despite numerous policy initiatives resulting in the changing of the practices of teachers, supervisors and students. This deficit is significant. Accordingly, an appropriate step is to heed those who stress the importance of undertaking studies which result in “a broad overview on educational problems” (O’Donoghue, 2007, p. 182). Specifically, it is constructive to take into account the broad background to the phenomenon of interest, the functions performed by the key stakeholders, and their understandings of the phenomenon (Brennan, 2000). It is the assumption on which the study reported later in this book is based that such research is essential in order to inform initiatives aimed at improving practice. The latter assumption led to the development of the following interrelated research questions regarding SIDE in Western Australia: • What is the background of the Schools of Isolated and Distance Education in Western Australia? • What are the functions of SIDE in providing distance education for Western Australia’s isolated students? • What are the issues for teachers at SIDE’s main campus in carrying out these functions? The theoretical framework associated with these central research questions is now outlined.

12 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

A theoretical framework can be considered as “the philosophical stance lying behind a methodology” (Crotty, 2003, p. 66). It provides a context for the research by delineating the researcher’s “view of the world.” The study reported in this book was an enquiry into the background to SIDE, its functions and the issues for those teachers working at its main campus. This called for a method of investigation that enables the interpretation of social phenomena. To this end, the interpretivist paradigm was chosen. The selection of the interpretivist paradigm to underpin the study was justified, given the focus on developing an understanding of a complex social institution. The first research question necessitated interpreting the background to SIDE largely from documents produced by key personnel over the years. Also, the current perspectives of those who participate in the daily functions and interactions at SIDE’s main campus needed to be investigated in order to address the second and third research questions. This concurs with Holstein and Gubrium (2005), Creswell (2007), and O’Donoghue (2007). For each of the central research questions a set of guiding questions was developed. Such guiding questions are not specific questions to be answered, but rather, they are those that suggest themselves at the commencement of a study as being the most productive guides to generate data relevant to the central area of interest. From these guiding questions, a further more detailed set of questions, an “aide memoire” (Bloor, Frankland, Thomas, & Robson, 2001, p. 49), was developed to initiate “conversations.” It was through interaction with the data that further questions evolved (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Other questions developed in the initial stages of this study became redundant as the study progressed. Grounded theory methods of data collection and analysis, which are consistent with the principles of interpretivism, were utilised in the study. The essence of grounded theory is to describe and understand human behavior within such social contexts (Chenitz & Swanson, 1986) as the daily experiences of teachers at SIDE’s main campus. The First Research Question The first research question is historical in nature. It was aimed at developing an understanding of the background to the Schools of Isolated and Distance Education in Western Australia. In dealing with this question the interpretivist paradigm informed the researchers’ review of data drawn from a range of documentary sources. This approach concurs with Prior’s (2007) recognition of “the significance of inscription in organizational settings” (p. 346); in other words, document review is one of the research methods that is a key source of data in qualitative research. In addressing the research question, data were gathered through a thorough review of such literature as documents held in the Western Australian State Archives, at

INTRODUCTION • 13

the Western Australian Department of Education, and SIDE. These materials facilitated an interpretation which was developed into a comprehensive account of the background up to SIDE’s establishment in 1995. The Second Research Question The second research question was concerned with developing an understanding of the functions of SIDE in providing distance education for Western Australia’s isolated students. It was addressed primarily through analyzing duty statements and conducting interviews with SIDE personnel. The interviewees included teachers, principals, psychologists, administration personnel, and a small number of home supervisors. The interviews were semistructured and in-depth, with the first round being conducted with groups and the second round with individuals. Questions were open-ended in order to allow participants to elaborate as they wished. All interviews were recorded with the participants’ permission. Such an approach was necessary since the study is based on the assumption that “functions” refer to all the activities performed by personnel. Thus, it was recognized that not all duties outlined in duty statements might be performed, while duties not in duty statements might be performed even if not officially documented. The Third Research Question The third research question relates specifically to participants’ perspectives on their work. It sought to develop an understanding of issues for teachers at SIDE’s main campus in carrying out their functions. The participants in this part of the study were SIDE teachers with a range of years of experience, both as teachers, and, more specifically, as distance educators. Teachers from each of the schools at SIDE’s main campus at Leederville (Primary School and Secondary School) participated in the study. Following a meeting with the Director of SIDE, the principals of each school invited the teachers to participate in group interviews. Participants were selected to provide a full range of backgrounds, ages, subject areas, and length of teaching experience, so that a wide range of perspectives, as suggested by Taylor and Bogdan (1984) would emerge. The grounded theory principle of “theoretical sampling” was employed (Corbin & Strauss, 2008, p. 65; Glaser, 1978, p. 36). In all, 64 SIDE teachers were interviewed in 10 groups. The data were collected then analyzed and concepts were developed. Ten teachers were subsequently selected for follow-up individual interviews. THE STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK This chapter provided a brief overview of the study outlined in this book. Six more chapters follow. Chapter Two depicts the broad context, reviewing

14 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

distance education in the international and national settings, the development of Australia’s education system, and the role distance education has played in providing an education for many of Australia’s isolated students. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of education in Western Australia. Chapter Three reviews the main bodies of literature relating to the study, namely: literature defining distance education; literature on theories of distance education, literature pertaining to pedagogical issues associated with distance education; literature on the use of technology in distance education; literature discussing issues faced by distance education teachers; literature on rural and remote and isolated students; literature concerning issues faced by the parents of isolated students; and finally, literature on K–12 distance education in Australia. The chapter concludes by discussing the study’s substantial and original contribution to knowledge. Chapters Four, Five, and Six present the findings of the study. Chapter Four is in four parts. It opens with an outline of the general context out of which arose the need for the provision of K–12 distance education in Western Australia. This is followed by an overview of the Western Australian Correspondence School from 1918 to 1970. The third part of the chapter explains a number of important initiatives that were undertaken in the period from 1970 to 1995. Finally, the chapter focuses on the establishment of SIDE. Chapter Five addresses the second research aim, detailing the functions of SIDE. First it explains the organizational structure and functions of SIDE. Secondly, it describes the functions performed by the teachers at SIDE. The chapter concludes with an examination of the role of the home supervisors. Chapter Six presents the teachers’ perspectives on the issues they consider exist for SIDE. These are presented through a consideration of five broad themes: perennial issues, change, technology, future viability and ensuring excellence. Chapter Seven concludes the book. It opens with a summary of the book and a discussion of the findings of the study. Secondly, the matter of transferability is addressed. A number of implications for further practice are then outlined.

CHAPTER 2

CONTEXT

INTRODUCTION The important role that distance education has played in providing an education for a significant number of Western Australia’s students who live in situations where they might otherwise not have had access to education was highlighted in the previous chapter. In particular, the importance of distance education for children living in isolated and remote locations was emphasized. It was also noted in 1971 (Maclaine, 1971) that, at that stage, Australia was, to some extent, a world leader in the provision of distance education for primary and secondary-aged students. Indeed, it was the first country to use distance education methods to educate primary-aged children in substantial numbers (Rankin, 1926), something that had previously been thought impossible. Chapter One also made clear the decision to focus this book on developing an understanding of the background of SIDE in Western Australia, its functions in providing distance education to the State’s isolated students, and issues in carrying out these functions. Distance education in Western Australia, of course, also sits within a broader context. This type of education has been employed in a variety of countries at different educational levels for a multiplicity of purposes The Education of Children in Geographically Remote Regions through Distance Education: Perspectives and Lessons from Australia, pages 15–39 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

15

16 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

and reasons. The result has been enormous variety in terms of the needs of the students and the measures taken to address those needs. Specifically regarding Western Australia, the nature of the state’s education system and its geographical setting within Australia has had an important influence on the ways that distance education developed. An awareness of this broader context is important in understanding influences on the development of distance education in Western Australia to the present day and also for a full understanding of the unique qualities of SIDE. This present chapter now explores a number of related issues in order to contextualize later considerations. First, a review of adult level distance education in the international arena is presented. This is followed by an outline of national provision of adult level distance education in Australia. An overview of primary and secondary level distance education in the international setting is offered. A brief overview of the history of education in Australia is then sketched out in order to facilitate a review of the development of primary and secondary level distance education in Australia. The chapter concludes with an overview of education in Western Australia including reference to the use of distance education in the state.

AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON ADULT DISTANCE EDUCATION Moore (2003) notes that “historically, distance education has been regarded as an unimportant and marginal activity by comparison with faceto-face learning” (p. 43). With the number of adult education providers now embracing distance education methods as either their preferred mode of delivery, or part of a dual-mode delivery model, this is no longer the case. Indeed, distance education has been described as “exquisitely suited to meet the needs of the adult in search of learning, as it delivers the means of organized formal study within the work or home environment” (Moore, 2003, p. 6). Adult learners are often drawn to distance education as a way of improving their qualifications without the inconvenience of physically attending classes. This has particularly been the case in relation to the recent focus on “lifelong learning” internationally and the growing requirement for employees to upgrade and expand their skills and knowledge range. Around the world a number of countries still have a considerable proportion of their population which does not receive any formal education in conventional schools for a variety of reasons. These include the fact that the area in which they live is too isolated, the fact that they lead nomadic lifestyles, or the fact that their governments cannot afford to provide sufficient school buildings, teachers and other educational equipment (Nyirenda, 1983; Perraton, 2007; Shearer, 2007). In many of the countries which

CONTEXT • 17

experience such conditions, distance education is seen as a viable way of providing education. In most cases, distance education materials are provided in the form of correspondence lessons, though this is changing as modern technology becomes more readily available even in the rural areas of developing nations. There has been considerable debate as to where and when distance education was first adopted. Keegan (1986) has suggested that the origins of distance education can be traced back to the epistles of Saint Paul, while Baggaley (2008) considers that the “mobile learning system” employed by Genghis Khan, with information delivered across Mongolia by horsemen for face-to-face delivery, was an early form of distance education. This portended the later use of the itinerant teacher. Holmberg (1960) claims that “modern” distance education dates back to 1840, when Isaac Pitman first offered shorthand lessons through the post in England. Gaumnitz (1952) notes that soon afterwards, in 1856, the Society for Modern Languages established the Langensheit School in Berlin which aimed to teach French to German students through correspondence materials. Also, Wakatama (1983) claims that “the University extension movement” (p. 105) was in place as early as the 1860s, while Peters (2001, p. 183) states that the University of South Africa, which was originally established in 1873 as the University of the Cape of Good Hope, is recognized as being “the oldest distance-teaching university”. Others consider that distance education methods were first used in higher education in the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States of America (USA) in the 1890s (Glatter, 1969; Holmberg, 1987; Moore, 2003; Perraton, 1982; Reeves, 2005). In 1965, Peters (Keegan, 1986, p. 142) claimed that only the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and South Africa had tertiary distance teaching institutions. By 1986, however, Keegan (1986, p. 130) was able to state that distance education institutions could be found in almost every country around the globe. It is clear, then, that distance education has been used in a variety of locations and for a variety of purposes. In Europe and the United States, the main aims of distance education courses were to provide an education for adult students who were unable to attend regular classes and to attempt to compensate for the disadvantages experienced by people living in isolated locations (Perraton, 1982). Distance education has also been used to compensate for an inability to provide sufficient infrastructure and resources. This was the case in the 1920s in the Soviet Union, when correspondence lessons were used to educate the workforce at a time when the country was experiencing a shortage of teachers (Perraton, 1982). During World War Two, distance education was also used as a diversion for troops at the frontline (Spaull, 1982; Dymock, 1995). In other countries, where many teachers had little education themselves, in-service courses through distance education were a means of improving the overall standard of education (Beeby,

18 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

1966; Gulati, 2008; Rayner, 1949; Robinson, 2008). This is still the case in some developing nations today. Distance education has also been embraced as a means of “equalizing educational opportunities” and thereby helping “varied and dispersed student populations, even in rural areas” (Sharma, 1987, pp. 49–50), including in developing countries. Mani (1988) suggests that distance education is the only way for a country with such an overwhelmingly deficient education system as that found in India to develop. Further examples of the way distance education can provide opportunities for the disadvantaged are provided by Reddy, who states that “Distance education provides a new ray of hope in the…depressing scenario of women’s education” (Mani, 1988, Foreword); Doung, Chhuon, Phanousith, Phissamay, and Tai (2007) highlight the tens of millions of individuals in south-east Asia for whom distance education offers the only hope of gaining access to education and training; and Gulati (2008) who points to the importance of distance education throughout the developing world. Since the British Open University (BOU) was established in 1969, opportunities for further study via distance mode have increased dramatically (Daniel, Stroud, & Thompson, 1982; Bates, 1984; Smith, 1987), with the 1980s heralding a rapid expansion in the number of adult-level distance courses as they became a standard component in the provision of education in many national systems (Bates, 1984; Keegan, 1986; Van Der Linden, 1990). Since the 1980s adult level distance education courses have continued to increase in number and popularity due to the flexibility and convenience offered to students who are able to study in a manner which suits their own lifestyles and in their own location, without being limited by restrictive timetables as well as being a cost effective option (Trindade, Carmo, & Bidarra, 2000). In 1989, Sharma (1990) foretold the dramatic expansion of distance education, one that was required in order to solve problems caused, in part, by inflexible traditional education systems and increasing demands for education in many developed and developing countries. A contemporary perspective shows that the demand for distance education has continued to increase at all levels of education and, as a result, the variety of subjects that people can study via this mode has also increased significantly. Despite ever more sophisticated means of communication, however, the costs and availability of such services have ensured that correspondence materials remain the backbone of many courses (Gulati, 2008; Shearer, 2007). Hülsmann (2004) suggests that more modern methods of delivery are often used in conjunction with print materials, which results in an increase in cost when these technologies are employed. There has been a number of generations of distance education technology: print, broadcast radio and television, audio and video conferencing,

CONTEXT • 19

and computer and internet technology (Bernard et al., 2004; Gokool-Ramdoo, 2008). Although the use of the internet really “took off” in the 1990s, Moore (2003) claims that the use of computing and networking in distance education can be dated to the 1970s with the PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations) project at the University of Illinois. Since then, technology has offered expanded opportunities to provide distance education. This appeals to a great variety of clients in a multiplicity of settings. On this Peters (2001) notes that distance education has been used: ...in advanced industrial countries; in developing and threshold countries; in densely and very thinly populated countries; in countries with a highly developed, extremely differentiated school and university system; and in others in which the basic educational necessities were missing. (p. 242)

Also, recent diversification in the field of distance education has produced a number of different formats. Peters (2001) has suggested that there are eight models of distance education at the tertiary level. These vary from institutions whose materials are purely print-based, through to institutions which incorporate broadcasts, teleconferencing and other forms of communication. Also, a number of tertiary institutions provide their work through distance mode in tandem with elements of face-to-face learning (Bernard et al., 2004; Ryan, Scott, Freeman, & Patel, 2000; Yip, 2007). These are known as “blended,” “hybrid” or “dual mode” universities, and usually involve e-mentoring, or etutoring (Moore, 2003; Rumble, 1997). Other dual mode universities like The University of the South Pacific, provide a form of teaching and learning where courses can be taken either in a traditional face-to-face style of class, or through distance mode. At the same time, traditional universities such as The University of Western Australia now provide many of their lectures in face-to-face mode and via podcasts (Williams & Fardon, 2007) in recognition of the increasing requirements for flexibility in learning. Virtual universities, on the other hand, are institutions which carry out all their core activities using communication and information technologies (Ryan et al., 2000). Such institutions are now found around the world in countries as diverse as Canada, Israel, New Zealand, Spain, Taiwan and Venezuela (Moore, 2003). Other universities are now moving away from web-based studies in favour of employing other technology such as the mobile phone (m-learning), as the link between the teacher and the student (Baggaley, 2008; Gulati, 2008). Another recent development in distance education is the use of resource-based learning, which has been defined by the Australian National Council of Open and Distance Learning as “an integrated set of strategies to promote student-centred learning in a mass education context, through a combination of specially designed learning resources and interactive me-

20 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

dia and technologies” (Ryan et al., 2000, p. 22). With the increased demand for lifelong learning and a need for flexibility, courses offered in this mode are becoming increasingly popular; indeed, flexible learning has become “big business.” There is, however, a flipside to the many opportunities and benefits that distance education offers. One of problems which has been recognized for some time as being associated with distance education has been the “hijacking” of it by institutions which are “out to make a quick buck,” where students are left with poor quality materials and little in the way of service (Peters, 2001; Saxe, 1972; Wakatama, 1983). Such institutions have been labelled “digital diploma mills” (Carr-Chellman, 2005; Noble, 1998). Other concerns with the rapid expansion of the provision of distance education and voiced over an even longer period of time are the “over-commercialization and…high dropout rates” of many courses (Smith, 1987, p. 59). Other problems arise from poor pedagogy and insufficient or inappropriate resourcing of the courses. The result is that in many nations, distance education is considered to be second rate (Carr-Chellman, 2005; Doung et al., 2007; Perraton, 2007; Sharma, 2005; UvaliB-TrumbiB, Daniel, & West, 2008).

AN AUSTRALIAN PERSPECTIVE ON ADULT DISTANCE EDUCATION In urban areas in Australia the process of establishing appropriate and functional education facilities, at all levels, was challenging for many decades. Related debate focused on who should be responsible for providing educational facilities. In rural areas the situation was even more difficult. Furthermore, it is still so in various ways. Today, the problem of educating rural and remote students continues to be a source of concern for Australian educators. Distance education has been one way of addressing this problem. Distance Education methods were first used in Australia for the education of individuals who had already achieved a reasonable standard of literacy in a conventional school setting (Rayner, 1949). Generally, these students were keen to obtain additional qualifications, but were either unable or unwilling to attend conventional classes. Many such students were teachers desiring to formalise, or extend, their qualifications. For example, correspondence lessons for junior teachers residing outside Melbourne were first provided by the Melbourne Continuation School from 1909 (Rankin, 1941); by 1911 there were 600 student-teachers enrolled with the school (Distance Education Centre Victoria, 2008). The provision of technical and further education by distance mode in Australia dates from 1910 (Keegan, 1986). The Sydney Technical College’s

CONTEXT • 21

first correspondence course was in sanitary inspection; other technical correspondence courses were soon made available (Rayner, 1949). In Victoria, distance technical education began as an offshoot of the Melbourne Technical College, with the school originally purchasing many of its course materials from private correspondence schools (Rayner, 1949). Queensland initially provided distance technical courses for apprentice electricians in 1926, but it was not until 1938 that enrolments and the variety of courses offered increased significantly (Rayner, 1949). The post-World War II period saw a dramatic increase in enrolments in technical correspondence courses across Australia with the implementation of the Commonwealth Reconstruction Training Scheme (CRTS). This was followed by a rapid expansion in the variety of courses available (Rayner, 1949). These were provided by a number of technical correspondence schools around the country, with some academic courses also being provided. Between January 1944 and May 1948, 61,900 students were enrolled in the CRTS (Rayner, 1949), which provided returned servicemen with an opportunity to retrain before, or on returning to civilian life. Throughout the first half of the twentieth century universities in all of Australia’s states offered some correspondence courses, primarily in arts and education studies (Rayner, 1949). The University of Queensland offered correspondence courses as early as 1911 (Wakatama, 1983) and The University of Western Australia followed suit in 1923. Thomas Hanger (Turney, 1975), one of the initial enrollees in the University of Queensland’s degree by correspondence, wrote as follows of the correspondence qualification: ...the degree…is not thought much of; it is, of course, nothing but a guarantee that the holder has done a certain amount of reading, and has understood and remembered what he has read well enough to be able to answer some questions about it: the responsibility for setting questions searching enough to find out how thoroughly the reading has been done and the subject-matter digested lies with the examining body. (pp. 397–398)

This highlights a problem still faced by distance education institutions today, namely, ensuring that the results have some validity and that the qualification has value. The University of New England (UNE) in New South Wales, was established in 1954. Its role was, in part to provide correspondence courses for teachers working in country schools, thus enabling them to complete a degree without having to transfer to a city (Barcan, 1980). The University began teaching external courses in 1955 (Keegan, 1986). Erdos (1967) reports that studies carried out in the first ten years of courses being available in both correspondence and face-to-face modes indicated that there was

22 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

no significant difference between the correspondence students’ results and those attending the university in the more conventional mode. The UNE is noted for its unique style of distance education, known as the “New England Model” or the “Australian Integrated Model” (Keegan, 1986), with a number of distance education institutions, both in Australia and overseas, being modelled on it (Northcott, 1984). This model evolved in response to a need for distance education institutions to service populations which were not large enough to support a purely distance mode institution (Keegan, 1986). The UNE has since developed an extensive external program offering both undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications. In 1965, Sheath argued that in a country like Australia, with such a widely scattered population and with “thousands of non-graduate teachers in country districts, it is deplorable that demands on universities for external studies have been unanswered for so long” (p. 9). At that time the University of Queensland and the UNE were the only Australian universities offering external courses. However, as the second half of the twentieth century progressed and awareness of the economic importance of education grew, enrolments in correspondence courses at a tertiary level increased. This resulted in a corresponding gradual increase in the number of correspondence courses that were available, which then further increased the number of students enrolling in them (Turney, 1975). In 1983, South Australia’s College of Advanced Education offered the first tertiary award (Diploma) in Distance Education in Australia (Smith, 1984) which was, appropriately, offered in distance mode. In 1975, following the publication of Open Tertiary Education in Australia (Australia & Karmel, 1975), the Commonwealth Government pursued a policy of greater involvement in developing distance education at a tertiary level as a way of increasing access to tertiary education (Dekkers, 1992). In the 1980s, distance education was the biggest growth area in adult and further education (Johnson, 1996). Johnson noted that during this period there was little coordination between institutions and, as a result, there was considerable overlap in courses provided by various institutions. Following the Review of Efficiency and Effectiveness in Higher Education (Commonwealth Tertiary Education Commission, 1988), it was realized that there was a need to consolidate resources and reduce duplication in the tertiary sector. The resultant Commonwealth Policy Statement of Higher Education (Dawkins, 1988) outlined a plan whereby distance education in Australia would be nationalized through a system of six distance education centres (DECs) which would meet national and state standards (Dekkers, 1992). These DECs were expected to provide a broad range of courses. The aim was that distance education learners should be as autonomous as possible. All materials were to be designed to facilitate this, thus providing the students with more freedom in terms of time, place and method of learning.

CONTEXT • 23

In 1999, in recognition of the need to shift from an industrial focus to a knowledge focus, the Australian government developed a strategy known as the Australian Flexible Learning Network for the National Vocational Education and Training System (Australian National Training Authority, 2004). The Australian National Training Authority called for stakeholders to contribute to the directions taken in flexible learning in vocational education and training (VET). Over the last ten years the number of institutions at which it is possible to study through distance mode and the variety of courses available through this medium has indeed continued to increase. Students can study any subject from languages to engineering and beauty therapy at TAFE (Technical and Further Education) institutions. Similarly, at tertiary institutions, undergraduate degrees, PhDs, and everything in between, are available through distance mode. In addition, there are countless private institutions offering adults the opportunity to further their education at a distance. This corresponds with the increasing importance and prevalence of adult level distance education worldwide.

AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL DISTANCE EDUCATION Primary School Distance Education According to Moore (1994), the use of distance education methods with children can be dated to “the enrolment of the first four pupils in the correspondence courses of the Calvert School in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1906” (p. 1564). The Headmaster of the school, Virgil Hillyer, aimed to sell the school’s materials to parents who were unable to send their children to the school (Calvert School, 2008), thus making it possible for them to learn at home. Australia was the first country to use correspondence lessons for primary students “in a systematic way, and on a large scale” (Cunningham, 1931, p. 9). The nation began using correspondence lessons for primaryaged students in 1914. Canada followed suit, in 1918, following a request from a lighthouse keeper (Moore, 1994), while New Zealand first provided correspondence lessons for primary students in 1922 (Rayner, 1949). The success of Australia’s programs aroused interest around the world, with the Victorian Correspondence School loaning one of its members of staff, a Miss Whitford, to the Rhodesian educational authorities to aid in the establishment of a correspondence school there in 1930 (Cunningham, 1931). Prior to this, a Mr. Tait had visited Rhodesia in April 1929 on an education commission and recommended that correspondence methods would be successful in educating European children living in isolated areas (Wakatama, 1983). This proved to be the case, with the work of the school

24 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

being commended by the Select Committee on Education’s first report in 1967 (Wakatama, 1983). Despite the success of such programs, many educational specialists up until the 1980s believed that distance education could not be used successfully with primary school students because they had not mastered reading (Haynes, Barrett, Brennan, & Brennan, 1973; Orivel, 1994) and they would need some formal instruction to learn the basic curricula (Perraton, 1982). Within a few decades, however, the use of distance education methods in primary and secondary school systems throughout the world had expanded greatly; the flexibility and affordability of distance education, as predicted by Perraton (1982), opened up innumerable educational opportunities in a variety of settings. In the USA, the increase in the use of distance education in the K–12 sector was often for the purpose of curriculum enrichment (Meierhenry, 1946; Slosser & Anderson, 1994; Downs & Moller, 1999). In Florida, distance education is used with both juvenile and adult detainees (Florida Corrections Commission, 1999). In another example Stamford University has been using distance education to accelerate gifted students from K–12 in subjects like math, physics and computer programming (Gilbert-Macmillan, 2000). In Canada, a web-based learning project across more than 50 schools offers Canadian history to students of Indigenous, English, and FrenchCanadian backgrounds, and to Canadian students around the world (Gilman, 2002). Furthermore, in 2008, in the province of Newfoundland in Canada, there was a move to develop a cohesive system from K–12 and on to post-secondary level, using common technology to facilitate students transferring from one level of education to another (Department of Education, Newfoundland, 2008). In regard to this, Mulcahy (2009) suggests that distance education is seen as being “a lifesaver for rural and remote schools” (p. 23) in Canada. In the UK the National Grid for Learning aims to emphasise the use of online materials by teachers and students in a drive to encourage lifelong learning (Cuthell, 2002), while in France the Centre National d’Enseignement par Correspondence (CNEC) continues to provide distance education for secondary and primary school students. In New Zealand the Correspondence School is seen as an equity provider for the increasingly diverse needs of its students. Other projects are multi-national. Britain, Belgium, and the Netherlands have developed the Flexible Learning Environment Experiment (FLEX) to service the educational needs of children whose parents are occupational travellers (Utsi, Canters, & Lowyck, 2001). The MOON (More Observations of Nature) project involves small groups of children from Western Australia, the USA, and Chile making concurrent observations of the moon, documenting them and having guided discussions with other groups of students about what they can see from their position on the earth (Mulholland

CONTEXT • 25

& Ginns, 2007). On a far greater scale, the Commonwealth of Learning (COL), established in 1989, is an intergovernmental organization established by the (British) Commonwealth Heads of Government with the aim of improving access to good quality education and training throughout developing nations. COL delivers distance education and open learning at all levels of education through working with governments, institutions and individuals with the aim of building capacity and freeing them from reliance on donors. Foci include addressing the Millennium Development Goals, developing a Virtual University for Small States of the Commonwealth, and providing a wide range of publications on the provision of distance education (Commonwealth of Learning, 2009). An innovation which is becoming more widely used in K-12 education is known as “clustering” (Beagley, 1993; Home, 1993). This involves “clusters” of students from different schools being taught via video-conferencing by a teacher from one school. It is a distance education innovation which is increasingly being used in conventional schools and makes the most of the available teaching staff and facilities (Boylan, Wallace & Richmond, 2000; Choi, 2009). Benefits of this approach include schools being able to provide a wide variety of subjects for students, while students have access to the best teacher of a given subject even though that teacher might not be based at his or her school. From these examples the expanding role of distance education can be seen. It is clear that distance education plays an important role in education in both developing and developed countries. Also, some sense is given of the immense potential of distance education. Secondary School Distance Education Distance education has played an important role in a number of countries in the provision of secondary education. Secondary-level correspondence courses have mainly been used to provide a comparable alternative to attending classes in a conventional classroom, to offer alternative subjects, to offer a different style of teaching, to provide secondary education to adults, and to provide additional materials to enhance the lessons offered in the conventional classroom (Perraton, 1982). Countries as diverse as Australia, New Zealand (Rayner, 1949), Brazil, Korea, Malawi, Mauritius, (Perraton, 1982), Canada, and Norway (Griffen, 1952) have used correspondence courses to educate their secondary school-level students. In Theory and Practice of Distance Education, Holmberg (1989a) highlighted five institutions as being traditionally recognized as providers of distance education to secondary students. In chronological order of foundation, they are the International Correspondence Schools (1891) in the USA, Wolsey Hall (1894) in the UK, the American School (1897) in the USA, Hermods (1898) in Sweden, and Norsk Korrespondanseskole (NKS)

26 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

(1914) in Norway. Each of these institutions is still recognised internationally. Although they are known for providing secondary school-level distance education, their students are primarily adult learners. Erdos (1967) has suggested that “a search for the origins of the twentieth-century pattern of correspondence teaching leads to the individual stories of a number of persons in different countries who saw in it a method of meeting differing needs” (p. 2). This is still very much the case. Literature on the use of distance education methods with secondary and primary school students is scarce, with occasional articles tending to focus on recording idiosyncratic and isolated aspects of this phenomenon. Moore (1994) points to the Conference of the International Council for Distance Education in 1992 at which less than a dozen of the 250 papers submitted focused on school-aged children, despite the fact that an estimated 700,000 primary school students and 2.5 million secondary school students were enrolled in distance education programmes at that time. This was, in part, a consequence of the fact that school-aged distance education was used sporadically in some countries and in very specific instances in other countries. As a result, distance education sat outside mainstream education and was rarely a focus of attention. Historically, Norway has had a strong tradition of private institutions providing secondary-level distance education (Paulsen, Rekkedal, & Søby, 1992), with the NKS being established in 1914. During World War Two, public schools were closed and many teachers were arrested. This resulted in a dramatic increase in enrolments in existing distance institutions and the opening of a further sixty (Paulsen, Rekkedal, & Søby, 1992). Twentyfive years later, Peters (1971) reported that in later years students in Norway were able to supplement their secondary school education with distance education courses in order to facilitate entry to university. From 1920, blind students were able to enrol for correspondence courses through the Hadley School for the Blind, in Illinois, US. The school was founded by William Hadley, a high school teacher, who lost his sight at the age of 55. Hadley taught himself braille and on finding that there were extremely limited educational options for blind individuals, founded his school. The Hadley School for the Blind originally catered to primary, secondary, and vocational school students, but now focuses on secondary school and adult education. Hadley’s goal was to offer free education to other blind and visually impaired people no matter where they lived (Hadley School for the Blind, 2009). The school is now reportedly the largest educator of blind students in the world; in 2009 there were over 10,000 students from 100 countries enrolled (Hadley School for the Blind, 2009). The students still receive their education free of charge. In Europe, World War Two contributed to the development of new distance education institutions and an increase in enrolments at established

CONTEXT • 27

institutions. In December 1939, as Hitler’s troops approached Paris, the French government created the CNEC in order to ensure that children would be able to continue their education despite the war (Keegan, 1986; CNEC, 2006). After the war ended the school continued to provide educational services. Keegan (1986) reported that in 1983 the CNEC had 220,000 enrolments, with 15% of them secondary and primary school students. By 1997, the total enrolment had grown to 378,371 (CNEC, 2006), though no breakdown was given of primary, secondary, and adult enrolments. The case of Northern Ontario in Canada in the 1950s is also worthy of mention. It is an unusual example of the way distance education can be provided. The Provincial Department of Education provided a unique service for its students in equipping seven train carriages as classrooms. Each spent a week at a time in towns which did not have a school. At the end of the week the teachers set the students work for the next six weeks until the return of the “classroom on wheels” (Griffen, 1952). In developing countries throughout Asia and Africa distance education has often been a vehicle for secondary school education. Students are not necessarily of a traditional secondary school age, with many adult students being catered to (Moore, 1994) in countries such as China, India, Kenya, Malaysia, and Zambia. Further, for such countries it is often difficult to provide anything other than purely distance materials, as the travel costs for students to attend face-to-face classes in mixed mode courses is prohibitive (Baggaley, 2008).

AN OVERVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA Australia’s size and the highly dispersed nature of its population made providing educational services for the entire population difficult from the beginning of European settlement. Hence, Australians have had to be ingenious in finding innovative ways to overcome what Blainey (1966) called “the tyranny of distance.” Distance education was one solution to providing an education for citizens located in remote and isolated settings, and it continues to be an important facet of education in Australia. In order to understand the need for distance education in Australia it is necessary to understand the history of Australia and its education system. This is to take note of Simon’s (1969) point that “any reflection on the present time, any attempt to analyze a current educational situation, implies some reference to the past” (p. 91). In Australia education was provided starting in 1788. In the first decades after the establishment of the Botany Bay colony was primarily of a moral and social nature as the population was largely comprised of convicts, and violence, thievery and drunkenness were

28 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

common (Barcan, 1980). As a result of the British government’s policy of sending mainly male convicts to Australia, there was a significant disparity between the number of men and women in the colony; in 1792, there were 2,105 male convicts and only 360 female convicts (Barcan, 1980). The clergy of the Church of England were the first to provide an education for the citizens of the new colony and by 1794 the colonial administration was supporting schools in Sydney and Parramatta, and on Norfolk Island (Turney, 1975). In the four years from 1788 to 1792, the European population in New South Wales grew from 1,024 to 3,120, of which about 246 were children (Austin, 1961). As the settlement spread and the number of children increased, the need for schools grew. Higgins (1994) observes that, initially, many of the teachers were women as it was difficult to find suitable work for the convict women. Most of the schools were accommodated in huts and tents. It was not until 1809 that the first qualified teacher, a Mr. Hosking, arrived in the New South Wales colony (Cole, 1927). Early educational endeavours emphasized learning to read. Higgins (1994) notes that it was thought this would enable the students to read the Bible and thus instill in them some religious and moral values. Initially, a system of individual instruction was used where students of varying levels all sat in one room. For most of the day the students were engaged in private study, with occasional visits to the teacher’s desk in order for the teacher to check work. Initially, most schools were Church-run but publicly funded (Marginson, 1993). However, by the close of the nineteenth century all states had established their own departments of education and had ceased funding Church schools (Austin, 1961). By the turn of the 20th century the Education Departments of the various states and territories had still failed to provide State secondary level education (Austin, 1961). The situation was remedied by 1914, however, with Queensland being the last state to introduce some level of secondary and technical education (Cleverley & Lawry, 1972). By 1920 all states had free and compulsory education (Turney, 1972). The Western Australian Department of Education, under the guidance of Cyril Jackson, led the way in the transformation of the primary school curriculum at the end of the nineteenth century, introducing changes that were later reflected in the eastern states’ education systems (Cleverley & Lawry, 1972). Such changes included education being free for 6–14 year olds, the use of the kindergarten method at the lower levels, and the introduction of practical courses (Cleverley & Lawry, 1972). Turney, Sinclair, and Cairns (1980) suggest that the problem of providing an education for children living in the outlying, sparsely-populated areas of the colony were already evident by 1815. By the middle of the century this situation was exacerbated as pastoralists moved into increasingly remote areas in order to find suitable grazing land for their stock. Their

CONTEXT • 29

children thus had little chance of receiving a formal education (Turney, Sinclair, & Cairns, 1980), a situation that became a matter of concern for them and for educationalists. The situation was aggravated in the first decades of the twentieth century with increasing movement of the population from rural to urban settings. Urban drift made the rural situation worse through the gradual loss of human resources over time. Turney (1972) suggested one reason for governments wanting to provide educational opportunities in rural areas was to try and halt the phenomenon of urban drift, stating: During the twenties governments made strenuous but rather futile attempts to control the apparent depopulation of the countryside. These efforts had implications for Departments of Education. Education, many believed, could play an important part in slowing the drift by providing instruction of similar quality and kind as that available to city children and by providing special agricultural courses in country schools which would render rural occupations more attractive and produce more efficient country folk. (p. 38)

A number of strategies were employed in this push to provide better educational opportunities in rural and remote areas. The early part of the twentieth century saw an increase in the number of one-teacher schools and their subsequent consolidation, with state-sponsored transport delivering the students to centralised schools. Itinerant teachers were also deployed to educate geographically isolated students. This involved teachers visiting isolated students in their homes, giving them individual tuition and then setting them educational tasks to work on until the next visit. These teachers had to work under extremely difficult conditions, with poor roads and transportation varying from horses to bicycles and cars. Itinerant teachers had to be enthusiastic about their work and dedicated to the well-being of their students. They had to be exceptional individuals who were not afraid of hardship, or adventure. However, the enthusiastic welcome they received from their students and the students’ families perhaps made the hardship worthwhile. Much of the early debate in Australian education was around who should provide education, Church or State, and whether or not education should be free (Austin, 1961). By 1891, 75 to 80% of students attended public schools and it was only in the 1980s that the private school share of educational provision exceeded 25% (Marginson, 1993). By the 1950s Catholic schools in particular were facing a crisis. Rather than have all but the highest fee schools fail, the government decided to provide funding for schools that were struggling. In 1972, the Labor Party promised to provide funding for all schools based on economic need. Shortly after, the Karmel Commission was given the task of defining schools “in terms of measured economic resources”

30 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

(Marginson, 1993, p. 207) in the hope of bringing all schools up to the same standard in terms of resources. The Catholic schools were able to expand and private schools in general received an increased amount of public funding (Marginson, 1993). In time, this was to have an impact on the public education system. Over the following decade the percentage funding to private schools gradually increased. The expansion of the private sector ensured that, rather than an equalizing of all schools eventuating, there remained a strata of poorer, primarily Catholic, private schools (Marginson, 1993). By the 1980s private schools were seen as examples of “best practice,” offering choice to parents in their role as consumers in the education market place (Hogan, 1984). The increased public funding of private schools resulted in lower fees and, thus, in expanded options for parents. Consequently, the percentage of students enrolled in private schools rose (Marginson, 1993). The drift to private schools accelerated rapidly during the 1990s (Campbell, 2005; Gilbert, 2000; McInerney, 2006; Saltmarsh, 2007). In Western Australia, the government share of the school population fell steadily from 72.7% in 1997 to 66.6% in 2007 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009), with only 51.5% of Year 8 students enrolled in government schools in 2010 (Hiatt, 2010). This reflected the trend Australia-wide. Funding of the government schools is chiefly the domain of the state governments, with the Federal Government providing funding for private schools. Hayward and Esposto (2004) report that in 1994, 62% of the Federal education budget went to non-government schools. However, by 2004 this had increased to 71%. They argue that the government of the day favoured non-government schools in their funding model, but obfuscated the facts. This division, it is claimed, is now having an impact on the government education system with the population becoming increasingly “residualized.” If the argument can be shown to be upheld, then it also applies to institutions like SIDE, which are state-run organizations.

AN AUSTRALIAN PERSPECTIVE ON PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL DISTANCE EDUCATION Primary School Distance Education Australia led the way in using correspondence lessons as a way of providing an education for primary school students who lived in isolated areas and often had never attended a conventional school (Higgins, 1994). The Sydney Distance Education High School (2007) suggests that the method of correspondence lessons were first put into practice in the 1880s, in the half-time schools. Students were left with work to complete while their teacher was away at the other school for which he or she was responsible. A

CONTEXT • 31

Mr. Arthur Biddle is credited with further refining the methods used when establishing the Travelling Schools Service in 1908 (Sydney Distance Education High School, 2007). There were isolated cases of primary school children in Victoria being educated via letter prior to 1914, the year in which the Correspondence School was established. However, a formal and organized correspondence program was implemented after the Education Department received a letter from a settler at Beech Forest (Cunningham, 1931). The settler lived eight miles from the nearest school and asked: “Can anything be done for the education of my two boys?” (Rayner, 1949, p. 15). The Chief Inspector of Education at the time referred the matter to Mr. J. McRae, the VicePrincipal of Melbourne Teachers’ College (Cunningham, 1931) in the hope that the trainee teachers there might develop some lessons to be sent by post. Five student-teachers volunteered to help, each undertaking the instruction of a different subject. At the end of the year the two boys successfully sat the annual school examinations. In the following year the boys continued with their lessons and they were joined by their younger brother (Cunningham, 1931). This was the humble beginning of correspondence education for primary school children in Australia. By 1916, the number of children enrolled for correspondence lessons had increased and it was no longer possible for the student-teachers to manage all the work. As a result, it was decided that some teachers at the Faraday Street School (Rayner, 1949) would be relieved of particular duties to enable them to undertake the work previously carried out by the studentteachers (Cunningham, 1931). Enrolment numbers continued to grow and by 1917 a full-time teacher was appointed to conduct the correspondence lessons (Rayner, 1949). By 1922, the school had 212 enrolments, including four students from the Northern Territory (Distance Education Centre Victoria, 2006). Formal correspondence lessons began in New South Wales at the beginning of 1916, after the Inspector of Continuation Schools, Mr. Stephen Smith, received a letter from a woman requesting help in continuing the education of her son, James Brittingham, after the school he had previously attended was closed down (Sydney Distance Education High School, 2007). Mr. Smith began providing correspondence lessons for the child and, when they proved successful, he then undertook the education of other geographically isolated children. From there, the number of enrolments grew rapidly and by October 1916 it was necessary to appoint a full-time teacher (Turney, Sinclair, & Cairns, 1980). By the beginning of 1917 there were 27 children enrolled for the correspondence lessons (Rayner, 1949). By 1922 similar correspondence schemes had been established in all states (Turney, 1983). As Victoria and New South Wales provided information on this form of education to the other states, methods were origi-

32 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

nally quite uniform (Cunningham, 1931). In time, however, each state’s correspondence program developed unique characteristics suited to the particular needs of its students. This was, in part, due to the fact that each state operated its own curriculum (Cunningham, 1931). Although Australia is a federation of states and territories, there is no national curriculum, with responsibility lying with the education departments of each state. Queensland, for example, relied on the itinerant teacher service for the education of its isolated students for the first two decades of the twentieth century and it was not until 1922 that the Primary Correspondence School was established (Barcan, 1980), with 38 students and one teacher. The shift from itinerant teachers to the correspondence school came about, in part, as a result of the shortage of men following World War One. Enrolments included disabled students and mature-age students who wanted to complete their education (Longreach School of Distance Education, 2008). In 1923, the Correspondence School Program was supplemented by a “school on wheels” similar to that used in Canada (Jose & Carter, 1926). In South Australia the Correspondence School was established in 1920; however, a Miss Lydia Longmore and some volunteer teachers had been providing assistance to isolated children prior to this (Rayner, 1949). Initially, many of the students were mature people who hoped to improve their literacy skills. Enrolments, however, soon expanded to encompass children who were hospitalized, living overseas, or certified psychologically unfit to attend conventional classes (Rayner, 1949). In Tasmania, primary correspondence lessons were provided from 1919. Each teacher taught all grades (Rayner, 1949). As a result, families were able to communicate with just the one teacher. In the early days of the correspondence schools in Australia any child who was unable to attend a conventional school was able to enroll. Initially, the children who enrolled in correspondence schools did so because of their geographical isolation, but soon students were enrolled for other reasons; because they were invalids or in hospital or because their parents were transient. In all cases there was a general requirement that the children have someone in the home who could supervise their work (Gable, nd). For some students, however, there was no one to help them with their work, especially if neither of the parents could read, which was not an unusual occurrence (Cunningham, 1931; Fogarty, 1985). The government recognized this problem and endeavoured to find solutions such as the Itinerant Teacher Scheme (Fogarty, 1985). In correspondence schools around Australia students generally had three sets of work “on the go.” One set would be with them, while another would be with the teacher being marked, and the third would be in transit between the two. The time it took for work to travel between the teacher and the student varied from two weeks to six weeks, depending on a student’s location. The correspondence schools also provided an education

CONTEXT • 33

for children living in countries as diverse as “Malaya, Borneo, New Hebrides, Ceylon, India, Nauru, Fiji, Hong Kong, New Guinea, East Africa, and Japan” (Commonwealth Office of Education, 1962, p. 1) and it could be assumed that it took considerably longer for work to reach these students. One notable aspect of correspondence lessons was the strong personal relationships that were formed between the teachers and their students, and between the teachers and the parents (Eakins, 1964). The teachers worked hard at developing these relationships through writing lengthy letters in order to facilitate the educational process and to help develop the students’ social skills. This relationship was also important for the parents as they often needed support and advice in their role of home supervisors. Radio broadcasts for all students were introduced in the 1920s, but were initially viewed with suspicion (Turney, 1975). As appreciation of the value of such lessons increased, the service was gradually expanded. Initially, just a few subjects were covered, but by 1940 lessons covering most subjects were offered. The lessons were valuable in helping geographically isolated students feel slightly more connected, particularly when the lessons were specifically targeted at them such that they could hear the voice of their own teacher (Rayner, 1949). In 1944, it was decided to use the Royal Flying Doctor’s high frequency (HF) radio network to provide limited on-air lessons for students (Ashton, 1971; Walker, 1975). This proved to be an innovative improvement in the delivery of distance education. The Alice Springs School of the Air (SOTA) began experimenting with on-air lessons in 1950 and the school formally began broadcasting lessons in 1951 (Alice Springs School of the Air, 2008). Shortly after the on-air lessons began, they were described in an American publication (Griffen, 1952). Here it was stated: These broadcasts follow regular schedules and are directed specifically to correspondence pupils. The voice of the teacher giving firsthand directions and explanations relative to course materials helps to establish intimate contacts between pupils and the school and to give the pupils pleasure and a sense of “belonging.” (p. 117)

These on-air lessons created a new dimension in the provision of distance education for primary school students. SOTA lessons enabled the students to communicate directly with their teachers and fellow students, and made “it possible for individual children to ask and answer questions and for a whole class, spread over hundreds of square miles to participate in plays and singing lessons” (Commonwealth Office of Education, 1962, p. 5). Additionally, students were able to receive immediate responses to their questions. The SOTAs proved to be very successful and were soon established in all the states aside from Victoria and also the Australian Capital Territory.

34 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Each of Australia’s states and territories now has its own provider of distance education. Each Distance Education Centre (DEC) is different and caters to the particular needs of its students. Although the Australian Capital Territory and Tasmania may not be thought of as facing the same challenges of size as other states, they too have geographically isolated students who are in need of distance education services. In Tasmania, there are problems with access to many small communities, particularly in winter when roads in mountainous areas are often closed because of snow (Home, 1993). In addition, there are students who require distance education for reasons other than geographic isolation. In the Australian Capital Territory, the provision of distance education is primarily in response to the needs of small rural schools, including private schools (Christie, 1993). Many of these schools have low student numbers and a small teaching staff, and require assistance in providing a varied syllabus. A relatively recent brief survey of the current provision of distance education to school-aged students around Australia demonstrates the variety of services. The Distance Education Centre Victoria is now the primary provider of distance education in the State of Victoria (Dole, et al., 2005). From the beginning of 2002, families have been able to borrow computer equipment and receive training in its use through the Bridging the Digital Divide initiative, though not all families have the infrastructure to support this technology. Currently, New South Wales has eight secondary and 11 primary school distance education centres. Most of these are integrated into local conventional schools. They use a range of media to deliver materials. Each year students attend a two-week mini-school, during which they stay with local families. As in Victoria, some families still do not have access to the necessary infrastructure to support information and communication technology (ICT). Queensland’s distance education schools are “self managing.” Dole et al. (2005) reported that by the end of 2005, each of the seven schools would have the infrastructure to provide phone lessons and access via broadband internet, paving the way for online lessons in the future. Similarly, the Open Access College in South Australia is responsible for the provision of distance education and delivers virtual lessons through Centra (an online platform for classes) for students from Kindergarten to Year 12. The college utilises itinerant teachers and retired educators as part of the REVISE (Retired Educator Volunteers for Isolated Students’ Education) program, to support their students. Rural and geographically remote students make up only 5.4% of enrolments (Open Access College, 2007). Tasmania’s distance education school currently provides lessons from Kindergarten to Year 10 via mixed media. The school allows dual enrolment where students complete part of their education through their local

CONTEXT • 35

school and part through Distance Education Tasmania (Distance Education Tasmania, 2009). The Tasmanian school also “provides a brokerage for individual students or groups of students to access on-line curriculum delivered by another school or college” (Dole, et al., 2005, p. 18). The Northern Territory is the site of what is perhaps the best known development in school-aged distance education, the School of the Air. The Northern Territory currently has three distance education schools: the Alice Springs and Katherine SOTAs and the secondary school, the Northern Territory Open Education Centre. Together they cater for just under 4% of government school enrolments in the Northern Territory (Northern Territory Open Education Centre, 2009). The schools provide lessons through their Interactive Distance Learning Project. All of Australia’s DECs are now addressing the need to provide a flexible and student-centred education, something that has become an issue for all education and training systems in the nation (Schmidmaier & Macnamara, 1993; Te Riele, 2006). It is now possible to fulfil this need with so many new technologies available for use in the distance education setting. Most of the DECs have engaged in an ongoing process of testing and trialling new equipment, and exploring its use in distance education. In 1996 the Alice Springs SOTA started trialling internet use with its students (Boyd, 1996). Since then, other DECs have also been developing online materials. Problems with this mode of education can relate to students not having access to appropriate technology, low bandwidth, problems of filtering the material available on the internet and a need for skilled teachers (Educare, 2002). Although the new technologies are able to improve the delivery and interactive nature of education for many, it is considered that it still falls short of the face-to-face learning experience (Barker, 1991; Kahl & Cropley, 1986; Moore, 2003). The DECs of Australia and New Zealand inaugurated the Australasian Association of Distance Education Schools (AADES) in 1993. This association is a forum for sharing ideas, innovations and knowledge, offering another strategy for maximizing developments and improvements to the delivery of distance education. However, despite numerous investigations into the state of rural and remote education and subsequent recommendations, there are still serious concerns about educational provision for Australia’s rural and isolated students. Reports such as the Schooling in Rural Western Australia (Ministerial Review of Schooling in Rural Western Australia, 1994), the National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education (HREOC, 2000b), and the National Framework for Rural and Remote Education (MCEETYA, 2001) have all voiced concerns about the education and future prospects of young people in Australia’s rural and remote areas. Distance education still remains one of the viable ways of addressing the provision of education for students in these situations

36 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

In the early 1930s Cunningham (1931) suggested that there would likely be a “need for correspondence facilities in Australia for many generations to come” (p. 23). He went on to state that certain groups of children living in the cities required these services and that their numbers were likely to increase. His predictions have proven true as almost eight decades later distance education is not only still in use, but is increasingly in demand. Secondary School Distance Education Distance education was recognized early in the twentieth century as being a way of providing an education for students in rural and remote areas in Australia where it was not viable to provide a secondary school. Across the country variations occurred in the provision of secondary correspondence lessons: enrolment age, qualification for enrolment, management of students’ work, extra-curricular activities, and the level to which secondary correspondence education was available. Secondary school correspondence lessons were first provided in Victoria from 1910, for pupil-teachers who had completed their primary education and were studying while they worked (Rayner, 1949). The secondary school courses increased in popularity as more students completed their primary schooling and wanted to extend their education. In Victoria, secondary school pupils living within four miles of a primary school were required to attend the school and complete their secondary correspondence work under the supervision of the resident teacher (Rayner, 1949). By 1949, it was possible for students in Victoria to complete their entire secondary school education by correspondence methods. In New South Wales, secondary school correspondence lessons were formally introduced in 1922. In 1933 Correspondence School Broadcasts were introduced on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) radio, providing a new dimension to the lessons which helped the students feel connected with the wider world. The school magazine, The Outpost, was designed to generate an esprit de corps and helped negate feelings of isolation. From 1961, students could enrol in single subjects if these subjects were not available at their own school (Rayner, 1949; Sydney Distance Education High School, 2007). The School became a model for other nations planning to establish correspondence systems. In 1991, the Correspondence School was decentralised to eleven centres across New South Wales and the Sydney Secondary DEC was established (Sydney Distance Education High School, 2007). Between 1901 and 1933, Queensland relied heavily on the itinerant teacher service for the education of geographically isolated students. Secondary school correspondence lessons, introduced in 1913, were primarily provided for student-teachers (Rayner, 1949). From 1919 to 1922, some commercial subjects were provided, but these were discontinued and not

CONTEXT • 37

reinstated until 1935 (Rayner, 1949). South Australia did not begin providing secondary, or super-primary, correspondence courses until 1929. Significant effort was made to establish a school spirit and reduce the impact of isolation: metal school badges were distributed to the students, a school magazine was produced, and a Bird Club was established (Rayner, 1949). Secondary school materials were used by small rural schools that could not provide a full range of subjects, with students being supervised by their teachers (Rayner, 1949). In Tasmania secondary school subjects were not introduced to the Correspondence School’s curriculum until 1945 (Rayner, 1949), while the Northern Territory did not have its own distance secondary school until 1980 (Northern Territory Open Education Centre, 2009).

A BRIEF HISTORY OF DISTANCE EDUCATION IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA The Swan River Colony was settled in 1829, with an initial population of just 70 (Colebatch, 1929). The population of the State did not grow in any significant way until 60 years later, with the discovery of the Eastern Goldfields. Along with the capital city, Perth, there was a number of small isolated communities throughout the State such as Albany, York, and Geraldton, all of which had populations which reflected the State’s slow population growth. Pastoralists ventured into the hinterland in search of suitable grazing land, no doubt encouraged by early reports such as that of Irwin (1835) which stated: The interior of Western Australia is particularly valuable for its sheep pastures. These are extensive tracks of undulating surface, covered with short sweet grass, and are found to be admirably suited for Merino flocks. (p. 7)

This movement contributed to the population becoming highly dispersed. In the Swan River Colony “lack of roads, bridges and ports, a small population and distant markets” took their toll (Bosworth, 2004, p. 7), particularly in the first decade of the colony, when it was “near collapse and failure” (Markey, 1976, p. 80). Having such a small and highly dispersed population impeded the ability to provide a comprehensive education system. One way, however, in which the State government eventually addressed this problem, was through the use of distance education. Correspondence lessons for young people preparing to teach were provided from 1903 (Eakins, 1964). The University of Western Australia provided correspondence lessons in Arts and Education Studies from 1923, with the State’s teachers comprising a large proportion of the total external student population at this time (Rayner, 1949; Haynes, et al., 1976). However, it was not until 1970 that Western Australia had a major provider of

38 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

tertiary level correspondence lessons in Murdoch University (Northcott, 1984). Today, all five of the State’s universities provide some courses in distance education mode. With institutions providing an increasing variety of courses there is growing pressure on infrastructure. Increasingly, students have to juggle studies and work, and the flexibility of distance education, or flexible learning, is increasingly desired. An example of the way that these institutions are committed to ongoing improvements in supporting students’ needs is the case of The University of Western Australia which, in 2004, made lectures available via podcasts (Williams & Fardon, 2007), so that students could gain access to lectures at any time of the day or night provided they have access to the internet (Williams & Fardon, 2007). In the area of technical and vocational training, correspondence lessons were available from the Perth Technical School as early as 1910 (Mears, 1979). In time, correspondence students were also able to enrol with a number of the State’s other technical schools. The Technical Correspondence School was established in 1944, initially providing 17 courses. This increased to 38 by the end of that year and by 1959 the school offered 305 subjects (Mears, 1979). In the 1950s, Technical Centres were established in larger country towns and during the 1970s an effort was made to provide some face-to-face contact for geographically remote students (Mears, 1979). The Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Education in Western Australia Beazley (1984) noted that the Technical Extension Service (TES) was catering to the needs of several thousand students and offered a variety of support services. The Committee recommended that the service be expanded and that greater support be given to external students. Perth Technical College worked closely with the Correspondence School at the secondary school level for many years. By working in combination, they were able to make a wide range of academic and technical subjects available for the students (Rayner, 1949). TAFE Western Australia has continued to develop the services it provides (TES Review Group, 1990, point 6) offering a wide range of its units and courses through both face-to-face and correspondence and online modes (TAFE, 2009). Specifically, there has been an increase in the provision of distance education materials to residents of remote communities throughout the State (Byrnes, 1997). Since 1999, WestOne has been given the task of producing resources for VET, K–12 education, and career development, including materials for flexible learning. These materials are available in a variety of formats (WestOne, 2008) and are designed to support the 2005 Australian Flexible Learning Framework which aims to provide those in the “vocational and technical education” (VTE) system with e-learning skills, professional development opportunities, products, resources and support networks (Aus-

CONTEXT • 39

tralian Flexible Learning Framework, 2006). In 2003, WestOne took over the production of SIDE’s educational materials. This was part of DET’s efforts to streamline and rationalise the production of educational materials.

CONCLUSION This chapter began with a review of adult distance education in the international and national arenas. This set the broader context within which the provision of adult distance education in Australia sits. The focus then shifted to an overview of secondary and primary school-level distance education in the international setting, presenting notable cases from around the globe. The chapter continued with a brief history of education in Australia. This set the scene for a narrower focus on the development of secondary and primary level distance education in Australia. Finally, an overview of the history of education in Western Australia was provided. This incorporated a summary of the use of distance education in adult education in Western Australia. As this chapter has demonstrated, distance education has a long history, both internationally and nationally at all levels of education. Such considerations help to contextualize the present circumstances surrounding the provision of school-aged distance education in Western Australia, the focus of the study reported later in this book. Chapter Three will now provide a review of the relevant literature.

CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION Students have been educated via distance mode in various parts of the world for many years (Keegan, 1986; Baggaley, 2008). In recent decades the rise in the number of such students has been dramatic. In particular, there has been an increase in students enrolling in tertiary distance courses. Members of this latter group generally are keen to participate in lifelong learning without the inconvenience of having to physically attend classes at a particular place and time. In many countries, this development has resulted in the establishment and expansion of what has become a major industry, namely the provision of online tertiary courses (Carr-Chellman, 2005; Salas & Fiore, 2007). The increase in the provision of distance education at various levels of education in the 1970s and 1980s led to academic interest in delineating distance education and developing academic theories to underpin the field (Keegan, 1986; Mackenzie & Christensen, 1971; Sewart, Keegan & Holmberg, 1983). In turn, the works of those involved contributed to the strengthening of the practice of distance education and stimulated further academic debate on the topic. Improving the quality of courses and of the The Education of Children in Geographically Remote Regions through Distance Education: Perspectives and Lessons from Australia, pages 41–72 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

41

42 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

teaching and learning experiences for both the instructors and learners became a focus of much of the academic research and literature. The development of information and communication technologies, particularly the recent availability of the internet and associated technologies enabling online courses and distributed learning, has resulted in a flurry of academic literature. In the tertiary sector, the increase in the number of online courses has been described as explosive (Garrison & Anderson, 2003). Indeed, some argue that this has led to a new learning environment, and hence requires the development of new teaching and learning practices (Bennett & Lockyer, 2004; Benson & Samarawickrema, 2007; Pegrumsummarized the field, there is a need to address the fact that the bulk of it, as summarized in such recent collections as those edited by Moore (2007) and Luppicini (2007), or in earlier collections such as those edited by Sewart, Keegan and Holmberg (1983) and Keegan (1993), relates to university education. At the same time, it can be instructive for all levels of education. Thus, it constitutes a significant component of the review in this chapter. The first section of the review considers definitions and theories of distance education. The second part of this chapter provides an overview of various areas which have been the focus of empirical investigations. These areas are distance education pedagogy and technology, distance educators, rural and remote education, and parents of isolated students in Australia. Finally, the third section of the chapter reviews research literature focusing on the provision of distance education in Australia.

DEFINITIONS AND THEORIES OF DISTANCE EDUCATION Definitions of Distance Education As was outlined in Chapter One, a great deal of attention in the literature has been devoted to trying to define distance education. The simple definition is that, “students and teachers are separated by distance and sometimes by time” (Moore & Kearsley, 1996, p. 1). Understandings of exactly what constitutes distance education, however, vary greatly between researchers (Keegan, 1986; Evans & Nation, 2003). Thus, Keegan (1986) claims that a clear definition of the field of distance education is required in order for progress to be made in formulating theoretical underpinnings and “developing guides to good practice” (p. 30). In part, the confusion arises from the fact that there is a range of terms which are used in discussing distance education in its various forms (Garrison, 2000). In the past, distance education has been referred to as “correspondence education” because the educational materials used were primarily printbased and delivered via the postal service. The augmentation of print-based materials with the use of tapes and audio visual media contributed to ini-

LITERATURE REVIEW • 43

tial dissatisfaction with the term correspondence education. The term “distance education” was first used in Europe in the 1960s; however, it was not widely used in English until the 1980s (Moore, 2003). In 1982, the International Council for Correspondence Education decided to change its name to the International Council for Distance Education, to reflect changing practices within the field (Keegan, 1986; Evans & Nation, 2003). Divergence from the term correspondence education occurred largely in response to the use of new technologies and the development of new theories of distance education. Wedeymer (1971) led the move away from the term correspondence education and introduced the term “independent study” (p. 548). This responded to ideas around adult education such as “student autonomy” and “openness in education” (Keegan, 1986). Other terms such as “distance learning” and “distance teaching” were considered (Keegan, 1986) and eventually were dismissed as being inadequate in conveying all the diversity within this form of education, and unresponsive to the importance of both the learner and the teacher in the educational process (Rawson-Jones, 1974). Keegan (1986), however, argued that the term “distance education” was satisfactory in encompassing concepts of distance learning and distance teaching, even though both he and Rawson-Jones (1974) expressed unease with the focus on the distance between the student and the teacher. The new understandings of distance education, combined with the use of new technologies, led to a sudden profusion of terms, which were often used interchangeably, for what was previously referred to as correspondence education. Such terms include “distance education,” “distance teaching,” “distance learning,” “online education,” “web-enabled education,” “distributed learning” (Bryant, Kahle, & Schafer, 2005), “self-directed learning” (Garrison, 1997), “virtual learning environments” (Pavey & Garland, 2004; Trindade, Carmo, & Bidarra, 2000), “e-learning” (Clarke, 2008; McAleese, 2003), “open learning,” “resource-based learning,” “flexible education” (Trindade, 2003), “distributed learning” (Salas & Fiore, 2007), and “open education” (Garrison, 2000). This proliferation of terms created some confusion, in response to which a number of papers sought to clarify exactly what constitutes distance education and to characterise the differences between the various terms. For example, Tallent-Runnels et al. (2006) comment: Because of the inconsistency in terminology used in the research…we recommend some standardization of terms. We suggest that courses taught totally online should be called online courses. Those with an online component added might be called hybrid or blended courses. We call both hybrid, or blended courses and face-to-face courses traditional courses. (p. 115)

44 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Many find Keegan’s seminal definition useful as a base to provide expanded and updated definitions (Bernard, et al., 2004; Moore & Kearsley, 2005). The five key features of distance education which he identified are: 1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

The separation of teacher and learner, The influence of an educational organization in the planning and preparation of learning materials and in providing student support services, The use of technical media in delivering the course content, The provision of two-way communication, and The general absence of learning groups (Keegan, 2002, p. 22–23).

These encompass the many variations of distance education, though some contest the fifth criterion, claiming that it fails to take into account groups of learners who are brought together through technology such as teleconferencing and online interaction (Bernard et al., 2004). Another definition is that of Holmberg (1989b). He summarized distance education as: [V]arious forms of study at all levels which are not under the continuous, immediate supervision of tutors present with their students in lecture rooms or on the same premises, but which nevertheless benefit from the planning, guidance and tuition of a tutorial organisation. (p. 11)

This is a definition which still has relevance and which conforms to Keegan’s five features of distance education. Finally, looking to the future, Kaufman and Watkins (2000) suggested that “distance learning of the future will be defined as the delivery of useful learning opportunities in a form that is responsive to the learners’ requirements at a time and place convenient for the learner” (p. 61). Theories of Distance Education Many of the key theorists and researchers in the field have been influential in both defining distance education and in developing theories of distance education. This fits with Keegan’s (1986) assertion that a clear definition is required for any development to occur in theory or practice. However, a great deal of debate has ensued in an effort to develop a comprehensive definition and corresponding theory to explain the complex phenomenon of distance education. Six individuals have been particularly influential over the past four decades in driving discussion around the development of distance education theory. First, Charles Wedemeyer (1983) recognised that traditional education was dominant and that any other kind of education, including correspondence or distance education, was a kind of “back door learning” (p. 128). In the 1960s, he developed the concept of “independent study” (Go-

LITERATURE REVIEW • 45

kool-Ramdoo, 2008; Keegan, 1986). This broke from the widely accepted concept of correspondence education. This change in terminology recognized a shift from the institution being of central importance to the learner and educational issues being the focus (Garrison, 2000). Wedemeyer’s work criticised the rigidity of correspondence courses and their failure to address the learning needs of individuals. He promoted more flexible practices to address the needs of individual learners (Garrison, 2000). Also, he contributed to the establishment of the British Open University (BOU), an institution which was to greatly influence the development of distance education. Otto Peters also provided a significant contribution with his “industrial production model” of distance education. This model recognised the possibility of adopting industrial production techniques, such as a division of labour and mass production, to effect economies of scale and reduce costs (Peters, 1983). Peters’ work also recognised the way distance education commercialised education (Peters, 2001). His industrial model acknowledged the dominance of structural and organisational concerns over teaching and learning issues. It also highlighted the need to choose between independence and interaction (Garrison, 2000). The proliferation of the computer and the internet in recent years has now made a combination of independent and collaborative learning experiences possible and this is recognised in Peters’ later work (2001), within which he revised his model to include aspects of pedagogy and transactional elements (Gokool-Ramdoo, 2008). Although this is not a theory of teaching or learning, it has had an ongoing influence on approaches to the organisation of distance education (Garrison, 2000). Another academic who has made substantial contributions to the development of distance education theory is Börje Holmberg. The centrepiece of his contributions is the concept of “guided didactic conversation.” He (Holmberg, 1989a) describes this as a “friendly conversation” facilitated by “well-developed self-instructional materials” which results in learners feeling a sense of connectedness, pleasure in learning and motivation to study (p. 43). He sees course developers as having responsibility for this conversation through developing well-written materials (Garrison, 2000). This focus on the learning materials means that the conversation is largely one-way, a situation which has been considered a “weakness” in the theory by some (Garrison, 2000). Desmond Keegan has also discussed the concepts of distance teaching and distance learning (Keegan, 2002). This discussion has a focus on carrying out distance education in a manner which replicates face-to-face education, with a focus on incorporating the teaching and learning interaction into the process (Gokool-Ramdoo, 2008). As discussed earlier, Keegan has also been instrumental in developing a definition of distance education (Keegan, 1986, p. 2002)

46 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Michael Moore has also made considerable and consistent contributions to the discussion and development of the field of distance education primarily through his notion of “transactional distance” (Barbour & Reeves, 2006; Gokool-Ramdoo, 2008). His theory states: [T]here is now a distance between learner and teacher which is not merely geographic but educational and psychological as well. It is a distance in the relationship of the two partners in the educational enterprise. It is a “transactional distance.” (Moore, 1983, p. 155)

Moore (1991, p. 3) suggests that the notion of transactional distance requires “special organizations and teaching procedures.” He describes transactional distance as the psychological space between the instructor and the learner and considers it to be more important than geographical distance (Moore & Kearsley, 2005). It involves the instructor, the learner and the means of communication between the two. It has been argued that this theory combines elements of Peters’ perspective of distance education as a highly structured system and Wedemeyer’s view of a learner-centred system (Gokool-Ramdoo, 2008 ; Moore & Kearsley, 1996). As with the term “distance education,” this theory is not yet globally encompassing, or universally accepted (Barbour & Reeves, 2006; Lowell, 2004; Stein, 2004), but it is one of the most inclusive theories generated to date. A further contribution to the field by Moore is his theory of interaction in distance education. Moore (1989) identifies three types of interaction: interaction between the learner and the subject content; interaction between the learner and the expert, or instructor; and interaction between learners. This theory was widely accepted (Barbour & Reeves, 2006) and others soon expanded upon it. Hillman, Willis, and Gundawardena (1994) contributed the interaction between the learners and the “tools” (learnerinterface) necessary in order to complete a task, while Sutton (2001) introduced the concept of “vicarious interaction,” namely, that which “takes place when a student actively observes and processes both sides of a direct interaction between two other students or between another student and the instructor” (p. 227). With the prevalence of internet-facilitated learning, Anderson and Kuskis (2007) have suggested that teacher-content, teacherteacher, and content-content interaction also need to be considered. Randy Garrison has also been influential in the development of distance education theory. His theory of communication and learner control (Garrison, 2000) has a focus on two way communication between the student and the teacher. Garrison (2000) has criticized the lack of a global, uniting theory of distance education. In this, he is supported by Barbour and Reeves (2006) and Moore (2007). It has been claimed that most of the research on distance education has been conducted without any theoretical underpinnings (Gokool-Ramdoo,

LITERATURE REVIEW • 47

2008; Lee, Driscoll, & Nelson, 2004). Further, it has been suggested that very few practitioners carry out their work with any understanding of theory, but rather are generally technology and finance focused (Garrison, 2000). Indeed, in discussing distance education in the UK, Perraton (1983) once commented that “distance education has managed very well without any theory…And, as practitioners…we have shunned theory, arguing that we were interested only in practice” (p. 34). Jelfs (2008) considers that this is still the case. Overall, Gokool-Ramdoo (2008) argues that Moore’s theory of transactional distance comes closest to achieving the status of a global theory called for by Garrison.

VARIOUS AREAS WHICH HAVE BEEN THE FOCUS OF EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATIONS Pedagogy and Technology This discussion of pedagogy associated with distance education covers three broad and inter-related themes: quality, pedagogy, and technology. There have long been concerns over the quality of distance education. One way of addressing these concerns is through pursuing appropriate pedagogical strategies. Although some might argue that technology is the key to improving the quality of distance education and the educational outcomes achieved, others refute this, arguing that pedagogy is of primary importance. Quality In the past, distance education was seen as being at the periphery of education (Larreamendy-Joerns & Leinhardt, 2006), or was, as Evans and Nation (2003) phrased it, the “Cinderella of education” (para. 8). On this, Lowe (1993) argues that: Distance education has always been the poor relation of the education system. At every level, it has been given inadequate resources, it has often been staffed by conscripts rather than volunteers, and as a consequence it has…often not been targeted most effectively at the particular needs of the distance learner. (p. 7)

Further, Trindade, Carmo and Bidarra (2000) suggest that some dual mode universities tend to give a lower priority to the distance stream. Jelfs (2008), however, claims that distance education is more respected than correspondence education, which some institutions have considered to be just a way of fundraising.

48 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

In sitting outside conventional education, correspondence and distance education have often not been subjected to the same rigour and regulations as conventional education. This has led to a number of poorly conceived distance education courses and has, in turn, resulted in concerns about the quality and standing of distance education (Rumble, 2001). Comments reflecting the low opinion of some recent distance educational practices include the view that many institutions are jumping on “the e-learning bandwagon” (McAleese, 2003, p. 310) and that “students are not gaining a higher education at the moment; they are queuing at a McUniversity drivethrough” (Brabazon, 2002, p. ix) with potential wonders of electronic education increasingly being viewed as a “chimera” (Pegrum, 2007, p. 1). In discussing the post-secondary school situation, Baggaley (2008) states that “to this day distance education tends to be regarded as a second-rate, impersonal education option” (p. 41). In response to such concerns, organizations such as the Commonwealth of Learning (UK), the Distance Education Training Council (USA), and the Open and Distance Learning Association of Australia, actively work to raise the standing and quality of distance education. With the proliferation of new institutions offering distance education courses and with the increasing availability of new technologies and methods of delivering distance education materials, some regulations are required (Garrison, 2000; Jelfs, 2008). On this, Wiesenberg and Stacey (2005) note that despite the dramatic increase in the number of distance courses, there is an “apparent lack of a concomitant improvement in quality, effectiveness, and benefits of online learning” (p. 386). Daniel, Kanwar and UvaliB-TrumbiB (2008) consider there are three pillars to providing quality distance education: providing good quality materials, providing adequate student support, and having good logistics. In the distance education setting these are often strongly tied to the pedagogical practices of an institution. Pedagogy In the design of any course, conventional or distance, adopting the appropriate pedagogy is important. The learning outcomes; what learners will do; how learning will be supported with resources; how assessments, both formative and summative, will be carried out; and how feedback will be provided are critical aspects of pedagogy which need to be considered (Barry & King, 1998; Groundwater-Smith, Brennan, McFadden, Mitchell & Munns, 2009; Kauchak & Eggen, 2008; Oliva, 2009). They are particularly important in the non-contiguous distance education context (Naidu, 2007; Sammons, 2007). It has long been recognized that teaching and learning via distance mode is different from the conventional face-to-face setting. As such, a different pedagogy is required. Naidu (2007) considers that instructional design in

LITERATURE REVIEW • 49

the face-to-face learning environment rests with the teacher, whereas he and other researchers (Henry & Meadows, 2008; Simonson, 2006; Wiesenberg & Stacey, 2005) suggest that in the distance setting it is the responsibility of a team of people, including subject matter experts, instructional designers and media producers. The practice of distance education has changed in recent years, reflecting the shift of focus from “organizational and distance concerns to transactional and educational issues and assumptions” (Garrison, 2000, para. 1). This has mirrored a growing awareness of the importance of social transactions in the teaching and learning process in distance education (Evans & Nation, 2003). As mentioned earlier, Moore (1989) suggests that three levels of interaction must be considered: interaction between the learner and the course content, interaction between learners, and interaction between the learner and the instructor. Learner-to-content interaction has traditionally involved the study of texts and other resources. While materials designed for conventional educational settings are content driven and the students’ interaction with the materials are teacher directed, distance materials are written in a different manner; the author writes “to the student” in the first person (Shearer, 2007), encouraging the learner to interact with the materials. Naidu (2007), however, notes that some distance courses simply replicate face-to-face materials, resulting in “a very poor imitation of conventional classroom practices” leading to frustration on the part of the students and lack of regard for distance education generally (p. 253). This highlights the importance of producing materials specifically designed for the distance learner. Such materials need to be clear and instructions must be unambiguous. Bonk and Dennen (2007) also recommend the use of rubrics to make instructor expectations explicit. Learner-to-learner interaction has rarely been possible for those involved in correspondence education, meaning that they missed out on “the rich educational value of collaborative and cooperative learning” (Anderson & Kuskis, 2007, p. 296). Numerous studies have highlighted the benefits of this interaction (Arbaugh & Benbunan-Fich, 2007; Benson & Samarawickrema, 2007; Simonson, 2006; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006). The development of new technologies has facilitated learner-learner interaction, which has allowed online distance education to move beyond the notion of distance education being a form of independent study and instead to be education at a distance (Anderson & Kuskis, 2007). Similarly, Swan, Shea, Fredericksen, Pickett, Pelz, and Mayer (2000, p. 379) emphasize the importance in the online learning environment of “dynamic discussion” between learners. This helps learners develop a sense of community which is recognized as contributing to learner success (Brown & Duguid, 2000; Rovai, 2002).

50 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

A number of researchers have suggested that the quality of the interaction is higher in the asynchronous environment as participants have time to consider their contributions to the discussion (Simonson, 2006; TallentRunnels et al., 2006; Wiesenberg & Stacey, 2005). Blignaut and Trollip (2003) and Garrison and Cleveland-Innes (2005) recommend that if learner-learner interaction is included in a course, primary importance should be given to ensuring that collaborative work is based on good pedagogical design and that a strong teaching presence should be perceptible. Anderson and Kuskis (2007), however, argue that individual study is what draws some individuals to enrol in distance courses and that they do not want to interact with others. Interaction between the learner and instructor is important in relation to such pedagogical factors as motivation and the provision of feedback in both conventional and distance settings (Anderson & Kuskis, 2007). It is of particular importance in the distance setting. The instructor needs to make students feel connected through engaging in frequent and constructive dialogue with them (Arbaugh & Benbunan-Fich, 2007; Simonson, 2006; Swan et al., 2000; Wiesenberg & Stacey, 2005). Instructors must ask questions, encourage knowledge building, engage in reflective learning practices and discussions, and provide constructive feedback. Trindade, Carmo, and Bidarra (2000) emphasise the importance of “reducing the distance,” that is, ensuring that the length of time between dispatch of materials and their arrival, receipt of assignments and their return to students, and the asking of a question and the receipt of an answer, should all be as brief as possible. They suggest that stringent systems are necessary to achieve this, particularly when distance education institutions are dealing with very large numbers of students. It is particularly important that students receive prompt feedback, enabling them to feel confident in continuing with the work and not go on replicating mistakes (Ashton & Elliot, 2007; Henry & Meadows, 2008; Naidu, 2007). On this, it has been suggested that responding to students’ online work is “labour intensive” (Dahl, 2003; Guri-Rosenblit, 2005, p. 275) and “more time consuming than ever thought possible” (Ashton & Elliot, 2007, p. 179). Further, within the distance learning environment it is necessary to find a balance between learner autonomy and the degree of structure provided in terms of pacing, sequencing, and timing of assessment. Too much structure negates the benefits of flexibility, whilst too little may leave the learner floundering (Shearer, 2007). Distance education has required a rethinking of educational design (Govindasamy, 2002; Kapitzke & Pendergast, 2005). It is now recognized that in the distance setting designers must consider the learners and their context, the learning outcomes, the subject matter content, the learners’ engagement with the subject matter, interaction among learners, suitable media, and evaluation of the learning and teaching processes (Henry &

LITERATURE REVIEW • 51

Meadows, 2008; Naidu, 2007; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006). Further, instructors must ensure that a variety of activities and materials are incorporated into a course along with “alternative representations of concepts” to accommodate different learning styles (Ally, 2004; Keeler, 2006; Shearer, 2007, p. 221). Although such factors are important in the conventional educational setting, they require considerable consideration in the distance setting where the diverse contexts of the students must also be considered (Anderson & Kuskis, 2007; Benson & Samarawickrema, 2007). However, Shearer (2007) recommends the content and learning outcomes must remain set for a course to have any validity. Trindade, Carmo and Bidarra (2000) consider that distance and face-toface pedagogies are converging. On this, Rumble (2001) concurs, stating “differences between distance and traditional approaches to teaching are eroding” (p. 31). In part, this has occurred as a result of developments in technology. It is not simply because technology is facilitating synchronous communication, including group work, but also because the use of the computers and the web in classrooms is leading to students in conventional educational settings becoming more autonomous learners. Technology Garrison (2000) and Barbour and Reeves (2006) contend that technology rather than pedagogy has driven many developments in distance education. Certainly there has been a strong desire to incorporate technology into many distance education courses, sometimes with little regard as to its benefits. In some countries this has created issues related to access to education, rather than, as heralded, increased access (Baggaley, 2008). The incorporation of technology for its own sake, rather than as a result of consideration of the most appropriate technology and effective ways of incorporating its use into the teaching and learning process, has resulted in many unsuccessful courses. As a result, the reality of the use of technology in distance education has been less glowing than the hype (Alanis, 2004; Benseman, 1999; Pegrum, 2007). Distance education technology has evolved through five generations (Bernard et al., 2004). The first generation, correspondence education, was provided in the form of print-based materials despatched through the postal system. The second generation was still dispatched through the post, but incorporated multi-media, including print-based materials and audio and visual technologies. The third generation included synchronous communication facilitated through the use of telecommunications. The fourth and fifth generations of distance education technology are both based on the use of the internet, with the fifth generation aiming to optimise the educational opportunities offered by the web and the internet.

52 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

The online learning environment has facilitated the use of an increased range of activities in distance education. Oliver and his colleagues (Oliver & McLoughlin, 1999; Reeves, Herrington, & Oliver, 2004) have identified a number of instructional strategies to encourage students to engage in articulation, collaboration, intentional learning and goal setting, while Bonk and Dennen (2007) have focused on the kinds of activities that are possible in the online environment: motivation and icebreaking, critical thinking, creative thinking and collaborative learning and provide a sample of possible activities for each. This recognises that the web and other resources are more than just tools for delivery of content, but that students are able to engage with them (Evans & Nation, 2003), resulting in a “richer learning experience” (Shearer, 2007, p. 219). This development of internet-based technologies has demanded a “rethink” of the pedagogy, with interaction and dialogue becoming increasingly important (Evans & Nation, 2003). Shearer (2007) contends that discussions within synchronous contiguous learning environments must be “well orchestrated to enable the learner to meet the learning outcomes” (p. 223). He goes on to suggest that factors such as gender, class, and culture are as influential in distance learning environments as in face-to-face learning environments, and instructors must be mindful of this. Bonk and Dennen (2007) also stress the need for guidelines as to appropriate pedagogy for online teaching and learning. They suggest that the instructor must act as a facilitator, engaging students in guided discussions. Further, they consider that online instructors must fulfil a number of roles: organisational, for example providing objectives, timelines and clarifying rules for online postings; social, such as welcoming students, providing prompt feedback and developing a friendly and welcoming environment; and intellectual, including asking questions, and focusing discussion. There is a flipside to the perceived benefits of online education. In the rush to incorporate technology in distance courses, pedagogical considerations have not always been taken into account. Brabazon (2002) argues that “money has been poured into online teaching, as a solution for overcrowded lecture theatres and laboratories” and suggests that this was done without thought for the needs of the learners (p. xi). In explaining her own foray into online teaching, Mandernach (2006) describes how she incorporated a “smorgasbord of jazzy supplements with little thought placed on their value, role and importance within an educational context” (p. 7), which ultimately created problems for her students and an increased “trouble shooting” role for her. A further consideration is that increased interactivity reduces the number of students an instructor can be responsible for, hence, reducing the economies of scale so often sought in distance education (Shearer, 2007). Also, incorporating more interactive activities potentially reduces the flexibility of the educational program (Daniel, Kan-

LITERATURE REVIEW • 53

war, & UvaliB-TrumbiB, 2008) as the inclusion of collaborative synchronous discussion in a course locks students into particular “lesson” times. As a result, print remains the most versatile medium for many (Shearer, 2007), providing greatest access and cost efficiency. In 1995, Bates (1995) asserted that “print is, and will remain, a most important technology for open and distance teaching” (p. 137), over a decade later this was still considered to be the case (Guri-Rosenblit, 2005; Shearer, 2007). There is a substantial body of literature regarding the “No Significant Difference” phenomenon. This relates both to the difference between conventional and distance education (Pittman, 1997) and the impact of various technologies used in distance education (Russell, 2001). Clark (1994) has argued that media do not influence learning, but rather, that “learning is caused by the instructional methods embedded in the media presentation” (p. 26). On this, Gayne, Briggs, and Wager (1992) agree, stating that media are “the vehicle for the communication and stimulation that make up instruction” (p. 205). Many other researchers concur with this view (Ally, 2004; Arbaugh & Benbunan-Fich, 2007; Benson & Samarawichrema, 2007; Diaz, 2000; Henry & Meadows, 2008; Simonson, 2006; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006). Clark (Russell, 2001, Foreword) points out that three generations of distance educators have written hundreds, if not thousands, of articles debating the “No Significant Difference” phenomenon. Russell (2001), in compiling his work covering 80 years of comparative research, claimed to have found almost no research indicating a significant difference. In the subsequent eight years, further research has added to this body of literature (Frydenberg, 2007; Neuhauser, 2002; Reeves, 2005; Russell, 2005; Shen, Chung, Challis & Cheung, 2007; Zhao, Lei, Yan, Lai & Tan, 2005). Bernard et al. (2004) conducted a meta-analysis of the comparative literature (1985–2002) and concluded that much of the research conducted had been of poor quality. On this, Anderson and Kuskis (2007) conclude that “the challenge of conducting research in situ that meaningfully isolates the confounding variable of design, media, content, context, learners, and measurement is an extremely challenging task” (p. 300). It should not be considered, however, that there is no purpose in exploring uses of technology to enhance educational experiences. Rather, the case seems to be that the use of technology is not enough in and of itself. Instead, it must be supported by appropriate pedagogy (Ally, 2004; Wiesenberg & Stacey, 2005).

DISTANCE EDUCATORS At the Tertiary Level As a result of the tremendous increase in the number of institutions delivering online courses, concerns have been expressed regarding the

54 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

“McDonaldization of higher education” resulting in poorly considered and poor quality educational provision (Rumble, 2001, p. 33). As was explained earlier in this chapter, adopting the appropriate pedagogy is considered key to the success of distance programs (Lai, Pratt, & Grant, 2003). To a large extent this hinges on the training and skills of the educators. It has been argued that online education is substantially different from conventional education and, hence, needs to be responded to accordingly through adopting an appropriate pedagogy (Clark, Butler, Schmidt-Hansen & Somerville, 2004; Govindasamy, 2002; Henry & Meadows, 2008; Schrum, 1995). The teacher cannot simply walk from a face-to-face classroom and deliver the same lesson in the online environment. In the same way, traditional distance lessons should not merely be replicated in the online environment. The teachers need training, or professional development, to enable adjustment to the new teaching environment. Few staff, however, have the opportunity to develop the requisite skills. Rather, they are often thrown into “the deep end” of teaching in the distance environment (Conole & Fill, 2005). Henry and Meadows (2008) confirm that “teachers with little or no online experience have been venturing out of their classrooms and into the virtual world, some by choice; some by assignment” (para. 1). In response to resultant poorly conceived distance programs, it has been recommended that there is a need for specific training for teaching staff (Bean & Tuovinen, 2005; Conole & Fill, 2005). Investing in professional development, ongoing support from experienced practitioners, and time for teachers to adapt to the online environment, are deemed worthwhile and result in a better quality learning experience (Hinson & LaPrairie, 2005; Wiesenberg & Stacey, 2005; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006; Wilson & Stacey, 2004; Simonson, 2006). Conole and Fill (2005) recommend that organisations provide a “toolkit,” containing guidelines and resources for practitioners. Other distance educators are provided with specific training as some institutions have begun offering courses on teaching in the online environment. For example, in Western Australia, Edith Cowan University runs a Graduate Certificate in Online Teaching and Learning (Herrington & Oliver, 2001). Wilson and Stacey (2004) suggest it is useful to have such training online to provide educators with the experience of being online learners themselves, while Thach and Murphy (1995) recommend having educators enrol in any online course for the same reason. Mentoring programs are also recommended (Ingram & Thompson, 2001; Thach & Murphy, 1995; Wilson & Stacey, 2004) to provide ongoing support. In distance education there has been a shift from an organisational focus to a learner-focused constructivist approach (Holmberg, 1989a; Thorpe, 1998) which has required a change in the way teachers deliver educational programs. The benefits of collaborative learning are widely understood

LITERATURE REVIEW • 55

(Thorpe, 1998). It is recognised that interaction, both between the teacher and the learner, and between learners, raises the quality of distance learning (Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006; Trentin, 2000; Wilson & Stacey, 2004). The inclusion of collaborative activities requires that teachers give careful thought to designing and incorporating collaborative activities into their courses (Conole & Fill, 2005). One particular challenge is to encourage students to participate in collaborative activities without teacher intervention (Conole & Fill, 2005). In 1995, it was reported that no comprehensive study had been conducted on distance education competencies (Thach & Murphy, 1995). In their research, Thach and Murphy (1995) identified a number of skills as being critical. Subsequent research has contributed to greater understanding of the competencies in which distance educators need proficiency (Ashton & Elliot, 2007; Bennett & Lockyer, 2004; Gunn, 2001; Wilson & Stacey, 2004). For example, good planning has been identified as important to preventing many problems and reducing time subsequently spent solving them (Kozalka & Ganesan, 2004; Wiesenberg & Stacey, 2005). Careful consideration must also be given to the pacing of work and the framing and timing of assessment tasks (Thorpe, 1998). Distance educators must have empathy for the distance learner (Holmberg, 1989). For example, Evans and Nation (2003) suggest that distance educators need to understand the impact of technology on learners. They point to research which shows that many students had little experience with technology; it is changing so fast that the staff perhaps have professional development, but the students do not. This highlights another skill required of distance educators, namely, strong IT skills and an ability to solve technical problems experienced by the students (Thach & Murphy, 1995). Further, students can suffer from information overload as they have access to such vast resources in the online environment. Distance educators need to provide appropriate support and guidance in terms of which materials or sources are of use (Conole & Fill, 2005). Until recently, problems posed by students cheating and plagiarising have been a particular problem in the distance environment. Jocoy and DiBiase (2006) recommend that educators must be vigilant against this. However, there are now software programs that can scan students work for plagiarised materials. In their research Jocoy and DiBiase (2006) observed that using manual methods teachers identified plagiarised material in 3% of assignments, while the program Turnitin picked up 13% in the same assignments. At the Kindergarten to Year 12 Level There are elements of the discussion in the previous section that can inform the work of Kindergarten to Year 12 (K–12) distance educators. This is particularly necessary as very little research has focused specifically on

56 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

K–12 distance educators. The following discussion will primarily focus on the Australian setting. Distance education methods were first employed in Australia in response to the needs of its rural and isolated inhabitants. As early as 1900 a School Inspector in New South Wales was worried about the plight of isolated students under his jurisdiction and began to write lessons, which were sent by post, for the students (McNab, 1997). Since then, there has been very little research into the needs of students and factors which might influence their ability to learn (Tomlinson, Coulter & Peacock, 1985). Equally there has been a lack of research into the requisite skills of distance educators. There is a focus on mass education in higher distance education (Keeler, 2006), while in K–12 distance education in Australia there is a focus on the individual. From the inception of K–12 distance education in Australia, the variety of students enrolled in the courses has continued to increase (Bowden, 1993) and this has required adaptation on the part of the distance education providers and the teachers to ensure that the needs of the students are met. The breadth of students catered for requires provision of instruction and materials appropriate to their individual needs and learning styles (Keeler, 2006). Further, developments in technology have also impacted on the way teachers work (Crump, 2008). As the teachers rarely, if ever, meet their students, and rarely see the student’s home and study environment, this can hinder their understanding of their students’ capabilities (Sungaila, 1981). The students have many skills relevant to the environment in which they live (Bääth, 1982) and it can be difficult for teachers to appreciate this. Further, Yourn (2003) suggests that not all distance educators recognise the impact of the study environment on a student’s ability to study successfully. The students’ study areas can be far from ideal and this can impact on their academic achievement (Heyneman, 1983). A case in point was a student of the Open Access College in South Australia who lived in a car. Teachers need to consider this in encouraging a student with his or her work. This reflects the point made by Holmberg (1989) that distance educators need to have empathy for their students and demonstrate an awareness of the conditions in which their students work (Walker, 1975). It has been claimed that for generations distance education programs were designed without any real knowledge of how isolated students learn (Tomlinson, Coulter, & Peacock, 1985). Stevens (1994) points to gaps in our knowledge about how geographically isolated students learn and how the use of new technologies impacts on them and their learning. As the field of distance education for school-age children has received very little attention there are numerous aspects of it about which very little is known. The development of such a body of literature could inform the pedagogy and the preparation of the teachers for this particular setting. One step

LITERATURE REVIEW • 57

towards addressing this deficit was the Project to Investigate Improving Literacy and Numeracy Outcomes of Distance Education Students in the Early Years of Schooling (Dole et al., 2005) which investigated issues of support for distance education students in the early years of their schooling in rural and remote areas. On the issue of support for students learning at home, Lines (1996) posed the question: “would the same children … do better or worse in home schooling than in a public or private school classroom?”(p. 66). This question is also relevant to the distance education scene which Hunter (1994) argues is a form of state-sponsored home schooling. Such knowledge is important in enabling distance educators to address their students’ needs. At the same time, there is now an increased awareness in distance education of the needs of the adult isolated learner and although these learners are operating with a greater degree of autonomy than school-aged learners, some broad notions in terms of required and appropriate support can be useful in the K–12 setting. As was explained in relation to the post-secondary setting, distance educators must have particular skills in addition to the usual skills required of teachers. At the K–12 level, teachers have a significant pastoral care role, in addition to their teaching and administrative duties (Beagley, 1993; Forlin & Tierney, 2006). As well as providing support for their students, teachers need to support and give advice to the home supervisors, though recent research suggests that home supervisors consult each other in the first instance (Green, 2006; Yourn, 2003). In order to provide support for home supervisors, teachers must be effective communicators and reduce their use of educational jargon (Harley, 1985) in both synchronous and asynchronous modes (Ashton & Elliot, 2007). In regard to oral communication skills, the teachers must be able to speak clearly and concisely and to provide information and advice that is free of ambiguity (Hockley, 1985). During the era of the HF radio, the SOTA teachers had the additional pressure of knowing that anyone could be listening to their lessons and that if they made a mistake people would be quick to let them know it (Fitzpatrick, 1983a). An associated skill which is considered to be important is the ability to communicate effectively with students and adults alike (Harley, 1985). In reflecting on her own experience as a TAGS (Talented and Gifted Student) teacher at the Meekatharra SOTA, Dowden (2009) emphasized that she worked as part of a team, working with the class teacher and the home supervisor, requiring an ability to grade her use of educational terms accordingly. The distance context requires more than communication skills, however, but also an ability to build relationships as expressed by Rayner (1949) 50 years ago: All who have had anything to do with the work of the correspondence schools agree that the most pleasing and perhaps the most essential aspect of their

58 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

activities is to be found in the friendly personal relationships existing between teachers, pupils, and parents. The correspondence teachers know the pupils whom they have never or rarely seen, better than the average teacher of the city class knows his or her pupils. It is possible to conceive of correspondence work being carried on in a stiff, formal and impersonal manner, but it is impossible to suppose that such work would have achieved anything like the numerical and educational success which has come to the Australian correspondence schools. (p. 57)

In a report in 1988, on the future of the Western Australian DEC, Hull and Dean (1988) recommended that the way to revitalise distance education in Western Australia was by providing high quality teaching and opportunities for teachers to improve their pedagogical skill in distance teaching. Shah (1995) advocated taking into consideration the demographic, cultural, economic and structural context within which a teacher will be working when planning teacher training. Hockley (1985) and Home (1993) both proposed that there was a need for careful selection and training of distance education teachers. Teacher quality can have an important impact on students’ learning outcomes (Avalos, 1980; Bacchus, 1996). An experimental training course conducted by Koul (1984) in which 58 teacher trainers received 30 hours of training in distance teaching demonstrated this. The researcher considered that, although these were highly qualified and experienced teachers, at the conclusion of the course the participants were more effective distance educators.

RURAL AND REMOTE EDUCATION Definitions of Rural, Remote and Isolated When conducting a survey of the literature available on rural and remote education the first difficulty encountered is arriving at a firm definition of the terms ‘rural’ and ‘remote’ (Hardré, 2009; Keegan, 1980). Most studies on rural and remote education include a definition of these terms, but they all differ depending on the author’s particular bias and the focus of the research (Barrie & Tomlinson, 1985; Davis, 1987; Higgins, 1993; Kannapel & De Young, 1999; MCEETYA, 2001; Ministerial Review of Schooling in Rural Western Australia, 1994; Moriarty, Danaher, & Danaher, 2003; Smith & Smith, 2009; Stevens & Mason, 1994; Sungaila, 1981; Turney, Sinclair, & Cairns, 1980). This has resulted in an “atmosphere of conceptual chaos” (Cobbold, 2006, p. 455). Arnold, Newman, Gaddy, and Dean (2005) demonstrate the dramatic impact this can have upon the scope of the discussion, suggesting that depending on the definition of rural, 1.1 million or 11.6 million students in the USA are considered to be enrolled in rural schools.

LITERATURE REVIEW • 59

In simplistic terms, “rural” and “remote” are used to describe areas that are not urban. Various descriptors such as population density, distance from other centres, community size, and the degree of isolation from an urban centre have been used to try to provide a reliable method of defining “rural” and “remote” (McShane & Walton, 1990). Howley, Theobold and Howley (2005, p. 1) argue that “the rural in rural is not most significantly the boundary around it, but the meanings inherent in rural lives, wherever lived”, while d’Plesse (1993, p. 13) contends “the correlation between distance and evidence of remoteness of populations is not necessarily linear.” Similarly, understandings of the term “isolated” have been reconsidered in recent years. Although isolated students were previously thought of simply in terms of geographical isolation—students whose homes were situated a significant distance from any towns and associated facilities such as schools—this is no longer the case (Squires, 2003). Now, students who are considered to be isolated may even live in urban areas. Current understandings of “isolated” in regard to students include those who are in hospital or in prison, or those students who are “allergic” to the modern world. In short, it relates to those who are unable to attend a conventional school and are cut off from a normal daily interaction with the world around them. For many students who are geographically isolated, the nature of their isolation has changed. Fitzpatrick (1983a) suggests that, in the past they had few opportunities to go to town and interact with other people; however, there was usually a small community on each station (ranch). Now, with more modern and efficient means of doing the work on the station, the students may not have contact with the variety of workers and workers’ families that they once did. On the other hand, with improvements in transport and communication infrastructure, they often have increased opportunities to communicate with individuals outside of their immediate environment. In response to this a number of authors (Cobbold, 2006; Hardré, 2009; Moriarty, et al., 2003) recommend flexibility in conceptualising terms such as rural and isolated, rather than adhering to fixed definitions. This is supported by the work of Wallace and Boylan (2007) which recognises that rural environments are constantly changing. The International Situation In a number of countries around the world there have been concerns regarding the educational opportunities afforded rural and remote students (Cobbold, 2006; Stevens, 1994). In the USA, The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (Hursch, 2004) stimulated and influenced subsequent research into rural education. Arnold et al. (2005), for example, reviewed literature on K–12 rural education in the USA. They noted that although there are challenges which are common to many schools, both rural and urban, such as increasingly diverse student bodies with diverse learning styles and

60 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

needs, increased accountability, and increased competition for funding, rural schools face additional challenges of isolation and difficulties in attracting skilled teachers. They claim that in order to address these issues appropriate research is necessary, but that limited funding is available for such research, hence, very little research has been conducted. One study which responds to this call looked at high performing high needs rural schools in the USA in order to ascertain why they were successful (Barley & Beesley, 2007). Factors identified included a strong relationship with the community, high teacher retention rates and high expectations of the students. In New Zealand the nature of rural communities is changing, with many becoming smaller and services becoming more restricted (Yates, 2001). At the same time, there has been a shift in the focus of education to lifelong learning (Benseman, 2006) and this at a time of teacher shortage (Meyenn, 2001). Canada (Barbour, 2007; Barter, 2008; Corbett, 2009; Mulcahy, 2009; Wallin, 2008; Yarrow, Herschell, & Millwater, 1999) and the UK (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2004) face similar issues in regards to rural education. Likewise, many less developed nations are challenged in providing educational facilities for their rural students (Cobbold, 2006; Cuervo, 2005; Im, 2009; Pandy, 2006; Perraton, 2007). A number of factors have been identified as contributing to concerns for the educational needs of rural and isolated students. Key issues associated with rural and isolated education include poor facilities and infrastructure (Khupe, Keane, & Cameron, 2009; Ogier, 2007), difficulty in retaining staff (Gibson, 1994; Hardré, 2009; Ogier, 2007), inexperienced staff (Kannapel & De Young, 1999; Sharplin, 2009), limited curriculum choice (Stevens, 1994), a lack of relevant curriculum choices (Bartholomaeus, 2009; Sher & Sher, 1994), and lack of access to public facilities such as libraries, art galleries and cinemas (Fitzpatrick, 1983a). These are all factors which can impact on the students’ ability to learn. Preparation specific to teaching in rural and remote schools has been proposed as one way of improving the circumstances of rural education (Boylan, 2004; Yarrow, Ballantyne, Hansford, Herschell, & Millwater, 1999). However, this is rarely provided to a desirable level. There is a body of literature which warns against conceptualizing rural as being deficient compared to urban (Moriarty, Danaher, & Danaher, 2003). This is sometimes referred to as the “rural deficit model” (Cobbold, 2006; Cornish, 2009). Evans (2003) highlights the flawed binary which frames rural as “the negative (poor, unsophisticated, undeveloped) corollary of the urban (rich, sophisticated, developed)” (p. 170), arguing that this dualism is too sweeping. This should not be construed as meaning that there are no challenges in providing educational services for students in rural locations, simply that the situation is not one of a clear division. A number of authors (Bessant, 1978; Boylan, 1993; Christie, 2005; Doeke, 1987; Wallace &

LITERATURE REVIEW • 61

Boylan, 2007) point to the danger of assuming that improving educational opportunities for rural and remote students means providing them with an urban-based education. As has already been discussed, it is important to consider the context and needs of the students (Coffey, 1998; Cornish, 2009; Khupe, Kean, & Cameron, 2009; Kielland & Rosati, 2008; Lieten, de Groot, van Wieren, de Lange & Roschanski, 2007; Tierney & Galloway, 2007). Despite this, and despite the almost universal recognition of the value of preparing teachers for rural and remote experiences (Halsey, 2009; Lock, 2008; Roberts & Lean, 2005; Sharplin, 2008, 2009; Wallace & Boylan, 2007) there has been little in the way of progress in addressing the needs of rural students, or of preparing teachers for the realities and needs of students in these schools (Boylan, 2004; Gibson, 1994; Hardré, 2009; HREOC, 2000a; Hudson & Hudson, 2008; Lock, 2007; Roberts, 2005; Yarrow, Herschell, & Millwater, 1999), with few institutions providing experiences for beginning teachers which prepare them for the rural experience. On this, the National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education in Australia (HREOC, 2000b) observed that “most teacher training does not adequately equip new recruits with the skills and knowledge needed for teaching in rural and remote Australia” (p. 43). In addition, there are often limited opportunities for professional development for teachers in rural and remote locations (Mulcahy, 2009; Pegg, 2009; Steketee & McNaught, 2007). Research also indicates that even when professional development opportunities are made available, teachers are not always able to take advantage of them as there are no relief staff, or the distances or costs of participating are too great (Lyons, Cooksey, Panizzon, Parnell, & Pegg, 2006; Cornish, 2009). The Australian Situation The situation in Australia reflects this broader global context. The challenges inherent in providing educational services to a small population in a country the size of Australia have already been detailed in Chapter Two. The National Framework for Rural and Remote Education (MCEETYA, 2001) contended that “remote and isolated locations provide the greatest challenges for improving the provision of education options” (p. 4). The challenges are, perhaps, increasing as the Australian Bureau of Statistics reports that the nation’s rural population is shrinking, from 42% in 1911 to 12% in 2006 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009). As early as 1892, it was noted that traditionally urban students have had advantages not enjoyed by their rural counterparts (Haynes, et al., 1976). A large proportion of the nation’s population lived either in small towns or on remote farms and the rural population boomed during the years of the Gold Rush in Victoria in the 1850s or, in the case of Western Australia, in the 1890s. The plight of these children was brought to the attention of the relevant authorities primarily through the letters sent by dissatis-

62 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

fied parents, and official government reports (Haynes, Barrett, Brennan, & Brennan, 1976; Rankin, 1926; Rayner, 1949; Turney, 1975). Evidence of the challenges in educating these children can be found in Austin (1961), Haynes, et al. (1976), Turney (1975) and many other works on the history of Australian education. In 1926, Rankin (1926) made frequent mention of the particular needs of rural students in Western Australia. Fifty years later, the Senate Standing Committee on Education and the Arts (Davidson, 1976) issued a report on the Education of Isolated Children in which it was concluded that “the problems relating to the education of children living in the isolated areas of Australia have been shown to be serious, diverse and widespread” (p. 46). As recently as 2000, two reports highlighted the problems faced by rural students and expressed concerns that the quality of their education was not as high as that provided for their urban counterparts (Australian National Framework for Rural and Remote Education, MCEETYA, 2001; National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education, HREOC, 2000a). Six main areas of interest were reported: rural and remote students; availability and accessibility of schools; schooling quality; students with disabilities; indigenous students; and the human rights approach (HREOC, 2000a). Rural and isolated students are often considered together. However, whatever difficulties are faced by rural students, they are generally more significant for geographically isolated students (MCEETYA, 2001). It has been reported that the further students are located from a large metropolitan area, the poorer their educational outcomes are likely to be (Thomson, Creswell & De Bortolli, 2004). The results of the 2008 National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) demonstrated this, with rural and remote students consistently achieving lower scores than metropolitan and urban-based students. There is very little knowledge about how these isolated students learn and what factors influence their ability to learn (Tomlinson, Coulter & Peacock, 1985; Stevens, 1994). More specifically, there is a lack of knowledge on how distance students’ level of academic achievement would differ if they were in a conventional classroom (Lines, 1996). Boylan and Wallace (2000) have stated that “technology is an essential ingredient in the provision of equitable access to educational opportunities for rural and isolated students” (p. 60). As was noted in the discussion on the use of technology in the post-secondary setting, it is important that technology is used judiciously and in combination with appropriate pedagogy and consideration of the needs and context of the students. A number of researchers have reported programs which are linking rural and isolated schools and students through the use of communication technologies (Boylan, Wallace, & Richmond, 2000; Jamieson, 2007; Moes, 2000; Murray & Gardner, 1998; Smith & Smith, 2009). All report that, despite some techni-

LITERATURE REVIEW • 63

cal difficulties, the benefits are significant. These benefits include reducing isolation, incorporating interactive activities, and providing students with more challenging tasks. Darnell (1993) reports that “it can be shown historically that interest in rural schools is cyclical, that is, we go through periods during which it is hard to arouse concern for the problems of rural education; at other times there are intense bursts of attention to the subject” (p. 3). In recent years the education of children in rural areas has become an important equity issue. The quality of education that rural students receive has been the focus of independent studies, educational conferences, international reports and State government reports (MCEETYA, 2007; Ministerial Review of Schooling in Rural Western Australia, 1994; Panizzon & Pegg, 2007; Pegg, 2009; Riley, 1993; Rural and Remote Education Advisory Services, 2000; Stokes, Stafford & Holdsworth, 1999; Young, 1998). Additionally, there are a number of publications devoted to the topic, including the Journal of Research in Rural Education and Education in Rural Australia. A further important source of information on rural and remote educational issues in Australia can be found in the conference proceedings of the Society for the Provision of Education in Rural Australia (SPERA). SPERA has held annual conferences across Australia since 1987. The conferences have each had specific themes that reflect localised concerns and serve as an opportunity for the wider community to promote educational services and remain informed of developments in rural Australian education. While many of the contributions are not based on rigorous academic research, issues, developments, and initiatives are reported from the perspectives of wider stakeholders of rural, remote and distance education. These include academics, parents, community groups, government officials and industry experts. Recent conference themes have included “Our Stories: Innovation and Excellence in Rural Education” (2005), “Community, Diversity and Innovation in Rural and Remote Education” (2006), “Collaboration for Success” (2007), “The Face of Learning: Generation M” (2008), and “Education in a Digital Present” (2009). A search of the literature on rural education in Australia shows a current focus on teachers and principals, rather than on students. Articles such as “Principals on L-plates: Rear View Mirror Reflections” (Wildy & Clark, 2008), “Leadership in Australian Rural Schools: Bush Track, Fast Track” (Graham, Patterson, & Miller, 2008), and “The Small Rural School Principalship: Key Challenges and Cross-School Responses” (Starr & White, 2008) address the challenges and advantages of taking up a principal’s position in a rural school. Other authors have focused on the challenges for teachers in rural schools. Areas of concern include attracting and retaining teachers (Auh & Pegg, 2009; Boylan & McSwan, 1998; Campbell & Blake, 2009; Cobbold, 2006; Roberts, 2005; Sharplin, 2002, 2007). Others yet again have

64 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

focused on the challenges for beginning teachers in rural schools (Barter, 2008; Boylan, 2004, 2005; Hudson & Hudson, 2008; King, Masson, Pritchard, & Bell, 2001; Sharplin, 2008). A further area of interest has been the post-secondary options for individuals in rural locations (Collins, Kenway & McLeod, 2000; Ellis, Cooper, & Sawyer, 2001; James et al., 1999; Wooller & Warner, 2001). SiMERR Australia (the National Centre of Science, Information and Communication Technology, and Mathematics Education for Rural and Regional Australia) has highlighted the need for an integrated approach to addressing issues of rural education. This includes authorities responsible for education, health, infrastructure, regional development, and social services collaborating; a whole of government response. In regard to education in particular, it is recommended that “those conditions seen as limiting the learning outcomes of students in rural Australia…be identified and addressed so that all Australian students have the opportunity to achieve their academic potential” (Pegg, 2009, p. 34). More specifically, a small number of studies have examined rural and remote education in Western Australia. Generally, issues associated with the education of the State’s rural and remote students reflect the broader Australian context with areas of concern including provision of appropriate facilities, inexperienced teaching staff, difficulty in retaining and supporting teaching staff, and limited access to public facilities. The Ministerial Review of Schooling in Rural Western Australia (1994) was concerned with the differences in performances between urban and rural students and the causes of those differences. On a more positive note, the work of Murray and Gardner (1998) evaluated the Academic Talent Program which was delivered from a Perth metropolitan school to two rural secondary schools via videoconferencing. The author concluded that this technology had great potential in addressing the educational needs of the State’s rural students. In 1998 this program won the International Teleconferencing Award (T.H.E. Journal, 1998). In 2000 the Rural and Remote Education Advisory Council released the Country Roads: Pathways to a Better Education and Training for Rural and Remote Western Australia 2000-2003 report. Lake (2000) suggested: The issues or priorities identified in Country Roads are the same as those that we have been discussing and have been troubling educators over the past 10, 20, 30, or more years. The depressing fact is that education in rural and remote Australia is characterized more by concern and effort than by actual achievement. (p. 241)

This supports a document instigated by the Parent Education Movement in 1944, which highlighted the aforementioned issues in rural education (King, 1944). More recently, the work of Daniels (2007) indicates that cir-

LITERATURE REVIEW • 65

cumstances for rural teachers in Western Australia are still in need of attention; this could be assumed to have a flow-on effect to the students. He cites issues such as accommodation problems, heavy workloads and teaching roles beyond the experience of the teachers. Research by Sharplin (2009) found that half of her 29 study participants were placed in incongruent roles. According to other research (Hart, 1994; Lock, 2007), this would significantly increase the teachers’ stress levels and impact on their ability to work effectively. A number of projects which were designed to address these issues and provide professional development to rural teachers in Western Australia have been reported (Broadley, Boyd & Terry, 2009; Reading, 2009; Steketee & McNaught, 2007). Two of these projects (Broadley, Boyd & Terry, 2009; Steketee & McNaught, 2007) utilized videoconferencing technology to provide professional development opportunities for teachers in rural and remote schools. The other project provided professional support and professional links for teachers in remote Western Australian schools through social computing (Reading, 2009). Interestingly, the importance of such links was noted over one hundred years ago when it was argued What the teachers of this colony have most to battle with are the evils of isolation. They seldom have opportunities of meeting those who might stimulate them in their work, and so may never know what important educational developments are constantly in progress. (Fletcher, 1979, p. 29)

All three projects were reported to have successful outcomes, including the provision of professional support and a reduction in the teachers’ sense of isolation. Steketee and McNaught (2007) and Broadley, Boyd, and Terry (2009), however, both make mention of some technological difficulties which had some impact on the success of the programs. A further way that technology is being used to reduce pressures on the State’s education system and teachers, and to increase the quality of education provided for the students, is through the Flexible Learning in Schools (FLIS) project (Jamieson, 2007). This project links schools via videoconferencing technology. A teacher from one school delivers lessons to students based in a cluster of schools. This enables the provision of a broader curriculum for the students, with lessons being taught by experienced teachers. Jamieson (2007) reports that the teachers have been supported with professional development on online instruction and are guided by a set of “On-line Instructor Competencies.” The body of literature on rural and remote education advocates preparation specific to teaching in rural areas. A similar body of literature promoting training of post-secondary distance educators has also been presented. It could, therefore, be assumed that similar training for K–12 distance educators would be advantageous.

66 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

HOME SUPERVISORS AND THE EDUCATION OF ISOLATED STUDENTS IN AUSTRALIA To date, little research has been conducted on the role that the home supervisors, usually parents, play in the education of isolated students (Green, 2006). The literature that does exist focuses solely on the geographically isolated, with no attention being paid to those who are home supervisors for other reasons. There is a need for studies investigating the role of the home supervisor in distance education in order to provide a well-rounded and thorough understanding of the entire phenomenon in Australia and, in particular, in Western Australia (Tynan & O’Neill, 2007; Yourn, 2003). It has been reported that distance learners often have less self-confidence than other students and that many work in environments that are not conducive to study (Kahl & Cropley, 1986). The importance of the encouragement and support offered by the home supervisor for these students is clearly expressed by Gall (Harley, 1985) as follows: For children learning at home, the home tutor is in essence their classroom teacher…for primary age children it is the parent who interprets the lessons, helps to motivate, to stimulate, to provide feedback which is essential for the learning process at an early age. This is why the home tutor’s role is so important. (p. 164)

The National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education: Recommendations (HREOC, 2000b) also acknowledges the “vital role played by the home supervisor/tutor” (p. 48), as do other authors (Builder, 1982; Fitzpatrick, 1983; Jennison, 1993; Lee & Wilks, 2007; Rogers, 1999; Tomlinson, Coulter & Peacock, 1985; Yourn, 2003), with many suggesting the home supervisors play a significant role in guiding the children through their education (Harley, 1985; Home, 1993; Hosie & Dean, 1984; Tynan & O’Neill, 2007; Yourn, 2003). Tomlinson, Coulter, and Peacock (1985) considered that it was the home supervisor who provided “the link between the pupil, the subject matter and the teacher” (p. 64) and that without the home supervisors, K–7 distance education would be ineffective. It has been suggested that students who have supportive parents tend to do better at school (Birch, Lally & Tomlinson, 1986). Dole et al. (2005) estimated that, on average, home supervisors devote six hours per day to their child’s education. The role of home supervisor is often a challenging one for parents. Many of them lack the necessary training and education. For some, it can be difficult separating the dual roles of parent and teacher (Jennison, 1993; Lee & Wilks, 2007; O’Brien, Greenway, & Arnold, 1993; Yourn, 2003), in part because the normal division between home time and school time does not exist (Ministry of Education of Western Australia, 1988). It has been argued that, in effect, the home supervisors take on the role of the teacher and all

LITERATURE REVIEW • 67

the challenges and difficulties that that entails, with the additional problem of teaching lessons that have been devised by someone else (Tomlinson, Coulter, & Peacock, 1985). Home supervisors can also experience some difficulties in teaching certain subject matter and these difficulties increase as the students progress through their schooling (Senate Standing Committee on Education and the Arts, 1977; Tomlinson, Coulter, & Peacock, 1985). Further, parents have highlighted problems they encounter when balancing the needs of a number of children, and also while managing the school-work along with their day-to-day running of the home (Senate Standing Committee on Education and the Arts, 1977; Tynan & O’Neill, 2007; Yourn, 2003). Research into the pedagogical skills of home supervisors across Australia found that even within the label of exemplars - researchers asked for two examples from each school of home supervisors who were considered to be very successful - there was a great range in pedagogical ability (Lee & Wilks, 2007). This and other research indicates that there is a need for training and support of home supervisors (Louden, 1999; MCEETYA, 2001). The parents of isolated children have a very strong support body in the form of the Isolated Children’s Parents’ Association (ICPA), a national lobbying group which has been able to substantially improve the educational facilities available to their children (Fitzpatrick, 1984; Pitman, 1998; Vidovich, 1984). The members of the ICPA have a deeper knowledge and concern about their children’s education than parents at most mainstream schools. As a result of this understanding, the parents have been able to influence the education of their children (Fitzpatrick, 1983a; Vidovich, 1984). Additionally, the ICPA provides significant support for the home supervisors of geographically isolated children (Vidovich, 1984; Yourn, 2003).

K–12 DISTANCE EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA The National Situation Several researchers have commented on the lack of empirical investigation in the area of K–12 distance education (Fitzpatrick, 1982; Lines, 1996; Stevens, 1994; Tomlinson, Coulter & Peacock, 1985). Aside from a few articles by teachers and principals from various DECs and SOTAs (Fitzpatrick, 1982; Sanderson, 1998; Tierney, 2007; Walker, 1975) and the occasional article about the experiences of a governess (Slocombe, 1999), very little literature is available. Rayner’s Correspondence Education in Australia and New Zealand (1949) is a primary and comprehensive source of information, while Out of Silence (Ashton, 1971) is an inclusive volume focusing on the Schools of the Air. It has been claimed that K–12 distance education programs were provided for years without any real understanding of how children in iso-

68 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

lated circumstances learn (Tomlinson, Coulter, & Peacock, 1985). In 1985, Tomlinson, Coulter, and Peacock (1985) suggested that there was a need for research that would fill this gap. To date, however, this is still an area of deficit due to a lack of empirical research. There is a corresponding paucity of empirical data on appropriate pedagogy for this cohort of students. Pedagogical issues are more complex in distance education than in conventional schools. For example, until the recent introduction of some synchronous communication, the interaction between student and teacher has been disjointed and, at times, has involved a lengthy time lag. Further, the students work in a variety of environments (Fitzpatrick, 1983d), something educators must be mindful of as the students all have different resources available to them and the context in which the learning occurs cannot be ignored (Coffey, 1998; Trindade, Carmo & Bidarra, 2000). Additionally, with young students the home supervisors also need to be considered as they are an integral part of the ‘teaching team’ (Dole et al., 2005; Hodgkinson, 1994; Jennison, 1993; Louden, 1999; Yourn, 2003) and it is necessary to provide them with appropriate levels of support (Boylan & Squires, 1996; Yourn, 2003). In their review of the Virtual Schooling Service in Queensland, Kapitzke and Pendergast (2005) highlighted the importance of the “study coach” and drew attention to the fact that he or she frequently “did not attend class or provide academic advice to students” making it difficult for the students to succeed in their educational endeavours (p. 1642). In 1998, in Western Australia, the Curriculum Framework (Curriculum Council, 1998) was introduced. This document provides schools with a framework that identifies the common learning outcomes for all students. It clearly states what all students should know, value, understand and be able to do throughout their education from K–12. The primary aim of the Curriculum Framework (Curriculum Council, 1998) is that each student develops to his or her full potential, with each student’s skills being valued. Contrary to the adult distance education sector where the focus has been on the opportunities afforded by distance education to educate large numbers of people, in the K–12 sector in Australia attention is generally on the individual student. This concurs with the aims of the Curriculum Framework (Curriculum Council, 1998). In some regards students at SIDE already receive far more individual attention than those in conventional schools and the teachers have long had to consider the individual needs of their students. The Curriculum Framework (Curriculum Council, 1998, p. 14) states that “schools will respond to…the situations of their students by pursuing the common outcomes and by developing additional outcomes that match the specific needs of students.” Shearer (2007) argues that “authors of distance education materials must understand the complexities of a diverse audience” (p. 223). Due to

LITERATURE REVIEW • 69

the variety of students at SIDE and the range of contexts in which they are situated, the teachers have long had to take this into consideration. This focus on the needs of individual students in K–12 distance education has meant that the development of materials and pedagogy, and the use of technology, have occurred in a different manner to the adult distance education setting. For a number of years, few changes occurred in the delivery of distance education materials with programs relying on printbased materials. In the 1940s, radio broadcasts complementing the printed course materials were initiated. Then, the 1950s saw the introduction of the SOTAs (Ashton, 1971; Calzoni, 1991; Eakins, 1964). Over time, a number of other technologies have been utilised, including telephone, electronic and voice mail, email, computers, telematics, audio teleconferencing, radio, audiographics, television, facsimile and videoconferencing (Higgins, 1985; Hosie & Dean, 1984; Murray & Gardener, 1998; SIDE Primary School, 2009; T.H.E. Journal, 1998). In the past decade further development of new technologies that are seen as having the potential to improve the delivery of distance education course work has occurred. At the same time, for many students who live in geographically isolated circumstances, these new technologies have significantly increased their access to the outside world and their opportunities to communicate with others (Richards, 2005; Tierney & Galloway, 2007). As with adult learners, technology in the K–12 setting has required a change in pedagogy on the part of the teachers. In a relatively brief period, teachers have had to adjust from having no, or little, synchronous contact with their students to having to incorporate it into their lessons. Finger and Rotolo (2001) investigated the use of the telephone at the Charleville School of Distance Education in Queensland and the way a constructivist approach to teaching and learning was managed. They raised concerns over how to achieve this, given the limited “class” time. In a personal communication to the authors, Garrison recommended four key strategies: to ensure the learning outcomes were consistent with the constructivist approach; careful and reflective planning to identify potential issues before going on air; designing activities with specific goals in mind to facilitate progression to higher-order learning outcomes; and directed discussions and questions to avoid wasting time on off-task conversations. In other research, Crump (Crump, 2008; Crump, Tuovinen & Simons, 2006) investigated the impact of satellite on Australia’s isolated students and their teachers and the way it has enhanced the teaching and learning experience. Other research again, however, shows that teachers are often reluctant to change their teaching styles (Ashton, 1996; Ben-Peretz, 1995; Griffen, 1985; Vonk, 1984). The use of new technology has also changed the way course materials are presented to students.

70 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

One criticism which has been levelled at the providers of K–12 distance education in Australia is that “by adopting the most practical and available technologies, education systems sought to reduce the effect of distance, but in so doing allowed the means to dominate the ends” (Higgins, 1993, p. 16). This mirrors criticism directed at higher distance education providers. It has been suggested that the focus on technology resulted in barriers being placed between the students and the teachers (Imison, 1993). Stevens (1994) expressed the concern that: ...while there are many examples of ways in which distance is being reduced in the outback Australian schools through the use of new technologies, there is little in the research literature to guide teachers, teacher educators and educational administrators in the choice of appropriate technologies. (p. 82)

Much of the K–12 distance education literature has focused on new technologies and their potential uses (Fitzpatrick, 1983d), reinforcing concerns that too much attention has been paid to technology rather than pedagogy. In the intervening 15 years this problem has remained with little research investigating this issue, this is particularly the case in regard to K–12 distance education. The Western Australian Situation Very little research literature is available specifically on distance education in Western Australia. In 1962, White (1962) investigated the history and functions of the Correspondence School. His research came at a time when correspondence education in Western Australia was undergoing a great change with the introduction of the Schools of the Air. The work of Eakins (1964) covers the period from the Correspondence School’s inception in 1918 to 1951, dates which coincide with his involvement with the school, first as a teacher and then as the Headmaster. Through personal memories and with reference to other literature and documents, Eakins provides a comprehensive history of the first three decades of the school, including many human-interest stories. In other research, Vidovich (1984) focused primarily on the increased priority that distance education received within the Education Department in Western Australia during the 1970s. She concluded that there were three main contributing factors: the success of the ICPA, increased bureaucratization of distance education provision, and the influence of particular personalities, for example previous directors of the DEC. Three years later, Imamura (1987) compared pupil performance in rural schools and SOTAs in Western Australia with a view to finding alternative routes to education for use in Japan. Later, a conceptual analysis of the origins, history and developments of the Australian School of the Air, focusing on the years 1955 to 1990, was carried out by Calzoni (1991), while

LITERATURE REVIEW • 71

in the same year Hobson (1999) investigated the role of women in assuming responsibility for the education of their children in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. More recently Yourn (2003) investigated how home supervisors manage their roles of curriculum delivery. Of the few works that particularly focus on distance education in Western Australia, a number were written by Jim Fitzpatrick. Fitzpatrick’s (1982, 1983a, 1983b, 1984) research revolved around the Carnarvon School of the Air. In his early work, he examined the question of “who teaches” children in the Australian School of the Air context, with an emphasis on the perspectives and roles of teachers and parents (1982). He concluded that “the school of the air is an unusual ‘dual teacher’ situation, that the parentteacher relationship is complex, and that the relative roles and impact of the two upon the child’s education is little understood” (p. 183). In another paper, “The Changing Nature of Outback Isolation: An Educator’s Perspective,” he explored the manner in which new technology had in some ways decreased the isolation of students in the outback but, in doing so, had reduced the number of people with whom students were able to have dayto-day, face-to-face contact (1983b). In a third paper (Fitzpatrick, 1984) he examined the development, role, nature and functions of the ICPA, which had increasingly influenced local educational issues as a national lobbying group. Fitzpatrick (1984) argued that “a substantial case can be made that [the ICPA] know more about many of the immediate problems of educational isolation and needed services than do administrators and teachers in education systems” (p. 197). In his work, he suggested that there were numerous further aspects of the State’s K–12 distance education provision deserving of investigation. More recently, Tierney, a teacher at SIDE, has written papers on excluded students (Forlin & Tierney, 2006) and remote indigenous students (Tierney & Galloway, 2007). In the former, the views of teachers who work with excluded students were sought. Overall, the authors concluded that enrolling these students in SIDE addressed neither their needs, nor the underlying issues which initially led to their exclusion. The authors recommended that further research be conducted. The second paper (Tierney & Galloway, 2008) papers describes the development of a new course, the “Tourist Guiding Program,” which was specifically designed to address the needs and context of a group of indigenous students on the Mitchell Plateau in the Kimberley region of Western Australia.

CONCLUSION Distance education at a K–12 level has, to date, largely been ignored as a subject for academic research (Tomlinson, Coulter & Peacock, 1985; Stevens,

72 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

1994). The field of distance education has been dominated by research in the areas of adult distance education, technology, and program development. In addition, the majority of empirical work has been conducted using traditional quantitative, statistically-based methods (Moore, 1990). This review of literature in 2009 reveals that there has been little work devoted to K–12 level distance education. Given that distance education has traditionally been viewed as a second-best option for small numbers of isolated and remote children (Darnell & Simpson, 1981; Lowe, 1993; Maxwell, 1981), yet is now increasingly used in supporting the education of students in a variety of settings, it is important to develop an understanding of what has been done and what should be done in the future. The lack of research on K–12 level distance education is a significant gap in the literature. The study reported in the remainder of this book, which is specifically on the background, functions and issues associated with providing K–12 distance education in Western Australia, is one contribution to addressing this deficit. The following chapter will now describe the background of the Schools of Isolated and Distance Education.

CHAPTER 4

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION When Western Australia was first settled it was with a sense of great optimism. It soon became apparent, however, that the vast size of the State of Western Australia (which encompasses nearly a third of Australia, and its small population, which failed to increase in any meaningful way), made it difficult for the colony to progress. Progress was further hampered as the population became increasingly dispersed. It became progressively more difficult to provide services, including education, to all of the State’s population on the small budget to which the administration of the time was restricted. In time, as demands for services increased, the government had to be innovative in finding ways to service the most isolated of the State’s inhabitants. This chapter addresses the question: What is the background of the schools of isolated and distance education in Western Australia? It is in The Education of Children in Geographically Remote Regions through Distance Education: Perspectives and Lessons from Australia, pages 73–106 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

73

74 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

three parts. The first part outlines the general context out of which arose the need to provide distance education in Western Australia. The second part of the chapter is concerned with Western Australia’s Correspondence School, from its establishment through to 1970. The third part of the chapter deals with the period between 1970 and 1995, a period during which a number of major initiatives were undertaken, and concludes by outlining the establishment of SIDE. EARLY BEGINNINGS Early Settlement The Western Australian Swan River colony was not settled until June 1829, 41 years after the settlement of the east coast of Australia. Stewart (1979) has stated that when considering this we need to keep in mind that: Any appreciation of the extreme isolation of the Swan River calls for a deliberate effort of mind. The only other inhabitants of the whole continent were the sparse population of Aborigines and about 62,000 Europeans located in or around the convict settlements at Sydney and Hobart more than 2,000 miles away. (p. 1)

Unlike the other states, Western Australia was not originally established as a penal colony. Rather, it was populated by free settlers. From the outset, therefore, the Swan River Colony was primarily comprised of what was considered to be a “better class” of people than the other colonies. This meant that its character and development were dissimilar to those of colonies in other parts of the country. On this, Nathaniel Ogle observed as follows, after a visit to Western Australia, just ten years after the colony was established: “In point of Society, the settlement of Western Australia stands Preeminent” (Rankin, 1926, p. 12). This situation was viewed by some, however, as being a handicap to the advancement of the colony as it was considered “near to impossible for any community to thrive with such an undue proportion of those whose habits and education are supposed to render them adverse to manual labour” (Leinster-Mackay & Adams, 1979, p. 38). On arrival, the early settlers of the Swan River Colony began to spread out in search of pastoral land. The need for extended areas for grazing meant that the population quickly became widely dispersed. This created problems with providing services, including education. Many early educational endeavours in the colony proved short-lived. This was primarily due to the small population and financial constraints (Barcan, 1980; Clubb, 1927). From 1831, however, a number of private educational enterprises were successfully established in Perth. The first government assisted schools were founded in 1833 at Perth and nearby Fremantle (Rankin, 1926, p. 10). Within a year there were also government schools just outside Perth at

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 75

Guildford, and 405 kilometers away on the south coast of the State at King George Sound (Albany) and Augusta. There is evidence that for many inhabitants there was not a strong focus on education due to the fact that work was easy to come by, and also that much of their time was taken up in simply surviving (Rankin, 1926), thus requiring the engagement of many children in daily tasks. One early settler, in describing the resultant dilemma, stated: “A difficulty now arises, my children want schooling and I want pig-feeders and shepherds” (Austin, 1972, p. 90). It is not surprising, then, that a report in 1836 noted that less than one hundred of the State’s six hundred children were attending school (Mossenson, 1972, p. 4). Almost fifteen years later, in 1850, a report by the Education Committee (Rankin, 1926) on the children in the colony showed that the situation was not greatly improved: Many are still wasting their years in not taking advantage of the Colonial Schools. In all there are 1,211 children between 3 and 14 scattered over seven extensive districts. 500 are receiving instruction but 711 are either idle or are employed at home and are without the blessing of education. Some are too far from the centre of Education, still the fact remains that there is abundant field for exertion, as well as on the part of the Government as on the part of private individuals. (p. 29)

Clearly there was still a great deal to be done in terms of educational provision and regulations. There is also evidence, however, that some colonists were concerned about their children’s education. This is demonstrated through a number of incidents. For example, Rankin (1926, p. 32) reported that in October 1849 the residents of the Toodyay area, 85 kilometres west of the capital city of Perth, which was settled from 1830, offered to provide a school building, at their own expense, if the government would provide the teacher’s wages. As a result of these initiatives, there were two schools in the town by the 1850s (Shire of Toodyay, 2008, ¶7). In another instance, in 1849 twenty parents in the South Greenough region, 420 kilometres north of Perth, wrote a letter to the education authority of the time expressing concern that, as they lived 12 miles from the central Greenough School, their children found the distance too great to walk and, hence, they were unable to take advantage of the government education provided there (Rankin, 1926, p. 32). The letter went on to explain that as the parents did not believe they had the necessary skills to provide the appropriate mental stimulus, their children were growing up in a state of educational ignorance. Almost 20 years later there was yet another letter from parents requesting a school for the town (Haynes, Barrett, Brennan, & Brennan, 1976, p. 39). Similar requests were received from other parts of the State. From these examples it is clear that very early on it was realised that there was a problem in pro-

76 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

viding schooling for children who were living in isolated and rural areas of Western Australia. From 1850 until 1868, Western Australia became a destination for convicts, when it was decided that their labour was necessary to build up the infrastructure of the colony (Mossenson, 1972). This reflected the fact that it was, indeed, difficult for a community to flourish if the majority of the inhabitants were disinclined to engage in manual labour. The arrival of the convicts had the result of changing the social fabric of the settlement (Douglas, 1989). There was an educational benefit, however, in that a number of religious instructors were sent out on the ships along with the convicts, in whom they were expected to instil some moral values. Upon arrival in Perth many of these religious instructors became teachers as they were considered to be individuals of high repute (Barcan, 1980, p. 149; Rankin, 1926, p. 33–36). They did not, however, necessarily have any knowledge or experience of teaching children. Until 1871, little attention was paid to providing a formal education for the State’s children and what educational provision there was, was often ill-conceived. This was largely due to the ongoing problems of the small population, its low growth rate and the resulting lack of revenue (Barcan, 1980, p. 60). Another contributing factor to the lack of a coherent system of educational provision was the debate between the religious and secular leaders of the community over who should provide educational facilities. Due to a lack of funds, the Anglican churches were unable to provide an education for all of the State’s largely Protestant community, and as a result, the government stepped in and established a number of secular schools (Haynes et al., 1976, p. iii). In 1846, the Catholic religious order of nuns, the Sisters of Mercy, established an educational program on behalf of the Catholic Church (Rankin, 1926; Tannock, 1979). This resulted in an outcry from Protestant members of the community who feared proselytization (Fletcher, 1979). In response, the government took on the responsibility of providing an education for the majority of the State’s students. It eventually resulted in the passing of the Education Act of 1871, which was modelled on the English “Forster Act” of the previous year. In like fashion, it embodied a dual system providing government schools and assistance to private schools, a system that was continued until 1895 (Stewart, 1979). In 1880, it was noted that the cost of providing schools in isolated districts where student numbers were low placed a heavy burden on the education system and it was suggested that the minimum average attendance levels for establishing a school should be raised from 12 to 20 (Haynes et al., 1976). This was despite the fact that in 1875 it was noted that country teachers generally earned an annual wage of less than £40, whilst one Perth teacher earned £334 and another, in Fremantle, earned £250. At the same time, “native” constables earned £30 per annum (Clubb, 1927). Clubb

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 77

(1927) quotes a member of the legislative assembly in 1876 as stating that some teachers “had abandoned the pedagogue’s ferule for the policeman’s truncheon, preferring the more idle, less responsible, and better paid duties of a police constable, to the drudgery, responsibility and starvation pay of a country teacher” (p. 316). Clearly the life of the country teacher was a challenging one. Again in 1885 the issue of the cost of educating rural students was raised when it was reported that extra funds had been made for the opening of remote schools. Despite earnest entreaties from settlers in the north-west and other remote areas in the State, however, the costs of providing schools in some areas proved to be insurmountable. Further, the schools that were established in remote areas were often seriously lacking in resources such as blackboards, books, and maps (Haynes et al., 1976) and, more importantly, they often lacked qualified or experienced teachers (Clubb, 1927). An amendment to the Education Act in 1899 provided for the free and compulsory education of all individuals 6–14 years of age (Haynes et al., 1976). It was acceptable, however, for a student not to attend school if there was no school within three miles of the student’s home. Pressures of Population Growth During the final decade of the nineteenth century gold was discovered in Western Australia. Douglas (1989) claims the discovery of gold proved to be the making of the State in terms of increasing its population. In the ten years between 1890 and 1900 the population increased dramatically, from 50,000 to 170,000 (Rankin, 1926, p. 82). Initially, the prospectors came without their families and, thus, there was little difficulty in terms of providing an education for any additional children. In the following years, however, many of the settlers and miners started to bring their families to stay with them, thus showing that they had finally decided to settle permanently in the State (Battye, 1985; Rankin, 1926). Consequently, the number of students attending the local schools showed a marked increase. This rapid increase in the population resulted in the need for a formal education policy (Robertson, 1952). The steady rise in the number of students, teachers, and schools resulting from the discovery of gold in the State continued through to 1905 (Battye, 1985). During this period a large number of teachers transferred from the eastern states to Western Australia. This largely occurred as the population in the east had become stable and it was perceived there were more opportunities for personal advancement in the west (Clubb, 1927). Rural education in Western Australia, however, remained problematic. Members of the State’s population had headed into the hinterland, not only in search of suitable agricultural land, but also mineral wealth. However, it was not practical to provide an education for the children of many of these people

78 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

through conventional schooling (Mossenson, 1972; Rayner, 1949). The situation became more acute with the rapid growth and dispersal of the population subsequent to the discovery of gold in the 1890s. This forced the Education Department to become more innovative in finding ways to provide an education for the State’s rural and remote students (Cunningham, 1931; Rankin, 1926). One solution to the problem was to have teachers working across two schools (Haynes et al., 1976), where one teacher spent part of the week at one school and the rest of the week at another school. These were known as half-time schools. First used in the early 1900s, a further strategy utilised to address the problem of educating a shifting and scattered population was the use of “tent schools” (Mossenson, 1972; McNab, 1997). These schools, which had wooden floors and iron fly roofs, were easily dismantled and moved to any location where a suitable number of students, usually between 10 and 15, could be gathered together (Rankin, 1926; White, 1962). The tent schools were a reasonable solution to the highly mobile population characteristic of the gold rush. They can be seen as the forerunners of demountable classrooms used much later in response to rapidly changing demographics. Another solution to the problem of providing an education for small populations was the development of “one teacher schools.” The opening decade of the 20th century saw a rapid growth in the number of these schools (Clubb, 1927; Mossenson, 1972). Many one-teacher schools grew from former half-time schools and throughout the State they made up the majority of schools. Each catered for between 8 and 40 students. The conditions at these and the half-time schools were often poor, with few facilities. Despite the inherent challenges, these schools were, in the main, the domain of young inexperienced teachers who were offered little advice on how to manage their work (Turney, Sinclairm, & Cairns, 1980). One of the problems for the teachers was the range of pupils they had to teach, from the infants’ section, through six levels of primary, to a few post-primary students. The teacher had to be extremely well organized to cope with the demands of teaching such a diverse group of students, often arranging the students into three groups: junior, middle and senior (Clubb, 1927). These schools, however, still did not provide for children who lived in the more isolated parts of the State. Despite free education being offered to all Western Australians of school age, there were a number of reasons why some students were unable to take up the opportunity of a formal education. For many, the primary obstacle was the unreasonable travelling time required in order for them to attend school (Cunningham, 1931; Rayner, 1949). For others, their families could not spare their contribution to the running of pastoral stations (Eakins, 1964). Other families could not afford to send their children to boarding school (Varney, 1996; Yourn, 2003).

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 79

The year 1902 saw the opening of Claremont Teacher’s College, the first tertiary education provider in the State (Garratt, 1982). This was a major step in addressing the chronic shortage of trained teachers in Western Australia. Previously, trained and experienced teachers had been imported from Britain, or the eastern states of Australia. It was hoped that the college would provide the State’s schools with highly skilled teachers and would ease the reliance on imported educationalists (Clubb, 1927). It must be noted, however, that such individuals had been instrumental in developing the State’s education system. Problems of a Dispersed Population Between 1912 and 1915, the education of rural students became a significant issue as more people in remote and isolated areas became dissatisfied with the educational facilities available to them (Haynes et al., 1976). Rural schools were costly to run, however, with one teacher covering all subjects the academic standard tended not to be as high as in city schools (Rankin, 1926). Of even greater concern was the restricted curricula offered (Clubb, 1927). Additionally, there was an increasing belief that there was a need for the curriculum in rural schools to be of relevance to the rural child. Parents who could not afford to hire a private tutor or send their child to boarding school were left to educate their child as best they could (SIDE, 2007). As a result of such ongoing concerns, two main steps were taken. The first was the consolidation of schools. This was in response to concerns about the quality of education in rural and remote areas of the State. The consolidation of schools began in the town of Toodyay in 1918 (Clubb, 1927). It was chiefly considered an economic move. Nevertheless, it offered benefits such as better teachers, better curriculum coverage, and better facilities. Due to the sparse population and vast distances involved, however, it was not possible to apply this solution state-wide (Clubb, 1927; Robertson, 1952). Thus, there remained a need to address the problem of educating the State’s isolated students. The solution was the design and use of correspondence learning materials. Amid growing dissatisfaction in the rural communities over the lack of educational facilities available to their children, the Education Department received a number of letters from settlers requesting itinerant teachers, or some other form of educational provision for their children (Eakins, 1964; Haynes et al., 1976). For example, in 1912, the Premier of Western Australia, Mr. John Scaddon, received a letter from a settler (Haynes et al., 1976) lamenting the need for “greater educational facilities for the children of the back blocks” and continuing: It is a matter for bitter reflection to me, that while the town child is invited to a surfeit of free education, I have to endure the sight of my children denied

80 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

the very rudiments of education because the State has made no provision for the children of the pioneer, whether prospector or settler…Has any politician, I wonder ever given a thought to the number of children of isolated families in the aggregate who are sacrificed to the pioneering work of the State advancement. (pp. 112–113)

Five years later, in 1917, another father, Mr.. R. A. Sandon, wrote to the Minister for Education requesting the provision of correspondence education to accommodate the many country children who continued to go without education in rural and remote areas (Haynes et al., 1976). He pointed out that this method of education had been successful in other countries and suggested that there was no reason why it would not work in Western Australia. The Minister responded that such a system would not succeed if the students were not able to read and write (Eakins, 1964). Six months later, however, having sought advice from a specialist at the Melbourne Teachers’ College, Cecil Andrews, the Director of Education in Western Australia, became convinced of the practicality of the idea and wrote to the Minister suggesting that correspondence education for country children would work and confirming that such schemes had already been successful in Victoria and New South Wales (Calzoni, 1991; Eakins, 1964). He recommended that it would be necessary for parents or older siblings to help students who had not yet mastered reading (Haynes et al., 1976) to ensure the success of the scheme. Interestingly, Eakins (1964) reports that amongst the first enrollments for the school which resulted from this initiative were the children of the gentleman (R. A. Sandon) who had originally written suggesting the scheme.

THE CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL Establishment of the Western Australian Correspondence School The Western Australian Correspondence School was established on September 2, 1918 (Eakins, 1964; Rayner, 1949). At the time, any child who lived further than three miles from a conventional school was eligible to enrol in the School. It was initially staffed by one teacher, a Mrs. Atkinson (Eakins, 1964), and had 55 students (Rayner, 1949). Just three weeks later (September 24), when enrollments exceeded initial expectations, an additional teacher, Mr.. Clarence Eakins, was appointed to the staff (Hobson, 1999). By the end of the year 73 students aged between 5 and 16 were enrolled in the School (Yourn, 2003). Clarence Eakins was promoted to the position of Headmaster in May 1920, a position he held until his retirement in 1951 (Yourn, 2003). It has been suggested that the high standards and success of the correspondence

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 81

lessons were largely due to his enthusiasm and dedication (Rankin, 1926; Robertson, 1964). He had previous experience of teaching in the outback and a good understanding of the conditions in which isolated children lived and the difficulties they faced. Lessons were available to children for all the primary school years. The students were sent work in two-week batches, which they completed and then returned to their teacher for marking (Eakins, 1964). A continuous cycle of work for the students was created as follows: teachers sent out one “set” of work, the students were working on another set, and a third set was on its way back to the teacher for marking (this system is still in use today). The entire process, on average, took between two and six weeks, depending on the mail, and road and weather conditions (Tomlinson, Coulter, & Peacock, 1985, p. 48). The sets comprised examples of work, practice exercises, and tests. In his discussion of the school, Rankin (1926) commented that the work produced by these students was on a par with that of students in conventional schools. Enrollments at the Correspondence School continued to increase rapidly and the staff was enlarged accordingly. By 1926, the school was providing correspondence lessons for nearly 1,000 children, requiring a teaching staff of 16 and two secretarial staff members (Rankin, 1926). In part this increase could be attributed to the school beginning to provide some secondary courses in 1922 (Eakins, 1964). This coincided with Cecil Andrew’s, the State Director of Education (1912–1929), push for State provision of secondary education in rural areas (Garratt, 1982). It was considered that the number of students could be further increased if the correspondence lessons were publicized (Eakins, 1964). Of the students enrolled at the time, it was judged that 85% would not have had access to education of any kind without the correspondence lessons (Rankin, 1926). It had been considered that correspondence education would not work with individuals who had not already learnt to read and write. In educating primary school students, the solution to this problem was to have a home supervisor. For the students at the Correspondence School, this was often their mother. Eakins (1964) recalled that in relation to the home supervisors “the teachers pay a warm tribute for the wonderful way in which they cooperate to make the lessons a success”. The supervisors were provided with guidelines to support them in what was acknowledged as a challenging role (McAtee & Zani, 1975; Tomlinson, Coulter, & Peacock, 1985) and it was recognized that without their involvement the scheme would not work. The success of students undertaking the correspondence program was reliant on the home supervisor. Home supervisors were responsible for ensuring that the teacher’s instructions were carried out, that timetables were adhered to, and that suitable study conditions were provided (White, 1962). As most did not have any teaching experience, and others did not have much schooling themselves, this was often a difficult role. Some home

82 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

supervisors “felt they were working in a void and were inclined to blame themselves when problems with schooling arose” (Forsyth cited in Hobson, 1999, p. 36). Many found the balance between the dual roles of parent and teacher difficult, with one home supervisor describing clashes in the classroom as “very unhappy and bewildering learning experiences on both sides” (Forrester cited in Hobson, 1999, p. 37). Clearly, assuming the role of home supervisor placed a significant burden upon individuals who sometimes had little education themselves and who found it difficult to gauge their child’s progress. It was understood from the outset that the development of good relationships between the teacher and the students, the teacher and the home supervisor, and the home supervisor and the student would be important. To facilitate this, the School put a number of strategies in place. First, there was an effort to ensure that the home supervisor only had one teacher to deal with (Eakins, 1964), assuming the children were close in age. Secondly, a set of guidelines was provided for the teachers in relation to marking. In discussing these, Eakins (1964) explained: The teacher is asked to make herself [sic] as familiar as possible with the conditions under which the lessons are worked, and to bear in mind that the conditions vary from home to home. Comments, which should be neatly written in red ink in the margins of the worked papers, should be kindly and encouraging rather than fault-finding. Achievement is a powerful stimulus, and even in an imperfectly worked set the teacher should try to find something to commend. This does not mean that careless or indifferent work can be accepted. A teacher must be quick to distinguish between careless and unsatisfactory work, and a poor attempt representing a child’s best effort. Each set of work calls for its own special treatment. The teacher will show her skill in ability to detect and remedy weaknesses, and in her methods of arousing interest and stimulating effort. She should also watch the pupil’s work for evidence of special interests or talents…The teacher should encourage such pupils and assist them to develop their talents. Promptness in correcting and returning papers is emphasized. (pp. 17–18)

It is worth discussing this final point further. The importance of timely feedback has long been recognized and has been emphasized since the establishment of the Correspondence School. On this it has been noted (Education Department of Western Australia, 1978) that: ...correction is needed as soon as possible to be of benefit because of the cumulative nature of subjects such as math, however, a student may repeat the same error in the next paper due to corrected papers not being received before work on the next paper begins. (Section 21.1, p. 13)

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 83

The location of some students, however, made this difficult as, regardless of the speed at which the teachers carried out the marking process, the mail sometimes took weeks, or months, to arrive. The teachers at the Correspondence School were not only required to develop enhanced sensitivity to individual circumstances in marking work, they also needed to possess a number of additional qualities. On this, Cunningham (1931) noted that correspondence teachers needed: ...a high degree of teaching skill, initiative, imagination, insight, sympathy and thoroughness. It is possible to find in correspondence tuition a useful avenue of work for teachers who, on account of some physical or temperamental disability, are seriously handicapped in class-room instruction. It would, however, be a great mistake to make such considerations of first importance or to assume that the correspondence work requires anything less than firstrate teaching ability. (pp. 32–33)

This indicates that even at this early time there was some suggestion that the Correspondence School could be used to occupy teachers who could not function in the conventional classroom. Further, it demonstrates that at least some individuals were aware that particular skills were required of a correspondence teacher. These sentiments are echoed in the work of Vidovich, (1984) who, in discussing the staff of one branch of the Distance Education Centre (DEC), as it was known at the time, noted that, contrary to the image of the DEC being a place for dysfunctional staff, those at the Isolated Students’ Matriculation Scheme (ISMS) were “hand-picked” by Subject Superintendents with personal expertise being the priority, rather than academic qualifications or seniority. In 1964 Eakins (1964) wrote the History of the Western Australian Correspondence School. In reflecting on his years at the School, he noted that it faced a number of challenges. The first was the development and production of learning materials. The work had to be presented in manageable chunks for the students. Initially, these units of work were prepared by the teachers, though later, when the School was bigger, particular members of the teaching staff were assigned to this role. Eakins (1964) was pleased to note that many of these early materials were still being used 40 years later. A contrasting view is that of Roy Treweeke (Treweeke, 1983) who, when his own children began correspondence education, recognized that the materials he had used as a student 25 years earlier had not been updated and thought the situation highly unsatisfactory. In reminiscing upon the early days of the School, Eakins (1964) recalled that initially work-sets were handwritten and reproduced by a gelatin duplicator. Although the maximum number of copies that could be made using this technique was only twenty-five, he noted that an advantage of this method of reproduction was that materials could easily be made attractive

84 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

with the addition of diagrams. He explained, however, that as enrollment numbers increased and larger numbers of copies were required, more efficient reproduction techniques were employed and, unfortunately, the inclusion of diagrams became more challenging and less likely, resulting in less visually engaging materials. The inclusion of diagrams proved a particular challenge in the production of materials. Eakins (1964) reported that the process of including illustrations was laborious and the results not always edifying. This led to some inventive solutions being devised by the staff. Eakins (1964) noted the particular case of a staff member who “constructed a simple ‘tracing desk’ with sloping glass top under which an electric bulb caused the original to show up more clearly.” Over time, as technology improved, more efficient and satisfying means of reproducing the materials were developed. This example, however, demonstrates the initiative of the staff in finding ways to improve the service they provided. In a review of Western Australia’s education system in 1926, Rankin (1926) commented that many rural teachers were working with far fewer facilities than those available to city teachers and, at the same time, they did not have the same level of qualifications. As the proportion of rural schools in Western Australia was quite high it was thought that they should be a focus for improvement by the Education Department. Rankin (1926) suggested that the schools needed to provide an education that was relevant to country children in order to stimulate their desire to learn. Although there had been an attempt at this earlier in the century, by 1926 there was little evidence of improvement in the schools. In order to address this, some country schools had their curriculum supplemented by course work from the Correspondence School (Yourn, 2003). This became an important aspect of the way in which distance education has been used to support rural students and schools in the State. The Correspondence School not only solved the problem of how to educate students in isolated areas of the State, but it also proved to be cost effective. Analysis of the comparative costs of different sized schools in Western Australia in 1928 shows that, in that year, the average cost of educating a child in a large school was 7 pounds and 16 shillings. The education of a child in a small school was 16 pounds and 19 shillings, while it cost just 6 pounds and 13 shillings to educate a child through the Correspondence School (Rayner, 1949). The work of the Correspondence School was generally well regarded and, in 1949, received a glowing report from the Royal Commissioner to the State Surveyor-General’s Office (Rayner, 1949) who, in reporting on the pastoral industry of Western Australia wrote: It is not possible, except at considerable cost, for many of the children on stations in the pastoral areas to attend schools, consequently the system of

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 85 education by correspondence established by the Education Department has proved of great value to pastoralists. On a number of stations visited in various parts of the State, evidence of the benefits of this scheme was submitted to the Commission and the impression was gained that the work of Eakins and his staff, is widely appreciated, particularly in the drought affected areas, where it has been necessary to reduce all costs to a minimum. (p. 24)

Praise was also received from the parents of isolated children, in contrast to earlier letters complaining of the educational deficit suffered by their children. One such example is cited in Cunningham (1931) as follows: The coming of the lessons is one great event in the lives of these bush children. We are grateful to you for the fresh hopes they bring us in connection with the education of our children. This matter is no longer a perplexity; we only regret that we did not know sooner of such a splendid institution as the Correspondence School. (p. 54)

These excerpts demonstrate the significant positive impact the Correspondence School had on those who lived in isolated areas of the State. Diversification of Enrollments Shortly after its establishment, the Correspondence School began to provide lessons for an increasingly varied student cohort. The School’s students were located at farms, lighthouses, mine sites, work camps and other isolated situations. In addition, physically “handicapped” children and children who were recuperating from an accident or chronic illness, children living overseas, transients, post-compulsory students, including probationary and unclassified teachers and other adults wishing to further their education, and indigenous children in pastoral areas were added to the growing list of student groups (Eakins, 1964; SIDE, 2007). These students were located across the State and as far away as the Belgian Congo, Fanning Island in the Pacific, Palestine, and Japan (Eakins, 1964). Post-compulsory Students Following World War One, a greater focus was placed on post-compulsory education. This was particularly the case in Europe where it was thought the provision of further education would aid in post-war reconstruction. In rural Western Australia, post-compulsory students generally attended small rural schools where they completed the correspondence lessons under the supervision of the local teacher. This caused difficulties for some teachers who did not have the qualifications or knowledge to teach and mark these materials (Eakins, 1964). In response to these difficulties, the Correspon-

86 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

dence School took over responsibility for supervising and marking Junior Certificate work in 1935 (White, 1962). This, and an increase in the number of subjects provided for these students, which required the development of appropriate materials, greatly increased the workload for the staff at the school. Physically Incapacitated Students As enrollments changed, the form of the School and the services it provided evolved and expanded. By 1930, the Correspondence School consisted of a Head Teacher, 36 assistants, 3 clerks, and 1,903 students (Rayner, 1949). Further, in 1939, a visiting teacher was appointed to provide support to the physically handicapped and chronically ill students who required additional assistance (Eakins, 1964). These teachers visited metropolitanbased students, including those in hospital (Rayner, 1949). Less written work was required of these students and more work was done orally. Where practicable, the teachers also occasionally took these students for outings, for example, to King’s Park, or the beach (Eakins, 1964). Scrutiny of the enrollments at the Western Australian Correspondence School in 1946 shows a further example of the diversity of enrollments. At this time, 117 students were enrolled in secondary correspondence lessons due to physical disability. This included students who were hospitalized or convalescing, and those who were permanently crippled. Of these, 21 students were living in country areas, 93 lived in the Perth metropolitan area, and 3 were in the Perth Hospital (Rayner, 1949). Displaced Students Correspondence education in Western Australia played a particularly important role during World War Two. In 1942, following the bombing of Broome, in the north-west of the State by the Japanese, it was thought that the danger of invasion by the Japanese was acute and many children from the metropolitan area were evacuated to the country. Correspondence lessons were seen as a way of catering for the needs of these students. As a result, enrollments in the correspondence classes increased by almost 700 and the course materials were made available to hundreds of other city children who had enrolled in small country schools (Eakins, 1964). Spaull (1982) reported that in Western Australia, of about 2,000 students who were enrolled at this time, over a quarter had been evacuated from the north-west coast. Many of these evacuees were secondary level students and were expected to attend the local primary school where they worked on their secondary correspondence materials. There are mixed reports of the success of this, with Spaull (1982) recounting that the “Minister for Education [had] proudly reported the achievements of the correspondence classes in meeting the

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 87

emergency problems and producing above standard secondary examination results at the Junior Certificate level” (p. 23). At the same time, Spaull (1982) also notes that some teachers described experiencing difficulties in coping with these secondary students, particularly if their course work had not arrived on time. Technical and Vocational Education During the 1950s, a further category of students was added. These were students who were studying through the Perth Technical College, which had been established in 1900 (Fowler, 1937). During the 1950s the College significantly increased the number of courses it provided and the Correspondence School was involved in the preparation of materials for those who could not attend face-to-face classes (Mears, 1979). The Correspondence School also provided some academic units for the College students, particularly young women who were preparing for the Nurses’ Entrance Examination (Eakins, 1964). In the 1980s, The Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Education in Western Australia (Beazley, 1984) noted that the Technical Extension Service (TES), a branch of the Perth Technical College, was catering to the needs of several thousand students and offered a variety of support services. It recommended that the service be expanded and that greater support be given to external students. At this time, the Perth Technical College worked closely with the Correspondence School in providing secondary level materials. By working together, they were able to make a wide range of academic and technical subjects available to the students. Later, many of these courses were supplied by TAFE (Technical and Further Education) Western Australia in face-to-face, correspondence, and online modes (TAFE, 2009; TES Review Group, 1990). In 1997, the Western Australian Department of Education invited schools to develop and provide vocational education and training (VET) programs. This was part of a significant push in the State to substantially increase the number of students participating in this type of education (Western Australian Department of Education, 2000). In response to this, SIDE implemented a program delivering Technology and Enterprise subjects, including VET Business Services (SIDE Secondary School, 2009). Vocational education was defined as “the attainment of knowledge and skills relevant to employment” (Western Australian Department of Education, 2000), while Structured Workplace Learning (SWL) was seen as an element of VET which provided students with on-the-job training and involved mastering particular skills sets. VET subjects included tourism and hospitality, food processing, computing, and building and construction among many others. There were difficulties in delivering some subjects via distance, while in the case of others it was found impossible to deliver. Also, for very

88 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

isolated students, opportunities for SWL could be extremely limited. Evidence of the lengths that SIDE went to in order to overcome these difficulties is provided by the fact that the school had a number of car engines that were sent around the State to provide opportunities for students enrolled in the automotive mechanics course to practice their skills. The aim was that VET programs would connect to traineeships or apprenticeships either while the student was still at school or afterwards. One factor which required considerable attention was the increased demand for post-compulsory distance education. The level of attention increased when, in 2006, the Department of Education amended the Education Act and raised the compulsory leaving age from 15 to 17. Problems encountered in the provision of materials and services for Tertiary Entrance Examination (TEE) subjects and VET courses included the provision of positions for SWL, and ensuring that students had access to appropriate materials and mentors. Falling Enrollments Following World War Two there was a drop in the number of students enrolled in the Correspondence School. There were a number of reasons for this. First, the Education Department had established a number of district (8–10) and senior (8–12) high schools across the State. At the same time, transport to school by bus became available to more students. In addition, there were more qualified teachers who were better able to teach specific courses. Another factor was the establishment of a number of “special schools” in the 1950s, with transport being provided for students. This significantly reduced the number of “handicapped” students enrolled in the School. Further, a designated teacher was appointed at the Children’s Hospital. Finally, the first SOTA was established at Meekatharra, a small mining town, 760 kilometers north-west of Perth. The Western Australian SOTAs will be discussed in greater detail later in this chapter. Combined, these factors resulted in a drop in enrollments from 2,000 in 1935 to 586 in 1959 (White, 1962). The opening of another four SOTAs and a number of State schools in remote indigenous communities further contributed to the reduction in enrollment numbers. Enrichment of Distance Learning Curriculum Resources As has previously been discussed, for the first 33 years, the Correspondence School operated under the guidance of Mr. Clarence Eakins (Eakins, 1964), first as one of the two founding teachers and then, from May 1920, in his role as Headmaster (SIDE, 2007). During this period, he and the Superintendent of the Correspondence School, James Miles, oversaw the implementation of many innovations designed to enrich the learning expe-

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 89

rience of the students. This set a trend which has continued to the present day. Here, the period 1918 to 1970 will be discussed. The School Library Early on it was realized that there was a need for a school library. It was recognized that the provision of a variety of books would benefit the students, both through supplementing their course materials and by providing them with recreational reading. In response to this recognition, in 1922, senior students were provided with a list of selected readings and were encouraged to read a minimum of six books from each year’s list (Eakins, 1964). Students who achieved this goal received a certificate. They demonstrated this achievement through writing a summary, or brief comments, on the book in question. Initially, students had to acquire their own books, and the cost of this precluded many from participating. Later, however, through donations and a Departmental grant, the School was able to establish its own library, and by 1931 it had 2,000 books (Cunningham, 1931). In this way the library continued to expand. The School provided guidance to the students to aid them in their selection of books. This was done in a number of ways. Book reviews were provided in the School’s magazine, on the School’s radio broadcasts, and in leaflets which listed titles of certain types of books, for example, story books, poetry, nature, or travel books (Eakins, 1964). The School Magazine Eakins encouraged the students to widen their interests and their understanding of the world in which they lived through his contributions to the monthly school magazine,“Our Rural Magazine.” This magazine was first published in May 1926 and featured information about state, national, and international events (SIDE, 2007). Contributors to the magazine included Eakins, the teachers, the Superintendent, Western Australian authors, and prominent citizens such as the Curator of the Perth Museum. The magazine contained articles on subjects as diverse as art, history, gardening, and needlework. It was also used as a forum to display the students’ work. In particular, students were encouraged to submit items of prose or poetry. The magazine was not only popular with the Correspondence School students, but was also avidly read by students in conventional schools, reaching a maximum circulation of almost 10,000 by 1931 (Cunningham, 1931). It was highly commended by the Officer in Charge of High School Correspondence Courses for British Columbia in 1929, who described it as “an eye opener” and “a remarkable achievement” (Haynes et al., 1976, p. 135). Publication of the magazine ceased in 1945 due to paper shortages brought about by the disruption to shipping during World War Two. After the War, the Education Department produced a school magazine for all

90 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

students, while the Correspondence School supplied a “Quarterly Circular” providing their students with practical information on such matters as the availability of new courses of study and examination dates (Eakins, 1964). Educational Tours and Camp Schools The provision of educational tours to Perth for the correspondence students was yet another method of enriching their educational experiences (Eakins, 1964; Rayner, 1949). On the first tour in 1926, twenty-five boys spent ten days in Perth. They were billeted with families who had boys of a similar age and participated in a carefully planned program (Eakins, 1964; McAtee & Zani, 1975). Two years later, a similar tour was organized for 60 girls who camped at the Royal Showground. Other tours were conducted in 1930 (girls) and 1944 (boys and girls) (Eakins, 1964). Part of the program involved a visit to the Correspondence School where the students met their teachers. Other points of call were such places of interest as Parliament House, the Western Australian Museum, and the Perth Zoo. Students also participated in activities such as art, needlework, singing, and folk dancing. Summer camp schools were introduced in the summer of 1946. In that year seven of these schools were held at Point Peron in Perth and in Esperance, on the south coast, with students from rural schools joining correspondence students from particular regions. These camp schools were intended to enable rural and isolated students to meet other children their age and participate in social learning experiences. Further, they were able to participate in conventional school life for a few weeks. In the mornings the students took part in school lessons and in the afternoons they went on excursions and participated in outdoor activities. A particular highlight for children from inland areas was the opportunity to visit the beach (Rayner, 1949). In 1953, the first camp school in the north-west was conducted in Port Hedland, a port town, 1,660 kilometers north of Perth. It was reported that this was innovative in both its scale and the fact that both indigenous and non-indigenous children attended (Haynes et al., 1976). Radio Broadcasts In the twenty five-year period from 1935 to 1960 there were three major innovations that were to enrich the service provided by the Correspondence School. The first, introduced in 1935, was the radio lessons, produced to complement the students’ correspondence lessons (Gilmour, 1979). Prior to this, there had been general educational radio broadcasts that rural children were able to listen to. However, these new lessons were specifically linked to the correspondence work the students were doing (Distance Education Centre Western Australia, 1993). The Correspondence School broadcasts were dovetailed with the regular broadcasts to avoid duplication

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 91

and to ensure the two streams of broadcasts supported each other (Eakins, 1964, p. 79). Due to adverse weather conditions and other uncontrollable factors, reception was not always clear and a number of students could not hear the broadcasts at all. However, for the students who could hear them, these radio lessons added a new dimension to their education. The lessons provided a form of contact with their teacher, a voice to connect with the comments on their work. The Itinerant Teacher Service The second innovation during this period was the introduction of the itinerant teacher service. This service was introduced in 1946 in the sparsely populated northern areas of the State (Rayner, 1949). It was reported that the first itinerant teacher was also sent to teach Western Australian children living in Manila following World War Two (Yourn, 2003). The itinerant teacher service was gradually expanded when a second itinerant teacher’s district was added in 1949 (See Figure 3) and a third in 1951 (McAtee & Zani, 1975). The itinerant teachers had the world’s biggest classrooms,

FIGURE 3. Itinerant Teacher Inland Route, 1949.

92 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

though the number of students in their classes was not large. Eakins (1964) reported that the first itinerant teacher route encompassed about 50 pupils in 25 homes within an area which extended “from Yaringa Station, about 100 miles (by road) south of Carnarvon, to Roebourne approximately 700 miles to the north, and to Glenbury Station roughly 180 miles to the east” (p. 83) and it was reported that, in 1954, the itinerant teachers travelled 50,000 km to visit 150 students in 80 homes (White, 1962). A number of qualities was required of itinerant teachers. They were expected to be tough, resourceful and dedicated to their jobs and, at the same time, able to converse easily and naturally, to put others at their ease and be very tactful (Eakins, 1964). There were numerous dangers, not much chance of help and, in the words of one itinerant teacher, “Hardly a week passed without some excitement” (SIDE, 2007). The diaries of these teachers make fascinating reading, full of adventure, and trials and tribulations. The teacher’s visit was eagerly awaited, not only by the students but also by their parents who also enjoyed having contact with an “outside person” (Eakins, 1964; Rayner, 1949). The itinerant teacher’s role included helping the students and their home supervisor, bringing news and providing much needed human contact for the whole family. The itinerant teacher was able to visit each child once or twice a year and stayed for periods ranging from a few days up to a week. The teacher encouraged the students in their work and provided assistance to the home supervisors. The itinerant teachers worked closely with the Correspondence School class teacher in planning the most effective way of supporting a student and, following a visit, would provide the class teacher with an update on the student’s progress (Eakins, 1964). Teachers carried with them a portable library, a strip projector, and a filmstrip library along with other educational items (Calzoni, 1991; Fogarty, 1985). Where possible, children from the area would gather at a central homestead and participate in lessons (Calzoni, 1991), thus, providing students with some idea of what a classroom lesson was like. Although the itinerant teacher service doubled the cost of educating isolated students, Eakins (1964) calculated that it was still only slightly more expensive than educating a child in a conventional rural school at the time; £31 14s 11d for an isolated child supported by an itinerant teacher compared to £29 12s 1d for a child in a conventional rural school, while the cost of educating a child via correspondence alone was only £14 14s 11d. Fogarty (1985) noted that the itinerant teachers were hampered in their work by a number of factors. The roads were in poor repair or nonexistent. Their vehicles often broke down. At times they had to travel by alternative means, including horse, bicycle, and on foot. In addition, the teachers were expected to carry out repairs to their vehicles in their spare time. Due to difficulties in mobility, it was often the case that the teachers were only able to visit their students once or twice a year. It has been noted, however,

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 93

that even a few visits by itinerant teachers resulted in a noticeable improvement in the students’ learning outcomes (Rayner, 1949). This is reflected in one itinerant teacher’s statement that “in almost every case I have found marked improvement, and in no cases have I found children who have not benefited by visits of the teacher” (Fogarty, 1985, p. 190). The personal contact between the teacher, the students and their families was an important aspect of the Itinerant Teacher Service. Although there were many hardships associated with their work, the itinerant teachers seem to have found immense gratification in the enjoyment their visits brought their students. Often the whole family also benefited from their visits. Many of the teachers performed their jobs above and beyond the call of duty, spending a great deal of their free time and many of their holidays with their students (Distance Education Centre, Western Australia, 1993). The scheme was discontinued in 1967 as the Education Department deemed it to be “inadequate and expensive” (Education Department, 1978; McAtee & Zani, 1975). Ten years later, however, the service was reinstated. This was in recognition of the psychological support the service provided for home supervisors and students. Students who were based in the Perth metropolitan area also had a teacher who visited them weekly. Eakins (1964) reported that the Correspondence School’s physically handicapped students, in particular, benefited from this service. In 1982, following a recommendation by the Assistance for Isolated Children Scheme (AICS) Review (Tannock & Tomlinson, 1981), eight itinerant remedial teachers were appointed in Western Australia (Hobson, 1999). The Schools of the Air A third important development in the provision of distance education for the State’s isolated students occurred in 1957 when the Head Teacher of the Carnarvon School, a Mr. Phillips, was given the task of developing lessons and materials to be used in conjunction with the Royal Flying Doctor’s pedal radio network (Education Department, 1957, p. 1; Fitzpatrick, 1983a). This followed the lead of the Alice Springs School Of The Air (SOTA), which had opened in 1951. As has already been mentioned, the SOTAs were only provided for primary school students. At the time, 11 students had access to two-way pedal sets, while a further 43 were able to listen to the lessons, but could not join in. Ashton (1971) described the on air lessons as “a revolution in education for the isolated” (p. 3). These lessons were recognized as being valuable in providing an opportunity for students to interact with their teachers and classmates. There were, however, significant technical problems and issues of atmospheric interference which made the lessons impractical during the summer months (Education Department, 1957; Mitchell, 2005). Fitzpatrick (1983a) suggested that

94 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

another reason this venture did not flourish was that some parents were concerned that having such a school would have a detrimental impact on the itinerant teacher service operating in the area. The concern proved well-founded as the Itinerant Teacher Scheme was terminated in 1967, with the opening of the State’s last SOTA (McAtee & Zani, 1975), at Carnarvon, 905 kilometers north of Perth. This trial in Carnarvon was the forerunner to the establishment of the Schools of the Air in Western Australia, which occurred on September 14, 1959, when broadcasting commenced from the Meekatharra SOTA (Calzoni, 1991), 760 kilometers north-east of Perth. The school used the Royal Flying Doctor’s two-way radio network and classes were held at a set time of the day, between 8:30 and 10:30 am, in order to avoid the worst atmospheric interference. As part of the opening ceremony, the first teacher at the school, Mr. John Smedley, contacted the 27 foundation students over the radio (Meekatharra SOTA, 2008). These students were located over an area of 500,000 square kilometers (Calzoni, 1991). Following the success of the Meekatharra SOTA, four other SOTAs were opened in Derby (1960), Port Hedland (1960), Kalgoorlie (1962) and Carnarvon (1968) (Ashton, 1971; SIDE, 2007). The SOTA was not intended to supersede the correspondence work, but rather supplement it (McAtee & Zani, 1975; SIDE, 2007). It enabled immediate communication between students, their teacher, and classmates, providing an opportunity for them to participate in lessons together. The students were still required to complete their correspondence lessons in addition to the on-air lessons. The SOTA lessons also provided an opportunity for the home supervisors to seek clarification or advice from the teachers and receive an immediate response. Each of Western Australia’s SOTAs conducted their own school camps, resulting in numerous benefits. Teachers reported that students, initially shy, rapidly gained confidence in their interactions with each other (Ashton, 1971). Further, opportunities to participate in collaborative activities and team sports were considered beneficial. The SOTAs were initially considered part of the Correspondence School. As such, rather than having a principal, each had a teacher in charge (McAtee & Zani, 1975). Later, in 1977, in order to attract more “promotionally oriented teachers” to apply for top positions, the head position at SOTAs was upgraded to Principal (Department of Education, 1978, Section 21.2, p. 3). At the same time, McAtee and Zani (1975) reported that SOTA teachers were selected on the basis of the presence of certain qualities, with a focus on recruiting teachers with experience in rural schools. One parent who participated in their study, however, must have considered that this was not enough and recommended that specialised training be provided for newly appointed teachers to ensure that they were familiar with appropriate strategies to use with correspondence students.

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 95

In the four decades following the first SOTA broadcast in Western Australia little changed in the method of delivering lessons to the students. During that period improvement in roads and transport provided some students and their families with better access to services in nearby towns. Communication technology also improved and the radio sets used by the Royal Flying Doctor scheme provided clearer transmission, thus affording students an increased chance of hearing and participating in their on-air lessons. In addition, improved telephone technology gave some families greater access to the “outside world.” With the close of the 20th century, however, new technologies enabled many of the students and teachers to work in a much more interactive and efficient manner. The use of videos, video conferencing, teleconferencing, and interactive lessons on the web increased (SIDE, 2007; T.H.E. Journal, 1998). Despite these advances, the distance lessons and SOTA lessons remained the backbone of the students’ lessons, and it was considered that they would continue to be so in the foreseeable future (Stevens, 1994).

MAJOR INITIATIVES IN DISTANCE EDUCATION IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA: 1970–1994 During the years between 1970 and 1995, the Correspondence School underwent a number of structural transformations. At the same time, a number of other important initiatives connected with distance education occurred in the State. Following the 1973 Standing Committee on Education, Science and the Arts report on the education of isolated children, the Chairman of the Committee, Senator Davidson, commented that correspondence education in most states needed to be significantly improved (Davidson, 1976). In 1977, isolated children studying through the Western Australian Correspondence School were declared by the Schools Commission to be one of three disadvantaged areas. This focus in the Schools Commission’s Report on the Disadvantaged Country Areas Program for 1978 (Randell, 1978) ensured a boost in funding for the education of the states’ isolated students. These funds enabled the Correspondence School to furnish the students with an enhanced variety of materials and to provide more teacher visits and camps (Vidovich, 1984, p. 128). This was the beginning of a period during which there was an increased focus on the plight of rural students and some of this focus fell upon the correspondence students. As a result, during the period between 1970 and 1994 a number of initiatives occurred in response to concerns about rural and remote education. These initiatives influenced the direction that the provision of distance education in the State took, and will now be discussed in some detail.

96 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

The Isolated Childrens’ Parent’s Association A group which had a significant influence on the development of distance education during the period under consideration, and up to the present day is the Isolated Childrens’ Parent’s Association (ICPA). The ICPA was inaugurated at a national level in 1971 in Bourke, New South Wales. Western Australia’s first branch opened in Meekatharra in the same year (Pitman, 1998). The background to the formation of the ICPA involved years of drought and falling commodity prices, and a reduced number of jobs in rural areas. The cost of boarding facilities at schools was rising, while at the same time the school curriculum became more complex, creating greater pressure for the home supervisors. The Bourke Hostel, in New South Wales, provided local and more affordable accommodation for students than the city hostels (Vidovich, 1984). When the closure of the hostel was threatened, a meeting to discuss this and other educational issues was held and this led to the inauguration of the ICPA. The early focus of the ICPA at State and federal levels has been explained (ICPA, 1981) as follows: Education is the responsibility of the States and it is natural that the main thrusts of ICPA members must be concentrated at State level whilst the Federal Body continues actively in the areas of Federal allowances, Schools Commission programs, Telecommunications, Postal Services, Taxation alleviation and other national activities that directly and indirectly affect the education of residents in rural areas. (p. 3)

The ICPA was the first interest group with a specific focus on the education of rural students. Initially, the ICPA’s focus was chiefly economic. As economic goals were achieved, however, the focus shifted to educational issues. In analysing the effectiveness of the ICPA, Vidovich (1984) concluded that from the outset it proved efficient in employing a number of strategies to achieve its aims. On this, she states that “the influence network which the ICPA has negotiated for itself is a reflection of its effectiveness as a pressure group” (p. 208). Through drawing on their significant personal resources, applying sustained pressure, and building a respectable reputation for themselves, the ICPA proved to be instrumental in promoting the issues of rural education and contributing to the development of distance education in Western Australia. For example, the ICPA could often count a number of trained teachers among its membership and was able to use the knowledge of these individuals in putting forward its case. Further, the ICPA carefully researched any issue before approaching Ministers, meaning they were able to “negotiate on an equal footing” (Vidovich, 1984, p. 180). The ICPA continues to use these strategies to achieve their aims. The achievements of the ICPA are numerous and are worthy of a study in themselves. Its influence resonates through many of the developments

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 97

in distance education at both national and State levels. On a national level one significant achievement was successfully lobbying for the provision of allowances including the Assistance for Isolated Children’s Allowance (Pitman, 1998), while at the state level achievements included the establishment of the Chidley Centre, which is discussed later in this chapter, and the REVISE (Retired Educator Volunteer for Isolated Students Education) program (Hobson, 1999). In recognition of the work the ICPA has done, it has received two significant awards, the HRH Prince of Wales Award for outstanding contribution to young people in the community in 1984 and the Family Children’s Services’ Award for the REVISE WA Program in 1997 (Pitman, 1998). Today, the ICPA wants “all elements of a total education (cultural experiences, social contacts, participation in sport and other enriching activities) [to be] available for all isolated children regardless of the location of their home” (ICPA, 2009, ¶6). In her assessment of the ICPA as a pressure group, Vidovich (1984) highlighted the “power of the rural vote [as] a well known characteristic of the Australian political system” (p. 161). This power remains current to this date with the outcome of the 2008 state election decided by the National Party, which forced the granting of a number of concessions favouring rural areas of the State, most notably the Royalties for Regions agreement. The Regional Development Minister and leader of the National Party in Western Australia, Brendon Grylls, stated that this agreement would see local governments receive $400 million, or a quarter of the state’s royalties, from mining and resources, over four years (Grylls, 2008, ¶1). This potentially represents an enormous boost at the local government level which could enable the provision of enhanced services and facilities. This would help the ICPA fulfil its current aims. The Isolated Student Matriculation Project In July 1974 the Isolated Student Matriculation Project (ISMP) was established for year 11 and 12 students (SIDE, 2007). This program used materials known as Open Learning Matriculation Studies (OLMS). The ISMP was designed as a school-based correspondence course, with the students using the Resource Centre facilities of local schools and either working at the Centres, or at home. Initial efforts of the Correspondence School revolved around creating materials that would support the students in their studies when they did not have ready access to a teacher (Diggins & McWilliams, 1978, Section 21.5, p. 3). Six secondary school teachers were assigned to prepare the correspondence materials for the scheme (Vidovich, 1984). This included the design of units of work and supporting audio-visual materials. Further, the initial cohort of teachers was also involved in developing systems related to the despatch and receipt of work, and the provision of support for students (Vidovich, 1984). Students could study English, Biol-

98 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

ogy, Human Biology, Math I, Math IV, History, Art, and Technical Drawing (SIDE, 2007). Generally, the students received a visit from their teacher twice a year. Further, they were able to attend a school camp, once in year 11 and once in year 12. The camps were considered to be particularly important in providing students with the opportunity to participate in practical lessons. In 1976, the name of the ISMP and OLMS was changed to the Isolated Student Matriculation Scheme (ISMS) (SIDE, 2007). The exceptional qualities of the ISMS were recognized in the 1976 Senate report, Education of Isolated Children and at the 1978 OECD Education in Sparsely Populated Areas Project (Vidovich, 1984). The scope of the program was greatly increased in 1982, when the Tertiary Admissions Examination (TAE) courses provided by Technical Extension Service (TES) were subsumed within the DEC (Vidovich, 1984). The TAE subjects added to the choice provided for students, including English Literature, Accounting, Economics, Maths I and III, Physical Science, Physics, Chemistry, Geology, and Geography. There was a corresponding increase in the number of students for whom the service catered, with a particular increase in the number of adult students (Vidovich, 1984). Vidovich (1984), who in 1977 and 1978 was seconded to the ISMS to prepare curriculum for Biology and Human Biology school subjects, commented that the service was constantly changing to cater for the increasingly large and diverse clientele. The Scheme was a significant step in the provision of post-compulsory schooling for isolated students. Satellite Communications The ICPA played an active role in promoting the utilisation of the satellite for educational purposes. From 1973 it began petitioning for improved delivery of distance education via the proposed Australian satellite, AUSSAT, and in 1979 members participated in a “Communications Satellite Workshop” (Vidovich, 1984). The successful use of HF radio encouraged the notion that the satellite could be used for educational purposes. An immediate advantage was that it was less likely to be subject to atmospheric interference (Higgins, 1993). It was, however, recognized from an early date that simply using satellite technology to replicate radio lessons would not use the technology to its full capacity. It had the potential not only to provide enhanced and more reliable radio contact, but also to facilitate telephone and computer contact, electronic mail transfer, video and audio links (Hockley, 1985). During the late 1970s and early 1980s, there was a spate of articles on how the satellite would revolutionise education. However, the uptake of the technology was initially quite slow. Dean (1985) considered, however, that “education misjudged the emerging regulatory environment and commercial reality of satellite communication” and so

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 99

services were largely provided through existing broadcasters (p. 19). This limited what could be achieved. AUSSAT became operational in 1985. A system of three satellites provided for both regional and national communications (Hope, 1990). The satellites enabled communications services for radio, television, audio and data services (Bates, 1987). For educational institutions, the communications satellite provided the opportunity to extend and enhance their services. Families with a suitable satellite dish were able to receive TV and radio programs (Fowler, 1987). A further advance was that it facilitated sending text and graphics between the teacher and student, something not possible with the HF radio (Fowler, 1987). Further, the students and teachers could discuss materials that all could see on their screens. In this way, science experiments could be demonstrated and two-way video links could facilitate discussion. There were particular hopes that the technology would prove effective in improving the educational outcomes of some groups of students, particularly those in rural areas. In time, the technology did enable programs such as the Academic Talent Program (Murray & Gardner, 1998) which was discussed in Chapter Three. Hosie (1987) reported that it was envisaged that this technology would prove effective with indigenous students as this had already proved to be the case in Alaska. It was hoped that lessons could be learnt from the Alaskan experience, though it was recognized that each country must develop its own knowledge and methodology. In Western Australia, a state-wide Educational Television Service was initiated in conjunction with the Golden West Network (GWN) in 1986. This targeted regional and remote schools and DECs. Bates (1987) reported that most of the materials used were acquired as the cost of producing original materials was too great. Nonetheless, in 1988, the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Employment, Education and Training recognized that the DEC and the SOTAs had “a strong commitment to the use of new technology, and [were] developing innovative applications of technology to meet the needs of their students” (House of Representatives Standing Committee on Employment, Education and Training, 1988, point 2.4). Though development was slow, satellite communications did, eventually, begin to transform distance education (Stevens, 1994). The satellite enabled the delivery of lessons to remote students, providing them with access to “one-way and two-way video conferencing, audio and teleconferencing, audiographics conferencing, electronic mail, computer conferencing, and web-based delivery systems” (Kapitzke & Pendergast, 2005, p. 1627). In short, the satellite was used to improve the quality of the communication for students in remote locations (Cartwright, 2005). Further, it provided increased opportunities for interaction and social engagement between the students. Crump (2008) notes that with improved technology, lessons

100 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

via satellite have become increasingly sophisticated. As was discussed in Chapter Three, however, while the technology is the vehicle delivering the instruction, as it provides a way of delivering stimulating and engaging lessons, it is not a solution in itself. In a continuation of the developments enabled by satellite technology, the HF radio system in Western Australia was decommissioned in 2004. The new satellite-based communications proved more reliable than those over the HF radio. This is evident from an interview with John, McHale, Principal of the Meekatharra SOTA, who is quoted as stating that “on a good week we could conduct maybe two full lessons on HF” (Mitchell, 2005, p. 18). He continued: “You would cross your fingers and hope there were no solar flares or storms to distort the radio signal. Now we can always have a lesson and the children are much more enthusiastic and prepared because there is more reliability” (Mitchell, 2005, p. 18). The improved reception fulfilled the expectations which the ICPA had thirty years earlier. Anecdotal evidence from other SOTAs indicates that learning outcomes have also improved as students can now observe demonstrations of practical lessons, they can see each other’s work, and they have an opportunity to develop their IT (information technology) skills (Mitchell, 2005). These lessons, however, are still only for a limited amount of time each week; the bulk of the work still falls to the home supervisor and remains primarily based on written materials. Nevertheless, the developments resulting from the use of satellite facilitated communication and other technology resulted in changes in the way the school functioned. Reflecting these changes, the school had a curriculum design centre, resource centre, dispatch centre, student services and a staff of 189 in 2003 including writers, editors, graphic artists, and desktop publishers. The Chidley Centre In a conventional school setting, learning difficulties can be recognized by a teacher or Learning Support Coordinator, and steps can be taken to address a student’s difficulties. In the distance education setting, the identification of learning difficulties is more challenging. Further, almost all support facilities are located in the Perth metropolitan area, including diagnostic and treatment facilities. The transport and accommodation costs of gaining access to such facilities can be prohibitive. A recognition of this led to the opening of the Chidley Centre in 1976. The Centre was unique in Australia (Angus & McWilliams, 1978) and its establishment was, in no small way, a result of the work of the ICPA (Hobson, 1999). The Chidley Centre was designed to provide educational facilities with a particular focus on remedial support for rural students. Additionally, accommodation was provided for the students and their parents. At the time the Centre was constructed a survey showed that 25% of parents of

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 101

children studying via correspondence considered their child had some learning difficulties (McAtee & Zani, 1975). Two years after it opened, the Mobile Remedial Teacher Service was begun with the support of the Country Women’s Association (CWA) and the Premier of the time, Sir Charles Court (Hobson, 1999). This provided further support for isolated families which had a child with learning difficulties. The service was expanded, and by 1982 employed eight teachers (Hobson, 1999). Despite these efforts, Barrie and Tomlinson reported in 1985 that parents still had great difficulty in gaining access to support services. Further, the ICPA submission to the National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education (ICPA, 1998) highlighted the difficulties faced by the home supervisors of students with learning difficulties, stating: It is much more difficult for a student with learning difficulties to be assessed when studying via Distance Education. It is also very difficult for the supervisor (usually untrained) to know how to assist their child without the assistance of a teacher trained in assessing and working with learning difficulties.(p. 20)

This clearly demonstrates that the plight of rural and remote students with learning difficulties required further action. The Isolated Families Early Childhood Correspondence Scheme In 1979 the Isolated Families Early Childhood Correspondence Scheme was started for children who were five years of age and lived in isolated areas. It aimed to prepare young children both academically and culturally (SIDE, 2007). Again, Western Australia was in the vanguard of distance education development. The materials for the program were prepared by a number of the teachers. The course was based on three resource books: Thinking About Children, Children’s Literature, and Children’s Art (SIDE, 2007). The aims of the scheme were to “develop social awareness of the child” through three themes: self-awareness, family relationships, and the child in the community (SIDE, 2007, ¶53). The course provided a variety of resources, including materials for art and craft. Included with the sets were suggestions and hints for the home supervisors. The natural activities of children; namely exploring, experimenting, discovering and creating; still underpin the program to this day. This understanding continues to inform the provisions of early childhood education at SIDE. Students still receive a package of varied materials, including books, games and cassettes. The work remains based on themes and is designed to develop a variety of skills in the students including language, physical, social, emotional, cognitive and creative skills.

102 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

The National Centre for Research on Rural Education In 1979 the Western Australian Education Department hosted an Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)-supported conference titled “New Directions in Rural Education.” Experts from around the world participated in the conference workshops and suggestions made were to influence distance education policy in Western Australia (Vidovich, 1984). A direct result of the ideas generated at this conference was the establishment of the National Centre for Research on Rural Education (NCRRE) in November 1980 (Darnell, 1981). The Centre was funded by the Western Australian Department of Education, which provided one third of the funding, with The University of Western Australia providing the remainder from a special endowment trust (Vidovich, 1984). The University provided accommodation for the Centre and support services including computers and telephones. The aims of the Centre included undertaking research on issues in rural education, publishing the results of the research, and advising various interested parties on issues related to rural education (Vickery, 1982). The first annual report showed that the Centre had successfully begun addressing these aims in the first eighteen months of operation, and that the work of the Centre had been well received by all sectors (Vickery, 1982). The activities of the NCRRE in the early 1980s resulted in a number of papers and reports on the state of rural education, many with a particular focus on Western Australia. Further, the Centre attracted approximately $500,000 in research funds and in 1988 was awarded a $250,000 grant from the van Leer Foundation to undertake research into itinerancy, with a focus on indigenous education. Throughout the 1980s, reports both from the NCRRE and other sources highlighted deficits in the provision of education in rural and remote areas (Barrie & Tomlinson, 1985; Birch, Lally & Tomlinson, 1986; Commonwealth Schools Commission, 1985, 1986; NCRRE, 1983; Tomlinson, Coulter, & Peacock, 1985). These reports called attention to the lack of access to education experienced by some individuals, restricted curricula offerings, and concerns about the quality of education provided. The Schooling in Rural Australia report (Commonwealth Schools Commission, 1988) further highlighted the problem of high teacher attrition rates in rural schools and the lack of suitably experienced teachers. The report called for innovative and flexible approaches in addressing these issues. Despite these ongoing concerns about rural and remote education, the NCRRE was disbanded by the end of the 1980s. Subsequent to the closure of the NCRRE, further state and national inquiries have indicated that significant concerns about educational provision in rural and remote areas of the State remained (National Board of Employment, Education and Training, 1991; Department of Employment, Education and Training, 1993; Tomlinson, 1994; HREOC, 2000c; Rural and Remote Education Advisory

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 103

Services, 2000). Since 1997, the Rural and Remote Education Advisory Council (RREAC) has been the body responsible for providing the Minister for Education and Training in Western Australia “with evidence-based, and solutions-focussed, strategic advice on education and training issues and developments in rural and remote areas of the State” (RREAC, 2009, ¶1). The extent to which this information is acted upon, however, is variable. The Distance Education Centre As was previously discussed, in 1979 the OECD sponsored conference titled “New Directions in Rural Education” was held in Perth. The most important action which resulted from the conference was the formation of a Distance Education Centre. In order to support this change, a Superintendent, Brian Gaines, was appointed in 1980 (Vidovich, 1984). His initial task was to manage the transition of bringing the separate organizations involved with the correspondence students together into one coherent institution (Gaines cited in Vidovich, 1984). Between 1981 and 1982 the Correspondence School, ISMS, and Isolated Families Early Childhood Correspondence Scheme amalgamated to become the DEC (Bowden, 1993). This was modelled on the New Zealand Correspondence School (Vidovich, 1984). The justifications for creating the DEC were fourfold: there would be a reduction in the duplication of services and equipment; a seamless K–12 curriculum could be developed; professional development could be easily organized; and the use of new technology would be facilitated (Gaines, 1981b). The SOTAs were not included in the DEC as the classification of the Principals gave the SOTAs increased status and would have created promotional difficulties had they been included (Vidovich, 1984). Vidovich (1984) reported that there were concerns about the impact of this restructuring on the students. During her research, she interviewed Glen Diggins, a former Acting Principal of the DEC and David Mossenson, a former Director General of Education, both of whom expressed concern that the formation of the DEC would result in a loss of intimacy in the relationships between teachers and students. Two factors contributed to these concerns. First, the formation of the DEC resulted in a greater degree of division of labour and specialization in the work that the teachers did (Vidovich, 1984). By becoming more specialised the teachers of secondary students, in particular, lost their overview of each student. The second contributing factor was the ruling that teachers could apply to transfer to the DEC for periods of 3 to 4 years only, before transferring back into conventional schools (The Education Circular, 1980) meaning that families would have an increased likelihood of having to deal with a number of different teachers. Clearly this rule was not adhered to as, on average, the participants in the portion of the study reported in the next chapter of this book had been at SIDE for more than seven years. Furthermore, a number had been at the

104 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

school from shortly after the formation of the DEC, indicating that this policy was not strictly enforced. The Itinerant School Throughout its history the School arguably changed location more than any other school in the state, no less than 11 times in 75 years (Hobson, 1999). These moves reflected the Correspondence Schools’ initial special attachment to the Department of Education. For its first 15 years, the Correspondence School was housed with the Department of Education and moved location when the Department moved (Eakins, 1964). In the 1940s two moves were necessitated by the needs of the military during the Second World War. Other moves were necessary in order to accommodate the growing staff and the increasing volume of materials associated with the growing range of services provided through the School. These moves are indicated in Figure 4.

FIGURE 4. Timeline of Changes at SIDE (1918-2006)

BACKGROUND OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 105

Establishment of SIDE In 1994 the Ministerial Review of Schooling in Rural Western Australia (1994) considered that distance education in Western Australia had “long been recognized as being among the world’s best” (p. 88). A further step designed to continue the strengthening of the service was taken in 1995. The DEC (Leederville) and the five SOTAs were united to create SIDE in 1995. Before the formation of SIDE, the DEC and the five SOTAs often catered for students in the same geographical area. This was partly because some parents thought that the teachers at the DEC were more experienced than those at the SOTAs, and partly because the correspondence lessons provided more flexibility (Bowden, 1993). Although the materials used by both the DEC and the SOTAs were similar, the parents viewed the DEC lessons as being of better quality. This meant that the SOTA enrollments remained relatively low, which increased the cost of providing education to children living in isolated areas. It was hoped that SIDE would provide a more “dynamic and responsive system” (SIDE, 2009, ¶59) through a concentration of technological and human resources. This move echoed the formation of the DEC, which was also designed to reduce duplication of services and develop a technologically savvy and responsive system. The six campuses at SIDE were overseen by a Director, who was supported by a team of principals, one at each of the three Leederville schools and the five SOTAs. In addition, in 2004, the schools on Cocas and Christmas Islands and the School of Instrumental Music came under the SIDE umbrella. In total, in 2008, SIDE catered for approximately 2,500 students ranging from kindergarten to Year 12 (SIDE, 2007). This clearly indicates the ongoing importance of the School.

CONCLUSION This chapter has demonstrated that from as early as 1849 (Rankin, 1926) the education of children in isolated and rural areas of Western Australia was an issue. Yet, despite a number of inquiries and reports into how the situation could be improved, the plight of rural children continues to be an issue of concern for the State government. The Country Roads (Rural and Remote Education Advisory Services, 2000, Foreword) report provided a state government plan for education and training in Western Australia’s rural and remote areas and acknowledged that students in “rural and remote areas continue to lag behind their city counterparts on key educational indicators such as participation and achievement.” During the 90 years that SIDE has provided educational services to Western Australia’s isolated children, its structure and functions have changed considerably. The clientele has also changed, with new groups of students

106 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

being added through the years. When SIDE was first established, the main focus was on students who were isolated as a result of geographic distance. In the intervening years there has been a gradual shift in understandings of the term ‘isolated’ to incorporate not only those who are isolated by vast distances, but also those who live in urban areas and are isolated by a physical inability to participate in conventional schooling, or who are socially or emotionally isolated. This shift in the understanding of “isolation” has not only broadened the client base of SIDE but also the functions it is expected to perform, and these have been further influenced by the recent rapid advances in technology. It is important to keep these changes in the functions of SIDE in mind when reading the next chapter of this book. The chapter is concerned with the second research question posed in relation to SIDE, namely, “what are the current functions of SIDE?”

CHAPTER 5

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION The previous chapter described the background to the need for, and development of, what was initially known as the Correspondence School, later, the Schools of Isolated and Distance Education, in Western Australia. The School was originally established to provide an education for students living in geographically isolated areas of the State. Shortly after its establishment, however, understandings of isolation expanded to include children who were suffering from physical disabilities or long term illnesses (Eakins, 1964). Later on, ongoing broadening of the student eligibility criteria, advances in information and communication technologies, and curriculum changes in the State led to a shift in the functions carried out by SIDE and the staff who work there. This chapter focuses on the question, “What are the functions of SIDE in providing distance education for Western Australia’s isolated students?” The Education of Children in Geographically Remote Regions through Distance Education: Perspectives and Lessons from Australia, pages 107–142 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

107

108 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

This is to ask, in another way, “What is it that the Schools of Isolated and Distance Education do?” The chapter is in three parts. It first describes the organisational structure and functions of SIDE. The second part of the chapter describes the functions performed by the teachers at SIDE. Finally, the role of the home supervisor is examined.

THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF SIDE Structure Since its inception as the Correspondence School in 1918 the organizational structure of SIDE has been subject to constant review and change. The first changes were in response to the sheer number of students enrolling in the School. The ongoing increase in enrolments and associated staffing levels had a flow-on effect on the organizational structure and this, in turn, has had an impact on the teachers’ work. In 1991, the then Principal of the DEC, Julie Bowden, considered that there was a need for a reorganization of the Centre to respond to the increasing demands for flexible learning. The proposed reorganization was congruent with the Education Department’s commitment to the “restructuring of the Distance Education sector in order to create a more efficient, effective and equitable system” (Bowden, 1991, p. 14). Bowden considered that the structure of the DEC at that time inhibited it from providing the most effective facilities for students. In 1995 the DEC became the Schools of Isolated and Distance Education. Along with the new name came a number of other changes. One related to funding. As a school, SIDE holds its own bank account whereas, under its previous structure funds were held in consolidated revenue and reabsorbed if not used by the end of the year. There were also implications in terms of working conditions. For example, as staff are now members of a school, like those in all schools they work shorter hours and have more holiday leave than those working in centres. As part of the reorganization, the SOTAs were brought under the SIDE umbrella whereas, previously, they had been administered separately in their geographic districts. The argument was that while the SOTAs were entirely different from other schools in the districts, their needs were not presented at the Education Department in Perth and, hence, they “tended to be left out of the equation quite often.” Bringing together all the schools in the state that were associated with distance education helped to address this issue. The organization which emerged from the restructuring process included the three schools at SIDE’s Leederville campus, the five SOTAs, the two

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 109

Indian Ocean Schools, and the School of Instrumental Music. Individually and collectively these schools fulfil a number of functions aimed at maximizing the educational experiences of Western Australia’s isolated students. Furthermore, these functions have been refined and redefined over time. The focus of the study being reported here, it will be recalled, is SIDE’s Leederville campus. Until 2006 this consisted of the administration and the Primary, Middle, and Post-compulsory Schools (See Figure 5). In 2006, the Middle and post-compulsory Schools were merged to form the Secondary School. At the same time, an amendment to the Education Act made education, training or employment compulsory until the end of the year in which an individual turns 17. This made “post-compulsory” a redundant term. Consequently, in the remainder of this book, the term “post-compulsory” has been replaced by “senior secondary” and the former Middle School will be referred to as the Junior Secondary School. There are differences not just between SIDE and conventional schools, but also between the schools that make up SIDE, Leederville. These differences include the clientele, the way students are allocated to teachers, and differences imposed by the subjects taught. Interestingly, despite being located on the same campus, many of the teachers admit to knowing little of what happens in the other schools, and note that there is little interaction between the schools. They are, however, aware that there are differences between the schools. For example, the Primary School has only a small proportion of students who are geographically isolated, mostly south of Geraldton, whilst the bulk of its students are either travelling or overseas. This is, in part, due to the fact that most of the State’s geographically isolated primary students are enrolled with the SOTAs. A further difference is that the Primary School’s teachers work with family groups and continue with students throughout their enrolment at SIDE. This is not the case with the Junior and Senior Secondary Schools, in which students work with subject specialist teachers. Further, at the primary level, the parents play a very di-

FIGURE 5. SIDE’s Campuses

110 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

rect part in the education process. This does not occur to the same extent in the Junior and Senior Secondary Schools. Whilst the primary and junior secondary teachers have a wide variety of materials to choose from in supporting their students, the teachers of year 11 and 12 students have less flexibility in terms of the materials they can use. The teachers of senior secondary students, particularly those doing TEE (Tertiary Entrance Examination) subjects, are restricted in how much they are able to change within the syllabus for a given topic and, as one teacher noted, “if you start leaving sections, out it’s not going to look too flash.” Another difference is that the Senior Secondary School has a large number of part-time students who may be studying just one or two subjects. Many of these students are studying Languages Other Than English (LOTE) and a significant number of them are based in District or Senior High Schools. The Primary School and the Junior Secondary School tend not to have part-time students. Administration The Director The administration of SIDE is overseen by a Director who is responsible to the State Education Department’s Executive Director Regional and Remote Schools. The Director is responsible for overseeing quality assurance across all of the schools which come under the SIDE umbrella (SIDE, 2009). The focus is on the needs of the students and ensuring that the planned outcomes and services provided meet those needs whilst, at the same time, adhering to such directives of the Education Department as the State mandated Curriculum Framework (Curriculum Council, 1998), its Outcomes and Standards Framework, and its Performance Management Framework. To facilitate this, the Director must ensure that all aspects of the work environment are appropriately resourced, including physical, financial and human resources. A particular focus of this is driving forward the development and use of IT-based solutions. A further responsibility is developing and promoting a shared vision and a clear strategic direction among the diffuse stakeholder groups. In order to do so, the Director must develop good working relationships through providing effective pathways for communication and promoting a collaborative, effective, and positive work environment. Further, the Director is responsible for ensuring that appropriate implementation and monitoring practices are put into operation. In part, this is meant to involve reinvigorating those members of staff who have been at SIDE for a number of years, to maintain their enthusiasm for the job, and to encourage them to actively engage with new pedagogy and technology. Strategies to facilitate this include involving the staff in the development of a shared vision and strategic direction, and the provision of extensive and ongoing professional development. Each of these objec-

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 111

FIGURE 6. SIDE Organizational Structure 2009.

tives requires the development of an appropriate organizational structure facilitating communication between parties. The Principals A team of Principals support the Director (See Figure 6). Each Principal is responsible for the management of his or her school. The position is unusual in that each must consult with others on the running of some aspects of his or her school and must adhere to organization-wide policies. In discussing this, one Principal stated: I’m used to having a school where I am the boss of everything, but someone else looks after the building here, for example, so it’s a constant frustration.

The role is also unusual in that the Principals have very little contact with students and parents. Thus, their time is given over to the development of “big picture” ideas and planning. Another key role is that of promoting the use of technology to address the students’ needs. In part, this requires the development of a proactive environment, with everyone working together. Change in technology also requires changes to the learning materials and pedagogy. The development of new distance education materials is an expensive undertaking and requires the diversion of funds from other recurrent cost areas, or submission of applications for grants or funding. The decision to channel funds in a particular direction is not taken lightly as the student cohort can change from one year to the next. As one Principal put it, it could be considered a “moral decision” as to where to direct resources and how many students will benefit from that decision. Criteria for Admission to SIDE SIDE’s role is to address the needs of its students, those who would otherwise be unable to gain access to such an education. As such, it is important

112 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

to understand who the students are and what their needs are. Students must meet specific eligibility criteria to enrol in SIDE. All applicants must be residents of Western Australia and most must enrol for a period of not less than one term. Students who wish to enrol on the basis of geographical isolation must live a minimum of 16 km from their nearest government school or 4.5 km from a transport service to their nearest school. Other criteria for enrolment include having parents who are itinerant workers, temporarily living overseas, travelling within Australia or overseas, or being enrolled in schools not providing a full complement of courses, others who can enrol are adults who have not studied full-time for at least 12 months, students experiencing severe medical problems or psychological or emotional disorders (requiring supporting documentation), and young women who are pregnant or who have parental responsibilities. In addition, students who are considered gifted and talented in the fields of sport, ballet, film, or music and who are unable to attend school regularly as a result of commitments in their field may be eligible to enrol. Addressing Students’ Needs The functions of SIDE are directed at catering for the very diverse needs of its wide variety of students. Work programs are individually tailored to meet the needs of each student. An awareness of individual and group needs is considered very important. Though the teachers at SIDE use a base set of materials, they are able to adapt them to create an Individual Education Program (IEP) for every child for whom they are responsible. Further, a staffing policy which limits the staff student ratio to 1:50 facilitates the development of IEPs. Overall, SIDE’s teachers are expected to aim to reduce the disadvantages presented by each student’s situation and enhance the advantages. The way this is done will now briefly be discussed. SIDE has students who are located in the Perth metropolitan area, in rural and remote Western Australia, around Australia, and in Europe, Africa, Asia, North and South America and the Pacific region. In setting learning tasks, teachers need to be aware of the resources that are available to a student. Factors which impact on many of SIDE’s students include the environment in which they live and study, the facilities that are available to them, their immediate community, and the fact that much of the responsibility for their education usually falls to the home supervisor. Students may be working in such diverse situations as at the kitchen table, under a tree or tarpaulin, on a boat, or at a District High School. They may have to pack their work away during meal times, have people moving through their study-area throughout the day, be called away from their studies on a regular basis to help with work, or have to fit their studies around travel, or sport or music practice. Their work must be organized around these factors in order to reduce interruptions to their school work. One change under

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 113

consideration at SIDE is the introduction of more flexible work hours for teachers to accommodate the fact that students, for a variety of reasons, may not be studying from 9 am to 3 pm, or may be working in a completely different time zone. There may also be limitations in the infrastructure, technology and facilities that are available to students. For example, even in Western Australia there are students who only receive mail once every three or four weeks. Other students have to use electricity which is supplied by a generator for only a few hours a day. For others, such as some indigenous students living in remote communities, English is a second language for most, if not all, members of their community. This can present a significant challenge as most of the materials are in written form, requiring reasonable literacy skills. On the other hand, however, are students who have access to a full range of facilities. Whatever a student’s situation, it must be considered in developing their IEP. Geographically isolated students remain SIDE’s core student group. In 2000 the Rural and Remote Education Advisory Council (2000) concluded that: Despite enormous energy, goodwill and resolve by individuals and organizations over many years, students in rural and remote areas continue to lag behind their city counterparts on key educational indicators such as participation and achievement. (Foreword)

This, combined with equally disappointing, though not surprising, findings by the National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education (HREOC, 2000a) in the same year, indicate that while numerically geographically isolated students may not be SIDE’s core clients, in terms of need they are. Other student groups have their own particular needs. Students who are travelling, for example, are limited in the volume of materials they can carry with them. As a result, SIDE has now produced a program specifically for shortterm travellers, defined as those who are travelling for less than a year. The “Travellers’ Pack” materials were written by SIDE’s teachers and are based around travelling-associated activities. Other students are enrolled for ideological reasons. This can be either because the parents do not want their children exposed in “regular” school to certain topics or issues, “for protective reasons,” or because they do not support the use of certain technologies. For example, at one time there were over 30 Plymouth Brethren members living in a community in rural Western Australia enrolled with SIDE. Although they no longer use SIDE’s services as they now have schools and teachers of their own, they exemplify the way in which SIDE can modify the learning materials to suit the needs of a particular group. Working with such a diversity of students, teachers, as

114 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

one argued, have to be “very conscious of their beliefs” and make sure they do not “cross any boundaries.” A number of SIDE’s students do not engage in the typical workload of a student in a conventional school. Such students may be enrolled for medical reasons and have problems with severely reduced levels of stamina. Others are referral/SAER (Students at Educational Risk) students; students that basically cannot be accommodated in a mainstream government school for a range of reasons. They may have psychological, behavioural, literacy, or numeracy issues, be in the juvenile justice system, have learning difficulties, or be considered gifted or talented. For many of these students SIDE is more or less a last resort. They often require a modified study program and, generally, a reduced workload. SIDE also plays an important role in supporting other schools. For example, it supports as many as 2000 students in LOTE subjects. There have also been instances of schools (Geraldton, Port Hedland, and schools in the Goldfields District being notable examples) which could not engage teachers in core subjects such as maths, having SIDE take on the teaching of that subject (ABC News, 2008, January 29). SIDE also supports other schools which have a limited number of students who wish to study a particular subject, or students who want to do subjects that do not fit on their timetable. In terms of supporting other schools, SIDE is seen by some as “an annex to every school.” In addressing the needs of students, the aim is to reduce the impediments to success and enhance the advantages of studying via distance mode. A chief impediment to educational success is isolation. This can be geographical, cultural or psychological. The extent of this isolation is encapsulated in the statement by one teacher that “some of the students lead extremely lonely lives and they’re really desperate to talk to other kids. They’re very open and really needy for contact.” Some teachers also feel that for students such as those enrolled due to depression, being enrolled at SIDE can have the effect of exacerbating their sense of isolation and they often choose to return to their conventional schools. Others yet again feel that for certain students a lack of commitment to their education on the part of their parents is an impediment to their success. Given the reliance on written materials, students who have poor literacy skills are at a distinct disadvantage when enrolled in SIDE. The National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education—Emerging Themes (HREOC, 2000a) quotes ATSIC (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission) Commissioner, David Curtis, as stating of the education of Indigenous children through SIDE that “many parents perceive their lack of resources and literacy and numeracy skills as barriers to their children’s participation” and goes on to note that advances in technology have not proven to be the “solution they promised to be” (p. 18). According to SIDE teachers, concerns remain

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 115

about this matter. On the other hand, there are advantages to studying via distance. The teachers can adapt the study program to suit the needs of the individual student as the program is very flexible. Students are able to enrol in just one or two subjects, to work at their own pace. Further, they develop good study skills. They can develop the ability to work independently. They can also develop good time management skills, and become adept at adhering to a schedule and submitting assignments on time. To be successful they need to be self-motivated and self-disciplined. Such qualities, some teachers at SIDE hold, stand the students in good stead when they go on to tertiary studies. They are also, it is claimed, able to think independently as they are not influenced by their peers. Indeed, this was recognised as far back as 1931 when Cunningham (1931) argued that students studying through distance education did not have the pressure to conform or “adopt the ideas…of others,” adding that, generally, the students exhibit “initiative and perseverance” (pp. 61–62).

THE TEACHERS From the perspectives presented by the study participants, a number of themes and issues emerged. The themes revolve around the three main players in the distance education process: the teachers, the home supervisors and the students. Although the participants were chiefly SIDE’s teachers, given the fact that the home supervisors are partners in the teaching process, it is informative to understand the teachers’ perspectives of the home supervisors’ role, as these understandings impact on the way the teachers carry out their work. A discussion of the themes that arose comprises the remainder of this chapter. Perceived Status In the past, there have been certain perceptions, in both the general community and the educational community, about SIDE and what it and its staff do. These understandings have implications for the current standing of SIDE and for the teachers who work there. Some notions date back to the days when it was not unusual for the State Department of Education to move ineffectual teachers to the Correspondence School where they did not have to cope with a class full of students. Current views on this amongst SIDE teachers are reflected in comments such as: SIDE is often well known for the wrong reasons. There are a whole range of understandings about SIDE out there from it’s the repository of those who can’t work anywhere else, it’s Club Med, it’s a retirement village, it’s a slack

116 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

arse place to work because you come in at 8:30 and leave at 2:20 and you don’t do anything other than sit and mark. What surprised me was the attitude to a teacher coming to SIDE. The attitude was it was easy street, it wasn’t much of a teaching job, there was nothing to do, that I was copping out of teaching.

Such perceptions were perhaps initiated by the fact that “a high percentage of teachers” who were appointed to the correspondence schools were “suffering from some permanent or temporary disability which render[ed] them unsuitable for classroom teaching” (Rayner, 1949, p. 40). Further misconceptions about what the teachers at SIDE do arise as a result of the fact that their “daily life” is very different from that of teachers in conventional schools. Actual Status Merit Select School Literature in the past tended to point to the competence of the staff, rather than their lack of competence. For example, Rayner (1949) reported that many of the teachers in the correspondence schools were highly qualified or experienced, with few junior or uncertified teachers. This view was upheld by Vidovich (1984), who, from personal experience working at the ISMS, reported that “the staff were all ‘hand-picked’ by Subject Superintendents” based on having “a ‘flair’ for the job” (p. 230). She did, however, also highlight the Correspondence School’s reputation for being “moribund” and “collecting staff who, for one reason or another, could not handle a ‘normal’ school posting” (p. 231). Nowadays, SIDE is advantaged in the public education system in that it is a merit select school. In other words, it can advertise positions through the Education Department’s website and, as a result, receives numerous applications for advertised positions. Consequently, it is able, as one study participant put it, to employ teachers who “display the best skills, qualities and other attributes for the distance education context.” Being a merit select school helps to dispel the image of SIDE as being a place for dysfunctional teachers and instead being “a place of excellence.” It also ensures that the students have access to highly skilled teachers. As one participant noted, through the merit selection process SIDE is able to “get some very creative and talented teachers into the organization,” leading to “some very innovative work being done.” Appropriateness of Job Description The role of teachers at SIDE is governed by decisions made by the Western Australian Education Department and by the SIDE administration.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 117

How the teachers carry out that role, however, is subject to a number of influences. These include the particular school in which they work (Primary, Junior Secondary, or Senior Secondary) and the specific requirements of the student groups with which they are involved. Specific responsibilities listed for teaching positions at the SIDE Senior Secondary School encompass planning and implementation of learning activities, assessment and reporting of students’ work, liaising with the SIDE community, managing student learning, contributing to school planning and administration, and participating in professional activities (Schools of Isolated and Distance Education, 2002, pp. 7–8). These responsibilities are rather broad, and within them, teachers often perform and even generate many unstated functions arising from their own creative skills, their awareness of issues that need to be addressed, and a desire to ensure that their students receive the best possible educational support. Of late, there has been a push to ensure that job descriptions and other documents are more directly linked to what SIDE does, with a focus on the students for whom it caters. In line with the drive to involve the teachers in developing SIDE, they have been engaged in the process of producing relevant documentation including the vision, and strategic plan. This is deemed important, not just to promote ownership of the institution amongst teachers, but also because it is considered that the lack of documentation specific to SIDE and its functions has contributed to misunderstandings in the past about the role of the institution and its staff. Credentials Although teachers at SIDE have many duties in common with teachers in conventional schools, their work also differs in many ways. Consideration of these differences raises the question, “Is there a need for specific training for distance education teachers?” Literature suggests that there is a need for such training (Ministerial Review of Schooling in Rural Western Australia, 1994; Sturrock, 1983, p. 108). To date, however, there are limited opportunities for distance educators to undertake any formal training or qualification in the field. On the need for specific training for SIDE’s teachers, views from participants ranged from “Absolutely, because there’s a pedagogy that goes with it” to “No, I wouldn’t find that useful”. One participant pointed out that: Without the training, there is a danger teachers will produce the equivalent of the old “chalk and talk.” They need to know how you engage kids, how you teach through a distance mode, what strategies work, what don’t.

None of the staff interviewed had received any formal training as distance educators. They did, however, participate in SIDE’s induction program for new teachers. A number of the staff found this to be a period of ‘infor-

118 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

mation overload’ and considered that there was too much information on administrative aspects of SIDE, for example, information from the finance officer, the registrar and the librarian which, as one participant phrased it, “has got nothing to do with you” as a teacher. The general view was that this period was of little use. Overall, it seemed the members of the administration team were more inclined to consider training useful, whereas the teachers were less likely to appreciate its value. Perhaps the negative response by the teachers had more to do with the manner and content of the training they had received, rather than the notion of training per se. The teachers were much more positive about the strong culture of mentoring that exists in each of SIDE’s schools. Indeed, it was noted that “all teachers have an obligation in terms of working with new teachers,” and providing support and informal training for each other. The teachers stated that this occurred “at the point of need;” that if they have a question or a problem they just ask the person next to them in the manner of an ongoing induction. This collegial support was considered one of the very positive features of working at SIDE. In fact, working collaboratively and sharing ideas and knowledge is central to the teachers’ work. For example, in the Primary School, the teachers have students ranging from K–7. This means that if one teacher does something to improve the year 4 materials, all of the teachers benefit. On this also, SIDE’s teachers are required to undertake ongoing professional development, particularly in relation to ICT and if one teacher goes on a training course, they share any new knowledge with their colleagues. It is not just new staff members who benefit from this corporate knowledge; within teams, across teams and across the schools the teachers are willing and able to share knowledge, techniques and other information. The LOTE team, for example, is considered a model in terms of using computer mediated lessons, and its members are generally described as “fantastic” in regard to this. They regularly advise other teachers on how to include more online work in their teaching programs. This collaborative culture is supported in that the teachers have the flexibility, in terms of time, to mentor each other as they are not restricted by timetables. This access to both formal and informal professional development places them at an advantage over their peers in many conventional schools. Thus, rather than being “a repository for those who can’t work anywhere else”, SIDE is actually a school populated by “highly skilled teachers.” Qualities Required in Distance Education Teachers As any text on teacher preparation will attest, there are certain qualities which contribute to a teacher being successful. Stronge (2002) notes that good teachers should have efficient instructional and managerial abilities, along with well developed “social and emotional behaviors” (p. 13); they

.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 119

should care about the students, demonstrate respect for individuals, be enthusiastic and motivate students, be good listeners and provide a learning environment that is supportive and stimulating. Though these qualities are desirable in any teacher, for distance educators they are particularly important. Further, there are additional qualities that are desirable, given the particular demands and challenges of distance education. On this, Tomlinson (1994) stressed the need for distance education teachers “to be selected on criteria that recognise their commitment to, and their suitability for, distance teaching” (p. 92). Other qualities, according to participants, that are required include commitment, flexibility, a positive attitude, good communication skills, a willingness to embrace technology, and a strong professional growth attitude. These qualities are essential if the students are not to be further disadvantaged. This notion is supported in the work of Gall (1983) who highlighted the negative impact teachers who lack these qualities can have on students and home supervisors. The work at SIDE is complex and requires a broad range of skills and qualities including managerial and instructional expertise, flexibility, and emotional intelligence. These will now be discussed in turn. Managerial and Instructional Competence Managerial competence is a key skill required by all teachers. However, the way this is manifested in the SIDE setting is different from the situation in conventional schools. For example, good time management skills are essential. Unlike teachers in conventional schools whose days are, to a large extent, organized according to a timetable and the ringing of a bell, teachers at SIDE must manage their own time. They are responsible for structuring their own day and prioritizing what needs to be done and when. Within these parameters, they must consult with colleagues and students, attend meetings, develop IEPs for their students, mark work and participate in ongoing professional development, both formal and informal. One aspect of management which is dominant in conventional schools, but that plays little part in the role of a teacher at SIDE, is behavior management. This was highlighted by almost all of the study participants. One teacher commented: In a conventional school, every day you have to go to class and you have to perform. If you do not perform you are dead, you’re mincemeat.

In contrast, SIDE’s teachers are free of this stress and able to focus on the business of teaching. This is clearly expressed in the following comments: 80 percent of the time in the schools I’ve been in the teacher is in discipline, all the time. If you go and talk to teachers who are out in the tough schools they are depressed because what they want to achieve is not being

120 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

achieved, because of the discipline that they have to handle in the classroom, and [here] those distractions are gone. I was in a classroom for twenty three years and to hold the lid on it, it takes a lot of your energy and a lot of strategies to do that and we don’t have that here.

Not facing the challenges of the classroom means the teachers can focus on teaching and learning and not be distracted by the things in schools that “can take teachers’ eyes off the ball.” They are able to focus on the curriculum, putting together programs addressing individual students’ needs, assessment, and reporting. This has the effect, it is claimed, of reinvigorating many of the teachers and results in them having renewed enthusiasm for their work. Also, they claim that they feel more of a sense of achievement through being able to devote quality time to each student and providing individualized educational support. Some members of the SIDE administration team, however, identified the relatively stress free environment as potentially contributing to teachers losing the skills required in a classroom. A representative comment on this was as follows: The daily face-to-face contact and the hurly burly of school operations, that’s not there for teachers and I think they can be quite sheltered from the real world in terms of the demands on teachers out there in face-to-face classrooms.

It was thought that teachers might lose their “edge” and find it difficult to go back into a conventional classroom in the future. This view was supported by one of the Directors, who expressed the opinion that “a period back in a regular school would be an enormous bonus” and would help keep teachers in touch with the reality of classroom teaching. The teachers themselves suggested that peers should be cycled through SIDE on a regular basis, a concept that was also recommended back in the 1980s (Vidovich, 1984). From Table 1, however, it is clear that such a scheme is not being

TABLE 1.

Length of Time Study Participants Had Worked at SIDE

Years at SIDE

Number of Teachers

% of Teachers

Less than 1

4

6.8

1–2

9

15.2

3–4

9

15.2

5–9

16

27.1

10–14

14

23.7

15 or more

7

11.9

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 121

implemented; almost two thirds of the staff who participated in the study have been at SIDE for longer than the suggested 3–4 year period, while over a third have been there for ten years or longer. A “recycling” scheme would provide a greater number of teachers with an opportunity to work in a stress free environment for a time. A further advantage of this would be that as a result of the professional development programs they had taken and their enhanced IT skills, the teachers would be able to significantly contribute to their new school. Despite recognizing the strengths of such a scheme, however, none of the teachers interviewed were willing to go back to teaching in a conventional school. Teachers at SIDE are involved in various activities relating to the welfare of the students, including trying to keep them on track and completing their work. Failure of students to maintain contact with teachers and to submit their work in the distance education context is the equivalent of truanting. However, as one teacher noted, “it’s somewhat passive from our point of view.” Although the teachers feel a sense of responsibility for these students, it is very difficult for the School to keep track of them and ensure that they continue to do their school work if they are travelling, or living interstate or overseas. Instructional competence is another key requirement of teachers at SIDE. It is necessary for the development of the IEPs and in adapting materials or supplementing learning programs to suit the needs of each student. Further, if the teachers have online lessons they need to manage the planning, implementation and reporting of these. Instructional competence is also called for in consulting with students and home supervisors and providing them with academic support, be it via the mail, the phone, email, or face-to-face. A further way in which teachers at SIDE demonstrate their instructional expertise is through developing new materials. These can be for a particular subject, a year group, or a group of students. For example, one teacher was involved in writing new curriculum materials for year four/five students who are travelling. In addition to writing new materials, the teachers also develop “help sheets” for particular units and modify programs of work. Further, they are involved in the production of audio-visual resources to support the printed materials. Thus, the teachers have a much more active role in the production of materials than most teachers in conventional schools have. Additional demands on the teachers’ instructional and managerial skills at SIDE involve organizing and participating in camps and seminars for the State-based students. These seminars may be held in regional centres like Derby, or Port Hedland, or at the Leederville campus, though in recent years, the number of regional camps has dwindled. The location of the students and the logistics of bringing them together are significant factors

122 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

in determining the feasibility of holding a camp. They are important, however, in providing students with opportunities to participate in face-to-face lessons and collaborative learning activities with their peers. Additionally, they provide an opportunity for the teachers and students to meet and develop closer relationships. Further, the teachers are able to observe the way their students work and to evaluate any problems they may be experiencing. The success of these camps and seminars rests on the management skills of the teachers, who need to coordinate and liaise with others in the planning and implementation stages. Flexibility Flexibility is reflected in every aspect of the teachers’ work. It is essential in working with students and in catering for their needs. For the teachers, flexibility is required, not only in dealing with the students, but also in responding to the “almost constant state of flux” of SIDE itself. The teachers must be able to adapt to the differing needs of their students, to changing technology, and to the changing structure of SIDE in a way not required of teachers in conventional schools. The flexibility required of the teachers is both facilitated by, and driven by the teaching situation at SIDE. The teachers’ time is flexible as they are not restricted by timetables. They have time to conduct research and seek out additional materials for their students. They are able to consult with each other about a student’s progress and, as a result, can develop a “holistic view of how a student is progressing.” They have time to consult on educational issues. For example, with the implementation of the state’s prescribed Curriculum Framework, some teachers, it is held, felt that they had “the luxury to sit around in work time and debate points and clarify issues.” It was considered that this resulted in a more comprehensive implementation of the Curriculum Framework (Curriculum Council, 1998) at SIDE than in many other schools. Further, the teachers are able to schedule such meetings with relative ease. This is beneficial in terms of attending professional development, for example whereas, it would not be possible to provide the same level of professional development in a mainstream school. On the other hand, the availability of teachers means that they are often taken away from their teaching, something that would not happen in conventional schools because a classroom full of students cannot be left to its own devices. These interruptions include phone calls and unscheduled meetings. Such meetings are not only with colleagues, but also with students and their parents. Although this is positive in terms of responding to the needs of the students and their home supervisors, it can be very disruptive for the teacher, as is illustrated in the following comment:

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 123 I will have a student and a parent rock up without an appointment and they will take up maybe an hour of my time and that disrupts my entire day because I was not expecting them and I can’t just say to them “Look, I’m sorry, I wish you’d go home and come back next Wednesday, make an appointment.”

In this regard, the flexibility of the work environment at SIDE can create problems for the teacher in terms of managing their work. Emotional Intelligence Distance educators must possess a number of qualities which could be categorized as ‘emotional intelligence’. The literature reveals that there is a great deal of disagreement as to exactly what constitutes emotional intelligence (Law, Wong, & Song, 2004; Lopes et al., 2004; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004). Salovey and Mayer (1990) define emotional intelligence as “the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (p. 189). Here, emotional intelligence is taken to incorporate good written and oral communication skills, well developed interpersonal skills, an ability to establish and maintain relationships and to empathise with others, even though it is understood that these criteria do not necessarily fall within the accepted understanding of the term in the field of psychology. One reason that good communication skills are required is that the teacher’s role involves liaising between different parties. He, or she, is a link between SIDE and the student, or SIDE and conventional schools where a school may have a limited number of students studying one or two subjects each, or there may be whole classes enrolled through SIDE. At other times the teachers are the link between SIDE and the home supervisors. In addition, some of the teachers need to liaise with TAFE and the universities, or, in the case of those responsible for the Structured Workplace Learning program, employers. Also, as has previously been discussed, SIDE teachers frequently consult with each other. Excellent interpersonal skills are essential given the variety of individuals with whom a teacher at SIDE must work. In most conventional schools the majority of the students are from families within a similar socioeconomic band. However, SIDE’s students are drawn “from all walks of life.” Teachers in the SIDE Junior and Senior Secondary Schools generally have students allocated according to region. This may mean a geographical region in Western Australia, or it may be that the students are located either in another state of Australia or overseas. This is illustrated by the case of one teacher who has students living overseas in “Ghana, Vietnam, Hawaii, and South Africa and others travelling around Australia, and one student who’s a referral because he’s a school refuser.” In the Primary School the teachers are allocated students in family groups. They can be in any year-level from

124 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

kindergarten to year seven; hence, the teachers need to be able to communicate with students at all age levels. Further to this, many students are, for a variety of reasons, deemed to be “fragile” and working with them requires great sensitivity on the part of the teacher. In addition, the teachers must also be able to communicate effectively with the home supervisors who are also drawn from a variety of backgrounds. In the mainstream context, teachers have the benefit of non-verbal cues. In the distance education setting, however, where relationships are often conducted in a very sterile or de-contextualized way without the aid of non-verbal cues, things can easily be “misread.” As a result, teachers must have highly developed communication skills. Teachers in conventional schools must deal with significant numbers of students and classes. This makes it very difficult for them to connect with their students in any significant way. In contrast, SIDE’s teachers are facilitated in developing a rapport with their students by the low teacher-student ratio. This enables the teachers to focus on the needs of each student and to follow up if a student is experiencing difficulties. They are able to develop a relationship based on friendship and trust. Further, the nature of the program results in the development of good relationships with the families. This brings to mind Noddings’ (2003) point that “establishing relations of care and trust are necessary for teachers, in order to assist in developing their students as whole persons” (p. 250). The nature of the work at SIDE means that teachers are generally engaged in one-on-one teaching, almost like being a “private tutor.” Further, this does not just take place at a distance. With the changing nature of SIDE’s enrolments, the number of students who visit SIDE to work with their teachers is increasing. On this, one teacher recalled: “When I first came here, we’d all sort of fall over ourselves if we saw a student come in but now it’s routine”. However, these students are still in the minority. An example which encapsulates the need for all of the qualities listed is provided by Tierney (2007). In describing her work with Indigenous students on the geographically isolated Mitchell Plateau, she explains how she put in place a number of strategies to ensure that the students had access to appropriate support mechanisms. Further, through listening to the students and developing an understanding of what is important in their lives, she developed a program about guiding tourists on the plateau. The program was endorsed by the Curriculum Council in Western Australia in 2006 and thus counts towards the students’ senior secondary graduation certificates. Importantly, the program is relevant to the students and the context in which they live and provides them with skills they can use throughout their lives.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 125

Responsibilities The primary function of SIDE is to provide an education for students who would otherwise be unable to gain access to education. The result is that SIDE has a very diverse student population, as detailed earlier in this chapter. It encompasses individuals whose situation precludes them from attending a conventional school and students whose school cannot offer a full complement of subjects. Therefore, much of the work of the teachers involves adapting the education program to address the needs of their students. It has been recognized for over 25 years that the daily routine for teachers at SIDE is vastly different from that of teachers in conventional schools (Vidovich, 1984). Many of the tasks they undertake can be considered in two main categories; factors or tasks which are significant in the daily lives of teachers in conventional schools but inconsequential in the daily life of a teacher at SIDE, and factors or tasks which are significant in the daily lives of teachers at SIDE, but inconsequential in the daily lives of teachers in a conventional school. The teachers’ work encompasses a broad range of duties. These include enrolling students, developing IEPs, dispatching materials and receiving returned work, marking and writing exhaustive feedback, supporting students and home supervisors, participating in the development and trialling of new materials, regional visits, organizing and running camps, teleconferencing and videoconferencing, participating on committees, liaising with all key stakeholders and undertaking ongoing professional development. The work can generally be broken into three areas: administration, pastoral care, and teaching. Although teachers in conventional schools also carry out work in these three areas, the emphases are different. For example, SIDE teachers have a significant pastoral care role, whilst, on the other hand, they are not involved in extra-curricular activities. The three areas in question will now be discussed in turn. Administrative There is a variety of ways in which the teachers’ administrative work differs from that of a teacher in a conventional school. For example, the teachers at SIDE are involved in enrolling students. They organise schedules and materials for the students. This involves matching ability and materials. Further, the teachers are involved in completing application forms so that access to facilities like SAT-web can be gained. As was previously mentioned, the teachers also spend a considerable amount of time in meetings and participating on committees. At other times they are involved in making promotional visits, for example, to District High Schools. Documentation at SIDE is extensive. There is a range of reasons for this. First, the bulk of work produced by the students is written work. This re-

126 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

sults in a large amount of marking for teachers. One teacher estimated that as much as 50% of the day could be taken up with marking, time that a teacher in a conventional school might spend in the classroom, supervising desk work and providing informal feedback and assessment. Further, at SIDE the students receive comprehensive written feedback. In marking the students’ work the teachers need to closely examine any patterns that emerge and provide appropriate support materials, comments, or modelling, along with advice for the supervisor as to how to improve the student’s learning outcomes. It is important that the feedback is thorough and unambiguous to avoid students perpetuating the same mistakes. In a classroom, a teacher would be able to provide much of this guidance verbally. Although the teachers recognise that marking is a big part of their work, they are frustrated by the fact that this is the widely accepted notion of what they do. In addition to marking the students’ work the teachers also need to record it. For some teachers this involves photographing the work and uploading it onto a computer file, then using a program to determine the level of the work and writing up a report on it. It is now becoming common for an electronic report to be emailed to students with the work following behind, in the hard copy format. With electronic scanning it is now also possible for a teacher to annotate work and return it to a student via email. Overall, for many students the process of getting feedback is now more efficient than it used to be. Feedback is also provided for the home supervisors, many of whom are anxious to know that their children are progressing through their work at an appropriate rate. Queries from home supervisors relate to both the strengths and weaknesses of the student’s work. Further, the teachers must provide the home supervisors with advice on how to help the student with any difficulties they are experiencing. Answering queries from students is another important aspect of the teachers’ work. This can be via the phone, email, or the post. The teachers commented that responding to these queries is a very time consuming aspect of their work, an aspect that has increased with the advent and escalating use of email. Pastoral As has previously been explained, strong interpersonal skills are of significant importance at SIDE, particularly in terms of developing and maintaining effective working relationships. This is crucial to the success of the program. The teachers’ work particularly involves supporting both the students and the home supervisors. Supporting Students Unlike many teachers in conventional schools, teachers at SIDE have both the time and the support mechanism, in the form of a dedicated Stu-

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 127

dent Services team, to provide a significant amount of pastoral care for their students. For many students, it is claimed, having a “significant other, someone who has the time to take an interest in their life” is instrumental in keeping them engaged in education. A factor which is important in building relationships with the students is having an awareness of the circumstances in which they live and study, and an awareness of what is important “in their world.” To facilitate this, the teachers, whenever possible, visit their students. The trips undertaken by the teachers can be lengthy and full of adventure. In describing such trips one teacher recalled: We’ve done some serious travelling. We might do two or three thousand kilometers in a few days, and it’s tiring, it’s very long days and a lot of travel.

It is strongly held that there are numerous benefits to these trips; teachers develop a better understanding of the circumstances in which their students work, and they are able to develop relationships with students and home supervisors through face-to-face contact. The students and home supervisors are able to discuss the school work and, as a result, feel confident that they are on track. This notion is supported by Sturrock (1983), who noted that students need “contact far more for support in their endeavour at learning than for academic information” (p. 111). The importance of these visits is exemplified in the following comment by one teacher: When you go to their station or their home with the intent that you’re going to do half an hour of math and half an hour of science, you’ve got to allow half an hour for them to show you their horse or their favorite calf or the little joey that they’re feeding and we don’t get a lot of curriculum covered but what we do is get a lot of information about their home life. And once the students have met their teacher, that is the biggest break down of barriers, and then the emails and the telephone calls start.

The visits also enable teachers to develop targeted and supportive learning programs for their students. However, as the school’s client base changes and there are fewer geographically isolated students in Western Australia, the trips are becoming less common. On this, one teacher commented: “When I first came here, they were endlessly looking for people to go on regional visits and we all trundled out. But now that’s the exception rather than the rule.” As a result of these changes, teachers are more likely, nowadays, to visit schools which have a number of students enrolled through SIDE, or Perth metropolitan area-based students, in their homes, whilst for others it involves travelling to participate in regional seminars. In addition to the daily informal consultation and collaboration with each other, the teachers are also able to gain access to a range of specialist support mechanisms. For example, a group of teachers in the Primary School were provided with support from a speech therapist when develop-

128 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

ing an IEP for a student with autism who was living in Malaysia. Specialist support is particularly important for the significant number of referral students who are enrolled with SIDE. The range of these students encompasses those with cerebral palsy, delayed development, chronic fatigue, sight disabilities, autism, depression and those who have been excluded from mainstream schools, among others. On this, one teacher commented: “in a normal school you’d have, in a class of thirty, a good percentage of kids who were fairly academic and hard working and a big middle group but I think ours are probably skewed down the bottom end.” Working with a large number of SAER students impacts on the teachers’ work as, generally, a considerable degree of support is required in helping them to progress through their work. This is particularly the case because SIDE’s materials can be intimidating for non-academic students. On this, one teacher observed: They get a huge amount of book work and videos and a whole range of equipment in the first dispatch. There’s school work for say a term or a semester and I can imagine for a lot of kids this is a little overwhelming because they struggle with their written work and to find they’ve got thirty books to read in twenty weeks is daunting and we have that large group of SAER students who do struggle with the materials.

One way of helping the students to cope with the work is by reducing the workload when possible (SIDE, 2008). This can help the students and their supervisors to manage the work and to focus on the most important aspects of the curriculum, rather than trying to work through all the materials. Another way teachers can support students is by allowing them to work at their own pace. The teachers can be flexible about deadlines for assignments, or even whole units of work, as SIDE does not “have a problem with students not completing a course in a year’s time,” if there is a good reason. Students are able to re-enrol and complete the course the following year if necessary. In the Primary School, as the materials are not identified by year, if a student is in Year Five but is doing Year Four work “there’s no hassle or embarrassment.” Although it is a requirement of SIDE that students have a supervisor, there are instances where this requirement is not fulfilled. One example is a group of indigenous students who, although they receive substantial support from their community, do not have a designated supervisor. In order to support these students their teachers have implemented a program of three hours of SAT-web lessons each week, whereas students would normally only have one hour of these lessons a week. The SAT-web lessons have the benefit of providing students, who have quite low literacy levels, with more oral support.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 129

Supporting Supervisors The support and positive input of the parents is a key factor in the educational success of most children studying via distance mode. The view of the teachers is that in distance education the support of home supervisors is of paramount importance. As a result, responding to their needs is a priority for the teachers. This has become part of their pastoral care role. In this, teachers at SIDE could also be considered “adult educators.” Although instances of illiteracy in home supervisors are now much less common than in the past, there is still a significant number of home supervisors who have limited educational backgrounds or limited literacy skills, or for whom English is a second language. For these home supervisors the materials can be as overwhelming as they can be for the students. Further, as most home supervisors are not trained teachers, they sometimes experience difficulties in knowing how to help their children progress with their work. In the case of parents of referral students, many are thrust into the role with little notice, or preparation, and require a great deal of support. Generally, this support is provided over the phone, via email, or through the mail, but occasionally home supervisors will visit the teachers at SIDE. Part of the support of home supervisors involves encouraging them to carry out their role. Non-fulfilment of the role can take several forms, ranging from blocking communication with the student, to failing to maintain contact with SIDE staff, thus, putting the student at educational risk. In such circumstances, if the student is based in the metropolitan area the teacher can “threaten” a home visit. If the student is travelling, or overseas, however, all the teachers can do is maintain contact and continue to encourage both the student and the home supervisor in their endeavours. Teaching: Methods and Materials Methods Developing IEPs is the chief way in which the teachers support their students. Given the extraordinary variety of situations in which the students study, this is particularly necessary and is part of SIDE’s “curricula responsiveness” to the needs of the students. It was considered by one participant that the teachers have become: More responsive to the individual needs of students and more au fait with gathering prior information on students before they enroll and using that information to put together an appropriate program.

In the past, the process of adapting the program to suit the needs of the student was retroactive with students initially being placed on a generic program.

130 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

In planning a work program the teachers consider any prior learning, any learning difficulties the students may have, the support that the students have in terms of the abilities of their supervisor, the facilities they have access to, and the setting in which they work. Teachers in conventional schools would rarely write individual plans for students who are not SAER. SIDE’s teachers are facilitated in this in that they have access to a wide variety of materials and the time to go through them and select what will best support a particular student. Materials The importance of offering students a variety of materials was recognized as early as 1977, with schools in Australia making a concerted effort to provide multi-media instructional materials (Senate Standing Committee on Education and the Arts, 1977). At SIDE this presented a particular challenge in the past and continues to present challenges for the teachers at present. Evolution, from, first correspondence materials, through radio lessons and School of the Air, to audio tapes, video tapes, telephones, and computer-accessed materials, has allowed teachers to provide their students with a great variety of learning materials. Rapid development in terms of available infrastructure and computer technology means that teachers are often working “on the run” to keep up with the technology and to incorporate it into their lessons. In terms of materials, the teachers at SIDE have “significant resources to apply to different contexts and situations in terms of the kid’s needs.” The materials chiefly fall into three categories: paperbased, audio-visual, and electronic. Paper-based materials continue to be the backbone of the SIDE program. It has been reported that SIDE’s dispatch centre handles approximately 1.2 million items of mail each year (Dole et al., 2005). In 2000, the National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education—Emerging Themes (HREOC, 2000a) reported that parents in Western Australia, generally, “found the Distance Education lessons well set out and thorough,” but noted that “a large amount of written work was expected” (p. 17). SIDE’s printed materials are considered to be of very high quality. On this, one teacher commented: When I first came here the thing that got me was the quality and depth of the materials that they produced here for kids who needed to be stimulated and that’s something that I found very impressive.

This was confirmed by a home supervisor who stated that “the stuff that they send us is so easy to follow.” The quality of SIDE’s materials is also recognized in the State’s broader educational community, with many teachers “keen to get their hands on them.”

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 131

The heavy reliance on printed materials presented a problem for the Correspondence School, with students and home supervisors with low literacy levels trying to cope with the volume of written materials. It is a problem which remains relevant, with staff feeling troubled by “the volumes of paper that are going out to students, often students with not significant literacy levels” and suggesting that “for those students to be bombarded with that type of paper work…it’s not realistic to think that they’re going to engage and certainly less realistic to think that they’re likely to succeed.” For the majority of students, however, the bulk of their materials are still in written form despite a recognition that this is not appropriate to the needs of some students (Forlin & Tierney, 2006). Another problem with having primarily print-based materials is that all aspects of the course have the same level of importance, whereas in a classroom a teacher can emphasise certain aspects of the program. The sets which are sent out to the students generally contain a variety of materials, including audio or video tapes or CD-ROMs. In part, this is because it is good teaching practice. However, as has been noted, many of SIDE’s students have low literacy levels and providing them with their materials in a variety of formats better enables them to progress with their work. On this, one home supervisor commented: “the kids find it very interesting, they have videos and tapes and a variety of books and they love rummaging through when they get the sets.” One factor which can limit the use of alternatives to paper-based materials is the resources and technology available to the student. The teachers are often involved in the development of new materials, including writing print-based materials, television work, and audio taping. This is done in partnership with WestOne (a service unit of the Department of Education which provides a range of learning materials and services for the training and education sector), either at the SIDE Leederville campus, or at the WestOne complex. Further, SIDE has a television studio on-site which is used in making educational videos. The teachers are also involved in trialling and evaluating the materials. Another part of the teachers’ role involves trialling new technology and integrating it into the teaching. Two recent forms of technology which have made a significant difference in terms of communication and teaching are the phone and the internet (email and online lessons). There was a time when phone contact with students was very rare. The increasing prevalence of both land-line phones and mobile phones however, has improved the teachers’ capacity to have one-on-one real-time contact with students. Significantly, this includes those who are travelling. Communication over the phone has its own challenges. It must be clear and unambiguous in light of the lack of visual cues. Furthermore, some students are shy and not given to garrulousness at anytime, whilst for others, using a new medium of com-

132 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

munication can be daunting. An example of this is provided in an article on communicating with indigenous distance education students via the phone, in which Tierney (2007) recalls as follows: “our phone conversations were laborious and tedious, usually consisting of a spate of conversation from the teacher followed by one word responses by the students” (para. 3). Phone-mediated communication enables the teachers to respond to students’ questions, or problems, immediately. Teachers do not need to be tied to their desks; with mobile phones, the teacher can be anywhere and remain accessible. However, even with landlines the students can leave a message on voicemail and know that the teacher will respond promptly. Often the teachers arrive at work to find a number of voicemail messages waiting for them which they then need to address. The advent of email has also had a significant impact of the way teachers work. In fact, it was considered the “biggest change” and that it had enhanced the teaching and learning process enormously. The teachers considered that email has had a far greater impact on their work than on the work of teachers in conventional schools. Areas of their work where this is evident include student enrolment, providing feedback on students’ work, answering questions, and provision of materials. With email, the enrolment process, for example, is far more efficient (a matter of days), whereas previously, it was a quite lengthy process, sometimes taking longer than a month. The use of email was considered “a huge breakthrough,” particularly in terms of being able to give students more immediate feedback on their work. Teachers can now scan in the students’ work with the feedback written on it and email it directly to them. One advantage of this is that the chances of students “going down the wrong track” have been reduced. Previously, when feedback was delivered through the postal system, it could take months to reach a child. The efficiency of email is illustrated by the comment that “overseas kids can send work in the night time, you send it back the next day, there’s that instant turnaround.” The immediacy of email has other advantages. For example, when students’ materials, or exam papers, go missing the teachers can email a copy and it reaches the student almost immediately, while in the past students would have to wait weeks or even months for a replacement test paper. On the other hand, that immediacy can be something of a disadvantage when students bombard teachers with questions and expect an answer within the day. In commenting on this, one teacher said “It makes us a lot busier. The minute you come in you respond to a whole list of emails; students wanting feedback.” This is one of the ways that email has changed the teachers’ work, an impact that would not be as significant in a conventional school where the students are sitting in front of the teacher and can ask questions directly. Answering and sending emails is now one of the more time-consuming aspects of the teachers’ work.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 133

Computer technology has also changed the way lessons are delivered to some students. It is now possible to deliver visual content through such software programs as SAT-web, Compu-ed, and Centra, that enable online interaction. The advantage of these programs is that they allow for real-time communication between the teacher and the student, and also between students. For students who previously did not have an opportunity to communicate verbally with their teacher this technology has been a breakthrough and the teachers have found the students, generally, communicate freely. The technology can also be used to link students in diverse settings, providing an opportunity for collaborative learning. For example, there was a period where, once a week, the primary teachers linked students in Bussleton (WA), Laverton (WA), Qatar, Finland, and a student who was on a yacht in the Pacific, to prepare for a math competition. Such lessons are time consuming to organise and difficult to coordinate, given the different time zones involved, but are considered to be rewarding in terms of educational outcomes. Prior to using these programs some of the staff used MSN (Microsoft Network) as a way of enabling communication. It was, however, very slow and “the kids’ typing skills were hopeless.” The advantages of newer programs are that they allow for real-time voice communication between the teacher and the student/s, and also between students, thus circumventing the need for good typing skills. In addition, these programs have had the effect of making the lessons more interesting. One SIDE teacher has described online lessons as “a superior means of interacting and advancing educational outcomes” (Tierney, 2007, para. 5). Parents have long commented that their children “wouldn’t miss their School of the Air session for anything” (Ashton, 1971, p. 197) and this is now the case with children participating in the online lessons. This is confirmed by a home supervisor who said that her daughter would like to have the computer lessons every day and a teacher, who commented: “one of my indigenous students last year actually won the endeavour award because she never missed a SAT-web lesson and would get very tearful when they ran out of diesel for the generator.” Clearly the lessons are very engaging for a range of students and there is a strong desire at SIDE for an increase in the provision of more online lessons. For teachers of some subjects, for example math, the technology has greatly enhanced their ability to explain complex concepts. There are times when the ideal would be to sit beside a student and explain a concept. Until recently, the next best option was the phone, though this still left a lot of scope for misunderstandings. The introduction of online lessons has provided options for dealing with such situations. One of the great advantages of this technology, from the perspective of the teachers, is the on-screen white board. Using this, teachers can ask students a question and have them

134 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

answer it on the whiteboard. For example, in a math lesson they might ask the students to draw a particular shape, or calculate a problem, and can immediately see whether the students have understood what they were expected to do. Further, they can instantly respond to any problems. They are also able to demonstrate concepts to the students in real-time, for example, how to form letters in the accepted way. The LOTE team at SIDE has been particularly successful in incorporating technology and a variety of materials into their teaching. In the LOTE lessons, video conferencing technology is used to enable students to do their oral work and for the teacher to provide support as and when it is needed. The LOTE team is an example to the rest of the School of what is possible and what should be aimed for. One of the reasons they have been so successful in incorporating this technology into their lessons is that they, more than any other group of teachers at SIDE, tend to have their students in a group, sitting in a classroom, in a conventional school. For teachers whose students are not so conveniently located, the logistics of organizing an online lesson can be more complicated and time consuming. Running online lessons presents a number of challenges for the teachers and has required adaptations in their work. Challenges include technical difficulties or restraints, differences in time zones, and the time required to complete all the work which supports the lessons, including preparation, the hour online with the student/s, and writing a report on the lesson. Given that lessons are often for individual students, this is very labour intensive and time consuming. At times, however, teachers are able to coordinate small groups of students. One teacher, in describing how this is managed, said: Last year I had two students and I had separate programs for both of them but I found it a lot of work and I was not convinced that the outcomes warranted all the extra planning and preparation. It’s less work on my part if they’re working on a theme together and I just monitor their work.

Thus, the teacher was able to reduce her workload without reducing the educational outcomes of the students. Although the teachers are pleased with the options offered by wider accessibility of computers and the internet, saying “it gets us away from the pencil and paper stuff which has traditionally been our style of delivery,” they acknowledged that there are still many limitations to these resources, to what the teachers do with them, and to the students who have access to them. The mode of communication and degree to which technology is used depends on each student’s situation. There are, for example, still students who can be contacted via mail only. For this reason SIDE still needs to provide materials in a variety of formats to suit the needs of all students. Additionally, the use of multiple strategies is appropriate from a pedagogi-

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 135

cal standpoint. Although many of these strategies may be considered old or outdated, they are, nonetheless, still relevant given the variety of SIDE’s clientele. The pedagogy, however, remains of primary importance (Sutherland, Robertson, & John, 2009).

THE SUPERVISORS Supervisors can generally be divided into two main groups: home supervisors, often one of the parents, usually the mother, and school-based supervisors, usually trained teachers in High Schools. Supervisors are particularly important for the educational success of school-aged distance students. The Isolated Children’s Parents’ Association (ICPA) (1998) submission to the National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education highlighted the “essential role” of the home supervisor, and noted: Distance Education today is a demanding role for the home tutor. It is essentially the job of a teacher, without the training or remuneration and usually included with the daily tasks of an isolated mother eg. bookkeeping, cooking, helping on the property. (p. 7)

On average, home supervisors spend five hours a day in face-to-face teaching, with an additional hour spent in preparation (Dole et al., 2005). This demonstrates the magnitude of the role. The available literature tends to focus on the geographically isolated home supervisors, with almost nothing being written on supervisors working in other situations. For students to achieve the desired learning outcomes they need the support and encouragement of their supervisor. In turn, the supervisor also often needs support and encouragement from the teacher. This matter is now considered under three main headings: the view that home supervisors are vital to the work of SIDE; the view that home supervisors require support from SIDE; the view that there are certain essential qualities that supervisors need. Home Supervisors are Vital to the Work of SIDE Home supervisors are considered to be partners in the educational process (Gaines, 1983), though “unremunerated” (HREOC, 1999). The distance education program would fail without them (Newland, 2000). On this, Ashton (1971) noted over 35 years ago: The responsibility for the education of isolated children lies primarily on the shoulders of the supervisor…it is the supervisor who insists on a timetable and school hours being kept strictly, who encourages and disciplines. (p. 212)

136 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

This statement is still true for school-aged students. Without the interest, support, discipline and encouragement of a supervisor, the chances of a student succeeding in his or her studies is slim (Tynan & O’Neill, 2007). On this, one teacher commented that “if you don’t have the parents on your side it’s a huge uphill battle” for the teachers and the student. This view is supported by another participant who stated: Where there’s a very strong relationship between the parent and the child and where the parent is very organized and very keen for their child to achieve and does a lot of linking with us and puts in the time, the child generally achieves. Where the parents aren’t committed and don’t contact us, quite often the child doesn’t succeed and in some ways that’s not their fault.

It is also held that this notion of supervision being integral to the success of the students is true for students who are doing their distance education studies in a school setting, for example, in a District High School. Home Supervisors Require Support from SIDE As has previously been discussed, it is important for the teachers at SIDE to develop and maintain a good relationship with the supervisors. It takes time, participants stated, to build a good relationship, particularly at a distance, and the teachers put a lot of effort into that. When home supervisors first begin teaching their child, many are not confident and require a lot of encouragement and support. One teacher noted: “we actually have to put as much energy into our supervisors as we do the students.” The supervisors’ need for support is summed up in the National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education—Recommendations (HREOC, 2000b), which stated: Home supervisors often feel ill-equipped and under-resourced to support their children in education, especially as children advance towards and then through secondary schooling. (p. 48)

SIDE endeavours to provide appropriate support for supervisors in a number of specific ways. Initial Support The initial support begins before the students are even enrolled. The staff aim to have at least one interview with the parents and the children prior to enrolment. At this interview, they make parents aware of the difficulty of the task ahead of them. In the words of one teacher, “We make it pretty clear that it’s not an easy job, it’s not one I could do with my own children.” In the initial interview the teachers find out as much as they can about the family. They put together a package of materials and go over them with the home supervisors to give them a sense of the task they are taking on. Part

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 137

of the ongoing support is ensuring that materials are “user friendly for an unqualified home tutor” (ICPA, 1998, p. 3). In this initial phase, the teachers strive to modify the program to suit the particular set of circumstances of each student. In the case of students travelling, for example, the teachers are aware that they will not be able to do a full program and so they aim to “keep the students’ skills ticking over” so that when they return they have not fallen too far behind. Some families have three or four children on the program and, in the words of one teacher, this can be “a hell of a job for the mother.” In a case such as this, the teachers provide extra support and implement strategies to make the teaching load manageable. To facilitate this, in the Primary School, home supervisors who have multiple children on the program work with only one teacher. Seminars One of the key ways of supporting the supervisors has traditionally been the “home tutors’ seminar.” These seminars have historically been informative and successful, as is suggested by the following comments: The feedback’s always been very positive. The supervisors find it extremely valuable, not so much from meeting us but from meeting other parents. They begin to network and they share ideas. Parents love it. Just to talk to each other because they are isolated too. One of the most successful aspects of our day seminar is listening to parents who have done it and the pitfalls and the good things and the bad things so when they head off they know it’s not all going to be perfect but that there’s a lot of good stuff as well.

These statements by teachers are borne out by one of the parents interviewed, who commented: When we have the seminar…that helps because you’re all the same, you’re all just mums trying to do it. We all have our laughs and grizzles about what’s been going on and how you get someone to do something when they don’t want to do it.

These comments by both the teachers and the home supervisors indicate the importance of the parents having access to a variety of support mechanisms, particularly having the opportunity to talk with each other. The seminars remain an important institution for the SOTAs, which have all of their enrolments drawn from the same geographical region. At SIDE Leederville, however, the seminars are no longer a priority. As SIDE’s student body changes, so too does the feasibility and relevance of the home tutors’ seminar. The number of geographically isolated stu-

138 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

dents has fallen significantly and the travellers and overseas-based students depart throughout the year, making it difficult to gather together a number of supervisors at one time. The Primary School has changed the schedule of its seminars in response to this. Previously one seminar was held at the beginning of each year. Nowadays, if there is a group of new enrolments, the school will organise a seminar. On the other hand, the Junior Secondary School has largely stopped running seminars as it was “not an inclusive activity and catered for a very non-representative group of people.” This recognition has resulted in SIDE seeking new ways of supporting a more representative group of home supervisors. A more flexible and inclusive means of supporting home supervisors is provided by a DVD that has been produced by SIDE. The DVD provides advice on the practicalities of establishing a work space, managing time, organization strategies, and motivating students (SIDE Primary School, 2009). Online seminars and workshops may be another way of addressing the needs of a more representative group of home supervisors. Further, it would also address the National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education’s recommendation (HREOC, 2000b, Recommendation 5.14, p. 48) that supervisors have access to professional development. In the past there have been support groups where one home supervisor has acted as the contact person, with his or her phone number being advertised through the school newsletter. This proved successful, in part because supervisors often feel more comfortable consulting each other rather than the teachers (Yourn, 2003). Such a system relies heavily on the goodwill of one individual, however, and “it requires a pretty special person to take on that role.” On the other hand, an online group could be more collaborative and, additionally, could be asynchronous. The implementation of an online forum/support group connecting parents would be inclusive of people in a variety of situations, be they geographically isolated, metropolitan based, travelling or overseas. Through the provision of an online forum, SIDE would enable supervisors to learn from and support each other. Peer Support Yourn (2003) suggested that home supervisors turn to each other first and foremost for support. This is supported in literature on distance education (Green, 2006) and the related area of home schooling (Adams & Purdy, 1996) which suggests that establishing connections is important for the success of those who are teaching. More experienced home supervisors are able to act as mentors for those who are experiencing difficulties (Lee & Wilkes, 2007). Yourn’s (2003) research centred on the home supervisors from the Meekatharra SOTA. Because they were part of a regional community this perhaps meant that they already had some links and sense of community. Supervisors who are overseas, or travelling, lack that natural

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 139

community. Strategies such as the use of an online forum, however, would provide the home supervisors with an opportunity to consult with each other no matter where they were situated, providing they had access to the internet. Given that the particular groups of students, and by extension their home supervisors, face different challenges, it may be that they could form subgroups within the forum. Essential Qualities that Supervisors Need The degree of support students receive from their parents varies enormously. Initially, many home supervisors lack confidence. It has been recognized in the literature that some home supervisors are concerned about falling behind or going off track, and that they can lack confidence in making decisions about their child’s education (Dole et al., 2005; Lee & Wilkes, 2007; Tynan & O’Neill, 2007). Green (2006) reported that some home supervisors are worried about missing, or changing, any part of the program. They find it difficult to gauge how their child is progressing compared to others. A lack of confidence can prevent home supervisors from engaging with the teacher (Lowrie, 2006), with many home supervisors thinking they must adhere to the program and not having the confidence to make any changes. In such cases, the SIDE teachers have to invest a great deal of time in reassuring them. This is reflected in the comment of one home supervisor, who explained: The teacher always says “If it takes longer don’t worry, if you take over your two weeks don’t worry” and you do think “Oh no, I’m not going to have it finished.” You do feel like you need to complete everything in the book. But if you don’t, if she has been sick for a couple of days or something I’ve rung up and said “She hasn’t done school for three days, she’s been crook, shall I skip anything or will I do it all?” They’ll say “Don’t worry. Actually she knows that bit really well.” So then I feel like I’ve had permission to skip things.

Other home supervisors, however, are organized and flexible, and feel confident making changes to the program. Some provide inspiration for the teachers and other home supervisors, as was the case with one mother who: ...had four children on the program, two under school age, one of whom had quite severe learning difficulties. She managed, and helped on the farm at the same time. She was an amazing lady.

This was just one of many examples given of home supervisors who managed an extraordinary workload. In such cases, the home supervisors are well prepared, organized and committed to their child’s education, all of which contributes to the success of the program.

140 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Preparedness A factor which can affect the success of the home supervisors is their level of preparedness. Some people, such as those in geographically isolated areas, may have known for years that they would be supporting their children through distance education. Additionally, they usually know other families who have done the same thing. Others, for example those with children who have been excluded, are thrown into the situation with very little warning and without knowing anyone else who has had a similar experience. Some home supervisors have difficulty in separating the two roles of parent and teacher. Many have trouble getting the balance right and “can’t drop out of teacher mode at the end of the day.” Recognizing the division is a “very difficult concept and very difficult to put into practice.” The teachers, however, noted that even though the role may be thrust upon parents quite unexpectedly, and though they may not have the necessary skills “it’s a solution to their problem so they have some sort of willingness to take it on. They recognise that it needs to happen for the child to have a place at SIDE.” Organization The home supervisors are more likely to be successful and to feel more confident if they have good organizational skills. SIDE supports home supervisors in developing their organizational skills when necessary. Home supervisors who are working with more than one child (three or four is not unheard of) require a high degree of organization. The teachers encourage the home supervisors to keep up with everything to help avoid difficulties. On this, the teachers said of home supervisors that they need to know the program “backwards and forwards” and should know where their children should be located at any point in any subject. One home supervisor found that having a designated school room helped in being organized and focused on lessons, explaining: If I were working at the kitchen table all the time I’d think “Hmm, I’m in the kitchen, do the dishes,” whereas, I know I take my cuppa with me and I’m in school and that’s where we are for that time. It’s good for me because I’m stuck in there too and I sit there looking through what Michael and Fiona need to do for the next day. I think that’s the whole key to our keeping going, because if we didn’t have that we wouldn’t be as organized.

This also helps the students to develop good organizational skills as they model themselves on their parents. On the other hand, if a home supervisor is disorganised it is likely the child will also be disorganised (Scott, O’Connor, & Futh, 2006).

FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOLS OF ISOLATED AND DISTANCE EDUCATION • 141

Commitment The success of the SIDE program is heavily dependent on the commitment of the parents and their efforts in ensuring that the students complete their work. Without the commitment of the home supervisor it is easy for the students to fall behind in their work. One home supervisor commented: What I’m trying to get started now, we’ve got it written on the schoolroom door that we do start at 9:30, cause she’ll put it off and put it off and say “I just need to do this, I just need to do that.” She was sort of trying to push it a little bit but we’re setting the rules a bit more now.

This demonstrates that commitment to the program cannot be left to the student. Many parents think that when their children start high school their job as home supervisors is over. In fact, their role changes and they still have a duty to ensure their child has a regular study routine and completes all work on time. The students who fail are the ones whose parents have relinquished responsibility. On this, one teacher commented: “I don’t know one student that’s been successful over the years doing it by themselves, not once, it does not work.” In cases where parents are not fulfilling their role the teachers must follow up and encourage them to give more support to their child (Forlin & Tierney, 2006). However, this can be difficult at times, with some parents “opting out of the system,” and some “blocking the teacher’s access to the student.” Such parents often provide excuse after excuse as a delaying tactic. Given the possible time lag in communications, months can go by and “that’s a huge disadvantage for those kids who are sometimes already at a disadvantage.” Other home supervisors do not want to acknowledge that their children have problems, perhaps because they believe it reflects on them and their skills. Others yet again think everything is going well when the teachers can see from the child’s work that this is not the case. In such instances, the teachers must be diplomatic in pointing out ways in which the parents could more effectively support their child.

CONCLUSION SIDE is a unique school in Western Australia for a number of reasons. It is a school campus without bells, timetables, classrooms and the physical presence of students. It is a school which arguably caters for a greater variety of students than any other school in the State. It is a school where the teachers are able to focus on the needs of each individual student in a way that is difficult to do in a conventional school, a school where the students and the teachers develop close relationships. It is a school where parents are more closely involved in their child’s education than in other schools. It is a

142 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

school where the teachers are able to work in a supportive, well-resourced, stress free environment, a school at which the teachers feel very privileged to teach. Through the dedication of the staff and an ongoing commitment to addressing the needs of its students, SIDE provides a quality education for its very varied student cohort and at the same time has greatly enhanced its own reputation. In the words of one teacher: I would imagine that when the DEC, the Correspondence School first started up, it was a last resort for kids to get to some sort of education. But I think it’s changed a lot from that now. It’s not a last resort anymore, now it’s a viable option for a lot of people in particular circumstances. However, this is not to say that there are no ways that SIDE could improve its services, or that the schools do not have a number of issues that they need to address. As a unique school, SIDE faces some unique challenges. These will be discussed in the following chapter.

CHAPTER 6

ISSUES

INTRODUCTION Chapter Five addressed the second research question in relation to the study reported in this book. In doing so, it presented an overview of the functions of the Schools of Isolated and Distance Education (Leederville campus) in Western Australia. The third aim of the study was to develop an understanding of SIDE teachers’ issues connected with carrying out those functions. The issues were identified as relating to five broad themes: perennial issues, change, technology, future viability and ensuring excellence. Though each of these themes is distinct, there are connections and areas of overlap between them. Each of them is now discussed in turn.

PERENNIAL ISSUES There is a range of issues which have long presented challenges in regard to the provision of school-age distance education in Western Australia. Three in particular stand out. These are “appropriate resourcing,” “isolaThe Education of Children in Geographically Remote Regions through Distance Education: Perspectives and Lessons from Australia, pages 143–163 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

143

144 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

tion,” and “complexity of the student body.” A discussion of each of these will now be presented. Appropriate Resourcing Since the early years of educational provision in the state of Western Australia, considerable effort and funding have been invested in developing materials and resources for teaching pupils in isolated locations. This tradition has substantially contributed to the success of SIDE to date. As discussed at some length in the previous chapter, the teachers at SIDE have access to a wide range of resources in addressing the needs of their students. Currently, however, given the seeming all-pervading pressures on budgets and a climate of economic rationalism in government sectors, competition for funding has increased. This is particularly so in the wake of the recent global financial crisis. As a result, the key stakeholders at SIDE, like those in other educational institutions in the state, are worried about their ability to provide a top quality service for the future. Concerns centre not only on the resources available to the SIDE teachers at the Leederville campus, but also on whether or not appropriate resources will be available for the students. In 2004, for example, online SAT-web and Centra programs were introduced. This involved substantial financial and infrastructural commitments on the part of SIDE and the state’s Department of Education for a surprisingly small number of students, the focus being primary school students in geographically isolated areas. This constitutes generous provision. For example, in the SIDE Primary School, located in Leederville, only 28 out of its 158 students participated in weekly online lessons in Semester 2, 2008 (SIDE Primary School, 2008, p. 7). The concern, however, is that, while such support is greatly appreciated, such a level of provision may not continue due to current financial constraints. Isolation From the days of the Correspondence School to the emergence of the current SIDE structure, there has been a strong emphasis on trying to alleviate the isolation of students. For the original student cohort, this meant geographical isolation. Accordingly, the Correspondence School employed a number of strategies to alleviate the sense of separation and loneliness that many of them felt. It will be recalled that such strategies included the development of a warm relationship between teacher and student, use of radio broadcasts, the introduction of clubs such as the Gould League, production of the school newsletter (Our Rural Magazine), school camps and the Schools of the Air. The beginning of this century has seen the implementation of online lessons as a further strategy to reduce isolation through providing interactive and collaborative learning opportunities.

ISSUES • 145

Over the past 90 years there has also been a shift in understandings of isolation. In response, SIDE has enrolled increasing numbers of students who are not geographically isolated. Some of these students, while based in District High Schools, nevertheless experience a sense of isolation in that they are often the only ones in the school studying a particular subject through SIDE. Other students residing in the Perth metropolitan area are enrolled in SIDE, choosing not to enrol in a conventional school for medical, psychological, ideological, or other reasons. They may, as a result, experience isolation despite living in the city. In addressing the situation, the teachers at SIDE implement a variety of strategies, including encouraging the students to visit SIDE regularly. At other times, the teachers organise group lessons at the Leederville campus. Also, the teachers sometimes visit the students in their homes. For some students, the development and increasing prevalence of communication technology has gone some way towards addressing issues of isolation. In the previous chapter, the importance of the phone and email in supporting teacher-student communication was explained. The role of online lessons in facilitating communicative and collaborative lessons for students from diffuse settings was also examined. These technologies can enable regular, often immediate, contact between many students and their teachers. Given the variety of settings in which SIDE’s students are situated, however, not all have access to communication technologies and some are limited in the extent to which these technologies can be used. Further, although these technologies can go some way toward alleviating the students’ sense of isolation, there remain other aspects of isolation which they cannot address, such as providing access to libraries and museums. Consequently, as teachers see it, there is still much to be done in this area. Complexity of the Student Body SIDE’s clientele are complex in that they are so varied; varied in their reasons for being enrolled with SIDE, varied in their locations, and varied in the level of support they require. The SIDE student body is complex also in that its make-up can vary from year to year. This requires flexibility on the part of SIDE teachers. Given that the student body continues to evolve and that there is a drive to further expand SIDE’s client base by, for example, expanding its role in supporting conventional schools, staff will continue to be required to respond appropriately to the educational needs of the student body in any particular year. There are also constant changes in individual student enrolments. For example, some students may only be enrolled with SIDE for a relatively short period of time while they are travelling, or are ill. This also means that the needs of all home supervisors are not the same; some may have the role for short periods only, while others

146 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

may have it for years at a time. Thus, it is recognized that the needs of the various types of home supervisors must also be addressed. The support for supervisors provided by SIDE includes programs which include strategies to overcome isolation, professional support and learning, and connecting groups of parents with each other. This support has traditionally been provided through home tutor seminars. However, with the current practice of students enrolling with SIDE throughout the year, SIDE teachers and managers argue that it is no longer possible to provide support through that medium only. Technology, for example through the use of online forums and the dissemination of pedagogical material on DVD, is now harnessed to help address the needs of home supervisors. At the same time, teachers and managers recognise that “catering for the needs of the home supervisors remains a challenge for SIDE.”

CHANGE Change was identified as a factor that has a significant impact in the distance education context in Western Australia. Three main sources of change were identified as having a considerable effect on the teachers and their work, namely, “external agents of change,” “changes to SIDE’s organizational structure,” and “changes in clientele.” These will now be discussed in turn. Externally Imposed Change As with any school in the state education system, SIDE and its staff must, at times, respond to, and implement, change which is dictated by outside forces, particularly the state’s Education Department. Examples of such externally imposed changes include the implementation of the state’s Curriculum Framework (Curriculum Council, 1998) introduced in 1997, the associated Outcomes Based Education approach to curriculum planning (1997), the introduction of new courses of study for senior secondary students (2006), and the raising of the compulsory leaving age from 15 to 17 years of age (2007). Whilst these changes have had an impact across the state education system, they have had a particular impact on SIDE. Curriculum Framework and Outcomes Based Education A number of challenges have been presented by the introduction of the Curriculum Framework and the associated Outcomes Based Education approach for the state’s teachers. In Western Australia, the introduction of Outcomes Based Education in particular captured the attention of the media and the general public for an extended period of time as many of the state’s teachers struggled to adapt to the philosophy of teaching and assess-

ISSUES • 147

ment associated with it. At SIDE, the teachers have had the additional challenge of engaging with the associated pedagogy within the distance education setting. Adapting the materials to address the outcomes, philosophy, and principles of teaching, assessment, and learning that underpin the Curriculum Framework has required substantial rewriting of existing materials, a costly and time consuming process. It was considered important to engage in the process, however, as the materials are central to the teaching and learning process in the distance education context. The home supervisors also have to be accommodated in the process. New Courses of Study The introduction of the new courses of study for senior secondary school students has also required significant adaptation of existing materials and writing of new courses and materials. Again, this is necessary due to the teaching and learning process at SIDE being largely facilitated through the written word. At times this necessitates resources being diverted from other areas. However, as one teacher commented, in the distance education context “you have to have a course written and ready to present to the students.” Again, the teachers contend that since the materials are essential for the program it is important that the development of relevant materials continues to be undertaken. Raising the School Leaving Age The raising of the school leaving age from 15 to 17 years of age has also created challenges. While SIDE has endeavoured over recent years to provide more vocational and wholly school-assessed subjects at the senior secondary school level, it is considered that this change requires a particular focus on “developing courses and materials for students in that nonacademic 15–17 year age group.” Further, it is argued that students must be able to recognise the value in what they are doing (Te Riele, 2006). On this, one participant commented: Students need a form of accreditation, they need a pathway which gives them a certificate acknowledging what they have achieved while engaged in education and training.

In order to address the matter, SIDE introduced a Certificate of General Education for Adults in 2006. This required some teachers to undertake the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment, provided by TAFE, in order for them to be able to teach these courses. Online and print-based materials for the associated program were designed in partnership with Perth Central Technical and Further Education College (SIDE, 2008). Nevertheless, it is considered that yet further work needs to be done to develop an appropriate curriculum that is engaging for the students in question.

148 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

The examples of the Curriculum Framework, Outcomes Based Education, the introduction of the new courses of study, and the raising of the leaving age, each demonstrate the impact that change initiated external to SIDE can have on the organisation. Furthermore, the concern is that such change never ends. For example, in March 2009, the state’s Education Minister announced that a review of the curriculum and assessment and reporting policies and procedures in Western Australian schools would be conducted (Constable, 2009). At the same time, it has been announced that a national curriculum for K–12 students will be introduced within three years (Gillard, 2008). Both announcements point to the possibility of further changes in the near future. Such ongoing change is perceived by SIDE’s teachers to be constantly interfering with their core work of teaching yet they do their best to try to negotiate their way around it. Organizational Restructuring It will be recalled that in recent years SIDE has undergone a number of structural changes. For the teachers who have been at SIDE for a number of years this situation provides cause for concern. On this, one teacher commented: In the 14 years that I’ve been at SIDE it was a school and then we became diversified into the three schools and now we’re going back again.

The most recent structural change at SIDE occurred in 2006 with the consolidation of the then-existing Middle and Post-compulsory schools. The rationale behind this change was that there is a need to address a perceived loss of curriculum leadership. For example, in one case there was a grouping of teachers based on the subjects they taught entitled LOTE, English, and Society and Enterprise. The problem was that the group leader in each group only had specialised knowledge of one of those three learning areas. It was hoped that by returning to “traditional” subject learning areas with a designated Head of Learning Area, this would be remedied. The consequent restructure has impacted on the teachers in a number of ways. First, they have lost a sense of being connected across SIDE’s Schools and across learning areas. As a result, they now find they no longer have an overview of the progress of particular students across various subjects, but only know how the student is doing in his or her own particular subject. This, in turn, it is claimed, has impacted on the teachers’ relationships with their students. On this, it was suggested that the level of pastoral care has also been reduced by the restructure. This notion was reinforced by a member of SIDE’s Student Services’ team who commented that the team had noticed “less flexibility in teachers’ attitudes to students as they no longer know the whole student.”

ISSUES • 149

A further challenge presented by the restructure is that some teachers have shifted from teaching lower secondary school students to senior secondary school students, or vice versa. This has created difficulties for some teachers in understanding the different assessment structures which relate to each level. The restructure has also impacted on the students and home supervisors of students at the lower secondary level who now have to work with a number of teachers, whereas, previously, one teacher was responsible for them across all learning areas. For some of SIDE’s students, this is very challenging and causes some concern as they have a strong need to know they can contact a teacher who understands their particular situation and the support that they require. Student Cohort A number of trends are emerging in regard to changes in the student body. These provide the basis for some insights into SIDE’s future clientele. It is important to be aware of them, given that any changes could have implications for the future functions of SIDE. Variation in the student cohort occurs at two levels. First of all, some students enrol with SIDE for a limited period of time only, for example, while they are travelling, or to supplement the curriculum options at a rural school. The second, and more significant, way in which the student cohort changes is that numbers for a particular group can rise or fall dramatically in a given year. An example of a sudden and significant change in student enrolments occurred at the beginning of 2007 when 300 Science students in Port Hedland and 100 English students in Geraldton were enrolled with SIDE when the schools in these towns were unable to attract the necessary teachers due to a state-wide teacher shortage. This required a reshuffle of duties for a number of SIDE’s teachers and threw some of them into substantially different roles. At times, similar situations require SIDE to employ additional teaching staff. Increases in the number of referral and schoolbased students are the key trends and there is a variety of ways that SIDE deals with the needs of these students. Referral/SAER Students Due to an increase in the number of low fee paying non-governmental schools throughout the state of Western Australia and movement to them by students whose parents consider they provide a better education than that available in state schools, some government schools have been left with an increasing proportion of their student population who have learning or behavioral problems. Many schools are unable to appropriately address the needs of these students and they are turning to SIDE for support. As a result, SIDE’s student body is becoming “skewed towards the tail-end in terms of social disadvantage” as one teacher put it, with a rising number of refer-

150 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

ral enrolments. It will be recalled that referral or SAER students are those who cannot be accommodated in a mainstream school. For example, they may have psychological, behavioral, literacy or numeracy issues, be in the juvenile justice system, have learning difficulties, or be considered gifted or talented. They usually require a modified study program and, generally, a reduced workload. Catering for the needs of these students provides a number of challenges for SIDE. One response has been to employ teachers with special education backgrounds, or with experience in helping students who have literacy and numeracy problems. The challenges of catering for the needs of this student group have been compounded by the raising of the school leaving age, as more of these students now transfer through to the Senior Secondary School. One concern in relation to this is that SIDE’s materials are generally not produced with these students in mind (Forlin & Tierney, 2006). A general view amongst teachers at SIDE is that a concerted effort is required to ensure that the course-material needs of these students are appropriately met. School-Based Students There is a range of challenges associated with students who are based in conventional schools, but do some of their schooling through SIDE. Conventional schools often do not feel responsible for the students in regard to the subjects being studied through SIDE. As a result, many schools fail to provide appropriate support. This manifests itself in a number of ways. Some schools, for example, fail to provide the students with appropriate learning environments, resources, or supervision. Others fail to allocate any time to a SIDE subject other than that allocated for participation in a videoconference lesson. As a result, the students must do all other work for their SIDE subject after school. Better communication between SIDE and the schools is required to ensure appropriate time and resource allocations are made in the future. This is particularly important as the trend of SIDE supporting other schools continues to increase. On this, one teacher suggested: “there’s still a lot of work to do for those kids in terms of making them feel part of SIDE but still very much part of their own school.” TECHNOLOGY In the previous chapter the benefits of technology for assisting in the learning of students at SIDE were discussed. Some of the difficulties involved with its use were also considered. This section will discuss what the teachers at SIDE see as the ongoing challenges presented by the use of technology in their work. These challenges include “keeping up with technology,” “developing appropriate skills,” “developing appropriate pedagogy,” and “recognising the limitations of the technology.”

ISSUES • 151

Keeping Up With Technology Information and communication technology now provides all students and teachers with opportunities to “think outside the box: to be creative and collaborative in their approach to learning” (OECD, 2006, p. 20). In the case of SIDE, improved technology has enabled teachers to reduce the perceived disadvantages of distance education and enhance those aspects of their lessons that replicate the face-to-face classroom situation. For example, through online technology, teachers are able to employ blackboard presentations, visual aids and interactive activities, and supply immediate feedback in their lessons in a manner similar to the way they are employed in face-to-face classroom teaching situations (SIDE, 2007). In recognition of this benefit, there is a push to have a greater number of students engaged in online lessons. At the same time, it will be recalled that the provision of technology is an expensive undertaking, with the limits to what can be done often being delineated by the available funding. For example, as was previously explained, SIDE implemented the SAT-web program in 2004 for geographically isolated primary-aged students. The teachers quickly found that the bandwidth provided could not successfully carry video images. While the appropriate bandwidth could be supplied, the cost of doing so was prohibitive (Dole et al., 2004). Nevertheless, the teachers are not overly concerned about this as SAT-web, despite its shortcomings, has, as they see it, significantly enhanced the teaching and learning process. They also argue that the shortcomings are likely to disappear soon since existing technology quickly becomes outdated. As one teacher put it, “SAT-web will be obsolete before it even gets off the ground.” In other words, they believe that a more effective mode of delivery will soon be available. Nevertheless, it is still a high priority for the teachers that SIDE receive ongoing funding to enable the continued investigation of new technological solutions and to ensure the technology is supported appropriately. The teachers also contend that if SIDE is to continue to lead the way in using technology to deliver distance education programs, the managers who are responsible for providing it need to appreciate its potential. The first step in this regard, it is argued, is that the managers themselves need to be IT competent, a situation which, as the following comment indicates, does not always seem to be the case: If you look at the decision makers at SIDE and look for IT expertise, I’m not being derogatory, but you won’t find it. If you’re a decision maker and you’ve got a particular level of IT then you’ll make decisions based on that level. If the decision makers don’t have an appropriate level of IT skills then there will be major issues.

152 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

As the teachers see it, it is important for their morale that their managers be setting a good example in using IT. This, they hold, would provide them with the extra enthusiasm needed to stay up-to-date in the area themselves, while continuing to do their everyday work. An associated issue is that simply having access to the technology is not enough; there must also be an appreciation and understanding of the possibilities offered by the technology. That this is not happening is a concern for the teachers. They argue that at SIDE technology is not being harnessed to its full potential and consider this deficit has the potential to significantly hamper their work and SIDE’s future development. This, they suggest, remains an ongoing challenge. Developing Appropriate Skills Teachers’ Skills The Western Australian Education Department has identified “Information Technology Literacy” as a key skill area for all of the state’s teachers (Hacker, 1999). One reason for this is that rapid developments in technology require an equally rapid development in the skills of the teachers using that technology. In explaining the impact of this over the years one teacher commented: When I was asked to come here, I was told I’d be sitting at a desk and writing letters. It was a huge concern for us when we were given an electric typewriter that had a memory in it. And then there were computers, which everyone went into an absolute flap about how to use. The technology that we’ve had to come to grips with has been incredible.

Many SIDE teachers have responded positively and are very IT competent. They willingly participate in professional development workshops, engage with the technology and incorporate it into their teaching. On the other hand, there are teachers at SIDE who have very limited IT skills and are resistant to making use of it in their work. As a result, the uptake of online teaching across the two Leederville schools is varied. On this, one senior staff member commented: “You’ve got a continuum; some people haven’t dabbled in it at all and others are blending it into a balanced program.” It is suggested that one reason for this is that keeping up with the requisite technological knowledge and skills, and understanding how to use the technology effectively and efficiently, has been challenging and, at times, intimidating. At the same time, however, SIDE teachers acknowledge that they are supported through the provision of workshops designed to enhance their IT skills. As they see it, the continued provision of such support is important to encourage all teachers to present online lessons and, consequently, to ensure all SIDE students are provided with every available learning opportunity.

ISSUES • 153

Students’ Skills Learning the requisite IT skills is also a challenge for many SIDE students. While some students are quite au fait with technology, others have limited prior exposure to it and their IT skills are inadequate. On this, SIDE teachers contend that coming to grips with technology has been “a very big learning curve” for a significant number of their students and that many of them “flounder” when trying to deal with their online lessons. The problem, as the teachers see it, is that the students’ lack of IT skills can be very disruptive to the progress of a lesson. Also, given the way students are able to enrol with SIDE throughout the year and the increasing use of technology in delivering lessons, the general view amongst SIDE teachers is that the skill level of the students will continue to present challenges. Thus, they argue, a structured response to the students’ needs must be formulated. It is suggested, for example, that this can be addressed through the provision of “help sheets” for students, presenting them with a step-by-step guide to using the technology. Developing Appropriate Pedagogy Currently, SIDE is in a period of transition in regard to delivering lessons via technology. One of the main challenges associated with this is achieving an appropriate balance between the materials delivered online and in other formats. The teachers report that this is being done through a process of trial and error. A general view amongst SIDE teachers is that this has created a degree of anxiety for them as they want to be certain they are doing the best they can for their students. SIDE teachers also consider it important when using technology to deliver a distance education program that they do not simply shape their technologically-based lessons according to the model used for producing paperbased materials. Rather, it needs to complement them (Dole et al., 2005). What they have at their disposal are phone conferences (voice only), Janison (asynchronous online), SAT-web (synchronous voice and blackboard), and Centra (synchronous online involving video). It is considered important that the work done via these various forms of technology supports the print-based work as, for the foreseeable future, most SIDE students will still largely be learning through print-based materials. In the case of mathematics, for example, students are provided with a booklet with mathematical explanations, examples, and associated problems. At times, students may not understand what is required of them. Through Centra and SAT-web, the teachers are able to use the “blackboard” to demonstrate how to work through a particular mathematical problem, for example, “regrouping” in addition and subtraction questions. Also, they can ask the student to work through a question on the blackboard and can immediately see where the

154 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

student is going wrong. Consequently, the teachers can provide valuable feedback to the student “at the point of error.” A related issue involves the demands on teachers of conducting online lessons through Centra and SAT-web. These demands include dealing with technical glitches, keeping the lesson moving along, issuing unambiguous instructions, ensuring that all students have an opportunity to participate, and assessing and responding to any problems the students experience with the content of the lesson (Australian National Training Authority, 2004). One teacher likened this to “juggling,” to trying to keep all the balls in the air throughout the lesson. She explained: Although you’re not necessarily feeling stressed while you’re actually doing it, when it’s over you breathe a sigh of relief because throughout the lesson you’ve been trying to hold it all together.

SIDE teachers suggest that negotiating their way through the online lessons will remain a challenging aspect of their work for the foreseeable future. Nevertheless, the extra time and effort required to prepare and run online lessons is felt to be worthwhile because of the benefits, as the teachers see it, for both students and themselves. The students, they hold, are very enthusiastic about these lessons and participate eagerly in them (Lowrie, 2007). Also, the teachers feel the process involves “real teaching,” rather than just setting work and marking it. Consequently, they have a great sense of job satisfaction. Notwithstanding this situation, the teachers are concerned that as SIDE moves to provide more online lessons for more of its students, careful consideration must be given to the time it takes to prepare and conduct these lessons. It can, for example, sometimes take one hour of preparation and one hour of teaching to deliver an online lesson for one student. This is very labour intensive. A possible solution, as the teachers see it, is to have small-group online lessons. Recognizing the Limitations of Technology In different parts of the world there has been a tendency by some to consider technology as a magical solution to the perceived problems of teaching via distance mode (Coffey, 1998; Shearer, 2007). Although technology has provided opportunities for interactive and collaborative learning, it is important to recognise that there are limitations to what can be done via technology. The experience at SIDE illustrates this very well; two main limitations have been identified, namely “Limited Access” and “Technical Hitches.” Each of these will now be considered.

ISSUES • 155

Limited Access One of the chief limitations of technology at SIDE is that not all of the students have access to it. This restricts the resources that SIDE teachers are able to use when teaching the students. One student, for example, who lives near Cue, 650 km north-east of Perth, has electricity for one hour each day and no computer or phone access. Also, one SIDE junior secondary school teacher estimated that only 50% of the School’s students have access to the internet. Such students require materials suitable for their particular circumstances. This requirement must be assessed on a case-by-case basis. In the example of the student living near Cue, for example, it meant that only print-based materials could be used. Recognizing such problems, the teachers at SIDE suggest that the School must continue to produce and provide materials in a variety of formats. They are concerned that, if this need is not fully recognized by decision makers and too much focus is placed on online delivery, other forms of delivery will be neglected. The consequence, they argue, is that some students’ needs will not be appropriately addressed. Technical Hitches A further limitation of technology at SIDE is that it does not always work as expected. Dealing with technological “hitches” can be very time consuming for the teachers and can occasionally completely disrupt lessons. Specific examples of such problems as provided by the teachers are illustrated in the following quotes: I had fourteen calls to a student in the Cook Islands the other day before I could get through. We have video conferences and you have everything set up but Tom Price will drop offline and Newman can’t come online. Managing three children online can be quite a challenge. Invariably one of them can’t get their audio up, one can’t use the whiteboard or can’t see it. So you’re always sort of trouble shooting over technical things. I sent an email to a student at Exmouth District High School yesterday, a practice test in a Word document and when he opened it, it was all gobbledygook. It was just symbols all over the page.

These examples demonstrate the range of difficulties presented for the teachers when technology malfunctions. The teachers feel frustrated when such problems interfere with the teaching and learning process. Further, they suggest, such problems can be discouraging for students (Australian National Training Authority, 2004, p. 7). Though the teachers recognise the opportunities afforded by technology, at the same time they hold that

156 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

dealing with associated problems remains a challenge that they must continue to negotiate their way around in their daily work. FUTURE VIABILITY The future viability of SIDE is a matter of significant concern for many of its teachers. These concerns have largely arisen because there is now a number of other schools in the state which have become involved in the delivery of flexible and distance learning. This has created some anxiety for SIDE teachers who are concerned that, in the future, SIDE’s role could become diminished, or even, redundant. These concerns are best demonstrated through looking at a number of examples. Three specific examples will now be examined. Example 1: Australind Japanese Telematics Program Telematics is a term used to describe the use of electronic equipment and particular pedagogical strategies to provide interactive teaching and learning for students in two or more geographically remote locations (Oliver & Reeves, 1994). Telematics was first used in Western Australia in the early 1990s as part of the Priority Country Areas Program Project (PICAP). This project aimed to improve educational opportunities and increase levels of achievement for rural and remote students. The Telematics initiative involved a number of “hubs” being established around the state with a cluster of schools cooperating to deliver educational programs. Typically, a teacher from one school prepared a program and materials for use with their own students and students from other schools (Oliver & Reeves, 1994). Despite initial commendation, the Telematics project slowly contracted until Australind Senior High School (Australind SHS) was the sole provider. Currently Australind SHS delivers Japanese via Telematics to a small number of students. In the years 2005, 2006, and 2007, the enrolment numbers were 50, 64, and 33 respectively. The teachers communicate with their students via teleconferencing and the students are provided with a set textbook from which they work. SIDE teachers consider this to be a fairly archaic form of delivery. They suggest the program could be improved upon if SIDE and Australind SHS were to work in partnership. This is seen by the SIDE teachers as an opportunity for SIDE to capitalise on their “collective wisdom and experience” and provide training for other deliverers of distance education. Hence, although the teachers recognise Australind SHS’s Telematics program as a form of competition, they also acknowledge that such programs can provide potential opportunities for SIDE to develop the services it provides. Nevertheless, it must be recognized that concerns about perceived competition can be stressful for the teachers and can impact on their performance at work.

ISSUES • 157

Example 2: Flexible Learning in Schools Project (FLIS) The Flexible Learning in Schools Project (FLIS) was established in 2006. It is part of the Pilbara Education Partnership developed between the BHP Billiton Iron Ore Company and the Western Australian Department of Education (BHP Billiton Iron Ore, 2009). The project was designed to increase educational opportunities for secondary school students in the Pilbara mining region of the state through expanding the range of subjects available in their schools which could be taken for final school year examinations (The Tertiary Entrance Examinations). FLIS involves a highly qualified and experienced teacher from one school teaching a number of students based in other schools throughout the region. Lessons are delivered in an online classroom environment which provides opportunities for participation in discussions and interactive activities. These lessons are delivered via a web-based program called Centra and are supplemented by an online resource bank known as Janison. The students are supported by a learning facilitator who is based in their school. As with the home supervisors at SIDE, learning facilitators are considered to be essential to the success of the program. (School Matters, 2008). One benefit of this model is that, due to the students’ relative proximity to each other, they can be brought together more regularly for face-to-face lessons than if the lessons were delivered from Perth. There is a number of elements that FLIS and SIDE have in common. Both use Centra and Janison to deliver their learning programs, both require the support of a supervisor/facilitator for the students, and both target rural students. For this reason FLIS could be perceived as being in competition with SIDE. On this, a number of teachers queried why students had been enrolled in FLIS rather than at SIDE. They expressed anxiety that if more regions established similar learning networks, SIDE would lose some of its client base. For the moment, however, the teachers are not overly concerned because the program is still relatively small. In 2008 it catered for 65 students in eight schools (School Matters, 2008). Further, they recognise that the FLIS model is not suitable for use with very small numbers of students, whereas SIDE has the capacity to provide lessons for small groups of students and individuals. Nevertheless, this concern must be recognized as anxiety about the future has the potential to affect the motivation and performance of the teachers. Example 3: Tuart College Flexi Learning Program Tuart College is a senior college located in the Perth metropolitan area which focuses on providing educational opportunities for adults who wish to extend their qualifications. In 2004, the college began to deliver its Flexi Learning Program. This program specifically addresses the state Educa-

158 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

tion Department’s concerns that, for a number of reasons, some government secondary schools are no longer able to offer a full range of subjects. Further, it conformed with the state Education Department’s 2004–2007 Strategic Plan which stated that more learning options should be made available to students through “flexible modes of delivery” (Department of Education and Training, 2003, p. 5). To this end, the program is designed to provide more flexible learning options for students. The College works in partnership with metropolitan high schools, with the students having dual enrolment. As a result, students are able to study subjects their own school does not offer and, at the same time, remain engaged with their existing school, teachers and friends. The students attend a weekly two-hour face-to-face lesson at Tuart College and have ongoing email contact with their teacher at the college. The College also provides the students with a wide range of online and hard copy resources for use in their studies. The students’ regular school allocates time for them to be able to study their Tuart College subject and they are supported by a mentor. This program is similar to the service SIDE offers to its school-based students. The chief difference is the weekly two-hour face-to-face lesson provided by Tuart College. A number of teachers in SIDE’s secondary school view the program as being in direct competition with SIDE. Again, however, they acknowledge that this perceived competition is limited. They recognise that Tuart College is working with students from a limited number of Perth metropolitan high schools. Further, SIDE teachers consider the students who are enrolled in the Flexible Learning Program to be highly motivated and relatively academically strong. The teachers concede that their own school-based students are drawn from a broad range of schools and that many of them are not academically high achievers. The teachers consider they are better able to cope with such students than other providers as they have access to support mechanisms such as the Student Services and Learning Difficulties Support teams. Further, the teachers hold that SIDE’s ability to provide both Tertiary Entrance Examination and wholly school-assessed subjects strengthens its position in supporting the state education system and “plugging the gaps.” Nonetheless, the teachers do perceive other providers of flexible learning as being in competition with SIDE and the increase in the number of these providers is a source of some anxiety. Again, this has the potential to reduce the teachers’ level of motivation and could negatively impact upon their daily work. ENSURING EXCELLENCE Due to SIDE’s unique nature, it is difficult to benchmark it against other educational institutions. This, however, does not mean that there should not be a sustained endeavour to deliver a top quality service. The matter of how to go about this, however, was a concern for a number of the teachers

ISSUES • 159

at SIDE who suggested that the quality of service provided must be unquestionable. In emphasizing their point, they highlighted a number of shortcomings in the areas of “ensuring quality,” “quality of resources,” “consistency of service,” “student results,” and “evaluation of the service provided by SIDE.” Each of these will now be discussed. Ensuring Quality In the current climate of accountability it is particularly important that a school be able to demonstrate the quality of its service. In August 2008, the Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd, highlighted this when he announced a plan to monitor and measure the performance of teachers and schools in Australia (Rudd, 2008). Consequently, while teachers at SIDE are committed to pursuing the highest standards in the service it provides because of self-induced pressure, they now have an additional pressure from central government to contend with in this regard. Both teachers and managers consider there is some excellent work being done at SIDE. At the same time, however, there are concerns about the existing structures for monitoring and assessing the success and quality of the service provided. On this, one senior staff member stated: “We’ve got very few quality assurance measures in place and they’re a bit hit and miss.” Consequently, as the teachers see it, there is still much to be done to ensure a high standard of service across SIDE’s schools. One strategy suggested to address this concern is to develop “a sense of being a federation of schools,” of being connected, and of supporting each other. It is hoped that this will lead to improvement all round. Quality of Resources Teachers are also concerned about the quality of SIDE’s resources. On this, they distinguish between the quality of the teaching staff and the quality of the materials. They believe that the quality of both is very high. However, they acknowledge that this is not something that can be taken for granted. This is now elaborated upon in relation to each of the two areas. Staff A number of teachers commented that some very talented and creative teachers work at SIDE. However, they are concerned that the pool of such teachers may “dry up” because of developments external to SIDE. In 2008, for example, the public education system was in crisis and was experiencing difficulty attracting skilled teachers into the system, partly because of more highly paid positions being available due to the boom economy which prevailed at that time. While this situation may have been alleviated somewhat by the international economic downturn, coupled with an increase in teachers’ salaries in Western Australia, concerns remain about ongoing

160 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

teacher shortages in the state (ABC News, 2008, October 6). This, in turn, may reduce the pool of talent from which SIDE can recruit. There is also concern that those teachers who will be recruited will not have specific distance education training. It has long been recognised that there is a need for such training for distance educators (Beaudoin, 1990; Sherry, 1995; Moore, 2003) and that teachers themselves do not always recognise this need (Sturrock, 1983; Tomlinson, 1994). The latter, it would appear, characterises the culture at SIDE. The value of such training is, however, recognised at the management level, with participants arguing it is important to ensure, for example, that the online lessons are not a version of “the old chalk and talk” style lessons, but rather incorporate a range of teaching strategies and learning activities. Overall, SIDE management suggest that the provision of a formal induction program would be a step toward ensuring the quality of the teaching in the future. The challenge for the managers is to persuade the teachers of the value of their position. All is not negative in this regard. It may be, for example, that they can find ways of harnessing the positive attitude of the teachers towards continuing professional development, particularly in relation to the use of new technology, or new pedagogical ideas. This may provide a foundation for convincing them of the value of initial preparation for distance education. It is important they do so because the current teachers are vital in promoting a positive view toward such preparation amongst those who will enter the system in the future. Materials SIDE teachers acknowledge that the quality of the existing materials is a great strength of the SIDE program. In regard to maintaining the quality of these materials, the teachers consider there are a number of challenges. The main challenges are seen as arising from changes to the student body, technological developments, and curriculum changes. Each of these necessitates the development of new materials which must address the needs of the students and fulfil requirements of the state’s Department of Education. It will be recalled that this is a costly undertaking, particularly if the quality of these materials is to be maintained, or even raised. The teachers argue that if, due to constant changes and insufficient funding, SIDE is not able to maintain the quality, it will make their work far more challenging. Both the management at SIDE and the state’s Education Department need to take this concern seriously if the current healthy situation in relation to quality of materials is to be maintained. Consistency of Service Although it is considered by the teachers and managers at SIDE that a number of “incredibly talented teachers are doing very creative things with SIDE’s diverse student population,” there is a concern that this is not the

ISSUES • 161

common experience across the organization. As the teachers see it, there must be consistency and best practice in each of SIDE’s schools. A problem in achieving this situation, they argue, is that there is not enough cooperation between the two schools at SIDE. As one participant put it, what is required is a “seamless flow, a sense of being a cohesive unit that provides a high standard of delivery,” rather than two schools operating as independent units on the one campus. If a cohesive unit is produced, it is held, then all students will be more assured of receiving a very high standard of education, no matter where they are situated, or their reason for being enrolled with SIDE. At the same time, there is no suggestion that any group of students is being neglected, or that there are any students whose needs are not carefully assessed and addressed by the teachers. Rather, the concern is that while there are “pockets of excellence,” what is provided by them should be available to all students. As one senior member of staff stated, there is a need to “harvest that excellence and migrate it or populate it to other parts of the organization.” Again, the teachers consider developing a sense of belonging to a federation of schools working together to be important in this regard. They suggest that adopting a “whole of school approach” would address challenges of consistency and would ensure the schools were “talking with one voice.” Again, the challenge for SIDE management is to respond appropriately to this concern in order to achieve some improvement in this area. Students’ Results A particular issue for the teachers at SIDE is that they would like to be able to demonstrate their level of success in educating their students. However, this is difficult. Collating trend data is problematic due to the student cohort changing from one year to the next. In the words of one participant, at SIDE “rather than working with apples and apples over time, we’ve got the whole fruit bowl.” It is also difficult for SIDE to benchmark against other schools in the state system as its student body is so diverse. Further, when looking at SIDE students’ results it is deemed unrealistic to measure them against those of other students in the state because many SIDE students complete only one or two subjects in a year. There are, however, a number of ways in which SIDE endeavours to measure its performance. Its senior secondary school, for example, informally compares results with the state’s Cyril Jackson Senior High School, which also has a diverse student body. According to anecdotal evidence, the secondary graduation rate for the two schools is similar. Also, at the primary level, an opportunity for comparison is provided by the Western Australian Literacy and Numeracy Assessment (WALNA) test which is carried out with year 3, 5, and 7 students. In a recent Federal Government report on improving literacy and numeracy outcomes of distance education students in the

162 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

early years of schooling, however, the Director of SIDE expressed “concerns about the validity of the results due to the context in which such testing takes place in distance education.” He also expressed a view that the “distribution of the test and the subsequent results in the distance education setting” are somewhat problematic (Dole et al., 2005, p. 10). As a result of such perceived inadequacies in the current system, the teachers consider there is still much to be done to ensure that SIDE is able to demonstrate, within the context of the students’ abilities, that the students receive a good quality education and that their results reflect them achieving their best given their particular circumstances. Another area of concern relates to the validity of the students’ results. In the broader distance education setting there are often concerns about exactly who has completed the written work and assessment tasks (Jocoy & DiBiase, 2006; Steinbronn & Merideth, 2008). At SIDE this problem may not be as simple as someone else explicitly completing a student’s work. There are often concerns, however, about the possibility that too great a level of support has been provided by the home supervisors. This has long been an issue for SIDE. Moreover, it has been exacerbated with the advent of computers and the internet, which allow students who are completing tasks and assessments at different times to communicate and share work via email. Although the teachers generally have a good idea, based on prior work, of a student’s capabilities, they acknowledge that there is still much room for greater vigilance in this area. The teachers consider the current system is “a pretty loose arrangement of authenticating student work” and they maintain that improving their procedures in this domain remains a challenge for SIDE. Teachers are aware that in the post-secondary school distance education setting a number of solutions has been employed to address the issue. These include impressing upon students the importance of academic honesty (Adkins, Kenkel, & Lim, 2008), maintaining frequent synchronous teacher-student contact, and employing multiple assessments, collaborative learning tasks, open-book assessments, and randomized question pools (Kitahara & Westfall, 2007; Lanier, 2006; Olt, 2002). Additionally, teachers know of the existence of software such as “Turnitin,” which trawls a database to check if work has been plagiarized. The teachers suggest that some of these strategies for authenticating students’ work should be employed at SIDE. This is considered important as, in the words of one participant, “SIDE’s reputation as an institution goes with the students.” Evaluation of the Service Provided by SIDE Another factor which teachers at SIDE consider to be important is that of ensuring the quality of the service that SIDE provides. They hold that quality assurance is important at every step of the educational process at the

ISSUES • 163

school, from developing the materials to the manner of teaching and behavior of the staff, and the feedback that is given to the students and home supervisors. One senior staff member suggested that, rather than implementing a proactive approach to identifying problems, SIDE tends to respond to issues when they have become “too big to ignore,” adding that there is no ongoing cycle of evaluation. For example, with the push for more face-toface contact, either through teachers going on visits, or through bringing students together for camps, there is no monitoring of how much face-toface time is achieved, how the students feel about the contact, and whether or not it has an impact on the students’ level of achievement. A further example was provided by one teacher who, in discussing the implementation of online delivery of lessons, reflected as follows: “we’re asking for some informal feedback, but really we should get some long term information to know whether it’s effective or not.” It is considered by the teachers that this situation must be addressed, and soon, because a process of evaluation, they hold, is critical to ensuring the quality of the service provided by SIDE. The teachers also contend that some formal structures for evaluation must be implemented to ensure that new initiatives and old practices are regularly monitored in order to ascertain that they are valid and effective. The importance of engaging in such a practice is supported by the literature which highlights the importance of evaluation and progress reviews (Driscoll & Morris, 2001; Hayes, 2002; Hyndman & Eden, 2000; Thornhill, Lewis, Millmore, & Saunders, 2000). Such reviews, the teachers in the study argue, can contribute to a cycle of improvement. They suggest that such a process would ensure that the existing high quality of materials and services are maintained, whilst also providing evidence of the high standards to which SIDE adheres. CONCLUSION This chapter addressed the third aim of the study which forms the core of this book, namely, to develop an understanding of SIDE teachers’ issues connected with carrying out the functions described in Chapter Five. The issues identified by the teachers fell within five broad themes, namely, “perennial issues,” “change,” “technology,” “future viability,” and “ensuring excellence.” The next chapter now goes on to provide the summary of the study, along with a discussion of findings and a conclusion.

CHAPTER 7

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION For over 90 years SIDE, in its various guises, has been providing distance education for Western Australia’s isolated primary and secondary school students. Throughout this time there have been many significant changes in the areas of technology and curriculum and in the eligibility criteria for enrolment at SIDE. In the last decade in particular, there has been a number of changes in regard to the methods of delivering distance education materials to students and in the types of students who are enrolled with SIDE. Such changes have had repercussions for the work that SIDE teachers do and the way they carry out their work. Despite these changes, however, there has been little research conducted into the area. As a result, understandings of what SIDE and its staff do remain patchy and are often inaccurate. The Education of Children in Geographically Remote Regions through Distance Education: Perspectives and Lessons from Australia, pages 165–184 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

165

166 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

It was with the intention of addressing the latter deficit that the study reported in this book was carried out. This final chapter opens with a summary of the study. Secondly, the transferability of the research findings is considered. Finally, consideration is given to the implications of the findings.

SUMMARY The study reported in this book had three aims, namely, to develop an understanding of the background to SIDE, to develop an understanding of the functions of SIDE as they manifest themselves at its central campus, and to develop an understanding of current issues which present themselves for the teachers working at SIDE’s main campus. It was felt there was a need for research with such a focus not only because of the deficit noted above, but also in light of widespread misunderstandings about the School and its functions. A great deal of research has been conducted on the provision of distance education for adults. Generally, adults undertake distance education because of the convenience of being able to study at a time and location that suits their particular needs. At the same time, distance education has also been used in a number of countries to address shortfalls in their existing education systems. In the Australian context, this is the case as the vast distances involved have made distance education particularly useful in addressing the educational needs of the highly dispersed population. In responding to this need, Australia has long been a leader in the use of distance education with primary and secondary school students. In recent times, the economic attractions of educating school-aged students via this mode have also been recognized. This, along with a growing awareness that distance education can provide students with access to the best teachers, regardless of the location of either, has led to increased interest in it. Literature pertaining to the provision of distance education is extensive. Limited research, however, has been conducted with a focus on the provision of distance education in the primary and secondary education sectors. This paucity of research is particularly noticeable in regard to the provision of K–12 distance education in Western Australia. Thus, it was concluded that this was an area that required investigation. The choice of the interpretivist paradigm to underpin the research was justified as the study sought to unveil a diversity of meanings constructed by individuals within a particular social context (Holstien & Gubrium, 2005, p. 483). A basic assumption of the interpretive approach is that reality is what people observe it to be and such research is designed to examine how individuals perceive the world

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION • 167

around them (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). This is in accord with the aims of the study reported in this book. The focus of the study was SIDE’s Leederville campus. The Leederville campus was selected because of its unique qualities and because it enabled the examination of a complex social setting involving the interplay of manifold factors (Lichtman, 2008). It was recognized from the outset that in a study of this nature the data collected should be rich and should facilitate a greater understanding of the particular case rather than be generalizable to other situations (Merriam, 2009). In order to achieve such a richness and depth in the data, a broad range of perspectives was sought. This was achieved through the purposeful selection of study participants with interviews being conducted with a carefully selected cross-section of SIDE personnel who encompassed each of the schools at the Leederville campus, subject variety, and a gamut of experience both as teachers and, more specifically, as distance educators at SIDE. In addition, two past directors of SIDE and the current director, the principals of the primary and secondary schools, school psychiatrists, and a small number of home supervisors were also interviewed. The First Research Aim Chapter Three addressed the first research aim of the study, namely, to develop an understanding of the background of the Schools of Isolated and Distance Education. In doing so, it mapped the development of the institution between its establishment as the Correspondence School in 1918 and when it became SIDE in 1995. It will be recalled that pressures were imposed on the state’s education system by the burgeoning and highly dispersed population, particularly in the 1890s. Strategies to address this situation included the use of half-time schools, tent schools, and one-teacher schools. Though these went some way towards alleviating the problem, the plight of students who lived in more isolated locations remained. Correspondence education was identified as a way of addressing the needs of these students. After some debate as to the suitability for this method of education for primary school students, the Correspondence School was established in September 1918. The school rapidly expanded in terms of student and teacher numbers and outgrew a succession of residences. From the outset, the School sought innovative ways to improve the educational experience of its students and to reduce their sense of isolation. Such strategies included the Itinerant Teacher Scheme, camp schools, and the Schools of the Air. Over time the School itself underwent a number of changes. Structural changes such as the formation of the Middle School reflected changes in curriculum and pedagogical approaches. The name of the school also underwent a number of amendments, reflecting changes in its focus and in

168 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

technology. Thus, the change in name from the Correspondence School to the Distance Education Centre in 1983, reflected an acknowledgement that the education provided went beyond simple correspondence materials whilst, at the same time, it was also inclusive of the various components which were brought together to form the Centre, namely, the Correspondence School, the Isolated Students’ Matriculation Scheme, and the Isolated Families Early Childhood Correspondence Scheme. The background to the provision of primary and secondary level distance education for the state’s isolated students by SIDE is more than an interesting narrative. Understanding the history of the phenomenon enables the reader to analyze what has previously occurred in order to inform both the present and the future, and offer suggestions for improving practice in this important area of education. Further, it acts as a benchmark in assessing how, or if, the provision of K–12 distance education has changed or improved over time. The Second Research Aim Chapter Four presented the findings in relation to the second research aim, namely, to develop an understanding of the functions of SIDE as they manifest themselves at its central campus. The rationale for this research aim arose from widespread ignorance and misunderstanding about what SIDE is and does. It was revealed that this ignorance permeates even the state’s education community. A broad understanding of SIDE’s functions is provided through examining the organizational structure and functions of the institution. The administration section of SIDE is located on the Leederville campus. It is responsible not only for the two schools onsite, but also for the five Schools of the Air, the two Indian Ocean schools, and the School of Instrumental Music. This current structure reflects a recognition in the late 1970s that a more successful institution would be developed by having all facets of distance education “under one roof” (Gaines, 1981b). The Director is seen as being the unifying factor and is responsible for ensuring there is a sense of accord across the organization. In this, he or she is supported by the principals of each of the subsumed schools. SIDE’s functions are largely driven by the needs of its students. Students wishing to enrol must meet strict eligibility criteria. The students generally fall into one of a number of different categories such as “geographically isolated” or “temporarily residing overseas.” Each student group has slightly different needs and this has an impact on the services that SIDE provides for those within each group. This, in turn, has an impact on the teachers’ daily work. Generally, there is little understanding in either the education community or broader society, as to what the work of SIDE teachers entails. If in-

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION • 169

dividuals are aware of the provision of distance education in the state at all, they usually only know of the Schools of the Air, whilst those that do know of SIDE think of it as a school staffed by dysfunctional teachers who do nothing but mark students’ work and send out letters. Many of these misunderstandings arise from SIDE’s past. However, SIDE is now a meritselect school and the teachers who work there have a diverse range of skills and responsibilities. They also have access to extensive professional development opportunities and consider themselves to be more highly skilled in some areas (for example, the use of IT), than the general teaching population. In K–12 distance education the supervisors are considered to be integral to the success of the program. This is the case at SIDE. In particular, the program would not work for the younger students without the support of the supervisors. Although the role of supervisors is not as pivotal with older students, they are still important. This reflects a general understanding that students whose parents are interested and involved tend to achieve better at school (Hattie, 2009, p. 70). Although some supervisors are trained teachers and take up the role without great difficulty, others find the task challenging and it is part of the SIDE teachers’ role to support the supervisors as they develop the necessary skills. It is important that SIDE teachers understand the difficulties presented by the role of home supervisor and that they know how to provide appropriate support for them. This encompasses providing pedagogical, informational, and emotional support. Some support is provided directly by the teachers and this is ongoing, while other support is provided by SIDE in the form of home tutor seminars. It is recognized that additional support could be provided through peer support groups. Such groups have already proved successful at the SOTAs (Tynan & O’Neill, 2007; Yourn, 2003). They are, however, difficult to arrange with the Leederville campus parents who are dispersed around the world. The Third Research Aim Chapter Five presented findings related to the third research aim of the study, namely, to develop an understanding of the issues which present themselves for teachers working at SIDE’s main campus. The understandings that were developed in respect of this aim fell within the five broad themes of “perennial challenges,” “change,” “technology,” “future viability” and “ensuring excellence.” Although a number of these challenges are ubiquitous in the education system, they manifest differently in the distance education setting. Drawing on the work of Winter (1982), the issues identified by the teachers in relation to the third research aim were classified into three levels of significance according to the degree of impact that they have on the teachers in their work. These three levels are “inconvenience,” “impediment,”

170 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

TABLE 2.

Level of Significance of Issues for SIDE Teachers.

Impending Threat

Impediment

Inconvenience

Issue

Overarching Theme

7.3.3 Student Cohort

Change

7.4.1 Keeping Up With Technology

Technology

7.4.3 Developing Appropriate Pedagogy

Technology

7.6.2 Quality of Resources

Ensuring Excellence

7.6.3 Consistency of Service

Ensuring Excellence

7.2.2 Isolation

Perennial Issues

7.2.3 Complexity of the Student Body

Perennial Issues

7.3.1 Externally Imposed Change

Change

7.3.2 Organizational Structure

Change

7.4.2 Developing Appropriate Skills

Technology

7.6.1 Ensuring Quality

Ensuring Excellence

7.6.4 Students’ Results

Ensuring Excellence

7.2.1 Appropriate Resourcing

Perennial Issues

7.4.4 Recognizing the Limitations of Technology

Technology

7.5.1 Future Viability

Future Viability

7.6.5 Evaluation of the Service Provided by SIDE

Ensuring Excellence

and “impending threat.” The level of significance of each issue is laid out in Table 2. The first level, “inconvenience,” refers to issues which the teachers are aware of, but which have little immediate impact on their work. In other words, these are issues which do not disrupt the teachers’ work. For example, the teachers are aware of the importance of ensuring the high “quality of resources” at SIDE. Due to changes in the student body, new technology and new directives from the state’s Department of Education, significant changes to the materials are required and it is important to ensure that throughout such changes, the high quality of the materials is maintained. To a large extent, however, this was considered to be a matter for the institution to deal with rather than something individual teachers needed to address. The second level, “impediment,” indicates issues which hinder the teachers in their work. Thus, these issues interfere with the teachers’ ability to carry out their daily tasks in the best possible, or most efficient manner. In regard to increasing use of technology, for example, one issue identified was “developing appropriate skills” in the teachers, the students and, to a lesser extent, the home supervisors. This is an issue of some concern for a number of the teachers; for some, because they are intimidated by the

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION • 171

technology, resulting in increased levels of stress, for others, because their students’ lack of skills impacts upon the smooth running of their lessons. The third level, “impending threat,” denotes issues which the teachers consider may have a significant impact on their ability to carry out their work effectively in the future. The “future viability” of SIDE is a particular issue for a number of the teachers. Concerns about this have arisen as a result of other educational institutions beginning to deliver K–12 distance education in Western Australia. Without evidence that SIDE’s program is “first class” there is concern that it will lose its position as the main provider of school-aged distance education and that, as a result, the school may close.

THE MATTER OF TRANSFERABILITY It should be recalled that the three main aims of this study were to develop an understanding of the history of SIDE, its functions, and the issues it and its teachers face in carrying out those functions. The research reported in this book was designed to focus on discovery, insight and understanding from the perspective of the teachers, thus contributing to the knowledge base and practice of distance education. The study of a unique phenomenon is, however, limited in the extent to which it can be considered transferable. This refers to the “extent to which findings of one study can be transferred to other situations” (Merriam, 2009, p. 223). Given that SIDE is a unique school in Western Australia, there are no other schools in the state to which the findings could directly apply. However, the findings are of relevance to schools which are new to providing distance education for school-aged students. Similarly, the findings could be considered of interest to other providers of K–12 distance education in Australia and overseas, although none of them are operating under the same conditions as schools within Western Australia. Nonetheless, the findings generated in this study could be considered transferable in the sense that readers may draw upon them to inform their own situation. Lincoln and Guba (1985) recommend the provision of a “thick description of the sending context so that someone in a potential receiving context may assess the similarity between them and…the study” (p. 126). Burns (1994) refers to this as “reader or user generalizability” (p. 327). On this, O’Donoghue (2007) explains that “readers can relate to the study and perhaps gain an understanding of their own and others’ situations” (p. 66). This suggests that readers can “transfer” the understandings generated by the research to their own situation and identify points of comparison and contrast. Specifically, other providers of school-aged distance education can employ the understandings generated by this study as a basis to reflect upon their own situation. Further, the development of insights into the distance education

172 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

provided by the current study can serve as a benchmark against which future practitioners and researchers can mark progress. Additionally, these insights can form the basis of further discussion of the phenomenon. In this way, Flyvbjerg (2007) holds, new knowledge can “enter into the collective process of knowledge accumulation in a given field” (p. 394).

IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH The findings of the study reported in this book may have implications for further research in the substantive area of K–12 distance education. This notion is supported by Strauss and Corbin (1990), who contend that researchers who ground their research in the everyday actions and interactions of individuals within substantive areas of study do so in the hope that their findings will, along with related studies, contribute to a cumulative understanding within their area of research and that the implications of their findings will have useful application. Accordingly, it is hoped that the findings presented in this book may result in the pursuance of further research which may, in turn, lead to the development of a more thorough understanding of the phenomenon of K–12 distance education. Implications in this regard will now be presented. Implications of the Research Findings for the Development of Policy Policy makers often fail to draw on empirical data in formulating a course of action. On this, Fielding (2007) suggests that while the findings and recommendations of research may be perfectly logical, they are often not taken up by policy makers. In a similar vein, Hattie (2009) holds that many government departments are unwilling to “accept evidence if it is contrary to current policies” (p. 257). More specifically, in the distance education setting, Baggaley (2008) considers that, as a result of such organizational attitudes, the full potential of distance education is often not realized. In the Western Australian setting very little research has been conducted into the phenomenon of K–12 distance education (Fitzpatrick, 1984; Stevens, 1994; Tomlinson, Coulter & Peacock, 1985). Further, the findings of this current study indicate that little evaluation is conducted of existing programs or new initiatives, either by SIDE or the state’s Department of Education. The lack of both empirical research and organisational evaluation implies that decisions are being made with little understanding of the efficacy, or impact of these decisions. The fact that this has occurred for so long would tend to support the view expressed at the beginning of this paragraph, notwithstanding a call for decision making processes to be “informed by a strong research and evaluation capacity” in the Western Aus-

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION • 173

tralian Department of Education’s Strategic Plan 2007-2009 (Department of Education and Training, 2007, p. 4). Therefore, it would appear that some decisions are being taken on the provision of K–12 distance education in the state without reference to appropriate data to substantiate decisions. Just as a teacher cannot take a lesson from the traditional classroom and, without adapting it, use it successfully in a distance education lesson (Henry & Meadows, 2008; Naidu, 2007; Tallent-Runnells et al., 2006), so too applying policies and practices based on understandings of the traditional educational environment does not work in the distance education setting. Therefore, policy makers must ensure that a cycle of evaluation is implemented to provide a sound foundation upon which future decisions can be based. Over 25 years ago, when the Western Australian Distance Education Centre (DEC) was formed, concerns were expressed about the impact of change on the students (Vidovich, 1984). The impact of change was also one of the main concerns of the teachers who participated in this study. Constant change implemented by various layers of administration not only has an impact on the students, but also the teachers. Some changes, such as the restructuring of the schools, have required significant adaptation by some teachers in their daily work. Further, at times, as a result of constant change, the teachers are unsure of their role. This is a result of the topdown structure of decision making in an organisation with many layers. On this, one teacher commented: “You always get rapped over the knuckles. There’s always somebody higher up, I’m talking about in a Silver Palace somewhere, saying ‘This isn’t policy, you can’t do this’.” A newly proposed national curriculum for all of Australia threatens to add another layer of bureaucracy. Though the need for change in order to develop and improve educational provision is recognised, it is important that there be “informed change.” Due consideration must be given to the efficacy of any proposed change and the repercussions it will have for key stakeholders. In relation to education in Western Australia, at a policy level, terms such as “equity” (SIDE, 2002, p. 3) and “inclusivity” (Curriculum Council, 1998; Department of Education and Training, 2007) are frequently employed. It is important that such desired outcomes are more than mere words and are put into practice. SIDE has an important role to play in helping the state’s Education Department to achieve these goals for students in particular circumstances. When the Correspondence School was established 90 years ago it was with the aim of addressing the needs of geographically isolated students. However, it was soon recognised that this mode of education would also be effective with a range of other students who, for a variety of reasons, were unable to attend a conventional school. In recent years this understanding has led to SIDE being used to provide an education for a number of students with whom the public school system is unable

174 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

to adequately cope. This includes some students with learning disabilities or learning difficulties, students who have been excluded from school for a range of reasons, and school-based students whose schools have experienced difficulties in attracting teachers. In this way, SIDE is being used to support the state education system to address issues of inclusivity and equity. In light of this, it is essential that an appropriate ongoing level of funding be provided. This will ensure the needs of SIDE’s diverse and changing student body are appropriately addressed. It is important, however, for policy makers to recognise that distance education does not work for some students. For many excluded students, for example, SIDE is not deemed to be the best option (Forlin & Tierney, 2006). Though SIDE may work and be perceived as a “humane option” for some students whose families have initiated the exclusion (Reilly, 2007, p. 312), for others, excluded by their schools, the decision is made for the convenience of the system. The practice of enrolling excluded students with SIDE has been in place for 20 years (Forlin & Tierney, 2006), a fact which highlights the failure of policy makers to reassess the efficacy of their decisions. Although the policy of withdrawing students from their conventional school and enrolling them in SIDE solves the immediate problem of students disrupting the classroom, it is not in the best interests of the students who often do not have appropriate supervision, frequently have gaps in their education, and find SIDE materials, which are largely printbased, difficult to use (Forlin & Tierney, 2006). This example highlights the importance of policy makers recognising that, although the education provided by SIDE is flexible and can be used by students with a variety of needs in a variety of situations, it is not a “magic cure-all” and is not the best option for some students. Again, through a process of evaluation, evidence would be provided to ensure that policies are resulting in improved educational provision and improved educational outcomes for all students enrolled with SIDE. Implications of the Research Findings for Practice Implications for Curriculum Among the stated desired outcomes in the Western Australian Department of Education’s Strategic Plan 2007-2009 (Department of Education, 2007) is the aim that students will: ...have access to a wide range of programs that recognise and respond to the diversity of individual needs and talents; and offer choice and flexibility to cater for individual circumstances. (p. 4)

Perhaps more than any other school in the state education system, SIDE is able to respond to these aims. More than any other school, also, SIDE’s

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION • 175

student population represents the diversity of students for whom the system caters and the way the curriculum must be adapted to address their various needs. Importantly, SIDE has a long history of catering for individual circumstances. This includes adapting the curriculum to suit the needs of certain groups of students, including rural and remote students, short-term travellers and those enrolled for ideological reasons, as well as specifically adapting the curriculum to address the needs of individual students. The benefits of the flexibility of the SIDE program have been highlighted and this is crucial to the success of the program that SIDE provides. Additionally, the findings reported in this book drew attention to the importance of ensuring that the curriculum is modified to respond to change. One such case is the raising of the leaving age in 2007. This required that a suitable curriculum be provided for students who are now being retained in the education system until the year in which they turn 17 years of age. In this, not just subject matter, but also manner of delivery, both in terms of materials and teacher support must be considered; both must reflect the level of maturity and sophistication of the students. The limited literacy skills of some of these students must also be taken into account. Therefore, such changes require a significant investment in terms of developing an appropriate curriculum and supporting materials. A similar issue is faced in regard to SIDE’s support of referral/SAER students. As the numbers of these students enrolled with SIDE increase, it is important that the curriculum meets their needs. This can be problematic with the heavy reliance on written materials. In addition, SIDE has long been involved in supporting the education of rural and remote students. Over 80 years ago the Correspondence School was aware of the importance of providing a curriculum that was relevant for rural students (Rankin, 1926). Further, SIDE’s services have long been used to supplement curriculum offerings in rural schools. Despite this, the Country Roads report (Rural and Remote Education Advisory Services, 2000, Foreword) and the National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education (HREOC, 2000a) confirm that the plight of rural and remote students remains an area of concern. It is clear that the needs of these students require further attention and that SIDE has a role to play in providing support for both individual students and rural and remote schools in terms of offering a varied curriculum. SIDE is also instrumental in supporting the state education system’s efforts to achieve the outcomes stated in the Strategic Plan 2007-2009. Through providing an educational option for students whose schools cannot offer a full range of subjects, or who are limited in subject choice due to timetable clashes, SIDE enhances the students’ subject choice and provides more flexibility than their conventional school can. In fact a number of teach-

176 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

ers considered that the support that SIDE provides to the state system is essential. There are, however, a number of areas that require further attention. For example, the Curriculum Framework (Curriculum Council, 1998) states that “[l]earning experiences should encourage students to learn independently and from and with others” (p. 36). “Learning from and with others” can be difficult to arrange in the distance education setting. Advances in technology, however, have enabled SIDE to address this issue in some cases. Nevertheless, it remains a fact that some students are limited in their opportunities to engage in collaborative learning activities. Further, some curriculum areas are not suited to distance education, for example, physical education. It is important that such limitations be recognized by decision makers. Implications for Teaching Given that distance education has been employed with school-aged students in Australia for almost a century, it is surprising how little this phenomenon is understood. Any teacher who goes to work at SIDE and expects to sit and write letters and mark students work is in for a rude shock. Though they will be free from the “hurly burly” of the classroom, there are other challenges and the work is varied. As is highlighted in the post-secondary distance education literature, particular skills and pedagogy are required for this mode of education. Teachers cannot teach a lesson the same way in a face-to-face classroom context and via distance mode. It is important that teachers and providers new to distance education understand this. Flexibility and individualism have been recognized as “two of the greatest strengths of distance education” (Robertson, 1993, p. 13). As a result, teachers are able to respond to the needs of individual students. In ensuring this is maintained, a number of factors must be considered. For example, in regard to technology, it must be recognized that technology is not the answer in and of itself (Hattie, 2009, p. 232). Though it can greatly enhance the educational experience of some students, it is not the only option and SIDE must continue to provide learning resources in a variety of formats in order to appropriately address the needs of individual students. The focus must remain on quality teaching. Additionally, there is a temptation when using technology to employ it for group lessons. Although this is beneficial in terms of providing students with interactive learning opportunities, it also has the effect of reducing the flexibility and individual attention which are so valued. Further, some applications of technology have proven to be time consuming for the teachers who now spend a great deal of time answering emails and preparing for and delivering online lessons. These factors must be taken into account in considering teacher-student ratios in

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION • 177

the future, particularly as there is a push by management to provide more online lessons for more students. With the growing prevalence of low fee-paying private schools, as has previously been discussed, the government system is increasingly being left with a student body comprised of an increasing proportion of “low achieving” students (Caldwell, 2003; Campbell, 2005; Perry, 2007; Preston, 1984). This has a flow-on effect on SIDE which is increasingly being used to support these students and if this trend continues, this will place a heavy burden on SIDE’s teachers who will, themselves, require more specialist support to appropriately address the needs of their students. As many of these students are based in the Perth metropolitan area, one way of supporting them in their work is by having them attend SIDE to work with teachers there. This is time consuming and requires meetings at set times and, thus, can have an impact on the teachers’ other work. Teaching in the K–12 distance education setting also requires that appropriate support be provided for the supervisors. With the changing nature of SIDE’s students, this can be difficult. It is no longer practical to attempt to gather the supervisors together at the beginning of the year, both for reasons to do with logistics and the fact that not all the students join SIDE at the beginning of the year. Currently, therefore, much of the support for the home supervisor is provided by the teachers. Implications for Learning Thirty years ago Neal (1979) wrote as follows: The principle that no child should be handicapped because of the situation of his [sic] home has always been at the forefront of educational thinking in Western Australia and has led to such developments as education by correspondence, the School of the Air and the Itinerant Teacher Scheme. In many of these developments…this state has been an acknowledged world leader. (p. 296)

The principle that children, no matter what their individual circumstances may be, should be provided with the best possible education, continues to underpin the work of SIDE and the objectives of the state’s Department of Education. On this, there is no doubt that SIDE has “come to the rescue” of many children who would otherwise be unable to access an education or whose education would otherwise be restricted or limited. For many students who successfully study via distance education, the experience enables them to develop good self-management skills. Such students are able to work independently, to manage their time, and they are self-motivated and self-disciplined. These attributes stand them in good stead for tertiary studies, a fact which has long been recognized (Eakins, 1964). Hence, the distance education experience can provide students with

178 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

opportunities beyond simply accessing an education. On the other hand, the focus on written work makes distance education extremely challenging for students who have low levels of literacy (HREOC, 2000a). This is important to recognise at a time when SIDE has increasing numbers of such students enrolling. In response to the needs of these students, SIDE must seek to provide a broader range of non-TEE subjects and continue to provide materials in a variety of formats. A final implication is related to school-based students, those who are based in a “conventional” school but enrolled in SIDE for some subjects. It was recognized by the study population that these students are often not provided with adequate or appropriate support and supervision by their schools. This implies that the students educational needs are not being sufficiently addressed and that, as a result, their educational outcomes may be suffering. Clearly this is a situation which must be addressed. Implications for Management and Administration When it comes to the management of organizations, three factors are highlighted as being of particular importance, namely, change, communication and evaluation. These three factors are closely connected and the management of them can have a significant impact on the smooth running of an organization. The findings of the study reported in this book indicate that at SIDE there is scope for improvement in regard to these aspects of management. In the past 13 years, SIDE has undergone a number of important changes. In 1995, when SIDE was formed, three schools were created. Then, in 2006, the Middle School and the Post-compulsory School were combined to form the Secondary School. Over the same period, the institution has had three directors and the Secondary School has had two principals. Considered in the context of externally imposed changes which have affected all government schools in the state, this has been a lot for the teachers to deal with. The findings of this study indicate that the teachers did not recognise the value in some of these changes, that they had a sense of “going around in circles.” Carnall (1995) suggests that people need information to understand new systems and their place in them. Without such an understanding not only of the reasons for change, but also its ongoing progress and its results, individuals may react with cynicism and an expectation of failure based on past experience resulting in resistance to new initiatives (Reichers, Wanous, & Austin, 1997). Without communication there will be no common understanding of a situation and individuals may not recognise the value of an initiative or participate fully; they may become disenchanted and fail to see the value of future initiatives (Bruce, 1998; Skinner, 2004). Skinner (2004) suggests that this occurs when the focus is solely on the needs of

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION • 179

the management agenda, with little acknowledgement of the needs or interests of other stakeholder groups. This appears to be the case at SIDE, with senior staff reporting resistance to change among the teachers and, at the same time, teachers suggesting that they do not understand the point of some changes. Without clear communication, management cannot assume that the teachers have a clear understanding of the direction the organization is taking and their role within it (Patton, 1997; Weick, 1995). The findings of this study indicate that because the situation at SIDE is so “fluid” the teachers sometimes feel that they are operating in a “murky no-man’s land,” where rules are not clear-cut and changes occur so frequently that they are not sure about their role. Along with communication, another important aspect of change management is evaluation (Doyle, Claydon, & Buchanan, 2000; Hayes, 2002; Nelson, 2003; Thornhill, Lewis, Millmore, & Saunders, 2000). Patton (1997) maintains that evaluation both depends on, and facilitates, clear communication. Although the importance of systematic planned evaluation in any process of change is understood, research shows that it rarely occurs (Skinner, 2004). Such reviews provide an opportunity for communication between interested parties and can contribute to a cycle of improvement. This enables stakeholders to understand the progress and benefits of any initiative. By extension, it also addresses issues of monitoring and accountability within the process of organizational improvement (Bruce, 1998, p. 56; Driscoll & Morris, 2001; Hyndman & Eden, 2000). Patrickson, Bamber, and Bamber (1995) argue that evaluation is a necessary precursor to more change “in a cycle of continuous improvement,” (p. 6) a pivotal point that provides an opportunity for analysis and reflection before making adjustments to the course of change. The findings of this current study highlighted the fact that very little evaluation of initiatives has occurred at SIDE. This was recognized as a shortcoming by some senior members of staff. Such evaluation is important in order for those involved in change to see the value in what they are doing and to participate actively in it. The findings reported in Chapter Six of this book indicate that there is room for improvement across the organization in terms of establishing and implementing embedded processes of evaluation. For this reason, aside from anecdotal evidence, there is little empirical substantiation of the efficacy of innovations. This is a serious deficit on two fronts. First, it means that there is no assurance that educational programs are being implemented in a manner which truly benefits the students. Secondly, it is difficult for SIDE to formally demonstrate the success and value of its programs. With one of the concerns of the teachers being the ongoing viability of SIDE, the application of an evaluation process is considered to be one logical step towards demonstrating the importance of the programs that SIDE provides and validate its ongoing funding.

180 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

A further implication of implementing change without a follow-up process of evaluation is that there is no mechanism for capturing individual learning that has occurred. Further, this learning or knowledge cannot be shared across the organization. As a result, valuable knowledge may be allowed to “dissipate to nothing” (Anderson & Boocock, 2002); and the inability to learn from experience increases the likelihood of repeated mistakes (Gustafson et al., 2003). Again, at SIDE, this appears to be the case, with many of the study participants referring to “pockets of excellence” in the organization and a need to identify ways of ensuring that similarly high standards are achieved across the organization. Implications for Teacher Preparation For a number of years there has been a recognition of the fact that teaching via distance mode requires a different set of skills and employs a different pedagogy from teaching in the face-to-face context (Beaudoin, 1990; Moore, 2003; Sherry, 1995). Recent developments in the use of technology in distance education have increased the need for the development of particular skills and pedagogy. Although there is a great deal of literature on these issues in connection with adult education, the particular needs of K–12 students are not encompassed by the research. Currently at SIDE, however, no initial formal training is in place for new staff. Most of the teachers interviewed in the course of this study did not feel that such training would be of value to them. The teachers do, however, receive substantial professional development opportunities and informally support one another in developing relevant skills. As new staff arrive and are confronted by increasingly sophisticated technology, however, some formal professional development may be required. All senior staff members at SIDE felt that such training would be of value, to ensure: ...it’s not just like the old “chalk and talk” online. It should be like being in a classroom and having a range of different strategies within the classroom that you use with your virtual classroom. There needs to be a lot more work done in that area.

Further, K–12 distance educators must not only develop an understanding of a different pedagogy and increased use of technology, but must also understand the needs of home supervisors and the support they require. Fager and Brewster (2000) discuss the importance of training teachers to better engage parents in participating in their child’s education. In the distance education setting, this is particularly critical as the home supervisor is so important to the success of the program. In consequence, it is vital that the home supervisors also have opportunities to undertake professional development (HREOC, 2000b, Recommendation 5.14, p. 18; Lee & Wilks, 2007).

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION • 181

In 1983 South Australia’s College of Advanced Education introduced a Diploma in Distance Education (Smith, 1984). Currently, however, there are no courses on teaching via distance methods at any Western Australian institutions which provide teacher preparation. Some institutions, however, provide units on online and e-learning pedagogy, for example, “Teaching and Learning with Information Technology” (University of Western Australia, EDUC 8451) and “Interactive Learning Technology” (Curtin University, Western Australia, ED672). Such units have some relevance for distance educators and would certainly help enhance teachers’ awareness of the learning opportunities that can be provided through the use of technology. Nonetheless, their focus is on the use of technology to enhance the learning experience of classroom-based students and should not be mistaken as providing training for distance education, or information on distance education pedagogy. Beginning in 2008, however, some student teachers were placed at SIDE for their teaching practicum. This is one way of providing training for beginning teachers who are interested in the field. The study reported in this book also serves a purpose in providing a broad understanding of SIDE and its functions as this can serve to inform prospective teachers of what it is like to work at SIDE. Implications for Professional Development Practices The need for SIDE teachers to receive substantial professional development opportunities has been necessitated by rapidly changing circumstances. To date, SIDE’s teachers are provided with frequent opportunities to undertake professional development on a range of subjects. In recent years, technology has been a particular focus, with the teachers increasingly being expected to utilise it in their work. The provision of such professional development is facilitated in that, as SIDE’s teachers are not restricted by timetables, it is relatively easy to arrange for group training. The skills developed through undertaking professional development not only benefit SIDE and its students, but could also be transferred to other settings when the teachers transfer to other schools and would benefit the state education system overall. Ballantyne, Hansford, and Packer (1995) advocated mentoring programs for beginning teachers in rural and remote schools, a situation which, like SIDE, places teachers in unfamiliar teaching environments. Stupiansky and Wolfe (1991) reported that such programs also have benefits for the mentors who experience gains equal to those of the mentorees. At SIDE a lot of learning is also achieved through informal professional development, or mentoring. In addition to providing professional development for its teachers, there are also opportunities for SIDE to provide professional development for beginning teachers in rural and remote schools (Boylan, 2004; Sharplin,

182 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

2009; Yarrow, Hershell, & Millwater, 1999). The National Inquiry into Rural and Remote Education (HREOC, 2000a) recognized that most teacher preparation programs fail to provide suitable preparation for teaching in rural and remote schools. For example, a beginning math teacher who was posted to Kununurra, in the relatively remote north-west of Western Australia, and found himself unable to cope with teaching all aspects of the subject, was supported by SIDE’s teachers who provided him with ongoing mentoring. Similar situations constitute an opportunity for SIDE’s teachers to strengthen their own knowledge and skills and benefit beginning teachers in the state’s education system. On this, it is instructive that the OECD (2006) reported that the Quebec Remote School Network project, which provides such a mentoring program via distance mode resulted in isolated teachers feeling their pedagogical practices were transformed and feeling less professionally isolated. The possibility of providing professional development and support for new teachers in rural and remote locations is an avenue which could prove mutually beneficial to SIDE and the broader educational system. Implications for Further Research In 1931, Cunningham (1931) wrote a paper which presented an overview of the provision of primary school education by correspondence in Australia. For the next 30 years this paper provided the basis of much of the literature on the phenomenon, with little fresh information being added. Since then, literature has focused on particular aspects of K–12 distance education, including the Schools of the Air (Ashton, 1971; Fitzpatrick, 1983a) and the work of the home supervisors (Gall, 1983; Yourn, 2003). Such articles, however, are scarce. As a result, over the past 25 years the deficit of research conducted on K–12 distance education has continually been noted (Green, 2006; Stevens, 1994; Tomlinson, Coulter, & Peacock, 1985). In conducting a review of the literature in this book it was confirmed that there remains a paucity of research on the phenomenon. Further, this study has drawn attention to how little understood the phenomenon is by those not directly involved in it. The dearth of research on primary and secondary level distance education has contributed to widespread misunderstandings about what SIDE and its teachers do. The study reported in this book constitutes a benchmark, a point in time against which future research can be compared. The findings reported in this book are drawn from a specific focus on the perspectives of the teachers who work at the SIDE Leederville campus. Other areas of interest which were uncovered by this present study are now presented. It is considered that the lack of research and associated literature has perhaps contributed to widespread ignorance of the institution in particu-

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION • 183

lar, and the phenomenon in general. The findings of the study reported in this book have brought to light the incredible diversity found within one distance education institution, namely, the Schools of Isolated and Distance Education in Western Australia. The School incorporates an amazing variety of students in diverse and disparate settings with distinct and varied needs. There is a need for greater understanding of the perspectives of those involved in the phenomenon, namely, teachers, supervisors and students. It would be appropriate for future studies to incorporate these perspectives. In the tertiary distance education setting, the focus of most research and resultant literature, the aim is to provide education for large numbers of students. In the K–12 realm the focus tends to be on the individual student. Thomas (1998) has highlighted the scarcity of research and literature on individualized teaching. He contends that this is primarily because there is so little individualized instruction in the traditional school setting. Twentyfive years ago, Tomlinson, Coulter, and Peacock (1985) also highlighted the lack of knowledge on how the isolated child learns. While Thomas was concerned with home-schooled children, the work of Tomlinson, Coulter, and Peacock investigated the needs of children living in geographically isolated regions. In the intervening years there has been little further investigation of this issue. This is so despite significant changes in the way distance education is delivered for some students, with technological developments driving many of the changes. There is little understanding of how this has affected the experience of the students, the way teachers have had to adjust their teaching strategies, and the impact this has had on their work. In addition, a broader range of students is now recognized as isolated. The needs of different groups of students vary and more research must be conducted to understand these needs. Through experience, the teachers are aware of the needs of different student groups and adjust their teaching through a process of trial and error. Nevertheless, there is value in conducting empirical research on this. The importance of this is evidenced through the specific response to geographically isolated students and travellers. Other groups must also be considered and their needs better understood. These include “referral students” and “school-based students.” The enrolment numbers of both groups are increasing and more must be done to accommodate their needs. To date, the only example of research with a focus on the needs of these students is that of Forlin and Tierney (2006). In the case of school-based students, the role that SIDE plays in supporting schools and individual students is significant, but, again, more needs to be known about the best ways to support and enhance their learning experiences. Such research is necessary to ensure that what is being done is “best practice” under the prevailing circumstances and to avoid a situation where each provider of K–12 distance education has to “reinvent the wheel.”

184 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

CONCLUSION SIDE is an institution like no other in Western Australia. It is consists of an array of subsumed schools and caters for the needs a diverse student body. Addressing the particular requirements of the different student groups whilst satisfying the demands of the Department of Education and Training, is a challenging task. Previously known as a “school of last resort,” SIDE is now both a “school of last resort and a school of first resort.” The Western Australian Department of Education is increasingly recognizing the valuable resource that it has in SIDE and the myriad of ways in which the school can be used to enhance the service that the state school system provides. However, it is important to be mindful of the impact this has on the institution and its teachers. Further, it must be ensured that the expanded role of SIDE is not to the detriment of existing student groups. In the changing educational environment, SIDE is facing a number of substantial challenges and whether the school responds and capitalises on its existing strengths and seizes opportunities to create a significant and ongoing role for itself remains to be seen. There is no doubt that SIDE, in its various guises, has led the way in the education of isolated students and is recognised for the very high quality work it does. Overall, it could be said that SIDE must be proactive in investigating the students’ needs, the best way of addressing those needs, and in making a position for itself. SIDE cannot afford to hide away and be “that quaint little school,” or to rest on the fact that it is different and so cannot be measured against other schools. At the same time, it must be acknowledged that “SIDE is different.” Nonetheless, it is necessary for the School to demonstrate that it is striving to be the best and to provide excellent educational opportunities for its students; in other words, it needs to cement its place as a “school of first resort.”

REFERENCES

ABC News. (2008, January 29). Cyber teaching for Goldfields students. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/01/29/2149154.htm ABC News. (2008, October 6). Teachers to get backdated pay rise immediately. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/10/06/2383358.htm Adams, D. C., & Purdy, S. R. (1996). Children’s perceptions of their home schooling experiences. Home School Researcher, 12(3), 1–8. Adkins, J., Kenkel, C., & Lim, C. L. (2008). Deterrents to online academic dishonesty. Journal of Learning in Higher Education, 1(1), 17–22. Alanis, K. (2004). Evaluating technology and instruction: Literature review update. Austin: University of Texas. Retrieved from http://www.utexas. edu/academic/mec/ publication/pdf/fulltext/literature%20review%20update.pdf Aldrich, R. (1996). Education for the nation. London: Cassell. Alice Springs School of the Air. (2008). Overview. Retrieved from http://www.assoa. nt.edu.au/_HISTORY/history.html Allen, J. (1992). Meeting the needs of Australian rural gifted children. Gifted Education International, 8(1), 23–31. Ally, M. (2004). Foundations of educational theory for online learning. In T. Anderson & F. Elloumi (Eds.), Theory and practice of online learning (3–31). Athabasca University, Alberta: Creative Commons. Retrieved from http://epe.lac-bac. gc.ca/100/200/300/athabasca_univ/theory_and_practice /ch1.html The Education of Children in Geographically Remote Regions through Distance Education: Perspectives and Lessons from Australia, pages 185–214 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

185

186 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Alston, M., & Kent, J. (2003). Education access for all Australia’s rural young people: A case of social exclusion. Australian Journal of Education, 47(1), 5–17. Anderson, T., & Kuskis, A. (2007). Modes of interaction. In M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (2nd ed., pp. 295–310). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Anderson, V., & Boocock, G. (2002). Small firms and internationalisation: Learning to manage and managing to learn. Human Resource Management Journal, 12(3), 5–24. Angus, M., & Williams, M. (1978). Chidley education centre. In Education Department of Western Australia, Education in sparsely populated areas: Context for background questions and answers (Section 21.4). Perth: Education Department of Western Australia. Arbaugh, J. B., & Benbunan-Fich, R. (2007). The importance of participant interaction in online environments. Decision Support Systems, 43, 853–865. Arnold, M. L., Newman, J. H., Gaddy, B. B., & Dean, C. B. (2005). A look at the condition of rural education research: Setting a direction for future research. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 20(6), 1–25. Arnold, P. (2001). Review of contemporary issues for rural schools. Education in Rural Australia, 11(1), 28–41. Ashton, J. (1971). Out of silence. Adelaide: Investigator Press. Ashton, J., & Elliott, R. (2007). Study, work, rest and play: Juggling the priorities of students’ lives. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 32(2), 15–22. Ashton, P. T. (1996). Improving the preparation of teachers. Educational Researcher, 25(9), 21–22. Auh, M. S., & Pegg, J. (2009). Improving professional learning in rural areas: Implications for teacher education practice from Australia and Korea. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 58–67). Armidale: University of New England. Austin, A. G. (1961). Australian education 1788-1900: Church, state and public education in colonial Australia. Melbourne: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons. Austin, A. G. (1972). Australian education 1788-1900: Church, state and public education in colonial Australia (3rd ed.). Carlton, Victoria: Pitman Pacific Books. Australia Committee on Open University, Karmel, P. H., & Australian Universities Commission. (1975). Open tertiary education in Australia: Final report of the committee on open university to the universities commission, December 1974. Canberra: Government Printers. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2008). Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/ Australian Flexible Learning Framework. (2006). What is the framework? Retrieved from http://pre2009.flexiblelearning.net.au/flx/go/home/about/cache/ offonce;jsessionid=1FA46C4F4AD9C6E32AC8DDA87D397471 Australian National Training Authority. (2004). Your future, your choice: Flexible learning futures, summary of feedback. Australian Flexible Learning Framework, ANTA. Retrieved from http://pre2005.flexiblelearning.net.au/aboutus/futures_summary.pdf Avalos, B. (1980). “Teacher effectiveness” research in the third world—Highlights of a review. Comparative Education, 16(1), 45–54.

REFERENCES • 187 Bääth, J. A. (1982) “Distance students” learning—Empirical findings and theoretical deliberations. Distance Education, 3(1), 6–27. Bacchus, M. K. (1996). The role of teacher education in development in south countries. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 42(2), 77–86. Baggaley, J. (2008). Where did distance education go wrong? Distance Education, 29(1), 39–51. Ballantyne, R., Hansford, B., & Packer, J. (1995). Mentoring beginning teachers: A qualitative analysis of process and outcomes. Educational Review, 47(3), 297– 307. Barbour, M.K. (2007). What are they doing and how are they doing it? Rural student experiences in virtual schooling. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia. Barbour, M. K., & Reeves, T. C. (2006). Michael Graham Moore—A significant contributor to the field of educational technology. Educational Technology, 46(6), 58–59. Barcan, A. (1980). A history of Australian education. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Barker, B. (1991). Distance education in rural schools: Advantages and disadvantages. Rural Educator, 1(1), 4–7. Barley, Z. A., & Beesley, A. D. (2007). Rural school success: What can we learn? Journal of Research in Rural Education, 22(1), 1–16. Barrie, J., & Tomlinson, D. (1985). Handicapped children in rural areas: A pilot study of the Eastern Goldfields region. Perth: National Centre for Research on Rural Education. Barry, K., & King, L. (1998). Beginning teaching and beyond (3rd ed.). Katoomba, NSW: Social Science Press. Barter, B. (2008). Rural education: Learning to be rural teachers. Journal of Workplace Learning, 20(7/8), 468-479. Bartholomaeus, P. (2009). The potential of place-based education to enhance rural students’ educational experience. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 68–75). Armidale: University of New England. Bates, A. W. (Ed.). (1984). The role of technology in distance education. London: CroomHelm. Bates, A. W. (1987). Satellites for commonwealth education: Some policy issues. London: Open University Institute of Educational Technology. Bates, A. W. (1995). Technology, open learning and distance education. London: Routledge. Battye, J. S. (1985). The cyclopedia of Western Australia: An historical and commercial review: Descriptive and biographical facts, figures and illustrations: An epitome of progress. Carlisle, WA: Hesperian Press. Beagley, M. (1993). Distance education in South Australia. In D. Riley (Ed.), Towards 2000: Schooling through distance education (pp. 45–58). Wagga Wagga: SPERA. Bean, W., & Tuovinen, J. (2005). Enhancing the human element in remote training via satellite-mediated interactive distance learning (IDL) in Central Australia. In P. Kommers & G. Richards (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2005 (pp. 1097–1103). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.

188 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Beaudoin, M. (1990). The instructor’s changing role in distance education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 4(2), 21–29. Beazley, K. (Chair) (1984). Education in Western Australia: The report of the committee of inquiry into education in Western Australia. Perth: Education Department of Western Australia. Beeby, C. E. (1966). Quality of education in developing countries. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Beitz, J. M., & Snarponis, J. (2006). Strategies for online teaching and learning: Lessons learnt. Nurse Educator, 31(1), 20–25. Bennett, S., & Lockyer, L. (2004). Becoming an online teacher: Adapting to a changed environment for teaching and learning in higher education. Educational Media International, 41(3), 231–244. Ben-Peretz, M. (1995). Curriculum of teaching education programs. In L. W. Anderson (Ed.), International encyclopedia of teaching and teacher education (2nd ed., pp. 543–548). New York: Permagon. Benseman, J. (1999). Superhighway or dirt road? Moving beyond the hype with computer mediated communication. Australian Journal of Adult and Community Education, 39(3), 143–153. Benseman, J. (2006). Moving towards lifelong learning in rural New Zealand: A study of two towns. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 21(4). Retrieved from http://jrre.psu.edu/articles/21-4.pdf Benson, R., & Samarawickrema, G. (2007). Teaching in context: Some implications for e-learning design. In R.J. Atkinson, C. McBeath, S.K.A. Soong, & C. Cheers (Eds.), ICT: Providing choices for learners and learning (pp. 61–70). Singapore: Centre for Educational Development, Nanyang Technological University. Bernard, R. M., Abriami, P. C., Lou, Y., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Wozney, L., Wallet, P. A., Fiset, M., & Huang, B. (2004). How does distance education compare with classroom instruction? A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 379–439. Bessant, B. (1978). Rural schooling and the rural myth in Australia. Comparative Education, 14(2), 121–132. BHP Billiton Iron Ore. (2009). Strengthening education in the Pilbara. Perth: BHP Billiton. Birch, I., Lally, M., & Tomlinson, D. (1986). Itinerancy and early school achievement: A pilot study of children in the Eastern Goldfields region of Western Australia. Nedlands, Western Australia: National Centre for Research in Rural Education. Blainey, G. (1966). The tyranny of distance: How distance shaped Australia’s history. Melbourne: Sun Books. Blignaut, A. S., & Trollip, S. R. (2003). Measuring faculty participation in asynchronous discussion forums. Journal of Education for Business, 78(6), 347–353. Bloor, M., Frankland, J., Thomas, M., & Robson, K. (2001). Focus groups in social research. London: Sage. Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1992). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon. Bonk, C. J., & Dennen, V. P. (2007). Frameworks for design and instruction. In M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (2nd ed., pp. 233–246). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

REFERENCES • 189 Bosworth, M. (2004). Convict fremantle: A place of promise and punishment. Perth: University of Western Australia Press. Bowden, J. (1991). 1991 report on the distance education centre structure and services. In Distance Education Review (pp. 14–17). Perth: Department of Education. Bowden, J. (1993). Schooling through distance education: Perspectives from Western Australia. In D. Riley (Ed.), Towards 2000: Schooling through distance education (pp. 65–71). Toowoomba: SPERA. Boyd, E. (1996). The internet and us…A trial at Alice Springs school of the air. In C. Boylan & D. d’ Plesse (Eds.), Rural education: Quality provision, quality experience, quality outcomes (pp. 79–84). Wagga Wagga: SPERA. Boylan, C. (Ed.) (1993), Rural education: In pursuit of excellence. Wagga Wagga: SPERA. Boylan, C. (2004) Putting rural into pre-service teacher education. Retrieved from http:// www.aare.edu.au/04pap/boy04081.pdf Boylan, C. (2005). Designing a course in rural education. In C. Boylan (Ed.), Our stories: Innovation and excellence in rural education (pp. 49–58). Toowoomba: SPERA. Boylan, C., & Francis, R. (1999). Distance teaching via video-conferencing in New South Wales schools: Students’ and teachers’ perceptions. Education in Rural Australia, 9(1), 9–32. Boylan, C., & McSwan, D. (1998). Long-staying rural teachers: Who are they? Australian Journal of Education, 42(1), 1–12. Boylan, C., & Squires, D. (1996). Supporting home tutors in providing quality education. In C. Boylan & D. d’ Plesse (Eds.), Rural education: Quality provision, quality experience, quality outcomes (pp. 149-164). Wagga Wagga: SPERA. Boylan, C., & Wallace, A. (2000). An analysis of classroom interaction patterns in satellite delivered lessons. In S. King (Ed.), Dawning of opportunity (pp. 60-87). Toowoomba: SPERA. Boylan, C., Wallace, A., & Richmond, W. (2000). Remote student access to education via satellite delivery. Education in Rural Australia, 10(1), 2–12. Brabazon, T. (2002). Digital hemlock. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press. Brennan, M. (2000). The involvement of ‘TAFE WA’ personnel with overseas students: Background, functions and concerns. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Western Australia. Brennan, R., McFadden, M., & Law, E. (2001). All that glitters is not gold: Online delivery of education and training: Review of research. Melbourne: Australian National Training Authority. Broadley, T., Boyd, D., & Terry, E. (2009). The hot topic community: Videoconferencing to reduce the professional isolation of teachers in rural Western Australia. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 76–84). Armidale: University of New England. Brown, J. S., & Duguid, P. (2000). Social life of information. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Browne, G. S. (Ed.). (1927). Education in Australia: A comparative study of the educational systems of the six Australian states. London: Macmillan.

190 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Bruce, A. (1998). Aiming for change? Stay on target. Professional Manager, 7(5), 24–25. Bryant, S. M., Kahle, J. B., & Schafer, B. A. (2005). Distance education: A review of the contemporary literature. Issues in Accounting Education, 20(3), 255–272. Builder, P. (1982). Parents as partners in the teaching of reading. Australian Journal of Reading, 5(4), 216–222. Burns, R. (1994). Introduction to research methods. Melbourne: Longman. Byrnes, J. (1997). Learning on line: An assessment of educational technology for access to vocational education and training by remote Aboriginal communities in the Kimberly region of Western Australia. Perth: The Government of Western Australia. Caldwell, B. J. (2003). A new vision for public schools in Australia. Retrieved from http://www.melbourneinstitute.com/conf/prevconf/pop2003/pdffiles/BrianCaldwell.pdf. Calvert School. (2006). History/Philosophy. Retrieved from http://homeschool.calvertschool.org/about-calvert/historyphilosophy Calzoni, F. (1991). The Australian school of the air: A conceptual analysis of its origins, history and recent developments, with particular reference to distance education in Western Australia 1955-1990. Unpublished master’s thesis, Murdoch University. Campbell, C. (2005). Changing school loyalties and the middle class: A reflection on the developing fate of state comprehensive high schooling. The Australian Educational Researcher, 32(1), 3–34. Campbell, C., & Blake, D. (2009). Developing a science challenge to support partnerships and pedagogy in rural and regional science. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 85–93). Armidale: University of New England. Carnall, C. (1995). Managing change in organizations. London: Prentice Hall. Carnarvon School of the Air. (2007). SOTA map. Retrieved from http://www.carnarvonsota.wa.edu.au/images/SOTA_Map.gif Carr-Chellman, A. (2005). Global perspectives in e-learning: Rhetoric and reality. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Cartwright, W. E. (2005). Delivering education with contemporary tools. Retrieved from http://157.181.171.3/cet/madrid-2005/cartwright.pdf Centrelink. (2007). Assistance for isolated children. Retrieved from http://www.centrelink.gov.au/internet/internet.nsf/publications/st008.htm Chenitz, W. C., & Swanson, J. M. (1986). Qualitative research using grounded theory. In W. C. Chenitz & J. M. Swanson (Eds.), From practice to grounded theory: Qualitative research in nursing (pp. 3–15). California: Addison-Wesley. Choi, J.Y. (2009). Clustering rural schools in Korea. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 94–99). Armidale: University of New England. Christie, M. (2005). Local versus global knowledges: Resolving a fundamental dilemma in ‘remote education’. In C. Boylan (Ed.), Our stories: Innovations and excellence in rural education (pp. 7–14). Wagga Wagga: SPERA. Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(2), 21–30. Clarke, A. (2008). E-learning skills (2nd ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

REFERENCES • 191 Clarke, M., Butler, C., Schmidt-Hansen, P., & Somerville, M. (2004). Quality assurance for distance learning: A case study at Brunel University. British Journal of Educational Technology, 35(1), 5–11. Cleverley, J., & Lawry, J. (Eds.) (1972). Australian education in the twentieth century: Studies in the development of state education. Camberwell, Victoria: Longman Australia. Clubb, W. (1927). Western Australia. In G. S. Browne (Ed.), Education in Australia: A comparative of the educational systems of the six Australian states (pp. 314–384). London: Macmillan & Co. CNEC. (2006). Centre national d’enseignement à distance. Retrieved from http://www. fernuni-hagen.de/ZIFF/v1-ch03.htm Cobbold, C. (2006). Attracting and retaining rural teachers in Ghana: The premise and promise of a district sponsorship scheme. Journal of Education for Teaching, 32(4), 453–469. Coffey, J. (1998). Distance learning: Efficient and effective but no panacea. Education and Training, 40(6/7), 244–246. Colebatch, H. (1929). A story of a hundred years: Western Australia 1829–1929. Perth: Government Printer. Collins, C., Kenway, J., & McLeod, J. (2000). Factors influencing the educational performance of males and females in school and their initial destinations after leaving school. Canberra, ACT: Commonwealth Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Commonwealth Office of Education. (1962). Education by correspondence in Australia. Sydney: Commonwealth Office of Education. Commonwealth of Learning. (2009). About COL and the commonwealth. Retrieved from http://www.col.org/about/Pages/default.aspx Commonwealth Schools Commission. (1985). Quality and equality: Commonwealth specific purpose programs for Australian schools. Canberra: Government Printer. Commonwealth Schools Commission. (1986). Commonwealth programs and policy development for schools. Canberra: Government Printer. Commonwealth Schools Commission. (1988). Schooling in rural Australia. Canberra: Government Printer. Commonwealth Tertiary Education Commission. (1988). Review of efficiency and effectiveness in higher education. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. Conole, G., & Fill, K. A. (2005). A learning design toolkit to create pedagogically effective learning activities. Journal of Interactive Media in Education. Retrieved from http://jime.open.ac.uk/ Constable, L. (2009). WA curriculum to be reviewed. Retrieved from http://www.mediastatements.wa.gov.au/ Corbett, M. (2009). How will this make me a better teacher? Theory, literacy learning, and survival. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.) Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 100–107). Armidale: University of New England. Corbin, J. M., & Strauss, A. C. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

192 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Cornish, L. (2009). Situating practice in rural schools: Transience, adaptation and opportunity. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 108–116). Armidale: University of New England. Crotty, M. (2003). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Crump, S. (2008). Opening our eyes: E-Learning for isolated Australians. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/p/28377. Crump, S., Tuovinen, J., & Simons, L. (2006). Effects of satellite communications in the world’s largest classroom. In T. Reeves & S. Yamashita (Eds.), Proceedings of world conference on e-learning in corporate, government, healthcare, and higher education 2006 (pp. 192–199). Chesapeake, VA: AACECuervo, H. (2005). Rural schools: Argentina and Australia. In C. Boylan (Ed.), Our stories: Innovation and excellence in rural education (pp. 111–120). Proceedings of the 2005 SPERA Conference. Toowoomba: SPERA. Cunningham, K. S. (1931). Primary education by correspondence: Being an account of the methods and achievements of the Australian correspondence schools in instructing children living in isolated areas. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. Curriculum Council. (1998). Curriculum framework. Perth, Curriculum Council. Cuthell, J. P. (2002). Virtual learning. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. Dahl, J. (2003). How much are distance education faculty worth? Distance Education Report, 7(14), 5–7. Daniel, J., Kanwar, A., & Uvali -Trumbi , S. (2008). Achieving quality in distance education. Retrieved from http://www.col.org/RESOURCES /SPEECHES/ Pages/2008-04-04.aspx Daniel, J. S., Stroud, M. A., & Thompson, J. R. (Eds.). (1982). Learning at a distance: A world perspective. Edmonton: Athabasca University. Daniels, G. (2007). Review of teacher recruitment practices: Final report. Retrieved from http://www.det.wa.edu.au/docs/DET_Teacher_Recruitment_Practices_Review.pdf Darnell, F. (1981). Rural education: A new research centre looks at some perennial problems. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 207781) Darnell, F. (1993). Adequacy and equity: Prerequisites to excellence in rural education. In C. Boylan (Ed.), Rural education: In pursuit of excellence (pp. 3–14). Wagga Wagga: SPERA. Darnell, F., & Simpson, P. M. (1981). Rural education: In pursuit of excellence. University of Western Australia: National Centre for Research on Rural Education. Davidson, D. S. (The Senate Committee on Education and the Arts). (1976). National working conference of correspondence teachers: The changing role of the correspondence school. North Adelaide, SA: Raywood. Davis, J. (1987). Rurality and isolation in education. The Rural Educator, 9(1), 11–14. Dawkins, J. S. (1988). Higher education: A policy statement (The white paper). Canberra: AGPS. Dean, T. (1985). Education television and the satellite. Media Information Australia, 38, 103–105. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ330126) Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. (UK). (2007) Rural affairs. Retrieved from http://www.defra.gov.uk/rural/default.htm.

REFERENCES • 193 Department of Education. (Newfoundland). (2008). Province makes major advancement in distance education. Retrieved from www.releases.gov.nl.ca/ releases/2008/edu/0123n02.html. Department of Education and Training. (2007). Strategic plan 2007–2009. Perth: Department of Education and Training. Department of Employment, Education and Training. (1993). National strategy for equity in schooling? Canberra: Department of Employment, Education & Training. Diaz, D.P. (2000). Carving a new path for distance education research. Commentary, March/April. Retrieved from http://www.technology source.org/article/ carving_a_new_path_for_distance_education_research/ Diggins, G., & Williams, M. C. (1978). The isolated students’ matriculation scheme. In Western Australian Education Department. Education in sparsely populated area: Context for background questions and answers (Section 21.5). Perth: Western Australian Education Department. Distance Education Centre Victoria. (2008). Origins. Retrieved from http://www. distance.vic.edu.au/about/abthist.htm Distance Education Centre Western Australia. (1993). The history of distance education in Western Australia (1918-1993). Perth, WA: DEC. Doeke, M. (1987). Rural disadvantage: Is it for real? Curriculum Perspectives, 1(2), 31–35. Dole, S., Yelland, N., Latham, G., Fehring, H., Wilks, A., Faulkner, J., Lee, L., Masters, J., Lowrie, T., & Glynn, T. (2005). Project to investigate improving literacy and numeracy outcomes of distance education students in the early years of schooling. Retrieved from http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/school_education/ publications_resources/profiles/ProjectLitNumOutcomesDistanceEd. Douglas, M. (1989). Educating blind and visually impaired children in Western Australia. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 83(1), 51–53. Doung, V., Chhuon, C., Phanousith, S., Phissamay, P., & Tai, T. T. (2007). Distance education policy and public awareness in Cambodia, Laos, and Viet Nam. Distance Education, 28(2), 163–178. Dowden, D. (2009). The talented and gifted students (TAGS) Program at Meekatharra School of the Air. Retrieved from http://myweb.westnet.com.au/ msota/ g&t. html Downs, M., & Moller, L. (1999). Experiences of students teachers and administrators in a distance education course. International Journal of Educational Technology, 1(2), 1–3. Doyle, M., Claydon, T., & Buchanan, D. (2000). Mixed results, lousy process: The management experience of organizational change. British Journal of Management, 11(3): S59–S80. d’Plesse, P. (1993). Redefining remoteness in the post-industrial society. Rural Education Issues: An Australian Perspective. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 365498) Driscoll, A., & Morris, J. (2001). Stepping out: Rhetorical devices and culture change management in the UK civil service. Public Administration, 79(4), 803–824.

194 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Dunn, T., Gibson, I., Bohaty, H., Merritt, G., & Witherspoon, E. (1999). School and community partnerships: Collaborating through the development of interactive, multimedia learning resources. Education in Rural Australia, 9(2), 43–56. du Plessis, D., & Bailey, J. (2000). Isolated parents’ perceptions of the education of their children with disabilities. Education in Rural Australia, 10(2), 2–22. Dymock, D. R. (1995). Learning in the trenches: A World War II distance education program. Distance Education, 16(1), 107–119. Eakins, C. (1964). A history of the Western Australian Correspondence School. Perth: Department of Education. Educare News. (2002). Obstacles still hinder online teaching, learning. Educare News, 125(May), 56. Education Department. (1957). File 1157/58, establishment of schools of the air (Report by W. Rourke). Perth: Education Department: 1–7. Education Department of Western Australia. (1978). Education in sparsely populated areas: Context for background questions and answers. Perth: Education Department of Western Australia. Ellis, B., Cooper, N., & Sawyer, T. (2001). Bridging studies: An alternative pathway to university studies for rural Australians. In B. Hemmings & C. Boylan (Eds.), Providing quality education and training for rural Australians. Toowoomba: SPERA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 470 619) Erdos, R. F. (1967). Teaching by correspondence. Paris: Longmans, Green & Co. Evans, T. (2003) Beating around the bush: Reflections on a theme. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 18(3) 3–27. Evans, T.D., & Nation, D.E. (2003). Globalisation and the reinvention of distance education. In M.G. Moore & W. Anderson (Eds.), The Handbook of Distance Education (2nd ed., pp. 767–782). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Fager, J., & Brewster, C. (2000). Making positive connections with home schoolers. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Farrell, A., Tayler, C., & Tennent, L. (2004). Building social capital in early childhood education and care: An Australian study. British Educational Research Journal, 30(5), 623–632. Fielding, N. (2007). Working in hostile environments. In C. Seale, G. Gobo, J. F. Gubrium, & D. Silverman (Eds.), Qualitative research (pp. 236–248). London: Sage. Finger, G., & Rotolo, C. (2001). Telephone teaching: Towards constructivist teaching for rural and remote students. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 466341) Fitzpatrick, J. (1982). The Australian schools of the air: The conundrum of who teaches. Distance Education, 3(2), 183–197. Fitzpatrick, J. (1983a). The Carnarvon school of the air. Perth: EDWA. Fitzpatrick, J. (1983b). The changing nature of outback isolation: An educator’s perspective. Australian Geographer, 15, 318–321. Fitzpatrick, J. (1984). A study of an Australian distance education pressure group. Distance Education, 5(2), 186–199. Fletcher, L. (1979). Schooling for young colonists. In W. D. Neal (Ed.), Education in Western Australia (pp. 9–35). Perth, WA: University of Western Australia Press.

REFERENCES • 195 Florida Corrections Commission. (1999) 1999 annual report. Retrieved from http:// www.fcc.state.fl.us/fcc/reports/final99/7dl.html Flyvbjerg, B. (2007). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. In C. Seale, G. Gobo, J. F. Gubrium, & D. Silverman (Eds.), Qualitative research (pp. 390– 404). London: Sage. Fogarty, M. (1985). The early Queensland itinerant teacher service 1901–1930. Unicorn, 11(3), 185–192. Forlin, C., & Tierney, G. (2006). Accommodating students excluded from regular schools in schools of isolated and distance education. Australian Journal of Education, 50(1), 50–61. Fowler, B. (1987). Aussat and all that! Reaching the Australian outback. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 3(2), 119–128. Fowler, H. L. (1937). A brief history of education in Western Australia 1829–1937. Perth: The Education Department of Western Australia. Frydenberg, J. (2007). Persistence in university continuing education online classes. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 8(3), 1–15. Gable, W. (nd). Schools of the Swan River Colony: Introductory supplement to the pioneer schools project. Perth: Rural and Isolated Schools. Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of instructional design (4th ed.). Orland, FL: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. Gaines, B. (1981b). Distance education. Education, 30(2), 2–3. Gaines, B. (1983). Distance education and the curriculum. In National Centre for Research on Rural Education. Coping with curriculum (2nd ed., pp. 8–13). Perth: National Centre for Research on Rural Education, University of Western Australia. Gall, J. (1983). Home tutor’s difficulties in coping with curriculum. In National Centre for Research on Rural Education. Coping with curriculum (2nd ed., pp. 58–64). Perth: National Centre for Research on Rural Education, University of Western Australia. Garratt, E. (1982). Cecil Rollo Paton Andrews: First director of education. In L. Fletcher (Ed.), Pioneers of education in Western Australia (pp. 221–254). Perth: University of Western Australia Press. Garrison, R. (1997) Computer conferencing: The post-industrial age of distance education. Open Learning, 12(2), 3–11. Garrison, R. (2000). Theoretical challenges for distance education in the 21st century: A shift from structural to transactional issues. The International Review of Research in Online and Distance Learning, 1(1). Retrieved from http://www. irrodl.org/content/v1.1/randy.pdf Garrison, D. R., & Anderson, T. (2003). E-learning in the 21st century: A framework for research and practice. London: Routledge Falmer. Garrison, D. R., & Cleveland-Innes, M. (2005). Facilitating cognitive presence in online learning: Interaction is not enough. American Journal of Distance Education, 19(3), 133–148. Gaumnitz, W. H. (1952). Growth evidence: Historical highlights of correspondence education. In The National Association of Secondary-School Principals, Supervised correspondence instruction in the secondary-school. Washington: National University Extension Association.

196 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Gibson, I. W. (1994). Preparing teachers for rural education settings in Australia: Issues of policy, practice and quality. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED368528) Gilbert, P. (2000). The deepening divide? Choices for Australian education. Australian Educational Researcher, 27(1), 31–45. Gilbert-Macmillan, K. (2000). Computer-based distance learning for gifted students: The EPGY experience. Understanding Our Gifted, 12(3), 17–20. Gillard, J. (2008). Delivering Australia’s first national curriculum. Retrieved from http://mediacentre.dewr.gov.au/mediacentre/gillard/releases/deliveringaustraliasfirstnationalcurriculum.htm Gilman, H. (2002). Youthlinks/InterJeunes: Connecting students through issues and the internet. Education Canada, 42(2), 43. Glaser, B. (1978). Theoretical sensitivity. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. Glatter, R. (1969). Aspects of correspondence education in four European countries. Oxford: Permagon Press. Govindasamy, T. (2002). Successful implementation of e-learning pedagogical considerations. Internet and Higher Education, 4, 287–299. Gokool-Ramdoo, S. (2008). Beyond the theoretical impasse: Extending the applications of transactional distance theory. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(3). Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/ index.php/irrodl/article/view/541/1151 Graham, L., Patterson, D., & Miller, S. (2008). Leadership in Australian rural schools: Bush track, fast track. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 502 757) Green, N. (2006). Everyday life in distance education: One family’s home schooling experience. Distance Education, 27(1), 27–44. Griffen, G. A. (1985). Teacher induction: Research issues. Journal of Teacher Education, 36(1), 42–46. Griffen, G. H. Y. (1952). Correspondence education in foreign countries. In The National Association of Secondary-School Principals, Supervised correspondence instruction in the secondary-school (pp. 117–124). Washington: National University Extension Association. Groundwater-Smith, S., Brennan, M., McFadden, M., Mitchell, J., & Munns, G. (2009). Secondary schooling in a changing world (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Cengage Learning Australia. Grylls, B. (2008). Regions to share $400 million. Retrieved from http://www.mediastatements.wa.gov.au/Pages/WACabinetMinistersSearch.aspx?ItemId=13105 0&minister=Grylls&admin=Barnett Gubrium, J. F., & Holstein, J. A. (2005). Interpretive practice and social action. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 483–505). London: Sage. Gulati, S. (2008). Technology-enhanced learning in developing nations: A review. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(1), 1–16. Gunn, C. (2001). Effective online teaching: How far do the frameworks go? Paper from Melbourne: The 18th Annual Conference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education. Retrieved from http://www.ascilite. org.au/conferences/melbourne01/pdf/papers/ gunnc.pdf.

REFERENCES • 197 Guri-Rosenblit, S. (2005). Distance education and e-learning: Not the same thing. Higher Education, 49(4), 467–493. Gustafson, D.H., Sainfort, F., Eichler, M., Adams, L., Bisognano, M., & Steudel, H. (2003). Developing and testing a model to predict outcomes of organizational change. HSR: Health Services Research, 38(2), 751–776. Hacker, R. (1999). Teaching and learning technology resource. Retrieved from http:// www.csd.uwa.edu.au/tltr/hacker.html Hadley School for the Blind. (2008). Our history: A dream realised. Retrieved from http://www.hadley.edu/1_b_MissionHistory.asp Halsey, R. J. (2009). Teaching in the country would not be so bad: How much does it cost to find out? In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 137–145). Armidale: University of New England. Hardré, P. (2009). Nurturing the rural teacher experience: Lessons from the United States. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 1–10). Armidale: University of New England. Harley, M. F. (1985). An alternative organizational model for early childhood distance education programs. Distance Education, 6(2), 156–168. Hart, J. A. (1994). Teacher quality of work life: Integrating work experiences, psychological distress & morale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 67(2), 109–132. Hattie, J. A.C. (2009). Visible learning: A synbook of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London: Routledge. Hayes, J. (2002). The theory and practice of change management. Basingstoke: Palgrave. Haynes, B. T., Barrett, G. E. B., Brennan, A., & Brennan, L. (1976). Documents on Western Australian education 1830-1973. Perth: Claremont Teachers College. Hayward, D., & Esposto, A. (2004). An unfair go? Government funding of government and non-government school education. Melbourne: Swinburne University of Technology, Institute of Social Research. Henry, J., & Meadows, J. (2008). An absolutely riveting online course: Nine principles for excellence in web-based teaching. Canadian journal of learning and technology, 34(1). Retrieved from http://www.cjlt.ca/index.php/cjlt/ article/view/179/177 Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (2001). Online learning: Professional development for the changing role of the lecturer. Retrieved from http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/ sawd/moconf/papers2001/herrington.pdf Heyneman, S. P. (1983). Improving the quality of education in developing countries. Finance and Development, March, 18-21. Hiatt, B. (2010, March 27). Exodus of state pupils to private education. The West Australian. Higgins, A. H. (1985). Using satellites to alleviate rural educational remoteness. Unicorn, 1(3), 237–241. Higgins, A. (1993). Rural differences: A challenge for beginning teachers. Townsville: James Cook University Printery. Higgins, A. (1994). A background to rural education schooling in Australia. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 10(1), 48–57.

198 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Hillman, D. C. A., Willis, D. J., & Gundawardena, C. N. (1994). Learner-interface interaction in distance education: An extension of contemporary models and strategies for practitioners. American Journal of Distance Education, 8(2), 30–42. Hinson, J. M., & LaPrairie, K. (2005). Learning to teach online: Prompting success through professional development. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 29, 483–493. Hobson, V. (1999). Education in remote Western Australia. Unpublished master’s thesis: Perth, Battye Library. Hockley, R. F. (1985). School of the Air: Alice. Contemporary Education, 56(2), 82–84. Hodgkinson, B. (1994). Essential components of a primary distance education program: The concerns of home tutors. In D. Riley (Ed.), The rural community and its schools: In partnership for the future (pp. 133–143). Toowoomba: SPERA. Holmberg, B. (1960). On the methods of teaching by correspondence. Lund: Gleerup. Holmberg, B. (1981). Status and trends of distance education. London: Kogan Page. Holmberg, B. (1987). The development of distance education research. The American Journal of Distance Education, 1(3), 16–23. Holmberg, B. (1989a). Theory and practice of distance education. London: Routledge. Holmberg, B. (1989b). Key issues in distance education: An academic viewpoint. European Journal of Education, 24(1), 11–23. Holstein, J. A., & Gubrium, J. F. (2005). Interpretive practice and social action. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research, (3rd ed., pp. 483–505). Home, A. (1993). Distance education in Tasmania. In D. Riley (Ed.), Towards 2000: Schooling through distance education (pp. 59–63). Wagga Wagga: SPERA. Honey, P. (2001). E-learning: A performance appraisal and some suggestions for improvement. Learning Organization, 8(5), 200–202. Hope, W. (1990). The Aussat satellite system. In AIAA, International Communication Satellite Systems Conference and Exhibit (pp. 386–395). Washington, DC: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Hosie, P. J. (1987). Satellites and education in Australia: Learning from international experience. British Journal of Educational Technology, 18(1), 60–76. Hosie, P., & Dean, T. (1984). TV for isolated students in Western Australia. Media in Education and Development, 17(3), 140–145. House of Representatives Standing Committee on Employment, Education and Training. (1988). Inquiry into new technology in education. Perth: The Government Printer. Howley, C. B. Theobold, P., & Howley, A. (2005). What rural education research is of most worth? A reply to Arnold, Newman, Gaddy & Dean. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 20(18), 1–6. HREOC. (1999). Bush talks. Retrieved from http://www.humanrights.gov.au/Human_Rights/ rural_australians/bushtalks/index.html HREOC. (2000a). National inquiry into rural and remote education: Emerging themes. Canberra:HREOC. (2000b). National inquiry into rural and remote education: Recommendations. Canberra: HREOC. HREOC. (2000c). National inquiry into rural and remote education: Western Australia report card. Canberra: HREOC.

REFERENCES • 199 Hudson, P. B., & Hudson, S. M. (2008) Changing preservice teachers’ attitudes for teaching in rural schools. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 33(4), 67–77. Hull, D., & Dean, T. (1988). Future directions for the distance education centre: Strategic planning study. Perth: Ministry of Education. Hülsmann, T. (2004). Low cost distance education strategies: The use of appropriate information and communication technologies. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(1). Retrieved from http://www. irrodl.org/content/v5.1/editorial.html Hunter, R. (1994). The home school phenomenon. Unicorn, 20(3), 28–37. Hursh, D. (2004). No child left behind. In J. O’Donnell , R. C. Charvez, & M. Pruyn (Eds.) Social justice in these times (pp. 172–179). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Hyndman, N., & Eden, R. (2000). A study of the coordination of mission, objectives and targets in UK executive agencies. Management Accounting Research, 11(2), 175–191. ICPA. (1981). Pedals: 1971-1981: Magazine of the isolated children’s parents’ association. Victoria: Magazine Art. ICPA. (1998). Isolated children’s parents’ association submission to the national inquiry into rural and remote education. Retrieved from http://www.hreoc.gov.au/word/ human_rights/rural_remote/natsub4.doc ICPA. (2009). About ICPA. Retrieved from http://www.icpa.com.au/about.asp Im, Y. K. (2009). Towards new directions for Korean rural education policy. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 11–22). Armidale: University of New England. Imamura, E. (1987). Conventional and non-conventional schooling: A comparison of pupil performance in rural schools and schools of the air. Unpublished master’s thesis, The University of Western Australia. Imison, K. (1993). Implications of national initiatives for distance education. In D. Riley (Ed.), Towards 2000: Schooling through distance education (pp. 13–22). Toowoomba: SPERA. Ingram, D., & Thompson, E. (2001). Catalysts for change: A university network for advancing teaching and learning. In Proceedings of the 24th international higher education research and development society of Australasia (HERDSA) conference, 8-11 July. Newcastle, NSW: University of Newcastle. Irwin, F. C. (1835). The state and position of Western Australia: Commonly called the Swan River Settlement. London: Simpkin & Marshall. James, R., Wyn, J., Baldwin, G., Hepworth, G., Mclnnis, C., & Stephanou, A. (1999). Rural and isolated students and their higher education choices: A re-examination of student location, socioeconomic background, and educational advantage and disadvantage. Canberra: AGPS. Jamieson, T. (2007). Flexible learning in schools. In N. Rees, D. Boyd, & E. Terry (Eds.), Collaboration for success in rural and remote education and training (pp. 240–242). Toowoomba: SPERA. Jelfs, A. (2008). Buyer beware (Caveat Emptor). In L. Dunn & M. Wallace (Eds.), Teaching in transnational higher education (pp. 34–43). New York: Routledge.

200 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Jennison, A. (1993). The home tutor in distance education: Role of the community. In C. Boylan (Ed.), Rural education: In pursuit of excellence (pp. 71–77). Bathurst, NSW: SPERA. Jocoy, C., & DiBiase, D. (2006). Plagiarism by adult learners online: A case study in detection and remediation. International review of research in open and distance learning, 7. Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/ view/242/466 Johnson, R. (1996). To wish and to will: Reflections on policy formation and implementation in Australian distance education. In T. Evans & C. Nation (Eds.), Opening Education (pp.91–101). London: Routledge. Jose, A. W., & Carter, H. J. (Eds.) (1926). The Australian encyclopaedia. Sydney: Angus & Robertson. Kahl, T. N., & Cropley, A. J. (1986). Face-to-face versus distance learning: Psychological consequences and practical implications. Distance Education, 7(1), 38–48. Kannapel, P. S., & De Young, A. J. (1999). The rural school problem in 1999: A review and critique of the literature. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 15(2), 67–79. Kapitzke, C., & Pendergast, D. (2005). Virtual schooling service: Productive pedagogies or pedagogical possibilities? Teachers College Record, 107(8), 1626– 1651. Kauchak, D., & Eggen, P. (2008). Introduction to teaching: Becoming a professional (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall. Kaufman, R., & Watkins, R. (2000). Assuring the future for distance learning. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 1(1), 59–68. Kaye, A., & Rumble, G. (1979). An analysis of distance teaching systems. Milton Keynes: Open University. Keegan, D. (1980). On defining distance education. Distance Education, 1(1), 13–36. Keegan, D. (1983). Review of Daniel et al: Learning at a distance: A world perspective. International Review of Education, 29(4), 501–503. Keegan, D. (1986). The foundations of distance education. London: Croom-Helm. Keegan, D. (Ed.) (1993). Theoretical principles of distance education. London: Routledge. Keegan, D. (2002). The future of learning: From elearning to mlearning. Hagen, Germany: Fern Universität. Keeler, C. (2006). Designing online courses to meet diverse learning style preferences. Retrieved from http://coe.nevada.edu/ckeeler/Papers/Learning StylesInOnlineEd.doc Khupe, C., Keane, M., & Cameron, A. (2009). Education, relevance and rural development. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 146–152). Armidale: University of New England. Kielland, A., & Rosati, F. (2008). Broadening the approach to education for all: Including working and other hard to reach children. Onslow: FAFO. King, A. (1944). Parents in search of education. Perth, WA: State School Teacher’s Union of Western Australia. King, M. (1984). The transient child. Education, 33(1), 13–15. King, S., Masson, F., Pritchard, L., & Bell, S. (2001). Swings and roundabouts: A panel presentation on the preparation of pre-service teachers for rural schools.

REFERENCES • 201 In B. Hemmings & C. Boylan (Eds.), Providing quality education and training for rural Australians (pp. 297–303). Toowoomba: SPERA. Kitahara, R. T., & Westfall, F. (2007). Promoting academic integrity in online distance learning courses. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 3(3). Retrieved from http://jolt.merlot.org/vol3no3/kitahara.htm Koul, B. N. (1984). Need for professional training in distance education. New Delhi: Stirling Publishers. Kozalka, T. A., & Ganesan, R. (2004). Designing online courses: A taxonomy to guide strategic use of features available in course management systems (cms) in distance education. Distance Education, 25(2), 243–256. Kuntz, P. S. (1998). Distance education technology: Foreign language instruction in the central states. Wisconsin, Central States Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED418587) Lai, K. W., Pratt, K., & Grant, A. (2003). State of the art and trends in distance, flexible, and open learning: A review of the literature. Retrieved from http://www.otago. ac.nz/courses/distance_study/pdf/distance_lit_review.pdf Lake, M. (2000). Country roads: Pathways to better education and training for rural and remote Western Australia 2000–2003. In S. King (Ed.), Dawning of opportunity (pp. 241–246). Toowoomba: SPERA. Lanier, M. M. (2006). Academic integrity and distance learning. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 17(2), 244–261. Larreamendy-Joerns, J., & Leinhardt, G. (2006). Going the distance with online education. Review of Educational Research, 76(4), 567–605. Lee, L., & Wilks, A. (2007). Documenting the early literacy and numeracy practices of home tutors in distance and isolated education in Australia. Early Childhood Australia, 2(2), 28–36. Lee, Y., Driscoll, M. P., & Nelson, D. W. (2004). The past, present and future of research in distance education: results of a content analysis. American Journal of Distance Education, 18(4), 225–241. Leinster-Mackay, D., & Adams, D. (1979). The education of the colonial gentleman—and lady. In W. D. Neal (Ed.), Education in Western Australia (pp. 37– 64). Perth, WA: The University of Western Australia Press. Lieten, K., de Groot, A., van Wieren, R., de Lange, A., & Roschanski, H. (2007). Education in rural areas: Obstacles and relevance. Amsterdam: IREWOC. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park: Sage. Litchman, M. (2006). Qualitative research in education: A user’s guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Lock, G. (2007). The student teacher rural experience program: Preparing preservice teachers to live in regional locations. In N. Rees, D. Boyd, & E. Terry (Eds.), Collaboration for success in rural and remote education and training (pp. 114–125). Toowoomba: SPERA. Lock, G. (2008). Preparing teachers for rural appointments: Lessons from Australia. Rural Educator, 29(2), 24–30. Longreach School of Distance Education. (2008). School history. Retrieved from http://www.longreacsde.eq.edu.au/school_history.html

202 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Lopes, P. N., Brackett, M. A., Nezlek, J., Schütz, A., Sellin, I., & Salovey, P. (2004). Emotional intelligence and social interaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1018–1034. Louden, W. (1999). Literacy at a distance: Language and learning in distance education. Queensland Journal of Educational Research, 15, 97–101. Lowe, I. (1993). Distance education: A national perspective. In D. Riley (Ed.), Towards 2000: Schooling through distance education (pp. 7–12). Toowoomba: SPERA. Lowell, N. O. (2004). An investigation of factors contributing to perceived transactional distance in an online setting. Unpublished doctoral dissertation: University of Northern Colorado. Lowrie, T. (2007). Establishing school-family partnerships in distance education contexts: Pedagogical engagement in isolated settings. Journal of Distance Education, 21(2), 96–114. Luppicini, R. (2007). Online learning communities. Charlotte, NC: IAP. Lyons, T., Cooksey, R., Panizzon, D., Parnell, A., & Pegg, J. (2006). Science, ICT and mathematics education in rural and regional Australia: The SiMERR national survey. Armidale, NSW: University of New England, SiMERR National Centre. Mackenzie, O., & Christensen, E. L. (Eds.). (1971). The changing world of correspondence study. London: The Pennsylvania State University Press. Maclaine, A. G. (1971). Education by correspondence (Australia). In O. Makenzie & E. L. Christensen (Eds.), The changing world of correspondence study. London: The Pennsylvania State University Press. Maltby, F., & Beattie, J. (1996). A TASC for telematics. Gifted Education International, 11(3), 149–55. Mandernach, B. J. (2006). The evolution of online course development: From basics to bells and back again. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost. com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=21470008&site=ehost-live Mani, G. (1988). Women in distance education – Issues & prospects. India: WIN of ICDE. Marginson, S. (1993). Education and public policy in Australia. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. Markey, D. (1976). More a symbol than a success: Foundation years of the Swan River Colony. Perth: Mount Lawley College of Advanced Education. Maxwell, C. Y. (1981). Quality in the absence of quantity: Education in sparsely populated areas of developed countries. In F. Darnell & P. M. Simpson (Eds.), Rural education: In pursuit of excellence (pp. 19–28). Perth: National Centre for Research on Rural Education, University of Western Australia. Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional intelligence: Theory, funding and implications. Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), 197–215. McAleese, R. (2003). Flexible learning in a digital world: Experiences and expectations. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 40(3), 310–312. McAtee, W., & Zani, T. L. (1975). The education of isolated children in Western Australia. Perth: Research Branch, Education Department of Western Australia. McDonalld, A. (2008) Kindergarten transition in a small rural school: from planning to implementation. Education in Rural Australia, 18(1), 13–21.

REFERENCES • 203 MCEETYA Taskforce. (2001). National framework for rural and remote education in Australia. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 17(2), 112–119. McInerney, P. (2006). Blame the student, blame the school or blame the system? Educational policy and the dilemmas of student engagement and school retention – a Freirian perspective. Retrieved from https://www.aare.edu.au/06pap/mci06168.pdf. McLoughlin, C. (1999). Providing enrichment and acceleration in the electronic classroom: A case study of audiographic conferencing. Journal of Special Education Technology, 14(2), 54–69. McNab, N. (1997). Distance education. Melbourne: Macmillan Education Australia. McShane, M., & Walton, J. (1990). “Think tank” on research into rural education. Townsville, QLD: James Cook University of North Queensland. Mears, L. (1979). External studies in Western Australia: A history of the technical extension service. Perth: Technical Publications Trust. Meekatharra SOTA. (2008). Welcome to the Meekatharra School of the Air. Retrieved from http://myweb.westnet.com.au/msota/ Meierhenry, W. C. (1946). Supervised correspondence study grows. The Education Digest, 2(April), 34–36. Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Meyenn, B. (2001). Swimming against the tide. In B. Hemmings & C. Boylan (Eds.), Providing quality education and training for rural Australians (pp. 37–42). Toowoomba: SPERA. Ministerial Review of Schooling in Rural Western Australia. (1994). Schooling in rural Western Australia. Perth: Western Australian Department of Education. Mitchell, S. (2005, February 14). Satellite, Cable Oust Airwaves. The Australian. Moes, T. (2000). The Winston Churchill memorial trust of Australia: Concise report. In S. King (Ed.), Dawning of opportunity (pp. 263–284). Toowoomba: SPERA. Moore, M. G. (1983). The individual adult learner. In M. Tight (Ed.), Adult learning and education (pp. 153–168). London: Croom-Helm. Moore, M. G. (1989). Three types of interaction. The American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2), 1–6. Moore, M. G. (Ed.). (1990). Contemporary issues in american distance education. Oxford, Permagon Press. Moore, M. G. (1991). Editorial: Distance education theory. The American Journal of Distance Education, 5(3), 1–6. Moore, M. G. (1994). Distance education at the school level. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., pp. 1563– 1567). Oxford: Permagon. Moore, M. G. (2003). From Chautauqua to the virtual university: A century of distance education in the United States. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 482 357) Moore, M. G. (2007). Theory of transactional education. In M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (2nd ed., pp. 89–101). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: A systems view. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

204 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (2005). Distance education: A systems view (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Moriarty, B., Danaher, P. A., & Danaher, G. (2003). Situating and interrogating contemporary Australian rural education research. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 18(3), 133–138. Mossenson, D. (1972). State education in Western Australia 1829-1960. Perth, WA: University of Western Australia Press. Mulcahy, D. (2009). Developing government policies for successful rural education in Canada. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 23–32). Armidale: University of New England. Mulholland, J., & Ginns, I. (2007). College MOON project Australia: Pre-service teachers learning about the moon’s phases. Research in Science Education, 38(3), 385–399. Murray, K., & Gardner, G. (1998). Partnership and learning: A case study in video conferencing in West Australian schools. Retrieved from http://www.aset.org.au/ confs/edtech98/pubs/articles/ murray.html Naidu, S. (2007). Instructional design for optimal learning. In M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (pp. 247-258). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. National Board of Employment, Education and Training. (1991). Toward a national education and training strategy for rural Australia. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. NCRRE. (1993). Coping with curriculum. Perth, WA: National Centre for Research on Rural Education, University of Western Australia. Neal, W. D. (1979). Review and prospect. In W. D. Neal (Ed.), Education in western Australia (pp. 294–306). Perth: University of Western Australia Press. Nelson, L. (2003). A case study in organisational change: Implications for theory. The Learning Organisation, 10(1), 18–30. Neuhauser, C. (2002). Learning style and effectiveness of online and face-to-face instruction. The American Journal of Distance Education, 16(2), 99–113. Newland, H. (2000). Submission from the Isolated Children’s Parents’ Association for enquiry into rural and remote education. Retrieved from www.hreoc.gov.au/human_rights/ rural/education/wa/perth.html_public Noddings, N. (2003). Is teaching a practice? Journal of Philosophy of Education, 37, 241–252. Northcott, P. (1984). Correspondence education in Australia. In S. Parmaji (Ed.), Distance education (pp. 129–154). New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited. Northern Territory Open Education Centre. (2009). About Us. Retrieved from http://www.ntoec.nt.edu.au Nyirenda, J. E. (1983). Distance education at the secondary level: A Zambian study. Distance Education, 4(1), 80–94. O’Brien, C., Greenway, M., & Arnold, L. (1993). Support for home tutors. In D. Riley (Ed.), Towards 2000: Schooling through distance education (pp. 447–452). Wagga Wagga: SPERA. O’Donoghue, T. (2007). Planning your qualitative research project: An introduction to interpretivist research in education. London: Routledge.

REFERENCES • 205 OECD. (2006). 21st century learning environments. Retrieved from http://www.oecd. org/ Ogier, M. (2007). Rethinking teacher retention and rural schooling. In N. Rees, D. Boyd, & E. Terry (Eds.), Collaboration for success in rural and remote education and training (pp. 126–139). Toowoomba: SPERA. Oliva, P. F. (2009). Developing the curriculum (7th ed.). Boston: Pearson. Oliver, R., & Mcloughlin, C. (1997). Interactions in audiographics teaching and learning environments. The American Journal of Distance Education, 11(1), 34– 54. Oliver, R., & Reeves, T. C. (1994). An investigation of the use of telecommunications to increase equity and access to education in rural schools in western Australia. In T. Ottman & I. Tomek (Eds.), Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia (pp. 432–437). Charlottesville, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. Olt, M. (2002). Ethics and distance education: Strategies for minimizing academic dishonesty in online assessment. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 5(3). Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/ ~distance/ojdla/fall53/ olt53.html Open Access College. (2007). 2007 annual report. Retrieved from www.openaccess. edu.au/about_us/downloads.annual_report_07.pdf Orivel, F. (1994). Distance education: Economic evaluation. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., pp. 1567– 1573). Oxford: Permagon. Pandy, S. (2006). Para-teacher scheme and quality education for all in India: Policy perspectives and challenges for school effectiveness. Journal of Education for Teaching, 32(3), 319–334. Panizzon, D., & Pegg, J. (2007). Chasms in student achievement: Exploring the rural-metropolitan divide. Education in Rural Australia, 17(2), 3–20. Patrickson, M., Bamber, V., & Bamber, G. (1995). Organisational change strategies. Melbourne: Longman. Patton, M. Q. (1997). Utilization-focused evaluation: The new century text. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Paulsen, M. F., Rekkedal, T. & Søby, M. (1992). Distance education in Norway. DEOSNEWS, 2(19). Retrieved from http://nettskolen.nki.no/forskning/23/ deos2-19.htm Pavey, J., & Garland, S. W. (2004). The integration and implementation of a range of ‘e-tivities’ to enhance students’ interaction and learning. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 41, Pegg, J. (2009). Lessons learnt: Implications of four large-scale SIMERR projects for rural education in Australia. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 33–44). Armidale: University of New England. Pegrum, M. (2007). Socrates and Plato meet neolibralism in the virtual agora: Online dialogue and the development of oppositional pedagogies. In J. Lockard & M. Pegrum, Brave new classrooms: Democratic education and the internet (pp. 13–34). New York: Peter Lang.

206 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Penhalver, L. M. (1990). Distance education: A strategy for development in distance education, development and access. In M. G. Moore (Ed.), Contemporary issues in American distance education. Oxford: Permagon Press. Perraton, H. (1982). Alternative routes to formal education: Distance teaching for school equivalency. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Perraton, H. (1983). A theory of distance education. In D. Sewart, D. Keegan, & B. Holmberg, Distance education: International perspectives (pp. 34–45). London: Croom Helm. Perraton, H. (2007). Open and distance education in the developing world (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. Perry, L. B. (2007). School composition and student outcomes: A review of emerging areas of research. Retrieved from http://64.233.179.104/scholar ?hl=en&lr=&q=cache :saTKZpIC11oJ:www.aare.edu.au/07pap/per07416.pdf Peters, O. (1971). Theoretical perspectives of correspondence instruction. In O. Mackenzie & E. L. Christensen (Eds.), The changing world of correspondence study. London: The Pennsylvania State University Press. Peters, O. (1983). Distance teaching and industrial production: A comparative interpretation outline. In D. Sewart, D. Keegan, & B. Holmberg. (Eds.), Distance education: International perspectives (pp. 95–113). London: Croom Helm. Peters, O. (2001). Learning and teaching in distance education. London: Kogan Page. Pitman, J. (1998). Isolated Children’s Parents’ Association. Network News, 6(Spring), 18–19. Pittman, V. V. (1997). Distance education exchange. Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 45(2), 42–43. Preston, B. (1984) Residualisation, what’s that? Australian Teacher, 8, 5–6. Prior, L. (2007). Documents. In C. Seale, G. Giamputro, J. F. Gubrium, & D. Silverman (Eds.), Qualitative research practice (pp. 345–360). London: Sage. Rahmani, Z., & Scherer, R. (1982). A road to better schooling. Educational News, 18(2), 24–29. Randell, S. K. (1978). Learning to share: A report on the disadvantaged country areas program for 1977. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED212431) Rankin, D. H. (1926). The history of the development of education in Western Australia 1829–1923. Perth: Carrolls Ltd. Rankin, D. H. (1941). The philosophy of Australian education. Melbourne: The Arrow Printery. Rawson-Jones, K. (1974). Some trends in distance education. Epistolodidaktika, 1, 67–68. Rayner, S. A. (1949). Correspondence education in Australia and New Zealand. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. Reading, C. (2009). Social computing: Reducing isolation in remote Australian schools. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.) Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 197–204). Armidale: University of New England. Reeves, T. C. (2005). No significant differences revisited: A historical perspective on the research informing contemporary online learning. In G. Kearsley (Ed.), Online learning: Personal reflections on the transformation of education (pp. 299– 308). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

REFERENCES • 207 Reeves, T. C., Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (2004). A development research agenda for online collaborative learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 52(4), 53–65. Reichers, A. E., Wanous, J. P., & Austin, J. T. (1997). Understanding and managing cynicism about organizational change. Academy of Management Executive, 11(1), 48–59. Reilly, L. (2007). Progressive modification: How parents deal with home schooling their children with intellectual disabilities. Unpublished Thesis, University of Western Australia. Richards, T. (2005). IDL: Interactive distance learning in the Northern Territory. In C. Boylan (Ed.), Our stories: Innovations and excellence in rural education (pp. 41–48). Wagga Wagga: SPERA. Riley, D. (Ed.). (1993). Towards 2000: Schooling through distance education. Toowoomba: SPERA. Roberts, P. (2005). Staffing an empty schoolhouse: Attracting and retaining teachers in rural, remote and isolated communities. Sydney: NSW Teachers Federation. Roberts, P., & Lean, D. (2005). What does a successful staffing system for rural, remote and isolated schools look like? In C. Boylan (Ed.), Our stories: Innovation and excellence in rural education (pp. 167–176). Wagga Wagga: SPERA. Robertson, S. (1993). A very long piece of chalk: Teaching students where they’re at. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED360 569) Robertson, T. L. (1952). Education in Western Australia since federation. Education: A Journal for West Australian Teachers, 1, 10–16. Robertson, T. L. (1964). Preface. In C. Eakins, A history of the Western Australian Correspondence School. Perth: Department of Education. Robinson, B. (2008). Using distance education and information communication technology to improve access, equity and the quality in rural teachers’ professional development in rural China. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(1), 1–17 Rovai, A. (2002). Sense of community, perceived cognitive learning, and persistence in asynchronous learning networks. The Internet and Higher Education, 5(4), 319–332. RREAC. (2009). RREAC terms of reference. Retrieved from http://www.des.wa.gov.au/ pages/rreac_terms.phpl Rudd, K. (2008). Kerry O’Brian speaks with Kevin Rudd. 7.30 Report. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2008/s2349485.htm Rumble, G. (1997). The costs and economics of open and distance learning. London: Kogan Page. Rumble, G. (2001). Re-inventing distance education, 1971–2001. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 20 (1/2), 31–43. Rural and Remote Education Advisory Services. (2000). Country roads: Pathways to better education and training for rural and remote western Australia 2000-2003. Perth: Department of Education Services. Russell, T. L. (2001). The no significant difference phenomenon: A comparative research annotated bibliography on technology for distance education: As reported in 355 research reports, summaries and papers. S.I.: IDECC.

208 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Russell. T. L. (2005). No significant difference phenomenon. Retrieved from http://www. nosignificantdifference.org/ Ryan, S., Scott, B., Freeman, H., & Patel, D. (2000). The virtual university. London: Kogan Page. Salas, E., & Fiore, S. M. (2007). Moving us towards a science of distributed learning. In S. M. Fiore & E. Salas (Eds.), Toward a science of distributed learning (pp. 3–12). Washington: American Psychological Association. Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, 185–211. Saltmarsh, S. (2007). Cultural complicities: Elitism, heteronormativity and violence in the education marketplace. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 20(3), 335–354. Sammons, M. (2007). Collaborative interaction. In M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (2nd ed., pp. 311–322). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Sanderson, H. (1998). Teaching experience in a school of the air. Education in Rural Australia, 8(2), 31–32. Saxe, R. W. (1972). Opening the schools: Alternative ways of learning. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan Publishing. Schmidmaier, D., & Macnamara, D. (1993). OTEN—A new venture for education and training in New South Wales. In D. Riley (Ed.), Towards 2000: Schooling through distance education (pp. 27–32). Toowoomba: SPERA. School Matters. (2008). Interactive classroom ticks all the boxes. School Matters, 5, 13. Schools Commissions. (1979). Report on the disadvantaged country areas program for 1978. Canberra: Government Printer. Schools of Isolated and Distance Education. (2002). Application for teaching position post-compulsory school. Perth: SIDE. Schrum, L. (1995). Online courses: What have we learned? Paper presented at the World Conference on Computers in Education, Birmingham, UK. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED385245) Scott, S., O’Connor, T., & Futh, A. (2006). What makes parenting programs work in disadvantaged areas? York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Senate Standing Committee on Education and the Arts. (1977). Report on education of isolated school children. Canberra: Government Printer. Sewart, D., Keegan, D., & Holmberg, B. (1983). Distance education: International perspectives. London: Croom Helm. Shah, S. (1995). Planning teacher education. In L. W. Anderson (Ed.), International encyclopedia of teaching and teacher education (2nd ed., pp. 540–543). New York: Permagon. Sharma, M. (1987). Issues in distance education. In Asian Development Bank, Distance education in Asia and the Pacific: Proceedings of the regional seminar on distance education (pp. 43–56). Manila: Asian Development Bank. Sharma, M. (1990). Liberation of the learner: A self-reliance strategy for education. In Asian Development Bank, Distance education in South Asia: Proceedings of the round table conference on distance education for South Asian countries (pp. 15–28). Manila: Asian Development Bank.

REFERENCES • 209 Sharma, P. (2005). Distance education technologies in India. In A. A. Carr-Chellman (Ed.), Global perspectives on e-learning: Rhetoric and reality (pp. 52–66). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Sharplin, E. (2002). Rural retreat or outback hell: Expectations of rural and remote teaching. Issues in Educational Research, 12(1), 49–63. Sharplin, E. (2008). Quality of worklife for rural and remote teachers: Perspectives of novice, interstate and overseas-qualified teachers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Western Australia. Sharplin, E. (2009). Getting them out there: A rural education field trip. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 215–224). Armidale, NSW: University of New England. Shearer, R. (2007). Instructional design and the technologies: An overview. In M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (2nd ed., pp. 219–232). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Sheath, H. C. (1965). External studies: The first ten years 1955–1964. Armidale: University of New England. Shen, Q., Chung, J. K. H., Challis, D., & Cheung, R. C. T. (2007). A comparative study of student performance in traditional mode and online mode of leaning. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 15(1), 30–40. Sheppard, M. (1983). Setting the scene. In National Centre for Research on Rural Education, Coping with curriculum (pp. 1–7). National Centre for Research on Rural Education, University of Western Australia. Sher, J. P., & Sher, K. R. (1994). Beyond the conventional wisdom: Rural development as if Australia’s rural people and communities really mattered. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 10(1), 2–43. Sherry, L. (1995). Issues in distance learning. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 1(4), 337–365. Shire of Toodyay. (2008). History of Toodyay. Retrieved from http://www.toodyay. wa.gov.au/heritage_tourism/history.html SIDE. (2002). Future directions discussion paper. Leederville: SIDE. SIDE. (2007). The SIDE Story. Retrieved from http://www.side.wa.edu.au/side_ story.html SIDE. (2008). Inside view. Leederville: SIDE. SIDE (2009). SIDE overview. Retrieved from http://www.side.wa.edu.au/side_ overview. html SIDE Primary School. (2007). Annual report 2007. Leederville: SIDE. SIDE Primary School. (2008). Annual report 2008. Leederville: SIDE. SIDE Primary School. (2009). Learning @ a distance. Retrieved from http://www. side.wa.edu.au/schools/primary/prim_distance.html SIDE Secondary School (2009). Technology and enterprise. Retrieved from http:// www.side.wa.edu.au/schools/secondary/tande/index.html Simon, B. (1969). The history of education. In J.W. Tibble (Ed.), The study of education (pp. 91–132). London: Routledge & Keegan Paul. Simonson, M. (2006). Best practices for teaching online: A literature review and a model for course design. Retrieved from http://isupport.geocenters. com/slw/WhitePapers/BestPracticesforOnlineInstructionJune28version.doc.

210 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Skinner, D. (2004). Evaluation and change management: Rhetoric and reality. Human Resources Management Journal, 14(3), 5–19. Slocombe, A. (1999). A day in the life of a governess. Network News,10(Summer), 9. Slosser, C. A., & Anderson, M. L. (1994). Distance education: Review of literature. Washington, DC: Association for Education Communication and Technology. Smith, C. (2000). Flexible delivery of education in Kalgoorlie: Planning and opening a flexible delivery centre of education at Curtin University, Kalgoorlie Campus. Education in Rural Australia, 10(1), 40–45. Smith, K. C. (Ed.). (1984). Diversity down under in distance education. Toowoomba: Darling Downs Institute Press. Smith, R. (1987). Growth and scope of distance learning. In Asian Development Bank. Distance education in South Asia: Proceedings of the round table conference on distance education for South Asian Countries (pp. 57–120). Manila: Asian Development Bank. Smith, S., & Smith, R. S. (2009). Enhancing rural and regional gifted student experiences: Exemplars of innovative enrichment practice. In T. Lyons, J. Y. Choi, & G. McPhan (Eds.), Innovation for equity in rural education (pp. 225–237). Armidale: University of New England. Spaull, A. (1982). Australian education in the Second World War. St Lucia, Queensland: University of Queensland Press. Squires, D. (2003). Responding to isolation and educational disadvantage. Education in Rural Australia, 13(1), 25–40. Starr, K., & White, W. (2008). The small rural school principalship: Key challenges and cross-school responses. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 23(5), 1–12. Stein, D. (2004). Course structure: Most important factor in student satisfaction. Distance Education Report, 8(3), F1. Steinbronn, P. E. & Merideth, E, M. (2008). Perceived utility of methods and instructional strategies used in online and face-to-face teaching environments. Innovation in Higher Education, 32, 265–278. Steketee, C. & McNaught, K. (2007). Videoconferencing as a professional learning environment. In N. Rees, D. Boyd, & E. Terry (Eds.), Collaboration for Success in Rural and Remote Education and Training (pp. 167–180). Toowoomba: SPERA. Stevens, K. (1994). Australian developments in distance education and their implications for rural schools. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 10(1), 78–83. Stewart, A. N. (1979). Introduction. In W. D. Neal (Ed.), Education in Western Australia (pp. 1–8). Perth, WA: University of Western Australia Press. Stokes, H., Stafford, J., & Holdsworth, R. (1999). Rural and remote school education: A survey for the human rights and equal opportunities commission. Melbourne: Youth Research Centre, University of Melbourne. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. California: Sage. Stronge, J. (2002). Qualities of effective teachers. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Sturrock, J. (1983). Tutor training. Distance Education, 4(1), 108–112. Stupiansky, N. G., & Wolfe, M. P. (1991). A consortium model for rural based mentor-intern programs: A school-college partnership that works. Journal of Rural and Small Schools, 4(3), 22–31.

REFERENCES • 211 Sungaila, H. (1981). Planning instruction to meet the needs of country children. Curriculum Perspectives, 2(1), 1–8. Sutherland, R., Robertson, S., & John, P. (2009). Improving classroom learning with ICT. New York: Routledge. Sutton, L. (2001). The principle of vicarious interaction in computer-mediated communications. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 7(3), 223–242. Swan, K., Shea, P., Fredericksen, E., Pickett, A., Pelz, W., & Mayer, G. (2000). Building knowledge building communities: Consistency, contact and communication in the virtual classroom. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 23(4), 359–383. Sweetman, D., & Tomlinson, L. (2000). Learning technologies in the classroom. Education in Rural Australia, 10(1), 46–50. Sydney Distance Education High School. (2007). History of distance education in NSW. Retrieved from http://www.ssdec.nsw.edu.au/school_hist/ corrohist.html TAFE. (2009). TAFEWA. Retrieved from http://www.tafe.wa.edu.au/ Pages/ Default.aspx Tallent-Runnels, M. K., Thomas, J. A., Lan, W. Y., Cooper, C., Ahern, T. C., Shaw, S. M., & Liu, X. (2006). Teaching courses online: A review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 76(1), 93–135. Tannock, P. D. (1979). Catholic education in Western Australia 1829–1979. In W. D. Neal (Ed.), Education in Western Australia (pp. 123–182). Perth, WA: University of Western Australia Press. Tannock, P. D., & Tomlinson, D. G. (1981). Review of the assistance for isolated children scheme. Canberra: Union Offset. Taylor, S. J., & Bogdan, R. (1984). Introduction to qualitative research methods: The search for meanings. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Te Riele, K. (2006). Schooling practices for marginalized students: Practice with hope. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 10(1), 59–74. Thach, E. C., & Murphy, K. L. (1995). Competencies for distance education professionals. Educational Technology Research & Development, 43(1), 57–79. The Education Circular. (1980). The Education Circular, 82(9), 328. T.H.E. Journal. (1998). Distance learning brings the world to students in remote areas. T.H.E. Journal, 26(5), 44. The TES Review Group. (1990). The future: TAFE external studies college. Perth: Education Department Western Australia. Thomas, A. (1998). Educating children at home. London: Cassell. Thomson, S., Cresswell, J., & De Bortoli, L. (2004). Facing the future: A focus on mathematical literacy among Australian 15-year-old students in PISA. Camberwell, ACT: Australian Council for Educational Research. Thornhill, A., Lewis, P., Millmore, M., & Saunders M.N.K. (2000). Managing change. Harlow: Prentice Hall. Thorpe, M. (1998). Assessment and ‘Third Generation’ distance education. Distance Education, 19(2), 265–286. Tierney, G. (2007). Lost in the crowd. Education Quarterly, Winter. Retrieved from http://www.eqa.edu.au/site/touristguidesonalearningpathway.html

212 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Tierney, G., & Galloway, A. (2007). Mitchell plateau learning: Responding to the needs of Aboriginal students in the isolated and distance context. In N. Rees, D. Boyd, & E. Terry (Eds.), Collaboration for success in rural and remote education and training (pp. 311–318). Toowoomba: SPERA. Tomlinson, D. (1994). Schooling in rural Western Australia. Perth: Minister for Education, Ministerial Review of Schooling in Rural Western Australia. Tomlinson, D., Coulter, F., & Peacock, J. (1985). Teaching and learning at home: Distance education and the isolated child. Perth: University of Western Australia Press. Trentin, G. (2000). The quality-interactivity relationship in distance education. Educational Technology, 40(1), 17–27. Treweeke, R. (1983). The parents’ view. In NCRRE, Coping with Curriculum (2nd ed., pp. 65–70). Perth: National Centre for Research on Rural Education, University of Western Australia. Trindade, A. R. (2003). The transformation of higher education: Convergences of distance and presence learning paradigms. In M. Barajas (Ed.), Virtual learning environments in higher education: A european view (pp. 33–63). Barcelona: Edicions Universitat Barcelona. Trindade, A. R., Carmo, H., & Bidarra, J. (2000). Current developments and best practice in open and distance learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 1(1). Retrieved from http://irrodl.org/ v2001.2001.html Tripcony, P. (2002). Challenges and tensions in implementing current directions for indigenous education. Retrieved from http://www.aare.edu.au/02pap/tri02473.htm Turney, C. (1972). Continuity and change in the public primary schools 1914–32. In J. Cleverley & J. Lawry (Eds.), Australian education in the twentieth century: Studies in the development of state education (pp. 32–76). Camberwell, Vic: Longman Australia. Turney, C. (Ed.). (1975). Sources in the history of Australian education 1788–1970. Sydney: Angus and Robertson. Turney, C. (Ed.). (1983). Pioneers of Australian education volume 3. Sydney: Sydney University Press. Turney, C., Sinclair, K. E., & Cairns, L. G. (1980). Isolated schools: Teaching, learning and transition to work. Sydney: Sydney University Press. Tynan, B., & O’Neill, M. (2007). Individual perseverance: A theory of home tutors’ management of schooling in isolated settings. Distance Education, 28(1), 95–1Utsi, S., Canters, R., & Lowyck, J. (2001). Embedding conceptual innovation in distance education platforms: Bottlenecks and critical success factors. Educational Media International, 38(4), 217–228. UvaliB-TrumbiB, S., Daniel, J., & West, P. (2008). International online courses: Issues of global quality assurance, multi-county collaboration and open educational resources. Retrieved from www.col.org/resources/speeches/Pages/2008_onlineCourses.aspx. Van Der Linden, G. H. B. P. (1990). Preface. In Asian Development Bank, Distance education in South Asia: Proceedings of the round table conference on distance education for South Asian countries (pp. v–vi). Manila: Asian Development Bank.

REFERENCES • 213 Varney, R. (1996). Music in distance education. Unpublished master’s thesis, The University of Western Australia. Vickery, R. L. (1982). National centre for research on rural education. Report 1981–82. Perth: NCRRE. Vidovich, L. (1984). An analysis of distance education policy developments in Australia between 1971 and 1982: Focus on Western Australia. Unpublished master’s thesis, Murdoch University. Vonk, J. H. C. (1984). Teacher education and teacher practice. Amsterdam: Free University Press. Wakatama, M. A. (1983). Correspondence education in Africa: An alternative route to higher education in developing countries. London: University of American Press. Walker, C. (1975). The Alice Springs school of the air. Developing Education, 3(2), 9–20. Wallace, A., & Boylan, C. (2007). Reawaken education policy and practice in rural Australia. In N. Rees, D. Boyd, & E. Terry (Eds.), Collaboration for success in rural and remote education and training (pp. 15–43). Toowoomba: SPERA. Wallin, D. (2008). A comparative analysis of the educational priorities and capacity of rural school districts. Educational Management Administration and Leadership, 36(4), 566–587. Wedemeyer, C. A. (1983). Back door learning in the learning society. In D. Sewart, D. Keegan, & B. Holmberg (Eds.), Distance education: International perspectives (pp. 128–156). London: Croom Helm. Weick, K. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. WestOne. (2008). WestOne - Discover new learning solutions. Retrieved http://www. westone.wa.gov.au/Pages/default.aspx White, M. A. (1962). A history of correspondence education in Western Australia. Unpublished master’s thesis, The University of Western Australia. Wiesenberg, F., & Stacey, E. (2005). Reflections on teaching and learning online: Quality program design, delivery and support issues from a cross-global perspective. Distance Education, 26(3), 385–404. Wildy, H., & Clarke, S. (2008). Principals on L-plates: Rear view mirror reflections. Journal of Educational Administration, 46(6), 727–738. Williams, J., & Fardon, M. (2007). Perpetual connectivity: Lecture recordings and portable media players. Retrieved from www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/singapore07/procs/Williamsjo.pdf Wilson, G., & Stacey, E. (2004). Online interaction impacts on learning: Teaching the teachers to teach online. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 20(1), 33–48. Winter, R. (1982). Dilemma analysis: A contribution to methodology for action research. Cambridge Journal of Education, 12(3), 166–173. Wooller, J., & Warner, L. (2001). An innovative flexible program for rural woman. In B. Hemmings, & C. Boylan (Eds.), Providing quality education and training for rural australians (pp. 196–205). Toowoomba: SPERA. Yarrow, A., Ballantyne, R., Hansford, B., Herschell, P., & Millwater, J. (1999). Teaching in rural and remote schools: A literature review. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15, 1–13.

214 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Yarrow, A., Herschell, P., & Millwater, J. (1999). Listening to country voices: Preparing, attracting and retaining teachers for rural and remote areas. Education in Rural Australia, 9(2), 1–12. Yates, R. (2001). Small schools face the challenge: A case study of a group of small rural schools in New Zealand. In B. Hemmings & C. Boylan (Eds.), Providing quality education and training for rural Australians (pp. 363–376). Toowoomba: SPERA. Yip, W. (2007). Web-based instruction as a supplement to face-to-face teaching in higher education in Hong Kong. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Western Australia. Young, D. J. (1998). A comparison of student performance in Western Australian schools: Rural and urban differences. Australian Educational Researcher, 21(2), 87–105. Yourn, B. (2003). Individual perseverance: How parents of children in the schools of isolated and distance education in Western Australia manage their work as home tutors. Unpublished doctoral disseration, The University of Western Australia. Zhao, Y., Lei, J., Yan, B., Lai, C., & Tan, H. S. (2005). What makes the difference? A practical analysis of research on the effectiveness of distance education. Teachers College Record, 107(8), 1836–1884.

INDEX

Alice Springs School of the Air 33, 35, 93 Andrews, Cecil 80 Assistance for Isolated Children Scheme 6, 93 Assistance for Isolated Children’s Allowance 97 AUSSAT 98 Australasian Association of Distance Education Schools 35 Australian Capital Territory 33, 34 Australian Flexible Learning Network 23 Australian Integrated Model 22 Australian National Council of Open and Distance Learning 19, 48 Australind Senior High School 156 Bandwidth 35, 151 BHP Billiton 157 Botany Bay 27 Bowden, Julie 108 British Open University 18, 45

Calvert School 23 Canada 5, 19, 23, 24, 25, 27, 32, 60 Carnarvon 6, 7, 71, 92, 93, 94 Catholic Schools 29, 30, 76 CD-ROM 131 Centra 34, 133, 144, 153, 154, 157 Centre National d’Enseignement par Correspondence 24, 27 Chidley Centre 97, 100 Church of England 28 Claremont Teacher’s College 79 Clustering 25 Clusters 25 College of Advanced Education 22, 181 Commonwealth of Learning 25, 48 Commonwealth Reconstruction Training Scheme 21 Convicts 27, 28, 76 Country Women’s Association (CWA) 101 Curriculum Framework 8, 11, 68, 110, 122, 146, 147, 148, 176 Cyril Jackson Senior High School 161

The Education of Children in Geographically Remote Regions through Distance Education: Perspectives and Lessons from Australia, pages 215–217 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

215

216 •

The Education of Children through Distance Education

Department of Education and Training 8 Diggins, Glen 103 Distance Education Training Council 48 Distance Learning Association of Australia 48 Dual-mode Delivery Model 16 Eakins, Clarence 70, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 88, 89, 92, 93 Education Act 1871 76 Education Act 1899 77 Email 4, 9, 69, 121, 126, 127, 129, 131, 132, 145, 155, 158, 162, 176 Flexible Learning Environment Experiment 24 Flexible Learning in Schools 65, 157 Flexible Learning in Schools Project 157 FLIS Model 157 France 24 Fremantle 74, 76 Gaines, Brian 103 Garrison, Randy 46, 47, 69 Genghis Khan 17 Germany 5 Greenough 75 Grounded theory 12, 13 Grylls, Brendon 97 Hadley School for the Blind 26 Half-time schools 5, 30, 78 High frequency radio Holmberg, Börje 17, 25, 42, 44, 45, 56 Home supervisors 8, 13, 33, 57, 66, 67, 71, 81, 93, 94, 96, 101, 115, 119, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 131, 135, 136, 138, 140, 141, 145, 147, 149, 157, 162, 170, 180, 182 Home tutors’ seminar 137 Individual Education Program (IEP) 112, 113, 119, 121, 125, 128, 129 Industrial Model 45 International Council for Correspondence Education 43 International Council for Distance Education 26, 43

Internet 3, 9, 19, 34, 35, 38, 42, 45, 51, 52, 131, 134, 139, 155, 162 Interpretivist paradigm 12, 166 Isolated Children’s Parents’ Association (ICPA) 67, 70, 71 96, 97, 100, 101, 135, 137 Isolated Student Matriculation Project (ISMP) 97 Isolated Students’ Matriculation Scheme (ISMS) 83, 168 Itinerant teachers 5, 29, 32, 34, 79, 91, 92, 93 Jackson, Cyril 28 Janison 153, 157 Kalgoorlie 6, 7, 94 Karmel Commission 29 Keegan, Desmond 3, 5, 17, 42, 44, 45 Kimberley 6, 71 Meekatharra 6, 57, 88, 94, 96, 100, 138 Melbourne Continuation School 20 Melbourne Teachers’ College 31, 80 Melbourne Technical College 21 Mobile Remedial Teacher Service 101 Moon Project 24 Moore, Michael 16, 23, 26, 42, 46, 47, 49 Mossenson, David 103 Murdoch University 38 National Assessment Program-Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) 62 National Centre for Research on Rural Education (NCRRE) 102 New England Model 22 New South Wales 21, 28, 31, 34, 36, 56, 80, 96 New Zealand 19, 23, 24, 25, 60, 67, 103 New Zealand Correspondance School 103 Norsk Korrespondanseskole 25 Northern Ontario 23 Northern Territory 31, 35, 37 Northern Territory Open Education Centre 35 Norway 25, 26 ‘No Significant Difference’ phenomenon 22, 53

INDEX • 217 One-teacher schools 5, 29, 78, 167 Open Access College 34 Perth Technical School 38, 87 Peters, Otto17, 19, 20, 45, 46 Pilbara 71, 157 Plymouth Brethren 113 Port Hedland 6, 90, 94, 114, 149 Queensland 28, 32, 34, 36, 68, 69 Radio Broadcasts 33, 69, 89, 90, 144 Regional visits 125, 127 REVISE 34, 97 Rhodesia, 23 Royal Flying Doctor Service 7, 33, 93, 94, 95 Royalties for Regions 97 Rudd, Kevin 159 Rural and Remote Education Advisory Council 64, 103, 113 Rural Deficit Model 60 Saint Paul 17 SAT-web 125, 128, 133, 144, 151, 153, 154 School camps 94, 144 School magazine 36, 37, 89, 144 School of the Air (SOTA) 6, 7, 8, 10, 33, 35,57, 67, 69, 70, 71, 88, 93, 94, 95, 99, 100, 103, 105, 108, 109, 130, 133, 137, 138 144, 167, 168, 169, 177, 182 Society for Modern Languages 17 Society for the Provision of Education in Rural Australia 63 South Africa 17, 123 Structured Workplace Learning (SWL) 87, 88, 123 Student Services 100, 148, 158 Swan River Colony 37, 74 Sweden 5, 25 Sydney Technical College 20 Tasmania 32, 34, 35, 37

Technical and Further Education (TAFE) 20, 23, 38, 87, 123, 147 Technical Correspondence School 38 Technical Extension Service 87, 98 Telematics 69, 156 Tent schools 5, 78, 167 Tertiary Admissions Examination 98 Tertiary Entrance Examination 88, 110, 157, 158 Time lag 68, 141 Toodyay 75, 79 Tourist Guiding Program 71 Travelling Schools Service 31 Tuart College 157, 158 Turnitin 55, 162 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 17 United Kingdom 5, 17 United States of America 5, 17 University of New England 21, 22 University of Queensland 21, 22 University of South Africa 17 University of Western Australia 19, 21, 37, 38, 102, 181 Victoria 21, 23, 31, 33, 34, 36, 61, 80 Victorian Correspondence School 23 Video 95, 98, 128, 131, 134, 153 Video images 151 Video links 95 Video recordings 3 Video tapes 130, 131 Video-conferencing 18, 25, 64, 65, 69, 99, 125, 150, 155 Vocational education and training (VET) 23, 38, 87, 88 Voicemail 132 Wedemeyer, Charles 44, 45, 46 Western Australian Department of Education 13, 28, 87, 102, 116, 157, 161, 174, 184 Western Australian Literacy and Numeracy Assessment (WALNA) 161 WestOne 38, 39, 131 World War One 32, 85 World War Two 17, 26, 86, 88, 89, 91