The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh: Prospects, Constraints, and Policies 3030728994, 9783030728991

Citation preview

Sakib Bin Amin

The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh Prospects, Constraints, and Policies

The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh

Sakib Bin Amin

The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh Prospects, Constraints, and Policies

Sakib Bin Amin Department of Economics School of Business and Economics North South University Dhaka, Bangladesh

ISBN 978-3-030-72899-1 ISBN 978-3-030-72900-4 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4

(eBook)

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

To My Parents

Acknowledgements

Publishing a book on the Bangladesh tourism industry has been my longcherished dream, and I am very thankful to the Almighty for giving me the opportunity and strength to finish this book. While preparing for an undergraduate assignment at Dhaka University in 2001, I realised the necessity of a complete book on the Bangladesh tourism industry covering different aspects of the industry, highlighting its economic importance, barriers, and policies. Almost after 2 decades, my dreams have come to a reality in 2021, when Bangladesh proudly celebrates the 50 years of independence. I like to express my gratitude to my loving parents Mr. S. M Aminur Rahman and Mrs. Akhter Jahan Selima Aziz, for their unconditional and endless love, care, support, and encouragement throughout my life. I thank my wife Sameena Shahzadi, my sister Tanjila Amin Bintu, my niece Tabiah Wania Khan for their support. I am also thankful to Dr. Laura Marsiliani, Dr. Thomas Renström, Professor Tooraj Jamasb, Professor Ricardo Raineri, Professor Gurkan Kumbaro˘glu, Professor Fehmi Karasio˘glu, Professor Parantap Basu, Dr. Rabindra Nepal, Dr. Farhad Taghizadeh, Dr. Manuel Llorca, Dr. Agnirup Sarkar, Dr. Birsen Bulut Solak, Dr. Syed Manzoor Ahmed, Dr. S.

vii

viii

Acknowledgements

M. Zahid Iqbal, and Dr. Mainul Islam Chowdhury for their constant encouragement. I am also grateful to Mr. Monwar Islam, Chairman of Bangladesh Energy Regulatory Commission, Professor Abul Barkat, President, Bangladesh Economic Association, Dr. Bazlul Haque Khondker, Chairman, SANEM for their affection and encouragement. I want to show my fullest gratitude to the Chairman and other members of the Board of Trustees, North South University (NSU), Bangladesh for their relentless hard work to enhance research-oriented activities at NSU. I would like to thank the Vice-Chancellor, Pro-ViceChancellor, Dean (SBE), the senior management team, and the Accreditation Project Team (APT) of NSU, Bangladesh, for their continuous support. Thanks go to all my colleagues and students at NSU, Bangladesh, and Durham University Business School (DUBS), UK, to always be supportive. My deepest thanks go to Nejc Jus (WTTC), Laura Delgado Álvarez (UNWTO), Farhana Shahnaz, Shah Zahidur Rahman, Bismi Samia Iqbal, Juhi Jannat, and Mahatab Kabir Khandaker. My Research Assistants, Mr. Farhan Khan and Mr. Foqoruddin Al Kabir, deserve more than gratitude for their hard work and support to complete this book. I like to thank the reviewers for their valuable comments towards improving the manuscript. My heartiest gratitude goes to the friendly Springer team, Jessica Harrison, Shreenidhi Natarajan, and Shukkanthy Siva for their helpful advice in publishing this book. Finally, I like to acknowledge my only son Sabir Amin, who inspires me all the time.

Contents

1

Introduction References

2

Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Tourism Definition 2.1.2 Domestic Tourism 2.1.3 International Tourism 2.2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh 2.2.1 Heritage Tourism 2.2.2 Religious Tourism 2.2.3 Sports Tourism 2.2.4 Seaside Tourism 2.2.5 Tea Tourism 2.2.6 Rural Tourism 2.2.7 Eco-Tourism 2.2.8 Other Tourism in Bangladesh 2.3 Conclusion References

1 8 11 11 11 12 14 14 14 18 22 25 26 28 29 30 35 36

ix

x

3

Contents

A Brief History and Overview of Tourism in Bangladesh 3.1 Background 3.2 Tourism in Central Bangladesh 3.2.1 Central Shaheed Minar (Monument of Language Martyrs) 3.2.2 National Martyrs’ Memorial (Symbol of Sacrifice and Valour) 3.2.3 Mausoleum of Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 3.2.4 Ahsan Manzil 3.2.5 Lalbagh Fort 3.2.6 Bangabandhu Memorial Museum 3.2.7 Panam City in Sonargaon 3.2.8 Bhawal Rajbari in Gazipur 3.2.9 Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Safari Park 3.2.10 Nikli Haor 3.2.11 Susang Durgapur in Netrokona 3.3 Tourism in Eastern Bangladesh 3.3.1 Cox’s Bazar (Longest Sandy Sea Beach) 3.3.2 St. Martin’s Island (the Coral Island) 3.3.3 Chittagong Hill Tracts 3.3.4 Shalban Bihar in Mainamati 3.3.5 Mainamati War Cemetery 3.3.6 Nijhum Dwip 3.3.7 Tourism in Sylhet Division 3.4 Tourism in Northern Bangladesh 3.4.1 Paharpur 3.4.2 Mahasthangarh 3.4.3 Ramsagar Lake (Dighi) and Ramsagar National Park 3.4.4 Chalan Beel 3.4.5 Other Archaeological Tourist Attractions 3.5 Tourism in Southern Bangladesh 3.5.1 Sundarbans 3.5.2 Kuakata

39 39 41 41 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 50 51 51 52 52 54 54 58 59 60 60 68 68 70 71 72 72 73 74 75

Contents

3.5.3 Sixty Dome Mosque 3.5.4 Fakir Lalon Shah Shrine 3.6 Conclusion References 4

5

Economic Prospects of Tourism Industry in Bangladesh 4.1 Background 4.2 Economic Prospects of Tourism Industry in Bangladesh 4.3 Empirical Analysis 4.4 Conclusion References Barriers to Tourism Industry in Bangladesh and the Way Forward 5.1 Background 5.2 Social Barriers 5.2.1 Lack of Community Development 5.2.2 Safety and Security Issues 5.2.3 Large Share of Unskilled Labours 5.2.4 Political Unrest 5.2.5 Image Crisis and Failure to Promotion and Marketing 5.3 Institutional Barriers 5.3.1 Policy Biasedness 5.3.2 Lack of Destination Services and Facilities 5.3.3 Lack of Research and Development (R&D) 5.3.4 Carrying Capacity and Resource Management in Tourism 5.3.5 Coordination Problem 5.3.6 Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) 5.4 Proposed Policies to Overcome the Barriers 5.5 Conclusion References

xi

76 77 78 82 83 83 87 97 109 110 115 115 117 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 125 127 128 130 131 132 132 134

xii

6

7

Contents

Role of Government and the Private Sector in Bangladesh Tourism 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Role of Government in Tourism Development in Bangladesh 6.3 Private Sector Participation in Tourism Industry in Bangladesh 6.4 Conclusion References An Overview of South Asian Tourism Industry and Significance of the Regional Tourism Integration 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Overview of Tourism in Five Neighbouring South Asian Countries 7.3 Prospects of Regional Tourism in South Asia 7.4 Barriers for Regional Tourism in South Asia 7.5 Conclusion References

139 139 141 146 152 153 157 157 162 170 174 175 176

8 Tourism and Globalisation Nexus in Bangladesh 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Dynamic Simulation Framework 8.3 Analysis from the Dynamic Simulation 8.3.1 Tourism and Globalisation 8.3.2 Tourism and Energy Consumption 8.3.3 Tourism and Environment 8.3.4 Tourism and Renewable Energy 8.4 Conclusion and Policy Recommendations References

179 179 184 188 189 190 191 193 194 196

9

201 204

Conclusion References

Appendix A

205

Contents

xiii

Appendix B

223

Appendix C

225

Index

231

About the Author

Dr. Sakib Bin Amin is an Associate Professor in the Department of Economics, School of Business and Economics, and the Director of the Accreditation Project Team (APT) at North South University, Bangladesh. He holds a Ph.D. in Economics from Durham University (UK). Dr. Sakib was the receiver of the Commonwealth Rutherford Fellowship (2017–2018) for conducting his postdoctoral research at Durham University (UK). Previously, Dr. Sakib received his bachelors’ and masters’ degrees in Economics from Dhaka University, securing first class in both. He also holds a masters’ degree in International Economics from the University of Essex (UK). Dr. Sakib is a fellow of the Higher Education Academy (HEA) and a life member of the Bangladesh Economic Association (BEA). His research focuses on energy and tourism policy in developing countries. He is the first and lead author of the book, titled Energy Resources in Bangladesh: Trends and Contemporary Issues, published by Springer International in 2019.

xv

Abbreviations

ADF ADP ARDL ASEAN BIMSTEC BOP BPC BTB BTRI CHT CUSUM DARDL DF-GLS DOLS FDI FY FYP GDP GNH

Augmented Dickey-Fuller Annual Development Programme Autoregressive Distributed Lag Association of Southeast Asian Nations Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation Balance of Payment Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation Bangladesh Tourism Board Bangladesh Tea Research Institute Chittagong Hill Tracts Cumulative Sum Test Dynamic ARDL Dickey-Fuller-GLS Dynamic Ordinary Least Squares Foreign Direct Investment Fiscal Year Five-Year Plan Gross Domestic Product Gross National Happiness

xvii

xviii

IESCO IMED IUCN LFS MoCAT NGO NHTTI NTO OIC OLS PPPs R&D RETOSA RMG Rs RTI SAARC SDGs SMEs SWIID TLGH UN UNESCO UNWTO WB WDI WTTC YDI YWCA

Abbreviations

Islamic Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization Implementation Monitoring and Evaluation Division International Union for Conservation of Nature Labour Force Survey Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism Non-Government Organisation National Hotel and Tourism Training Institute National Tourism Organization Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Ordinary Least Squares Public-Private Partnerships Research and Development Regional Tourism Organization of Southern Africa Readymade Garments Nepalese Rupee Regional Tourism Integration South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation Sustainable Development Goals Small and Medium Enterprises Standardized World Income Inequality Database Tourism-Led Growth Hypothesis United Nations United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization World Tourism Organization World Bank World Development Indicator World Travel & Tourism Council Youth Development Institute Young Women’s Christian Association

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Fig. 3.1

Fig. 4.1

Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3

Fig. 4.4

Fig. 4.5

Tourism Classification (Source Author’s own elaboration) Tourist Map of Bangladesh (Source Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism (https://mocat.portal.gov.bd/ sites/default/files/files/mocat.portal.gov.bd/files/acc 7e98a_8963_4ccf_a00d_6f7d612301dd/BTB-BDMap.jpg) Total Contribution and Share of Tourism in GDP (Source World Travel & Tourism Council [WTTC, 2019]) Tourism Industry’s Contribution (Source Author’s Compilation) Total Employment Generation from Tourism Industry (Source World Travel & Tourism Council [WTTC, 2019]) Disaggregated Employment Generation from Tourism Industry (Source World Travel & Tourism Council [WTTC, 2019]) Tourist Spendings in Bangladesh (Source World Travel & Tourism Council [WTTC, 2019])

13

42

88 90

91

93 94

xix

xx

Fig. 4.6

Fig. 4.7

Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2 Fig. 5.3

Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5

Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.2

Fig. 7.1 Fig. 7.2 Fig. 7.3

Fig. 7.4 Fig. 7.5 Fig. 7.6 Fig. 7.7

List of Figures

Scenario of Capital Investment for Tourism Industry in Bangladesh (Source World Travel & Tourism Council [WTTC, 2019]) Scenario of Government Spendings for Tourism Industry in Bangladesh (Source World Travel & Tourism Council [WTTC, 2019]) Barriers to Tourism Industry (Source Author’s Own Elaboration) Number of International Tourist Arrivals Over the Years (Source World Development Indicators [WDI, 2019]) Employment Scenario in Bangladesh (Source Penn World Table 9.1 and World Development Indicators [WDI, 2019]) Expenditures for Passenger Transport Items (Source World Development Indicators [WDI, 2019]) Policy Summary to Overcome the Barriers of the Tourism Industry (Source Author’s Own Elaboration) Tourism Development Plans in Bangladesh (Source Author’s Compilation) A Conceptual Mechanism on the Effectiveness of PPPs in Bangladesh Tourism Industry (Source Author’s Own Elaboration) Geographical Map of South Asia (Source Google Maps) Global International Tourist Arrivals in 2018 (Source UNWTO 2019) South Asian International Tourist Arrivals from 2010 to 2018 (Source UNWTO Tourism Highlights [2011–2019]) South Asian Tourist Receipts from 2010 to 2018 (Source UNWTO Tourism Highlights [2011–2019]) Tourist Arrivals by Purpose of Visit in Bhutan (Source Bhutan Tourism Monitor [2018]) Tourist Arrivals by Purpose of Visit in Nepal (Source Nepal Tourism Statistics [2018]) Tourist Arrivals by Purpose of Visit in Sri Lanka (Source Annual Statistical Report, Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority (SLTDA) [2018])

96

96 116 121

124 126

133 144

151 159 160

160 161 164 166

167

List of Figures

Fig. 7.8 Fig. 7.9 Fig. 7.10 Fig. 8.1

Fig. 8.2

Fig. 8.3

Fig. 8.4 Fig. 8.5 Fig. 8.6 Fig. 8.7 Fig. 8.8 Fig. 8.9 Fig. 9.1

Tourist Arrivals by Purpose of Visit in India (Source Indian Tourism Statistics [2019]) Prospects of Regional Tourism Integration in South Asia (Source Author’s Compilation) Barriers for Regional Tourism in South Asia (Source Author’s Compilation) Export Earnings by Product Category, 2017 (USD billion) (Source World Tourism Organization [2019] and the World Trade Organization [2019]) World Globalisation and International Tourism (Source KOF Swiss Economic Institute [2019] and World Bank [2019]) Association of Globalisation and Tourism from Different Channels (Note Author’s own elaboration) Globalisation and Tourism Energy and Tourism Tourism and CO2 (Controlled for Real Income) Tourism and CO2 (Controlled for Energy) Tourism and Renewable Energy Stability Diagnostics of the Variables Conceptual Model for the Sustainable Tourism Development in Bangladesh (Source Author’s own elaboration)

xxi

169 172 172

180

182

184 190 191 192 192 194 195

202

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4 Table 4.5 Table 4.6 Table 4.7 Table 4.8 Table 4.9

List of Archaeological Sites Preserved by the Archaeological Department List of World Heritage Sites in Bangladesh Various Types of Cricket Events in Bangladesh Tourism in Different Regions of Bangladesh Tourism Destinations by Region, Division, and Category Global Tourist Arrivals by Region of Origin (Millions) Selected Countries with Higher Share of Tourism in GDP Disaggregation of Tourism Contribution in GDP (BDT Billion) Trend of International Tourism Receipts and Expenditures in Bangladesh Description of the Variables Description of the Parameters Stationary Properties of the Variables ARDL Bounds Cointegration Test with Surface Regression Results DOLS Long-run Estimation

16 19 24 41 79 84 89 91 93 98 99 100 102 105

xxiii

xxiv

Table 5.1 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 7.1 Table 7.2 Table 7.3 Table 7.4 Table 7.5 Table 7.6 Table 8.1 Table 8.2 Table 8.3 Table 8.4 Table A.1 Table A.2 Table A.3 Table A.4 Table A.5 Table A.6 Table A.7

List of Tables

Capital Investment in Tourism Industry (USD Billion) Budget Allocation to Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism Future Plan for Blue Economy in the Tourism Industry in Bangladesh Tourist Arrivals from Different Countries in Bhutan (2018) Tourist Arrivals from Different Countries in Nepal (2018) Tourist Arrivals from Different Countries in Sri Lanka (2018) Tourist Arrivals from Different Countries in India (2018) Tourist Arrivals and Tourism Receipts in Maldives Tourist Arrivals from Different Countries in Maldives (2018) Description of the Parameters Descriptive Statistics of the Variables Stationary Properties of the Variables Cointegration Test Results Classification of Heritages Tourism List of Tourist Destination by Region, Division and District of Bangladesh Descriptive Statistics of the Variables SDG Aligned 7th FYP Targets for Tourism Industry Development in Bangladesh SDG Aligned Tourism Industry Development Progress Tourism Arrivals of Selected South Asian Countries (Persons) Tourism Receipts of Selected South Asian Countries (in USD Million)

126 145 147 163 165 167 169 170 171 185 187 188 189 206 207 215 216 220 222 222

1 Introduction

Bangladesh is a land of scenic beauty, diverse ethnicity, unique cuisine, rich legacy, and historical relics. Bangladesh is revered as a reliable destination for the locals as well as foreigners for its hospitality. The country has some rare experiences to offer, enjoying the splendid sunrise and sunset in the mesmerising Kuakata, wondering at the Sundarbans, the biggest mangrove forest in the world and the home of the Royal Bengal Tigers, or taking a stroll along the world’s largest unbroken beach in Cox’s Bazar. Amin (2010) argues that Bangladesh opens a hundred doors to welcome, but none for departure. The tourism industry of Bangladesh can promote national level development in the long-run. Amin and Rahman (2019) further argue that the most significant economic offerings of the tourism industry are that it can contribute to five high propriety goals: the generation of income, job creation, foreign exchange earnings, improvement of living standards and poverty reduction across the world. The tourism industry can be seen as a promising alternative for export diversification, government revenue, and maintaining a healthy fiscal balance in Bangladesh to reduce the risk of overdependence on the Readymade Garments (RMG) industry for foreign currency inflow. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. B. Amin, The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4_1

1

2

S. B. Amin

Globally, the tourism industry is considered an amalgamation of activities, services, and initiatives that provide transportation, accommodation, food, shopping, entertainment, and various other hospitality services to the travellers near and far (Amin et al., 2020; Raina & Agarwal, 2004). Tourism has evolved quite rapidly from being a relatively small-scale industry into one of the world’s most significant industries in recent times. International tourism has now ranked as the 3rd largest industry globally after chemicals and fuels. According to the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) 2019 statistics, tourism’s total impact on the global economy in 2018 was 8.5 USD trillion, which equates to 10.4 per cent of the total global GDP. The tourism industry supported 324,208,000 jobs in 2018, equal to 10.30 per cent of the total employment. This industry also generated 1.8 USD trillion in the exports sector in 2018, which was 6.6 per cent of the total exports. At a country level, direct travel and tourism GDP growth outperformed economywide GDP growth in 185 countries covered by the annual Economic Impact Research in 2018. The United Nations has acknowledged the expansion of tourism as one of the drivers to meet the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The tourism industry is associated with 109 sectors and can potentially spread its socio-economic benefits to all social levels. The tourism industry can also be viewed as a major industry in the fight against poverty. Therefore, this industry’s sustainable development can ensure 17 goals that the United Nations has set for achieving the SDGs by 2030. With its ability to produce flexible labour markets and offer varied working prospects, the tourism industry is directly linked to SDG-8, SDG-10, and SDG-12. Because tourism implicitly promotes the protection of historical, archaeological, and religious shrines, and stimulates the practice of local folklore, traditions, arts and crafts, and cuisine, it enables the transfer of people, culture, and ideas to the other 14 goals, which also have cross-cutting involvement with tourism. Therefore, it is popularly believed that the development of tourism can play a significant role in implementing SDGs. The available statistics from the WTTC (2019) show that Bangladesh’s tourism industry fails to realise the anticipated benefit despite the immense prospects the industry has. The industry remains

1 Introduction

3

neglected, depriving the economy and the country’s people of a highly conceivable economic growth. Moreover, different cross-country comparisons envisaged that the performance of Bangladesh tourism industry so far has been very disappointing in comparison with its neighbouring countries. The total contribution of tourism to GDP was 693.20 BDT billion (3.08 per cent of total GDP) in 2018. The total contribution of tourism to employment, including jobs indirectly supported by this industry, was 2.9 per cent of total employment, which equals 1,826 thousand jobs. Visitor exports generated 26.50 BDT billion (0.8 per cent of total exports) in 2018. A significant reason behind nominal growth in the tourism industry is that no significant research, study, and analysis have yet to be conducted on Bangladesh’s tourism industry. Another reason behind this sluggishness in the tourism industry is the lack of proper policies and planning for which adequate research is inevitable. It is worth noting that Mason and Cheyne (2000) reveal that most of the research on tourism impacts is done in the areas, where tourism plays a significant role to the local economy while little research has been done on tourist areas where tourism is in its nascent stage. One of the tourists’ inherent nature is that they like to explore new things and spend their leisure time engaging in various tourismrelated activities such as enjoying the outdoors, sunbathing, singing, learning about a new culture, and watching sports, etc. It is recommended that before making any effort to popularise the tourism of any country and formulate policies, the different forms of tourists and their needs and behaviour are assessed. Therefore, the main objective of Chapter 2 is to highlight the different forms of tourism options in Bangladesh. It is evident that different forms of tourism, depend on different types of activities, which are expected to significantly impact the Bangladeshi economy, such as economic impact, social benefit, and environmental benefit (Roy & Roy, 2015). The various aspects of the tourism industry should be considered with utmost priority, and policy recommendations should be foreseen accordingly. For example, seaside tourism is a common type of tourism encompassing an exceptional resource blend for recreation at the edge of land and sea, offering amenities such as water, beaches, scenic beauty, marine biodiversity,

4

S. B. Amin

diversified cultural and historical heritage, healthy food, and usually good infrastructure. The seaside tourism industry may become an opportunity for emerging countries of the world to reduce poverty through the generation of income and employment and diversify the economy. This is especially true for a country like Bangladesh, which aims to end extreme poverty by 2030. Solak and Amin (2020) highlight that tea tourism, a form of eco-tourism, is a significant tourism concept associated with tea gardens. South Asian countries like India and Bangladesh can also explore the possibility of popularising tea tourism. Moreover, rural tourism is another type of tourism, which can offer tourists explore the Bangladeshi cultures and traditions, events, food, and handicrafts, which are not available in the city areas. Chapter 3 provides a brief history and overview of tourism in Bangladesh. Roy and Roy (2015) argue that the variety of tourist spots and subsequent policies bring sustainable economic benefits in developing and emerging countries. Therefore, Bangladesh’s tourism industry is recognised as one of the crucial drivers of the economy, and accordingly for developing a sustainable tourism industry, tourism-friendly policies should be implemented in Bangladesh. However, before any policy measurement and decision-making, the country’s existing natural and economic resources should be accounted for to ensure proper, accurate, and pre-sighted policy measurement. Laws (2003) states that the tourist attractions and the image of any country can influence the tourists to make decisions on their destinations. Thus, depicting the overall scenario of Bangladesh’s tourism areas in this chapter provides a crystalclear idea for knowledge gathering and policy measurement. The tourism industry of Bangladesh has much to offer to its local as well as foreign travellers. Elena et al. (2012) find that Bangladesh is renowned for its scenic beauty, rich cultural legacy, and friendliness of the people from the ancient periods. Besides, tourism is regarded as one of the profitable sectors in Bangladesh. The country has much more destinations to attract domestic and international tourists, such as archaeological sites, historical mosques and monuments, beaches, forests, and tribal people, wildlife, and most seaside spots. Existing literature reveals that the tourism industry has both positive and negative socio-economic impacts on the host communities

1 Introduction

5

(Brida et al., 2013; Njoya & Seetaram, 2017; Payne & Mervar, 2010). Chapter 4 critically analyses the significance of tourism towards the economy in general. The likely long-term impact of tourism on some key macroeconomic indicators such as economic growth, inequality, foreign earnings, and employment generation has been assessed by analysing secondary information and conducting an empirical exercise. Using the robust time-series econometric techniques, it has been observed that an increase in tourism can positively influence Bangladesh’s economic growth and employment generation. It is also found that escalation in tourism activities does not bring any notable variation on Bangladesh’s income inequality situation. Moreover, the expansion of tourism activities tends to appreciate the exchange rate, reducing manufacturing competitiveness in the international market. The amalgamation of both types of analysis has helped suggest suitable policies for achieving a sustainable tourism industry in Bangladesh and overall economic development. Although the tourism industry can generate a substantially large amount of money in the Bangladesh economy, the country is facing socio-economic and institutional challenges and barriers that are slowing down the industry’s growth. Therefore, emphasis should be given to strengthening the tourism industry by removing the obstacles in developing this industry. To get a better insight into the existing barriers of the Bangladesh tourism industry, Chapter 5 highlights the drawbacks of Bangladesh’s tourism industry. It is argued that the rudimentary development initiative, people’s perception of tourism and the country’s culture hindered the industry’s development. For example, firstly, the recreational activities on the beach are very scanty. Tourists do not find any nightlife activities after spending the day at the beach but to sleep in hotel rooms. Secondly, Bangladesh’s conservative culture is an obstacle to tourism sector development, such as the lack of alcohol available for foreign tourists. Thirdly, the country’s necessary infrastructure is a matter of great concern for local and international tourists. Fourthly, the lack of communal support acts as a significant barrier to the development of the tourism industry. Skilled workers from the local community are responsible for service quality and customer satisfaction, which have been critical concepts in the tourism industry

6

S. B. Amin

(Lee et al., 2001). It is also evident that many people in the tourist areas are illiterate and cannot correctly guide tourists to their destinations. The law-and-order situation is also a very decisive hurdle for sustainable tourism development in Bangladesh. Since the tourism industry’s development is crucial for economic gain, earning foreign currency, and upholding the country’s image in the international arena; hence, an integrated plan for this industry’s development is the demand of time. Different public and private institutions need to work together with all the stakeholders involved in the tourism industry. This requires significant initiatives, sound management, and sincere efforts. Chapter 6 discusses the role of public and private involvement in the tourism industry and argues the importance of Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) for the Bangladesh tourism industry. Formulating an optimal tourism policy is often a cumbersome procedure for an individual entity. Therefore, policies promoting increasing PPPs can play an essential role in the strengthening of the tourism industry. For example, the PPPs in the tourism industry could be developed through public-private strategies, joint proposals of regulations, growing businesses together, etc. Grigorescu (2008) and Haddadi and Khodadadpoor (2015) argue that private sector investment through different public-private partnerships is an effective way to provide the necessary capital and promote efficiency. To maximise Bangladesh’s tourism potentials, it is crucial to further reinvigorate the PPPs initiative in Bangladesh to address infrastructure investment constraints in Bangladesh. Coordination among the government, private sector, travel agencies, airline companies, and hotels is critical for attracting more tourists. Chapter 7 discusses the South Asian tourism overview with a few stylised facts and highlights the significance of developing a regional tourism integration within the region. Tourism is a crucial driver of socio-economic development, and South Asia is no exception. The promotion of the tourism industry has become a policy priority for most of the countries in the world. The South Asian region is also blessed with enormous tourism potentials, and the tourist attractions of this region offer ample scope for regional economic development (Pillai, 2017). However, tourism in the South Asian region has been operating at suboptimal levels for an extended period. Regional integration can play an

1 Introduction

7

essential role in the development of sustainable tourism in this region. Hall and Jones (1999) argue that “the absence of integrated transport infrastructure in South Asia in terms of cross-border road and rail links, limited air connectivity between major cities, and lack of transit facilities within the region are a major constraint to intraregional tourism”. Findlay and Goldstein (2004) point out that regional integration lowers trade costs, attracts privatisation and promotes tourism. A remarkable restraint is the existing visa regime, as many countries have a burdensome visa-processing environment (Kanungo, 2018). A uniform visa through regional integration can allow tourists to visit all the countries within this region and certainly benefit a country like Bangladesh. The region can adopt policies like the European countries and offer tour packages for all the countries. Developing tourism initiatives on a regional basis is gaining momentum as uniform branding and marketing strategies can strengthen the competitiveness of tourism destinations, which benefits the individual country and the region as a whole. Ease of travel will influence heavily in the traveller’s decision to patronise a particular tourist destination since the expenditure is a key consideration for most tourists. Chapter 8 discusses globalisation’s issue and concept with a possible linkage with the tourism industry and the other relevant sectors. Available data shows a positive trend for both globalisation and the expansion of the tourism industry. Since today’s world is integrated and interdependent, many external forces may represent opportunities and threats. Globalisation can ease communication and reduce travel barriers, significantly increasing the tourist’s arrival. Conversely, higher tourism can develop the host nation’s communication system with the rest of the world, and through the increase in the export of tourism-related products, it can affect globalisation positively. Moreover, globalisation-oriented tourism may also expose the economy to develop unplanned urbanisation and increase fossil fuel consumption, all of which are expected to affect the environment negatively. We examine the nexus between globalisation and tourism by applying a dynamic simulation technique for Bangladesh’s economy. Through the simulation analysis, we show that tourism can be a pathway for Bangladesh to increase the current globalisation trend’s benefits.

8

S. B. Amin

However, it has also been observed that an increase in tourism can intensify the use of energy consumption and CO2 emissions in the near future. Therefore, we recommend some policies that can help mitigate the adverse effects of greater energy use and CO2 emissions and maximise the positive impact of globalisation. Finally, Chapter 9 proposes a conceptual model based on each chapter’s analysis for the sustainable development of the tourism industry in Bangladesh.

References Amin, S. B., Kabir, F. A., & Khan, F. (2020). Tourism and energy nexus in selected South Asian countries: A panel study. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(16), 1963–1967. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2019.1638354. Amin, S. B. (2010). Tourism development and economic growth in Bangladesh: An application of ARDL testing approach. Bank Parikrama, 34–35, 60–82. Amin, S. B., & Rahman, S. (2019). Linkages between tourism and energy sector in Bangladesh. In Energy resources in Bangladesh. Springer. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02919-7_27 Brida, J., Lanzilotta, B., & Sebestian, J. (2013). A nonlinear approach to the tourism-led growth hypothesis: The case of the Mercosur. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(7), 647–666. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2013.868414 Elena, M., Lee, M. H., Suhartono, H., Hossein, I., Rahman, N. H. A., & Bazilah, N. A. (2012). Fuzzy series and sarima model for forecasting tourist arrivals to Bali. Technology Journal, 57 (1), 69–81. https://doi.org/10.11113/ jt.v57.1524 Grigorescu, M. (2008). Models of public-private partnership projects in tourism industry (MPRA Paper No. 25094). Retrieved from http://mpra.ub.uni-mue nchen.de/25094/ Findlay, C., & Goldstein, A. (2004). Liberalization and foreign direct investment in Asia transport systems: The case of aviation. Asian Development Review, 21(1), 37–65. Retrieved from https://www.semanticscholar.org/ paper/Liberalization-and-Foreign-Direct-Investment-in-The-Findlay-Goldst ein/d8348093d1d4e12ce9eb194f9b004568194b8db9

1 Introduction

9

Haddadi, M., & Khodadadpoor, M. (2015). The role of public-private partnership contracts in tourism industry development. International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences, 4 (1), 234–244. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJAREMS/v4-i1/1628 Hall, R., & Jones, C. (1999). Why do some countries produce so much more output per worker than others? Quarterly Journals of Economics, 114 (1), 83– 116. https://doi.org/10.3386/w6564 Kanungo, A. K. (2018). Regional integration in service in South Asia: Opportunities and constraints. International Studies, 55 (2), 167–193. https://doi. org/10.1177/0020881718790891 Laws, E. (2003). Tourism marketing: Quality and service management perspectives. Thomson Learning. Lee, J., Graefe, A. R., & Burns, R. C. (2001). Service quality, satisfaction, and behavioral intention among forest visitors. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 17 (1), 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1300/J073v17n01_05 Mason, P., & Cheyne, J. (2000). Residents’ attitudes to proposed tourism development. Annals of Tourism Research, 27 (2), 391–411. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/s0160-7383(99)00084-5 Njoya, E. T., & Seetaram, N. (2017). Tourism contribution to poverty alleviation in Kenya: a dynamic computable general equilibrium analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 57 (4), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728751770 0317 Payne, J. E., & Mervar, A. (2010). The tourism–growth nexus in Croatia. Tourism Economics, 16 (4), 1089–1094. https://doi.org/10.5367/te.2010. 0014 Pillai, K. R. (2017). Tourism in South Asia: An economic leverage to India. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research., 22(09), 709–719. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10941665.2017.1331924 Raina, A. K., & Agarwal, S. K. (2004). The essence of tourism development: Dynamics, philosophy, and strategies. Sarup & Sons. Roy, S. C., & Roy, M. (2015). Tourism in Bangladesh: Present status and future prospects. International Journal of Management Science and Business Administration, 1(8), 53–61. https://doi.org/10.18775/ijmsba.1849-56645419.2014.18.1006 Solak, B. B., & Amin, S. B. (2020). Tea tourism and the importance of tea tourists’ guidance in India. In Cases on tour guide practices for alternative tourism (pp. 119–131s). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-79983725-1.ch007 WTTC. (2019). World travel and tourism Council. Travel and tourism economic impact 2019: World . World Travel and Tourism Council.

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

2.1

Introduction

This chapter commences with a brief discussion of tourism’s definition and its classifications of different forms of tourism in Bangladesh to give a clear insight into the tourism industry in Bangladesh to prospective travellers and policymakers.

2.1.1 Tourism Definition The definition of tourism does not have any uniform structure as there is no harmony about tourism among different institutions. Every institution defines “Tourism” differently; however, when it comes to explaining it, the definition of tourism can be summed up as follows. According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), “tourism comprises the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business, and

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. B. Amin, The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4_2

11

12

S. B. Amin

other purposes. The UNWTO has also outlined three criteria which must be met in order to characterize a trip as belonging to tourism”.1 Mathieson and Wall (1982, p. 1) put forward another definition of tourism. According to them, tourism is “the temporary movement of people to destinations outside their normal place of work and residence, the activities undertaken during their stay in those destinations and the facilities created to cater to their needs”. Kodhyat (1983, p. 4) defines tourism as: “tourism was traveling from one place to another, temporary, done individually or in groups, in an effort to seek a balance or a harmony and the happiness to the environment in the social, cultural, natural and the science”. Accordingly, the tourism industry is linked with other industries through a combination of activities that provide transportation, accommodation, food, and various hospitality services to individuals and travellers. The tourism industry’s most significant economic feature is that it contributes to five high priority goals: the generation of income, employment generation, foreign exchange earnings, improvement of the living standards, and poverty reduction.2 Following the standard literature, we divide tourism into two categories and many forms based on the tourists’ purpose and the tourism opportunities in Bangladesh. Figure 2.1 shows tourism classification and associated forms of tourism.

2.1.2 Domestic Tourism Domestic tourism is broadly defined as the tourism activities of citizens of one country travelling inside their own country, and it does not entail the crossing of international borders at any entry points. It is the first form of tourism practised worldwide and it is evident that people used to visit friends, relatives, and religious places (Rogerson & Lisa, 2005). On the contrary, the concept of mass domestic tourism has recently developed due to government initiatives to promote domestic tourism associated with the higher per capita income in many countries. 1

The three criteria involve a displacement outside the regular lifestyle, keeping away from officially paid trips, and aiming to spend time with or without an overnight stay. 2 This definition is previously used in Amin et al. (2020).

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

13

Tourism

Domestic

International

Outbound

Inbound

Heritage Tourism Religious Tourism Sports Tourism Seaside Tourism Tea Tourism Rural Tourism Eco-Tourism Others -Culinary Tourism -Business/Industry Tourism -Cultural Tourism -Incentive Tourism

Fig. 2.1 Tourism Classification (Source Author’s own elaboration)

According to the formal definition of UNWTO, “a person must be away from their usual place of residence (but still in their home country) for at least one night to qualify as a domestic tourist ”. Besides, Bhatia (2006) asserts that “in domestic tourism, people travel outside their normal domicile to certain other areas within the country as contrasted with travelling outside the boundaries of the country as in international tourism”. The 2019 World Travel & Tourism Council’s (WTTC) statistics show that about 73 per cent of the tourism spendings in 2018 came from domestic tourism.

14

S. B. Amin

Domestic tourism spendings from the world, South Asia, and Southeast Asia in 2018 stood at 4.7, 7.10, and 10.30 per cent, respectively.

2.1.3 International Tourism In this modern era of globalisation, international tourism has gained substantial thrust. In 1950, global international tourist arrivals were 25.20 million, whereas, in 2018, the number was 1.40 billion, which indicated a 56-fold increase. From an economic perspective, international tourism is an essential factor strongly related to an economy’s foreign earnings. According to the UNWTO, “international tourism comprises the activities of individuals travelling to and staying at places outside their usual permanent places of residence for a period not exceeding 12 months for leisure, business, and other purposes”.

2.1.3.1 Inbound and Outbound Tourism Inbound tourism is recognised to be the activities of visitors travelling to a particular country from another country outside of their regular atmosphere and residing there no longer than 12 successive months for leisure, business, or other purposes (Vanhove, 2005). On contrary, outbound tourism implies the tourism activities by the tourists by leaving the home country to travel globally for not more than one succeeding year for the same purposes mentioned above. For instance, The European Union (EU) defines outbound tourism as: “visits by residents of a country outside that country”.

2.2

Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

2.2.1 Heritage Tourism Heritage is a heterogeneous concept that includes natural, cultural, and manmade emblems as classified by UNESCO. Kelly (2009) argues that

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

15

the possibility of heritage is extensive in categories as it may be reserved as facets of people, culture, artificial environment, and natural landscapes. Silberberg (1995) defines heritage tourism as a move outside the local community to explore historical, lifestyle, and heritage values in various cities. So, heritage tourism can be defined in terms of practices and material and immaterial possessions that are passed down from one generation to another. The classification of heritage tourism is listed in Table A.1 in the Appendix. Moreover, tourists’ attention towards different heritage places is gaining momentum nowadays because of its potentials and popularity (Bhuiyan & Darda, 2019). Borrowing a definition from the National Trust for Historic Preservation,3 heritage tourism can be defined as, “traveling to experience the places, artefacts, and activities that authentically represent the stories and people of the past and present. It includes cultural, historical, and natural resources”. Therefore, heritage and associated history have always been longstanding elements of the tourism industry. Bangladesh is a land of heritage, history, and natural beauty that gives it uniqueness. The country has thousands of years old heritage sites bearing the testimonials of ancient history as, over the past four thousand years, many rulers from the world’s various areas have ruled over these lands. The remnants of their rule remain in the country in the form of incredible city structures and monuments.4 Numerous monuments, archaeological and historical sites are scattered around the country, each with its own story (Table 2.1). A total of 518 archaeological sites are preserved by the Bangladesh government (Archaeological Department, Bangladesh). Among those, UNESCO listed Paharpur Buddhist Monastery and Bagerhat Mosque City as World Heritage Sites in 1985. Moreover, UNESCO included the Sundarbans in the list of World Natural Heritage Site in 1997. Additionally, five more places in Bangladesh were included in the list of possible World Heritage Sites at the 36th meeting of the World Heritage Committee held in 2014. 3 For more details, see: https://www.thedailystar.net/lifestyle/special-feature/heritage-tourism76991. 4 For more details, see: Haque, A. K. M. Mokammel (2003), “What ails Tourism in Bangladesh?”, Observer Magazine, October 6, p. 15.

16

S. B. Amin

Table 2.1 List of Archaeological Sites Preserved by the Archaeological Department Division

Number of archaeological sites

Rajshahi Rangpur Khulna Barishal Dhaka Mymensingh Chattogram (Chittagong)5 Sylhet Total

150 58 91 22 105 18 59 15 518

Source Archaeological Department, Bangladesh (http://www.archaeology.gov.bd/ site/page/5db06c33-7e57-471c-a344-12fefee84740/-)

These places include Mahasthangarh and its environs (Bogura), Lalmai Mainamati Group of Monuments (Cumilla), Lalbagh Fort (Dhaka), Halud Bihar (Naogaon), and Jaggadal Bihar (Rajshahi).6 Another significant attractive archaeological location is ‘Panam Nagar’ or ‘Panam City’ situated in Sonargaon, Narayanganj, an ancient Bengal city during the sultanic period (Medieval age).7 To revisit ancient Bengal’s history, tourists can visit Paharpur Buddhist Monastery or Somapura Mahavihara, built by Emperor Dharmapala8 about one thousand two hundred years ago. Apart from Buddhist religion and philosophy, students from home and abroad used to visit these Buddhist monasteries to practice medical science, chemistry, astronomy, 5

The name of Chittagong division has recently been changed to Chattogram division by Government of Bangladesh (http://www.theindependentbd.com/post/144248). 6 For more details, see: http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/BD. 7 According to World Monuments Fund, “as the capital of the fifteenth-century Bengal ruler Isa Khan, and once an important trading and political centre, Sonargaon boasts architecture of the Sultanate, Mughal, and British Colonial periods. The Sonargaon historic city, located near Dhaka’s present-day capital, includes several Mughal monuments-among them the Sonakanda River Fort, the Panch Pir Mazar Shrine, and Ibrahim’s and Abdul Hamid’s Mosque. British colonial architecture preserved in Sonargaon includes the Ananda Mohan Piddar House, and other street-front houses”. However, Sonargaon-Panam City is classified as one of the most threatened heritage sites in 2006 and also not listed in the UNESCO heritage site due to preliminary renovation work. 8 For more details, see: https://www.livehistoryindia.com/snapshort-histories/2017/08/01/thelord-of-the-north.

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

17

agricultural technology, mathematics, etc. The name Paharpur came from ‘hill’ because the embankment looked like a 72- to 80-feet-high hill to the locals, and later, it became known as Paharpur. According to archaeologists, the Pala period Buddhist monastery was built on a Jain monastery in the fifth century. This is a beautiful heritage site for tourists as they can enjoy the ancient site and study ancient Bengal history. Another beautiful symbol of medieval Bengal during the sultanic period is the City of Mosques, Bagerhat, which describes a vital episode in Bengal history. According to UNESCO, “situated in the suburbs of Bagerhat, at the meeting-point of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, this ancient city, formerly known as Khalifatabad, was founded by the Turkish general Ulugh Khan Jahan in the fifteenth century. The city’s infrastructure reveals considerable technical skill and an exceptional number of mosques and early Islamic monuments, many built of brick, can be seen there ”.9 Besides, tourists can visit and enjoy architectural engineering and history latent with Khan Jahan Ali’s Samadhi, Singra Mosque, Nine Dome Mosque, Tara Mosque, etc. There are 360 mosques in the city, most of which are utterly exceptional and unique in design. This is an excellent heritage tourism site in Bangladesh with a high potential of attracting domestic and international tourists. The Mughal Empire occupied Dhaka’s capital city, formerly known as Jahangirnagar, for centuries and the Mughal rulers adorned the city with several exquisite mosques, mausoleums, and palaces. One prime example of a remnant of the Mughal rule is the Aurangabad Fort, known commonly as Lalbagh Fort. The construction of the fort was underway in 1678 by Mughal Subahdar Muhammad Azam Shah, the son of Emperor Aurangzeb and later emperor himself. His successor, Shaista Khan, did not finish the work, although he remained in Dhaka up to 1688. Bibi Pari’s mausoleum consists of three unique structures, including the governor’s residence, a two-storied building, the Audience Hall, and the Hammam. There are also several secret tunnels inside the Lalbagh Fort. Another residue of Mughal heritage is the Ahsan Manzil, the Dhaka Nawab Family’s official residential palace. It was built in the Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture between 1859 and 1872. Ahsan 9

For more details, see: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/321.

18

S. B. Amin

Manzil is an architectural treasure that has seen several historical events in Bangladesh. In many cases, the Nawabs of Dhaka used to conduct their courtly affairs here.10 The Sundarbans, the home to the world-famous Royal Bengal Tiger and the biggest mangrove forest globally, is the only natural world heritage site in Bangladesh, as declared by UNESCO in 1997. There are many species of trees in the Sundarbans, such as Sundari, Gewa, Garan, Keora, Bain, and Pashur. Most of the trees in the Sundarbans have upward breathing roots because of the saline water, which is a unique forest character. As a heritage site, the Sundarbans holds immense potential for tourism destinations.11 Table 2.2 has listed the World Heritage Sites in Bangladesh.

2.2.2 Religious Tourism Religious tourism is a primitive form of tourism where people travel alone or in groups for pilgrimage and missionary purposes for centuries. Travelling to sacred places of the distant past did not have contemporary conveniences; however, it had the same religious enthusiasm (Tala & Padurean, 2008; Terzidou, 2010). Today, millions of people travel all over the world in quest of spiritual peace, reaching places considered holy and worshipped as such. Religious tourism has a significant impact on the destination country that can bring positive development to the country by creating mutual respect and understanding among different countries and religions and stimulating people’s mobility through trade, cultural exchange, and many other dimensions. People celebrate different festivals and events based on various religious values, beliefs, traditions, customs, and rituals. Participating in these events helps create a sense of bonding among people of different cultural backgrounds and enhance mutual understanding and respect.

10

For more details, see: https://www.bsf.org.bd/bangladesh-an-overview/lalbagh-fort/, https:// www.bsf.org.bd/bangladesh-an-overview/ahsan-manzil/. 11 For more details, see: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798/.

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

19

Table 2.2 List of World Heritage Sites in Bangladesh Archaeological sites

Location

Category

Year of recognition

Historic Mosque City of Bagerhat

Bagerhat District, Khulna Division

Cultural

1985

Ruins of the Buddhist Bihar at Paharpur

Naogaon District, Rajshahi Division

Cultural

1985

Sundarbans: The Abode of The Royal Bengal Tigers

Khulna Division

Natural

1997

Halud Bihar

Rajshahi Division

Cultural

1999

Jaggadala Bihar

Rajshahi Division

Cultural

1999

Lalbagh Fort

Dhaka Division

Cultural

1999

Mahasthangarh and its Environs

Rajshahi Division

Cultural

1999

The Lalmai-Mainamati Group of monuments

Cumilla District

Cultural

1999

Status Listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO Listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO Listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO Proposed for listing Proposed for listing Proposed for listing Proposed for listing Proposed for listing

Source UNESCO (https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/state=bd and https:// whc.unesco.org/en/list/321)

Bangladesh is an ideal place for Islamic tourism as Islam is the religion of most people in Bangladesh, and the country is the fourthbiggest Muslim majority nation in the world.12 Dhaka is home to 6,000

12

For more details, see: https://www.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/economy/bangladesh-can-att ract-muslim-tourists-state-minister-says-1571151785.

20

S. B. Amin

mosques and is often referred to as the city of mosques.13 Bangladesh also hosts the most prominent annual congregation of Tablighi Jamaat on the banks of the Turag River, Dhaka, since 1967, which also opens up income opportunities to many people. Every year thousands of Muslims and international tourists from many different countries gather to attend this holy event. Having realised the significance of religious tourism in Bangladesh, the Islamic Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (IESCO), an affiliate of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), has declared Dhaka as the capital of the Asian region of Islamic culture for 2012. Besides, the OIC has announced Dhaka as a tourist city for 2019 at the 10th Islamic Conference of Tourism Ministers, Dhaka, in 2018 and is expected to provide 13 BDT million to Bangladesh to preserve the Islamic heritage. This declaration and financial assistance would renovate and equip the traditional mosques and increase communication with OIC member countries and enhance mutual relations.14 Considering the growing significance and expansion of halal tourism, Bangladesh can be one of the most popular destinations for Muslim tourists. Halal tourism is an excellent scope for Bangladesh to encourage its tourism industry as the country has many aspects that Muslim travellers want like halal food, Islamic heritage, mosques, etc. By developing Muslim friendly beaches, resorts, and hotels, Bangladesh can unveil this new horizon of tourism for sustainable development. One of the Muslim nation’s significant religious events is fasting during the month of Ramadan. Throughout the day, Muslims perform fasting, which is believed to be a form of prayer, and break their fast at dusk in a festive atmosphere called Iftar. During Iftar, Muslims prepare 13

Some of the notable and historical mosques in Bangladesh are Baitul Mukarram National Mosque (Dhaka), Tara Mosque (Dhaka), Saat Gambuj Mosque (Dhaka), Choto Sona Mosque (Chapai Nawabganj), Bagha Mosque (Rajshahi), Kushumba Mosque (Rajshahi), Sixty Dome Mosque (Bagerhat), Baitul Aman Jame Mosque and Eidgah Complex (Barishal), Bazars Shahi Mashjid (Noakhali), Sura Mosque (Dinajpur), Tetulia Jami Mosque (Tetulia), Goaldi Mosque (Sonargaon), Chunakhola Mosque (Bagerhat), Pagla Jame Mosque (Sunamganj), Chandanpura Mosque (Chattogram), Tita Kha Jame Mosque (Lakshmipur), Jamalpur Jamidarbari Mosque (Rangpur), Baba Adam Mosque (Munshiganj), and Star Mosque (Dhaka). 14 For more details, see: https://www.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/national/oic-chooses-dhaka-ascity-of-tourism-for-2019-1517931104 and https://www.arabnews.com/node/1524806/world.

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

21

a variety of food items, which is one of the traditions of the Muslim community in Bangladesh, like the other Muslim countries. Especially, Chawk Bazar in Old Dhaka of the capital holds a traditional Iftar Bazar, one of the massive Iftar Bazars in Bangladesh. The Iftar Bazar is bustling throughout the month of Ramadan, and people from all over the country visit here to buy Iftar items. Therefore, potential tourism can be developed focusing on this Ramadan and Iftar festival of the Muslim community, representing the culture and tradition of this country at home and abroad. The history of the Eid festival in Bangladesh is also closely linked to the history of the arrival of Muslims in this country. It can be said that people of all walks of life in this country have been celebrating Eid spontaneously for thousands of years with a religious, social, and traditional spirit. Hinduism is the second-largest religion in Bangladesh. After the partition of 1947, many Hindu people migrated to India, who still carry a soft corner for their ancestral home. Bangladesh may respect their sentiments and formulate policies in easing the travel restrictions to allow them to visit the country. There are many religious places for Hinduism followers in the country, like the temples where the tourists can stay for prayer and carry out religious rituals. During Durga Puja, the main religious festival of Bengali Hindus, everyone joins the celebration unanimously regardless of race, religion, and caste. Such a universal feeling of all people’s union is scarce to be seen and can encourage tourists from India and Nepal to visit Bangladesh. These tourists can also visit many temples located in the country like Dhakeshwari National Temple (Old Dhaka), Adinath Temple (Cox’s Bazar), Sri Sri Lokenath Brahmachari Ashram, Bardi (Narayanganj), Kantajew Temple (Dinajpur), Chandranath Temple (Chattogram), Ramna Kali Temple (Dhaka), Joy Kali Temple (Dhaka), Sri Chaitanya Temple (Sylhet), and Ramakrishna Mission (Dhaka). Christians have been living in Bangladesh for many years with their own belief or faith. They have their own culture, festivals, lifestyles that are unique from others. Some notable Christian churches include St. Mary’s Cathedral (Dhaka), Armenian Church (Dhaka),15 Oxford 15

For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/dhaka/98.

22

S. B. Amin

Mission Church,16 etc. Historically, many Christian preachers came to Bangladesh for social service, education, and humanity through the Portuguese entrance in 1510. The Christian community has played a significant role in the country’s education sector. Father Richard William Timm, C.S.C., won the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Peace for his contribution as an educator in Bangladesh. There are many popular missionary schools and colleges in Bangladesh such as Notre Dame College, Holy Cross College, AG (Assemblies of God) Church School, Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) School run by the missionary authorities. These institutions’ religious fathers, brothers, and sisters have been working tirelessly in producing better human resources for future development. These educational institutions bear the symbol of history for Christian visitors. So, Christian tourists from various countries can visit these places along with enjoying other tourist attractions. Several Buddhist archaeological sites and holy places are prominent in Bangladesh and attract many international and domestic tourists. More than 65 per cent of the Buddhist population live in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) region, where it is the Chakma, Marma, and other tribal people’s main faith. Dharmarajika Buddha Bihara, Mahasthangarh, Paharpur Mahabihara, Jagaddala Bihara, Halud Bihara, Vasu Bihara, Shalban Bihara, Ananda Bihara, Baoji Bihara, Golden Temple, etc. are the other historical sites for Buddhist tourists. Tourists from Japan, India, Myanmar, Tibet, China, Thailand, and many practising tourists come to Bangladesh to visit these sacred sites. The traditional Sangrai water festival also spreads a wave of festivity among the CHT people and attracts many tourists.

2.2.3 Sports Tourism The existence of sports tourism dates back to the ancient Olympic Games in 776 BC. Since then, sports and tourism have become a

16

For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/cat/landmarks/69.

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

23

global phenomenon due to advances in transportation and people’s everincreasing interest in sports (Jackson & Weed, 2003). Standeven and De Knop (1999) describe sports tourism as all forms of outdoor physical activities that participate in a casual or organised way that involves travel away from home. Weed and Bull (2004) provide a more coherent explanation to understand sports tourism’s concept by defining it as an occurrence “arising from the unique interaction of activity, people, and place”. From Bangladesh’s context, sports tourism can be looked at from three sub-categories: (i) sports involvement tourism, (ii) sports training, and (iii) sports events. The first category focuses on tourist groups for whom sports is the main motive of the trip. For example, Plas-Y-Brenin in the UK offers a variety of water and mountain-based sports. It also offers two-day introductory courses for newcomers, including all essential equipment and constant guidance from skilled personnel. On the contrary, mountaineering, hill walking, kayaking, canoeing, skiing, trail biking, and orienteering are being offered at Goa in India and Sri Lanka. Cox’s Bazar, the focal point of Bangladesh tourism already offers a few of these outdoor activities, especially surfing, jet ski, parasailing, and many more. Among others, surfing is becoming a trendy sport in Cox’s Bazar, and with adequate planning and development, Cox’s Bazar can become the next surfing destination for many tourists and professional surfers of the world. Sports training, the second category, is much confined compared to the earlier type of sports tourism. It constitutes those tourism tours where the primary purpose of the visit is to attend a sports training programme and vary from a weekend training course on a boat sailing to an exclusive drill campground at height for a national sports team (Weed, 2001). In Bangladesh, trainers from different fields visit the country to provide training programmes to the national athletes. This tourism category can play a vital role in stimulating domestic tourism for a country like Bangladesh. The third category focuses on sports events, where the sole purpose of going overseas is to participate in a sporting event either as a participant or a spectator. Sports events can array in size from mega-events

24

S. B. Amin

Table 2.3 Various Types of Cricket Events in Bangladesh Type of event Megaevent Distinct event Hallmark event Big city event

Example of event

Target market

Media interest

World Cup, Asia Cup Test/ODI Series

Global

Global Television

Bangladesh Premier League (BPL) Domestic League

World International/National Regional/National Television World National Television

Local/Regional

Local Television

Source Author’s compilation

like the Olympics to the smallest local events such as marathon competition. While categorising the sports events, Law (1993) and Bramwell (1997) define the term mega-event as international sporting events with a large prize pool and a global audience. These events tend to be very high profile and significantly impact the host nation’s image and economy. These events are also viewed as essential assets to tourism development as they directly attract spectators and indirectly increase general visitation. Apart from the mega-events, there can be hallmark events depending on the target market and media’s interest (Roche, 2001). Bangladesh, being a cricket-playing nation, takes advantage of different sub-categories of sports tourism. It often hosts various cricket tournaments and events (Table 2.3), which help to earn significant tourism revenue since cricket is enthusiastic and media crews and participants travel to Bangladesh to watch the event live.17 However, organising mega-event at this stage of the transitional developmental journey for Bangladesh may not be recommended due to the opportunity cost associated with the infrastructural development related to the sports-related activities and the subsequent possibility of crowding out investment from the other potential sectors. There is also a growing concern regarding the effectiveness of

17

Sports tourism brings some economic advantages for the host countries, such as increased government revenue, creation of jobs, tourist spendings, and business development. Besides, the development of sports tourism in the host country has an immense socio-economic impact that further helps boost the community’s growth (Wang, 2020).

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

25

these mega-events as they might fail to create any impact on the inclusive growth and the maintenance cost of the establishments like stadiums.18

2.2.4 Seaside Tourism Seaside or coastal tourism is a kind of tourism that gives tourists a unique interaction between land and sea. It is the tourism that offers scenic beauty, rich, and diversified biodiversity with historical heritage, and healthy food. This tourism includes different recreational activities such as swimming, surfing, sunbathing, coastal walks, fishing, and sea adventure by boats. Amin et al. (2019) highlight that the growth of seaside tourism is rising at a much faster rate worldwide. The reason behind such an increasing rate is that coastal tourism activity contributes to the national economy and improves the local community’s socio-economic aspects. At present, 12 out of 15 world’s top tourist destinations are seaside areas. Bangladesh is a riverine country blessed with the longest unbroken sandy sea beach of the world (120 kilometres long), the biggest mangrove forest and other swamp forests, islands, and many other aesthetically beautiful places, hold the immense potential of developing the seaside tourism industry. Seaside tourism in Bangladesh, especially in Cox’s Bazar, can influence the local community greatly, such as creating local jobs, developing infrastructures, improved communication, quality lives, education, improved health care system, reducing rural–urban migration, and many more. Amin et al. (2019) conduct a study on the impact of seaside tourism on the host community in Bangladesh by using the stratified random sampling technique, factor analysis approach, and ANOVA regression analysis. They reveal that seaside tourism has a significant impact on the socio-economic development of the Cox’s Bazar host community as nearly 80 per cent of local inhabitants are benefitted both socially and economically from the seaside tourism. They point out that local

18

For more details, see: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/06/world-cup-football-smart-inv estment-russia-host/.

26

S. B. Amin

inhabitants receive benefits in job creation, rise in income, better education, gender equality, poverty alleviation, better standard of living, and new infrastructure investment. The findings highlight the importance of private participation in policy formulation to develop the seaside tourism industry further.

2.2.5 Tea Tourism Due to the rich and intriguing historic discussion regarding tea, it is known as a beverage or a component of the meal, a plant, an agricultural product, an industry, etc. Joliffe (2007) argues that there is a close connection between tea and the tourism industry, as tea consumption is linked to many historical and cultural aspects. Smith (1977) mentions that tea tourism can be considered part of cultural and culinary tourism and a particular type of niche tourism for enthusiastic tourists. As a commodity, tea acts a conveyer of cultures and traditions from one society to another. Generally, it has been observed that tourists show an interest in exploring different cuisines and culinary aspects, such as experiencing foods and drinks from different societies. As a beverage, tea is parallel with other food and drink-related tourisms (e.g., wine tourism) and has a significant momentum in recent times. Therefore, tea tourism can be defined as experiencing the natural beauty of the tea gardens and surroundings, visiting the historical sites, which reflects the histories of tea cultivation, exploring cultures and traditions of the surrounding communities, visiting the modern tea factories, and even trying plucking tea leaves, attending special events on tea such as tea exhibitions, etc. Tea is grown in three districts in Bangladesh, namely, Sylhet, Chattogram, and Panchagarh due to the favourable climatic condition within these districts. Sylhet, having a total of 138 tea gardens, is Bangladesh’s tea capital and is an established tourist destination. Sreemangal in Sylhet is the most established spot to promote tea tourism in Bangladesh. Tourists travelling to this area will be greeted by countless tea gardens stretching for miles of hilly areas. Luxury resorts such as the Grand Sultan, the Palace are located just behind the tea gardens and provide an excellent opportunity to the tourists to enjoy the beauty of the tea

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

27

gardens. Although Chattogram is well-known as a sea-port city, the division has countless lush green hills lined with tea plants, which make it an ideal location to promote tea tourism. Some notable tea estates include Fatikchhari, Rangunia, Patia, Bashkhali, and Kaptai. Panchagarh is now recognised as the third-largest tea producing district in Bangladesh after Sylhet and Chattogram. From an economic standpoint, tea tourism can play a crucial role in rural development initiatives in tea-generating nations (Solak & Amin, 2020). China, Sri Lanka, India, and Kenya are already capitalising on tea tourism, and hence, following their examples, Bangladesh can also capitalise on the existing resources. For instance, the industry provides sufficient employment opportunities for the rural population in marketing, plantation, processing, and ancillary industries. The country currently has 166 commercial tea estates and employs over 300,000 people, with 75 per cent of the workers being women. Moreover, in 2019, Bangladesh has also experienced the highest tea production of 96.08 million kg in the country’s tea production history. Hence, the tea tourism industry’s development can add a new dimension of earning foreign currency for the economy. Aligning with the tea tourism industry’s development goal, Bangladesh has recently announced 4 June as the ‘National Tea Day’ in 2020. Moreover, the newly constructed green tea factory was inaugurated on 26 September 2019 at the Bangladesh Tea Research Institute (BTRI) under the Bangladesh Tea Board’s control at Sreemangal in the Moulvibazar district. Besides, the country has also launched an international quality tea brand called ‘Bangladesh Tea’, which is packaged and marketed with aesthetic and attractive packaging, and four new ‘Tea Exhibition and Sales Centers’ were set up recently for the promotion and dissemination of local tea in the market. Some world-class tea brands in Bangladesh produce high-quality tea, such as Halda, Ispahani, Finlay, and Kazi & Kazi. These initiatives will help further boosting Bangladesh’s tea industry and tea tourism both nationally and internationally.

28

S. B. Amin

2.2.6 Rural Tourism The earlier version of rural tourism was known as traditional agriculturalbased tourism; however, as time elapsed, the concept of rural tourism has incorporated a wide range of activities (Oliver & Jenkins, 2003). Some of the notable activities are water-based activities (boat riding), land-based activities (hiking along with the rural areas), cultural activities, culinary activities, and many more. Rural tourism offers tourists the opportunity to explore the local cultures and traditions, events, food, and handicrafts, which are not available in the city areas. Amin et al. (2017) define rural tourism as “a beautiful blend of seasonality and local events, where tourist activities are based on the preservation of culture, heritage, warmth and traditions”. Ahmed and Jahan (2013) highlight the difference between conventional tourism and rural tourism by following; against conventional tourism, rural tourism is distinct for being a tourism activity away from the mainstream world where natural environment is predominant and the locality is sparsely populated; where a complete blend of seasonality and local events can be observed and where tourism activity is based on the preservation of culture, heritage and traditions.

Amin et al. (2017)19 while explaining the importance of tourism highlight that “Rural tourism can be associated with a wide range of socioeconomic impacts like generation of foreign exchange, increase in employment rates, improvement of country image, increase in government revenues and contribution to the transformation of an agrarian economy into a modern service industry. The local residents with limited skills can readily work as food servers, retail clerks, or simply as tourist guides. This can be a pathway to eliminate rural poverty which can eventually be helpful in overall poverty eradication”. With more than 86,038 villages, Bangladesh has a vast rural landscape, attracting domestic and international tourists. Tourists can forget about the hectic urban life and visit Bangladesh’s rural areas to enjoy the scenic beauty of the countryside and relax. Besides, there are other things 19

https://www.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/economies-of-rural-tourism.

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

29

tourists can do, such as participating in the pre-harvest and post-harvest festivals can be very enjoyable. Some of the pre-harvest festivals are Megharani, Hudmadeya, Byanbiye, Punyipukur Brata, Basudhara brata, Kaktarua, and Gasbi, which are arranged to pray for adequate rain and protecting the crops. On the other hand, post-harvest festivals are Nobanno, Magan, and Pausparvan for welcoming the new crops. Nobanno festival is the most known festival, where rural people celebrate new crops by preparing different kinds of sweets (such as pitha) and other delicious rural foods. Apart from different folk games (such as boat racing), tourists can also enjoy the Jatra, a type of folk event composed of folk songs and dances. Furthermore, tourists can explore village fairs, which are unique in their way. Another aspect of rural tourism is visiting the agro farms and experiencing a broad range of farming activities, starting from rice cultivation to each step until packaging.

2.2.7 Eco-Tourism In sustainable tourism, eco-tourism is a sub-component, considered as a practical approach for achieving sustainable development across the world. By definition, eco-tourism means a type of tourism activity that involves tourists to enjoy natural resources, carry out environment friendly activities, explore cultural artefacts, and learn about environmental sustainability. Besides, the local communities also get benefited socially and economically from the eco-tourism. According to Kiper (2013), a careful design of eco-tourism can be very effective for the developing and emerging countries to offset the adverse effects of less environmentally friendly activities. For instance, among many others, Kenya, Palau, Costa Rica, and our neighbouring country Nepal have successfully introduced eco-tourism and are getting both the social and economic benefits. Looking at Bangladesh, a country full of natural resources, it can provide various eco-tourism activities for enthusiastic tourists. The Sundarbans can be the most popular eco-tourism site in Bangladesh. Given its natural beauty, it can attract many nature lover eco-tourists

30

S. B. Amin

from all over the world. Apart from the Sundarbans, some other potential eco-tourism sites include: Bandarban, Lawachera Forest, Sathchrari National Forest like Ratargul Swamp Forest, Tanguar Haor, etc. Besides eco-tourism development can preserve the scenic beauty of St. Martin’s island located in the Bay of Bengal. According to the report of Bangladesh government’s Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation Division (IMED),20 Bangladesh has immense potential for attracting tourists for eco-tourism. The report mentions that the current propensity of tourists, who loves to explore the natural beauty of Bangladesh, is about 87 per cent. On average, 14 people used to visit eco-tourism sites per day, however, in recent times (2018), 110 people visit eco-tourism sites per day. The report also identified 35 forest ranges from 20 districts as potential eco-tourism sites such as Lalmonirhat, Rangpur, Dinajpur, Sherpur, Mymensingh, Sirajganj, Tangail, Gazipur, Dhaka, Sylhet, Habiganj, Moulvibazar, Madaripur, Jashore, Khulna, Satkhira, Barguna, Noakhali, Chittagong (Chattogram), and Cox’s Bazar. To promote eco-tourism, National Tourism Organizations (NTOs) may implement policies such as promoting and distributing promotional materials to foreign countries with the help of foreign embassies (consulates), participating in the international tourism fairs, publishing advertisements in different international magazines. However, to obtain maximum benefits from the eco-tourism in Bangladesh, it is important to involve the local communities rather than just implementing mere tourism policies.

2.2.8 Other Tourism in Bangladesh The twenty-first century is being seen as a potential golden era for the tourism industry worldwide and Bangladesh also acknowledges the significance of this industry. There are numerous opportunities for the expansion of various kinds of tourism in Bangladesh. For example, culinary tourism, business tourism, and incentive tourism are some of the potential realms that Bangladesh can develop and improve to 20

For more details, see: https://imed.gov.bd/.

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

31

complement the benefits of various tourism types within the tourism industry. Culinary or gastronomy tourism is a new addition to the tourism destination in the modern tourism industry. Culinary tourism focuses on various types of food across the world (Long, 2013). According to the UNWTO, “culinary or gastronomy, as the essence of culture and a major element of intangible heritage worldwide is a growing driver for tourists that often remains untapped by destinations. The interrelation between gastronomy and tourism provide a vehicle for the transmission of culture, which in turn, if properly managed, enhances local economic development, sustainable practices and food experiences”. Since Bangladesh has a rich culture historically, it has been home to different foods and cuisine. Historical events such as the Sultanic period, Mughal rule, and the British Empire played a vital role in determining the exclusive present Bengali cuisines. These unique cuisines can brand an excellent stimulus for attracting foreign tourists to savour the taste of delicious food items. There are many opportunities to develop culinary tourism in Bangladesh as the country has a variety of foods. However, Bangladesh’s main staple food is rice and fish that have been an integral part of Bengali food. In addition to it, other traditional food items like Khichuri (Hotchpotch), Bhuna Khichuri,21 Tehari, Kacchi Biriyani,22 Pilau, Korma, Kala Bhuna (beef ), Jorda, Firni, Borhani, Kebab, Mughlai Parata, Chicken Curry, Chicken Tikka, Mustard Ilish (Shorshe Ilish),23 Lassi, and many kinds of Bhorta (mashes) attract food lovers around the world. Moreover, culinary tourism can familiarise the traditional rural foods to the national and international arena. For example, the famous curd (Bogurar Doi), Kacha Golla (type of sweet) of Natore, Majban beef of Chattogram, Chui Jhal (beef ) of Khulna, and Roshmalai of Cumilla, Chomchom of Tangail, Fuchkha, Muktagachar Monda (type of sweet), Dhakai Bakarkhani,24 etc. are some popular foods of rural Bangladesh. 21

For For 23 For 24 For 22

more more more more

details, details, details, details,

see: see: see: see:

https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/cat/tasty-food/44. https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/cat/tasty-food/43. https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/cat/tasty-food/45. https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/cat/tasty-food/91.

32

S. B. Amin

Besides, Bangladesh is a place of different types of traditional cake (Pithas) that adds extra credit to its food culture. Tourists can certainly visit the country or other places in the country to taste these foods. Bangladesh is also famous for different curries such as mutton, chicken, beef, fish, lamb, and vegetable. Hence, the curry industry can attract tourists from around the world for gastronomy and culinary tourism. Business tourism or industry tourism has been evolved as a new concept in the recent tourism industry world due to the revolution of globalisation. People visit different countries and places for their business purposes every day, which has created a new scope for tourism development. Roy and Roy (2015) defined industry tourism as follows: tourists visit a particular destination for various reasons pertaining to his work such as attending a business meeting, conferences, conventions selling products, meeting with clients. Business tourism is popularly called as MICE (Meetings, Incentives, Conferences, and Exhibitions) tourism.

Bangladesh can start facilitating industry tourism by capturing the foreign business delegates associated with the Readymade Garments (RMG) industry, one of the country’s leading industries. Bangladesh is the third-largest RMG exporter in the world, and the share of the RMG industry in Bangladesh’s GDP is 10 per cent (World Bank, 2019). Besides, the industry also occupies the lion’s share (nearly 85 per cent) in the export earnings. Some of the notable buyers of the Bangladeshi RMG products are H&M, Zara, Gap, Benetton, C&A, M&S, Primark, Puma, Decathlon, and INDITEX. Every year, a good number of business delegate from these brands visit Bangladesh for different business purposes. Through proper strategic marketing and promotional activities, Bangladesh can attract these business delegates, who can spend some time outside of the business-related activities, and explore the vibrant city life, culture, and countryside scenic beauty. An example can be to arrange short trips by the hotels or travel agencies for the foreign business delegates with proximity to the city they are staying in. Cultural tourism is known as a driver that can aid endure both tangible and intangible elements of local cultures such as languages, song, art, dance, and customs (Ruhanene & Whitford, 2019). According to the

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

33

UNWTO, cultural tourism is “movements of persons for essentially cultural motivations such as study tours, performing arts and cultural tours, travel to festivals and other cultural events, visits to sites and monuments, travel to study nature, folklore or art, and pilgrimages”. Bengali cultural festivals, religious, patriotic, and national observances also attract tourists worldwide, such as Pahela Baishakh (Bengali New Year), Holy Eid-ul-Fitr, Independence Day, National Martyr’s Day, International Mother Language Day, are a few events that are celebrated heartily in the country. Pahela Baishakh is the first day of the Bengali year, which is celebrated as Bengali New Year in Bangladesh. Moreover, the Baishakhi Mela or fair is organised in different places on this day, making the festival more colourful. Local agricultural products, handicrafts, folk products, cottage industries, handicrafts, and pottery are displayed and sold in the Baishakhi Mela. Other colourful celebrations that are observed in Bangladesh are Holy Eid-ul-Fitr, Holy Eid-ul-Adha, Durga Puja, Christmas Day, and Buddha Purnima. People from all walks of life actively participate and celebrate these occasions that create a jubilant atmosphere in the country. Some other colourful events are Pahela Falgun, International Trade Fair, Pitha Utshob (Cake Festival), Hason Festival, International Book Fair, etc.25 Traditionally, music is an integral element of intangible cultural heritage, including classical, folk, and modern songs that can create an attraction for foreign tourists. Bengali folk music is very rich and diverse which reflects the people of rural Bengal, thoughts of the rural workingclass people, their curiosity about the world and life, the beautification of the landscape of Bengal, the metaphorical thinking, life with rivers and boats, poverty, injustice of society and value of daily necessities. At the same time, the mystic song of the spiritual world, which represents the metaphor of the world and life, has been a great source of enjoyment in rural Bangladesh. Moreover, Rabindra songs, Nazrul songs, Bhatiawali, Jari, Hason Raja songs,26 and Shari songs have long been a centre of attraction for tourists visiting the country.

25 26

For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/event. For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/event/37.

34

S. B. Amin

International Folk Fest is one of the significant cultural events in Bangladesh, which is also considered as the biggest folk event in South Asia. The event takes place every year (in November) in the country’s capital. In this event, legendary folk singers, renowned musicians, and prominent researchers participate from different countries of the world. Besides, it is also a platform for the rising musicians to showcase their talents.27 , 28 Incentive tourism is a form of tourism where firms or organisations reward their employees by arranging tours for achieving key objectives. According to Lu (2016) “incentive tourism emphasizes fun, food, and other entertainment activities rather than education and work”. Memories from this kind of tourism inspire the employees to feel truly honoured, further increasing the motivation level for obtaining the future organisational objectives. Apart from the organisations that wish to arrange incentive tourism, tour operators play an essential role too. It is because for an organisation; sometimes it is challenging to plan and implement a tour for its employees due to various reasons (e.g. lack of information, experience, and budget), whereas tour operators can tailor the best tourism packages for the organisations ensuring all the requirements (such as budget, chosen destination, trip facilities). In Bangladesh, incentive tourism is still not officially a form of tourism. However, since many organisations arrange the annual meetings in different hotels, plan tours for their employees and other stakeholders for different occasions every year, the government and the private sector can promote incentive tourism so that intended customers (organisations) and tour operators can know more about it and their respective roles. In this way, incentive tourism activities can be increased in a structured way.

27 28

For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/event/83. For more details, see: https://tbsnews.net/glitz/years-folk-fest-scrapped-due-covid-19-144196.

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

2.3

35

Conclusion

The definition of tourism does not have any uniform structure as different institutions define tourism in different perspectives. From a basic point of view, tourism is the collective activities of people visiting outside of their residence for the purpose of business, leisure, and other activities by not staying more than 12 consecutive months. Since tourism is the collective approaches of different activities, tourism can be classified into different forms. Based on standard literature, tourism can be categorised into twofold such as domestic tourism and international tourism. International tourism can further be classified into inbound and outbound tourism. Both inbound and domestic tourism activities comprise of heritage tourism, religious tourism, seaside tourism, rural tourism, eco-tourism, sports tourism, and many more. Bangladesh is a potential tourism destination as the country has many natural and cultural resources such as historical artefacts like Sixty Dome Mosque in Bagerhat and Buddhist Vihara at Paharpur and natural wonders like the Sundarbans which are listed as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. Moreover, it is also home to the longest sea beach in the world as well as several beautiful islands like St. Martin. Bangladesh is also blessed with variety in culture, livelihood, art, and traditional festivals like Pahela Baishakh, Eid-ul-Fitr that give a unique shape to the country’s culture and tradition that are worth visiting for both domestic and international tourists. Therefore, the Government of Bangladesh should have the visionary policy framework to foster the country’s tourism industry to utilise the potential resources for maximum economic benefit. (The names of all the tourist destinations, upazilas, districts, and divisions are taken from the following official websites: i) Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism, ii) Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation, iii) Bangladesh Tourism Board, and iv) UNESCO).

36

S. B. Amin

References Ahmed, I., & Jahan, N. (2013). Rural tourism-prospects in rustic Bengal. European Journal of Business and Management, 5 (16), 163–172. Amin, S. B., Kabir, F. A., & Khan, F. (2020). Tourism and energy nexus in selected South Asian countries: A panel study. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(16), 1963–1967. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2019.1638354 Amin, S. B., Kabir, F. A., Khan, F., & Rahman, S. Z. (2019). Impact of seaside tourism on host community in Bangladesh: The case of Cox’s Bazar. North South Business Review, 10 (1), 69–89. https://doi.org/10.47126/ J.NSBR.1991-4938 Amin, S. B., Murshed, M., & Rahman, S. (2017). Economies of rural tourism. A Report Published in the Financial Express on February 17, 2017. Available at: https://www.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/economies-of-ruraltourism. Bhatia, A. K. (2006). International tourism management. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Bhuiyan, M. A. H., & Darda, M. A. (2019). Tourists’ satisfaction on heritage sites of Dhaka city in Bangladesh. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 14 (1), 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCTHR06-2018-0081 Bramwell, B. (1997). User satisfaction and product development in urban tourism. Tourism Management, 19 (1), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0261-5177(97)00091-5 Jackson, G. A. M., & Weed, M. E. (2003). The sport-tourism interrelationship. In B. Houlihan (Ed.), Sport and society. Sage. Jolliffe, L. (2007). Tea and tourism: Tourists, traditions and transformations. Channel View Publications. Kelly, C. (2009). Heritage. In International encyclopedia of human geography (pp. 91–97). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-008044910-4.00955-x Kiper, T. (2013). Role of ecotourism in sustainable development. InTech. Kodhyat, H. (1983). Sejarah Pariwisata dan Perkembangannya di Indonesia. Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Law, C. M. (1993). Urban tourism, attracting visitors to large cities. Mansell. Long, L. M. (2013). Culinary tourism. In P. Thompson & D. Kaplan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of food and agricultural ethics. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-94-007-6167-4_416-1

2 Different Forms of Tourism in Bangladesh

37

Lu, Z. (2016). Incentive tourism. In J. Jafari & H. Xiao (Eds.), Encyclopedia of tourism. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8_107 Mathieson, A., & Wall, G. (1982). Tourism: Economic, physical, and social impacts. Longman. Oliver, T., & Jenkins, T. (2003). Sustaining rural landscapes: The role of integrated tourism. Landscape Research, 28(3), 293–307. https://doi.org/10. 1080/01426390306516 Roche, M. (2001, May 1). Mega-events, Olympic games and the world student games 1991—Understanding the impacts and information needs of major sports events. Paper Presented at the SPRIG Conference, UMIST Manchester. Rogerson, C. M., & Lisa, Z. (2005, April). ‘Sho’t left’: Changing domestic tourism in South Africa. In Urban Forum, Vol. 16, No. 2(pp. 88–111). Springer-Verlag. Roy, S. C., & Roy, M. (2015). Tourism in Bangladesh: Present status and future prospects. Journal of International Business Research and Marketing, 1(8), 53– 61. https://doi.org/10.18775/ijmsba.1849-5664-5419.2014.18.1006 Ruhanen, L., & Whitford, M. (2019). Cultural heritage and Indigenous tourism. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 14 (3), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 1743873x.2019.1581788 Solak, B. B., & Amin, S. B. (2020). Tea tourism and the importance of tea tourists’ guidance in India. In Cases on tour guide practices for alternative tourism (pp. 119–131s). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-79983725-1.ch007 Smith, V. L., & Graburn, N. H. H. (1977). The anthropology of tourism. Hosts and Guests. Standeven, J., & De Knop, P. (1999). Sport tourism. Human Kinetics. Silberberg, T. (1995). Cultural tourism and business opportunities for museums and heritage sites. Tourism Management, 16 (5), 361–365. https:// doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(95)00039-Q Tala, M., & Padurean, M. (2008). Dimensions of religious tourism. Amfiteatru Economic, 10, 242–253. Accessed 15 September 2020. Terzidou, M. (2010). Religion as a motivation to travel: The case of Tinos island in Greece. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 5 (2), 126. Accessed 15 September 2020. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) website-this lists World Heritage Sites and explains the tangible/intangible dimensions to heritage. Vanhove, N. (2005). The economics of tourism destinations. Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.

38

S. B. Amin

Wang, H. (2020). The development of marine sports tourism in the context of the experience economy. Journal of Coastal Research, 112(SI), 84–86. https:// doi.org/10.2112/JCR-SI112-024.1 Weed, M. E. (2001). Developing a sports tourism product. Paper to the First International Conference of the Pan Hellenic Association of Sports Economists and Managers. The Economic Impact of Sport. Weed, M. E., & Bull, C. J. (2004). Sports tourism: Participants, policy and providers. Elsevier. World Bank. (2019). World development indicators.

3 A Brief History and Overview of Tourism in Bangladesh

3.1

Background

Bangladesh, located in the north-eastern part of South Asia, offers numerous tourist attractions, comprising of archaeological spots, historic mosques, memorials, the longest natural beach, the biggest mangrove forests, rich flora and fauna, and fascinating tea gardens and tribes. Each part of the country presents markedly diverse topography, flavours, and elegances. Bangladesh is also the home to the world-famous Royal Bengal Tiger. The mighty Himalayas stand some distance to the north, while in the south lays the Bay of Bengal. West Bengal (India) borders on the west, and in the east lies the hilly and forested regions of Tripura (India), Mizoram (India), and Myanmar. These scenic geographic borders encompass a low lying plain of about 1,47,570 square kilometres, crisscrossed by numerous rivers like Padma (also known

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. B. Amin, The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4_3

39

40

S. B. Amin

as the Ganges in India), Brahmaputra, Jamuna, Meghna, Surma, and Karnafuli.1 The liberation war of 1971 is the most noteworthy event for Bangladesh as the country achieved sovereignty from former West Pakistan. The history behind the liberation and the birth of a new country is filled with blood and tears, pride and pain, sacrifice, and bravery. It was a fight for Bangladesh’s people to achieve freedom against the social, economic, and political oppression from the former West Pakistani rulers. Embodying the Bengali’s spirit of liberty, Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman delivered his iconic speech at the then Race Course Maidan (currently known as Suhrawardy Udyan) on 7 March 1971. He called on his fellow countrymen to start preparing to fight for independence by declaring, “The struggle, this time is for freedom, the struggle this time is for independence”. UNESCO has recognised the speech as one of the world’s most important documentary heritage (7 March 1971).2 The frontline warriors, diplomats, and other professionals also fought the war implicitly by running awareness programmes against the war crimes (genocides) and collecting aids for Bangladesh’s innocent people. After nine months of bloodshed, on 16 December 1971, the West Pakistan surrendered, and Bangladesh emerged as an independent country in the world map. An overview of various notable tourist spots in Bangladesh is thoroughly discussed in this chapter by dividing the country into 4 different regions: Southern Bangladesh, Northern Bangladesh, Eastern Bangladesh, and Central Bangladesh (Table 3.1).3 Moreover, a broad list of all tourist spots is listed in Table A.2 and shown in Fig. 3.1.

1

For more details about Bangladesh, see: https://www.bangladesh.gov.bd/site/page/812d94a80376-4579-a8f1-a1f66fa5df5d/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B2% E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87-%E0% A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8. 2 For More details, see: https://mujib100.gov.bd/pages/mujib/speeches.html; http://www.une sco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-regist ered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-4/the-historic-7th-march-speech-of-bangabandhu-sheikhmujibur-rahman/. 3 Following Khan (1999), we divide the country into 4 regions by the fertile GangesBrahmaputra delta formed by the Padma, Meghna, and Jamuna rivers and their respective tributaries.

3 A Brief History and Overview …

41

Table 3.1 Tourism in Different Regions of Bangladesh Region

Some notable tourist’s attraction

Southern Bangladesh

Sundarbans, Kuakata, Shat Gambuj Mosque, Lalon Akhra Paharpur,Mahasthangarh, Ramsagar National Park, Chalan Beel Shaheed Minar, Tungipara, Durgapur, Ahsan Manzil, Lalbagh Fort, Panam City, National Monument, Liberation Museum Sajek Valley, Nilgiri, Kaptai Lake, Cox’s Bazar, St. Martin’s Island, Sreemangal, Tanguar Haor, Ratargul Swamp Forest

Northern Bangladesh Central Bangladesh

Eastern Bangladesh

Source Author’s Compilation

3.2

Tourism in Central Bangladesh

Central Bangladesh consists of the Dhaka and Mymenshigh division, where the two divisions have 17 districts. Each district has unique tourism destinations such as Monument of Language Martyrs, “Central Shaheed Minar ”, National Martyr’s Memorial, “Jatiyo Smriti Shoudho”, Lalbagh Fort, Ahsan Manzil, Liberation War Museum, Bhawal Rajbari, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Safari Park, Mausoleum of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Durgapur, Panam City, Nikli Haor, etc., which are worth visiting.4 The overview of these tourism destinations is discussed briefly in the following subsections.

3.2.1 Central Shaheed Minar (Monument of Language Martyrs) Central Shaheed Minar, located on the premises of Dhaka Medical College, is the memorial of the language movement in 1952 to show respect to the national heroes who sacrificed their lives for their language and country during the Bengali Language Movement demonstrations of

4

For more details about the tourist destinations of Central Bangladesh, see: For Dhaka division: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/dhaka. For Mymensingh division: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/mymensingh.

42

S. B. Amin

Fig. 3.1 Tourist Map of Bangladesh (Source Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism (https://mocat.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/mocat.portal.gov. bd/files/acc7e98a_8963_4ccf_a00d_6f7d612301dd/BTB-BD-Map.jpg)

3 A Brief History and Overview …

43

1952 in the Bangladesh.5 According to the Bangladesh National Tourism Board, “On 21st and 22 nd February 1952, students from Dhaka University and Dhaka Medical College and political activists were killed when the Pakistani police force opened fire on Bengali protesters who were demanding official status for their native tongue, Bengali. The massacre occurred near Dhaka Medical College and Ramna Park in Dhaka. The Language Movement gained momentum, and after a long struggle, Bengali gained official status in Pakistan (with Urdu) in 1956 ”.6 A temporary memorial was created on 23 February, 1952 by the students; however, wholly demolished on 24 February by the Pakistani police. To commemorate the dead, the Shaheed Minar was reconstructed in 1963 and stood till the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 when the Pakistani Army destroyed it. After Bangladesh got independence on 16 December 1971, it was reconstructed and then extended in 1983. The immortal 21 February is the source of all inspirations for our struggles and movements, including preserving and upholding our national entity and language-based national identity. National, mourning, cultural, and other events are held every year on 21 February (Ekushey February) to observe the Language Movement Day (Shaheed Dibas or Martyrs’ Day), centred on the Shaheed Minar. On 21 February, the place is decorated with flowers and colourful drawings all around the Shaheed Minar premises. The day reminds the people of the valiant sacrifice of the great sons of the country, and hence it holds a great significance for the Bengali nation. Many foreign tourists and the local people visit the place since the event bears such self-immolation recorded in the history with golden letters forever. These senses and inspirations have been extended to the world with the declaration of 21 February as the International Mother Language Day by the United Nations Organization in 1999 for recognising the unprecedented sacrifice made by Bangladesh for the cause of mother language on 21 February 1952.7 , 8 5

For more details, see: https://imli.portal.gov.bd/site/page/9ea19433-5ccb-44e8-adca-89682ba24 881/-. 6 For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/dhaka/92. 7 For more details, see: https://imli.portal.gov.bd/site/page/f54ef16b-f9be-4941-99ce-b99aa4182 11b/-. 8 For more details, see: https://www.un.org/en/observances/mother-language-day.

44

S. B. Amin

3.2.2 National Martyrs’ Memorial (Symbol of Sacrifice and Valour) The National Memorial is one of Bangladesh’s national pride, located at Savar, 35 kilometres north-west of Dhaka. The monument stands as a memorial to the great sacrifices and bravery of the Bangladesh liberation war’s great martyrs. According to the Bangladesh National Tourism Board, “Each of these seven pairs of walls represents a significant chapter in the history of Bangladesh, namely the Language Movement in 1952, the provincial election victory of the United Front in 1954, the Constitution Movement in 1956, the movement against Education Commission in 1962, 6 -point Movement in 1966, the Mass Uprising in 1969, and finally the climactic event of Liberation War in 1971, through which Bangladesh was liberated ”.9 The main building consists of seven triangular walls of unequal height and distinct foundations. The monument’s uniqueness is that the highest pillar (150 feet) is based on the lowest length of foundation (20 feet), and the most extended foundation (130 feet) holds the lowest height. The walls are angled by a fold in the middle and lined up one after the other at a parallel spacing of 9 feet, 2 inches. The highest plate is at the front, and the shortest is at the back. The pyramidal icon was not conceived as a stand-alone sculptural structure. Instead, the complex was designed as a holistic landscape, a sort of geometric tapestry weaving together green areas, water, walkways, bricks, and concrete, culminating in a soaring monument. The structure is arranged in such a way that it is viewed in different infrastructures from different angles. This monument symbolises the Bengali as a great nation that has shed a great amount of blood to achieve independence and freedom. The whole nation pays homage to the liberation war martyrs on the eve of 26 March, the Independence Day of Bangladesh, and 16 December, the Victory Day of Bangladesh. This is a great tourist spot for tourists who can enjoy the monument’s great architecture.10 9

For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/dhaka/93. For more details see: https://www.thedailystar.net/perspective/monument-bangladesh-and-theworld-1332946.

10

3 A Brief History and Overview …

45

3.2.3 Mausoleum of Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The mausoleum of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the Bengali nation’s father, is located in Tungipara under the Gopalganj district, about 127 kilometres away from Dhaka.11 Tungipara is also the birthplace of the Father of the Nation and the greatest son of thousands of years of Bengali nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Thousands of people come to this mausoleum to pay respect to the Father of the Nation, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the “Greatest Bengali of All Time” every day.12 The Bangabandhu Mausoleum is a robust architecture in terms of deep respect and aesthetic and historical value.13 The mausoleum complex comprises of a museum, a library, temporary and permanent exhibition spaces, an open-air theatre with green rooms, research centres, administrative buildings, souvenir shops, cafeterias, bakultala square, a mosque, an information centre, a security guard room, and a public plaza. As soon as visitors enter through the gate of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s complex, a poem “Akti Omor Samadhi” will be seen carved in white stone, which reminds the memory of the great leader. There are flower gardens and artificial hills on both sides of the wide path at the entrance. Further along the way, Bangabandhu’s grave is placed, built by the red ceramic bricks, and the black-and-white tiles of the Greek architectural style of the monument bears a sign of grief. His parents’ grave is seen next to his grave, and the central tomb has been built around these three graves. Visitors are allowed to enter inside the structure. They need to abide by a few rules while entering the tomb. Outside the wall of the tomb, there is a place for offering floral wreaths. The library comprises about six thousand books, including books written by Bangabandhu and Honourable Prime Minister of Bangladesh

11

For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/dhaka/230. For more details, see: https://mujib100.gov.bd/pages/mujib/timeline.html. 13 For more details, see: https://www.daily-sun.com/post/400244/Bangabandhu-Mausoleum-atTungipara--a-must-visit-site. 12

46

S. B. Amin

Her Excellency Sheikh Hasina. Apart from photographs of various stages of Bangabandhu’s struggling life, the exhibition centre also has artworks by multiple artists about Bangabandhu and various newspapers of different sets of liberation war published from home and abroad. Visitors come here and are overwhelmed with emotion and pay their tribute to Bangabandhu. Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation has established a motel at Tungipara just a few minutes away from the mausoleum. Tourists can nicely make an overnight stay at the motel.14

3.2.4 Ahsan Manzil Ahsan Manzil (also spelled as Ahsan Monjil) is another significant Mughal heritage in Bangladesh, known as the endorsed residential fortress and base of the Nawabs of Dhaka. This picturesque building is rich in impeccable ornaments and is one of the best architectural monuments in Dhaka.15 According to the Bangladesh Tourism Board, “the building has a broad front-facing the Buriganga River. On the river side, an open spacious stairway leads right up to the second portal and on their stands the grand triple- arched portals. There was once a fountain in the garden in front of the stairs which does not exist today. All along the north and the south side of the building run spacious verandas with an open terrace projected in the middle”.16 ’ 17 Khwaja Alimullah, the father of Nawab Abdul Ghani, acquired the French factory in 1830 and renovated it to make it suitable for his residence. Later, Nawab Abdul Ghani rebuilt the palace in 1869 and renamed it Ahsan Manzil after his beloved son Khwaja Ahsanullah. The construction of the fort started in 1859 and finished in 1872. Then, the newly made palace was branded as Rang Mahal, and the former one was

14 For more details, see: https://www.daily-sun.com/post/400244/Bangabandhu-Mausoleum-atTungipara--a-must-visit-site. 15 For further reading please see: https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/palace-the-river-ahsanmanzil-1598293. 16 For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/dhaka/53. 17 For more detail, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/dhaka/3.

3 A Brief History and Overview …

47

called Andar Mahal.18 At present, the main palace of Ahsan Manzil has been converted into a gallery shape with 23 galleries. Every day, many people visit the palace and learn about the history of Nawabs in Dhaka during the Mughal Period.19 Recognising the historic and architectural importance of the Ahsan Manzil, the government of Bangladesh renovated it entirely in 1992. It was brought under the control of the Bangladesh National Museum in the same year and then turned into a Museum.

3.2.5 Lalbagh Fort Lalbagh Fort (also known as Fort Aurangabad) is a seventeenth-century Mughal fortress compound that positions at the Buriganga Riverbank in the south-western part of Dhaka. Dhaka was renowned as a Mughal city as reflected in the several notable memorials in the shape of glorious palaces, mosques, tombs, fortifications, and gardens. The fort’s construction was started in 1678 AD by Mughal Subahdar Muhammad Azam Shah, the son of Emperor Aurangzeb and later emperor himself. His descendant, Shaista Khan, did not complete the work, although he remained in Dhaka till 1688. It was believed that after the death of her daughter, Pari Bibi, in 1684, the then Mughal Subahdar Shaista Khan started to believe of the fort as unfortunate and left the construction unfinished. This fort’s primary purpose was to offer a self-protective addition of the interior’s palatial structures and, as such, was a type of palace-fortress rather than a seize-fort. For a long, the fort was considered a blend of three structures (the mosque, the tomb of Bibi Pari, and the Hammam and Audience Hall of the Governor), with two entries and a share of the partially damaged protection wall. Current excavations carried out by the government exposed the existence of other structures. 18

For more details, see: http://parjatan.gov.bd/site/page/0e57d43e-aa04-4bf6-89e7-2fc9a7b7d b26/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6% AE%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2. 19 For more detail, see: http://www.dhaka.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/d94967c2-2014-11e7-8f57286ed488c766/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8% 20%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2.

48

S. B. Amin

Lalbagh Fort is the only historical monument of the Mughal period in Bangladesh in which white stone, marble stone, and colourful tiles have been used simultaneously. Apart from Lalbagh Fort, no such combination in architectural design has been found in any other historical monument of Bangladesh to date. There are various hand-painted landscapes of the Mughal period, which can fascinate the visitors. Moreover, the utensils of Shaista Khan are carefully kept there with multiple other weapons, clothes, and coins used at that time.20 This fort in the Lalbagh area of Dhaka attracts thousands of domestic and foreign visitors almost every day.

3.2.6 Bangabandhu Memorial Museum Bangabandhu Memorial Museum is also known as Bangabandhu Bhaban, which is located at Dhanmondi in the capital of Bangladesh. The Museum used to be the personal residence of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the father of the nation. Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman spent most of his political career in this house. For instance, he led the Anti-Ayub Movement of 1962, the Six-Point Movement of 1966, the general election of 1970, and the Non-Cooperation Movement leading up to the country’s struggle for independence in 1971 while staying in this house. This place was the base of operation even when he became the president of Bangladesh.21 , 22 The personal residence of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was declared as a

20

For more details, see: https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/the-bastion-the-lalbaghfort-1736110; https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/dhaka/4; http://www.dhaka.gov.bd/site/tou rist_spot/8544d0af-37be-4375-8910-3ce4ec6e1b42/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6% B2%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%20%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6% B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%20(%E0%A6%90%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6% BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%20%E0%A6% B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8); http://www.parjatan.gov.bd/ site/page/ef72190b-25a4-4594-8beb-02ac816c2721/-; https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/ 1210/. 21 For more detail, see: https://mujib100.gov.bd/pages/mujib/timeline.html. 22 For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/cat/landmarks/96.

3 A Brief History and Overview …

49

memorial museum in the year 1994 on August 14 due to the initiative of Bangabandhu Memorial Trust.23

3.2.7 Panam City in Sonargaon Panam City, also known as the lost city, is another archaeological attraction in Bangladesh located at Sonargaon upazila in Narayanganj.24 Sonargaon still carries the glorious history and architecture of the Sultanate, Mughal, and Colonial periods. This is the oldest capital of the Bengal, established by the fifteenth-century Baro Bhuiyan leader Isa Khan and became an important trading centre due to the Muslin businessmen since Muslin was traded through the Meghna river (East) and Shitolokkha river (West) in Narayanganj. Each building of Panam City is unique and resembles the Mughal and Greek architecture. According to Bangladesh Tourism Board, “for travelers making their way along the 2,500-kilometres Grand Trunk Road from Peshawar in the Hindu Kush, Sonargaon marked the end of the line”. Covering 20 kilometres area of Sonargaon, Panam Nagar, is still one of the most visited tourist spots in Bangladesh. However, Panam City is not listed in the UNESCO heritage site due to preliminary renovation work. Just 20 kilometres away from Panam City, the Folk Art and Crafts Foundation Museum is located, established by the famous Bangladeshi Artist Joynul Abedin in 1975. There are two Display Galleries inside the museum displaying the native life of Bangladeshi people, for example, farming, the woman working, etc. The beautiful sculpture at the museum entrance (A man is pushing a cart) also attracts many visitors to this place.25

23

For more details, see: https://bangabandhumuseum.org.bd/en/page/12/Memorial-Trust. For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/dhaka/113; https://www.dailysun.com/printversion/details/266769/Panam-Nagar--the-lost-city. 25 For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/dhaka/117. 24

50

S. B. Amin

3.2.8 Bhawal Rajbari in Gazipur King Lok Narayan Roy started constructing Bhawal Rajbari, and King Kali Narayan Roy completed it. It is a vast and intact royal palace that exists on about 15 acres of land spreading 400 metres long from north to south, and it was built in a three-story plan. The main entrance, located on the south side, is square and has 4 round pillars at its 4 corners, and the roof is built on top. The length of one side of the entrance structure is 20 metres, and there is a wide verandah behind the entrance, followed by the house. There are 3 sitting rooms to the east and west of the hall, and there is a traditional shawl wooden staircase, which is part of the facility to go upstairs. This is a historical place that can attract tourists for its remarkable architectural and historical attraction.26

3.2.9 Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Safari Park Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Safari Park is located near Bagbazar, on the Dhaka-Mymensingh highway in Gazipur, 40 kilometres north of the capital. It was developed in keeping with Thailand’s Safari World to give the tourists all the thrilling experiences. The park is built on 3,810 acres of land,27 and it has five regions namely Core Safari Park, Safari Park Kingdom, Biodiversity Park, Extensive Asian Safari Park, and Bangabandhu Square. The park consists eight water streams and two artificial lakes to meet wild animals’ drinking water needs. The Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Safari Park’s establishment created an opportunity to conserve wildlife, plant diversity of Shalban, protect rare and endangered wildlife of Bangladesh, and develop eco-tourism in Bangladesh. Established in 2013, the park has a total of about 4,000 animals and birds. For example, the safari park has hippopotamus, tigers, lions, 26

For more details (translated), see: http://www.gazipur.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/d948f2ac2014-11e7-8f57-286ed488c766/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%93%E0%A7%9F% E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%20(%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%AA% E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6)%20% E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%9C%E0% A7%80. 27 For more details see: http://www.safariparkgazipur.info.bd/about_us.php.

3 A Brief History and Overview …

51

elephants, sambar deer, maya deer, chitra deer, kangaroo, zebra, monkey, hanuman, bear, hyena, crocodile, and various birds.

3.2.10 Nikli Haor Nikli haor is spread over almost all Nikli, Mithamin, Ashtagram, and Itna upazilas of Kishoreganj district. The beauty of this haor is found in the uniqueness of the rural environment. Small villages isolated on the chest of a vast body of water are like a small island. Rows of palm trees drowning in the haor, the forest of willows rising from under the water, and the jumping of dolphins are the main tourist attractions of the Nikli haor. The scenarios of fishermen’s boats, children’s swimming, and trees in the middle of the haor will remind the beauty of Bengal’s village.28

3.2.11 Susang Durgapur in Netrokona Susang Durgapur, situated in Netrakona, is 182 kilometres away from Dhaka. It is one of the largest mineral deposits in Bangladesh, which is known for its natural resource.29 The eye-catching beauty of the soil, water, and nature of different colours captivates the visitors’ minds. White, pink, yellow, purple, brown, bluish earthy hills of different colours create an unexplainable beauty to the eyes. It is a genuine natural glory of forestry, river and hills where the Garos and other tribal people reside. Tourists can also see the indigenous settlements throughout the bare area. Besides, the tourists can enjoy boating in the river, seeing the green bushes around, climbing hills, etc.30

28

For more details, see: http://www.kishoreganj.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/d94e185c-2014-11e78f57-286ed488c766/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7% 80%20%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A7%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6% BE%E0%A6%81%E0%A6%A7. 29 For more details (translated), see: http://www.netrokona.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/55851fad1e93-11e7-8f57-286ed488c766/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%9F% E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0,%20%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B0% E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0. 30 For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/mymensingh/72.

52

3.3

S. B. Amin

Tourism in Eastern Bangladesh

Eastern Bangladesh comprises of Chattogram division and Sylhet division that have a total of 15 districts. This region has many tourism destinations and holds great significance for Bangladesh’s tourism industry for many natural and cultural resources. The whole eastern part ranging from Teknaf to Sunamganj has numerous tourist destinations such as Cox’s Bazar, St Martin’s Island, Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), tea gardens in Sylhet, and Mainamati Bihara. The overview of the tourism destination of this region is discussed as follows.

3.3.1 Cox’s Bazar (Longest Sandy Sea Beach) Having the world’s longest unbroken sandy sea beach (120 kilometres), Cox’s Bazar is certainly one of the biggest tourist attractions of the country.31 Cox’s Bazar, also known as Panowa (yellow flower), is situated 150 kilometres south of Chattogram. Cox’s Bazar is known for its miles of golden sands, small and medium cliffs, surfing waves, rare conch shells, vibrant community lifestyle, colourful pagodas, Buddhist temples and tribes, and delicious seafood. The name Cox’s Bazar came from Captain Hiram Cox, an officer of the British East India Company. To honour his role in refugee rehabilitation work, a market was established and named after him. According to Bangladesh Tourism Board, “Cox’s Bazar, ‘Miles of golden sands, towering cliffs, surfing waves, rare conch shells, colourful pagodas and Buddhist temples, the tribes with their environmental wisdom and spirituality and delicious seafood are some wonderful aspects of Cox’s Bazar, the longest unbroken sandy beach and tourist capital of Bangladesh”. One of the beach attractions is the Inani Beach, an 18 kilometreslong sea beach in Ukhia upazila of Cox’s Bazar district.32 It has a lot of coral stones, which are very sharp. These coral stones look black and green, and they are found in summer or rainy seasons. Enjoying sunrise 31 For more details, see: https://coxda.portal.gov.bd/site/page/d58ab753-c57e-48ea-9bd2-d5a7f5 546b75. 32 For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/chattogram/13.

3 A Brief History and Overview …

53

from Inani beach and swimming in the clean blue water attracts many tourists for having a remarkable lifetime experience. The water stored in between stones accommodates small sea fish, crabs, snails, and many more. Another tourist attraction in Cox’s Bazar is Ramu, known for monasteries, temples, and various Buddhist statues and images.33 A gentle drive to Teknaf, the southernmost tip of the mainland of Bangladesh, can be an unforgettable trip for a traveller. The name of the region originates from the Naf River, which forms the eastern boundary of the upazila sharing Myanmar’s border.34 Another natural tourist destination of Cox’s Bazar is Himchhari, located 18 kilometres south of Cox’s Bazar. There is a waterfall in Himachari, which is the main tourist attraction here.35 Besides, Himchari National Park is a main national park and nature reserve in Bangladesh. The park is situated at Ramu and Cox’s Bazar sadar upazila and it is located mainly on the hills adjoining to the Bay of Bengal to the west. Himchari National Park covers approximately 17.29 square kilometres of mixed evergreen forests Biome.36 Maheshkhali upazila is an administrative area of the Chattogram division of Cox’s Bazar district. It is known as the ‘Vhati Anchol Dwip’ of Cox’s Bazar district, and it is the only hilly island in Bangladesh. This island is also well-known for salt production. Forested hills and mangrove trees fence the island alongside the coastal beach. Tourists can have a realistic view of low range hills, mangrove forests, and hilly areas. There are some other beautiful places here, such as a Buddhist temple, a shrine of Adinath on the hill, a salt field, and Sonadia island. Adinath Temple is a famous pilgrimage site of the island where Hindu devotees assemble on an annual occasion.37

33

For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/cat/landmarks/21. For more details, see: http://parjatan.gov.bd/site/page/0ece6235-14f5-4890-95db-8e310457a 87a/-. 35 For more details, see: https://coxda.portal.gov.bd/site/page/d58ab753-c57e-48ea-9bd2-d5a7f5 546b75. 36 For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/cat/green-zone/17. 37 For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/chattogram/14. 34

54

S. B. Amin

3.3.2 St. Martin’s Island (the Coral Island) St. Martin’s Island is a small coral island (8 square kilometres) about 10 kilometres south-west of the southern tip of the mainland.38 The local names of the island are “Narical Gingira”, also spelled “Narikel Jinjira/Jinjera”, which means ‘Coconut Island’ in Bengali, and “Daruchini Dwip”. It is the only coral island in Bangladesh.39 St. Martin’s Island, also known as the pearl of the sea has recently, become a trendy tourist destination for its natural beauty and uniqueness. Tourists can spend a few hours and return on the same day or stay for one or two days. There are a good number of hotels, guest houses, and eateries. There is also the provision of scuba diving facility and sea turtle hatchery in this island. Since it is a small island, one can tour the entire area on foot in a few hours. The permanent residents of the island, numbering around 8,000, are all fishermen.40

3.3.3 Chittagong Hill Tracts Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) is located in the south-east part of Bangladesh that primarily consists of highlands. It shares the border with Myanmar and the Indian states of Tripura and Mizoram. The area of the CHT is an estimated 13,184 square kilometres and comprises the hilly districts of Rangamati, Khagrachari, and Bandarban. The rocky mountain ranges combined with dense forests, clear lakes, and natural waterfalls set it apart from rest of Bangladesh.

3.3.3.1 Nilgiri Nilgiri Tourist Centre is located at the top of the hill on the BandarbanThanchi road, which is about 48 kilometres from the south-east of 38 For more details, see: https://coxda.portal.gov.bd/site/page/d58ab753-c57e-48ea-9bd2-d5a7f5 546b75. 39 For more details, see: http://parjatan.gov.bd/site/page/2458a4be-29f5-4294-86e1-07a6f9a34 ca9/-. 40 For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/chattogram/18.

3 A Brief History and Overview …

55

the Bandarban district headquarters. Nilgiri is situated about 2,200 feet above sea level and the clouds usually playing around the tourists. The crafty nature, the sunshine, the rain, the thunder of the clouds in the sky, and the smiling light of the rainbow, the rhythm of rain and wind fascinate everyone and attract the tourists. During the day, the Bay of Bengal and ships on the sea can be seen from this place with the bare eye. Besides, the beautiful view of the zigzag Sangu river flowing through the hills’ foot attracts everyone.41 For tourists in Nilgiri, there are exciting cottages with various names, including Meghdoot, Akashnila, Nilangana, Marma House, and there is also a cafeteria. However, for accommodation and overnight stay at this Nilgiri resort with modern facilities, tourists have to contact the Bandarban Brigade Headquarters of Bangladesh Army in advance. The Nilgiri Resort is a beautiful and unforgettable place for its breath-taking views of nature. This place is known to many as the Darjeeling in Bengal. Domestic and foreign tourists visit Nilgiri every day since it has become trendy quickly among tourists.42

3.3.3.2 Nilachal Nilachal is situated in Tiger Para, which is 5 kilometres away from Bandarban’s central city. The place is 2,000 feet above sea level, which creates an extra panoramic attraction for tourists. Many people compare the Nilachal hill area to a paradise because of its pure natural beauty and peaceful environment.43 One of the unique features of this place is that the entire city of Bandarban can be spectated at a glance at the top of Nilachal. Tourists can enjoy the magnificent view of Cox’s Bazar beach from Nilachal in the cloudless sky. Especially, the view of the sunset in Nilachal brings a heavenly feeling to mind. Tourists can also enjoy the lifestyles of the tribal people on the way to Nilachal.

41

For more details, see: http://www.bandarban.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/. For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/chattogram/9. 43 For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/chattogram/145. 42

56

S. B. Amin

3.3.3.3 Boga Lake in Bandarban Boga lake, also known as the Lake of Mystery or Dragon Lake, is located in Bandarban city—a land of the immense beauty of nature. It is a natural sweet and deep-water lake and attracts adventurer loving tourists overwhelmingly. This lake is the highest freshwater lake in Bangladesh, located 18 kilometres away from Ruma upazila, at an altitude of about 1,246 feet above the sea level.44 The lake is bounded on three sides by mountain peaks covered with thick bamboo forests. According to the myth of the dragon, many people suspect it to be a dead volcano. The effects of these extinct volcanoes could also change the colour of the lake water. The lake is bounded on three sides by mountain peaks covered with thick bamboo forests. The area of the lake is 18.56 acres (75,100 square metre). It is a closed lake and there is a small spring named Boga chhara, which is 153 metres (502 feet) deep.

3.3.3.4 Buddha Dhato Jadi Buddha Dhato Jadi, also known as the Golden Temple, is located near the Bandarban-Rangamati road. This is the largest temple in Bangladesh and has the second-largest Buddha statue. It also has a museum where tourists can learn about the historical background of this region. The Golden Temple is located on the top of a high hill at Purpara, which is 4 kilometres from Bandarban city. This place is known as a place of pilgrimage for Buddhists. This place is beautiful as it is an example of the temple’s golden colour, a unique style of construction, and modern religious architectural design.45

3.3.3.5 Sajek Valley (the Valley of Clouds) Sajek Valley is an emerging tourist spot in Bangladesh situated among Kasalong range of mountains in Sajek union, Baghaichhari upazila in the 44 45

For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/chattogram/133. For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/chattogram/122.

3 A Brief History and Overview …

57

Rangamati district. The valley is 1,476 feet (450 metres) above sea level. Sajek valley is known as the Queen of Hills & Roof of Rangamati.46 Sajek Valley is full of natural beauty, where tourists can enjoy clouds, mountains, and greenery everywhere in Sajek very closely. There are also three helipads in Sajek Valley from which the wonderful view of sunrise and sunset can be witnessed. Tourists can trek from Ruilui Para in Sajek to Kanlak Hill, which is the highest peak of Sajek Valley. On the way to Kanglak hill, the big hills of Mizoram border, the way of life of the tribal people, and the clouds all attract tourists’ attention. Tourists can enjoy various aspects of their culture during the tribal festivals held at certain times of the year. The modest indigenous lifestyle of local people also attracts many visitors here round the year.

3.3.3.6 Kaptai Lake Kaptai Lake, the largest artificial lake of Bangladesh, was excavated in 1960 with the construction of Kaptai Dam to set up a hydroelectric power station. The dam is 670.8 metres long and 54.7 metres high. The dam has a 745 feet (227 metres) long spillway having 16 gates. Through the spillway, 5,250,000 cubic feet (149,000 square metres) of water can pass.47 The lake’s crystal-clear water and the magnificent beauty of the green hills attract the tourists easily, and the boat trip on the lake fills the mind and soul of anyone with its glory of nature.

3.3.3.7 Shuvolong Waterfall (Rangamati) The Shuvolong waterfall in Barkal upazila of Rangamati district has already gained wide recognition among tourists.48 The distance of Shuvolong waterfall is only 25 kilometres away from Rangamati city. The clear water of this waterfall provides the tourists with a magnificent 46

For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/chattogram/11. For more details, see:, https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/chattogram/123. 48 For more details, see: http://www.rangamati.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/24978537-397c-453fb1cc-b1794679b1e6/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6% 82%20%E0%A6%9D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%BE. 47

58

S. B. Amin

and unforgettable feeling. During the rainy season, the mainstream water falls down from a height of about 300 feet, captivating the tourists with its melodious sound.49 The immense beauty of the CHT can be seen while walking along the waterways. At present, some facilities have been constructed by the upazila administration in this area. Rangamati district headquarters has a tourist holiday complex and various standard hotels have accommodation and dining facilities.

3.3.3.8 Keokradong Keokradong is the 2nd highest peak of Bangladesh, situated in Ruma upazila, Bandarban, surrounded by small hills and mountains. This is an excellent opportunity for adventure lovers to enjoy activities like trailing the routes, exploring indigenous people and their lifestyle. The tourists can also have a pleasant natural sightseeing of hills and mountains, trees and shrubs, sky and rivers, birds and animals, and floating clouds around. There are hotels in Ruma for tourists to stay overnight. Besides, they can explore the opportunity to stay with a tribal family and experience their livelihood. There is a small shelter on the top of Keokradong and a signboard put up by Bangladesh Army proclaiming the elevation to be 4,330 feet.50

3.3.4 Shalban Bihar in Mainamati Shalban Buddhist Bihar is one of the ancient civilisations and archaeological sites of Bangladesh. This archaeological site is situated at the LalmaiMainamati in Cumilla district, where archaeological ideogram of the seventh-twelfth centuries is discovered.51 It is believed that Srivavadeva, the fourth king of the Deva dynasty, built this Buddhist monastery. It is square in shape, where each side of Bihar is 167.7 metres long. The 49

For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/chattogram/135. For more details, see: http://www.bandarban.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/56373943-2147-11e78f57-286ed488c766/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%95%E0%A7% 8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%82. 51 For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/chattogram/6. 50

3 A Brief History and Overview …

59

walls on all four sides of Bihar are 5 metres thick, and the rooms are built on the back walls of the four sides of the monastery. There is only one way to get in or out of Bihar and this path is in the middle of the north block. Each room has a 1.5-metre-wide wall in the middle and the central temple is right in the middle of the Bihar courtyard.52 Mainamati has yielded a rich gathering of stones and bronze monuments of innumerable gods and goddesses, coins, royal copper plate grants, terracotta plaques, jewellery, pots and pans, and other diverse objects of daily use which eloquently speak of the glorious cultural attainments of the period.53

3.3.5 Mainamati War Cemetery Mainamati War Cemetery was built by Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) in 1946 for the memory of the Indian (then) and British soldiers killed in World War II (1939–1945).54 The place is located very close to Cumilla Cantonment and about 9 kilometres from Cumilla city. Many local and foreign visitors come to the cemetery throughout the year to pay their respects to the soldiers killed in the war. Every year in November, an annual prayer meeting is held here with religious leaders of all religions.55 There are 637 graves in the cemetery and most of the graves are of the dead soldiers of the hospital at that time. Among the graves, there are 3 sailors, 56 soldiers, and 18 pilots. A total of 623 people were identified.56 52

For more details, see: http://www.comilla.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/. For more details, see: http://www.parjatan.gov.bd/site/page/11841889-52f8-4eab-a001-8c837f 0545d6/-. 54 For more details, see: http://www.comilla.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/562daac1-2147-11e7-8f57286ed488c766/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE% E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%20%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC% E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%20%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87% E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF. 55 For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/chattogram/240. 56 For more details, see: http://www.comilla.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/562daac1-2147-11e7-8f57286ed488c766/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE% E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%20%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC% E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%20%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87% E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF. 53

60

S. B. Amin

3.3.6 Nijhum Dwip Nijhum Island, or Nijhum Dwip, has become very famous nowadays which is a small island under Hatiya upazila of Noakhali district. The existence of the island was first visible in the 1940 in the Bay of Bengal.57 Tourists visit this island and enjoy the scenic beauty of the nature during the year. The island is home to various animals, including deer, buffalo, and 5,000 cheetal or spotted deer, and monkeys. Moreover, a vast number of migrating birds come in the winter season, enhancing the beauty of this island. Now this island has been declared as a unique ecotourist spot.58 This is a heaven for nature lover tourists who can enjoy the purity and innocent beauty of nature here. It was named ‘Nijhum Dwip’ in 1975 observing its isolation and mild nature.

3.3.7 Tourism in Sylhet Division Sylhet division is the north-eastern division of Bangladesh, named after its central city, Sylhet. It is bordered by the Indian states of Meghalaya, Assam, and Tripura to the north, east, and south, respectively. Sylhet is an archaeologically ancient city from the South Asian region and has a rich history of Islamic culture. With the celebrated Sufi Muslim Saint, Hazrat Shah Jalal (R), and his nephew Hazrat Shah Paran (R), Sylthet is known as the ancient home of 360 Awalis. Apart from Islamic culture, the city continues to hold the ancient history of Hindu and Buddhist cultures. Besides, Sylhet is also recognised for the lush green tea gardens, majestic green forests, crystal-clear rivers and haors, eye-catching mountains, and natural resources such as natural gas, oil, limestone, hard rock, and silica.59

57

For more details, see: http://www.noakhali.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/563105df-2147-11e78f57-286ed488c766/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9D%E0%A7%81%E0%A6% AE%20%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AA. 58 For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/chattogram/112. 59 For more details see: http://www.sylhet.gov.bd/site/page/2b139da2-0757-11e7-a6c5-286ed4 88c766/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%20%E0% A6%AA%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF.

3 A Brief History and Overview …

61

3.3.7.1 Sreemangal Sreemangal is known as the tea capital of Bangladesh since majority of the tea estates are located in this city.60 Sreemangal is also renowned as “The land of two leaves and a bud ”. As far as the eyes go, tourists would see green carpet of evergreen tea plants under the blue sky. Besides, the tea gardens, tourists can enjoy the pineapple garden, rubber plantation, and large-scale lemon gardens. To enjoy the scenic beauty, rainy season is the best option. Given the tourist demand is increasing, over the years a good number of luxury resorts as well as 5-star hotels have been built in Sreemangal.

3.3.7.2 Jaflong Jaflong, known as the “daughter of nature”, is the most widely recognised tourist destination in Sylhet, located in Gowainghat upazila of Sylhet district of Bangladesh, 56 kilometres north-east of Sylhet city, on the foothills of the Khasia-Jaintia mountain along India’s Meghalaya border. Every year, thousands of tourists visit Jaflong to enjoy the scenic beauty of the mountains and streams of clean water from the Dawki and Khasia-Jaintia Mountains of India. In Jaflong, tourists can enjoy rocks of different sizes, colours, and shapes, which came down from the mountain streams and the Piyain River’s61 crystal water with many aquatic features. Tourists can also enjoy a boat ride in the river and visit zero point of Bangladesh-India border. Another important tourist attraction in Jaflong is the hanging natural bridge over the river Dawki. Besides, 60

For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/sylhet/24. According to the website of the majority world (https://majorityworld.com/photo/12455/Piy ain-River.html), “Along the shore of the Piyain river, a tributary of the Surma river originates from Assam’s Umgat river. The Umgat originates from the hilly areas of Assam. Flowing southward, the river enters Bangladesh through Sylhet district and branches out into two: The Piyain and the Dauki or Jaflong. After entering Bangladesh, the Piyain follows a 7 kilometres-route westward along the international boundary and slightly turns southwest to meet the Surma river at Chatak. Currently, the original flow of the Piyain follows the course of the Naiyadala and meets the Shari-Gowain river at down reach. The total length of the Piyain is about 145 kilometres. The river contains 22 meanders on its 80 kilometres course from Jaflong to Chatak. As the river is a hilly stream, it often causes flash floods and transports many stones from its source area. Goainghat, Jaflong, Sylhet, Bangladesh”.

61

62

S. B. Amin

tourists can also experience the colourful tribal lifestyle of the people from a tribe known as Khasia, living in Jaflong and the surrounding area for thousands of years.62

3.3.7.3 Ratargul Swamp Forest Ratargul is the only freshwater swamp forest that can be found in Bangladesh and is one of the few in the entire world. This swamp forest in Bangladesh is located in the Gowain River, Fatehpur union, Gowainghat, 26 kilometres far from Sylhet. Ratargul is also known as the Sundarbans of Sylhet and the Amazon of Bangladesh.63 The forest’s name comes from the word, “Rata” or “Pati” tree, used by the locals of Sylhet. The total area of this swamp forest is 3,325.61 acres including 504 acres declared as the animal sanctuary in 2015. The forest is conserved as a natural forest reserve by the forest department of the Bangladesh Government. Ratargul is an evergreen forest, and the beauty of the forest can be fully seen in the rainy season.64 According to Bangladesh Tourism Board, “you can never imagine how silence could be so enjoyable until you visit the amazing beauty of a swamp forest named Ratargul. Visitors will find a forest underwater with lots of big trees that have emerged. This is an evergreen forest and one of the best freshwater swamp forests in the world. The evergreen forestis situated by the river Gowain and linked with the channel Chengir Khal. Most of the trees growing here are the Millettia pinnata. The forest is submerged under 20-30 feet water in the rainy season. For the rest of the year, the water level is about 10 feet deep”.

62

For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/sylhet/143. For more details, http://www.sylhet.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/38bca005-0758-11e7-a6c5-286 ed488c766/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0% A6%97%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2. 64 For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/sylhet/25. 63

3 A Brief History and Overview …

63

3.3.7.4 Lawachara National Park One of the attractive tourism destinations of the Sylhet division is the Lawachara National Park.65 Located in the Kamalganj upazila, Moulvibazar district, Lawachara National Park is the most protected area and nature reserve in Bangladesh. Lawachara National Park is 12.5 square kilometre of semi-evergreen tropical forest, and Bangladesh government declared it as a national park on 7 July 1996 under the Wildlife Act of 1974. Biological diversity in the Lawachara National Park consists of 460 species, of which 167 species are plants, 4 amphibian species, 6 reptile species, 246 bird species, 20 mammal species, and 17 insect species.66 For instance, it is the home of many globally endangered species such as Western Koolock Gibbon, Pig-tailed Macaque, Capped Langur, and Phayre’s Leaf Monkey, Slow Loris Birds, snakes, and Banana Spiders. It is worth mentioning that Western Hoolock Gibbon is the only ape found in South Asia. The lush green of the forest trees, clear air, and different animals make it one of the popular destinations for nature lovers and life science scientists. Tourists can enjoy hiking and walking in the nature close to the wildlife using the numerous trails in the forest. Many tourists visit Lawachara National Park to explore and learn about the livelihood of the tribal people. Currently there are two villages of Khasia tribe namely the Magurchara Punji and the Lawachara Punji. The tribal people utilise the tall trees to cultivate Khasia betel leaf and other crops ( e.g. pineapple and lemon).67

65

For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/sylhet/23. For more details, see: https://www.daily-sun.com/printversion/details/465296/Lawachara-Nat ional-Park:-It%E2%80%99s-Worth-Your-Time. 67 For more details, see: http://www.moulvibazar.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/ec92492b-3ef6-47fcbc5e-9575b89ccf4d/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%89%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6% BE%E0%A6%9B%E0%A7%9C%E0%A6%BE%20%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6% A4%E0%A7%80%E0%A7%9F%20%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6% AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8. 66

64

S. B. Amin

3.3.7.5 Madhabkunda Waterfall Madhabkunda waterfall is one of the highest waterfall in Bangladesh. It is located in the Kamalganj upazila, 16 kilometres away from Sreemangal. The waterfall surrounded by evergreen leafy trees, black stones, which cover the waterfall, and clean cold water attracts nature-loving tourists to visit Madhabkunda waterfall.68 Every year, millions of people visit the eco-park surrounded this waterfall. This place is also a holy place for the Hindu religion.

3.3.7.6 Madhabpur Lake Madhabpur lake is a natural water lake inside the Madhabpur tea garden, situated in the Borolekha upazila, Moulvibazar.69 The lake’s water is immaculate, and the tourists can enjoy various types of water flora, especially different colours of water lilies. Besides enjoying the tranquility of the lake, tourists can enjoy the sunset from the small hills, which are covered with tea plants. It is also worth mentioning that Madhabpur lake is the only confirmed site in Bangladesh, where White-bellied Heron birds are frequently seen. During the colonial period, the British officials used to visit this fascinating lake to spend leisure time.70

3.3.7.7 Bichanakandi Located in the Rustompur, a small union under Gowainghat upazila, Bichanakandi is a village that portrays the eye-catching beauty of the meeting point of the green Khasi Mountain at Bangladesh India border in Sylhet. Just like Jaflong, huge stones come down to Bichanakandi from the streams that flow from the Khasi Mountain. It is a landscape beauty 68

For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/sylhet/120. For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/sylhet/132. 70 For more details, see: http://www.moulvibazar.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/1885693e-2e724fcf-b265-03f713bb523d/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%AC%E0% A6%AA%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%20%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%87%E0% A6%95. 69

3 A Brief History and Overview …

65

to enjoy the gardens, falls, stones, and hills together. These stones are mined from Bichanakandi and used in many economic activities such as constructing buildings and other construction-related works. Since the mining process takes place in the winter, it is not feasible to visit Bichanakandi during this season. The perfect time to visit Bichanakandi is the rainy season since the seasonal beauty adds extra charm to the high mountains.71 , 72

3.3.7.8 Tanguar Haor Tanguar haor is declared as a Ramsar site by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) due to its diverse natural and aquatic features.73 Furthermore, the haor is one of the largest natural water reserves from the South Asian point of view. According to IUCN, “Tanguar Haor of Bangladesh, the 1031st Ramsar site, is exceptionally biodiverse. This 10,000-hectare wetland is home to 137 species of fish and 284 species of bird, which comprise 51 per cent and 40 per cent of the total species of the country, respectively. In addition, the 30 mammal, 15 amphibian, and 39 reptile species of Tanguar Haor make up almost 25% of the total Bangladeshi species within their classes”.74 Moreover, Tanguar has unique feature in every season which, attracts nature loving tourists from around the world. For instance, in the winter season, tourists can see the migratory birds alongside with the surrounding natural beauty. During the rainy season, tourists get a remarkable experience as the haor resembles an ocean with strong waves, and cruising across the haor can be an enjoyable moment for them.

71

For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/sylhet/95. For more details, see: http://www.sylhet.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/38bca55a-0758-11e7-a6c5286ed488c766/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE% E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF. 73 For more details, see: https://www.ramsar.org/wetland/bangladesh. 74 For more details, see: https://www.iucn.org/news/bangladesh/201704/blog-tanguar-haor-% E2%88%92-beginning-new-era. 72

66

S. B. Amin

3.3.7.9 Satchari National Park Satchari is a national park in Bangladesh located in Habiganj district, Sylhet.75 It was declared as a national park in 2005 under the 1974 Wild Life Preservation Act. The Satchari National Park covers 243 hectares (600 acres) of land. The word “Satchari” in Bengali means “Seven Streams” since seven streams flow within the Satchari National Park. These streams provide necessary water supply to the forest’s flora and fauna. Satchari National Park is the home to many species such as Western Hoolock Gibbon, Pygmy Woodpeckers, Otters, and Orient Pied Hornbills. Moreover, Satchari National Park has more than 200 plants. Among these, Sakhua, Teak, Agar, Dipterocarpus Turbinatus, Chapalish, Palm, Mahogany, Royal Poinciana, Fig, Blackberry, Water Apple, Eucalyptus, Acacia Auriculiformis, Bamboo, Cane, etc., can specially be recognised.76

3.3.7.10 Shrine of Hazrat Shah Jalal (R) As a symbol of spirituality and a pilgrimage, thousands of followers along with the tourists, visit the Shrine of Hazrat Shah Jalal (R) every year.77 Hazrat Shah Jalal (R), who was a celebrated Sufi Muslim Saint, passed away nearly 600 years ago; however, his memories, philosophies, and regions activities have been passed down from generation to generation. His name is associated with the Muslim movement and the spread of Islam in Bangladesh through Sufism. People who visit the shrine pray in the vicinity and light candles to show respect. Visitors also feed tortoises and Bullseye Snakehead fishes in the pond located in the shrine. The

75

For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/sylhet/22. For more details, see: http://www.habiganj.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/38ba2e70-0758-11e7a6c5-286ed488c766/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6% A1%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BF%20%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7% 80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%20%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6% AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8. 77 For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/sylhet/126. 76

3 A Brief History and Overview …

67

largest mosque in Sylhet was built at the Dargah (also one of the largest in Bangladesh).78

3.3.7.11 Shrine of Hazrat Shah Paran (R) The Shrine of Hazrat Shah Paran (R), the nephew of Hazrat Shah Jalal (R) and a popular Sufi spiritual practitioner, is 8 kilometre away from the Shrine of Hazrat Shah Jalal (R). Local people believe that certain miraculous events were attributed to Hazrat Shah Paran (R). He was buried on top of a hill next to his khanqah at Khadimnagar where the Dargah attracts thousands of devotees every day.79

3.3.7.12 Hakaluki Haor Hakaluki haor is situated in the Moulvibazar district, which covers an area equivalent to 18,400 hectares, the largest haor to be found in Bangladesh.80 The haor is declared as an ecologically critical area, and proposed as a Ramsar site under the Ramsar Convention.81 Surrounding the haor, there are 238 heels, and it is the home of nearly 525 species of plants, 140 species of wild animals, 416 species of birds, and 105 species of fish. One of the attractions of this area is the winter migratory birds when a large number of tourists visit Hakaluki haor in the winter time to see different types of migratory birds alongside the natural beauty of the haor. In the rainy season, the haor looks totally different. With its 78 For more details, see: http://www.sylhet.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/38b8dc43-0758-11e7-a6c5286ed488c766/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%20%E0%A6% B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE% E0%A6%A8%20(%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%83)%20%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6% 9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0. 79 For more details, see: http://www.sylhet.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/38b8dc43-0758-11e7-a6c5286ed488c766/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%20%E0%A6% B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE% E0%A6%A8%20(%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%83)%20%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6% 9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0. 80 For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/sylhet/143. 81 For more details see: https://www.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/national/country/hakaluki-haorto-be-listed-as-ramsar-site-1574785848.

68

S. B. Amin

green vegetation, the haor transforms into a magnificent water kingdom in the rainy season.

3.4

Tourism in Northern Bangladesh

The northern part of Bangladesh has 2 divisions (Rangpur and Rajshahi) and 16 districts. Main tourist destinations from the northern part of Bangladesh are historical and archaeological in nature. The overview of the tourism from northern part is briefly discussed in this sub-section.

3.4.1 Paharpur Paharpur is located in the Naogaon district, Bangladesh, which is one of the most popular archeological places and Buddhist monastery in the Indian Subcontinent. According to the Bengali vocabulary, the name Paharpur (Pahar = hill, pur = locality) means a hill’s locality. It was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985. Containing the ruins of a Buddhist monastery, Paharpur was also called Somapura Mahavihara (the great monastery located in the vicinity of the moon) in the primeval Buddhist realm. Architecturally, it is a square quadrangle shaped structure of about 920 feet. The monastery complex walls are formulated by parallel cells (about 177), which face the main shrine located at the centre of the complex. Archaeologists and historians believe that monks used to live in these cells. From the ruins, it can be assumed that the central shrine had a cruciform ground plan and an adjoining superstructure that raised 70 feet of the ground. Besides, there exists as many as 63 stone sculptures of the Hindu gods adjacent to the wall.82 The monastery is square in design, being 281 metres on each side. Built by Dharmapala (781–821 AD), the second ruler of the Pala 82

For more details, see: http://www.naogaon.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/94d01653-1ab1-11e78120-286ed488c766/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7% 9C%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0%20%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6% A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%20%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6% BE%E0%A6%B0,%20%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%97%E0%A6% BE%E0%A6%9B%E0%A7%80.

3 A Brief History and Overview …

69

dynasty, and renovated at least twice by his descendants, each of its structures was built with a thick peripheral wall with two entry provisions in the east and the north. Moreover, there is a mark of monastic rooms, fronted by a running corridor, adjoining the external wall. Some of the cells comprise concrete pedestals. There is also a sub-worshipping point in the mid-most part of each part except the north. Each of this point, except the southern one, has a stairway linking with the monastery yard in front. In the middle of the monastery’s open courtyard, there stands the residual vestige of a four-faced shrine.83 The central shrine is the first of its kind in South Asia with a crossshaped design. This type of design is later being incorporated in many Buddhist monasteries in different South Asian countries, such as Ananda temple in Myanmar, Chandi Sewer temples in central Java, Borobudur in Indonesia, and some of the temples in Cambodia. It is believed that the cruciform shape of the central shrine is the representation of the five Eternal Buddhas (Buddhist philosophers from East Asian Buddhism) from the branch of Vajrayana. The Somapura Mahavihara monastery complex was listed as an aesthetic site to be explored by UNESCO. The simplicity, symmetric structural design, and profound decorations (stone terracotta) are exquisite and it resembles the Pala Dynasty’s ancient architects’ craftsmanship.84 Many cultural objects were recovered from Paharpur, such as sculptural pieces, terracotta plaques, pottery, domestic tools, ornaments, coins, seals, sealings, votive stupas. These are now preserved in Asutosh Museum Kolkata, Bangladesh National Museum, Varendra Museum, Paharpur Museum, and other site museums in Bangladesh. Of these antiquities, sculptural pieces (small and medium), as well as sculptured plaques, are inventively most fascinating. All of them are designed on stone, except a few metals. Among the metal sculptures, the fragmented 83

For more details, see: http://www.parjatan.gov.bd/site/page/1c30b619-87ee-40ca-b5bf-db0 264810daa/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%9C%E0% A6%AA%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7% 8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0. 84 For more details, see: http://www.parjatan.gov.bd/site/page/1c30b619-87ee-40ca-b5bf-db0 264810daa/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%9C%E0% A6%AA%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7% 8D%E0%A6%A7-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0.

70

S. B. Amin

busted of a Buddha is worth noting because of its arty brilliance. Only one stone sculpture is linked to Mahayana, the residual being Hindu. Some nameable sculptural pieces are: ‘Chamunda’ Statue of Clay Stone, Standing ‘Seetala’ Statue of Red Stone, Broken Parts of ‘Visnu’ Statue of Krishna Stone, ‘Keerti’ Statue of Clay Stone, Damaged ‘Haargouri’ Statue, Broken Statue of Laxmi Narayan of Krishna Stone, ‘Uma’ Statue of Krishna Stone, ‘Gouri’ Statue of Clay Stone, ‘Visnu’ Statue of Clay Stone, Nandi Statue, ‘Visnu’ Statue of Krishna Stone, Sun Statue, and ‘Mansha’ Statue of Clay Stone.85 One scholar writes, as stated in the Bangladesh Tourism Board’s website, “The ruins of the temple and monasteries at P¯ah¯apur(Paharpur) do not bear any evident marks of large-scale destruction. The downfall of the establishment, by desertion or destruction, must have been sometime during the widespread unrest and displacement of population consequent on the Muslim invasion”.

3.4.2 Mahasthangarh Mahasthangarh is one of the oldest urban archaeological places revealed in Bangladesh. It is situated in the Shibganj upazila of Bogura district.86 Mahansthangrah encompasses the ruins of the Pundranagara, which was under the ancient Pundravardhana territory.87 Mahasthan means a place with exceptional sacredness and Garh means fort. Mahasthan was first stated in a Sanskrit text of the thirteenth century entitled Vallalcharita. Archaeologists believe that the city existed in the third century BC and was considered an important city in the Maurya Empire era.88 The archaeological remains of Mahansthangarh can be found on the western 85

For more details, see: http://archaeology.gov.bd/site/page/38234055-ebda-4f76-bccd-76d d2eca7577/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%9C%E0% A6%AA%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7% 8D%E0%A6%A7-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0. 86 For more details, see: http://www.parjatan.gov.bd/site/page/330a32bd-2a86-43f2-b70b-a82cf6 fe606e/-. 87 For more details, see: Ghosh (1996). 88 The Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya in the Iron Age. It is believed that the Maurya Empire dominated the Indian subcontinent between 322 and 185 BC.

3 A Brief History and Overview …

71

bank of Karatoya river. The remains consist of a massively fortified rectangle structure, about 5,000 feet long and 4,500 feet wide. On average, the area is 15 feet above the shrouding lands. Each of its bricks represents the history of ancient and medieval Bengal. From the archeological artefacts, it is confirmed that the site was one of the most important cities of Mauryan, Gupta, Pala, and later Hindu period.89 Mahasthangarh is a notable historical tourist attraction of Bangladesh. Many tourists come here to see the glory of Mahasthangarh. One of the main attractions of Mahasthangarh is the Govinda Bhita, where tourists get to see the remains of the two Buddhist temples. It is believed that the larger temple from two was established in sixth century AD, while the smaller temple was established in around eleventh century AD. Furthermore, a museum contains unique collections of sculptures of Hindu God and Goddess, statues of Buddha and other monks, and terracotta that illustrate the Maurya’s daily lives to Pala era. Barricades of the ruined citadel give tourists some idea about how the ancient urban city looked like.

3.4.3 Ramsagar Lake (Dighi) and Ramsagar National Park Ramsagar, the largest ever recorded man-made lake (dighi) in Bangladesh is situated in the village known as Tejpur, which is located about 8 kilometres south from the main city of Dinajpur district.90 Ramsagar lake is 1,079 metres wide in the north-south direction and 192.6 metres wide in the east-west direction. The lake was excavated in the mid-1750s under the direction of Raja Ram Nath for creating easy access of water for the people living in that area. It is said that about 1.5 million workers volunteered in the lake excavation process, and it costed about 30,000 BDT of that time. Surrounding the Ramsagar lake, the forest department of Bangladesh planted different types of trees, and over time, the area has turned into a forest. In 2001, the government declared the total area of

89 90

For more details, see: https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1208/. For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/rangpur/63.

72

S. B. Amin

the national park is 60 hectares.91 Currently Ramsagar is widely known as a picnic place. To attract more tourists, Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC) has already established different tourist facilities such as restrooms, picnic spots, playgrounds, refreshment facilities. According to Bangladesh Tourism Board, “the lake is full of different types of fishes. There have some freshwater crocodiles. In the national park, there have some animals such as Deer, Wild Boar, Blue Bull, Sloth Bear, and Hyena. There some birds such as White-Breasted Water Hen, Jacanas, Moorhen, River Tern, Sand Piper, Ringed Plover, and Grey and Purple Herons are seen. Moreover, the lake is a safe place for migratory birds”.92

3.4.4 Chalan Beel Chalan Beel is the largest Beel in Bangladesh, which is connected by 47 water streams. The main water sources of this Beel are Padma, Jamuna, and Atria. Chalan Beel travels through Singra and Gurudaspur upazilas of Natore district, Chatmohar, Bhangura, and Faridpur upazilas of Pabna district, and Ullahpara, Raiganj and Tarash upazilas of Sirajganj district. Due to silting, the bill is now separated in many small water bodies which become one in the monsoon. Chalan Beel is rich with diversed flora and fauna. The soil of the Chalan Beel is very fertile, and in the summertime, locals use the dry land of the Beel to produce different crops.93

3.4.5 Other Archaeological Tourist Attractions Apart from the different tourist destinations discussed above, several other places in this region also attract tourists. For instance, Bagha Shahi Mosque in Rajshahi, built by Sultan Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah of the Husain Shahi dynasty in the fifteenth century, is another significant tourist destination for the magnificent Islamic terracotta ornamentation. Both the exterior and interior are designed with an abstract framework, 91

For more details see: http://www.theindependentbd.com/printversion/details/160450. For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/rangpur/63. 93 For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/rajshahi/141. 92

3 A Brief History and Overview …

73

geometric patterns, and unique Arabic calligraphy.94 Another attraction is the Puthia Rajbari Complex, located about a kilometre away from the Rajshahi-Natore highway.95 The Puthia Rajbari is one of the architectural elegances because of its unique blend of Indo-European architectural layout. It is a rectangular shaped duplex villa and maintained by the Archaeological Department of Bangladesh. Furthermore, the Varendra Research Museum is another popular tourist attraction, also the oldest museum in Bangladesh, established in 1910. From 1964, Rajshahi University was given the charge to preserve the museum and its collections.96 Besides, a late-medieval Hindu temple known as Kantajew Temple is also a much-visited place in Kantanagar, Dinajpur.97 Bangladesh Tourism Board has also listed the Natore Rajbari, as a prominent royal palace in Natore, Bangladesh, which was the home of the Rajshahi Raj family of Zamindars.98

3.5

Tourism in Southern Bangladesh

Khulna and Barishal divisions (total 16 districts) make the southern part of Bangladesh. Tourist destinations from this part of Bangladesh can give tourists to explore both natural and archaeological sites. Some of the famous tourism destinations from the southern part of Bangladesh is discussed in this sub-section.

94

For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/rajshahi/108. For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/rajshahi/114. 96 For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/cat/landmarks/119. 97 According to Bangladesh Tourism Board, “The temple belongs to the popular Hindu Kanta or Krishna and this is most popular with the Radha-Krishna cult (assemble of memorable love) in Bengal. This beautiful temple is dedicated to Krishna and his wife Rukmini Built by Maharaja Pran Nath, its construction started in 1704 CE (Common Era) and ended in the reign of his son Raja Ramnath in 1722 CE. It boasts one of the greatest examples of terracotta architecture in Bangladesh and once had nine spires, but all were destroyed in an earthquake that took place in 1897 .” For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/rangpur/62. 98 For more details, see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/rajshahi/7. 95

74

S. B. Amin

3.5.1 Sundarbans Sundarbans is the biggest mangrove forest that lies on the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers on the Bay of Bengal. In Bangladesh, the forest covers a total area of 6,017 square kilometres, and the rest falls in the Indian territory (4,260 square kilometres). Sundarbans means “Beautiful Forest” in Bengali. However, Sundarbans may have been named after the “Sundori” tree (Heritiera Fomes) that grows abundantly here. Another popular and well grown tree of this forest is the Gewa tree (Excoecaria Agallocha). The forest is packed with diverse flora and fauna, and no other mangrove forest can match the diversity that Sundarbans holds. According to UNESCO website, about 334 species of plant can be found in the Sundarbans, and along with the ferocious Royal Bengal Tiger, it is the home of 49 species of mammal, 59 species of reptile, 210 species of white fish, 24 species of shrimp, 14 species of crab, 43 species of mollusk, and 8 species of amphibian are found in Sundarbans. The Sundarbans mangrove forest is also listed in the UNESCO’s World Heritage Site list due to its ecological diversity. As per the UNESCO’s narrative, “The site is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests, and presents an excellent example of ongoing ecological processes”.99 Tourists always experience an excellent level of enthusiasm and fascination while travelling through the canals of the majestic Sundarbans.100 , 101 Furthermore, the various and colourful bird life can be found along the waterways of the Sundarbans, which is one of its greatest attractions, including 315 species of waterfowl, raptors and forest birds, 9 species of kingfisher, and the magnificent White-bellied sea eagle. There are several other famous tourist points, where tourists can enjoy the natural beauty and the wildlife of the Sundarbans. The main attraction point is the Hiron Point, which is also known as Nilkamal. Hiron 99

For more details, see: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798/. For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/khulna/55. 101 For more details see: http://www.khulna.gov.bd/site/tourist_spot/d0c93817-1c3a-11e7-8f57286ed488c766/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6% E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8. 100

3 A Brief History and Overview …

75

Point is the best place to observe deer, tigers, birds, and other wild animals. Next is the Katka Beach, where one can enjoy beautiful sunset and the soft ocean breeze. Beside the beach, there are some canals, and navigating through the canals along with tourist guides and guards can be very adventurous. Moreover, the vast grassy meadows from Katka to Tiger Point (Kachikhali) gives the tourists the opportunity to experience the feelings of wild tracking. While tracking through the grassy meadow, tourists might hear the roar of the Royal Bengal Tiger or see the footprints. Finally, Dhublar Char is another beautiful island from the southern border of the Sundarbans, and it is famous for fishing. Tourists can enjoy the first-hand experience of fishing with the experienced fishermen. Besides Dhublar Char is also famous for the spotted deer since they can be often seen grazing around the island. It is also worth mentioning that tourists can experience the celebration of Rash Mela and Holy Bath, which are 200 years old Hindu festivals.102 Tourist can also visit the salt water crocodile breeding farm at Karamjol, which is just few miles away from the Mongla Port, Khulna.

3.5.2 Kuakata Kuakata sea beach, also locally known as the “Daughter of the Sea” or “Sagar Kannya”, is located in the Patuakhali district of Barishal division. The Kuakata beach is part of the greater Sundarbans, and it is 18 kilometres long and 3.5 kilometres wide. The name Kuakata originated from the word ‘Kua’-the Bengali word for “Well”, which was dug on the seashore by the early Rakhine settlers in quest of collecting drinking water, who landed on Kuakata coast in the eighteenth century after being expelled from Arakan (Myanmar) by the Mughals. Afterwards, it has become a tradition of digging well in the neighbourhoods of Rakhaine tribes for water. Tourists can enjoy unobstructed sunrise and sunset here, on this large sandy beach. Tourists can also explore a tiny mangrove forest situated in the west of Kuakata sea beach. Some other tourist attraction places, which are located nearby include a Shima Buddha 102

These Hindu festivals based on the meeting of Radha and Lord Krishna—a pairing which is celebrated by a three-day long annual festival.

76

S. B. Amin

Bihar, Rakhaine Palli, Gauranga Sea Channel, Narikel Bithi, Jhouban Karianipara, Lembur char, Fatrar char, are worth to be visited.103 Kuakata is the place of pilgrimage for both Hindu and Buddhist communities. Innumerable devotees arrive here at the festival of ‘Rash Purnima’ and ‘Maghi Purnima’. On these two occasions, the pilgrims take holy bath at the bay and participate in the traditional fairs. One may also visit the 100 years old Buddhist temple where the statue of Gautama Buddha and two wells of 200 years old are located.104 Fishermen village is another place where you can visit and watch the lifestyle of the fisherman. If the tourists are adventurous, they may also go for fishing by managing the local fishermen. That will give pleasure and experience to the tourists, which they are not able to gather from anywhere else. In the fishermen village, the tourists will find the fishermen coming back from the sea and they can purchase some fresh hilsa fish from them, and by the side of village there are some local restaurants where the tourists can get the hilsa fish cooked and ready for eating.

3.5.3 Sixty Dome Mosque The Sixty Dome Mosque, commonly known as the “Shait Gambuj Mashjid” or “Saith Gunbad Masjid”, is the largest sultanate mosque situated in the Mosque City of Bagerhat district of Khulna division. It is also considered one of the impressive Islamic monuments in South Asia and listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The mosque was built in the fifteenth century by Ulugh Khan Jahan Ali, governor of the Bagerhat from Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah’s regime.105 The Sixty Dome Mosque is considered to be an architectural masterpiece. It is built in the essence of Turki architectural style. The construction of this mosque started in 1442 and ended in 1459. The whole structure is based on 60 stone pillars. The walls of this mosque are remarkably thick (6 feet thick), tapered brick in the Tughlaq style and 103

For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/barishal/20. For more details, see: http://www.parjatan.gov.bd/site/page/705a1556-16f3-410f-8e04-efbdc2 d2b3b1/-. 105 For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/khulna/56. 104

3 A Brief History and Overview …

77

has a hut-shaped roofline that anticipates later styles. The 77 domes are arranged in 7 rows, and each row contains 11 domes. Furthermore, there are 4 smaller domes on each corner and four towers, which resemble the famous Tughlaq architecture of Delhi, and the interior is decorated with terracotta. The vast prayer hall, although provided with 11 arched doorways on east and 7 each on north and south for ventilation and light, presents a dark and sombre appearance inside. The length of the mosque is 160 feet and width are 108 feet. Even though there are 77 domes over the mosque’s main hall building, it is known as the Sixty Dome Mosque. According to the Archaeological Department of Bangladesh, the name of the mosque was Chad Gambuj Mosque, where the word “Chad” (roof ) got distorted over the years into “Shait” (sixty), leading to the name of “Shait Gambuj Mashjid”. According to UNESCO, “Situated in the suburbs of Bagerhat, at the meeting-point of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, this ancient city, formerly known as Khalifatabad, was founded by the Turkish general Ulugh Khan Jahan in the 15 th century. The city’s infrastructure reveals considerable technical skill and an exceptional number of mosques and early Islamic monuments, many built of brick, can be seen there.”106

3.5.4 Fakir Lalon Shah Shrine One of the main reasons domestic and international tourists visit Kushtia, a city from southern Bangladesh, is to see the one-domed shrine of the mystical poet Fakir Lalon Shah.107 Very little is known about Fakir Lalon Shah. Fakir Lalon Shah was born in 1774 and died in 1890 at 116 years. Lalon was a believer in freedom, peace, and non-believer of class divisions. He was also against subjugation and inequality. Lalon used to express his philosophical thoughts through poetry and songs. He had many qualities- a spiritual leader, mystic poet, reformer, and composer of Baul songs. He wrote more than two thousand songs and poems, which still inspire many people spiritually. The famous Lalon Festival (a

106 107

For more details see: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/321/. For more details see: https://beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/khulna/67.

78

S. B. Amin

three-day folk festival) occurs every year in mid-March and mid-October, where Bauls from different parts of the country gather and perform Lalon songs besides other activities to remember Fakir Lalon Shah’s Birth and Demise. The festival is organised by the Lalon Academy with assistance from the Ministry of Cultural Affairs.

3.6

Conclusion

Bangladesh is blessed with immense natural beauty from every side of it. From the longest sea beach of the world to one of the biggest mangrove forests, Bangladesh has given place to some of the world’s most unique and attractive tourism destinations. The picturesque landscapes of St. Martin’s Island, Bandarban, Kuakata, the ancient archaeological sites, and the historical monuments all make Bangladesh a perfect home for visitors from across the world. However, Bangladesh tourism is still at the take-off stage. The government is planning to strengthen the industry by encouraging foreign and private investors to invest in the industry and developing concrete marketing strategies. However, to attract foreign and private investors to invest in the tourism industry, a clear picture of the tourism industry is required, and therefore, this chapter provides a brief overview of the Bangladesh tourism industry both region wise and destination wise. From the discussion of this chapter, the inbound tourists can also be immensely benefited by knowing various tourist spots of Bangladesh. To turn the tourism industry into an economically lucrative income source for the country, the government has to plan accordingly. Respective authorities should develop plans to utilise the tourism industry’s social, cultural, and economic benefits. If effective strategic plans are developed and implemented, it will not be any further when the tourism industry of Bangladesh booms in the global tourism market (Table 3.2). (The names of all the tourist destinations, upazilas, districts, and divisions are taken from the following official websites: i) Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism, ii) Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation, iii) Bangladesh Tourism Board, and iv) UNESCO)

Heritage

Ahsan Manzil (Dhaka), Lalbagh Fort (Dhaka), Panam City (Dhaka), Bhawal Rajbari (Gazipur)

Region

Central Region (Dhaka and Mymensingh) Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Safari Park (Gazipur), Susang Durgapur (Netrokona)

Green/Valley

Table 3.2 Tourism Destinations by Region, Division, and Category Nikli Haor (Kishoreganj)

(continued)

Central Shaheed Minar (Dhaka), National Martyrs’ Memorial (Dhaka), Mausoleum of Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Dhaka), Bangabandhu Memorial Museum (Dhaka), Folk Art and Crafts Foundation Museum (Dhaka)

Sea/Lake/Waterfall/Island Landmark

3 A Brief History and Overview …

79

Heritage

Mainamati Shalban Bihar (Cumilla)

Region

Eastern Region (Chittagong and Sylhet)

Table 3.2 (continued) Chittagong Hill Tracts, Nilgiri (Bandarban), Nilachal Parjatan Centre (Bandarban), Boga Lake (Bandarban), Sajek Valley (Rangamati), Keokradong (Bandarban), Sreemangal (Sylhet), Ratargul Swamp Forest (Gowainghat), Lawachara National Park (Kamalganj), Bichanakandi (Gowainghat), Jaflong (Gowainghat), Satchari National Park (Habiganj)

Green/Valley Cox’s Bazar (Chittagong), St. Martin’s Island (Cox’s Bazar), Kaptai Lake (Rangamati), Shuvolong Waterfall (Rangamati), Madhabkunda Waterfall (Moulvibazar), Madhabpur Lake (Moulvibazar), Tanguar Haor (Sunamganj), Hakaluki Haor (Moulvibazar), Nijhum Dwip (Noakhali)

Buddha Dhato Jadi (Bandarban), Mainamati War Cemetery (Cumilla), Shrine of Hazrat Shah Jalal (R) (Sylhet), Hazrat Shah Paran (R) (Sylhet)

Sea/Lake/Waterfall/Island Landmark

80 S. B. Amin

Paharpur (Naogaon), Mahasthangarh (Bogura), Bagha Shahi Mosque (Rajshahi), Puthia Rajbari Complex (Natore), Varendra Research Museum (Rajshahi), Kantajew Temple (Dinajpur) Sixty Dome Mosque (Bagerhat)

Northern Region (Rangpur and Rajshahi)

Source Author’s Compilation

Southern Region (Khulna and Barishal)

Heritage

Region Ramsagar Lake (Dinajpur), Chalan Beel (Rajshahi)

Kuakata (Patuakhali)

Sundarbans (Khulna)

Fakir Lanon Shah Shrine (Kushtia)

Sea/Lake/Waterfall/Island Landmark

Ramsagar National Park (Dinajpur)

Green/Valley

3 A Brief History and Overview …

81

82

S. B. Amin

References Ghosh, R. (1996). Pundravardhana in the first phase of urbanization (4th Century B.C. - 3rd Century A.D.)—A study. In Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 57 (pp. 199–209). Retrieved December 2, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/44133305. Khan, S. H. (1999). United they survive: Redistribution, leadership, and human services delivery in rural Bangladesh. Lexington Books.

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism Industry in Bangladesh

4.1

Background

In this modern era of globalisation, the tourism industry has emerged as a potential medium of social and economic networks within and beyond the national boundaries. With its composite activities, concrete growing trading opportunities, and various economic benefits, the tourism industry is now recognised as one of the fundamental pillars of economic prosperity in most countries. The enhancement of tourism activities tends to contribute to five high propriety goals such as the generation of income, job creation, foreign exchange earnings, improvement of the living standards, and poverty reduction (Amin et al., 2020a, Amin & Rahman, 2019; Balsalobre et al., 2020; Nepal et al., 2019). Additionally, the tourism industry has the potential to attract public and private investments for future sustainable development. It is worth mentioning that tourism, as an industry, has evolved quite rapidly from being a relatively small-scale industry into one of the world’s most significant industries in recent times. International tourism has ranked as the 3rd largest industry globally after fuels and chemicals. Table 4.1 shows © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. B. Amin, The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4_4

83

84

S. B. Amin

Table 4.1 Global Tourist Arrivals by Region of Origin (Millions) Destinations

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

World Europe Asia and the Pacific Americas Middle East Africa

1,138.00 567.60 272.00 188.60 37.60 34.40

1,1890.00 583.80 293.60 200.20 37.40 36.00

1,235.00 596.10 316.50 209.90 34.80 39.20

1,329.00 673.30 324.00 210.80 57.70 62.70

1,401.00 710.00 347.70 215.70 60.50 67.10

Source World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) Tourism Highlights (2019)

an increasing trend of international tourist arrivals by different regions from 2014 to 2018. Due to the tangible nature of the economic impacts on tourism,1 knowing the tourism industry’s insights towards any economy better has become imperative at all times. Luzzi and Fluckiger (2003) and Zhang and Yang (2018) have asserted that tourism industry stimulates economic activities through various local goods and services. Several studies have highlighted that the tourism industry is considered as one of the significant economic growth drivers for certain economies, both directly and indirectly (Liu & Song, 2017; Zuo & Huang, 2017). Existing empirical literature supports the tourism-led growth hypothesis (TLGH),2 which shows that rapid growth in the tourism industry creates a multiplier effect3 through earned revenue that leads to long-run economic growth (Chen et al., 2016; Khan et al., 1990; Mishra et al., 2019). Furthermore, there is also evidence of improvement in the balance of payment and local investment due to the tourism industry’s expansion (Chen et al., 2016; Oh, 2005). It is also evident that some economies also support the growth-led tourism hypothesis or neutrality hypothesis (Bianchi, 2017; Lee, 2012). 1

The direct contribution of the tourism industry is seen through the consumption of various physical commodities. 2 Theoretically, the tourism-led growth hypothesis originates from the export-led growth hypothesis. The tourism-led growth hypothesis asserts that countries can achieve economic growth through the promotion or development of the tourism industry (Brida et al., 2016). 3 In simple terms, the multiplier effect implies when an economic factor increases, it causes an increase in many other economic factors, leading to economic growth or vice versa (Dwyer & Forsyth, 1993).

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

85

According to the TLGH, when tourists spend money on domestically produced goods and services, it stimulates economic activities in several ways. For instance, the consumption of food and drinks by tourists can escalate consumption expenditure.4 The tourism industry can also create employment opportunities for local people and reduce employment rigidity. It can further influence imports when particular products are imported to satisfy tourists’ needs and different types of investments (foreign investment for building world standard hotels and restaurants). Saayman (2000) argues that every component of economic growth can be influenced by tourism expenditure. However, it should be noted that tourists’ consumption expenditure has to outweigh investment and import costs for tourism-led growth. The amount of tourists’ spendings is thus an essential factor (Saayman & Saayman, 2008). The tourism industry has further indirect impacts on the economy. Tourism can positively affect the economic development by creating jobs for low-skilled workers through backward linkages5 with other industries. Indirect employment opportunities, such as in restaurants and theatres, are also created throughout the tourism industry’s expansion. Therefore, the residents tend to welcome the tourists within the locality and the subsequent economic contribution. However, employment in the tourism industry may be high6 only during the holiday (peak) season. Many literatures have also shown that the tourism industry is propoor as it empowers poorer families to get rid of the poverty trap (Njoya & Seetaram, 2017; Mitchell & Ashley, 2010). There are numerous ways the tourism industry can help to alleviate poverty. For instance, enhancing tourism development can lead the poor people in the tourist area to increase income level by direct and indirect participation. On the other hand, the government can also utilise the earned revenue from 4 From the expenditure approach; consumption expenditure is a major driver of economic growth. 5 Backward linkage is a phenomenon in which enhanced production by a downstream industry (tourism) provides positive pecuniary externalities to an upstream industry (other industries like clothing, transportation machinery) responsible for different stages of the upstream production process. 6 It has been seen that the peak season of tourism in any country increases seasonal employment in the tourist regions. However, the majority of the seasonal employees become unemployed in the off-peak season.

86

S. B. Amin

tourism activities in poverty graduation or social security programmes, and social infrastructures such as schools and colleges. However, the tourism industry also possesses some adverse effects on the economy. Among others, Chen et al. (2016); Lee (2016); and Schubert (2010), have highlighted that rapid and unplanned tourism growth could hinder local lifestyle, culture, as well as lead to environmental degradation. Although the expansion of the tourism industry largely leads to higher economic growth, some studies have argued that a few countries that have specialised in the tourism industry tend to grow slower than those who specialise in non-tourism industries (Figini & Vici, 2010). One of the reasons behind this low productivity growth is the prevalence of lower technology intensity and low-skilled labours (Sequeira & Maças, 2008). On the contrary, Brau et al. (2007) have shown that small tourism countries develop faster than other large countries but are vulnerable to international shocks. Ghalia and Fidrmuc (2015) have mentioned that tourism revenue tends to be volatile and depend on different economic situations. For example, due to the global financial crisis and political uncertainty, many tourism-oriented counties like small Middle-Eastern and European countries faced a significant loss in tourism revenue. The findings are consistent with that stated in Easterly and Kraay (2000). Apart from the above discussion, Inchausti-Sintes (2015) has also emphasised the issue of the tourism-led Dutch Disease due to the sectoral reallocation of the productive resources from the nontourism to tourism industries, as mentioned in Copeland (1991), Sahli and Nowak, (2007), and Chen et al. (2016). Bangladesh is one of the world’s emerging countries. The country has made remarkable progress over the past few years from a socio-economic standpoint regarding increased per capita income level, life expectancy, literacy rate, self-sufficiency food production, poverty reduction, etc. Bangladesh’s economy grew by 7.1 per cent in 2016, the fastest growth in 30 years, dropping poverty from 44.2 per cent in 1991 to 12.9 per cent in 2016–2017. Since 2000, the economy is growing steadily, over 6 per cent on average each year, and alleviating millions of people out of poverty. Based on these socio-economic indicators, in 2021, the country has fulfilled all the criteria for graduation out of the LDC status for the second consecutive years. With an aspiration to become a high-income

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

87

country by 2041 and eradicate extreme poverty by 2030, Bangladesh now looks forward to sustained economic growth by creating more jobs, improving the quality of health and education, energy and transport infrastructure, and governance, including reinforcing anti-corruption measures. In this chapter, we will broadly discuss the economic prospects of the tourism industry in Bangladesh. We will first look at tourism’s contribution to several macroeconomic variables. Finally, we will empirically investigate the long-run effects of the tourism industry on the Bangladesh economy. Such an empirical exercise aims to check the degree of the long-run effect of the tourism industry on Bangladesh’s economy, from which a set of policies can be suggested for future tourism industry development.

4.2

Economic Prospects of Tourism Industry in Bangladesh

The economic picture of the tourism industry in Bangladesh’s economy is highlighted in this section. Figure 4.1 shows the total impact of the tourism industry in the local currency and its share in Bangladesh’s GDP. There is a steady increase in the tourism industry’s total contribution, even though its share in GDP has not surpassed over 4 per cent from 2007 to 2018. On average (2007–2018), the total tourism contribution was 377.46 Bangladeshi Taka (BDT) billion. However, in 2018, tourism’s total contribution stood at 693.21 BDT billion. In the last five years, the total contribution of tourism to GDP increased at a higher speed.7 On the other hand, tourism’s GDP share shows a gradual declining trend between 2008 and 20118 and has remained steady at around 3 per cent since 2011. From 2012 to 2018, the average percentage of tourism’s 7 For instance, from 2007 to 2013, the average growth rate of tourism’s total contribution was 11.26 per cent, while it was 14.27 per cent from 2014 to 2018. 8 Due to the political instability in Bangladesh before 2009, the global financial crisis in 2008, two devastating tropical cyclones in 2007 and 2009 caused disruption in Bangladesh tourism industry.

S. B. Amin

800.00

4.00

700.00

3.50

600.00

3.00

500.00

2.50

400.00

2.00

300.00

1.50

200.00

1.00

100.00

Share in GDP (%)

Total ContribuƟon ( Billion Taka)

88

0.50 2007

2008

2009

2010

Total ContribuƟon

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Average ContribuƟon

2016

2017

2018

GDP Share

Fig. 4.1 Total Contribution and Share of Tourism in GDP (Source World Travel & Tourism Council [WTTC, 2019])

total GDP contribution was 3.02 per cent. In 2018, it was 3.08 per cent, which was slightly above the average growth rate. The sluggishness in the growth rate indicates that the tourism industry needs more attention in designing concrete and realistic tourism master plans for the country’s sustainable tourism development. Table 4.2 illustrates some of the countries with a higher share of tourism in GDP in 2018. The tourism industry’s contribution to the economy can be divided into three broad categories: direct, indirect, and induced contributions (WTTC, 2019). The summary of tourism’s contribution can be seen in Fig. 4.2. A direct contribution comes from commodities, industries, and direct spendings related to the tourism industry. The indirect and induced contributions are triggered by the tourism-related investment, government spendings, impact of foreign goods purchase, and spendings by direct and indirect employees and firms for daily activities. The disaggregated impact of the tourism industry’s contribution to Bangladesh’s GDP can be seen in Table 4.3. Both the direct, indirect,

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

89

Table 4.2 Selected Countries with Higher Share of Tourism in GDP Country

Share in GDP (%)

GDP (Constant USD Billion)

Macau SAR, China Aruba Netherlands Maldives US Virgin Islands Grenada Bahamas St Lucia Seychelles Vanuatu Anguilla St Kitts and Nevis Thailand Malaysia Turkey Singapore Sri Lanka India Nepal Indonesia

90.18 73.21 62.16 57.34 56.47 45.85 41.86 40.53 40.41 35.48 33.30 25.73 19.70 11.50 11.30 11.10 11.09 6.84 6.79 5.77

35.30 2.81 965.27 4.36 0.18 1.04 10.70 1.71 1.46 0.86 98.77 0.91 452.75 398.68 1251.36 335.54 87.47 2963.95 24.58 1204.48

Source World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC, 2019) and World Bank (WB, 2019)

and induced contributions increased at a steady rate over the years. The direct contribution of tourism to GDP in 2018 stayed at 255.72 BDT billion, which was about 190 BDT billion higher than that of 2007. Similarly, the difference between the indirect and induced contribution in 2018 and 2007 was 314.05 BDT billion. During 2016–2018, both the direct contribution of tourism showed a significant increasing trend.9 So far, the tourism industry has undoubtedly contributed to the employment generation in Bangladesh. Khondker and Ahsan (2015) have argued that the tourism industry may become the direct pathway for increasing formal employment to accommodate the huge labour (surplus labour) working in the informal sector. It is also worth mentioning that almost 85 per cent of the population is employed in 9 Direct contribution, on average, increased by 14.15 per cent. Indirect and induced contributions increased by 14.52 per cent. This is consistent with the increasing trend of the other socio-economic indicators in Bangladesh during the last 10 years.

90

S. B. Amin

Total Contribution

Direct Contribution Commodity -Accommodation -Transport -Recreation -Attraction

Indirect Contribution

Induced Contribution

-Capital investment -Impact of suppliers purchase

-Spending effect from direct and indirect employees and firms: Food Clothing Housing Recreation Health Education Licensing Other expenditure

Industry -Accommodation service -Food and beverage -Merchandise -Recreational services -Retail trade Spending -Visitors export -Domestic travel spending -Government spending -Capital investment

Economic Development

Fig. 4.2 Tourism Industry’s Contribution (Source Author’s Compilation)

the informal sector (Labour Force Survey, 2017). They have further highlighted that tourism development also helps grow industries that have backward linkages with tourism activities. Such development also generates employment opportunities in the economy indirectly. Figure 4.3 shows that the average employment generation through the tourism industry from 2007 to 2018 was 1,650 thousand persons. It is also observed that the employment generation in the tourism industry from 2009 to 2011 has declined due to the aftermath of the

91

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

Table 4.3 Disaggregation of Tourism Contribution in GDP (BDT Billion) Year

Direct

Indirect and Induced

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

65.62 74.18 78.70 93.89 102.32 117.43 132.30 155.15 172.16 189.02 217.40 255.72

123.44 152.23 162.10 158.26 172.57 198.70 224.04 262.35 291.59 322.35 370.53 437.49

Source World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC, 2019) 1826

1850 1800 1750

1711

1702

Thousand Persons

1700 1650

1694

1650 1653

1600 1550

1576

1692

1583 1600

1584

1500

1536

1450 1400 1350 2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Total Employment

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Average

Fig. 4.3 Total Employment Generation from Tourism Industry (Source World Travel & Tourism Council [WTTC, 2019])

world economic meltdown (i.e., financial crisis) and natural disasters in Bangladesh (i.e., cyclone Sidr and Aila), which temporarily slowed down Bangladesh’s tourism development. However, the employment generation started to increase and remained above the average value since 2014.

92

S. B. Amin

In 2018, the total employment generation stood at 1,826 thousand persons, which was 132 thousand persons, and 176 thousand persons, higher than the employment generated in 2017 and 2016, respectively. It is also predicted that tourism would generate around 1,859 thousand jobs by 2029 (WTTC, 2019). It is also argued that the slow progress in tourism-based employment generation lies in the fact that most of the tourism industry employees fall under the informal contract scheme and are not being reported in the official statistics. The intensity of tourism-based employment was checked by Amin et al. (2019) through a primary survey analysis in Cox’s Bazar’s six-sub regions, namely, Kolatoli, Himchori, Inani Beach, Cox’s Bazar Central Fishing Yard, and the Burmese Local Market. They found that only 70 per cent of people are employed in the tourism industry through different activities such as business, hotel management, supplier, hawker, street food, transportation, security, grocery, health service, government officials.10 The disaggregated employment generation through the tourism industry can be illustrated in Fig. 4.4. In 2018, direct employment generation was 599 thousand persons, while indirect and induced employment was 1,227 thousand persons. From 2007 to 2018, the average employment generation from direct, indirect, and induced were 530 thousand and 1,121 thousand. It is expected that by 2029, the tourism industry would generate 608 thousand direct employments and 1,251 thousand indirect and induced employments in Bangladesh (WTTC, 2019). Apart from employment generation and contribution to GDP, the tourism industry influences the economy through other channels like export earnings and import bills. For instance, Table 4.4 shows the international tourism receipts11 (per cent of total export) and international

10

However, International Labour Organization (ILO) 2019 reports that Bangladesh’s employment rate exceeds the global employment as the unemployment rate in Bangladesh was found at 3.6 per cent against the global average of 5.6 per cent. 11 The international tourism receipts refer to the payments for international visitors’ payments and services during their stay in Bangladesh. In other words, tourism receipts are measured as the revenue generated from international tourism. The tourism receipts also include payments for national carriers for international passports.

93

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

Indirect and Induced

Direct

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Thousand Persons 2018

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

Fig. 4.4 Disaggregated Employment Generation from Tourism Industry (Source World Travel & Tourism Council [WTTC, 2019])

Table 4.4 Trend of International Tourism Receipts and Expenditures in Bangladesh Year

Tourism Receipts (% of Total Export)

Tourism Expenditure (% of Total Import)

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

0.54 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.36 0.38 0.41 0.47 0.43 0.57 0.89 0.81

2.71 2.92 2.82 2.83 2.16 2.36 3.15 1.73 1.81 1.75 1.99 1.84

Source World Bank (WB, 2019)

tourism expenditure12 (per cent of total import) and reports that the latter is higher than the former. Given the definition of different types 12

On the other hand, international tourism expenditure shows the expenditure patterns of tourists from Bangladesh in other countries.

94

S. B. Amin

32.00

27.00

BDT Billion

22.00

17.00

12.00

7.00

2.00 2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Fig. 4.5 Tourist Spendings in Bangladesh (Source World Travel & Tourism Council [WTTC, 2019])

of tourism mentioned in the previous chapter, it implicitly indicates that inbound international tourism is lower than outbound tourism. The average international tourism receipts from 2007 to 2018 were 0.45 per cent of total export.13 This share increased significantly in the subsequent year, and in 2017, the share of international tourism receipts in total export was 0.89 per cent. However, in 2018, the share declined by 0.08 per cent point (0.81 per cent of total export). On the flip side, the average international tourism expenditure from the Bangladeshi citizens was more than 2 per cent from 2007 to 2013. Nevertheless, the average share of tourism expenditure started declining since 2014 (the average come down to less than 2 per cent from 2014 to 2018). The gradual increase in average tourism receipts and a decrease in average tourism expenditure can be credited to the revised national tourism policy of 2010. Figure 4.5 further shows that the international tourist spendings14

13

Author’s own calculation.

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

95

on tourism-related goods and services started to increase at a moderate speed after 2011. Before 2011, on average, the global tourist spendings were 5.26 BDT billion. From 2012 onwards, visitors spendings on average was remarkably high at 14.52 BDT billion. In 2017 and 2018, tourist spendings was 24.10 BDT billion and 26.50 BDT billion, respectively; the highest ever recorded in this decade. One possible explanation of such an increase in the spending pattern after 2011 is the implementation of several strategies (such as a new tourism marketing strategies) from the updated national tourism policy of 2010. Existing literature argues that capital investment is one of the pillars for the industry to sustain and develop further (Cie´slik & Goczek, 2018). Historical data from the WTTC shows that the tourism industry lacks capital investment, which might be one of the critical reasons for the industry’s slow progress in Bangladesh (Amin et al., 2019; Khondker & Ahsan, 2015). Figure 4.6 shows that the average capital investment in the tourism industry remained under 50 BDT billion until 2015. In 2015, capital investment was 46.12 BDT billion, followed by 53.81 BDT billion in 2016, 65.14 BDT billion in 2017, and 80.24 BDT billion in 2018. Although an increasing trend in capital investment is observed, the share capital investment in the tourism industry in 2018 was still low compared to the total capital investment (1.1 per cent of the total capital investment), considering the potential of tourism activities in Bangladesh. It is forecasted that by 2029, capital investment would be 91.60 BDT billion, an 11.36 BDT billion increase from 2018’s value. Moreover, the government’s expenditure on the tourism industry’s development has not been satisfactory. Figure 4.7 displays that the average government expenditure on tourism-related activities was only 1.83 BDT billion between 2007 to 2018. In 2007, government expenditure was 0.80 BDT billion, and in 2018, it was 4.0 BDT billion. In terms of total government expenditure, the share of tourism expenditure remained slightly above 2 per cent since 2007, and in 2018, the share was 2.22 per cent only (as mentioned in WTTC, 2019). The low share in total government expenditure indicates the lack of proper strategic 14

International tourist spendings are the amount spend by tourists on different tourism-related goods and services during their stay. Tourist spendings differ from tourism receipts, which include any immigration-related payments.

96

S. B. Amin

90.00 80.00 65.14 70.00

80.24

BDT Billion

60.00 46.12 50.00 34.82

30.00

53.81

32.62

40.00

29.54 18.85 34.86

31.56

20.00

30.94

27.43

10.00 0.00 2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Fig. 4.6 Scenario of Capital Investment for Tourism Industry in Bangladesh (Source World Travel & Tourism Council [WTTC, 2019]) 2018

4.00

2017

3.30

2016

2.80

2015

2.30

2014

2.00

2013

1.70

2012

1.40

2011

1.30

2010

1.10

2009

1.00

2008

0.90

2007

0.80 0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

BDT Billion

Fig. 4.7 Scenario of Government Spendings for Tourism Industry in Bangladesh (Source World Travel & Tourism Council [WTTC, 2019])

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

97

policy frameworks and inconsistency in policy implementations during the past, especially in 2009.

4.3

Empirical Analysis15

In this section, we empirically investigate the long-run impacts of tourism industry on the Bangladesh economy. Following the existing literature, our analysis will be divided into four blocks, namely, growth block, inequality block, foreign block, and employment block (Amin et al. 2020b, Balsalobre et al., 2020; Njoya & Seetaram, 2017).16 The growth block captures the tourism industry’s influence over the economic growth of Bangladesh. Inequality and foreign block equations are designed to describe whether the tourism industry has any long-run influence over income inequality and foreign earnings. Finally, the employment block aims to check the long-run consequences of developing the tourism industry in both male and female employment generation. Equations (4.1)–(4.11) show the models used for each block, and Table 4.5 and Table 4.6 list the description of the variables and model parameters, respectively.17 Furthermore, an overview of the dataset is given in Table A.4.1 in Appendix. GrowthBlock   β Y = f Kαt , Lt (4.1)  ϕ Y = f TRt

15

(4.2)

A technical glossary is added in Appendix. The formulation of our model (four blocks) and the subsequent analysis captures tourism’s impact towards four out of five high priority goals as discussed in Section 4.1. Due to the lack of continuous data, the poverty indicator is not included in the analysis. However, the available data finds a significant relationship between tourism and income inequality and the growth of tourism and job creation. These relationships indirectly apprehend the positive impact of tourism on poverty. Therefore, inequality and employment blocks in this analysis will implicitly consider the relationship between tourism and poverty. 17 “t” indicates time period in each equation. 16

98

S. B. Amin

Table 4.5 Description of the Variables Variable

Description

Data

Y Y2 K

GDP at Constant Price USD (2010) Squared of GDP at Constant Price (2010) Gross Fixed Capital Formation at Constant Price (2010) Labour Force (Million) Tourism Receipts (USD) Squared of Tourism Receipts (USD) Income Inequality (Index) Foreign Direct Investment (USD) Real Exchange Rate Consumer Price Index (100 = 2010) Male Labour Force Female Labour Force Mean Years of Schooling Fertility Rate

WB WB WB

L TR TR2 GINI FDI RER CPI LM LF SCH FR

WB WB WB SWIID WB WB WB WB WB WB WB

Sample

1995–2018

Note WB = World Bank; SWIID = Standardized World Income Inequality Database (2019)

  μ Y = f Kλt , Lt , TRπt

(4.3)

  GINIt = g Ytι

(4.4)

  ω σ ψ GINIt = g Yt , Yt2 , TRυt , TR2t

(4.5)

  GINIt = g TRθt

(4.6)

  FDIt = z RERτt , TRt

(4.7)

  η RERt = z CPIt , TRϑt

(4.8)

Inequality Block

Foreign Block

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

99

Table 4.6 Description of the Parameters Parameter

Meaning

α β ϕ λ μ π ι ψ ω υ σ θ τ  η ϑ μ  ς ν  ρ I

Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share

of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of

K in Eq. (4.1) L in Eq. (4.1) TR in Eq. (4.2) K in Eq. (4.3) L in Eq. (4.3) TR in Eq. (4.3) Y in Eq. (4.4) Y in Eq. (4.5) Y2 in Eq. (4.5) TR in Eq. (4.5) TR2 in Eq. (4.5) TR in Eq. (4.6) RER in Eq. (4.7) TR in Eq. (4.7) CPI in Eq. (4.8) TR in Eq. (4.8) TR in Eq. (4.9) SCH in Eq. (4.9) TR in Eq. (4.10) SCH in Eq. (4.10) TR in Eq. (4.11) SCH in Eq. (4.11) FR in Eq. (4.11)

Note Author’s Own Elaboration

Employment Block   μ Lt = m TRt , SCH t

(4.9)

 ς  Lt,M = m TRt , SCHνt

(4.10)

  ρ Lt,F = m TRt , SCHt , FRIt

(4.11)

Before conducting the dynamic long-run estimations, we need to apply some pre-testing procedures (for the stationarity and cointegration tests) to ensure that the results are robust. Table 4.7 shows the results of the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) and Dickey-Fuller-GLS (DF-GLS) stationary tests. According to the results, all the concerned variables are

100

S. B. Amin

Table 4.7 Stationary Properties of the Variables ADF Level Variable Y Y2 L K TR GINI FDI RER CPI SCH FR

First Difference

Intercept

Intercept and Trend

Intercept

Intercept and Trend

1.90 2.15 −1.06 0.98 2.53 −2.53 −1.22 −0.09 1.14 −1.44 −2.46

−0.43 −0.33 −2.44 −2.32 0.06 −2.27 −5.21*** −1.61 −3.12 −3.33* 1.13

−3.69*** −3.74*** −4.05*** −6.89*** −4.19*** −2.49 − 5.38*** −3.12*** 3.04** −4.09*** 0.71

−6.12*** −3.51*** 1.19 −7.38*** −6.49*** 1.55 −5.18*** 3.52* −2.95 −4.13** −5.17***

DF-GLS Level Variable Y Y2 L K TR GINI FDI RER CPI SCH FR

Intercept 1.32 1.29 1.78 0.68 0.33 −1.41 −1.53 −0.88 −0.64 −2.83 −1.86

First Difference

Intercept and Trend

Intercept

Intercept and Trend

−2.12 −2.06 −1.81 −2.57 −1.81 −1.89 −3.13** −1.49 −1.64 −2.88 −4.22***

−2.70***

−4.23*** −4.22** −4.20*** −6.55*** −4.18*** −2.43 −3.83*** 3.74** −3.10* −4.97*** −4.34***

−2.63**

−4.06*** −1.87* −1.95** −1.95** −3.10*** −2.97*** −2.40** −4.33*** −1.17

Note ***, **, and * refer significance level at 1, 5, and 10 per cent, respectively. Critical values are not reported for the sake of brevity; however, it can be delivered on request. Stationary tests for male and female labour force are not reported as these variables are generated from the total labour force and results are same as the total labour force

found to be stationary at the first difference form (integrated after the first difference, I (1)). Checking stationarity is vital because, without

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

101

stationary variables,18 the long-run estimations may lead to bias intuition in specific estimation approaches as the time-series variables are often subject to time trends and can distort the mean-reverting characteristics.19 If the mean-reverting characteristics are not observed (i.e. the shape of the distribution changes), then using variable’s first differenced value (difference of previous and current value) rather than level value20 can lead to more consistent long-run estimations. Next, we check the presence of long-run relationship among the variables in the models. To do so, we use ARDL Bounds test based on surface regressions. The test allows us to check the F-statistics with the approximate upper and lower bound critical values of Kripfganz and Schneider (2018), associated with probability values. Table 4.8 shows that the Fstatistics is well above the upper bound critical values for each model with different optimum confidence levels, thus validating the long-run cointegrating relationship among the proposed models’ variables. The Dynamic Ordinary Least Square (DOLS) method was proposed by Stock and Watson (1993). DOLS is an improved form of the Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method, where one can deal with a small sample size and dynamic sources of bias.21 It is a robust single equation methodology that amends the regressor’s endogeneity22 by integrating lags and leads in the first difference form. Since our sample size is small (1995– 2018), we apply the DOLS approach for evading false estimate.23 To estimate the long-run coefficient of the parameters, we first transform the functional forms of equations (4.1)–(4.11) into the log-linear arrangement and then express them with the DOLS structure shown in equation 18

Stationary variables refer to the variables that are not dependent on at which variable is observed (do not show any trend). 19 The mean-reverting process implies that time-series data tends to return to the long-run average mean after external shocks. 20 If the variables are integrated at the level and show a stationary pattern, they are known as I (0). 21 Developing and emerging countries tend to have small time-series data due to a lack of proper nationwide surveys and frequent national accounting procedures. 22 The endogeneity problem arises when independent variables are related to the error term of the regression model. The presence of endogeneity severely distorts the regression results. 23 DOLS can also estimate long-run equilibrium where variables are integrated in the same order.

102

S. B. Amin

Table 4.8 ARDL Bounds Cointegration Test with Surface Regression Results 10% Model

Value

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

5%

I(0)

I(1)

I(0)

10.77 10.64 4.83

3.56 3.18 2.69

4.91 4.70 3.61

Model 4 Model 5 Model 6

9.30 8.78 13.41

3.15 4.39 4.38

4.51 5.28 5.28

Model 7 Model 8

6.85 4.18

3.60 2.86

4.87 3.71

Model 9 Model 10 Model 11

5.13 6.90 7.27

3.57 3.61 3.61

4.83 4.93 4.98

1%

I(1)

I(0)

P-Value

I(1)

I(0)

I(1)

Growth Block 4.60 4.12 3.62

6.23 5.94 4.72

7.14 6.72 6.08

9.75 9.65 7.61

0.002 0.002 0.022

0.010 0.006 0.050

6.23 8.63 8.63

8.49 10.06 10.07

0.002 0.009 0.001

0.007 0.018 0.002

7.31 5.38

9.54 7.48

0.013 0.024

0.035 0.073

7.20 7.52 7.64

9.32 9.82 10.07

0.035 0.014 0.012

0.084 0.036 0.032

Inequality Block 4.00 5.58 5.58

5.61 6.41 6.41

Foreign Block 4.58 3.27

6.15 4.74

Employment Block 4.56 4.65 4.68

6.07 6.25 6.34

Note The test is run on both no trend and intercept configuration

(4.12)–(4.22).24 Expressing equations through log-linear arrangement25 helps one express the results in terms of percentage change, which is intuitive for policy implications. Growth Block lnYt =α0 + αlnKt + βlnLt q=n q=n + αlnKt±i + βlnLt±i + εt i=1,0

lnYt = α0 + ϕlnTRt +

i=1,0

q=n i=1,0

ϕlnTRt±i + εt

(4.12) (4.13)

In each equation, εt and α0 are considered as error terms and constants, respectively. The values of εt and α0 are expected to take different values across the equation due to the formulation of the equations. 25 Logarithmic transformation allows us to explain the coefficients of the variables in terms of percentage change (i.e., elasticity). Furthermore, such a transformation also reduces the skewness of the variables in the dataset. 24

103

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

lnYt =α0 + λlnKt + μlnLt + πlnTRt q=n q=n + λlnKt±i + μlnLt±i i=1,0 i=1,0 q=n + πlnTRt±i + εt i=1,0

(4.14)

Inequality Block lnGINIt = α0 + ιlnYt +

q=n i=1,0

ιlnYt±i + εt

lnGINIt =α0 + ψlnYt + ωlnY2t + νlnTRt + σ lnTR2t q=n q=n + ψlnYt±i + ωlnY2t±i i=1,0 i=1,0 q=n + νlnTRt±i + σ lnTR2t + εt i=1,0

lnGINIt = α0 + θlnTRt +

q=n i=1,0

θlnTRt±i + εt

(4.15)

(4.16) (4.17)

Foreign Block lnFDIt =α0 + τ lnRERt + lnTRt q=n q=n + τ lnRERt±i + lnTRt±i + εt i=1,0

i=1,0

(4.18)

lnRERt =α0 + ηlnCPIt + ϑlnTRt q=n q=n + ηlnRERt±i + ϑlnTRt±i + εt i=1,0

i=1,0

(4.19)

Employment Block lnLt =α0 + μlnTRt + lnSCHt q=n q=n + μlnTRt±i + lnSCHt±i + εt (4.20) i=1,0

i=1,0

104

S. B. Amin

lnLt,M =α0 + ςlnTRt + νlnSCHt q=n q=n + ςlnTRt±i + νlnSCHt±i + εt i=1,0

i=1,0

(4.21)

lnLt,F = α0 + lnTRt + ρlnSCHt + IlnFRt q=n q=n + lnTRt±i + ρlnSCHt±i i=1,0 i=1,0 q=n + IlnFRt±i + εt (4.22) i=1,0

Table 4.9 shows the DOLS long-run estimation results from each block. From the growth block, we can see that predictable variables like labour and capital are significantly associated with GDP (model 4.12). When we regress GDP with tourism receipts in a bivariate26 set-up (model 4.13), we find that a 1 per cent increase in tourism receipts can lead to 1.10 per cent GDP in the long-run. Even though the residuals of this regression is usually distributed, it suffers from the autocorrelation problem.27 As the estimated coefficient comes from a bivariate set-up, the impact magnitude of tourism is found to be significantly high (1.10 per cent), considering its small share in GDP. Also, since other significant factors determine changes in GDP, to capture the real effect, we add the conventional variables (labour and capital) in the growth equation (model 4.14). We then find that 1 per cent increase in tourism can enhance GDP by 0.50 per cent, which is significant at 1 per cent confidence level.28 The outcome is consistent with Chen et al. (2016) and Amin et al. (2020c). Furthermore, a per cent increase in labour and capital in model 4.14 stimulates GDP by 2.39 per cent and 1.24 per cent, respectively, in the 26

Bivariate regression set-up means a regression analysis where only two variables are being considered, keeping all other explanatory variables constant. 27 Autocorrelation is a correlation of the error terms, a violation of the key assumption of any regression analysis. If year to year error terms are correlated, then regression results will be spurious. 28 The coefficient of tourism receipts is expected to be even smaller if we incorporate other control variables; however, our aim here is to capture the relationship’s nature (i.e., positive or negative) rather than the actual magnitude.

Y 3.94* (1.80) 2.14*** (0.44)

VAR L

FR

SCH

CPI

RER

Y2

Y

TR2

TR

K

Model 4.12

Model

1.10*** (0.19)

Y

Model 4.13

Growth Block

Y 2.39*** (0.53) 1.24*** (0.17) 0.50*** (0.08)

Model 4.14

Table 4.9 DOLS Long-run Estimation

0.01* (0.008)

GINI

−0.28 (0.36) 0.009 (0.01) 3.99*** (0.31) −0.08*** (0.01)

GINI

Model 4.16

Inequality Block Model 4.15

0.01 (0.009)

GINI

Model 4.17

−0.43 (1.22)

1.21*** (0.30)

FDI

−1.72*** (0.30)

−0.23** (0.10)

RER

Model 4.19

Foreign Block Model 4.18

0.57*** (0.10)

0.08** (0.03)

L

0.39*** (0.07)

0.05** (0.02)

LM

Model 4.21

(continued)

0.06 (0.04) −0.12*** (0.04)

0.02*** (0.005)

LF

Model 4.22

Employment Block Model 4.20

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

105

0.99 2.05 5.13

Adj-R2 J-B Q-Stat (AC)

0.95 0.35 6.10***

Model 4.13

0.99 0.04 1.72

Model 4.14 0.21 1.10 10.07***

0.94 1.21 0.60

Model 4.16

Inequality Block Model 4.15 0.27 0.47 1.01

Model 4.17 0.78 0.24 0.21

0.90 0.70 0.14

Model 4.19

Foreign Block Model 4.18 0.98 0.68 0.88

0.98 0.68 0.89

Model 4.21 0.99 0.79 2.09

Model 4.22

Employment Block Model 4.20

Note Standard errors are in parenthesis. ***, **, and * show significance at 1 per cent and, 5 per cent and 10 per cent respectively. J-B and AC refer Jarque–Bera ad Autocorrelation tests. Both tests have been done in the residuals of the regressions

Model 4.12

Model

Growth Block

Table 4.9 (continued)

106 S. B. Amin

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

107

long-run.29 Diagnostics tests also show that the model represents a valid relationship between dependent and independent variables. From the growth block results, it is clear that tourism is one of the key drivers in generating income for the Bangladesh economy. From the inequality block, when we only regress income inequality with GDP, GDP positively influences income inequality at a 10 per cent confidence level (model 4.15). However, the regression suffers from the autocorrelation problem. Hence, following Topcu and Tugcu (2020), we introduce a non-linear term of GDP and find that there is an inverted “U” shaped (non-linear) relationship between income inequality and GDP (model 4.16). It implies, in the beginning, the rise in inequality is associated with higher national income, but there is an adverse connection between the concerned variables after the threshold point. In our case, the threshold point (keeping all other things constant) is obtained when the GDP value is about 72 USD billion.30 We also observe a non-linear relationship (U shaped)31 between tourism receipts and income inequality (model 4.16); however, the relationship is not statistically significant.32 The result suggests that tourism does not directly reduce income inequality in the long-run. However, we argue that there is an implicit effect of tourism on income inequality as tourism receipts increase GDP, and increased GDP lessens income inequality in the long-run. Model diagnostic results also show no problem with the estimated coefficients. Foreign block models suggest that tourism receipts significantly impact FDI and real exchange rate (model 4.18 and model 4.19). We find that a one percentage increase in tourism receipts can lead to a rise in FDI by 1.21 per cent in the long-run. When tourism activity increases, it gives foreign investors positive signals to invest directly in the tourism

29

Higher coefficients of labour and capital imply that the economy can augment additional labour or capital for the production process rather than keeping them unutilised. 30 GDP of Bangladesh is 194.14 USD billion (World Bank, 2018). 31 We hypothesise that tourism increase may not be inversely related to the income inequality instantly since tourism revenue takes time to be fully absorbed in the economy. 32 Statistical significance is a way of mathematically asserting that a certain empirical result is reliable.

108

S. B. Amin

industry, such as hotels, recreation parks, different commodities, accessories. Foreign investment also increases due to the indirect and induced effects of tourism through various channels. We can also see that increase in tourism receipts can appreciate the real exchange rate in the long-run. A one per cent rise in tourism receipts can appreciate the real exchange rate by 0.23 per cent, indicating the possibility of Dutch Disease. Copeland (1991); Holzner (2005); Sahli and Nowak, (2007); Inchausti-Sintes (2015) highlight that tourism development can distort manufacturing competitiveness by resource transfer and expenditure effect due to the appreciation of exchange rate. It is expected that a higher amount of tourism receipts may increase disposable income and lead to a surge in demand for providing different tourism services (non-tradable such as accommodations, restaurants, recreation facilities, local transportation). Such a rise in demand may influence the import of various types of tourism-oriented capital commodities to some extent. This may appreciate the real exchange rate because import will be costly without appreciation. However, appreciation of the real exchange rate makes importing manufacturing products more expensive for the foreign buyers, and therefore demand falls. Besides, enhanced tourism activities may also shift labour and capital from manufacturing to the tourism industry, which may further hamper its predicted development. According to the diagnostics tests, both models from the foreign block perform well. Finally, we find that tourism also generates jobs in the Bangladesh economy (model 4.20, model 4.21, and model 4.22). From the employment block, we reveal that a 1 per cent increase in tourism receipts can significantly increase total (0.08 per cent), male (0.05 per cent), and female (0.02 per cent) employments in the long-run, controlling for traditional variables33 (i.e., a year of schooling and fertility rate). It is worth mentioning that for each group, the impact magnitude is highly inelastic.34 Following Khondker and Ahsan (2015), we emphasise

33

A control variable is any variable that is controlled or held constant in a regression analysis. It means percentage change in employment with respect to percentage tourism development is lower than 1.

34

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

109

that tourism can become a potential industry to increase employment in Bangladesh and improve living standards.

4.4

Conclusion

This chapter’s main purpose is to discuss the economic prospects of the tourism industry in Bangladesh. Firstly, we have analytically discussed the likely effect of the tourism industry on the Bangladesh economy from different perspectives. For instance, tourism affects GDP and employment generation from direct, indirect, and induced channels. Furthermore, we have highlighted that even though Bangladesh’s tourism industry can contribute to the development process, available data shows that its contribution towards economic development is still not satisfactory as share of tourism in GDP, employment generation, and revenue earnings are still lower than expected, given the huge potential of the industry. Besides, possible economic factors (such as capital investment and government spendings) that are distressing the tourism industry’s development have also been discussed. Secondly, we have empirically investigated the long-run impact of tourism from four different perspectives: economic growth, inequality, foreign earnings stability, and, employment generation. Estimated results show that tourism industry can positively affect the economy in Bangladesh in the long-run. Moreover, the tourism industry tends to generate jobs for the working-age populations (total, male, and female) in the economy; however, the magnitude is minimal. We have also found that tourism can significantly increase FDI inflow in Bangladesh and appreciate the real exchange rate. Appreciation of the real exchange rate can potentially reduce the international competitiveness of the manufacturing industry (especially the RMG export), leading the economy to suffer from tourism-led Dutch Disease in the long-run. Given the overall discussion, we emphasise that the government should adopt and implement optimal policies to develop the tourism industry so that tourism can contribute to Bangladesh economy to a larger extent in terms of growth, employment, and standard of living. Policies favouring developing tourism marketing strategies, ensuring the

110

S. B. Amin

tourism-friendly environment, and utilising tourism revenue spending policies effectively across the industries are highly recommended. For example, well-designed policies favouring promotional activities, easy visa services for inbound tourists, tourists’ security, better travelling services, and physical infrastructures may be considered. It is also essential to encourage the private sector to invest more in the tourism industry to keep the progress up to the mark. Different policy measures and initiatives for public-private partnerships in the tourism industry can encourage both local and international private investors.

References Amin, S. B., Al Kabir, F., & Khan, F. (2020a). Energy-output nexus in Bangladesh: A two-sector model analysis. Energy Strategy Reviews, 32, 100566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2020.100566 Amin, S. B., Kabir, F. A., & Khan, F. (2020b). Tourism and energy nexus in selected South Asian countries: a panel study. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(16), 1963–1967. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2019.1638354 Amin, S., Kabir, F. A., Nihad, A., & Khan, F. (2020c). An empirical investigation between foreign direct investment (FDI) and tourism in Bangladesh. Journal of Tourism Management Research, 7 (1), 110–121. https://doi.org/10. 18488/journal.31.2020.71.110.121 Amin, S. B., & Rahman, S. (2019). Linkages between tourism and energy sector in Bangladesh. In Energy Resources in Bangladesh. Springer, Cham. DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02919-7_27. Amin, S. B., Kabir, F. A., Khan, F., & Rahman, S. Z. (2019). Impact of seaside tourism on host community in Bangladesh: The case of Cox’s Bazar. North South Business Review, 10 (1), 69–89. Accessed 15 September, 2020. http:// www.northsouth.edu/journals/. Balsalobre, D., Driha, O. M., & Sinha, A. (2020). The dynamic effects of globalisation process in analysing N-shaped tourism led growth hypothesis. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 43(2020), 42–52. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.02.005 Bianchi, R. (2017). The political economy of mass tourism and its contradictions. Mass Tourism in a Small World. Wallingford: CAB International. https:// doi.org/10.1079/9781780648545.0040.

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

111

Brida, J. G., Cortés-Jiménez, I., & Pulina, M. (2016). Has the tourism-led growth hypothesis been validated? A literature reviews. Current Issues in Tourism, 19 (5), 394–430. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2013.868414 Brau, R., Lanza, A., & Pigliaru, F. (2007). How fast are small tourism countries growing? Evidence from the data for 1980–2003. Tourism Economics, 13(4), 603–614. https://doi.org/10.5367/000000007782696104 Chen, P. H., Lai, C. C., & Chu, H. (2016). Welfare effects of tourism-driven Dutch disease: The roles of international borrowings and factor intensity. International Review of Economics and Finance, 44, 381–394. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.iref.2016.02.004 Cie´slik, A., & Goczek, Ł. (2018). Control of corruption, international investment, and economic growth–Evidence from panel data. World Development, 103, 323–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.10.028 Copeland, B. R. (1991). Tourism, welfare and de-industrialisation in a small open economy. Economica, 58, 515–529. https://doi.org/10.2307/2554696 Dwyer, L., & Forsyth, P. (1993). Assessing the benefits and costs of inbound tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 20 (4), 751–768. https://doi.org/10. 1016/0160-7383(93)90095-K Easterly, W., & Kraay, A. (2000). Small states, small problems? Income, growth, and volatility in small states. World Development, 28(11), 2013–2027. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00068-1 Figini, P., & Vici, L. (2010). Tourism and growth in a cross-section of countries. Tourism Economics, 16 , 789–805. https://doi.org/10.5367/te.2010. 0009 Holzner, M. (2005). The fear of Croatian Disease. Is there a danger of Dutch Disease effect with respect to the tourism sector in Croatia in the long runThe Croatian Disease? PhD Thesis, WU Vienna University of Economics and Business. Accessed 15 September, 2020. https://epub.wu.ac.at/1925/. Inchausti-Sintes, F. (2015). Tourism: Economic growth, employment and Dutch Disease. Annals of Tourism Research, 54, 172–189. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.annals.2015.07.007 Khan, H., Seng, C. F., & Cheong, W. K. (1990). Tourism multiplier effects on Singapore. Annals of Tourism Research, 17 (3), 408–418. https://doi.org/10. 1177/001088049503600121. Khondker, B. H., & Ahsan, T. (2015), Background paper on tourism sector. Dhaka, Bangladesh. Accessed 15 September, 2020. Kripfganz, S., & Schneider, D. C. (2018). Response surface regressions for critical value bounds and approximate P-values in equilibrium correction models.

112

S. B. Amin

Discussion Papers 1901, University of Exeter. Accessed 15 September, 2020. https://ideas.repec.org/p/exe/wpaper/1901.html. Labour Force Survey (LFS). (2017). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Government of Bangladesh. http://www.bbs.gov.bd/site/page/b588b454-0f88-4679bf2090e06dc1d10b/. Accessed 15 September, 2020. Lee, S. E. (2016). The socio-cultural impact of Growth-Pole Theory (GPT) tourism development. Anatolia, 27 , 268–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/130 32917.2015.1111245 Lee, C. G. (2012). Tourism, trade, and income: Evidence from Singapore. Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality, 23, 348–358. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2012.701596. Liu, H., & Song, H. (2017). New evidence of dynamic links between tourism and economic growth based on mixed-frequency granger causality tests. Journal of Travel Research, 57 (7), 899–907. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728 7517723531 Luzzi, G. F., & Fluckiger, Y. (2003). Tourism and international trade: Introduction. Pacific Economic Review, 8, 239–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14680106.2003.00224.x Mitchell, J., & C. Ashley. (2010). Tourism and poverty reduction: Pathways to prosperity. London: Earthscan. Accessed 15 September,2020. Mishra, S., Sinha, A., Sharif, A., & Suki, N. M. (2019). Dynamic linkages between tourism, transportation, growth and carbon emission in the USA: Evidence from partial and multiple wavelet coherence. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(21), 2733–2755. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2019.166 7965 Nepal, R., Irsyad, M. I. A., & Nepal, S. K. (2019). Tourist arrivals, energy consumption and pollutant emissions in a developing economy-implications for sustainable tourism. Tourism Management, 72, 145–154. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.tourman.2018.08.025 Njoya, E. T., & Seetaram, N. (2017). Tourism contribution to poverty alleviation in Kenya: A dynamic computable general equilibrium analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 57 (4), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728751770 0317 Oh, C. O. (2005). The contribution of tourism development to economic growth in the Korean economy. Tourism Management, 26 (1), 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2003.09.014 Saayman, A., & Saayman, M. (2008). Determinants of inbound tourism to South Africa. Tourism Economics, 14 (1), 81–96. https://doi.org/10.5367/ 000000008783554893

4 Economic Prospects of Tourism …

113

Saayman, M. (2000). En route with tourism. Institute for Tourism and Leisure Studies. Sahli, M., & Nowak, J. J. (2007). Does inbound tourism benefit developing countries? A trade theoretic approach. Journal of Travel Research, 45 (4), 426– 434. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287506295948 Schubert, S. F. (2010). Coping with externalities in tourism: A dynamic optimal taxation approach. Tourism Economics, 16 (2), 321–343. https://doi. org/10.5367/000000010791305626 Sequeira, T. N., & Maças, N. P. (2008). Does tourism influence economic growth? A dynamic panel data approach. Applied Economics, 40 (18), 2431– 2441. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840600949520 Stock, J., & Watson, M. (1993). A simple estimator of cointegrating vectors in higher order integrated systems. Econometrica, 61(4), 783–820. https://doi. org/10.2307/2951763 Topcu, M., & Tugcu, C. T. (2020). The impact of renewable energy consumption on income inequality: Evidence from developed countries. Renewable Energy, 151, 1134–1140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.11.103 Zhang, H., & Yang, Y. (2018). Prescribing for the tourism-induced Dutch disease: A DSGE analysis of subsidy policies. Tourism Economics, 25 (6), 942–963. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816618813046 Zuo, B., & Huang, S. (2017). Revisiting the tourism-led economic growth hypothesis: The case of China. Journal of Travel Research, 57 (2), 151–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287516686725 World Bank (WB). (2019). Data Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/. UNWTO- World Tourism Organization. (2019). UNWTO Tourism Highlights, 2011–2019. https://www.unwto.org/publication/international-tourism-hig hlights-2019-edition. WTTC. (2019). World travel and tourism Council. Travel and tourism economic impact 2019: World. London, UK: World Travel and Tourism Council. https://wttc.org/.

5 Barriers to Tourism Industry in Bangladesh and the Way Forward

5.1

Background

The Tourism industry has been an important development tool for both the developed and developing world (Cerovic et al., 2015; Taheri et al., 2019). It has a multidimensional capacity in contributing to the development process of any economy like Bangladesh by creating jobs and income opportunities for the underserved communities, leading to socioeconomic development (Chowdhury et al., 2013). Given the geographical advantages, Bangladesh is also expected to reap the economic advantage by developing a sustainable tourism industry. Bangladesh is a wonderful land of eternal natural beauty. The heavenly green mountains, waterfalls, plain land, and the world’s longest sea beaches in this beautiful Bengal makes the country worth visiting. Moreover, Bangladesh, a country of full of greenery, is like a playground of incomparable beauty in a skilled craftsman’s hands. The Sundarbans is the biggest mangrove forest in the world adjacent to the coast of the Bay of Bengal, which is one of the most famous and beautiful natural resources of our country. The long unbroken sandy sea beach of Cox’s Bazar also fascinates the tourists visiting here. The sunset view from the Kuakata beach of this © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. B. Amin, The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4_5

115

116

S. B. Amin

country is an illusionary beauty. The incomparable aesthetics of this country has always fascinated nature-loving tourists. However, it transpires from the existing literature that the tourism industry in Bangladesh lacks realistic policy adoption and implementation (Hassan & Burns, 2014). So, it is recommended that having a better insight into the existing problems of the tourism industry is a prerequisite to promote sustainable development policies. The government also needs to intervene in the industry to address the social and institutional barriers that are slowing down the industry’s growth. The existing barriers in the tourism industry’s growth can be divided into twofold: social barriers and institutional barriers, as listed in Fig. 5.1.

Barriers

Social Barriers

Lack of Community Development Safety and Security Issues Large Share of Unskilled Labours

Institutional Barriers

Policy Biasedness

Lack of Destination Services and Facilities Lack of Research and Development (R&D)

Political Unrest Image Crisis and Failure to Promotion and Marketing

Carrying Capacity and Resource Management in Tourism Coordination Problem Public-Private Partnership

Fig. 5.1 Barriers to Tourism Industry (Source Author’s Own Elaboration)

5 Barriers to Tourism Industry …

5.2

117

Social Barriers

Bangladesh aims to utilise the tourism industry as an effective economic instrument to lessen poverty and increase social welfare (Rahman, 2010). However, the tourism industry has not achieved success as expected due to a few existing social hindrances. Several social issues have long challenged the expected development process of the tourism industry. Among others, lack of community development, safety and security issues for tourists, a large share of unskilled labours, political unrest, community-level education, country image crisis, and failure to promotion and marketing are the indispensable social barriers for Bangladesh’s tourism industry.

5.2.1 Lack of Community Development In many instances, foreign tourists receive negative experiences from the local people, mainly in the rural or semi-urban areas of Bangladesh due to the residents’ conservative nature (Amin et al., 2019). The lack of knowledge and awareness regarding the importance of tourism industry seems to be an important barrier for developing the Bangladesh tourism industry. However, the significance of community development through improving community-level understanding is vital to maximise the benefits from the tourism industry. Creating awareness among the community people of the host nation regarding the expectations of the foreign tourists can help local firms become more competitive (Andrades & Dimanche, 2017).1 Besides, increased community awareness motivates the residents to preserve and practice their own cultures and traditions and conserve historical sites to provide a better tourism experience for the tourists. Therefore, the tourism policy should emphasise the development of community-level education and awareness since a low level of community education, and awareness is a deterrent to tourism development. The local elected officials like the Union Councils’ chairman, members, representatives from the government officials 1

Due to the better understanding of the tourists’ demand.

118

S. B. Amin

and the Non-Government Organisations (NGOs), local educators, and the politicians can create awareness among the community people to make them tourism-friendly and help them to understand preserving the cultures and traditions. Chapter 9 of this book proposes a model where a national committee is recommended for sustainable tourism development. The committee should include at least a member from each of the local areas with high tourism potentials.

5.2.2 Safety and Security Issues One of the historical problems of Bangladesh’s tourism industry, like the other South Asian countries, is poor security and safety conditions. Besides, tourists are worried about travelling to Bangladesh for her negative image due to the media coverage highlighting the security issues like mugging and theft, and female harassment. Apart from peddlers’ nuisance during the day, tourism activities tend to stop when the sun sets in Bangladesh. There are minimal activities for the tourists in Bangladesh due to security issues during the night, which undoubtedly reduces competitiveness compared to other countries like India, Nepal, and Thailand. Even local traders often alert foreign and local travellers not to roam around at night time to avoid any unpleasant experiences. The impact of safety and security issues on inbound tourists is also well documented in the literature. For instance, Ghaderi et al. (2017) highlight that tourism demand tends to reduce by 1.3 per cent due to a security level reduction. They argue that the government should correct poor country image through proper security measures. The Bangladesh government has already identified and addressed a few of the existing safety and security issues and started taking initiatives to improve the law and order conditions in the tourist spots. For instance, the government has introduced community policing and tourist policing for tourists’ safety; however, it is insufficient. To create a safe and secure environment for the tourists in Bangladesh, there is a necessity for collaborative action among government and private tour operators. Along with government security agencies, private tour operators can come up with different night travel packages by guaranteeing the safety and security of

5 Barriers to Tourism Industry …

119

the tourists. Besides, secured private resorts are needed to be established in the tourist areas to give the tourists at least the flavour of nightlife consistent of the local culture and traditions.

5.2.3 Large Share of Unskilled Labours Tourism is a labour-intensive industry since most of the tourism-related goods and services require human labour. For example, preparing and serving food to the tourists, guiding tourists to explore the tourist areas, and even for providing hotel services cannot be done by machines. So, tourist satisfaction largely depends on service quality, and hence, highly skilled personnel are required for the tourism industry. In this regard, Lee et al. (2001) advocate that the local community’s skilled workforce is responsible for better service quality and high customer satisfaction, which are critical determinants for developing sustainable tourism development. Being an emerging country, Bangladesh may not compete with the developed countries to attract tourists through promotional or marketing strategies unless experienced foreign private firms are assigned. However, the country can attract tourists through the chain effect since most of the thriving tourism campaign stories from the small and developing countries show that tourists’ number tends to increase following the tourists’ satisfaction who have already visited the tourist destination. Hence, it is vital to improving the service level from the businesses associated with the tourism industry to satisfy the tourists. A significant number of the population in Bangladesh cannot read, write, or speak in English; they cannot correctly guide a tourist to his destination or lack initiatives to help them in case they need any. From the Labour Force Survey (2017) statistics, the majority (49 per cent) of the tourism workforce falls under the low-skilled category. On the other hand, 40 per cent and 11.5 per cent fall under the medium-skilled category and high-skilled category. As a result, local businesses are not able to offer services, maintaining international standards. The tourism development policy implementation may halt if the human capital associated with the industry is not improved. Therefore, there is a necessity that the

120

S. B. Amin

government and the private sector should implement training and education collaboratively or individually for the local people to improve the service quality. For instance, implementing special training for the local people may be designed to provide them with a minimum or basic education to deal with the tourists by collaborating with National Hotel and Tourism Training Institute (NHTTI), the Youth Development Institute (YDI), and other private agencies.

5.2.4 Political Unrest Political unrest is one of the crucial barriers to the tourism industry to grow. It is also argued that political uncertainty and violence often bring a negative impact on the tourism industry. For instance, tourists cancel their trip or hotel booking to avoid uncertain situations for their safety and security. As a result, businesses related to the tourism industry incur a huge amount of revenue loss. Hence, political stability plays a key factor in the growth of the tourism industry. Existing literature has also found that political stability can positively impact the tourism industry. For example, Bayar and Yener (2019) reveal a positive association between tourism expansion and Mediterranean countries’ political stability. The study finds that a 1 per cent rise in political stability and trade openness raises tourism revenues by 12 per cent and 9.3 per cent, respectively. Among others, Basu and Marg (2012), Ingram et al. (2013), and Saha and Yap (2014) also reveal a positive impact of political stability on trade openness, facilitating the tourism industry. However, Bangladesh had to go through political turmoil on many occasions until 2009 that hindered the tourism industry’s progress. The international tourist arrivals also declined in some years due to natural calamities. For example, a massive jump can be seen from 0.13 million in 2014 to 0.64 million in 2015 for international tourist arrival (Fig. 5.2) as the political situation was stable at that time.2 However, the average international tourist arrival is only 0.29 million per year since 1996, which is not satisfactory compared to India’s average international tourist arrival 2

This growth is realised because of the current government’s rigorous efforts to promote the tourism industry since 2009.

121

5 Barriers to Tourism Industry …

1.2

1.03

(Million)

1

0.83

0.8

0.64

0.6

0.47

0.4

0.16 0.18 0.170.170.19 0.2 0.2 0.2

0.25 0.27 0.29 0.21 0.2

0.28 0.3 0.16 0.13 0.15 0.13

0

Number of Arrivals (International Tourists)

Average

Fig. 5.2 Number of International Tourist Arrivals Over the Years (Source World Development Indicators [WDI, 2019])

of 5.88 million per year. Therefore, a stable political environment needs to be ensured and sustained to enhance Bangladesh’s tourism industry’s growth. Along with providing political stability, the government should focus on building the tourism industry free from corruption and irregularities. It is expected that practical steps and proper policy implications can eradicate corruption and anomalies in the industry and help the industry to generate more revenue.

5.2.5 Image Crisis and Failure to Promotion and Marketing As a tourism destination country, Bangladesh has many attractions to boast of its natural resources and cultural richness. However, it is frequently portrayed as a country of cyclones, tidal surges, floods, rains, droughts, slums, hunger, waste, earthquakes, and strikes in foreign media. As a result, foreign tourists develop a negative image of the country and restrict themsleves from travelling to Bangladesh. Moreover, Bangladesh is often covered in the media as an Islamic terrorist prone country despite being secular, friendly, and peaceful. A few random events, such as the Holey Artisan attack, Rana Plaza, and others, do not portray the peaceful people’s actual sentiment of the country.

122

S. B. Amin

However, media coverage and positive imaging can play a major role in improving the country’s image. Živkovi´c et al. (2014) argue that media coverage and social media shape tourists’ choice to select tourism destinations. Zeng and Gerritsen (2014) also highlight that promotional activity and media play a vital part in maintaining various tourism facets, especially in information search and decision-making behaviours for tourism destinations. Hence, tourism promotion can be a crucial medium to build an integrated relationship with consumers in the tourism industry. Therefore, government initiatives for promotion and marketing are expected to play a significant role in highlighting local tourism in the international arena on different occasions. Several initiatives can be taken for advertising and marketing. For example, the RMG sector can play a crucial role in highlighting Bangladesh in the international arena, providing a leaflet with its product packages. Moreover, airline companies can also promote the industry by distributing a flyer along with the landing card. Besides, the foreign high commission in other countries can organise tourism fair regularly, inviting the local and foreign tour operators. Additionally, tax exemptions for all the investors in tourism sector can be a good move for the government to boost the tourism industry. Additionally, the universities should offer at least one compulsory course in tourism marketing and management.

5.3

Institutional Barriers

It is widely believed that institutional initiatives can shape a country’s destiny in terms of development and prosperity (Jovovic et al., 2017). So, it is essential to recognise the existing institutional barriers before developing tourism policies for the tourism industry in Bangladesh. Considering the immense benefit of the industry, Bangladesh’s government made efforts to take this industry forward by formulating a tourism policy. However, it did not become effective even after 10 years of policy revision3 due to the existing vertically integrated utilities and lack of coordinated policies. 3

The last revision was made in 2010.

5 Barriers to Tourism Industry …

123

Along with the failure to implement the policy, other barriers and challenges include policy biasedness, lack of destination services and facilities, lack of Research and Development (R&D), carrying capacity and resource management in tourism, coordination problem, and publicprivate partnership.

5.3.1 Policy Biasedness Proper strategic policy initiatives are significant for improving the tourism industry, especially for the developing and emerging countries. Since the manufacturing industry contributes to the lion share (85 per cent) of the export revenue in Bangladesh and consists of around 20 per cent of the GDP, the policies seem to be biased in favouring of the manufacturing industry. One of the main reasons for not giving considerable attention to tourism development in Bangladesh is the economic priority. Since the late 1980s, Bangladesh’s export basket is dominated by the RMG industry, and it is also one of the largest industries that generate a considerable amount of jobs for the increasing working-age population in Bangladesh. Before the RMG phase, the average employment in Bangladesh was 23.12 million (Fig. 5.3). Average employment increased up to 25.11 million in the first five years (1976–1980) of the RMG phase, which was 8.60 per cent higher from the non-RMG phase segment (1971–1975). After the RMG phase, average employment began to increase at a rapid pace. In 1980–1990, average employment was 31.04 million, which increased by 29.40 percent to 40.16 million in 1990–2000. From 1990– 2000 to 2000–2018, average employment increased by 36.95 per cent (55.00 million). RMG industry accounted for 3.26 million employments on average in 2000–2018. Due to the RMG industry’s contribution to foreign earnings (export revenues) and employment generations, the tourism industry’s economic policy frameworks as an alternative to RMG did not get enough attention. The negligence can be reflected in the design of tourism sector-specific national policies. The backbone of the tourism industry’s development depends only on two policy frameworks: national tourism

124

S. B. Amin

60 Before RMG Phase

55.00

AŌer RMG Phase

Employment in Million

50 40.16 40 31.04 30 23.12

25.11

20 10 0 1971-1975

1976-1980

1980-1990

1990-2000

2000-2018

Fig. 5.3 Employment Scenario in Bangladesh (Source Penn World Table 9.1 and World Development Indicators [WDI, 2019])

policy formulation in 1992 and policy revision in 2010. After the first national tourism policy in 1992, the updated national tourism policy was adopted in 2010. After 10 years, some new initiatives are taken to improve the country’s tourism industry in 2020.4 To facilitate tourism development in Bangladesh, proper time-variant policies, which account for tourism as a part of the core economy, are immensely needed. The development of the tourism industry will not only bring domestic economic benefits like employment generation and income stability but will also minimise the probability of being affected by any external shocks that can hamper RMG’s contribution to GDP. For instance, introducing vertical unbundling in the tourism industry may be considered as an option for accelerating the tourism-related activities (discussed in Chapter 9).

4 For more details, see: http://www.tourismboard.gov.bd/site/page/dd07926f-4912-4380-8f4754ed102af960/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE% E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0% A6%AE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7% 8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE.

5 Barriers to Tourism Industry …

125

5.3.2 Lack of Destination Services and Facilities Tourism destination service quality is viewed as the primary stimulus for tourism development in any country (Park & Jeong, 2019). However, the efforts on tourism service quality have not yet been adequately visible and need proper attention to review Bangladesh’s system. For instance, the lack of better communication and transportation system, infrastructural weaknesses, efficient and quality services, lack of information, and lack of entertainment and recreational facilities for foreign tourists have been challanging for the tourism industry in Bangladesh. Transportation plays a key role in selecting a tourist destination, which is an important and significant component of tourism development in any country (Currie & Falconer, 2014). Islam et al. (2017) have also pointed out that communication and transportation systems are a significant factor in determining the tourist destination and satisfaction. However, Bangladesh’s transportation and communication services are not up to the mark, and thus the country loses its competitiveness in attracting international tourists in the country. One of the vital issues that hinder the transportation sector’s development is inadequate investment in the sector. Moreover, Bangladesh’s tourism industry’s total capital investment is lower than the other neighbouring countries in this region. The lower investment sheds light on the country’s underdeveloped infrastructure system, including transportation and communication (Table 5.1). So, it is argued that a developed infrastructure system is vital for attracting investment in any developing and emerging country (Apurv & Uzma, 2020; Ribberink & Schubert, 2020; Thuy & Dat, 2018). As a result, the country’s tourism industry could not gather much revenue from tourist’s expenditure on passenger transportation system compared to other countries (Fig. 5.4). For example, upon the arrival of international tourists, sometimes they find it very difficult to bargain for reliable vehicles to reach a destination. Unlike other developed countries, different transportation facilities like taxis, cabs, or cars are not up to the foreign tourists’ expectations travelling to Bangladesh. Hence, a considerable investment is needed to

126

S. B. Amin

Table 5.1 Capital Investment in Tourism Industry (USD Billion) Year

Bangladesh

India

Pakistan

Sri Lanka

South Asia

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

0.57 0.56 0.62 0.54 0.48 0.68 0.74 0.85 0.99 1.08

28.46 30.73 32.38 33.67 35.13 37.48 37.5 39.1 43.46 44.51

1.98 2.03 2.22 2.36 2.56 2.95 3.17 3.33 3.08 2.98

0.52 0.58 0.72 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.81 0.86 0.92 0.99

31.84 34.19 36.24 37.73 39.39 42.34 42.77 44.69 49.03 50.17

Source World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC, 2019) 5000 4500 4000

Million USD

3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 2006

2007

2008 2009 India

2010 2011 Sri Lanka

2012 2013 Pakistan

2014 2015 2016 Bangladesh

2017

2018

Fig. 5.4 Expenditures for Passenger Transport Items (Source World Development Indicators [WDI, 2019])

promote a designated transport facility for the tourism industry. Therefore, government initiatives and policies to develop infrastructure and attract investment in the transport sector are necessary. The tourism industry is an emerging industry in Bangladesh, and the industry’s success relies upon the quality of services and facilities. However, the service quality in the hotel business and tourist’s guiding in Bangladesh is still poor in many potential areas. As a result, a tourist visiting the country is not satisfied, and it is not easy to retain them for a further visit to the country. Amin et al. (2019) reveal that 35 per

5 Barriers to Tourism Industry …

127

cent of the tourists visiting the tourism destination in Bangladesh are not satisfied with the service quality and show a neutral opinion. It should be ensured that international tourists visit the country and return with fascination and a good vibe. Hence, along with tangible development in the industry, attention and policy implications on improving tourism service quality should be given priority equally by providing the necessary training and human development programme. Additionally, the lack of proper information service for the tourism industry is intensely observable in the country. International tourists sometimes suffer from inadequate information about the tourism destination in the country. As a result, tourists are often discouraged from visiting the country and selecting other destinations for tourism recreation. Moreover, the country’s conservative culture and lack of recreational facilities and services hinder the visit of international tourists. In this regard, Bangladesh can use its natural resources and utilise the opportunities to attract more international tourists by providing many recreational facilities and services. For example, night activities5 for international tourists, cruise facilities, car racing, sea diving, sea skateboarding, mountain hiking, etc., can be added to offer recreational facilities to the tourists. Those will attract more international tourists and additional quality service and facilities to the country’s tourism destination, generating more revenue.

5.3.3 Lack of Research and Development (R&D) It is argued that Research and Development (R & D) activities can be used for obtaining proper decision-making strategies to ensure sustainable tourism development prospects (Youtie et al., 2017). R&D activities in the tourism industry have been remained insignificant in Bangladesh (Khondker & Ahsan, 2015). However, in recent years, many public and private agencies have sought to transform tourism into an economically viable industry by initiating R&D activities from various perspectives.6 5

In line with the local culture. For example, the government of Bangladesh is preparing a tourism satellite matrix through which different economic aspects can be analysed for the upcoming five-year perspective plans. 6

128

S. B. Amin

Nevertheless, to improve the scale of research activities, Bangladesh requires institutions specialising in tourism and hospitality management. It is worth noting that there are very few educational institutions at a higher level to offer courses and degrees specialised in tourism and hospitality management. Also, investment is another issue for R&D activities. Without appropriate funds, R&D activities might not be fully implemented or get delayed. Hence, the government could have allocated more share for the tourism industry in the Annual Development Programme (ADP) and work with different international donor agencies and private firms to collect funds for tourism R&D.

5.3.4 Carrying Capacity and Resource Management in Tourism Recently Bangladesh has seen a remarkable development in the local tourism growth in the Cox’s Bazar area. This is the outcome of the increase in the country’s per capita income and the vast investment and promotion of the area. However, the development of the infrastructure has not been implemented sustainably, raising the carrying capacity issue. By carrying capacity, it means the tourist spot’s ability to offer tourism services without degrading the natural resources and socio-economic aspects (Garrod & Wilson, 2003). The influx of tourists more than the carrying capacity can lead to different problems such as exploitation of resources, leading to community’s future goals at risk (Burke et al., 2001; Garrod & Wilson, 2003). Due to tourists’ heavy inflow, many hotels, motels, restaurants, shopping centres, and markets in Cox’s Bazar are built and concentrated near the seaside that hampers the beach’s natural beauty. Sometimes these kinds of constructions also destroy the small hills and forests adjacent to the coast. Furthermore, hotels and other service providers tend to be reluctant to follow the rules for waste management procedures that hinder the ecological balance and lead to long-run environmental degradation. Due to the absence of strong regulatory mechanisms, individuals and firms focus on maximising profit without considering the long-run

5 Barriers to Tourism Industry …

129

social costs. Such behaviour leads to the Tragedy of the Commons7 and depletes the common resources (beach, water, food land, undeveloped land, green environment, etc.) at a high rate in the tourist area, leading the community’s future at risk. Another factor that affects the carrying capacity of Cox’s Bazar is the Rohingya issue. A survey study done by Amin et al. (2019) has revealed that sudden Rohingya entry into the country affects environmental sustainability. According to United Nations Development Programmes (UNDP), due to the expansion of the Rohingya refugee camp (shelter and cooking facilities) since 2017, about 4,300 acres of hills and trees have been cut down (UNDP, 2018). About 793 hectares out of 1,502 hectares of natural forestland has been lost. Besides, the report has also mentioned that improper solid waste management has affected the land and marine ecosystem and the city’s cleanliness significantly, which might have an irreversible adverse impact in the long-run, if not considered seriously. Although the government starts reallocating the Rohingya refugees to Bhashan Char, Sandwip island gradually; this process will take time. In the meantime, through public-private partnerships, the government can mitigate environmental degradation by implementing strict rules for resource use in the protected areas, promoting community-based agroforestry, improving drainage systems, and implementing afforestation of the coastal line, etc. For increasing the carrying capacity, tourist areas of the Cox’s Bazar can be expanded. For example, most of the hotels are situated in the Kolatoli beach area; however, there are other places where new hotels and other tourism-related infrastructure can be built, and similar services can be provided. Such an initiative can reduce the pressure from the Kolatoli area and increase in carrying capacity of Cox’s Bazar city. The government can also declare the tourism districts as special districts and appoint an administrative body for implementing sustainable tourism development policies by coordinating with the authority’s namely, National Tourism Organizations (NTOs), local government, and tour operators. These initiatives can help the city to grow in a sustainable manner. In this regard, Cox’s Bazar can be a starting point. 7

The act of exploiting the shared resources by different stakeholders.

130

S. B. Amin

5.3.5 Coordination Problem Several studies have pointed out that poor coordination between government bodies and other stakeholders is a barrier to tourism development (Amin et al., 2019; Dodds and Butler, 2009; Elliot, 1997). For example, in Bangladesh, it has been seen that the National Tourism Organizations (NTOs) such as Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC) and Bangladesh Tourism Board (BTB) lacks proper coordination for implementing existing policy targets. Lack of identification, jurisdiction, organisational structure, and institutional setup are significant barriers to the poor coordination between the NTOs in Bangladesh.8 Moreover, the lack of inter-ministerial coordination is another challenge for tourism development. The tourism industry’s composite nature demands proper coordination with all the related authorities responsible for transportation, taxation, financing, social development, and resource management. Without proper coordination, it is impossible to achieve the existing policy targets. It is worth to be noted that good coordination among the stakeholders is also useful in any sudden change of plan due to market failures. Moreover, Bangladesh does not tend to show any desire to make network liaison with international tour operators. If Bangladesh can utilise the international tour operators’ experience, it is expected to improve the number of inbound international tourists.9 On the other hand, the centralised decision-making process acts as a major barrier to the tourism industry’s sustainable progress in Bangladesh. Due to the absence of administrative power within the local administration, it is expected that there is a significant delay in the formulation and implementation of policies.10 Through the decentralisation process, adequate tourism development in various parts of Bangladesh can be ensured, 8

The roles and responsibilities of the officials of the NTOs are yet not clear; besides, the mission and vision of the NTOs are not clearly defined and integrated. 9 As an emerging country, Bangladesh might not have the bargaining power with the international tour operators. A possible policy remedy can be to appoint the foreign tour operators as consultants. 10 The existing centralised mechanism requires that all the policy decision needs to get the approval of the NTOs and related ministries.

5 Barriers to Tourism Industry …

131

leading to local employment, income and safeguarding the environment and culture. One of the significant fundamentals of tourism expansion is coordinating with the native groups, which seems to be low in Bangladesh. The local delegates’ participation in the decision-making process can be a suitable solution for addressing regional tourism’s prevailing problems. So, it is vital to form a committee with local authorities (who bring in their skill and professional knowledge) and elected administrators (who represent the local people) to confirm the community’s welfares while making tourism development decisions (Presenza et al., 2013; Rasoolimanesh & Jaafar, 2016).

5.3.6 Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) The tourism industry is often seen as uncertain to initiate Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) because it can distort the prevailing market competition through cost manipulation (Swarbrooke, 1999). However, Bramwell and Lane (2000) have shown that introducing public-private collaboration can benefit the tourism industry since it can deliver required knowledge, expertise, better planning and management, appropriate funding, and many other useful resources. Furthermore, such partnerships can bring necessary competition in the tourism market, further developing the tourism industry (Franco & Estevão, 2010). The efficacy of the PPPs in the tourism industry has been further discussed in Chapter 6. Through a conceptual mechanism, it has been argued that due to the tourism industry’s composite nature and comparative efficiency, PPPs can be implemented for sustainable tourism development in Bangladesh. It is worth mentioning that there are no significant number of effective and ongoing public-private partnerships in the tourism industry in Bangladesh until now.11 PPPs can be immensely useful for tourismrelated development such as accommodation services, safe and comfortable transportation, other recreation site development, and other amenities. It is also worth mentioning that such a partnership can also help waste management in the tourist areas and keep the environment 11

Only 2 tourism-centric PPPs are in the implantation stage until 2020.

132

S. B. Amin

clean and beautiful. Therefore, policies in favour of PPPs are highly encouraged.

5.4

Proposed Policies to Overcome the Barriers

To overcome the existing barriers of the tourism industry, the summary of the policies discussed in the chapter can be illustrated by Fig. 5.5.

5.5

Conclusion

Despite the vast potential of the tourism industry in Bangladesh, the country can not fully optimise the benefit from the industry due to the prevailing social and institutional barriers. Therefore, emphasise should be given to strengthening the tourism industry by tackling the existing barriers in developing the tourism industry. Hence, an integrated plan for addressing the barriers of this industry is essential. Different public and private institutions need to work together with all the stakeholders involved in the tourism industry. This requires effective initiatives, sound management, and sincere efforts from all the relevant authorities. Addressing such issues can ensure earning foreign currency and upholding the country’s image in the international arena.

5 Barriers to Tourism Industry …

133

Proposed Policies

National tourism policy should be implemented properly

Establishment of a common communication system that ensures easy transportation to the tourist spots

Safety measures should be taken for foreign tourists during their stay in the country

Initiatives should be taken for the inclusion of extensive mass education on tourism

Focus on skilled human resources and tourist guides should be given

Transport hassles should be reduced

Public-private joint ventures for developing tourism infrastructure

Focus on promotional activities like documentary, marketing, and presentation should be given

Government needs to ensure political stability

Government intervention for further attracting investment in tourism industry

Fig. 5.5 Policy Summary to Overcome the Barriers of the Tourism Industry (Source Author’s Own Elaboration)

134

S. B. Amin

References Ahmed, F., Azam, M. S., & Bose, T. K. (2010). Factors affecting the selection of tour destination in Bangladesh: An empirical analysis. International Journal of Business and Management, 5 (3), 52–61. https://doi.org/10.5539/ ijbm.v5n3p52 Amin, S. B., Kabir, F. A., Khan, F., & Rahman, S. Z. (2019). Impact of seaside tourism on host community in Bangladesh: The case of Cox’s Bazar. North South Business Review, 10 (1), 69–89. Accessed 15 September, 2020. Retrieved from http://www.northsouth.edu/journals/. Andrades, L., & Dimanche, F. (2017). Destination competitiveness and tourism development in Russia: Issues and challenges. Tourism Management, 62, 360–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.05.008 Apurv, R., & Uzma, S. H. (2020). The impact of infrastructure investment and development on economic growth on BRICS. Indian Growth and Development Review. https://doi.org/10.1108/IGDR-01-2020-0007 Basu, K. & Marg, V.S. (2012). Impact of political instability and terrorism in the tourism industry of three Middle East countries: An Economic exploration. Accessed 15 September, 2020. Retrieved from http://www.ijbts-jou rnal.com/images/main_1366796758/0002-Kaushik.pdf. Bayar, Y., & Yener, B. (2019). Political stability and tourism sector development in Mediterranean countries: a panel cointegration and causality analysis. European Journal of Tourism Research, 21, 23–32. https://ejtr.vumk.eu/index. php/about/article/view/356. Burke, L., Kura, Y., Kassem, K., Revenga, C., Spalding, M., & McAllister, D. (2001). Pilot analysis of global ecosystems: Coastal ecosystems. World Resources Institute. Bramwell, B., & Lane, B. (2000). Tourism collaboration and partnerships-politics. Channel View Publications, Sydney. Cerovic, S., Vukadinovic, P., & Kneževi´c, M. (2015). The influence of globalization on tourism and impact of tourism on other activities with an emphasis on greenfield investments in tourism, 47–52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15308/ sitcon-2015-47-52. Chowdhury, M.S.A., Hassan, M. R., & Ullah. M.M. (2013). Impact of tourism in Bangladesh economy. World Journal of Social Sciences, 3(6), 45–57. Accessed 15 September, 2020. Retrieved from https://www.sem

5 Barriers to Tourism Industry …

135

anticscholar.org/paper/Impact-of-Tourism-in-Bangladesh-Economy-HassanUllah/62693995caf964bd865b5ff8229eae9fefee4848. Currie, C., & Falconer, P. (2014). Maintaining sustainable island destinations in Scotland: The role of the transport–tourism relationship. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 3(3), 162–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jdmm.2013.10.005 Dodds, R., & Butler, R. (2009). Barriers to implementing sustainable tourism policy in mass tourism destinations. Tourismos: An International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism, 5 (1), 35–53. Elliot, J. (1997). Tourism: Politics and public sector management. Routledge New Fetter Lane, London. ISBN 0-203-41613-9 Master e-book ISBN. Franco, M., & Estevão, C. (2010). The role of tourism public-private partnerships in regional development: A conceptual model proposal. Cadernos EBAPE. Br, 8(4), 600–612. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1679-395120100004 00003. Garrod, B., & Wilson, C. (2003). Marine ecotourism: Issues and experiences. Channel View Publications. Ghaderi, Z., Saboori, B., & Khoshkam, M. (2017). Does security matter in tourism demand? Current Issues in Tourism, 20 (6), 552–556. https://doi. org/10.1080/13683500.2016.1161603 Hassan, A., & Burns, P. (2014). Tourism policies of Bangladesh-A contextual analysis. Tourism Planning & Development., 11, 463–466. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/21568316.2013.874366 Ingram, H., Tabari, S., & Watthanakhomprathip, W. (2013). The impact of political instability on tourism: Case of Thailand. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 5 (1), 92–103. https://doi.org/10.1108/175542113112 92475 Islam, S., Hossain, M. K., & Noor, M. E. (2017). Determining drivers of destination attractiveness: The case of nature-based tourism of Bangladesh. International Journal of Marketing Studies, 9 (3), 10. https://doi.org/10.5539/ ijms.v9n3p10 Jovovic, R., Draskovic, M., Delibasic, M., & Jovovic, M. (2017). The concept of sustainable regional development –institutional aspects, policies and prospects. Journal of International Studies, 10 (1), 255–266. https://doi.org/ 10.14254/2071-8330.2017/10-1/18 Khondker, B.H., & Ahsan, T. (2015). Background paper on tourism sector, Dhaka, Bangladesh. [Accessed 15 September, 2020.

136

S. B. Amin

Labour Force Survey (LFS). (2017). Bangladesh Bureau of statistics, government of Bangladesh. http://www.bbs.gov.bd/site/page/b588b454-0f88-4679bf2090e06dc1d10b/. Accessed 15 September, 2020. Lee, J., Graefe, A. R., & Burns, R. C. (2001). Service quality, satisfaction, and behavioral intention among forest visitors. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 17 (1), 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1300/J073v17n01_05 Nazneen, S., Sultan, M., & Hossain, N. (2011). National discourses on women’s empowerment in Bangladesh: Enabling or restricting women’s choices? IDS/Pathways of Women’s Empowerment Research Programme Consortium working paper. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies. Park, & Jeong. (2019). Service quality in tourism: A systematic literature review and keyword network analysis. Sustainability, 11(13), 3665. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/su11133665 Penn World Table 9.1. (2019). https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/productivity/pwt/?lan g=en. Presenza, A., Del Chiappa, G., & Sheehan, L. (2013). Residents’ engagement and local tourism governance in maturing beach destinations. Evidence from an Italian case study. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 2(1), 22–30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2013.01.001 Rahman, M. (2010). Exploring the socio-economic impacts of tourism: A study of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. PhD Thesis. Cardiff Metropolitan University. Ribberink, N., & Schubert, L. (2020). Infrastructure Investment and Development Alongside the Belt and Road Initiative. In I. Heim (Ed.) Kazakhstan’s diversification from the natural resources sector. Euro-Asian studies. Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37389-4_4. Rasoolimanesh, S. M., & Jaafar, M. (2016). Community Participation toward Tourism Development and Conservation Program in Rural World Heritage Sites. Tourism - From Empirical Research towards Practical Application. Publisher. In Tech. https://doi.org/10.5772/62293 Saha, S., & Yap, G. (2014). The moderation effects of political instability and terrorism on tourism development: a cross-country panel analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 53(4), 509–521. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728751349 6472 Swarbrooke, J. (1999). Sustainable tourism management. CABI. Taheri, B., Hosany, S., & Altinay, L. (2019). Consumer engagement in the tourism industry: new trends and implications for research. The Service Industries Journal, 39 (7–8), 463–468. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069. 2019.1595374

5 Barriers to Tourism Industry …

137

Thuy, C.T., and Dat, T.T. (2018). Factors affecting the investment decision on road traffic infrastructure development: A case study in Vietnam. Global and Stochastic Analysis, 5(7), 39–46. Accessed 15 September, 2020. Retrieved from https://www.mukpublications.com/gsa.php. Turner, M., & Hulme, D. (1997). Governance, administration and development: Making the state work. Macmillan Press. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2018). Environmental impact of Rohingya influx. World Development Indicators. (2019). https://data.worldbank.org/. World Travel Tourism Council. (2019). https://wttc.org/. Youtie, J., Bozeman, B., Jabbehdari, S., & Kao, A. (2017). Credibility and use of scientific and technical information in policy making: An analysis of the information bases of the National Research Council’s committee reports. Research Policy, 46 (1), 108–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol. 2016.11.001 Živkovi´c, R., Gajic, J., & Brdar, I. (2014). The impact of social media on tourism. E-Business in Tourism and Hospitality Industry. https://doi.org/10. 15308/sinteza-2014-758-761 Zeng, B., & Gerritsen, R. (2014). What do we know about social media in tourism? A review. Tourism Management Perspectives, 10, 27–36. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.tmp.2014.01.001

6 Role of Government and the Private Sector in Bangladesh Tourism

6.1

Introduction

The tourism industry is well known as one of the major drivers for socio-economic development in the globe. Accordingly, the tourism industry has drawn major attention from different public and private institutions.1 In recent years, the government’s role in promoting the tourism industry in different countries has also gained momentum in tourism literature (Kubickova, 2019; Liu et al., 2020). The 2013 G20 summit in Mexico officially acknowledged the role of the governments in promoting the tourism industry and ensuring economic development mainly for two reasons (UNWTO, 2013). First, governments can provide a more favourable environment for the tourism industry in increasing competitiveness (Devine & Devine, 2011). Government strategies can address several goals, varying from economic and ecological to societal, which reinforces the country’s pull factor as a tourist destination (Bull, 1995; Tang & Jang, 2009). Besides, governments also have the essential administrative control to ensure security, political stability, 1

The terms, government, and the public have been interchangeably used in this chapter.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. B. Amin, The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4_6

139

140

S. B. Amin

regulation, and economic and financial stability to increase tourism activities (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003). Second, the tourism industry’s performance is mostly contingent on other industries’ success, proper synchronisation of different ministries, and the development of different infrastructures (Croes, 2011; Michael, 2001). Hence, government participation is a precondition for achieving effective tourism destination growth by creating a tourist-friendly environment (Croes & Kubickova, 2013; Kubickova & Campbell, 2020). However, only government initiatives are not sufficient for developing the sustainable tourism industry in countries like Bangladesh. Armenski et al. (2017) argue that private sectors facilitate and complement the government’s goals of sustainable development of the tourism industry by providing necessary investment, creating jobs, reducing poverty, and fostering development activities (Harrison & Schipani, 2007). Moreover, the engagement of private stakeholders in the tourism industry can lead to various development dimensions. For example, the private sector can assist the governmental initiatives by providing necessary support, collaboration with different stakeholders of the society and locality, and skill development training programmes to the local people (Tse & Prideaux, 2017).2 Hence, the private sector’s role in developing the tourism industry in Bangladesh is crucial and needs to be assessed. The tourism industry in Bangladesh is yet at the take-off stage. Having the immense potential of developing tourism in the country, the industry’s progress is still not up to the mark. Since the development of the tourism industry needs huge investment in the infrastructural sector, it is recommended that the private sector can complement public investment in many cases. Therefore, both public and private collaboration and their contribution to this industry are expected to play a significant role. Besides, both public and private sector investments are needed for developing socio-economic infrastructure for the sustainable development of the tourism industry. This chapter discusses the role of public and private involvement in the tourism industry and argues the importance of public-private partnerships for the Bangladesh tourism industry. 2 In Nepal, private organisations have provided support to complement government initiatives in training and skill development programmes, significantly influencing village tourism programmes, homestays, festivals, and guests respecting rites.

6 Role of Government and the Private …

141

Hence, we propose a conceptual model to strengthen the public-private partnerships for the Bangladesh tourism industry. Finally, we conclude the chapter with a few policy options.

6.2

Role of Government in Tourism Development in Bangladesh

The sustainable development of the tourism industry involves government participation and a considerable investment in varying capacities due to its composite nature. By nature, the expansion of the tourism industry requires the involvement of different stakeholders and activities (Briedenhann, 2007). To develop the tourism industry, there should be a proper coordination among the government’s different stakeholders as the industry needs to deal with several sectors of the economy. To facilitate the tourism industry’s communication, infrastructural changes are required to develop and maintain highways, stations, ports, transport modes, hotels, resorts, theme parks, etc. Akama (2002) argues that the government is advantageous in utilising the social and political capacity and legitimate power to synchronise the activities of diverse groups of stakeholders involved in developing tourism and establishing the necessary level playing field. In many cases, the tourism establishment requires acquiring the land, and therefore the role of the public sector is inevitable. Moreover, the government can reserve the preserved heritage, environment, and ecology of an economy and offer training programmes to produce trained personnel and create awareness programmes. Price and regulation are other important factors of the economy. Even though a free-market economy is encouraged to practice, the government needs to intervene in this industry frequently for regulating prices, rationalising taxation, maintaining the safety measures, and ensuring socio-cultural and environmental sustainability. The government and its tourism-related organisations should frame rules for monitoring the progress of the tourism industry in any country. Governments can also play a major role in developing the tourism-centric infrastructural facilities, minimising the

142

S. B. Amin

extent of corruption, and ensuring political stability to attract the tourists to visit the country (Briedenhann, 2007). The state or government’s role is also crucial for any developing and emerging country for proper resource management and policy formulation’s regular involvement to achieve political, cultural, and socio-economic objectives. The government has access to various stakeholders at corporate, national, and international levels, which helps them encompass and implement sustainable development policies. Amin and Rahman (2019) argue that good governance can be defined as an identification comprising a list of principles such as participation of various economic bodies, guaranteeing transparency in decision making, and improved accountability, predictability, and cohesiveness. Bangladesh’s government has taken a few strategic policy initiatives during the last two decades; however, the tourism industry’s development lacks behind what was expected. The possible reasons behind this gloomy picture may include the country’s inadequate infrastructural facilities, lack of competition due to the absence of the private sector, proper coordination among the different stakeholders, operational inefficiency, and the presence of root-level corruption as evident in most of the developing and emerging countries. So, good governance has remained a central concern in Bangladesh and other transitional economies in coping with their prevailing systems and structures. It is expected that the government can improve the capacity of the different tourism-related utilities to adapt to policy changes and execute their functions efficiently. One of the crucial policy priorities in the tourism industry in Bangladesh is to critically assess the previous policies and identify the underlying reasons why the policies are not fully effective to maximise the tourism industry’s benefits. It is evident from literature that there is a lack of coordination in the adoption and implementation of Bangladesh’s tourism policies. It took almost 20 years after the independence to introduce the first national tourism policy in 1992. In 2010, the government revised the tourism policy and published “The National Tourism Policy

6 Role of Government and the Private …

143

2010”, which has 30 objectives and goals with brief action plans.3 Some purposes of the national tourism policy include: (i) develop, maintain, protect, and conserve the resources of tourism, (ii) create a favourable image of the country among the foreign nations, (iii) encourage private capital investment, arrange recreational and entertainment facilities, (iv) reduce poverty through the creation of jobs, and (v) make national solidarity and integrity stronger. The Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism (MoCAT) has recently undertaken some projects to enhance tourism activity.4 For instance, to produce skilled human resources for the industry, the National Hotel and Tourism Training Institute (NHTTI) was revamped under different development initiatives by aligning the courses with international standards and offering different professional, certificate, and diploma courses.5 Also, the importance of the blue economy is highlighted in the latest version of the tourism policy for preserving the oceanic and maritime resources. Figure 6.1 shows an overview of the tourism policies in Bangladesh adopted so far. Successful implementation of tourism policies at any level, in general, requires a certain level of expertise, effective nodal agencies, knowledge of the current world tourism scenario, and availability of reliable data. However, from the Labour Force Survey (2017) statistics, the majority (49 per cent) of the tourism workforce falls under the lowskilled category. On the other hand, 40 per cent and 11.5 per cent fall under the medium-skilled category and high-skilled category, respectively. However, tourism experts argue that the Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC) and the Bangladesh Tourism Board (BTB) does not significantly boost the tourism industry as expected.6 In many instances, 3 For more details, see:https://meet.google.com/linkredirect?authuser=0&dest=http%3A%2F% 2Fwww.parjatan.gov.bd%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Ffiles%2Fparjatan.portal.gov.bd%2Fpoli cies%2F401cea95_b71f_4591_a77d_81eb95e689f6%2F2020-06-21-12-42-ab744be9913f690 6fce79ecee1354d9a.pdf. 4 For more details, visit: https://mocat.gov.bd/. 5 Recognising the need for training in all areas involved with tourism development, the NHTTI was established in 1974 under Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation. For details, see: https://www. nhtti.org/. 6 Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC) is a National Tourism Organization (NTO) established in 1973. It is an autonomous organisation under the MoCAT. On the other hand, Bangladesh Tourism Board (BTB) was established in 2010 by the Tourism Law 2010 to strengthen the development of tourism industry.

144

S. B. Amin

Timeline

2020

2010

1992

Recent Initiatives for Tourism Development in Bangladesh

Revision of the National Tourism Policy of Bangladesh with 30 objectives and Brief Plan

Formulation of the First National Tourism Policy of Bangladesh

Fig. 6.1 Tourism Development Plans in Bangladesh (Source Author’s Compilation)

the information is not updated and publicised, which is key for the research and innovation and the sector’s marketing policies. International tourism businesses and markets also need to be convinced about how serious and capable the Bangladesh tourism industry is, and minor steps such as publication of a formulated tourism policy and credible tourism data can help express this intention. Therefore, policy formulation alone cannot be a sufficient condition for tourism development in Bangladesh. The government needs to look at the other indicators (like data discrepancies as discussed above) that can make tourism policies more realistic and active. Another important issue for the development of the tourism industry, apart from policy formulation, is to ensure adequate budget allocation. Without sufficient funds and support from the government, the tourism industry’s development strategies are expected to delay or may be unsuccessful. Since Bangladesh is still in the transitional stage of the development, most of the government’s budget is reserved for more prioritised sectors with high economic potentials such as education and technology, health care, transport and communication, social security, fuel, and energy. As a result, the MoCAT is left with limited funds to develop its budding tourism industry. Table 6.1 shows the budget allocated to the MoCAT compared to the total budget in recent years.

6 Role of Government and the Private …

145

Table 6.1 Budget Allocation to Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism Year

Amount (BDT Crore)

Total Budget (BDT Crore)

Percentage in Total Budget

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

86 28 237 242 105 245 489 612 1021 3,374

37,174 42,364 53,860 61,194 76,373 92,636 1,12,526 1,53,688 1,73,449 2,11,683

0.23 0.06 0.44 0.39 0.14 0.26 0.43 0.39 0.59 1.59

Source Ministry of Finance, Government of Bangladesh (2020)

As seen from the table above, the MoCAT budget has been relatively low compared to the total budget. It had remained below 1 per cent of the total budget until 2020 when the government announced a record-high 3,374 BDT Crore budget.7 Though the budget’s absolute value has increased tremendously over the last decade, the percentage of MoCAT’s budget with the total budget has remained quite stagnant at around 0.4 per cent. The recent announcement of the proposed budget, which is over 3 times higher than the previous year’s budget, seems to be a move in the right direction. The government also needs to realise that the tourism industry is interlinked with the other sectors, benefiting from developing the tourism industry through the trickle-down effect. Therefore, the government needs to allocate more budget for the tourism industry. It is also expected that the government needs to design and align the tourism policies in line with the nation’s vision. For instance, the government can align the tourism policies with the blue economy and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The benefits of these cointegrated policies are that the stakeholders can find the policies’ common objectives and mobilise resources accordingly.

7 According to the national budget 2019–2020 (https://mof.gov.bd/site/page/9ea7529b-c8ef49b5-8b8e-87ef72a2b3ec).

146

S. B. Amin

Bangladesh has a vast potential in capitalising coastal and seaside tourism. It is considered a crucial element of the growing blue economy, which supports around 6.5 million jobs globally and stands after the fishing industry. It is also expected that with an annual growth rate of 3.5 per cent, the blue economy will become the largest value-adding segment of the ocean economy by 2030. However, given that the country is yet to reap the tourism industry’s benefits fully, the government must take necessary policies to harness the sustainable management of the ocean resources across the countries by offering cruises, eco-tourism, and recreational fishing operations. Proper utilisation of the sea resources can increase employment opportunities, generate income, and alleviate poverty for the host nation. It is also argued that utilising the ocean resources requires a well-planned policy design and successful implementation to shaping the investment and make the best long-run decisions possible. Therefore, BTB initiated a Blue Economy-based plan that is presented in Table 6.2. As a labour-intensive industry, tourism is associated with 109 sectors in Bangladesh. Therefore, this sector’s sustainable development can ensure 17 goals that the United Nations has set for attaining the SDGs by 2030. Among those, SDGs 8, 12, and 14 are directly related to tourism. The other 14 goals also have tourism involvement in one way or another. Therefore, policymakers argue that tourism development can play a great role in achieving the SDGs. That is why the government of Bangladesh is implementing various initiatives for the development of the tourism industry.8

6.3

Private Sector Participation in Tourism Industry in Bangladesh

In many developing and emerging countries, the government cannot support and expedite the tourism industry’s development processes alone 8 See Table A.6.1 and A.6.2 in the appendix for SDG targets for Tourism Development in Bangladesh. The information provided in the tables is directly extracted from the Bangladesh Tourism Board.

Coastal and marine tourism master plan

Starting own cruise services

Promoting the private sector in developing the tourism industry

Bangladesh as a cruise destination

Blue economy resource management

Activities

Implementation Time

Promotion and marketing strategies preparation to attract Asian cruise operators Seminar, workshop, promotional activities by the tourism board Mapping of islands for potential tourism destinations through field surveys Workshop and policy dialogues for the management of the blue economy resources 1. Initiation of connecting Bangladesh with the well-known Asian cruise operators 2. Establishing a one-stop service centre for cruise services in Bangladesh for international tourist numbers Encouraging private firms to provide different tourism services like scuba diving, parasailing, hiking, etc Preparing cruise routes, buying yachts and catamaran for maximising seaside tourism revenue 1. Sustainable tourism in the coastal areas 2. Developing sea parks for tourist attraction 2027

2024

2024

2024

2021

2021

2021

2021

Source Bangladesh Tourism Board (2020); the table is translated from Bengali to English as the original table is given in Bengali (http://www.tourismboard.gov.bd/site/page/6a9e530a-3555-4fd4-b979-02b1872489ba)

Long-Term

Medium-Term

Bangladesh as a cruise destination

Short-Term

Seaside modern and sustainable recreation facilities Island hopping

Plan

Type of Plan

Table 6.2 Future Plan for Blue Economy in the Tourism Industry in Bangladesh

6 Role of Government and the Private …

147

148

S. B. Amin

due to its multidimensional nature. The existing government policy in many countries encourages the private sector to contribute to the tourism industry. The private sector usually provides necessary investment, entrepreneurial skills, and facilitates government developmental initiatives towards tourism development (Armenski et al., 2017). Sometimes, the government also needs to prioritise the other sectors to achieve short-term economic goals and tackle economic shocks. The inefficiencies surrounding the tourism industry are also a concerning issue for this industry’s development. In this regard, private investors can play an essential role in facilitating government policies, especially in those areas where the government needs complementary support from the private sector. For instance, private firms can complement the public investment to develop the tourism infrastructures, increase competition and efficiency, mobilise funds, develop and promote sustainable tourism policies and marketing strategies and offer training programmes to create trained tour guides. Therefore, the importance of the private sector in ensuring steady tourism development in Bangladesh is very crucial. The share of private sector participation in the tourism industry in Bangladesh has shown an increasing trend in the last decade, which resulted in the development of different tourism hubs. These tourism hubs further stimulate demand for accommodation, food, service, and other tourism-related goods and provide opportunities for the private sector to invest. The government can also generate significant revenue from this industry by attracting direct and indirect investment. Moreover, since one of the main goals of the private firms is profit-making, they can also assist the government in investing in research and development to find the industry’s existing barriers and promote sustainable marketing policies for the country’s long-run sustainable growth. At present, various aspects of tourism industry including hotels, resorts, eco-parks, theme parks, are getting developed in different parts and tourism hubs of the country at private level initiatives in Bangladesh. For instance, it is evident that the private sector plays a significant role in developing various tourism hubs like Cox’s Bazar, Kuakata, Rangamati, Bandarban, Sylhet, and the northern part of the country were

6 Role of Government and the Private …

149

mentioned earlier in Chapter 3.9 These tourism hubs require a huge supply of tourism-related products. To meet the increasing demand for these products, private sector initiatives for developing the local infrastructure are needed. Besides, many private institutions are now showing their interest in investing in this industry to work with the government to ensure the sustainable development of Bangladesh’s tourism industry. According to MoCAT, a foreign organisation expressed interest in investing 28 BDT Crore taka (280 BDT million),10 which is planned to be utilised in the communications sector, including high-quality fivestar hotels, recreational facilities, and luxury car parking. These private sector initiatives are expected to enhance the government planning for developing the tourism industry as a sustainable one aligning with SDGs mentioned earlier. Moreover, the more private business institutions are formed around the tourism industry; the more employment and income generation opportunities will be created for our domestic workforce. Even though Bangladesh has seen private sector involvement in the development of the tourism industry, the involvement seems not to be as high as expected due to several reasons. Previously in Chapter 5, it has been argued that institutional misalignments and government’s priority for the other significant sectors have slowed down Bangladesh’s tourism development initiatives to some extent. Existing literature argues that to increase the speed of privatisation or private sector involvement in the development process, certain factors need to be ensured. Among others, regulatory legitimacy is a critical factor that reduces private sector involvement in the tourism industry. By definition, regulatory legitimacy refers to administrative support, formal rules, compliance, and bureaucratic effectiveness. Due to the lack of regulatory legitimacy, potential large private investments sometimes become challenging in the tourism industry. For instance, land acquisition is a major problem for the private entities for building a world-class hotel, or introducing any new recreation spot for the consumers is very difficult in Bangladesh due

9

Tourism hub means the central and most active part or place for tourism activities where tourists usually visit. 10 For more details, see: https://www.bssnews.net/?p=312243.

150

S. B. Amin

to the rigid government administrative structure like any other transitional economies. Such hindrances can be overcome in two ways; first, to initiate tailored reforms to improve the government services that are needed for the private sector to work at the fullest capacity, and second, to encourage the Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) in the implementation of different tourism development-related initiatives. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) are considered invaluable in the tourism industry because it allows the government to share the risks and responsibilities of maintaining a tourist destination while having access to private sector funds. The successful implementation of the PPPs has been observed in many countries to develop the tourism industry (Errichiello & Marasco, 2017; Menon & Edward, 2014; Musah-Surugu & Fildous, 2014). For Bangladesh, resource allocation for the tourism industry is the most important issue. One thing that needs to be done to facilitate effective tourism industry-based PPPs is to develop an effective implementation model. This chapter proposes a PPPs implementation mechanism tailored explicitly for Bangladesh’s tourism industry to flourish and meet the targets mentioned in the national tourism policy and 7th FYP (Five-Year Plan).11 , 12 Figure 6.2 shows a conceptual mechanism on how PPPs can add contributions to the Bangladesh tourism industry. This main idea of the mechanism is that the amalgamation of both the public and private involvement can lead to the progress of the tourism industry in Bangladesh by cancelling out each other’s weaknesses and, therefore, obtaining greater efficiency in project implementation. Also, PPPs can ensure transparency, accountability and reduce the risks associated with tourism project implementation, leading to higher tourism revenue in the long-run. Furthermore, such an initiative can stimulate the domestic capital and debt market, further attracting more private involvement in the industry. In this framework, the government is expected to propose 11

It is worth mentioning that Bangladesh currently has only a few PPPs projects underway. For example, Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation has undertaken a project to construct a five-star hotel in Cox’s Bazar under the PPP framework, which will cost around 100-200 USD million. In another PPPs move, Bangladesh Railway already initiated a 200 USD million project to establish a world-class five-star hotel at Chittagong using unused government-owned land. 12 For more details, see; https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/book/10.18111/9789284417438.

Weakness

Public-Private

Strength

Policy

Private

Public

Coordination

Higher Funding Opportunities

Weakness

Administration

Ensure Competition

Marketing Strategies

Strength

Collaboration

Increased Efficiency

Tourism Development

Unskilled Labour

Inefficiency

Inadequate Invetment

Fig. 6.2 A Conceptual Mechanism on the Effectiveness of PPPs in Bangladesh Tourism Industry (Source Author’s Own Elaboration)

Lobbyist’s Role in Decision Making

Market Failure

Higher Transparency & Accountability

Risk Minimisation

Greater Efficiency

Strength

6 Role of Government and the Private …

151

152

S. B. Amin

policies for tourism industry development and focus on coordinating and providing administrative support to the private sector. The private sector then can help implement the formulated policies through various channels such as conducting research and training programmes for skills development, collecting necessary funds for necessary infrastructure development, bringing competition in the tourism service market, and collaborating with the local government and residents. Taleb Rifai, the two times elected secretary general of UNWTO states that“the development of tourism in emerging economies have been shaped by many factors among which Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) play a key role as they bring together government agencies and the public sector with representatives of the whole tourism value chain under the same goals of promoting socio-economic development, sustainability, job creation and international competitiveness through tourism.”

6.4

Conclusion

Bangladesh faces historical problems in promoting the industry as the government has not given maximum priority to a budding tourism industry’s need due to allocating resources to the other prioritised sectors. However, it is observed that the government has recently undertaken some encouraging initiatives to develop the tourism industry in Bangladesh. However, without strengthening the capacity of the different stakeholders, policy implementation may lead to sub-optimal results. To strengthen government agencies’ capacity, it is recommended that the allocated budget amount needs to be increased. To monitor progress, yearly or half-yearly reviews of national policy are needed to regularly update the policies’ goals and objectives. Also, the country needs to focus on tourism specific human resource development. This will not only bring efficiency in tourism policy planning but also in terms of implementation. Finally, collaboration and partnership between

6 Role of Government and the Private …

153

various stakeholders (public and private) are needed to develop a sustainable tourism industry. Some of the critical aspects should be considered while formalising the collaboration among the different stakeholders. For example, it is highly recommended that before any collaboration, there should be (i) a well-defined structure of the collaboration process to avoid any future uncertainty, (ii) well-founded objectives, definitions, and jurisdictions, (iii) monitoring procedure for the efficiency of the partnership actions for future policy implication, and (iv) proper risk-sharing mechanisms.

References Amin S. B., & Rahman S. (2019). Good governance: A response to the energy crisis problem. In Energy resources in Bangladesh. Springer. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-030-02919-7_7. Akama, J. S. (2002). The role of government in the development of tourism in Kenya. International Journal of Tourism Research, 4 (1), 1–14. https://doi. org/10.1002/jtr.318 Armenski, T., Dwyer, L., & Pavlukovi´c, V. (2017). Destination competitiveness: Public and private sector tourism management in Serbia. Journal of Travel Research, 57 (3), 384–398. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728751769 2445 Briedenhann, J. (2007). The role of the public sector in rural tourism: Respondents’ views. Current Issues in Tourism, 10 (6), 584–607. https://doi.org/10. 2167/cit331.0 Bull, A. (1995). The economics of travel and tourism. Addison Wesley Longman. Croes, R. (2011). The small island paradox: Tourism specialization as a potential solution. Lambert Academic Publishing. Croes, R., & Kubickova, M. (2013). From potential to Ability to compete: Towards a performance- based tourism competitiveness index. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management, 2(3), 146–154. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.jdmm.2013.07.002 Devine, A., & Devine, F. (2011). Planning and developing tourism within a public sector quagmire: Lessons from and for small countries. Tourism Management, 32(6), 1253–1261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010. 11.004

154

S. B. Amin

Errichiello, L., & Marasco, A. (2017). Tourism innovation-oriented publicprivate partnerships for smart destination development. Knowledge Transfer to and within Tourism, 8, 147–166. https://doi.org/10.1108/S2042-144320 170000008010 Harrison, D., & Schipani, S. (2007). Lao tourism and poverty alleviation: Community-based tourism and the private sector. Current Issues in Tourism, 10 (2–3), 194–230. https://doi.org/10.2167/cit310.0 Kubickova, M. (2019). The impact of government policies on destination competitiveness in developing economies. Current Issues in Tourism, 22(6), 619–642. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2017.1296416 Kubickova, M., & Campbell, J. M. (2020). The role of government in agro-tourism development: a top-down bottom-up approach. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(5), 587–604. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2018.155 1338 Labour Force Survey (LFS). (2017). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Government of Bangladesh. Liu, C., Dou, X., Li, J., & Cai, L. A. (2020). Analyzing government role in rural tourism development: An empirical investigation from China. Journal of Rural Studies, 79, 177–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud. 2020.08.046 Menon, S., & Edward, M. (2014). Public private partnerships in tourisma case study of Kerala travel mart. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 3(2), 1–7. http://www.ajhtl.com/uploads/7/1/6/3/7163688/art icle_4_vol._3_2_july_2014.pdf. Michael, E. (2001). Public choice and tourism analysis. Current Issues in Tourism, 4 (2), 308–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500108667891 Musah-Surugu, I. J., & Fildous, H. (2014). Private Public Partnerships (PPP) in tourism: The case study of Rent-A-Car business in Ghana. Developing Country Studies, 4 (24), 133–142. https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/ DCS/index. Accessed 15 September, 2020. Ritchie, J. R. B., & Crouch, G. I. (2003). The competitive destination, a sustainable tourism perspective. CABI. Tang, C., & Jang, S. (2009). The tourism-economy causality in the United States: A sub-industry level examination. Tourism Management, 30 (4), 553– 558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2008.09.009 Tse, T. S., & Prideaux, B. (2017). Tourism planning requirements from a private sector perspective: the case of Hong Kong. Current Issues in Tourism, 20 (12), 1210–1214. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2016.1265489

6 Role of Government and the Private …

155

UNWTO. (2013). Asia and the pacific and the Americas the most “open” regions for travellers in terms of Visas. Press Release No. PR13005. Madrid, Spain: World Tourism Organization. http://media.unwto.org/press-release/201 3–01–28/asia-and-pacific-and-americas-most-openregions-travellers-termsvisas.

7 An Overview of South Asian Tourism Industry and Significance of the Regional Tourism Integration

7.1

Introduction

South Asia is a unique region with a vast adjoining land, varied landscapes from marshlands to deserts, grasslands to forests, seaside areas to mountains, a huge and attractive range of natural resources, and scenic beauty (Rasul & Manandhar, 2009). The region is the proud home to the top two highest mountain peaks of the world (Everest and K2).1 Some of the world’s best marine resources like coral reefs of the Maldives2 and the longest sandy sea beach, Cox’s Bazar in Bangladesh, are located in this region. It is a biodiverse region, possessing areas such as Sinharja in Sri Lanka,3 the Sundarbans in Bangladesh and wondrous structures such as the Taj Mahal.4 Ancestral customs and traditions are deep-rooted in the people of this region. Several emperors have ruled over this region, 1 Mount Everest is the highest mountain globally, located in Nepal and China, with 29,029 feet height. On the other hand, K2 is the second highest mountain within the Himalaya range, having 28,251 feet height. 2 For more details, see: https://www.themaldivesexpert.com/2406/coral-reefs-of-the-maldives/. 3 For more details, see: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/405/. 4 For more details, see: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252/.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. B. Amin, The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4_7

157

158

S. B. Amin

leaving their mark on it in the form of magnificent palaces and monuments. It is a region of cultural and religious diversity of exquisite cuisines and warm and hospitable people. South Asia consists of eight nations, namely: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.5 It is home to a quarter of the world’s population. According to the World Travel & Tourism Council (2019) statistics, tourism’s total contribution to the economy of South Asia in 2019 was 234 USD billion, which equated to 6.6 per cent of South Asian GDP. The tourism industry supported 46,318 jobs in 2018, equal to 7.3 per cent of the overall South Asian employment. This industry also generated 39 USD billion in the export sector in 2018, which was 6.2 per cent of the South Asian exports. However, South Asia’s share of international tourist arrivals is reasonably low compared to other regions. South Asia has been unable to establish a foothold in the tourism industry as of yet because of social, economic, and political reasons. Security concerns, environmental issues, and sexual harassment are the key issues behind the region’s poor reputation.6 Globally, international tourist arrival reached 1.4 billion, of which South Asia received 32.8 million, which is 2 per cent of the total arrival (Figs. 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3) (World Tourism Organization, UNWTO, 2019). South Asia’s tourist receipts follow a similar trend, like its tourist arrivals numbers (Fig. 7.4). It had slow growth and stagnancy in the early part of the decade but has recovered since then, with a 10 per cent growth in receipts in 2018. It was the only part of the Asia and Pacific region to register double-digit growth in tourism revenue in 2018. This increasing trend in the tourism industry is observed due to the governmental efforts to tackle the security issues and ease the travel barriers associated with globalisation. Globalisation and subsequent liberalisation can ease breaking the national boundaries, stimulating regional cooperation, and promoting 5 However, we will limit our discussion to Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka due to the high tourism concentration in these countries. 6 Despite this sluggish trend in terms of tourist arrival within the region, it is evident that the region was the fastest-growing region in 2018, registering a 19 per cent growth in tourist arrivals courtesy of double-digit growth in India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. South Asia’s arrival growth was low in the early part of the decade but has increased since 2015.

7 An Overview of South Asian Tourism Industry …

159

Fig. 7.1 Geographical Map of South Asia (Source Google Maps)

integration among the neighbouring countries. Given the South Asian region’s geography, it is apparent that the Regional Tourism Integration (RTI) can mobilise resources and increase competition. The introduction of RTI can benefit the region in many ways. For instance, due to the scale sensitivity nature of the tourism industry, RTI can help the countries enjoy economies of scale by lowering the cost, which is also expected to enhance efficiency. Regional cooperation or integration can also promote cross-border marketing and create a tourism hub across the region (Hjalager, 2007; Jackson, 2006; Rasul & Manandhar, 2009). Moreover, RTI maximises the revenues to the nearby nations from sharing risks, optimising resource mobilisation, and commonalities and complementarities by capitalising on ‘collaborative advantages’ rather than on individual ‘competitive advantages’ (Bramwell & Lane, 2000).

160

S. B. Amin

5%

5%

Europe

16%

South Asia North East Asia 51%

9%

South East Asia Americas Africa Middle East

12% 2%

Fig. 7.2 Global International Tourist Arrivals in 2018 (Source UNWTO 2019) 35

32.8

30

InternaƟonal Tourist Arrival (in million)

27.5 25.3 25

23.4

20 16 15

14.7 13.5

17.1

14.6

10

5

0 2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Fig. 7.3 South Asian International Tourist Arrivals from 2010 to 2018 (Source UNWTO Tourism Highlights [2011–2019])

161

7 An Overview of South Asian Tourism Industry …

50 45

43.6 39.9

Tourism Reciepts (in billion)

40 35

31.6 33.8

30 24.7 23.7

25 20

20.1

29.8

22.9

15 10 5 0 2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Fig. 7.4 South Asian Tourist Receipts from 2010 to 2018 (Source UNWTO Tourism Highlights [2011–2019])

RTI can also establish cost-effective promotional programmes and develop a concrete marketing strategy for sustainable tourism development. Given the immense benefits of regionalism, the South Asian region needs to take necessary initiatives to promote the region’s image by attracting more tourists under a common umbrella. For instance, the RTI can foster the region’s tourism development by promoting the tourist attractions of the regions through mutual marketing strategies and offering a unique opportunity to the tourists to enjoy the fascinating beauty of the region. This regional integration’s main objectives may ensure sustainable tourism development by increasing competitiveness through product and projects innovation, technical cooperation, profitable investment strategies, and policy management. South Asia can follow the footsteps of The Regional Tourism Organisation of Southern Africa (RETOSA), which brought together the 14 fascinating countries

162

S. B. Amin

of the southern part of Africa and became a successful regional integration. In this chapter, we will start our discussion by providing the overview of tourism in the South Asian region. Then, we will critically examine the benefits and existing barriers of the regional tourism integration in the South Asian region. Finally, we will conclude the chapter with some way forwards.

7.2

Overview of Tourism in Five Neighbouring South Asian Countries

This section discusses the overview of five South Asian countries’ tourism industry, including Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, India, and Sri Lanka.7 Bhutan: Bhutan, officially known as the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a small country in the Himalayan region between Tibet and India. Bhutan is a country of natural beauty with towering mountains and lush green plains. It is surrounded by mountains on all sides, which act like walls protecting it from invaders. With a small population of only 763,092 people, Bhutan is a nation built on happiness. While other countries make their policy decisions based on Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Bhutan has opted for something else entirely. Bhutan measures the country’s socio-economic performance using the Gross National Happiness (GNH), and the 2015 GNH survey exhibits that 91.2 per cent of Bhutanese are happy.8 The natural beauty and tranquil atmosphere are not the only reasons to visit Bhutan; the country is also the solitary carbon-negative nation in the globe. Around 72 per cent of the country is under forest coverage, causing the gross CO2 emissions to be fully controlled. Bhutan releases about 1.5 million tonnes of carbon per

7 A comparative overview can be seen in Table A.7.1 and Table A.7.2 from the Appendix. It is evident from the tables that integrated regional tourism has the potentials to increase the number of tourists from India to other countries as the share of the Indian tourist is 8 per cent higher than the other countries. Due to the tourist’s inherent nature to discover new countries, it is expected that a coordinated regional policy is expected to mobile the tourist in South Asia. 8 For more details, see: https://www.thestatesman.com/world/91-2-of-bhutanese-are-happy-101 743.html.

7 An Overview of South Asian Tourism Industry …

163

Table 7.1 Tourist Arrivals from Different Countries in Bhutan (2018) Country

Total Visitors

% Share of Visitors

India USA Bangladesh China Singapore Thailand UK Germany

191,836 10,561 10,450 6,878 3,886 3,886 3,585 3,422

69.99 3.85 3.81 2.51 1.42 1.42 1.31 1.25

Source Bhutan Tourism Monitor (2018)

annum, whereas over 6 million tonnes is absorbed due to the greenery feature of the country.9 In 2018, Bhutan’s revenue from international tourism receipts stood at 121 USD million, which was 4.95 per cent of its GDP. Bhutan had a total of 274,000 tourists’ arrivals in 2018 (including, 202,290 regional arrivals) registering a growth of 7.61 per cent from 2017. Table 7.1 shows a snapshot of international tourist arrivals in Bhutan in 2018. Furthermore, Fig. 7.5 shows different categories of tourists who visited Bhutan in 2018. It is observed that around 88 per cent of the tourists went to Bhutan for leisure purposes. Nepal: Nepal is well known for being the land of visual paradise with magnificent mountain ranges and various ethnic groups. From the spiritual grandeur to the mountains’ zenith, Nepal is a country that offers something for everyone. Nepal is the birthplace of Gautama Buddha and the home of Mount Everest, the highest mountain peak in the world. Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. Besides, 2 out of 15 national parks of Nepal are also on UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites. It is also worth mentioning that Mount Everest, Nepal, also possesses 8 out of 10 highest mountains globally. Hence, Nepal is a prime destination for professional mountain climbers, nature lovers, and those who like trekking and other adventurous activities such as bungee jumping, mountain biking, and paragliding. Pokhra, the third-largest city of Nepal, is another tourist 9

For more details about the Bhutanese tourism, visit: https://www.tourism.gov.bt/.

164

S. B. Amin

Leisure

3%

2%

Official

Business

Others

7%

88%

Fig. 7.5 Tourist Arrivals by Purpose of Visit in Bhutan (Source Bhutan Tourism Monitor [2018])

attraction for its beautiful lakes and snowy peaks. On the other hand, Nagarkot, a village near Kathmandu, is famous since it gives the travellers a wonderful panoramic view (especially the Himalayas’ sunset and sunrise). For watching birds of different species, Kathmandu is one of the best places since about 500 species of birds are recorded to be found in Kathmandu Valley. Besides the birds, Kathmandu is also known for colourful pagodas, royal palaces, and historical sites. The country is also a multi-linguistic country, with more than 90 different languages being spoken in the local community.10 Nepal’s tourism industry is one of the main drivers of its economy. In 2018, Nepal’s travel and tourism industry generated 240.7 Nepalese Rupee (Rs) billion in revenue, roughly 7 per cent of its GDP. The industry also generated (directly and indirectly) more than 1.05 million 10

For more details about Nepalese tourism, visit: https://www.welcomenepal.com/.

7 An Overview of South Asian Tourism Industry …

165

Table 7.2 Tourist Arrivals from Different Countries in Nepal (2018) Country

Total Visitors

% Share of Visitors

India China United States United Kingdom Sri Lanka Thailand South Korea Australia Myanmar Germany Bangladesh

194,323 153,633 91,895 63,466 69,490 52,429 37,218 38,429 41,402 36,879 26,355

16.7 13.09 7.8 5.41 5.9 4.46 3.17 3.27 3.53 3.14 2.24

Source Nepal Tourism Statistics (2018)

jobs. The tourist arrivals in 2018 were 1,173,000, which is 25 per cent more than in 2017. Table 7.2 shows the country-wise total tourist arrivals in Nepal in 2018. Moreover, Fig. 7.6 shows that 60 per cent of the international tourists visited Nepal for leisure purposes. Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka is a picturesque island country bounded by the Indian Ocean on all sides. The country covers an area of 65,610 square kilometres and has a likely population of 21.8 million. It is an island of diverse landscapes ranging from barren highlands and plains to green tropical forests and sandy beaches. From a favourable climate, rich cultural legacy, national parks, and wildlife, Sri Lanka has it all (Lai, 2002). Sri Lanka’s coastline stretches for 1,330 kilometres, with tourist destinations such as Hikkaduwa and Unawatuna, popular among scuba diving enthusiasts. Mirissa is a popular spot that displays whales and dolphins, and Tangalle is being endorsed as a diving destination. Sri Lanka is also a paradise for animal and nature lovers. The Pinnawala Elephant, an orphanage ground for wild elephants situated at Pinnawala village, is one of the most attractive tourist locations in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka is homebased to eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites, comprising the ancient cities of Polonnaruwa and Sigiriya and the Sinharaja Forest Reserve. This beautiful island nation, previously known

166

S. B. Amin Leisure

Adventuring

Pilgrimage

Other Purposes

10%

14%

60% 16%

Fig. 7.6 Tourist Arrivals by Purpose of Visit in Nepal (Source Nepal Tourism Statistics [2018])

as Ceylon, is home to gorgeous beaches, tea plantations, and ancient cities.11 Sri Lanka’s tourism industry generated an estimated 4,380.6 USD million in revenue in 2018, an 11.6 per cent increase from 2017. The tourism industry’s GDP share was 11.09 per cent, and tourism was the third-largest foreign exchange receivers for the country in 2018, preceded by worker’s remittance and textiles and garments. Tourist arrivals to Sri Lanka reached 2,334,000 in 2018, registering a 10.3 per cent increase since 2017. Table 7.3 shows the destination-wise tourist arrivals in Sri Lanka. It is also evident that 85 per cent of the international tourists came to Sri Lanka for leisure purposes (Fig. 7.7). Sri Lanka has undergone several political and economic changes over the last few decades because of its internal conflicts. The tourism industry enjoyed relative prosperity from 1972 to 1982, recording an average of 11

For more details about Sri Lanka tourism, visit: https://www.srilanka.travel/.

7 An Overview of South Asian Tourism Industry …

167

Table 7.3 Tourist Arrivals from Different Countries in Sri Lanka (2018) Country

Total Visitors

% Share of Visitors

India China United Kingdom Germany Australia France Maldives USA Russia

424,887 265,965 254,176 156,888 110,928 106,449 76,108 75,308 64,497

18.2 11.3 10.9 6.7 4.7 4.6 3.3 3.2 2.8

Source Annual Statistical Report, Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority (SLTDA) (2018)

3% 2% 10%

85%

Pleasure

Visiting Friends and Relatives Business

Others

Fig. 7.7 Tourist Arrivals by Purpose of Visit in Sri Lanka (Source Annual Statistical Report, Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority (SLTDA) [2018])

24 per cent growth per annum. The tourism boom ended in 1983 with the intensification of the Tamil Separatist War in Sri Lanka. For the next 26 years, Sri Lanka lost countless chances to attract foreign tourists to the country. However, Sri Lanka responded strongly after the war ended in

168

S. B. Amin

2009. Sri Lanka’s tourist arrivals grew at an average of 30 per cent from 2010 to 2014, and it has continued to flourish in the following years. India: India is a land of multiple cultures and languages. With a vast colonial history, age-old heritage, and myriads of attractions, the country is naturally one of the world’s most popular tourist destinations. Ranging from the snow-covered Himalayan mountain peaks to the south’s tropical rain forests, India offers a unique landscape to explore. As the secondmost populated country globally, with a population of 1.3 billion and an area of 32,87,263 square kilometres, India stands apart from the rest of Asia. As travellers make their way across the country, they are welcomed by different cuisines, music, arts and crafts, etc. The history of the Mughal Empire and the ancient monuments accompany vintage heritage hotels, providing every traveller visiting India to enjoy the best of both past and present worlds. From the Taj Mahal of Agra to the Ellora caves of Aurangabad, India offers many exotic places to visit.12 A total of 38 (30 cultural, 7 Natural, and 1 Mix) World Heritage Sites are located in India’s different parts such as Agra Fort, Qutb Minar, Taj Mahal, Hill Forts of Rajasthan, Great Himalayan National Park, and the Sundarbans. India’s tourism industry has become one of the most vibrant service sectors and multi-billion industries over the years (Patel, 2012). The WTTC has named India one of the fastest-growing tourism industries for the next 10 to 15 years. In 2018, India was ranked 25th globally in terms of foreign tourist arrivals, with the number reaching 17.43 million, an annual growth rate of 5.2 per cent. The total revenue generated from tourism reached 29 USD billion, which is 9.2 per cent of its GDP in 2018. Foreign exchange earnings reached 28.59 USD billion. The tourism industry also employs around 43 million people, which is 8.1 per cent of total employment. Table 7.4 shows the nation-wise tourist arrivals in India in 2018. Figure 7.8 shows 62 per cent of the tourists visit India for leisure purpose. Maldives: Maldives is a small island state in South Asia with around 530,953 inhabitants. It is an archipelagic country consisting of 1,192 coral islands, of which very few are inhabited. These islands have been

12

For more details about Indian tourism, visit: https://tourism.gov.in/.

7 An Overview of South Asian Tourism Industry …

169

Table 7.4 Tourist Arrivals from Different Countries in India (2018) Country

Total Visitors

% Share of Visitors

Bangladesh United States United Kingdom Sri Lanka Canada Australia Malaysia China Germany Russia

2,256,675 1,456,678 1,029,758 353,684 351,040 346,486 319,172 281,768 274,087 262,309

21.37 13.80 9.75 3.35 3.32 3.28 3.02 2.67 2.60 2.48

Source Bureau of Immigration, Government of India (2019)

14% 16%

2% 6%

62%

Medical

Other Purpose Indian Diaspora Business

Leisure

Fig. 7.8 Tourist Arrivals by Purpose of Visit in India (Source Indian Tourism Statistics [2019])

sculpted into natural atolls, where many luxurious resorts are being established. Maldives’ beautiful white sand beaches and turquoise waters have made it a tropical haven for honeymooners. Its stunning blue lagoons and diverse marine life also attract diving enthusiasts. In addition to many water-based sports, tourists can also enjoy swimming with Manta Rays and Reef Sharks. Malé, the capital city of Maldives, is home to several historical monuments and bustling bazars. Ferry boats are used

170

S. B. Amin

Table 7.5 Tourist Arrivals and Tourism Receipts in Maldives Year

Tourist Arrivals

Tourism Receipts (USD Million)

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

683,000 656,000 792,000 931,000 958,000 1,125,000 1,205,000 1,234,000 1,286,000 1,390,000 1,484,000

1,558.50 1,442.18 1,569.65 1,867.89 1,877.24 2,233.73 2,695.65 2,569.12 2,505.57 2,741.82 2,976.56

Source Tourism Yearbook, Ministry of Tourism, Republic of Maldives (2019)

to travel around the country’s many islands. Some of the popular destinations include Utheemu, Alimatha, Maradhoo, and the Banana reef. As climate change threatens to damage the country’s natural attractions, an increasing number of tourists are flocking to this tropical paradise before it is lost for good.13 The Maldivian economy is extremely reliant on its tourism industry. In 2018, tourism generated 2,976.56 USD million (Table 7.5). Tourist arrivals rose to 1.48 million in 2018, with an average annual growth rate of 5.7 per cent between 2014 and 2018. Tourism is also a great source of revenue for the government as it accounted for 34.4 per cent of its revenue. Of the total tourism revenue, 85 per cent was generated from resorts while the rest was generated from other tourism activities. Table 7.6 shows the state-wise tourist arrivals in the Maldives in 2019.

7.3

Prospects of Regional Tourism in South Asia

South Asia has emerged as an eye-catching tourist destination for its rich history, heritage, culture, natural beauty, and cultural diversity over 13

For more details about the Indian tourism, visit: https://visitmaldives.com/en.

7 An Overview of South Asian Tourism Industry …

171

Table 7.6 Tourist Arrivals from Different Countries in Maldives (2018) Country

Number of Arrivals

Share of Visitors

China Germany UK Italy India Russia France Japan USA Australia

283,116 117,532 114,602 105,297 90,474 70,935 50,476 42,901 42,304 37,254

19.1 7.9 7.7 7.1 6.1 4.8 3.4 2.9 2.9 2.5

Source Tourism Yearbook, Ministry of Tourism, Republic of Maldives (2019)

the past 2 decades. Tourism is seen as one of South Asia’s potential industries, contributing to 234 USD billion in 2019. Moreover, the region stood as ‘the most improved region since 2017’ in the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index of the World Economic Forum in 2019. Therefore, it is argued that there is an immense potential for integrated tourism-centric business centres that can be a regional development tool since there is distinct literature for tourism and local development (Dimitrovski et al., 2012). Globalisation has been a driving factor for breaking the national barriers to a global village. The effect of globalisation is also stimulating RTI in South Asian countries. This process paved the way for developing an integrated tourism hub in South Asia since the region shows similarity in various socio-economic and geographical aspects (Rasul & Manandhar, 2009). Hence, the prospects of integrated tourism development in the South Asian region are discussed in this sub-section. Figure 7.9 shows the different potentials of tourism in South Asia. The attention for collaboration in the South Asian region’s tourism industry is gaining momentum in recent times. Through regional initiatives, tourism promotion can be considered one of the significant prospects for the South Asian region. As the bigger nation of the region, India can lead the region to promote integrated regional tourism aligning with the other South Asian Cooperation like the South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC), Bay of Bengal Initiative

172

S. B. Amin

Prospects of Regional Tourism Integration Regional Collaboration for Tourism

Collective Promotion

Religious Tourism

Competitive Advantage through Integration

Tourism Under Common Umbrella

Fig. 7.9 Prospects of Regional Tourism Integration in South Asia (Source Author’s Compilation) Complicated Travel Procedure

Geo-Politics

Barriers of Regional Tourism

Poor Transport Facility

Safety and Security

Informal Tourism SME Inefficiency

Fig. 7.10 lation)

Misaligned Government Policy

Barriers for Regional Tourism in South Asia (Source Author’s Compi-

7 An Overview of South Asian Tourism Industry …

173

for Multi-sectoral, Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), and Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal (BBIN). Following the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), India can host regional tourism summits yearly to coordinate and expedite regional tourism development. In this regard, the neighbouring countries may cooperate bilaterally on joint tourism promotion and advertising campaigns with mutual interest. There are also huge prospects for developing religious tourism in the South Asian region since the region is culturally rich, and many religious and cultural heritages are visible. For example, India can be one of the significant tourist destinations for Hindu religious people to find pilgrimage places like Mathura, Puri, Amritsari, Ramasram, etc. Likewise, Bangladesh hosts one of the biggest Islamic events, “Bishwa Ijtema” every year, which regularly attracts many Muslim visits. Therefore, it is expected that an integrated regional tourism policy will increase the number of religious tourists to a large extent. South Asian region can enjoy the competitive advantage through regional collaboration in the development of tourism destinations. For example, tourists can have a tour package that allows them to visit the entire region with a single visa. Currently, tourists need multiple visas to visit South Asia countries, which sometimes proves an arduous and lengthy process. Through the formation of RTI and common tourism policies, the South Asian region can enjoy the competitive advantage by attracting the tourists from other tourism destinations such as Europe and the Middle East counties. Besides, cooperation among associated countries can help to exploit economies of scale in the volume of tourist products, thus enhancing competitiveness by lowering costs and improving efficacy (Roe et al., 2004). Furthermore, South Asia is blessed with rich cultural, natural, and artificial tourism destination. The absence of a regional policy sometimes may lead to troublesome experience to the tourist. However, collaborative actions and proper planning can overcome the geographic barriers by building intra-regional transportation systems that will bring all the tourist destinations under the same umbrella that are now scattered in different countries in this region.

174

7.4

S. B. Amin

Barriers for Regional Tourism in South Asia

From the late 1980s, tourism started to become a regional interest for the South Asian countries. In 1986, the SAARC countries agreed on promoting regional tourism. Several initiatives, such as issuing standard travel vouchers for the SAARC countries, transport cooperation for the tourists, and promoting the region’s natural resources and culture at the global stage, were initially discussed. After five years, in 1991, the SAARC tourism council was formed to improve the regional tourism industry through human resource development, strengthen the network with other international tourism organisations for funds, and encourage the private sector investment for the South Asian tourism industries. In 2006, the council prepared a detailed action plan for the promotion of tourism in this region. Despite all the efforts, the regional tourism industry did not flourish to the expected level. Several barriers hinder the progress of regional tourism development (Fig. 7.10). For example, visa and other travel requirements in most of the South Asian countries are found to be complicated and not touristfriendly. It has been seen that tourist face frequent hassle to obtain visa related documents before and after arrival. For example, the lengthy and bureaucratic procedure of issuance of the visa restricts many tourists to explore the region. However, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives provide arrival visas to international tourists, whereas the ASEAN countries facilitated tourism by waiving visas for listed ASEAN countries, which significantly increased tourism activities. Another issue of the slow growth of regional tourism development is the poor transport facility. Country-specific studies show that a flawed land transportation system is one of the main barriers to attracting more tourists in the South Asian countries even though the countries are geographically situated nearby (Rasul & Manandhar, 2009). One of the main reasons behind the lack of land transportation that can take tourists from one country to another is the complex procedures for land-based vehicles to cross borders, which hinders the cross-country tour packages. For example, travelling from Bangladesh to India by land route requires

7 An Overview of South Asian Tourism Industry …

175

the passengers to get off from the bus or train in both the borders for double verification and make a significant delay. Lack of tourism-related facilities is another key barrier behind the development of the integrated regional policies. For example, there is a lack of recreational activities in most tourist areas in South Asian countries. Moreover, since there is no common currency in the South Asian region, tourists often find it difficult to exchange currency, which can be very troublesome. Also, a lack of a formal financial provision to exchange currencies causes foreign tourists to experience unpleasant experiences. To facilitate tourism services in South Asian countries, Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) can play a crucial role. However, most of the tourism-based SMEs within this region run at the marginal point of survival. Due to the managerial inefficiencies and lack of proper management strategies, most of these SMEs are forced to operate below the economies of scale and fail to mobilise revenue collection originated from the recent growth in the tourism industry. On the other hand, due to the government’s improper policy alignments for regional tourism activities, regional tourism gets hampered. Apart from these major barriers, other notable issues behind this hindrance are safety and security, informal tourism, and geopolitics. In terms of safety and security index, South Asian countries are poorly ranked, which further reduces the regional tourism development. For example, many western countries list South Asia and Southeast Asian countries as risky countries for travelling purposes. Informal tourism is another issue in the South Asian tourism industry. According to the Hindustan Times, about one-fourth of the tourism industry revenue comes from informal activities and is expected to increase. An increase in informal tourism activities can undoubtedly affect the formal counterpart. Besides, geopolitical tensions, especially between India and Pakistan and India and China, harm regional tourism activities.

7.5

Conclusion

The South Asian region holds all the components required to be a leading global tourism destination. However, the perceptions of the foreign

176

S. B. Amin

tourists regarding the South Asian people’s image as a regional entity need to be changed by removing an adverse insight that is presently linked with the region’s poverty and institutional barriers. To alter this negative image, a set of policies like a promotional programme to establish a new and improved image are required through the involvement of both the public and private sectors. However, public and private sector collaboration in tourism is minimal in South Asian countries. Rebuilding the image and developing tourism is not an easy task. An excellent place to start is with regional collaborations. Regional tourism integrated policy may rebuild the South Asian tourism industry as an innovative industry. Different stakeholders, like tourism ministries, business groups, and travel businesses, need to optimally use the public and private resources to achieve common goals. In this aspect, South Asia could follow other regions’ footsteps where countries have lined together to promote tourism. In Africa, Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda, they started issuing common visas in 2014, allowing travellers to move freely among all three countries during a vacation. Moreover, the Greater Mekong Subregion also set common tourist services standards and facilitated air service agreements in the region, improving roads, railways, and other infrastructure. A regional integrated tourism policy can make the South Asian region highly competitive in the global tourism industry given that the region has rich history, culture, and diverse nature.

References Bhutan Tourism Monitor. (2018). https://www.tourism.gov.bt/uploads/attach ment_files/tcb_xx8r_BTM%202018%20_final.pdf. Bramwell, B., & Lane, B. (Eds.). (2000). Tourism collaboration and partnerships: Politics, practice and sustainability (Vol. 2). Channel View Publications. Centre for Economics and Business Research (CEBR). (2018). World Economic League Table 2019, A World Economic League Table with Forecasts for 193 Countries to 2033, Centre for Economics and Business Research. December 2018, 10 Edition. https://cebr.com/. Ceicdata. (2019). Bangladesh tourist arrivals and tourism receipts. https://www. ceicdata.com/en/country/bangladesh.

7 An Overview of South Asian Tourism Industry …

177

Dimitrovski, D. D., Todorovi´c, A. T., & Valjarevi´c, A. D. (2012). Rural tourism and regional development: Case study of development of rural tourism in the region of Gru¸ta, Serbia. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 14, 288–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2012.03.028 Hjalager, A. M. (2007). Stages in the economic globalization of tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 34 (2), 437–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2006. 10.006 India Tourism Statistics at a glance. (2019). http://tourism.gov.in/sites/default/ files/Other/India%20Tourism%20Statistics%20at%20a%20Glance%202 019.pdf. Jackson, J. (2006). Developing regional tourism in China: The potential for activating business clusters in a socialist market economy. Tourism Management, 27 (4), 695–706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2005.02.007 Knoema. (2019). Bangladesh’s travel and tourism industry’s contribution to GDP. https://knoema.com/atlas/Bangladesh/topics/Tourism/Travel-and-TourismTotal-Contribution-to-GDP/Contribution-of-travel-and-tourism-to-GDPpercent-of-GDP. Lai, T.W. (Ed.) (2002). Promoting sustainable tourism in Sri Lanka: Asian Productivity Organization. Nepal Tourism Statistics. (2018). https://tourism.gov.np/files/statistics/19.pdf. Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority, Annual Statistical Report. (2018). https://www.sltda.gov.lk. Patel, R. (2012). India’s tourism industry – progress and emerging issues. Arth Prabhand: A Journal of Economics and Management, 1(5), 1–10. https://www.academia.edu/5794058/ARTH_PRABANDH_A UGUST_COMPLET. Accessed 15 September, 2020. Rasul, G., & Manandhar, P. (2009). Prospects and Problems in Promoting Tourism in South Asia: A Regional Perspective. South Asia Economic Journal, 10 (1), 187–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/139156140901000108 Roe, D., Ashley, C., Page, S., & Meyer, D. (2004). Tourism and the poor: Analysing and interpreting tourism statistics from a poverty perspective. PPT Working Paper No. 16, International Institute of Environment and Development (IIED), UK. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service. gov.uk/media/57a08ccfe5274a31e0001474/R8120-PPT16.pdf. Accessed 15 September, 2020. Roy, S. C., & Roy, M. (2015). Tourism in Bangladesh: Present status and future prospects. International Journal of Management Science and Business Administration, 1(8), 53–61. https://doi.org/10.18775/ijmsba.1849-56645419.2014.18.1006

178

S. B. Amin

Satyal, Y. R. (2004). Tourism in Nepal: A Profile. Adroit Publishers. Tourism Yearbook. (2019). Ministry of tourism, Republic of Maldives. https:// www.tourism.gov.mv/en/downloads/publications. UNWTO- World Tourism Organization. (2019). UNWTO Tourism Highlights, 2011–2019. https://www.unwto.org/publication/international-tourism-hig hlights-2019-edition. WTTC. (2019). World travel and tourism Council. Travel and tourism economic impact 2019: World . World Travel and Tourism Council. https://wttc.org/.

8 Tourism and Globalisation Nexus in Bangladesh

8.1

Introduction

The tourism industry is considered one of the fastest-rising trades worldwide (Amin et al., 2019). According to the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC, 2019), tourism contributed 10.4 per cent (8.52 USD trillion) of the global GDP in 2018, and the share is expected to reach 11.5 per cent by 2029. The 2019 available statistics from the WTTC also show that the tourism industry created 330 million jobs worldwide, which is 1 in every 10 jobs. Figure 8.1 shows the significance of international tourism as the industry is ranked 3rd largest globally. However, not long ago, tourism was seen as a small-scale industry and immensely underrated. The relationship with the tourism industry and other relevant stakeholders such as donor agencies, governments, private sector, and monetary organisations was not visible and prominent. There were many myths regarding the different attributes of tourism. For instance, people believed that the tourism industry could not significantly contribute to poverty alleviation and employment generation. During 1970 and 1980, the criticisers argued that countries should avoid tourism unless tourism is a small industry, indigenously owned, and does © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. B. Amin, The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4_8

179

180

S. B. Amin

2500 2000

1993

1960

USD Billion

1586

1500

1470

1466

1000 500 0 Chemicals

Fuels

International Automotive Tourism Products

Food

Fig. 8.1 Export Earnings by Product Category, 2017 (USD billion)1 (Source World Tourism Organization [2019] and the World Trade Organization [2019])

not harm the traditional norms and cultures as well as the surrounding environment (Amin et al., 2020; Zhang & Zhang, 2020). As time elapsed, the underlying myths regarding the tourism industry started changing, and the industry emerged as the fastest growing global economic sector of the world economy. It was proved that tourism could be a potential link to national developments around the world. In 2005, the United Nations (UN) declared the tourism industry as one of the most influential determinants of sustainable growth, especially for poor, developing, and emerging countries. Amin and Rahman (2019); Nepal et al. (2019); Liu and Song (2017) argue that the most significant economic feature of the tourism industry is that it corresponds to five high priority socio-economic objectives of the host countries: income generation, job creations, foreign exchange earnings, higher living standards, and poverty reduction. Besides, tourism also enhances privatisation and increases competition and efficiency (Amin & Rahman, 2019; Balsalobre et al., 2020a; Balsalobre et al., 2020b; Lin et al., 2018; 1

As published in International Tourism Highlights 2019 Edition

8 Tourism and Globalisation Nexus in Bangladesh

181

Mitchell & Ashley, 2010; Zhang & Yang, 2018). This happens due to the tourism industry’s inherent nature, offering a rational ground for commercial concentration. Its component segments of transport, accommodation, entertainment, food, and beverages are inherently cohesive over the consumption arrays of travellers (Lafferty & Fossen, 2001). Globalisation is a process where nations are interconnected by sharing information, capital and technology, and services.2 Some studies discuss that in addition to the previously mentioned factors, globalisation also offers exchange in terms of cultures, societal norms, histories, and turns the countries into a single society (Albrow & King, 1990; Bridges, 2002; Dwyer, 2015; Robertson, 1992). In general, Dwyer (2015) argues that globalisation is a multidimensional phenomenon that simultaneously touches all the areas starting from economic, social, environmental, and political perspectives. In the existing literature, globalisation can be viewed in 3 different ways: the sceptical view, the hyper-globalism view, and the transformationalist view (Dreher et al., 2008; Held et al., 2000). According to the sceptical view of globalisation, internationalisation or globalisation is not a novel phenomenon. Highlighting the indicators like culture, history of economic thoughts, political development, social and technological improvements, the sceptical view advocates that globalisation has existed for centuries. On the other hand, hyper-globalism view does not fully reject the notion of a sceptical view but believes that there is a historical juncture after which modern globalisation has emerged and escalated quickly. This view also highlights that contemporary globalisation correlates with the corrosion of power and authority in societies. Finally, the transformationalist idea is a mix of both of the above. This view of globalisation strongly argues that globalisation is a phenomenon responsible for reshaping the world order through social, political, environmental, and economic factors. The effect of globalisation on economic and social development is well discussed in the literature (Chang, 2019; Crafts, 2004; Hociung & 2 In the previous chapter, we have discussed about the importance of regional integration for tourism development. It is worth noting that regionalisation and globalisation are not the same rather complementary processes. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), regionalisation is an important step of globalisation.

182

S. B. Amin

Frâncu, 2012; Nowak et al., 2010; Song et al., 2012; Song et al., 2018). Given the country’s characteristics, there can be different factors, which can intensify the benefits of the globalisation. Among others, tourism is a recognised factor of globalisation (Amin et al., 2019; Nowak et al., 2010; Sugiyarto et al., 2003). As the tourism industry flourishes, the host economy gets the opportunity to connect with the countries of the origin of the tourists and earns socio-economic benefits through the promotion of natural scenic beauty, leisure, and other tourism services. Figure 8.2 shows the global trend in tourism and globalisation from 2008 to 2018. However, the enhancement of tourism activities can also become a pathway for globalisation’s many unwanted consequences, as stated by Dreher et al. (2008) and Balsalobre et al. (2020c). These include unplanned urbanisation, resource depletion through heavy fossil energy consumption, and environmental degradation. 1600

62.50 62.00

GlobalisaƟon (Index)

1200 61.00 1000

60.50

800

60.00 59.50

600

59.00 400 58.50

InternaƟonal Tourism (in milion)

1400

61.50

200

58.00

0

57.50 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 GlobalisaƟon

InternaƟonal Tourism

Fig. 8.2 World Globalisation and International Tourism (Source KOF Swiss Economic Institute [2019] and World Bank [2019])

8 Tourism and Globalisation Nexus in Bangladesh

183

Globalisation also impacts the expansion of the tourism industry through various channels (Dwyer, 2015). For example, the current globalisation trend has influenced the tourism industry through better technology and access to information, leading to lower costs of tourism services as well as better tourism services. The advancement of internet promotion and the electronic tourism (E-tourism) market3 has evolved rapidly over the years, which also support the tourism industry to be more efficient. Another way globalisation influences tourism is the improvement of transport mobility. Today, countries are more connected due to better transport facilities such as international flights, buses, and trains. Increased mobility has reduced the time it takes to reach the desired destination and amplified travelling frequency. On the other hand, increasing globalisation can sometimes adversely affect the tourism industry through cultural erosion and increased criminal activities.4 Figure 8.3 summarises the unique and multifaceted association of globalisation and tourism, as well as associated transmission channels. As a result, for a tourism potential country like Bangladesh, it is imperative to analyse empirically how to maximise globalisation’s impact through tourism while ensuring key sustainable development agendas by mitigating the negative consequences. Therefore, this chapter aims to analyse the tourism-globalisation nexus and other possible impacts by adopting a dynamic simulation approach.5 We use the Dynamic ARDL (DARDL) for the dynamic simulation analysis.6 The algorithm of the chapter is as follows. Section 8.2 describes the process of dynamic simulation. Section 8.3 discusses results obtained from the simulation, and finally, Sect. 8.4 concludes the chapter with some policy recommendations. 3 “E-tourism is the digitisation of various practices and value chains in the tourism industries that facilitates organisations to maximise their competence and efficacy” (Ma et al., 2003). 4 Such as terrorism. 5 Although we have used the DOLS method in Chapter 4, the DARDL methodology is used in this chapter since we aim to see the impact of tourism-related shocks to globalisation and other concerned variables discussed in 8.1. 6 For Bangladesh, empirical analysis (Granger Causality) shows that tourism causes globalisation but globalisation does not cause tourism in the long-run. It implies that tourism stimulates Bangladesh’s globalisation process. Therefore, the dynamic simulation will only focus on the impacts of tourism on globalisation.

184

S. B. Amin

-Economic Benefits -Social Benefits -Higher Export

-Cultural Erosion -Criminal Activities Globalisation

(+)

(-)

(+)

-Technology -Transport Mobility -Information

(-)

-Urbanisation (unplanned) -Energy Consumption -Environmental Degradation

Tourism

Fig. 8.3 Association of Globalisation and Tourism from Different Channels (Note Author’s own elaboration)

8.2

Dynamic Simulation Framework7

For the dynamic simulations, to explore the linkage between tourism and globalisation in Bangladesh, we consider the following five models in a Cobb-Douglas form: Gt = f(GΓt−1 , Ttθ ) ψ

Et = f(Et−1 , Ttϑ , Yλt ) η

7

μ

(8.1) (8.2)

CO2,t = f(CO2,t−1 , Tt , Yω t )

(8.3)

  ψ CO2,t = f CO2,t−1 , Ttκ , Eπ t

(8.4)

A technical glossary is added in Appendix C.

8 Tourism and Globalisation Nexus in Bangladesh

185

Table 8.1 Description of the Parameters Parameter

Meaning

Γ θ ψ ϑ λ η μ ω ψ κ π ϕ γ 

Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share Share

of of of of of of of of of of of of of of

Gt−1 in Eq (8.1) Tt in Eq (8.1) Et−1 in Eq (8.2) Tt in Eq (8.2) Yt in Eq (8.2) CO2,t−1 in Eq (8.3) Tt in Eq (8.3) Yt in Eq (8.3) CO2,t−1 in Eq (8.4) Tt in Eq (8.4) Et in Eq (8.4) REt−1 in Eq (8.5) Tt in Eq (8.5) Yt in Eq (8.5)

Note Author’s elaboration

 ϕ γ  REt = f REt−1 , Tt , Yt

(8.5)

From the equations (8.1)–(8.5), response or dependent variables are Gt =globalisation (index), Et =total energy use (kWh), CO2,t = aggregate carbon emissions (Tonne), REt = renewable energy consumption (KTOE). On the contrary, the regressors from equation (8.1)–(8.5) are Gt−1 = one period lag of globalisation, Tt =international tourism (number of arrival), Et−1 = one period lag of total energy use, Yt = real income (GDP at constant USD), CO2,t−1 = one period lag of CO2 emissions, REt−1 = one period lag of renewable energy consumption.8 Table 8.1 shows description of the parameters. Equation (8.1) shows the link between tourism and globalisation and examines whether tourism can be considered as one of the drivers of globalisation in Bangladesh. Equations (8.2)–(8.5) capture the impact of tourism on the other tourism-related variables like total energy consumption, carbon emissions (as an indicator of environmental degradation), and renewable energy consumption. This formulation of the equations

8

“t” indicates the time period.

186

S. B. Amin

allows us to check whether tourism acts as a long-run driver of globalisation to increase Bangladesh’s total and renewable energy consumption, and carbon emissions. The above functional forms of the equations (8.1)–(8.5) are then transformed into log-linear set-up by following Jordan and Phillips (2018), Díaz et al. (2019), and Amin and Khan (2020) to conduct dynamic simulations. Equations (8.6)–(8.10) show the final equations for the analysis. In all specifications, εt captures errors. ln Gt = α+Γ ln Gt−1 + θ ln Tt + εt

(8.6)

ln Et = β + ψ ln Et−1 + ϑ ln Tt + λ ln Yt + εt

(8.7)

ln CO2,t = γ + η ln CO2,t−1 + μ ln Tt + ω ln Yt + εt

(8.8)

ln CO2,t = δ + ψ ln CO2,t - 1 + κ ln Tt + π ln Et + εt

(8.9)

ln REt = ρ + ϕ ln REt - 1 + γ ln Tt +  ln Yt + εt

(8.10)

All the data are collected from World Bank (2019) and British Petroleum (2020), and KOF Swiss Economic Institute (2019). An overview of the dataset is given in Table 8.2. We adopt Dynamic ARDL (DARDL) methods as proposed by Jordan and Phillips (2018) to conduct the dynamic simulations. They argue that the conventional ARDL (Error Correction Model9 or other forms) models can sometimes be challenging to interpret and do not make apparent differences in the short-run, medium-run, and long-run dynamics. In this regard, a dynamic simulation of the ARDL models can better understand the underlying picture in a given situation. Dynamic simulations are also considered a straightforward yet intuitive approach to gain substantive results in time-series analysis, where parameters have some hidden or intuitive interpretations. DARDL is a 9 Error Correction Model is a theoretical approach that can help estimate both short-run and long-run changes in one parameter to others.

187

8 Tourism and Globalisation Nexus in Bangladesh

Table 8.2 Descriptive Statistics of the Variables Criteria

T

G

E

CO2

RE

Mean Median Maximum Minimum Std. Dev. Skewness Kurtosis Jarque-Bera Probability

12.47 12.24 14.05 11.74 0.65 1.20 3.34 5.83** 0.05

3.55 3.60 3.87 3.26 0.21 0.01 1.58 2.01 0.37

7.59 7.54 8.22 7.28 0.26 0.73 2.66 2.23 0.33

17.55 17.56 18.27 16.86 0.45 −0.03 1.75 1.57 0.46

9.04 9.05 9.19 8.86 0.10 −0.26 1.90 1.47 0.48

Note The Jarque-Bera (J-B) test is used to determine whether a given series follows normal distribution or not. It tests the null hypothesis that a given series is normally distributed. ***, **, and * show significance at 1, 5, and 10 per cent, respectively. The dataset shown in the table went through a logarithmic transformation

stochastic simulation technique that helps to visualise the counterfactual impact10 of one regressor in a particular time, holding all other things constant. In this process, first, an OLS specification of the model is being run. After that, with the help of a self-contained procedure, the “n” number of draws (simulation number) of the parameter vectors is obtained. The process follows a multivariate normal distribution assumption. It asserts that the distributions enter in the regression with equal mean. Furthermore, the variance of the distributions and the estimated variance-covariance matrix are also assumed to be equal. To introduce the uncertainty (i.e. shock), DARDL simulates an estimated ς 2∗ withdrawn inverse χ2 distribution. The scale of the χ2 distribution relies on the residual with (n-k) degrees of freedom. Estimated ς 2∗ follows a similar framework and ensures the simulations are bounded by (0, 1). In the next phase, the system prepares the response variable’s predicted value using simulated ς 2 and other parameters. While forecasting the response variable, we follow that all the covariates start from equilibrium (i.e. from the mean). It is a restriction that allows us to capture how far a shock can take the equilibrium response 10

Pesaran and Smith (2016) highlight counter factual impact as: “what would have occurred if some observed characteristics or aspects of the processes under consideration were deferent from those prevailing at the time”.

188

S. B. Amin

Table 8.3 Stationary Properties of the Variables ADF Level Variable T G E CO2 RE

First difference

Intercept

Intercept and trend

Intercept

Intercept and trend

−1.43 −1.27 4.80 −1.19 −0.23

−2.17 −1.53 4.41 −3.16 −2.31

−3.83*** −3.99*** 0.95 −3.89*** −1.89

−3.55* −4.03*** −1.73 −3.78** −19.05***

DF-GLS Level Variable T G E CO2 RE

First Difference

Intercept

Intercept and Trend

Intercept

Intercept and Trend

−1.94 −1.12 0.86 0.02 0.14

−1.72 −1.17 −1.22 −3.04* −2.12

−4.70*** −3.91*** −1.61* −6.13*** −3.37***

−4.91*** −4.04*** −3.00* −6.42*** −6.21***

Note Please see the note of 4.7

variable. We then introduce a stochastic shock parameter by drawing a multivariate normal distribution with zero mean and ς 2∗ variance. The simulated response variable’s averages augmented with stochastic shock and difference confidence interval levels are then derived. Finally, the simulation results are illustrated through Impulse Response Functions (IRFs). In all five models, T (tourism) is considered as the shock variable.11

8.3

Analysis from the Dynamic Simulation

Before conducting the dynamic simulations, we need to go through some pre-testing methods to ensure that the obtained results are robust. The most important pre-tests include stationarity tests, cointegration test, and variable stability test. Table 8.3 shows the results of the Augmented 11 Tourism is considered a shock variable since, from the Granger causality test results show that tourism causes globalisation in Bangladesh.

189

8 Tourism and Globalisation Nexus in Bangladesh

Table 8.4 Cointegration Test Results 10% Model Model Model Model Model Model

Value 1 2 3 4 5

4.10 12.01 7.66 7.471 6.73

5%

1%

Probability value

I(0)

I(1)

I(0)

I(1)

I(0)

I(1)

I(0)

I(1)

2.72 3.61 2.52 2.52 3.57

3.66 4.98 3.78 3.78 4.91

3.68 4.68 3.34 3.33 4.60

4.83 6.35 4.87 4.87 6.23

6.25 7.65 5.59 5.86 7.42

7.88 10.08 7.83 7.83 9.76

0.040 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.014

0.070 0.005 0.011 0.012 0.039

Note Following the standard procedure, the test is run with no trend and intercept configuration (Amin et al., 2020)

Dickey-Fuller (ADF) and Dickey-Fuller-GLS (DF-GLS) stationary tests. Both of the tests show that the concerned variables are stationary at their first difference forms.12 Next, we aim to examine the existence of long-run association of the model variables. To do that, we use the ARDL Bounds test based on surface regressions. The test allows us to check the F-statistics with the approximate upper and lower bound critical values of Kripfganz and Schneider (2018), associated with probability values. Table 8.4 shows that for each model, the F-statistics (10, 5, and 1 per cent) are well above the upper bound critical values, thus validating the long-run cointegrating association. It implies that responses from the tourism-related shocks will have long-run policy implications.

8.3.1 Tourism and Globalisation Counterfactual shocks of tourism on globalisation can be seen in Fig. 8.4. A one standard deviation positive shock increases globalisation, while a negative shock of the same magnitude reduces globalisation’s degree in the long-run. The consequences from both the shock remain roughly until 20 years (t = 20) and then start to stabilise after that. Following Ap (1992) and Amin et al. (2019), it is argued that expansion of the tourism

12

For more details, see the discussion on the stationary process in Chapter 4.

190

S. B. Amin

- 1 standard deviation shock of tourism .2 0 -.2 -.4 -.6

Change in Predicted Value

.6 .4 .2 0

-.8

-.2

Change in Predicted Value

.8

+ 1 standard deviation shock of tourism

0

10

Time

20

30

0

10

Time

20

30

Fig. 8.4 Globalisation and Tourism

industry can possibly contribute to economic growth through globalisation by increasing the trade of various commodities and attracting foreign investment. Improved globalisation can also influence social aspects by blending different cultures, better education and health, social awareness, etc. In this regard, Marzuki (2012) also highlights that interaction between tourists around the world and residents help to generate new and innovative ideas for future sustainable development.

8.3.2 Tourism and Energy Consumption Existing literature shows that an increase in tourism-related activities can lead to greater energy consumption. Among others, Amin et al. (2020); Amin and Rahman (2019); and Frantál and Urbánková (2017) assert that due to the composite and integrated nature of the tourism industry, with the expansion of the tourism industry, energy consumption increases in the economy.13 We find similar evidence in the case of Bangladesh for the link between tourism and energy consumption. Figure 8.5 shows a positive one standard deviation shock of tourism 13

Due to the direct, indirect, and induced impacts of tourism, energy consumption not only increases in the tourist areas but in many other potential areas, which receive the indirect and induced impacts of tourism. As a result, it is argued that a change in the trend of energy can be observed as the tourism industry develops.

8 Tourism and Globalisation Nexus in Bangladesh

- 1 standard deviation shock of tourism

0 -.1 -.3

-.2

Change in Predicted Value

.3 .2 .1 0 -.1

Change in Predicted Value

.4

.1

+ 1 standard deviation shock of tourism

191

0

10

20

30

40

Time

0

10

20

30

40

Time

Fig. 8.5 Energy and Tourism

enhances total energy consumption in the long-run. On the other hand, a negative of one standard deviation tends to suppress energy consumption. Both shock effects tend to affect energy consumption immensely until 9 years (t = 9). However, effects from the counterfactual shocks start diminishing from the 10th year (t = 10).

8.3.3 Tourism and Environment Some of the studies argue that the expansion of the tourism activities in a particular economy can adversely affect the environment if the primary energy mix of that country is highly skewed towards fossil energies (Amin et al., 2019; Amin et al., 2020; Frantál & Kunc, 2011; Jebli et al., 2019; Tiwari et al., 2013; Zhang & Liu, 2019). Bangladesh has a high level of dependency on different types of fossil energy consumption in its primary energy mix, which is expected to affect the environment adversely. Besides, currently, the country’s over 90 per cent of the electricity is being produced from using natural gas, coal, and oil. We also find similar patterns in Bangladesh’s case, as stated in the studies mentioned above from our simulation results. Figures 8.6 and 8.7

192

S. B. Amin

.- 1 standard deviation shock of tourism .1 0 -.1 -.2 -.4

-.3

Change in Predicted Value

.2 0 -.2

Change in Predicted Value

.4

+ 1 standard deviation shock of tourism

0

10

20

0

30

10

20

30

Time

Time

Fig. 8.6 Tourism and CO2 (Controlled for Real Income) - 1 standard deviation shock of tourism

0 -.2 -.6

-.4

Change in Predicted Value

.6 .4 .2 0 -.2

Change in Predicted Value

.8

.2

+ 1 standard deviation shock of tourism

0

10

Time

20

30

0

10

Time

20

30

Fig. 8.7 Tourism and CO2 (Controlled for Energy)

both show how tourism enhancement is linked to environmental degradation. After controlling for real income14 (Fig. 8.5), we observe that one standard deviation positive shock of tourism enhances CO2 emissions in Bangladesh, while a negative shock of the same magnitude reduces CO2 emissions in the long-run. Responses from the shocks tend to remain till 9 years (t = 9) and flatten after that. When controlled for total energy 14

Controlling the real income allows us to observe a shock effect of tourism on the environment that incorporates the possible impact of real income on the relationship between tourism and CO2 emissions as per the existing literature

8 Tourism and Globalisation Nexus in Bangladesh

193

consumption15 (Figure 8.7), the effect remains similar, but the predicted values’ change is bigger than the previous case. Additionally, effects from both of the shocks tend to stabilise from the 11th year (t = 11).

8.3.4 Tourism and Renewable Energy The nexus between tourism and renewable energy is a relatively new area of research. Frew (2008); Jebli et al. (2015); Zhang and Liu (2019); Amin et al. (2019); Amin et al. (2020) have previously found that tourism has the potential to rise the share of renewable sources in the primary energy mix across different countries. Frew (2008) argues that clean and environment-friendly energy sources like solar energy and hydropower can be positively associated with the expansion of tourism-related activities. Amin et al. (2020) further discuss that tourism businesses tend to use renewable sources as an alternate choice to avoid the complicacies and accessibility issues surrounding gridconnected electricity. They also point out that loss of natural beauty due to environmental degradation can certainly disappoint many inbound international tourists, further encouraging tourism business owners to focus on renewable energies, especially solar energy. Figure 8.8 shows the shock effect of tourism on renewable energy in Bangladesh. Both positive and negative 1 standard deviation shock is related to an increase and decrease in renewable energy consumption. However, the shock responses are small (change in predicted value). One of the possible reasons is that Bangladesh’s renewable energy sector is still recognised as an infant sector (only 2.85 per cent in the energy mix). Therefore, large-scale renewable energy supply to the tourism industry may not be possible soon even if there exists a reasonable demand.

15

If we control energy consumption, we can observe a shock effect of tourism on the environment that incorporates the possible impact of energy consumption on the relationship between energy consumption and CO2 emissions as per the existing literature.

194

S. B. Amin

- 1 standard deviation shock of tourism

.04 0

.02

Change in Predicted Value

.08 .06 .04 .02 0

Change in Predicted Value

.06

+ 1 standard deviation shock of tourism

0

10

20

30

40

50

Time

0

10

20

30

40

50

Time

Fig. 8.8 Tourism and Renewable Energy

Finally, we check each variable by incorporating the CUSUM16 test. The CUSUM test results show that the plots lie within the range of 5 per cent critical values for all the variables, confirming the model stability in terms of exogenous shocks (Fig. 8.9).

8.4

Conclusion and Policy Recommendations

This chapter aims to examine the possible linkages between tourism and globalisation industry for the Bangladesh economy. DARDL shows that counterfactual shocks in tourism can explain Bangladesh’s globalisation process. On the other hand, the empirical results also indicate that tourism could change the aggregate energy consumption pattern and damage Bangladesh’s environment. The evidence of a tourism-led renewable energy consumption hypothesis is also revealed; however, shock responses are found to be trivial.

16

CUSUM test measures whether the sequence (i.e. year to year values) of a variable remains stable over the years or, in other words, remains close to the mean value of the sample period. If the sequence of the variable does not stay close to the mean value, then we consider the variable unstable, and incorporation of such a variable can distort the analysis results.

195

8 Tourism and Globalisation Nexus in Bangladesh

15

15

10

10

5

5

0

0

-5

-5

-10

-10

-15

-15 98

00

02

04

06

08

CUSUM: T

10

12

14

16

18

98

00

02

5% Significance

04

06

08

15

15

10

10

5

5

0

0

-5

-5

-10

-10

-15

10

12

14

16

18

14

16

18

5% Significance

CUSUM: G

-15 98

00

02

04

06

08

10

12

14

16

18

98

00

02

5% Significance

CUSUM:E

04

06

CUSUM: CO2

08

10

12

5% Significance

15

10

5

0

-5

-10

-15 2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

CUSUM: RE

2010

2012

2014

2016

2018

5% Significance

Fig. 8.9 Stability Diagnostics of the Variables

As tourism acts as one of the determinant factors for speeding the globalisation process, we argue that proper market mechanisms are needed to be implemented in Bangladesh’s tourism industry to strengthen its capacity. New tourism policies should be constructed so that Bangladesh’s tourism industry can compete with neighbouring countries in the international arena. For instance, policies may include strengthening promotional activities to attract more international

196

S. B. Amin

tourists, easing the financial barriers (tax exemption on imports, subsidies, and special banking schemes), introducing institutional reforms, establishing diplomatic zones in potential tourist regions, etc. Since the dynamic simulation results find that enhancing tourism activities can increase energy consumption and environmental degradation through CO2 emissions in the long-run, the necessity of introducing tourism-friendly energy policies is also recommended to keep the environmental pollution at minimal. For example, policies in favour of renewable energy-based captive power plants for small tourism communities, solar rooftop metering, solar home systems, small-scale biogas plants, and the hydro plants can undoubtedly help the tourism industry to meet the energy demand without providing high pressure on the grid facility and affecting scenic beauty of the tourist areas.

References Albrow, M., & King, E. (Eds.). (1990). Globalization, knowledge and society: Readings from international sociology. Sage. Amin, S. B., Kabir, F. A., & Khan, F. (2020). Tourism and energy nexus in selected South Asian countries: A panel study. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(16), 1963–1967. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2019.1638354. Amin, S. B., Kabir, F. A., Khan, F., & Rahman, S. Z. (2019). Impact of seaside tourism on host community in Bangladesh: The case of Cox’s Bazar. North South Business Review, 10 (1), 69–89. Accessed 15 September, 2020. Amin, S. B., Kabir, F. A., Khan, F., & Rahman, S. Z. (2020). Tourism and renewable energy nexus in South Asia: A panel study. Mimeo. Amin, S. B., & Khan, F. (2020). Modelling energy demand in Bangladesh: An empirical analysis. The Journal of Developing Areas, 54, 39–52. https://doi. org/10.1353/jda.2020.0002. Amin, S. B., & Rahman, S. (2019). Linkages between tourism and energy sector in Bangladesh. In: Energy Resources in Bangladesh. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02919-7_27. Ap, J. (1992). Resident’s perceptions on tourism impacts. Annals of Tourism Research, 19, 665–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(92)90060-3.

8 Tourism and Globalisation Nexus in Bangladesh

197

Balsalobre, D., Driha, O. M., Bekun, F. V., & Adedoyin, F. F. (2020a). The asymmetric impact of air transport on economic growth in Spain: Fresh evidence from the tourism-led growth hypothesis. Current Issues in Tourism, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1720624. Balsalobre, D., Driha, O. M., Shahbaz, M., & Sinha, A. (2020b). The effects of tourism and globalization over environmental degradation in developed countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27 (7), 7130–7144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07372-4. Balsalobre, D., Driha, O. M., & Sinha, A. (2020c). The dynamic effects of globalization process in analysing N-shaped tourism led growth hypothesis. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 43, 42–52. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.02.005. Bridge, G. (2002). Grounding globalization: The prospects and perils of linking economic processes of globalization to environmental outcomes. Economic Geography, 78(3), 361–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2002.tb0 0191.x. British Petroleum (BP). (2020). BP statistical review of world energy 2020. Chang, H. J. (2019). Kicking away the ladder—Globalisation and economic development in historical perspective. In The Handbook of Globalisation, Third Edition. Edward Elgar Publishing. Crafts, N. (2004). Globalisation and economic growth: A historical perspective. World Economy, 27 (1), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9701.2004. 00587.x. Díaz, A., Marrero, G. A., Puch, L. A., & Rodríguez, J. (2019). Economic growth, energy intensity and the energy mix. Energy Economics, 81, 1056– 1077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2019.05.022. Dreher, A., Gaston, N., & Martens, P. (2008). Measuring Globalisation. Gauging its Consequences. Springer. Dwyer, L. (2015). Globalization of tourism: Drivers and outcomes. Tourism Recreation Research, 40 (3), 326–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281. 2015.1075723. Frantál, B., & Kunc, J. (2011). Wind turbines in tourism landscapes: Czech experience. Annals of Tourism Research, 38, 499–519. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.annals.2010.10.007. Frantál, B., & Urbánková, R. (2017). Energy tourism: An emerging field of study. Current Issues in Tourism, 20 (13), 1395–1412. https://doi.org/10. 1080/13683500.2014.987734.

198

S. B. Amin

Frew, E. (2008). Industrial tourism theory and implemented strategies. In A. Woodside (Ed.), Advances in culture, tourism and hospitality research, 2 (pp. 27–42). Emerald: Bingley. Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D., & Perraton, J. (2000). Global transformations: Politics, economics and culture. In Politics at the Edge (pp. 14–28). Palgrave Macmillan. Hociung, I. G., & Frâncu, L. G. (2012). Globalization-tourismcommunication, competitiveness triangle on the market affected by the economic crisis. Theoretical & Applied Economics, 7 (572), 133–146. Accessed September, 2020. Jebli, M. B., Youseef, S. B., & Apergis, N. (2015). The dynamic interaction between combustible renewables and waste consumption and international tourism: The case of Tunisia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22, 12050–12061. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4483-x. Jebli, M. B., Youseef, S. B., & Apergis, N. (2019). The dynamic linkage between renewable energy, tourism, CO2 emissions, economic growth, foreign direct investment, and trade. Latin American Economic Review, 28(2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40503-019-0063-7. Jordan, S., & Philips, A. Q. (2018). Cointegration testing and dynamic simulations of autoregressive distributed lag models. Stata Journal, 18, 902–923. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X1801800409. KOF Swiss Economic Institute. (2019). Data Bank. https://kof.ethz.ch/en/. Kripfganz, S., & Schneider, D. C. (2018). Response surface regressions for critical value bounds and approximate P-values in equilibrium correction models, Discussion Papers 1901, University of Exeter. Lafferty, G., & van Fossen, A. (2001). Integrating the tourism industry: Problems and strategies. Tourism Management, 22(1), 11–19. https://doi.org/10. 1016/s0261-5177(00)00021-2. Lin, V. S., Yang, Y., & Li, G. (2018). Where can tourism-led growth and economy-driven tourism growth occur? Journal of Travel Research, 58(5), 760–773. Liu, H., & Song, H. (2017). New evidence of dynamic links between tourism and economic growth based on mixed-frequency granger causality tests. Journal of Travel Research, 57 (7), 899–907. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728 7517723531. Ma, J. X., Buhalis, D., & Song, H. (2003). ICTs and Internet adoption in China’s tourism industry. International Journal of Information Management, 23(6), 451–467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2003.09.002.

8 Tourism and Globalisation Nexus in Bangladesh

199

Marzuki, A. (2012). Local residents’ perceptions toward economic impacts of tourism development in Phuket. Tourism Original Scientific Paper, 60 (2), 199–212. Accessed September, 2020. Mitchell, J., & Ashley, C. (2010). Tourism and poverty reduction: Pathways to prosperity. London: Earthscan. Nepal, R., Irsyad, M. I. A., & Nepal, S. K. (2019). Tourist arrivals, energy consumption and pollutant emissions in a developing economy-implications for sustainable tourism. Tourism Management, 72, 145–154. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.tourman.2018.08.025. Nowak, J. J., Petit, S., & Sahli, M. (2010). Tourism and globalization: The international division of tourism production. Journal of Travel Research, 49 (2), 228–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287509336334. Pesaran, M. H., & Smith, R. P. (2016). Counterfactual analysis in macroeconometrics: An empirical investigation into the effects of quantitative easing. Research in Economics, 70 (2), 262–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rie.2016. 01.004. Robertson, R. (1992). Globalization: Social theory and global culture (Vol. 16). Sage. Song, H., Li, G., & Cao, Z. (2018). Tourism and economic globalization: an emerging research agenda. Journal of Travel Research, 57 (8), 999–1011. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287517734943. Song, H., Liu, J., & Chen, G. (2012). Tourism value chain governance: Review and prospects. Journal of Travel Research, 52(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10. 1177/0047287512457264. Sugiyarto, G., Blake, A., & Sinclair, M. T. (2003). Tourism and globalization: Economic impact in Indonesia. Annals of Tourism Research, 30 (3), 683–701. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(03)00048-3. Tiwari, A. K., Ozturk, I., & Aruna, M. (2013). Tourism, energy consumption and climate change in OECD countries. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 3(3), 247–261. Accessed 15 September, 2020. World Bank (WB). (2019). Data Bank. https://data.worldbank.org/. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2019). UNWTO Tourism Highlights. 2019 Edition. https://www.unwto.org/publication/international-tou rism-highlights-2019-edition. WTTC. (2019). World travel and tourism Council. Travel and tourism economic impact 2019: World . World Travel and Tourism Council. https://wttc.org/. Zhang, S., & Liu, X. (2019). The roles of international tourism and renewable energy environment: New evidence from Asian countries. Renewable Energy, 139, 385–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.02.046.

200

S. B. Amin

Zhang, H., & Yang, Y. (2018). Prescribing for the tourism-induced Dutch disease: A DSGE analysis of subsidy policies. Tourism Economics, 25 (6), 942–962. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816618813046. Zhang, J., & Zhang, Y. (2020). Tourism, economic growth, energy consumption, and CO2 emissions in China. Tourism Economics. https://doi.org/10. 1177/1354816620918458.

9 Conclusion

On her 50th birthday in 2021, Bangladesh successfully graduated from the Least Developed Country (LDC) status, and by 2041, the country aims to become one of the developed countries. The tourism industry can play an inevitable role in this development journey as the country is blessed with rich culture and heritage, archaeological sites, vast coastline, green lands, tea gardens, religious monuments, eyecatching mountains, and mangrove areas. The industry can contribute to five high-priority socio-economic goals of any country in generating income, creating jobs, accumulating foreign exchange earnings, improving living standards, and reducing poverty (Amin et al., 2020). However, despite immense potential, Bangladesh’s tourism industry has not been able to grow as expected since numerous prevailing barriers hinder the development of the industry. For tapping tourism prospects and overcoming the prevalent obstacles, there needs some policy suggestions for strengthening the coordination among the government and private sector, promoting regional collaboration, reforming the cohesive tourism utilities, promoting marketing strategies, and developing a proper market mechanism aligning with the global trend controlling for the environmental degradation. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. B. Amin, The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4_9

201

202

S. B. Amin

Tourism Ministry

National Committee

Regional Committee BTB

BPC

Policy Cell Private PPP Coordination with Other Ministries

Implementation

Tourism Cell

Seaside Tourism

Tea Tourism

Religious Tourism

Business Tourism

Tour Operators

Heritage & Culture Tourism

Sports Tourism

Coordination

Rural Tourism

Others

Awareness Cell R&D

Marketing Strategy Feasibility

If Successful

Sustainable Tourism Development

If Unsuccessful National Evaluation Cell

Regional Evaluation Cell

Fig. 9.1 Conceptual Model for the Sustainable Tourism Development in Bangladesh (Source Author’s own elaboration)

This book has critically discussed many aspects of Bangladesh’s tourism industry through the lens of economic significance (Chapter 4), prevailing barriers (Chapter 5), public-private partnerships (Chapter 6), regional integration (Chapter 7), and globalisation (Chapter 8) by using qualitative and quantitative approaches and provided a few policy recommendations. In this concluding chapter, we bring all the policy suggestions under the same umbrella and propose a conceptual model for the sustainable development of Bangladesh’s tourism industry. The proposed model is shown in Fig. 9.1. Historically, Bangladesh’s tourism industry has been vertically integrated and has not been proved efficient at the policy implementation stage. Therefore, we propose a vertical unbundling reform for the tourism utilities as it is discussed in the literature that such utility reform can lead to a sustainable tourism industry given the stakeholders’ explicit roles (Graham et al., 2008; Grosso et al., 2007; Kandari, 2004).

9 Conclusions

203

In this proposed model, the tourism-related development activities are divided into two phases: (i) the policy and planning phase and (ii) the implementation phase. Firstly, we suggest an independent ministry for the tourism industry since both the tourism and civil aviation ministries are integrated in Bangladesh from the beginning. Unbundling the civil aviation and tourism ministry into two separate ministries is expected to increase both the utilities’ operational efficiency, managerial skills, and financial stability. There will be two proposed committees for both the phases: the national committee and the regional committee. The national committee will consist of members representing the direct and indirect stakeholders associated with the Bangladesh’s tourism industry. For instance, industry experts, academicians, representatives from different ministries, NGOs, tour operators, donor agencies, and private investors may discuss together before taking any development initiatives. On the contrary, the regional committee will include the country-specific local representatives who are expert in regional business collaboration, understand South Asian regional dynamics and geo-politics, and regional representatives from other South Asian countries (both from government and tour operators) expertising in international tourism organisations. In the policy and planning phase, the national committee will initially review the tourism industry’s overall standings from the existing policy documents and propose necessary policy feedback to the tourism ministry. On the other hand, the regional committee will identify the prevailing barriers behind developing an integrated regional policy and potential scopes of regional tourism and coordinate with the domestic tourism ministry. After obtaining both the national and regional committees’ feedback, the tourism ministry will assign Bangladesh Tourism Board (BTB) to prepare policy papers and implementation strategies. After that, BTB will decide the implementing entity either from Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC) or from any private agency as appropriate. If needed, a public-private partnership may also be considered for the implementation stage. A separate utility, named “Policy Cell”, is proposed in this model to evaluate the policy design, determine the relative efficacy of the public and private tourism-related companies, and give directions for PPP-based policy execution. In addition to assisting the BTB, the policy cell can also play an independent

204

S. B. Amin

monitoring body to observe the overall activities and act as an intermediary for both the public and private sectors. When the implementation phase initiates, the policy cell is expected to collaborate with the implementing partners at different stages. A separate entity, “Tourism Cell” is further proposed to complement the policy cell’s activities to successfully implement the policies. For instance, the tourism cell may help the partners in the feasibility studies, fix tour operators, ensure the law-and-order agencies, run awareness programmes, coordinate with local communities, and prepare marketing strategies for optimal outcomes. The tourism cell will also conduct Research and Development (R&D) programmes to ensure that the strategies can be altered or renovated without any obstacles. If the implementation of the policies become successful, then the proposed mechanism will enter to the next stages of sustainable development. If not, then the evaluation cells of both the national and local level will prepare the report to identify the reasons for the unsuccessful outcome and then provide feedback to the tourism ministry to redesign the policies for a successful development programme.

References Amin, S. B., Kabir, F. A., & Khan, F. (2020). Tourism and energy nexus in selected South Asian countries: A panel study. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(16), 1963–1967. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2019.1638354 Grosso, M. G., Lesher, M., & Pinali, E. (2007). Services trade liberalisation and tourism development. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/paper/244 767010605?crawler=true. Graham, A., Papatheodorou, A., & Forsyth, P. (Eds.). (2008). Aviation and tourism: Implications for leisure travel. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. https://www. bookdepository.com/publishers/Ashgate-Publishing. Kandari, O. P. (2004). Tourism, biodiversity and sustainable development (Vol. 2). Gyan Publishing House. https://www.gyanbooks.com/.

Appendix A

See Tables A.1, A.2, A.3, A.4, A.5, A.6 and A.7.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. B. Amin, The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4

205

206

Appendix A

Table A.1 Classification of Heritages Tourism Classification

Items

Manmade Heritage

Buildings/cities Historic towns Seaside resorts Conservation areas Museums Art galleries Historic buildings Historic sites/monuments Heritage centres Heritage theme parks Archaeological Transport sites Landscapes/environment National parks Coastlines Festivals Designated/protected landscapes Geological features Town/country parks Botanic gardens Historic gardens Nature reserves Countryside centres Country parks Forest Eco museums Archaeological sites Communities/people Traditional food and costumes Festivals Markets Folklore, folk life houses/cafes Craft centres Farms Everyday spaces Communities Historic events and characters Song and dance Religious practices/beliefs

Natural Heritage

Cultural Heritage

Source Directly taken from, UNESCO ( http://www.unesco.org/)

Dhaka

Central Bangladesh Dhaka Division

Manikganj

Madaripur

Kishoreganj

Gopalganj

Gazipur

Faridpur

District

Bangladesh

(continued)

Ahsan Manzil, Khan Mohammad Mridha Mosque, Choto Katra (Chhota Katra), Bahadur Shah Park, Hussaini Dalan, Rayer Bazar Boddho Bhumi Graveyard, Armenian Church, Jinjira Palace, Sat Gambuj Mosque, Tara Mosque, Suhrawardy Uddan, Dhaka Zoo (Bangladesh National Zoo), Curzon Hall, Bangladesh National Museum,Central Shaheed Minar, Rose Garden, Jatiyo Sangsad Bhaban, National Museum of Science and Technology, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Memorial Museum, Lalbagh Fort, Badhir Jheel. House & Grave of Poet Jasim Uddin, River Research Institute, Jagatbandhu Sundar’s Ashram, Satoir Mosque, Mathurapur Deul, Pathrail Mosque, Bir Shrestha Shaheed Lance Naik Munshi Abdur Rauf Library and Memorial Museum Bangabandhu Safari Park, Nokkhottrobari Resort, Basari, National Park, Nuhash Polli, Bhawal Resort, Bhawal Rajbari, Jagroto Chowrangi Muktijoddha Monument, Joykali Temple, CHUTI Resort & Picnic Spot, Sultanpur Dargapara Shahi Mosque, Azmatpur College, Chatiyani Chin Mela. Bangabandhu Mausoleum Complex, Orakandi Thakur Bari, Zamindar Girish Chandra Sen’s House, Anayna Chandra Ghat, Ulpur Zamindar Bari, Boddho Bhumi Graveyard Nikli Haor, Narasunda Lakecity, Sholakia Eidgah , Pagla Mosque, Ubai Park. Shah Madar (RA) Dargah, Algi Kazi Bari Mosque, Horticulture Centre, Eco Park, Rajaram Temple, Jhaudi Giri, Parbat’s Garden, Shokuni Lake, Senapati Dighi/Shenapoti Lake Baliati Palace, Teota Zamindar Bari, Ramkrishna Mission Ashram, Shiv Siddehshawari Mandir, Nahar Garden, Poddar Bari, Kabiraj Bari, Shawpnopuri, Bathoimuri Mazar.

Tourism Spot

Table A.2 List of Tourist Destination by Region, Division and District of Bangladesh

Appendix A

207

Mymensingh Division

Bangladesh

Table A.2 (continued) Idrakpur Fort, Padma Resort, Mawa Resort, Hazrat Baba Adam Shaheed (R) Mosque, Baro Aauliar Mazar, Atish Dipankar Pandit’s Bari, Rampal’s Lake. Mary Anderson (Floating Restaurant & Bar), Sonargaon, Zinda Park, Panam City, Baliapara Zamindar Bari, Murapara Zamindar Bari, Charitaluk Pal Bari, Kadam Rasul Dargah, Bishnandi Ferry Ghat & Meghna River. Dream Holiday Park, Heritage Eco Resort, Morjal Wonderland Park, Wari-Bateshwar, Bir Sreshtho Matiur Rahman’s House. Mir Mosharoff Hossain Memorial Museum, Shah Palowan’s Mazar, Jor Bangla Temple Dhanuka Mansha Bari, Fatehjongpur Fort, Ramsadhur Aashram, Burir Hat Jame Mosque, Bahadur Khalilur Rahman Sikder House, Rudrakar Moth. Mohera Zamindar Bari, Atia Mosque, Upendra Sorobor, Pakutia Zamidar Bari, Elenga Resort, Nagarpur Zamindar Bari, Bangabandu Multipurpose Bridge, Dhalapara Chowdhury Bari & Jame Mosque. Shoshi Lodge, Gouripur House, Kalusha Lake, Majesty Surjokant House, Rubber Dam, Garo Mountain, Orchid Garden, Aladin’s Park, Santoshpur Rubber Garden, Alexander Castle, Zainul Abedin Museum, Bijoypur, Durgapur, Birishiri Cultural Academy, Kamal Lake, Saat (seven) Shaheed Mazar, Ranikhang Mission, Royailbari Fort, Tongko Shaheed Memorial Monument, Ranimata Rashmoni Memorial Monument. Doyamoyee Temple, Malancha Mosque, Gandhi Ashram, Lauchapra Picnic Spot, Hazrat Shah Kamal (RA) Mazar. Gajni Obokash Kendro, Modhu Hill (Tila), Rajar Pahar & Babelakona, Noyabari Hill (Tila), Panihata-Tarani Mountain, Kalabagan.

Sherpur

Jamalpur

Netrokona

Mymensingh

Tangail

Shariatpur

Rajbari

Narsingdi

Narayanganj

Tourism Spot

District

Munshiganj

208 Appendix A

Chattogram Division

Habiganj

Eastern Bangladesh Sylhet Division

Cumilla

Chattogram

Chandpur

Brahmanbaria

Bandarban

Sylhet

Sunamganj

Moulvibazar

District

Bangladesh

(continued)

Bitangal Akhra, Satchari National Park, Moshajaner Lake, Bhawani Tea Garden, Shankarpasha Shahi Mosque, Shachi Angan Dham Temple, Bibiana Gas Field Ham Ham Waterfall, Grand Sultan Tea Resort & Golf, Lawachara National Park, Madhabpur Lake, Hakaluki Haor, Baikka Lake, Madhabkunda Waterfall Tanguar Haor, Hason Raja Zamindar Bari, Dolura Shaheed Memorial Monument, Pagla Jame Mosque (Raypur Boro Masjid), Gourarang Zamindar Bari, Pailgaon Zamindar Bari, Jadukata River, Barek Hill, Sunamganj Museum. Hazrat Shah Paran (R) Mazar, Jaflong, Lalakhal, Bholaganj, Hazrat Shah Jalal (R) Mazar, Malnicherra Tea Garden, Adventure World, Rayergaon Haor, Lakkatura Tea Garden, Ratargul, Bichanakandi, Sonatola Jame Mosque. Chimbuk Mountain, Nilgiri, Boga Lake, Nilachol, Prantik Lake, Jibonnagar Mountain, Mirinja Parjatan Complex, Ali Tunnel, Tajingdong Bijoy, Keokradong, Kamlong lake, Kanapara Mountain, Swarna Temple. Natghar Temple, Kochua Mazar, Kollapara Shaheed Graveyard, Kella Shahid Mazar, Joykumar Zamidar Bari, Hatirpool, Arifail Mosque, Anayet Ullah Shah Mazar, Hatkhola Mosque, MP Tila, Kalachand Babaji Temple, Gani Shah Mazar Sharif, Nasir Nagarmedini Haor Area. Nunia Datta House, Rokto Dhara, Ilish Square, Chandpur Stadium, Arun Nandi Swimming Pool, DC Bunglow, Chowdury Bari, Hazrat Rasti Shah (RA) Mazar & Lake. Foy’s Lake, Patenga Sea Beach, Batali Hill, Chattrogram Zoo, Bayezid Bostami Mazar, Laldighi, Halda River, Tea Garden, Shonkha River, DC Hill, Mandakini Shiva Temple, Medhasmuni Ashram, Raozan Rajbari, Kalachand Thakur Bari, Maryam Bibi Shahabani Mosque. Shalbon Bihar, Mainamati, Shah Shuja Mosque, Utkhara Mazar, Baitul Azgar Jame Mosque, Gomti (Gomati) River

Tourism Spot

Appendix A

209

Northern Bangladesh Rajshahi Division

Bangladesh

Table A.2 (continued)

Chapai Nawabganj

Bogura

Rangamati

Noakhali

Lakshmipur

Khagrachhari

Mahasthangarh, Panchpir Mazar Kahalu, Santahar Silo, Behula Lakhindar. Choto Sona Mosque, Khonjon Dighi (Lake) Mosque, Chamchika Mosque, Tahkhana Complex, Kotwali Darwaza, Babu Daying, Sharburuj, Ali Shahpur Mosque, Tin Gomguj Mosque.

Patabari Bihar, Boroghop Sea Beach, Rakhainpara, Rose Market, Barmiz Market, Matamuhuri River, Inani Sea Beach, Kana Rajar Tunnel, Adinath Temple, Boroitoli Fisheries, Cox’s Bazar Sea Beach, Radar Station, Himchori, Ramkot Bihar, Lamarpara Bihar, Dulahazra Safari Park, Kutubdia Lighthouse, Rubber Garden. Chowdhury Bari Mosque, Jangli Shah Mazar (R), Abdullah Shah Ghazi Mazar, Shiluar Shil Stone, Rajajhi Dighi/Lake, Bijoy Singh Lake, Pagla Miar Mazar, Bilonia Port. Alutila Cave, Richang Waterfall, Debotar Pukur, Panchari Shantipur Aranya Kutir, Mayabini Lake, DC Park. Hazi Omar Ali Mazar Sharif, Matirhat Fish Market, Sripur Das Bari, Shah Zakir Mazar, Dalal Bazar Zamindar Bari, Coconut & Betel Nut Garden, Kamankhola Zamindar Bari, Tita Kha Mosque, Jinn’s Mosque, Khoa Sagar Lake, Motka Mosque, Ishaq Zamidar Bari, Kali Mata Temple, Monu Kha Temple, Bhom Raja Lake, Ghasiar Chor, Sufola Lake, Dakatia River, Sobahina Mosque, Panir Ghat, Kalirchor Bridge. Nijhum Dwip, Gandhi Ashram Trust, Bojra Shahi Jame Mosque, Bir Sheshthro Mohammad Ruhul Amin Library & Museum. Kaptai Lake, Hanging Bridge, Kaptai Jatiya Uddan, Peda Ting Ting Restaurant, Tukuk Eco Village, Yamchuk Hill, Raikhong Lake, Rajbon Bihar, Chakma Raja’s Palace, Furmon Mountain, Chitmorom Bihar, Wagga Tea Estate, Sajek Valley, Shuvolong Waterfall, Rangamati Cultural Museum, Tintila Bon BiharKattoli Lake.

Feni

Tourism Spot

District

Cox’s Bazar

210 Appendix A

Rangpur Division

Bangladesh

Nilphamari

Lalmonirhat

Kurigram

Gaibandha

Dinajpur

Sirajganj

Rajshahi

Natore

Naogaon

(continued)

Nandail Lake, Asranga Dighi, Hinda-Kosba Shahi Jame Mosque, Gopinathpur Temple, Baro Shibaloy Temple. Hardinge Bridge, Khetupara Zamindar Bari, Jor Bangla Mandir, Bharara Shahi Mosjid, Suchitra Sen’s Smriti Sangrahashala (Memorial Museum), Tarash Zamindar Bhaban, Lalan Shah Bridge, Chatmohar Shahi Mosque, Gajnar Beel, Ishwardi Railway Junction. Kushumba Mosque, Paharpur Buddhist Monastery or Somapura Mahavihara, Balihar Rajbari, Patisar Rabindra Kachari House, Jogoddol Bihar (Vihara), Vimer Panti, Mahi Santosh, Altadighi National Park, Thakur Manda Temple. Uttara Ganabhaban, Rani Vabani Palace, Dayarampur Palace, Maaria Dharmapalli, Queen of Banpara Lourdes, Shaheed Sagar, Chalan Beel, Halti Bill, Chapila Royal Mosque, Chalan Beel Museum. Pancha Ratna Shiva Temple, Hawa Khana, Puthia Rajbari, Varendra Research Museum, Bagha Shahi Mosque, Shrine of Shah Makhdum(R). Nabaratna Temple, Jayasagar Dighi, Eliot Bridge, Eco Park, Muktir Sopan, Yadav Chakraborty’s house, Shrine of Bhola Dewan, Dhubil Katar Mahal Zamindar Bari, Shiva Durga Temple of Sanal Zamindar house, Makimpur Zamindar House Temple. Nayabad Mosque, Kantajew Temple, Shopnopuri, Ramsagar National Park, Sukhsagar Ecopark. Balasi Ghat, Pouro Park Gaibandha, Gaibandha Friendship Centre, Bardhankuthi, Ancient(Pracheen) Masta Mosque, Gaibandha SKS Inn. Chandamari Mosque, Shahi Mosque, Chandi Mandir, Dol Mandir, Vitarband Zamindar House, Chilmari Port, Ghogadaha Bazar. Harano Mosque, Tusbhandar Zamindari Clan and Zamindar House, Kakina Zamindari Clan and Zamindar House, Burimari Land Port, Teesta Barrage, Oboshor Rest House. Kundo Pukur Mazar, Nilphamari Museum, Neelkuthi, Dharmapala’s Royal Palace, Nilsagar.

Pabna

Tourism Spot

District

Joypurhat

Appendix A

211

Southern Region Khulna Division

Bangladesh

Table A.2 (continued)

Jashore

Chuadanga

Bagerhat

Thakurgaon

The Shrine of Hazrat Khan Jahan Ali (R), Sixty Dome Mosque, Khanjeli Dighi, Singair Mosque, Nine Dome Mosque, Zinda Pir Mosjid, Kodla Math, Bagerhat Museum, Sabekdanga Monument. Shrine of Hazrat Malek-ul-Gauss (R), Shrine of Shiel Pir, Goraitupi Amravati Mela. Jhapa Baor, Damdam Pirer Dhibi, Cotton Farm, Kharincha Baor, Gadadharpur Baor, Ancestral Home of Great Poet Michael Madhusudan Dutta, Madhupalli, Mirzanagar Hammamkhana, House of Dheeraj Bhattacharya, Kaludanga temple, Chanchra Fish Hatching Center, Burial ground of Birshrstho Nur Mohammad Sheikh, Binodia Family Park, Jashore Boat Club, Flower Village Godkhali.

Mirzapur Shahi Jame Mosque, Maharajar Dighi, Rocks Museum, Bhitargarh, Banglabandha Zero Point, Mirgarh, Golakdham Temple, Zila Parishad Dak Bungalow. Vinnno Jogot Amusement Park, Hati Bandha Mazar Sharif, Tajhat Zamindar Palace, Keramatia Mosque and Shrine, Chikli’s beel, Town Hall, Rangpur Zoo, Mithapukur Three-row Mosque, Itakumari Zamindar House, Rangpur Carmichael College, Dewanbari Zamindar House, Begum Rokeya Memorial Center, Jharbishla (tomb of poet Hayat Mamud), Ananda Nagar, South Mominpur Jahuria Bura Mosque, Lahirihat Massacre Ground, Khan Chowdhury Mosque. Khuniya Dighi Memorial Monument, Jagdal Rajbari, Mahalbari Jama Mosque, Harinmari Shiva Temple, Govindnagar Temple, Dholarhat Temple, Vemtia Shiva Temple, Lokayan Biodiversity Museum, Rajvita, Garhkhari Fort, Koram Khan Garh, Garh Bhawanipur, Balia Mosque.

Rangpur

Tourism Spot

District

Panchagarh

212 Appendix A

Barishal Division

Bangladesh

Barguna

Satkhira

Narail

Meherpur

Magura

Kushtia

(continued)

Shailkupa Shahi Mosque, Naldanga Temples, K.P. Basu’s house, Galakata Mosque, Jorangla Mosque, Satgachia Mosque, Baggach of Mallikpur, Siraj Sair Mazar, Lalon Shah’s Villa, The mausoleum of Fakir Mahmud Biswas, Paju Shah’s shrine, Gazi Kalu Champabati mazar, Kamanna 27 martyrs shrine. Sundarbans, Gallamari Boddho Bhumi, Shiromoni Shaheed MinarMonument, Poet Krishna Chandra Institute, Hiron Point, Dublar Chor, Khan Jahan Ali Bridge, Koromjol, Katka, Chuknagar killing site, Rabindranath Tagore’s ancestral homestead (pithabhoga). Rabindranath Tagore’s Kuthibari, Shrine of Baul Emperor Lalon Shah, Tagore Lodge, Gopinath Jiur Temple, Parimal Theater, Jhaudia Shahi Mosque, Mohini Mill, Residence of Mir Mosharraf Hossain. Palace of Raja Sitaram Roy, Dargah of Hazrat Pir Mokarram Ali Shah (R), Bhater Vita, Siddheswari Math, Madanmohan Temple, Sreepur Zamindar House. Mujibnagar Liberation War Memorial Complex, Meherpur Shaheed Memorial, Architectural Monuments of Amdaha Village, Sree Siddheswari Kali Temple, Amjhupi Neelkuthi, Bhavanandapur Temple, Vallabhpur Church. Arunima Countryside and Golf Resort, SM Sultan Complex, Badha Ghat, Chitra Resort, Niribili Picnic Spot, Independence Monument, Tapanbhag Dighi, Tomb of Eminent Artist SM Sultan. Kopotakkho River, Nalta Sharif, Christ Church, Gunakarkati Shrine, Jora Shiv temple, Tentulia Jame Mosque, Shyamsundar Temple, Sonabaria Math Temple, Limpid Botanical Garden, Debhata Zamindar House, Takir Ghat, Mandarbaria Sea Beach, Prabajpur Shahi Mosque, Mozaffar Garden & Resort. Laldia Forest, Tengragiri Ecopark, Rakhain Polli, Bibi Chini Shahi Mosque, Haringhata Ecopark, Shuvo Sondha Sea Beach, Sidr Monument, Bihang Island, Bukabunia Liberation War Memorial.

Khulna

Tourism Spot

District

Jhenaidah

Appendix A

213

Pirojpur

Patuakhali

Jhalakathi

1 For more detail, see: https://mocat.gov.bd/site/page/8dca24e5-4207-492c-8c71-24b236503255/-%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2% E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95-%E0%A6%A6%E0% A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A7%9F-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE% E0%A6%A8

1

Kalsakathi Zamindar House, Padrishibpur Church, Kasba (Qasba) Mosque Gournadi, Mahilara Math, Hijl Tolar Beel, Guthia Mosque, Durga Sagor, Kirtankhola River, Bangabandhu Udyan (Bell’s Park), Satla Beel. Char Monpura, Char Kukrimukri, Dhal Char, Monpura Fisheries Limited. Shiva Bari Mandir and Thakur Bari, Kirtipasha Zamindar Bari, Gabkhan Bridge, Besnai Mallik’s Dighi, Korapur Mia Bari Mosque, City Park, Shrine of Alhaj Lehaj Chan Chishti (R). Kuakata, Well of Kuakata, Kuakata Shutki Polli, Gangamati Reserved Forest, Crab Island, Fatra Forest, Seema Buddha Bihar, Keranipara Rakhine Palli, Misripara Seema Buddha Bihar, Sonar Char, Bauphal’ Pottery. Hularhat River Port, Sarengkathi Picnic Spot, Bhandaria Shishu Park, Rayerkathi Zamindar Bari, Parer Haat Zamindar Bari, Guava Garden, Kuriana Anukul Thakur Ashram, Azim Farajir’s Mazar, Poet Ahsan Habib’s House, DC Park, Aatghor Amra Bagan, Bolessor Ghat Shohid Sriti Stomvo, Momin Mosque.

Bhola

Tourism Spot

District

Barishal

Source Directly translated from Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism, Government of Bangladesh

Bangladesh

Table A.2 (continued)

214 Appendix A

25.22 25.05 26.34 24.36 0.60 0.45 1.92 1.97 0.37

Mean Median Maximum Minimum Std. Dev. Skewness Kurtosis J-B Prob.

636.44 627.45 693.61 593.37 30.20 0.47 1.94 2.01 0.37

Y2

17.79 17.80 18.05 17.51 0.15 −0.17 2.05 1.01 0.60

L 27.90 27.90 28.87 26.96 0.58 0.04 1.80 1.44 0.49

K 18.20 18.10 19.63 16.96 0.65 0.60 3.12 1.46 0.48

TR 3.51 3.52 3.53 3.46 0.02 −1.44 4.12 9.51*** 0.01

GINI 19.90 20.41 21.80 14.46 1.83 −1.34 4.58 9.64*** 0.01

FDI 4.26 4.26 4.46 4.03 0.13 −0.39 2.11 1.38 0.50

RER 4.40 4.35 5.14 3.75 0.45 0.18 1.66 1.92 0.38

CPI 1.55 1.54 1.81 1.19 0.18 −0.20 2.03 1.11 0.57

SCH

0.97 0.94 1.31 0.71 0.19 0.29 1.74 1.93 0.38

FR

12.45 12.46 12.63 12.26 0.11 −0.17 2.05 1.01 0.60

LM

5.34 5.34 5.41 5.25 0.05 −0.17 2.05 1.01 0.60

LF

Note The Jarque-Bera (J-B) test is used to determine whether a given series follows normal distribution or not. It tests the null hypothesis that, a given series is normally distributed. ***, **, and * show significance at 1, 5, and 10 per cent, respectively. Dataset shown in the table went through logarithmic transformation.

Y

Criteria

Table A.3 Descriptive Statistics of the Variables

Appendix A

215

Indicator 8.9.1: Tourism direct GDP as proportion of total GDP and in growth rate Indicator 8.9.2: Number of jobs in tourism industries as a proportion of total jobs and growth rate of jobs, by sex

Target 8.9: By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates job and promotes local culture and products

1. Eco-tourism and community-based tourism to be encouraged as a means of income generation for the local people 2. Introduce measures to address issues pertaining to the supply and quality of workforce in the tourism industry 3. Substantial investments in education and tourism infrastructure

Long-Term (5 or more Years) Implementation of tourism master plan to develop Bangladesh as a sustainable tourism destination (July 2018–June 2029)

Medium-Term (3–5 Years) 1. Development of some tourist attractions. (July 2018–June 2021) 2. Expansion of community-based tourism (2018–2023) 3. Development of tourist information centre across the country 4. Development of tourism circuit, backwater tourism, riverine tourism, religious tourism and adventure Tourism 5. Expansion of international sea cruise line

Short-Term (0–2 Years) 1. Enactment of Tour Operator Act-2019. 2. Arrangement of training on tour guide, tour operator, street food vendor and community-based tourism development in different places across the country. 3. Arrangement of different workshops to include tourism in development activities

https://tourismboard.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/tourismboard.portal.gov.bd/page/df104cf8_308d_469e_86ed_5864d5529c94/2020-0903-13-51-5783e72f38f6ec07024e9dea7b5ab6ef.pdf

2

SDG Indicators

SDG Targets

7Th FYP Tourism Plan with SDG Targets

Table A.4 SDG Aligned 7th FYP Targets for Tourism Industry Development in Bangladesh2

216 Appendix A

SDG Targets

SDG Indicators 4. Adopt a proper strategy and policies to address inadequacy of domestic air connectivity combined with heavily congested land transport to boost growth of the tourism industry 5. Preparation of short-term, medium-term, and long-run tourism master plan for the country for guiding development activities for tourism.12.9 million additional jobs will be available during 7th FYP, including some 2 million jobs abroad, for the 9.9 million labour that will join the workforce.

7Th FYP Tourism Plan with SDG Targets 4. Promotion of responsible tourism to develop climate resilient tourism industry in Bangladesh (July 2018–June 2020) 5. Development of basic amenities for tourist at different places. (July 2018–June 2021)

Short-Term (0–2 Years)

Medium-Term (3–5 Years)

(continued)

Long-Term (5 or more Years)

Appendix A

217

SDG Indicators

Indicator 8.12.b.1 Sustainable tourism strategies or policies and implemented action plans with agreed monitoring and evaluation tools

SDG Targets

Target 8.12.b: Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates job and promotes local culture and products

Table A.4 (continued)

Promoting and revitalise tourism industries, an integrated land use and transport planning for all the potential water front sites viz. Cox’s Bazar, Jaflong, Kuakata etc. should be adopted in an urgent basis.

7Th FYP Tourism Plan with SDG Targets Long-Term (5 or more Years) 1. Development of tourism satellite account (July 2018–June 2029) 2. Recommendation in 5 years planning

Medium-Term (3–5 Years) Research for the 1. Measurement of community and destination economic benefits: i. Tourism employment ii. Tourism ways iii. Number of indigenously owned tourism business iv. Spending per tourism v. Revenue generated by tourism vi. GDP and % tourism contribution 2. Maintaining Economic benefits from tourism: i. Tourist arrivals by month ii. Occupancy rates by month iii. Number of local employees in tourism

Short-Term (0–2 Years) 1. Preparation of tourism master plan 2. Master plan will include action plan and monitoring and evaluation tools for implementation 3. Monthly staff meeting 4. BTB governing meeting 5. District tourism Development committee meeting 6. APA and its achievement 7. Inspection, monitoring and periodic review 8. Alteration of management plan

218 Appendix A

SDG Indicators

Source Bangladesh Tourism Board (2020)

SDG Targets

7Th FYP Tourism Plan with SDG Targets Short-Term (0–2 Years) 3. Conducting tourist satisfaction survey: i. Level of satisfaction ii. % of satisfaction iii. Rating by guide book/travel sites. 4. Measuring impact of tourism on poverty reduction: i. Total number of workers in community, % of workers in tourism ii. Increase in individual or household

Medium-Term (3–5 Years)

Long-Term (5 or more Years)

Appendix A

219

1. Entrepreneurship development 2. Training programme on community-based tourism, tourist guide, street food vendor 3. Arranging FAM Tour fellowship 4. Photo competition 5. Participating in tourism fair nationally and internationally 6. Coordinating with different agencies for the development of tourism, facilitating Ocean cruise tourism, Contributing in Blue Economy, MOU with different countries for mutual benefit in development in tourism, Play active role in PATA, UNWTO. BIMSTEC, OIC and other international organisations, Encouraging Eco-Tourism and Rural tourism through workshops and training

Indicator 8.9.1: Tourism direct GDP as proportion of total GDP and in growth rate

Target 8.9: By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates job and promotes local culture and products

1. Creation of community awareness on tourism culture heritage and jobs 2. Establishment of community-based tourism in different districts 3.Enlisted tourism and hospitality programmes in educational curriculum 4. Development of tourism destinations awareness towards eco-tourism 5. Number of tourists visiting in different destination has increased 6.Awarded Dhaka as the city of tourism

Achievements Status (Jan 2016–Dec 2018)

Policy Strategy or Reform

https://tourismboard.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/tourismboard.portal.gov.bd/page/df104cf8_308d_469e_86ed_5864d5529c94/2020-0903-13-54-2e197afbcde954f8cc0227a13b6d3d42.pdf

3

Actions Taken Against the Target

SDG Indicator

SDG

Table A.5 SDG Aligned Tourism Industry Development Progress3

220 Appendix A

Actions Taken Against the Target 1. Short-term job creation through funding on basic amenities and facilities in tourism tourist destinations

1. Short-term, mid-term, and long-run planning have been formulated 2. Ongoing tourism master plan 3. Stakeholders meeting and workshop activating district tourism development committee meeting 4. Inspection, monitoring, and making periodic yearly audit report 5. APA and its achievements

SDG Indicator

Indicator 8.9.2: Number of jobs in tourism industries as a proportion of total jobs and growth rate of jobs, by sex

Indicator 8.12.b.1 Number of sustainable tourism strategies or policies and implemented action plans with agreed monitoring and evaluation tools

Source SDGs Implementation Review (SIR), 2020

Target 8.12.b Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates job and promotes local culture and products

SDG Short-term, mid-term, and long-run tourism planning have been formulated

Promoting tourist spots and motivating tourists have facilitated hotels transport, food, and other service sectors to improve in business and thus, creating more jobs Actively contributing to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage

1. Short-term, mid-term, and long-term tourism planning have been formulated 2. Ongoing tourism master plan

Policy Strategy or Reform

Achievements Status (Jan 2016–Dec 2018)

Appendix A

221

222

Appendix A

Table A.6 Tourism Arrivals of Selected South Asian Countries (Persons) Year

Bhutan

Nepal

Sri Lanka

India

Bangladesh

Maldives

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

23,000 41,000 66,000 105,000 116,000 133,000 155,000 210,000 255,000 274,000

510,000 603,000 736,000 803,000 798,000 790,000 539,000 753,000 940,000 1,173,000

448,000 654,000 856,000 1,006,000 1,275,000 1,527,000 1,798,000 2,051,000 2,116,400 2,334,000

5,168,000 5,776,000 6,309,000 6,578,000 6,968,000 13,107,000 13,284,000 14,570,000 15,543,000 17,423,000

267,000 303,000 155,000 125,000 148,000 125,000 643,000 830,000 1,026,000 1,268,284

656,000 792,000 931,000 958,000 1,125,000 1,205,000 1,234,000 1,286,000 1,390,000 1,484,000

Source Author’s Compilation Table A.7 Tourism Receipts of Selected South Asian Countries (in USD Million) Year

Bhutan

Nepal

Sri Lanka

India

Bangladesh

Maldives

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

51 64 76 93 116 99 120 139 153 121

365 379 341 380 390 471 544 392 551 643

349.30 575.90 838.90 1,038.30 1,715.50 2,431.10 2,980.60 3,518.50 3,924.90 4,380.60

11,136 14,490 17,707 17,971 18,397 19,700 21,013 22,923 27,310 28,585

77 103 97 105 131 154 150.30 214.30 348 357

1,442.18 1,569.65 1,867.89 1,877.24 2,233.73 2,695.65 2,569.12 2,505.57 2,741.82 2,976.56

Source Author’s Compilation

Appendix B

Biographical Information of the Book This book discusses the contemporary tourism-related issues for developing sustainable tourism industry in Bangladesh. In-depth chapters discuss some policy suggestions to strengthening the coordination among the government and private sector, regional integrational capacity, reforming the cohesive tourism utilities, promoting marketing strategies, and developing a proper market mechanism aligning with the global trend controlling for the environmental degradation. This book is useful to students, academicians, researchers, industries, investors, policymakers, and practitioners seeking a clearer understanding of the tourism industry’s relevant issues and its sustainable development in Bangladesh. It presents thought-provoking ideas and strategies to strengthen the tourism industry to help Bangladesh achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and transition to a high-income country by 2041 by implementing efficient tourism policies.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. B. Amin, The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4

223

224

Appendix B

– The first book of its kind to be published in the context of the Bangladesh tourism industry; – Discusses tourism policies, tourism practices, tourism barriers, and presents thought-provoking solutions to tourism-related issues in Bangladesh; – Summarises strategies for developing and emerging countries facing similar tourism-related issues as Bangladesh.

Appendix C

Technical Glossary Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) and Dickey-Fuller-GLS (DF-GLS) Tests: In the time-series analysis, unit roots can cause unpredictable results. If a time-series variable shows a systematic pattern that is unpredictable, then the variable is said to have unit root. From the graphical and empirical combination of the data, it is evident that if both the mean and the variance change in the same manner, there is less possibility of having unit roots among variables. However, suppose both the variance and the mean are not changing in the same manner, and in that case, there is a high possibility of having a unit root among those variables, leading to spurious regression results. The ADF test decides about the presence of a unit root in by using the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) estimator. On the other hand, the DF-GLS is a modified version of Dickey-Fuller test, which uses Generalised Least Squares (GLS) regression approach and tend to be robust than the ADF test. Cointegration Test: According to the economic theories, many timeseries datasets move together, changing around a long-run equilibrium. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. B. Amin, The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4

225

226

Appendix C

In econometrics and statistics, this long-run equilibrium is tested and measured using the concept of cointegration. Cointegration occurs when: i) variables move together in a way so that the linear combination becomes stationary, and ii) variables share a common but unique stochastic trend. ARDL Bounds test: The Autoregressive Distributed Lag Bounds test is a type of cointegration test, which does not require the prior information regarding the integration order of the variables. While discussing the ARDL Bounds test, Pesaran et al. (2001) mention: “unlike typical applications of cointegration analysis, this method is not subject to this particular kind of pre-testing problem”. Critical Value: In econometrics and statistics, a critical value refers to a point on the test distribution, which is being compared with the test statistics for hypothesis testing. If the test statistics is larger than the critical value, then the null hypothesis can be rejected. Dynamic Ordinary Least Squares (DOLS): DOLS is an improved form of the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) method, where one can deal with a small sample size and dynamic sources of bias. Moreover, DOLS can estimate long-run equilibrium where variables are integrated in same order. It is a robust single equation approach that corrects the regressors’ endogeneity by incorporating lags and leads. The approach was first proposed by Stock and Watson (1993). Lags and Leads: Lag means time delay in econometrics, whereas lead means time acceleration. Lagged variables can be used to predict another variable’s present value since many economic indicators depend on the past values of other indicators. On the other hand, variables with lead values show how predicted (expected future) values of the variables may influence the present values of other variables. Endogeneity Problem: Endogeneity, reverse causality, or omitted variable bias all are one way or another linked with each other. Antonakis et al. (2010, 2014) highlight that unlike randomised controlled trial analysis, all endogeneity problems result from omitted variable bias given the empirical model. Endogeneity manifests as omitted variable covaries with regressor(s) and response variable. Regardless of how large the sample is, the omission of one variable will lead to spurious estimates. Therefore, selection effects, measurement errors, and alternate causal explanation

Appendix C

227

(reverse causality) will manifest in the analysis. One easy way to solve this issue is to identify and add the control variables and thus, consistent estimate can be achieved. However, other than random trails, it is really difficult to find out all the control variables. Also, a correlation between error term and a regressor might occur, which sometimes cannot be even controlled by any appropriate variable (Rubin, 2005). As a result, in an observational empirical analysis, there are mainly two ways one can avoid or address endogeneity problem. Easiest way is to lag and lead the variables by appropriate lags and leads. Another way is to find proper instruments and use instrumental regression. Logarithmic Transformation: Logarithmic transformation is a statistical approach, which allows us to explain the coefficients of the variables in terms of percentage change (i.e. elasticity). Furthermore, such a transformation also reduces the skewness of the variables in the dataset. Autocorrelation: Autocorrelation is a correlation of the error terms, a violation of the key assumption of any regression analysis. If year to year error terms are correlated, then regression results will be spurious. Normal Residual: Normality of the residuals is a key assumption of any regression analysis. Normal residual implies that the regression residual (i.e. the error term) follows the normal distribution. It has been observed that if the residual is not normally distributed, then regression results can lead to biased conclusion. Error Correction Model (ECM): Error Correction Model (ECM) is a theoretical approach that can help one to estimate both short-run and long-run changes of the parameters. Dynamic Simulation: Dynamic simulations are also considered as a straightforward, yet intuitive approach to gain substantive results in time-series analysis, where parameters have some hidden or intuitive interpretations. Dynamic ARDL: Dynamic ARDL is a stochastic simulation technique that helps one to conduct dynamic simulation by incorporating symmetrical shocks to the objective variable and keeping all other variables constant. Chi-square ( χ 2 ) Distribution: Chi-square distribution is a type of statistical distribution that is equal to sum of squared standard random variables. According to Kissell and Poserina (2017) “it is used to test the

228

Appendix C

goodness of fit of a distribution of data, whether data series are independent, and for estimating confidences surrounding variance and standard deviation for a random variable from a normal distribution. Additionally, chi-square distribution is a special case of the gamma distribution”, which is a twoparameter continuous probability distribution. Degrees of Freedom: According to the discussion of Riffenburgh (2012) “degrees of freedom are related to the sample number, usually to the number of observations for continuous data methods and to the number of categories for categorical data methods. It actually refers a sample number adjusted for other sources of information, more specifically, the number of unrestricted and independent data entering into a calculated statistic ”. Standard Deviation ( ς): Standard deviation in statistics and econometrics show the variation in a set of values. Shock or Uncertainty: Shock or uncertainty sways the economy (positively or negatively) due to change in some factors. An excellent example of economic shock is the oil price shocks, occurred in the 1970s that negatively affected global GDP. Impulse-Response Function (IRF): An impulse-response function is an approach that describes the predicted change of the variable of interest within a chosen time horizon after a shock is introduced at a certain point. References Antonakis, J., Bendahan, S., Jacquart, P., & Lalive, R. (2010). On making causal claims: A review and recommendations. The leadership quarterly, 21 (6), 1086–1120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010. 10.010. Antonakis, J., Bendahan, S., Jacquart, P., & Lalive, R. (2014). Causality and Endogeneity. In The Oxford Handbook of Leadership and Organizations. https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/. Kissell, R., & Poserina, J. (2017). Advanced Math and Statistics. In Optimal sports math, statistics, and fantasy. Academic Press. https:// www.elsevier.com/books/optimal-sports-math-statistics-and-fantasy/kis sell/978-0-12-805163-4. Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., & Smith, R. J. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. Journal of Applied

Appendix C

229

Econometrics, 16 (3), 289–326. http://qed.econ.queensu.ca:80/jae/2001v16.3/. Stock, J. H., & Watson, M. W. (1993). A simple estimator of cointegrating vectors in higher order integrated systems. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 783–820. https://www.jstor.org/stable/295 1763?seq=1. Riffenburgh, R.H. (2012). Distributions. In Statistics in Medicine. Academic Press. https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780123848642/ statistics-in-medicine. Rubin, D. B. (2005). Causal inference using potential outcomes: Design, modeling, decisions. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 100 (469), 322–331. https://doi.org/10.1198/016214504000 001880.

Index

A

Ability 2 Accommodation 2, 12, 55, 58, 108, 131, 148, 181 Account 4, 101, 123, 124, 170, 218 Achieve/Achieving 2, 5, 29, 34, 40, 44, 84, 117, 130, 142, 148, 176, 223, 227 Acknowledge 2, 30, 139 Across 1, 29, 31, 65, 78, 102, 110, 146, 159, 168, 193, 216 Act 129, 162, 204 Activities 2, 3, 5, 12, 14, 23, 25, 28, 29, 32, 34, 35, 58, 65, 66, 78, 83–86, 88, 90, 92, 95, 107, 108, 110, 118, 122, 124, 127, 128, 140, 141, 143, 147, 149, 163, 170, 174, 175, 182, 183, 190, 191, 193, 195, 196, 203, 204, 216, 217

Adaption 142 Addition 15, 31, 47, 83, 107, 122, 127, 169, 181, 193, 203, 217 Address 6, 116, 118, 131, 132, 139, 216, 217, 227 Adequate 3, 23, 29, 125, 130, 144 Adopt/Adoption 7, 109, 116, 124, 142, 143, 183, 186, 217, 218 Adverse 8, 29, 86, 107, 129, 176, 183, 191 Aesthetic 25, 27, 45, 69, 116 Affect 7, 85, 109, 124, 129, 175, 183, 191, 196, 228 Agencies 6, 32, 118, 120, 127, 128, 143, 152, 179, 203, 204, 220 Aggregate 185, 194 Agriculture 17, 26, 28, 33 Alleviation 26, 179 Alternative 1, 123

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. B. Amin, The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72900-4

231

232

Index

Although 5, 17, 47, 77, 86, 95, 129, 183 Altitude 56 Amalgamation 2, 5, 150 Amenities 3, 131, 217, 221 Amount 5, 44, 85, 95, 108, 120, 123, 152 Analyse 5, 127, 183 Ancient 4, 15–17, 22, 58, 60, 69–71, 78, 165, 166, 168 Annual 2, 20, 34, 53, 59, 75, 146, 168, 170 Appreciate 5, 108, 109 Archaeological 2, 4, 15, 16, 19, 22, 39, 49, 58, 60, 68, 70, 73, 78, 201, 206 Architect 69 Architectural 17, 18, 45–48, 50, 56, 68, 73, 76 ARDL 101, 186, 189, 226, 227 Area 3, 4, 6, 15, 25, 26, 28, 44, 48, 49, 51, 53–56, 58, 62, 63, 67, 71, 74, 85, 117, 119, 126, 128, 129, 131, 143, 147, 148, 157, 165, 168, 175, 181, 190, 193, 196, 201, 206 Argue 1, 4–7, 14, 26, 85, 86, 89, 95, 107, 118, 120, 122, 125, 127, 131, 140–143, 146, 149, 171, 180, 181, 186, 191, 193, 195 Arrival 7, 14, 21, 84, 120, 125, 158, 163, 165–171, 174, 185, 218, 222 Aspiration 86 Associated 2, 4, 12, 15, 24, 28, 32, 66, 101, 104, 107, 119, 146, 150, 158, 173, 183, 189, 193, 203

Assumption 104, 187, 227 Atmosphere 14, 20, 33, 162 Attention 15, 57, 88, 123, 125, 127, 139, 171 Attract/Attracting 4, 6, 17, 22, 24, 28–33, 48–50, 53, 55–57, 61, 64, 65, 67, 71–75, 78, 83, 119, 125–127, 142, 147, 148, 150, 161, 164, 167, 169, 173, 174, 190, 195 Attractions/Attractive 4, 6, 16, 22, 27, 39, 51, 52, 63, 67, 71, 74, 78, 121, 157, 161, 165, 168, 170, 216 Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) 99, 100, 188, 189, 225 Autocorrelation 104, 107, 227 Available 2, 4, 5, 7, 28, 109, 179, 217 Average 30, 71, 86–92, 94, 95, 101, 120, 123, 166, 168, 170, 188 Awareness 40, 117, 118, 141, 190, 204, 220

B

Backward linkage 85, 90 Balance 1, 128 Balance of payment (BOP) 84 Bangabandhu 45, 46, 50 Bangladesh 1–8, 11, 12, 15–35, 39– 41, 43–58, 60–64, 66–74, 77, 78, 86–89, 91–97, 107–109, 115–128, 130–132, 140–144, 146–150, 152, 157, 158, 163, 165, 169, 173, 174, 183–186, 188, 190–195, 201–203, 207–214, 216, 222–224

Index

Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC) 46, 72, 130, 143, 203 Bangladesh Tourism Board (BTB) 46, 49, 52, 62, 70, 72, 73, 130, 146, 203, 218 Barishal 16, 20, 73, 75, 214 Barriers 5, 7, 116, 117, 120, 122, 123, 130, 132, 133, 148, 158, 162, 171–176, 196, 201–203, 224 Beach 1, 3–5, 20, 25, 35, 39, 52, 53, 55, 75, 78, 115, 128, 129, 157, 165, 166, 169 Benefits 2, 3, 7, 26, 29–31, 78, 117, 122, 131, 132, 142, 145, 146, 159, 161, 162, 182, 220 Bengal 16, 17, 33, 40, 43–45, 49, 51, 53, 55, 60, 71, 75, 115 Besides 4, 13, 17, 20, 24, 27–30, 32, 34, 51, 53, 55, 58, 60, 61, 64, 68, 73, 75, 78, 108, 109, 117–119, 122, 129, 130, 139, 140, 149, 163, 164, 173, 175, 180, 191 Better 5, 22, 26, 84, 110, 116, 117, 119, 125, 131, 183, 186, 190 Between 7, 17, 25, 26, 28, 53, 70, 84, 87, 89, 95, 97, 107, 120, 130, 152, 162, 170, 175, 184, 185, 190, 192–194, 227 Beverage 26, 181 Bhutan 158, 162–164, 222 Biggest 1, 18, 19, 25, 34, 39, 52, 74, 78, 115, 173 Billion 3, 14, 87, 89, 95, 107, 158, 164, 168, 171 Biodiversity 3, 25 Blend 3, 47, 73, 190 Blue economy 143, 145–147, 220

233

Bound test 101, 189, 226 Brief 4, 11, 41, 68, 78, 143 Buddhist 16, 17, 22, 52, 53, 56, 58, 60, 68, 69, 71, 76 Budget 34, 144, 145, 152 Business 14, 24, 30, 32, 35, 92, 119, 120, 126, 144, 149, 171, 176, 193, 203, 218, 221

C

Campaign 119, 173 Capacity 115, 123, 128, 129, 141, 142, 150, 152, 195, 223 Capital 6, 17, 20, 21, 26, 27, 34, 48–50, 61, 95, 104, 108, 109, 119, 125, 143, 150, 169, 181 Capitalising 27, 146, 159 Carbon-negative 162 Category 19, 23, 119, 143 Causality 226, 227 Certainly 7, 32, 52, 193 Challenges/Challenging 5, 34, 123, 149, 186 Channels 92, 108, 109, 152, 183 Chapter 4, 8, 11, 78, 87, 94, 109, 132, 140, 141, 150, 162, 183, 194, 202, 223 Characteristics 101, 182 Chattogram 16, 21, 26, 27, 30, 52, 53, 209 Check 87, 92, 97, 100, 101, 186, 189, 194 Chittagong 16, 30, 80 Christian 21, 22 City 4, 15–17, 20, 24, 27, 28, 32, 47, 49, 55–57, 59–61, 70, 71, 77, 129, 163, 165, 166, 169, 206, 220

234

Index

Classification 11, 12, 15, 206 Cliffs 52 CO2 187, 188, 192 CO2 emissions 8, 162, 185, 192, 196 Coastal 25, 53, 129, 146, 147 Coastline 165, 201 Cobb-Douglas 184 Cointegration 99, 102, 188, 189, 226 Collaboration 131, 140, 152, 153, 171, 173, 176, 201, 203 Committee 118, 131, 203, 218, 221 Commodity 26 Common 3, 17, 76, 129, 145, 161, 173, 175, 176, 226 Communication 7, 20, 25, 125, 141, 144, 149 Community/Communities 5, 15, 21, 22, 24–26, 29, 30, 52, 76, 115, 117–119, 128, 129, 131, 164, 196, 204, 206, 216, 218–220 Companies 6, 203 Comparison 3 Competitive 117, 173, 176 Competitiveness 5, 7, 108, 109, 118, 125, 139, 161, 173 Composite 83, 130, 131, 141, 190 Conceptual 131, 150, 151 Conceptual model 8, 141, 202 Conduct/Conducting 3, 5, 18, 25, 99, 152, 186, 188, 204, 219, 227 Confidence interval 188 Connected/Connectivity/Connection 26, 72, 107, 147, 182, 183, 193, 217 Consequences 97, 182, 183, 189

Conservative 5, 127 Considered 2, 3, 18, 26, 29, 34, 47, 70, 76, 84, 110, 129, 146, 150, 153, 171, 179, 185, 186, 188, 203, 227 Constant 23, 107, 185, 187, 227 Consumption 7, 26, 84, 85, 181, 190, 193 Contemporary 18, 181, 223 Contribute/Contribution 1, 3, 12, 22, 25, 83, 85, 87–89, 91, 92, 109, 123, 124, 140, 148, 150, 158, 179, 190, 201, 218 Coordination 6, 123, 130, 141, 142, 201, 223 Corruption 87, 121, 142 Cost 7, 24, 25, 85, 108, 129, 131, 159, 161, 173, 183 Council 174 Counterfactual 187, 189, 191, 194 Country/Countries 1–7, 12, 14, 15, 18–23, 25, 27, 29–35, 39–41, 43, 48, 52, 69, 78, 83, 86–89, 115, 116, 118–129, 132, 139–143, 146, 148, 150, 152, 159, 161–171, 173–176, 179–183, 191, 193, 195, 201, 203, 206, 216, 217, 220, 223, 224 Cox’s Bazar 1, 21, 23, 25, 30, 52, 53, 55, 80, 92, 115, 128, 129, 148, 157, 210, 218 Creation 1, 26, 143, 180, 220, 221 Cricket world cup 24 Critical/Critically 5, 6, 67, 95, 119, 142, 149, 153, 162, 202 Critical values 101, 189, 194, 226 Crucial role 27, 122, 175 Crystal-clear 4, 57

Index

Cuisine 1, 2, 26, 31, 158, 168 Culinary 26, 28, 30–32 Culminating 44 Culture/Cultural 2–5, 14, 15, 18–21, 26, 28, 29, 31–35, 43, 52, 57, 59, 60, 69, 78, 86, 117–119, 121, 127, 131, 142, 158, 165, 168, 170, 173, 174, 176, 180, 181, 183, 190, 201, 216, 218, 220, 221 Cumilla 16, 31, 58, 59, 80, 209 Currency 1, 6, 27, 87, 132, 175 Current 7, 27, 30, 40, 47, 63, 101, 143, 173, 183, 191 Customer 5, 34, 119 CUSUM 194

D

Data 7, 95, 98, 109, 143, 144, 186, 225 Decision 4, 7, 130, 131, 142, 146, 162 Decision-making 4, 122, 127, 130, 131 Definition 11–13, 15, 29, 35, 93, 149, 153 Degradation 86, 128, 129, 182, 185, 192, 193, 196, 201, 223 Degrees of freedom 187, 228 Demand 6, 61, 108, 118, 130, 148, 149, 193, 196 Depend/Dependent 3, 24, 86, 101, 107, 119, 123, 185, 191, 226 Design 17, 29, 48, 56, 68, 69, 72, 88, 97, 120, 123, 145, 146, 203 Despite 2, 121, 132, 158, 174, 201

235

Destination 1, 4, 6, 7, 18, 20, 23, 25, 26, 31, 34, 35, 41, 52–54, 61, 63, 68, 72, 73, 78, 84, 119, 121–123, 125, 127, 139, 140, 147, 150, 163, 165, 166, 168, 170, 173, 175, 183, 207, 216, 218, 220, 221 Determinant 180, 195 Developing 4–7, 20, 25, 29, 78, 97, 101, 109, 115, 117, 119, 122, 123, 125, 131, 132, 140–142, 145–149, 171, 173, 176, 180, 201, 203, 223, 224 Development 1, 2, 5–8, 18, 20, 22–25, 27, 29, 30, 32, 83, 85, 87, 88, 90, 91, 95, 108, 109, 115–119, 122–125, 127–131, 139–144, 146, 148–150, 152, 161, 171, 173–175, 180, 181, 183, 190, 201–204, 216–218, 220, 221, 223 Dhaka 16–21, 30, 41, 44–48, 51, 79, 207, 220 Different 3, 6, 11, 15, 18, 23–26, 29–35, 40, 44, 46, 51, 61, 63, 64, 67, 69, 71, 72, 78, 84–86, 92, 93, 95, 101, 102, 108–110, 118, 122, 125, 127–129, 132, 139–143, 147, 148, 150, 152, 153, 163–165, 167–169, 171, 173, 176, 179, 181, 182, 190, 191, 193, 203, 204, 216, 217, 220 Direct/Directly 2, 24, 85, 88, 89, 91, 92, 107, 109, 146, 148, 164, 190, 203, 216 Direct contribution of tourism 89 Discussion 11, 26, 78, 86, 109, 162, 228

236

Index

Displace 12 Distribution 101, 187, 226–228 Diverse 1, 33, 39, 59, 65, 72, 74, 141, 165, 169, 176 Diversification 1 Domestic 4, 12, 13, 17, 22, 23, 28, 35, 48, 55, 69, 77, 85, 124, 149, 150, 203, 217 Dominant 123 Done 3, 119, 129, 150 Donor 128, 179, 203 Driver 2, 4, 6, 32, 84, 107, 139, 164, 185, 186 Dutch Disease 86, 108, 109 Dynamic 7, 99, 101, 183, 184, 186, 188, 196, 203, 226, 227 Dynamic ARDL (DARDL) 183, 186, 187, 194

E

Earnings 5, 6, 14, 27, 32, 92, 97, 109, 123, 132 Ecology 141 Economic 1, 25, 27, 29, 40, 65, 78, 85–87, 91, 109, 115, 117, 123, 127, 139, 140, 142, 144, 148, 158, 166, 180, 181, 202, 225, 226 Economic benefits 2, 4, 29, 35, 78, 83, 124, 182, 218 Economic growth 3, 5, 84–87, 97, 109, 190 Economic impacts 3, 4, 84 Economies of scale 159, 173, 175 Economy 2–5, 7, 14, 24, 25, 27, 84–88, 90, 92, 97, 107–109, 115, 124, 141, 146, 158, 164, 180, 182, 190, 191, 194, 228

Eco parks 207, 211 Eco-tourism 4, 29, 30, 35, 50, 216, 220 Education 22, 25, 26, 87, 117, 120, 128, 144, 190, 216, 220 Effective 6, 24, 29, 78, 110, 117, 122, 131, 132, 140, 142, 143, 149–151, 161 Efficiency 6, 131, 148, 150, 152, 153, 159, 180, 203 Effort 3, 6, 120, 122, 125, 132, 158, 174 Elements 15, 32, 33, 146 Emerging 4, 29, 56, 86, 101, 119, 123, 125, 126, 130, 142, 146, 180, 224 Emperor 17, 47, 157 Emphasise 86, 108, 109, 117, 132 Empirical 5, 84, 87, 97, 107, 109, 183, 194, 225–227 Employment 2–5, 12, 27, 85, 89–92, 97, 108, 109, 123, 124, 131, 146, 149, 158, 168, 179, 218 Employment block 99, 102, 103, 105, 106 Employment generation 91, 93 Enables 2 Enchantment 83, 182, 192 Endogeneity 101, 226, 227 Energy 8, 87, 144, 185, 190, 191, 193, 194, 196 Energy consumption 8, 182, 185, 186, 190, 191, 193, 194, 196 Enhance 18, 20, 85, 104, 108, 121, 143, 159, 180, 191, 192 Enjoy 1, 3, 17, 22, 26, 28, 29, 44, 51, 52, 55, 57, 58, 60, 61,

Index

63–65, 74, 75, 159, 161, 166, 168, 169, 173 Ensure 2, 99, 121, 127, 130, 132, 139, 144, 146, 149, 150, 187, 188, 204 Entertainment 2, 125, 143, 181 Environment/Environmental 3, 7, 15, 29, 51, 55, 86, 110, 118, 121, 128, 129, 131, 139–141, 158, 180–182, 185, 191–194, 196, 201, 206, 223 Equation/Equations 97, 101, 102, 104, 185, 186, 226 Equilibrium 187, 225, 226 Essential 6, 7, 14, 23, 24, 34, 85, 110, 122, 132, 139, 148 Ethnicity 1 E-tourism 183 Event 4, 18, 20, 23, 24, 26, 28, 29, 31, 33, 34, 40, 43, 67, 121, 173, 206 Evidence 84, 190, 194 Evolved 2, 32, 83, 183 Examine 7, 162, 185, 189, 194 Example 3, 5, 6, 17, 23, 24, 27, 30–32, 34, 49, 50, 56, 63, 86, 110, 119, 120, 122, 125, 127, 129, 130, 140, 153, 173–175, 183, 196, 228 Exception/Exceptional 3, 6, 17, 70 Exchange 5, 18, 107–109, 175, 181 Exercise 5, 87 Exhibition 26, 45, 46 Expansion 2, 5, 7, 20, 30, 84–86, 120, 129, 131, 141, 183, 189–191, 193, 216 Expenditure 7, 85, 93–95, 108, 125, 126

237

Experience/Experiences 1, 27, 34, 50, 53, 58, 62, 65, 74–76, 117–119, 130, 173, 175 Expertise 131, 143 Explore 3, 4, 15, 28–30, 32, 58, 63, 69, 73, 75, 119, 168, 174, 184 Export 1–3, 7, 32, 92, 94, 109, 123, 158, 180

F

Factor 14, 25–27, 46, 84, 85, 104, 109, 120, 125, 129, 141, 149, 171, 181, 182, 195, 228 Fastest 86, 158, 168, 179, 180 Father of Nation 40, 45, 48, 79 Favourable 26, 139, 143, 165 Feature 12, 55, 61, 65, 163, 180, 206 Festival 18, 21, 29, 33, 35, 57, 75, 76, 78, 140, 206 Fight 2, 40 Financial 20, 86, 87, 91, 140, 175, 196, 203 Five Year Plan (FYP) 216–219 Flourishes 150, 168, 174, 182 Flowers 43, 45, 52 Folk 29, 33, 34, 78, 206 Followers 21, 66 Food 2, 4, 12, 20, 21, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 85, 86, 92, 119, 129, 148, 181, 206, 216, 220, 221 Forecasting 187 Foreign block 97, 98, 102, 103, 105–108 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) 98, 100, 105, 107, 109, 215 Foreigners 1

238

Index

Foreign exchange 166 Foreign exchange earnings 1, 12, 83, 168, 180 Forest 1, 4, 18, 25, 30, 39, 51, 53, 54, 56, 60, 62, 63, 66, 71, 74, 75, 78, 115, 128, 157, 162, 165, 168, 206 Formulating/Formulation 3, 6, 21, 26, 68, 97, 102, 122, 124, 130, 142, 144, 152, 185, 221 Fortification 47 Fossil energy 182, 191 Fostering 140 Framework 35, 72, 97, 123, 150, 184, 187 Fully 62, 107, 128, 142, 146, 162, 181 Function 101, 186, 228 Fundamental 83, 131 Further 1, 6, 26, 27, 34, 35, 45, 78, 85, 90, 94, 95, 108, 126, 131, 148, 150, 175, 193, 204

Globalisation 7, 8, 14, 32, 83, 158, 171, 181–186, 188–190, 194, 195, 202 Gloomy 142 Goals 1, 2, 12, 27, 83, 97, 128, 139, 140, 143, 146, 148, 152, 176, 201 Governance 87, 142 Government 1, 6, 12, 15, 16, 24, 30, 34, 35, 47, 63, 71, 78, 85, 92, 95, 96, 109, 116–118, 120–122, 127–130, 139–142, 144–146, 148–150, 152, 158, 170, 175, 179, 201, 203, 223 Government policies 148 Growth/Growing 2, 3, 5, 6, 20, 24, 25, 83–88, 97, 104, 107, 109, 116, 120, 121, 128, 140, 146, 148, 158, 163, 167, 168, 170, 174, 175, 180, 216, 217, 220, 221 Guide 6, 75, 119, 216, 219, 220

G

Galleries 47, 49, 206 Generalised Least Squares (GLS) 225 Generated/Generation 1–5, 12, 15, 66, 83, 89–92, 97, 109, 123, 158, 164, 166, 168, 170, 179, 218 Genocides 40 Geography 159 Geometric 44, 73 Global/Globally 2, 14, 18, 23, 24, 63, 78, 83, 84, 86, 95, 146, 157, 158, 163, 168, 171, 174–176, 179, 180, 182, 201, 223, 228

H

Halal 20 Handicrafts 4, 28, 33 Harm 175, 180 Health/Healthy 1, 4, 25, 87, 92, 190 Heritage 4, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20, 25, 33, 35, 40, 46, 49, 79–81, 168, 170, 173, 201, 206, 220, 221 High 1, 12, 17, 24, 56, 57, 65, 83, 85, 86, 95, 97, 104, 118, 119, 122, 129, 143–145, 149, 158, 180, 191, 196, 201, 223, 225

Index

Highlights 3–6, 25, 26, 28, 84, 86, 87, 90, 108, 109, 118, 122, 143, 181, 187, 190, 226 Hindu 21, 53, 60, 64, 68, 70, 71, 73, 75, 76, 173 Historic/Historical 1, 2, 4, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 26, 31, 35, 39, 45, 47, 48, 50, 56, 68, 71, 78, 117, 118, 152, 164, 169, 181, 202, 206 History 4, 15–17, 21, 22, 27, 40, 43, 47, 49, 60, 71, 168, 170, 176, 181 Home 1, 14, 16, 18, 19, 21, 23, 31, 35, 39, 46, 60, 63, 66, 67, 73, 74, 78, 157, 158, 163, 166, 169, 196 Hospitality 1, 2, 12, 128, 220 Host 7, 20, 24, 117, 146, 173, 180, 182 Host communities 4, 25 Hotels 5, 6, 20, 32, 34, 54, 58, 61, 85, 92, 108, 120, 126, 128, 129, 141, 148–150, 168, 221 However 4, 6, 8, 11, 16, 18, 24, 28, 30, 31, 34, 43, 49, 55, 66, 74, 78, 85–87, 91, 92, 94, 97, 104, 107–109, 116–122, 125–129, 131, 140, 142, 143, 146, 152, 158, 167, 173–176, 179, 182, 191, 193, 194, 201, 225, 227 Hubs 148, 149, 159, 171 Hypothesis 84, 107, 194, 226

I

Idea 2, 4, 71, 150, 181, 190, 223

239

Immense 2, 18, 24, 25, 30, 56, 58, 78, 122, 124, 131, 140, 161, 171, 179, 191, 201 Immortal 43 Impact 2, 3, 5, 8, 18, 24, 25, 85, 87, 88, 97, 104, 107–109, 118, 120, 129, 183, 185, 187, 218, 219, 221 Imperative 84, 183 Implement/Implementing /Implementation 2, 4, 30, 34, 78, 95, 97, 109, 116, 119, 120, 123, 128–131, 142, 143, 146, 147, 150, 152, 195, 202–204, 216, 218, 220, 221, 223 Implications 102, 121, 127, 153, 189 Implicitly 2, 40, 94, 97 Import 85, 92, 93, 108 Improvement 12, 83, 84, 181, 183 Impulse-Response Function (IRF) 188, 228 Inadequate 125, 127, 142 Inbound 35, 94, 110, 118, 130, 193 Inbound tourism 14, 35, 78, 118 Include 14–16, 21, 25, 27, 30, 75, 92, 95, 97, 118, 123, 142, 143, 188, 195, 203, 216, 218 Income 1, 4, 12, 20, 26, 78, 83, 85, 86, 107, 108, 115, 128, 131, 146, 185, 192, 201, 223 Income generation 149, 180, 216 Income inequality 5, 97, 107 Increase 5, 7, 8, 14, 20, 24, 34, 84–87, 89, 91, 94, 95, 104, 107–109, 117, 119, 123, 128, 129, 140, 145, 146, 148, 149, 152, 158, 159, 162, 166,

240

Index

173–175, 180, 183, 186, 189, 190, 193, 196, 203, 219, 220 Independence 40, 43, 44, 48, 142 Independent 40, 101, 107, 203 India 4, 21–23, 27, 39, 40, 61, 64, 89, 118, 120, 126, 158, 162, 163, 165, 167–169, 171, 173–175, 222 Indicators 5, 86, 89, 97, 144, 181, 185, 216–221, 226 Indigenous 51, 57, 58, 179, 218 Indirect contribution of tourism 88, 89 Indirectly 3, 24, 84, 90, 97, 164 Induced 88, 89, 91, 92, 108, 109, 190 Induced contribution of tourism 89 Industry 1–6, 25–27, 30, 32, 78, 83, 95, 109, 116, 119, 121–123, 126, 127, 132, 140, 141, 143, 146, 148–150, 152, 158, 164, 174, 176, 179, 180, 194, 201, 203 Inefficiency 142 Inequality 5, 77, 97, 109 Inequality block 97, 98, 102, 103, 105–107 Inflow 1, 109, 128 Influence 4, 5, 7, 25, 85, 92, 97, 107, 108, 183, 190, 226 Informal contract 92 Information 5, 34, 45, 122, 125, 127, 144, 146, 181, 183, 216, 223, 226 Infrastructure/Infrastructures /Infrastructural 4–6, 24–26, 44, 86, 87, 110, 125, 126, 128, 129, 140–142, 148, 149, 152, 176, 216

Inherent 3, 162, 181 Initiative/Initiatives 2, 5–7, 12, 27, 49, 110, 118, 119, 122–124, 129, 132, 140, 142, 143, 146, 148–150, 152, 161, 171, 174, 203 Innovative 176, 190 Insight 5, 11, 84, 116, 176 Institutions/Institutional 5, 6, 11, 22, 35, 116, 122, 128, 130, 132, 139, 149, 176, 196 Integrated/Integration 6, 7, 100, 122, 132, 159, 161, 162, 171, 173, 175, 176, 190, 202, 203, 218, 223, 226 Interconnected 181 Interdependent 7 Interior 47, 72, 77 International tourism 2, 14, 30, 35, 83, 92–94, 144, 163, 174, 179, 185, 203 Interpret/Interpretation 186, 227 Introductory 23 Intuitive 102, 186, 227 Investment 6, 24, 26, 83–85, 88, 95, 108, 109, 125, 126, 128, 140, 141, 143, 146, 148, 149, 161, 174, 190, 216 Investors 78, 107, 110, 122, 148, 203, 223 Island 25, 30, 35, 51, 53, 54, 60, 75, 78–81, 129, 147, 165, 168, 170

J

Jobs 2, 3, 26, 85, 87, 92, 108, 109, 115, 123, 140, 143, 146, 158,

Index

165, 179, 201, 216–218, 220, 221

K

Kanglak 57 Kaptai 27, 57 Karnafuli 40 Keokradong 58, 80, 209 Keora 18 Key 5, 7, 34, 104, 107, 120, 125, 144, 158, 175, 183, 227 Khasia 61–63 Khulna 16, 19, 30, 31, 73, 75, 76, 81, 212, 213 Kilometres 25, 39, 44, 45, 49–57, 59, 61–64, 67, 71, 73–75, 165, 168 Kingdom 68, 162 Knowledge 4, 131, 143 Known 17, 26, 28, 29, 32, 39, 40, 46–49, 51–57, 60–62, 71–77, 101, 139, 147, 162–165 Kolatoli 92, 129 Kuakata 1, 75, 76, 78, 81, 115, 148, 218

L

Labour 2, 86, 104, 107, 108, 117, 119, 217 Labour-intensive 119, 146 Lag 185, 226, 227 Land 1, 3, 15, 25, 28, 50, 56, 66, 71, 72, 115, 129, 141, 149, 157, 163, 168, 174, 201, 217, 218 Landscape 15, 28, 33, 44, 48, 64, 78, 157, 165, 168, 206

241

Large/Largest 1, 2, 5, 21, 24, 27, 32, 51, 56, 57, 61, 65, 67, 71, 72, 75, 76, 86, 117, 123, 146, 149, 163, 166, 173, 179, 193, 226 Law 6, 118, 204 Leading 32, 48, 77, 84, 109, 115, 128, 129, 131, 150, 175, 183, 225 Legacy 1, 4, 165 Legitimacy 149 Level 1, 2, 34, 55–57, 74, 85, 86, 100, 101, 104, 107, 117–119, 128, 141, 143, 148, 174, 188, 191, 204, 219 Liberalisation 158 Liberation 40, 44, 46 Library 45 Linkage 7, 184 Literature 4, 12, 35, 84, 95, 97, 116, 118, 120, 142, 149, 171, 181, 190, 192, 193, 202 Living standards 1, 12, 83, 109, 180, 201 Local 1–5, 15, 17, 24, 25, 27–30, 32, 33, 43, 54, 57, 59, 62, 67, 72, 76, 84–87, 108, 110, 117–120, 122, 127–131, 140, 149, 152, 164, 171, 203, 204, 216, 218, 220, 221 Log-linear 101, 102, 186 Long-run 1, 84, 87, 97, 99, 101, 104, 107–109, 128, 129, 146, 148, 150, 183, 186, 189, 191, 192, 196, 217, 221, 225–227 Long-term 5, 147, 216–219, 221 Lower 7, 86, 94, 101, 108, 109, 125, 173, 183, 189 Low-skilled 85, 119, 143

242

Index

M

Macroeconomic 5, 87 Mainamati 58, 59 Major 2, 85, 122, 130, 139, 141, 149, 175 Maldives 89, 157, 158, 162, 167–170 Management 6, 92, 122, 123, 128–132, 142, 146, 147, 161, 175, 218 Mangrove 1, 18, 25, 39, 53, 74, 75, 78, 115, 201 Manufacturing 5, 108, 109, 123 Marine 3, 129, 147, 157, 169 Market/Marketing 2, 5, 7, 24, 27, 32, 52, 78, 95, 109, 117, 119, 121, 122, 128, 130, 131, 141, 144, 147, 148, 150, 152, 159, 161, 183, 195, 201, 204, 206, 223 Material 15, 30 Mausoleum 17, 41, 45, 46, 79, 213 Maximise 6, 8, 117, 142, 159, 183 Mean-variance 225 Measurement 4, 218, 226 Mechanisms 128, 130, 131, 150, 151, 195, 201, 204, 223 Medieval 16, 17, 71, 73 Medium 52, 69, 83, 119, 122, 143, 147, 217 Medium-run 186 Meet/Meeting 2, 15, 34, 50, 59, 64, 75, 149, 150, 196, 218, 221 Memorial 39, 41, 43, 44, 47, 49 Mention 14, 26, 30, 63, 64, 75, 83, 86, 89, 94, 95, 108, 129, 131, 149, 150, 163, 181, 191, 226 Methodology 101, 183

Million 14, 18, 20, 27, 64, 71, 84, 98, 120, 121, 123, 146, 149, 150, 158, 162–166, 168, 170, 179, 217, 222 Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism (MoCAT) 143, 145 Mitigate 8, 129 Mobilise/Mobility 18, 145, 148, 159, 175, 183 Monastery/Monasteries 15–17, 58, 59, 68, 69 Monetary 179 Monitor/Monitoring 141, 152, 153, 204, 218, 221 Monuments 4, 15, 16, 19, 41, 44–46, 48, 59, 76, 78, 158, 168, 169, 201, 206 Moreover 3–5, 7, 15, 27, 31, 33, 35, 40, 48, 60, 65, 66, 69, 75, 95, 109, 115, 121, 122, 125, 127, 130, 140, 141, 148, 149, 159, 165, 171, 175, 176, 226 Mosques 4, 17, 19, 20, 39, 45, 47, 67, 76, 77, 81, 209–214 Most 1–4, 6, 7, 12, 16–20, 26, 29, 40, 44, 48, 49, 59, 61, 63, 68, 69, 71, 78, 83, 115, 119, 129, 144, 149, 150, 165, 168, 171, 174, 175, 180, 188 Motivation 34 Movement 41, 43, 66 Mughal 16, 17, 31, 46–49, 75, 168 Multiplier 84 Multiplier effect 84 Multivariate 187, 188 Museum 45, 47–49, 56, 69, 71, 73, 206 Muslim 19–21, 66, 173 Mymensingh 16, 30, 41, 50, 79, 208

Index

Myths 56, 179, 180

N

Nations/National 7, 19, 23–25, 31, 33, 41, 43–45, 53, 63, 66, 72, 83, 92, 94, 95, 101, 107, 117, 118, 123, 124, 142, 143, 145, 146, 152, 158, 162, 163, 165, 168, 171, 180, 203, 204 Natural gas 60, 191 Nature/Natural 3, 4, 14, 15, 18, 19, 26, 29, 30, 35, 39, 51–58, 60–65, 67, 68, 73, 74, 78, 84, 91, 104, 115–117, 121, 127–131, 141, 148, 157, 159, 162, 163, 165, 168–170, 173, 174, 176, 181, 182, 190, 193, 206, 221 Necessary 5, 6, 66, 127, 131, 140, 141, 146, 148, 152, 161, 203 Negative 4, 7, 104, 117, 118, 120, 121, 176, 183, 189, 191–193, 228 Neighbouring 3, 29, 125, 159, 162, 173, 195 Nepal 21, 29, 89, 118, 158, 162–166, 174, 180, 222 Network 83, 130, 174 Nexus 7, 183, 193 Normal distribution 187, 188, 227, 228 Norms 180, 181 Notable 5, 20, 21, 27, 28, 32, 40, 47, 71, 175 Noting 3, 70, 128, 181

243

O

Objectives 3, 34, 142, 143, 145, 152, 153, 161, 180, 227 Observed 5, 8, 26, 33, 90, 95, 101, 150, 152, 158, 163, 190 Offer 1–4, 6, 7, 23, 25, 28, 39, 45, 47, 119, 122, 127, 128, 141, 143, 146, 148, 161, 163, 168, 181 Oil 60, 191, 228 Old Dhaka 21 Operational 142, 203 Opportunity/Opportunities 4, 7, 12, 20, 24, 26–28, 30, 31, 50, 58, 75, 83, 85, 90, 115, 127, 146, 148, 149, 161, 182 Optimal 6, 109, 176, 204 Options 3, 61, 141 Order 101, 118, 181, 204, 226 Ordinary Least Square (OLS) 101, 187, 225 Outbound 14, 35, 94 Outdoors 3, 23 Overview 4, 6, 40, 41, 52, 68, 78, 97, 143, 162, 186

P

Paharpur 15–17, 19, 22, 35, 41, 68, 69, 81 Palace 17, 26, 46, 47, 50, 73, 158, 164, 207, 210, 211 Panam City 16, 41, 49, 79, 208 Parameter 97, 99, 101, 185–188, 227, 228 Park 50, 53, 63, 66, 72, 108, 141, 147–149, 163, 165, 206 Particular 7, 14, 26, 85, 187, 191 Pathway 7, 89, 182

244

Index

Pattern 73, 93, 95, 101, 191, 194, 225 People 2–6, 12, 15, 18–23, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 35, 40, 43, 45, 47, 49, 55–59, 62–64, 66, 67, 71, 77, 85, 86, 92, 117, 118, 120, 121, 131, 140, 157, 158, 162, 168, 173, 176, 179, 206, 216 Per cent 2, 3, 14, 86–89, 92–95, 104, 107, 108, 118–120, 123, 127, 143, 145, 146, 158, 162–168, 170, 179, 189, 193, 194 Perspective 14, 35, 109, 127, 181 Phase 123, 187, 203, 204 Phenomenon 23, 85, 181 Photographs 46 Place 12, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 32–34, 43, 45, 48–50, 53, 55, 56, 59, 64, 68, 70, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 129, 149, 164, 168, 173, 176, 216, 217 Planning 3, 23, 78, 131, 149, 152, 173, 203, 218, 221 Play 2, 3, 6, 22, 23, 27, 31, 34, 55, 120, 122, 125, 140, 141, 146, 148, 175, 201, 203, 220 Policy/Policies 3–8, 21, 26, 30, 35, 87, 94, 95, 97, 102, 109, 110, 116, 117, 119, 121–124, 127, 129, 130, 132, 141–148, 150, 152, 153, 161, 162, 173, 175, 176, 183, 189, 194–196, 201–204, 216–218, 220, 221, 223, 224 Policymakers 11, 146, 223 Political 16, 40, 48, 86, 87, 117, 120, 121, 139, 141, 142, 158, 166, 181

Population 22, 27, 89, 109, 119, 123, 158, 162, 165, 168 Positive 4, 5, 7, 8, 18, 85, 97, 104, 107, 109, 120, 122, 189, 190, 192, 193, 228 Possible 7, 15, 95, 109, 130, 142, 146, 183, 192–194 Potential/Potentials 6, 15, 17, 18, 21, 24, 25, 30, 35, 83, 95, 109, 118, 126, 132, 140, 144, 146, 147, 149, 162, 171, 180, 183, 190, 193, 196, 203, 218 Poverty 1, 2, 4, 12, 33, 83, 85–87, 97, 117, 140, 143, 146, 176, 179, 180, 201, 219 Practice 2, 15, 16, 117, 141, 206, 224 Prepare 20, 174, 187, 203, 204 Previous/Previously 12, 94, 101, 142, 145, 149, 165, 181, 193 Price 141, 228 Primary 23, 47, 92, 125, 191, 193 Prioritise 144, 148 Private 6, 26, 78, 83, 110, 118–120, 127, 128, 132, 139, 140, 143, 148–150, 153, 176, 203 Private sector 6, 34, 110, 120, 140, 142, 146–150, 152, 174, 176, 179, 201, 204, 223 Privatisation 7, 149, 180 Process 7, 27, 65, 71, 85, 101, 107, 109, 115, 117, 129–131, 146, 149, 153, 171, 173, 181, 183, 187, 189, 194, 195 Progress 86, 92, 95, 110, 120, 130, 140, 141, 150, 152, 174, 220 Prominent 20, 22, 34, 73, 179 Promote/Promoting/Promotion /Promotional 1, 2, 6, 7, 12,

Index

26, 27, 30, 32, 34, 110, 116, 117, 119–122, 126, 128, 129, 139, 147, 148, 152, 158, 159, 161, 171, 173, 174, 176, 182, 183, 195, 201, 216–218, 220, 221, 223 Proper 3, 4, 32, 95, 101, 118, 121, 123–125, 127, 130, 140–142, 146, 153, 173, 175, 195, 201, 217, 223, 227 Prospects 2, 11, 87, 109, 127, 170–173, 201 Prosperity 83, 122, 166 Public-private partnerships (PPPs) 6, 110, 123, 129, 131, 132, 140, 141, 150, 151, 202, 203 Public sector 141

Q

Qualitative 202 Quantitative 202

R

Rajshahi 16, 19, 68, 72, 81, 210, 211 Rangpur 16, 20, 30, 68, 81, 211, 212 Rank 2, 83, 168, 175, 179 Rapid/Rapidly 2, 83, 84, 86, 123, 183 Rare 1, 50, 52 Readymade Garments (RMG) 1, 32, 109, 122–124 Real Exchange Rate (RER) 98 Recent 2, 12, 16, 26, 27, 30, 32, 54, 83, 127, 139, 143–145, 152, 171, 175

245

Recognisest 4, 14, 19, 27, 40, 43, 47, 57, 60, 61, 66, 83, 122, 143, 182, 193 Recommendation/Recommended 3, 8, 24, 110, 116, 118, 140, 152, 183, 194, 196, 202, 218 Recreational 5, 25, 125, 127, 143, 146, 149, 175 Reduction 1, 12, 83, 86, 118, 219 Reforms 77, 150, 196, 201, 202, 220, 221, 223 Region/Regional 6, 7, 20, 22, 24, 39–41, 50, 52, 53, 56, 60, 66, 72, 78–81, 84, 92, 125, 157–159, 161–163, 171, 173–176, 181, 196, 201–203, 207, 223 Regional tourism 6, 131, 162, 170–176, 203 Regression 25, 101, 104, 107, 108, 187, 225, 227 Regressor 101, 185, 187, 226, 227 Regulation 6, 140, 141 Relationship 97, 101, 104, 107, 122, 179, 192, 193 Reliable 1, 107, 125, 143 Religious tourism 18, 20, 35, 173, 216 Remain 2, 15, 17, 47, 70, 71, 87, 91, 95, 127, 142, 145, 189, 192–194 Remarkable 7, 50, 53, 65, 86, 128 Renewable 185, 186, 193, 194, 196 Research 3, 45, 128, 148, 152, 193, 218 Research and Development (R&D) 123, 127, 128, 204 Research and innovation 144 Residence 17, 35, 46, 213

246

Index

Resorts 20, 26, 55, 61, 119, 141, 148, 169, 170, 206, 213 Resource 3, 4, 22, 27, 29, 35, 51, 52, 60, 86, 108, 115, 121, 123, 127–131, 142, 143, 145–147, 150, 152, 157, 159, 174, 176, 182 Responsible 5, 85, 119, 130, 181, 217 Revenue 1, 24, 84–86, 92, 107, 109, 110, 120, 121, 123, 125, 127, 147, 148, 150, 158, 159, 163, 164, 166, 168, 170, 175, 218 Rhythm 55 Rich 1, 4, 25, 26, 31, 33, 39, 46, 59, 60, 72, 165, 170, 173, 176, 201 Risk 1, 128, 129, 150, 153, 159 Robust 5, 45, 99, 101, 188, 225, 226 Role 2, 3, 6, 7, 22, 23, 31, 34, 52, 122, 125, 139–142, 146, 148, 201, 220 Royal 50, 59, 73, 164 Royal Bengal Tigers 1, 18, 19, 39, 74, 75 Rural tourism 4, 28, 29, 35, 220

S

Sacrifice 40, 41, 43, 44 Sample 98, 101, 194, 226 Satisfaction 5, 119, 125, 219 Scenario/Scenarios 4, 51, 96, 124, 143 Scenic 39 Scenic beauty 1, 3, 4, 25, 28, 30, 32, 60, 61, 182, 196 Sceptical 181

Sculpture 49, 68–71 Seaside 4, 25, 128, 147, 157, 206 Seaside tourism 3, 4, 25, 26, 35, 146, 147 Seasonal 65, 85 Sector 2, 4, 5, 8, 22, 24, 89, 90, 122, 123, 125, 126, 140, 141, 144–146, 148, 149, 152, 158, 168, 180, 193, 221 Security 45, 86, 92, 110, 117, 118, 120, 139, 144, 158, 175 Service 2, 5, 12, 22, 84, 85, 92, 95, 108, 110, 119, 120, 123, 125–129, 131, 147, 148, 150, 152, 168, 175, 176, 181–183, 221 Set 2, 27, 54, 57, 87, 104, 146, 176, 186, 228 Settlements 51 Share 32, 47, 54, 87–89, 94, 95, 99, 104, 109, 117, 119, 123, 128, 148, 150, 158, 162, 163, 165–167, 169, 171, 179, 185, 193, 226 Shock 86, 101, 124, 148, 183, 187–194, 227, 228 Shopping 2, 128 Short-run 186, 227 Should 3–5, 35, 78, 85, 109, 117, 118, 120, 121, 127, 132, 141, 153, 179, 195, 218 Significant 1–7, 12, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 34, 46, 72, 83, 84, 86, 89, 94, 97, 104, 107–109, 119, 122, 123, 125, 129–131, 140, 143, 148, 149, 171, 173–175, 179, 180 Simulation 7, 183, 184, 186–188, 191, 196, 227

Index

Simultaneously 48, 181 Singing 3 Situation 5, 6, 86, 120, 186 Skill Development Programme 140 Skilled 5, 23, 86, 115, 119, 143 Sluggish 3, 88, 158 Small 51–54, 56, 58, 60, 64, 69, 72, 86, 101, 104, 119, 128, 162, 168, 179, 193, 196, 226 Small-scale 2, 83, 179, 196 Soar 44 Social 2, 3, 21, 22, 25, 29, 40, 78, 83, 86, 116, 117, 122, 129, 130, 132, 141, 144, 158, 181, 190 Society 26, 33, 140, 181 Socio-economic 2, 4–6, 24, 25, 86, 89, 115, 128, 139, 140, 142, 162, 171, 180, 182, 201 South Asia 4, 6, 14, 34, 39, 60, 63, 65, 69, 76, 118, 126, 157–159, 161, 162, 168, 170–176, 203, 222 Sovereignty 40 Spend/Spendings 3, 5, 13, 14, 24, 88, 94–96, 109, 110, 218 Spiritual 18, 33, 66, 67, 77, 163 Sports 3, 22–24, 169 Sports tourism 22–24, 35 Spots 4, 26, 39, 40, 44, 49, 56, 60, 72, 78, 118, 128, 149, 165, 207, 213, 221 Spread 2, 22, 50, 51, 66 Sri Lanka 23, 27, 89, 126, 158, 162, 165–169, 174, 222 Stable/Stabilise/Stability 109, 120, 121, 124, 139, 140, 142, 188, 189, 194, 195, 203

247

Stage 3, 24, 46, 78, 85, 131, 140, 144, 174, 202–204 Stakeholders 6, 34, 129, 130, 132, 140–142, 145, 152, 153, 176, 179, 202, 203, 221 Standard 12, 26, 35, 58, 85, 109, 119, 143, 174, 176, 227 Standard deviation 189–193, 228 Stationary/Stationarity 99–101, 188, 189, 226 Statistics 2, 13, 107, 119, 143, 158, 179, 215, 226–228 Stimulate 148, 150 Stochastic 187, 226, 227 Stochastic shock 188 Strategies/Strategic 6, 7, 32, 78, 95, 109, 119, 123, 127, 139, 142, 144, 147, 148, 161, 175, 201, 203, 204, 217, 218, 220, 221, 223, 224 Streams 50, 61, 64, 66, 72 Strengthening 5, 6, 132, 152, 195, 201, 223 Stylised 6 Sub-optimal 6, 152 Substantive 186, 227 Successful 29, 143, 146, 150, 162, 201, 204 Sufficient 27, 140, 144 Suggestions 201, 202, 223 Sunbathing 25 Sunrise 1, 52, 57, 75, 164 Sunset 1, 55, 57, 64, 75, 115, 164 Support 2, 3, 5, 84, 140, 144, 146, 148, 149, 152, 158, 183 Surface regression 101, 102, 189 Sustainable 2, 4–8, 20, 29, 83, 88, 115, 116, 118, 119, 127, 129–131, 140–142, 146–149,

248

Index

153, 161, 180, 183, 190, 202, 204, 216, 218, 220, 221, 223 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 2, 145, 146, 149, 216–221, 223 Sylhet 16, 21, 26, 27, 30, 52, 60–64, 66, 67, 80, 148, 209 Symbol 17, 22, 44, 66

T

Tackle 148, 158 Tapestry 44 Tea garden 4, 26, 27, 39, 52, 60, 61, 64, 201, 209 Tea tourism 4, 26, 27 Technology/Technological 17, 86, 144, 181, 183, 207 Temple 21, 22, 53, 56, 59, 69, 71, 73, 76, 81, 207–213 Tends 5, 24, 83, 85, 86, 101, 109, 118, 119, 128, 130, 191–193, 225 Therefore 2–6, 8, 15, 21, 26, 35, 78, 85, 97, 108, 117, 119, 121, 122, 126, 132, 140, 141, 144–146, 148, 150, 171, 173, 183, 193, 202, 226 Things 3, 28, 107, 150, 187 Thoughts 33, 77, 181, 223, 224 Time engaging 3 Time-series 5, 101, 186, 225, 227 Topography 39 Total 2, 3, 15, 16, 26, 50, 52, 59, 62, 67, 71, 73, 74, 87, 88, 91–95, 108, 109, 125, 144, 145, 158, 163, 165, 168, 170, 185, 186, 191, 192, 216, 219–221

Tour 7, 23, 34, 54, 118, 122, 129, 130, 173, 174, 203, 204, 216 Tour guides 148 Tourism capital investment 96, 126 Tourism expenditure 85, 93–95 Tourism-friendly 110, 118, 196 Tourism government spendings 88 Tourism industry 1–8, 11, 12, 15, 20, 26, 30–32, 35, 52, 78, 83–93, 95–97, 108–110, 115–128, 130–133, 139–153, 158, 159, 162, 164, 166, 168, 170, 171, 175, 176, 179–183, 190, 193, 195, 196, 201–203, 216, 217, 220, 223, 224 Tourism-led growth hypothesis (TLGH) 84, 85 Tourism receipts 92–95, 104, 107, 108, 170, 222 Tourism-related 3, 7, 88, 95, 119, 124, 129, 131, 142, 148, 149, 175, 183, 185, 189, 190, 193, 203, 223, 224 Tourist 3–7, 12, 14–17, 20–23, 25, 26, 28–33, 35, 39, 40, 42–44, 46, 49–58, 60–68, 71–78, 84, 85, 94, 95, 110, 115–122, 125–131, 139, 140, 142, 147, 150, 158, 161, 163–171, 173–176, 182, 190, 193, 196, 207, 216–221 Traditions/Traditional 2, 4, 18, 20–22, 26, 28, 31–33, 35, 50, 75, 76, 108, 117–119, 157, 180, 206 Transfer 2, 108 Transit 7 Transitional 24, 142, 144, 150

Index

Transport/Transportation 2, 12, 23, 85, 87, 92, 108, 125, 126, 130, 131, 141, 144, 173, 174, 181, 183, 206, 217, 218, 221 Travel 6, 7, 14, 18, 21, 23, 24, 32, 118, 158, 164, 170, 174, 176, 219 Traveller 2, 4, 7, 11, 12, 20, 53, 118, 164, 168, 176, 181 Trends 7, 23, 54, 55, 84, 87, 89, 93, 95, 100, 101, 148, 158, 182, 183, 188, 190, 201, 223, 226 Tribal 4, 22, 51, 55, 57, 58, 62, 63 Tungipara 41, 45, 46 Types 3, 5, 31, 32, 64, 67, 71, 85, 93, 108, 191

U

Unbroken 1, 25, 52, 115 Uncertain/Uncertainty 86, 120, 131, 153, 187, 228 Undoubtedly 89, 118, 175, 196 Uniform 7, 11, 35 Unique 1, 17, 18, 21, 25, 29, 31, 35, 41, 49, 55, 56, 60, 65, 71, 73, 78, 157, 161, 168, 183, 226 Unit root test 225 Unplanned 7, 86, 182 Unskilled 117, 119 Upazila 49, 52, 53, 56–58, 60, 61, 63, 64, 70 Urbanisation 7, 182 USD 2, 89, 98, 107, 126, 150, 158, 163, 166, 168, 170, 171, 179, 180, 185, 222

249

V

Valour 44 Variable/Variables 87, 97–101, 104, 107, 108, 185, 187–189, 194, 215, 225–228 Variance 187, 188, 225 Varied/Various 2, 3, 12, 15, 18, 22, 24, 29–31, 34, 40, 46, 48, 51, 53, 55, 57, 58, 60, 64, 74, 78, 83, 84, 108, 122, 127, 130, 140, 142, 146, 148, 152, 153, 157, 163, 171, 183, 190 Vertically 122, 202 Vibrant 32, 52, 168 View 35, 53, 55, 57, 65, 115, 164, 181 Villages 28, 29, 51, 63, 64, 71, 76, 140, 164, 165, 171, 210 Visa 7, 110, 173, 174, 176 Vision 145 Visitors 3, 14, 22, 45, 46, 48, 49, 51, 57, 59, 66, 78, 92, 163, 165, 167, 169, 171 Visitors spending 95

W

Water 3, 18, 23, 28, 44, 50, 51, 53, 56–58, 61, 64–66, 68, 71, 72, 75, 129, 169, 218 Waterfall 53, 57, 64, 79–81, 209, 210 Welcome 1, 85 Where 3, 18, 21–23, 29, 34, 41, 51, 53, 56–58, 64, 67, 71, 74–78, 101, 118, 129, 148, 169, 176, 181, 186, 226, 227 While 3, 24, 28, 39, 45, 48, 58, 71, 74, 75, 87, 92, 131, 150, 153,

250

Index

162, 170, 183, 187, 189, 192, 226 Workforce 119, 143, 149, 217 Working 2, 22, 33, 49, 109, 123 World 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 14, 15, 18, 19, 23–25, 27, 29–35, 39, 40, 43, 52, 61, 62, 65, 78, 83–86, 91, 115, 143, 149, 150, 157, 158, 163, 168, 180–182, 190 Worldwide 12, 30, 33, 179

Worth 3, 35, 41, 63, 64, 70, 75, 76, 83, 89, 108, 115, 128, 130, 131, 150, 163, 181

Y

Year 14–16, 19–21, 32–34, 43, 45, 47, 49, 57, 59–62, 64, 66, 75–78, 86, 87, 89, 91, 93, 94, 104, 108, 120–124, 126, 127, 139, 142, 144, 145, 167, 168, 170, 173, 174, 183, 189, 191–194, 216–219, 222, 227