The Early Neolithic Funnel-Beaker Culture in South-west Scania, Sweden: Social and Economic Change 3000-2500 B.C. 9780860543367, 9781407342559

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The Early Neolithic Funnel-Beaker Culture in South-west Scania, Sweden · Social and Economic Change 3000 - 2500 B.C.

Mats Larsson

BAR International Series 264

1985

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

BAR - S264, 1985: 'The Early Neolithi c Funnel-Beaker Culture in South­ west Scania, Sweden' © Mats Larsson,

1985

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543367 paperback ISBN 9781407342559 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543367 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

Acknowledgements

This work is a shortened, and in some cases, completely re-written edition of a dissertation presented at the University of Lund in May 1984. New material and new literature have been incorporated in the discussion. For much help and many discussions over the years I would like to thank Prof.Berta Stjernquist and the new leader of the Institute of Archaeology Prof.Lars Larsson. I would also take the opportunity to thank many comrades and colleagues like Prof.Marta Stromberg, Dr.Torsten Dr.Kristina Jennbert and Fil. Kand Mac Svensson all Lund. Madsen, Dr.Niels H. Andersen and Dr.S0ren H. Andersen all Moesgard. Dr.Klaus Ebbesen, Dr.P.O. Nielsen and mag. cand. Eva Koch, Copenhagen. My heartfelt thanks also goes to Dr.J0rgen Skaarup, Langeland for much help. During my visits to Germany and England, Dr.M. Rech, Bonn, Dr.F. Laux, Hamburg, Dr.H. Schirnig, Dr.W.D. Steinmetz, Hannover and Dr.I. Hodder, Cambridge offered much help in both museum collections and in much fruitful discussion. My heartfelt thanks to Debbie Olavsson, faulty English.

Ph.D.

for help with

my

Drawings by Monika Centerwall and Kristina Borstam. Photowork by Ingor Kristenson. Malmo, Sweden 850315 Mats Larsson.Ph.D.

Contents

Chapter 1.

Introduction 1.1 The Introduction of farming in S.Scandinavia 1.2 Delineation of the subject under study 1.3 · Investigation area 1.4 The geographical and topographical features

Chapter 2.

The Early Neolithic Chronology of Southwestern Scania 2.1 The Settlement sites 2.2 The chronology of the early Funnel Beaker culture in Southwestern Scania 2.2.1 F¼int implements 2.2.2 1 C-datings 2.3 The Early Neolithic settlement of Scania

Chapter 3.

Chapter 4.

Chapter 5.

The natural environment during the Early Neolithic 3.1 Site-catchment analysis - a review 3.2 Methods of investigation 3.3 The Early Neolithic Landscape 3.3.1 The Elm decline 3.3.2 Wood identification studies 3.4 The Neolithic landscape in Southwestern Scaniaa model 3.5 Summary Settlement system, population and economy during the early part of the Early Neolithic 4.1 The settlement system of the Funnel Beaker culture - a review 4.2 The settlement pattern in Southwestern Scania 4.3 Site population 4.4 Slash-and-burn agriculture during the Early Neolithic in S.Scandinavia 4.5 Evidence for the cultivation and collecting of plants 4.6 Cattle and pigs in the early Funnel Beaker culture The development du�ing the later part of the Early Neolithic 5.1 Observed changes in the settlement patternbackground 5.2 Ecological and economical adaption in the later part of the Early Neolithic 5.3 Megalithic graves - towards a ranked society 5.4 Stray finds and hoards as indicators of social structure and exchange systems 5.4.1 Thin butted flint axes-stray finds and hoards in Southwestern Scania 5.4.2 Copper 5.4.3 Conclusions

1 4 6 6 13 15 30 33 35 53 54 55 55 61 62 68 75 75 77 83 86 88 91 99 99 102 105 110 110 116 119

F igures P age

F ig.

1

S outhern S candinavia w ith t he i nvestigation a rea m arked. a i ndicates t he Y stad a rea a nd b i ndicates

5

t he H agestad a rea

F ig.

2

T opographical m ap o f

F ig.

3

G eomorphological r egions i n s outhwestern S cania

F ig. 4 F ig.

5

S ettlement S herds

s ites

t he i nvestigation a rea

7

i n s outhwestern S cania

8 1 4

f rom t he O xie g roup s ites B jörkesakra

1 6

a nd S turup i n t he S turup a rea ( 1:1) F ig. 6

S herds

F ig.

F unnel B eaker f rom t he s ite K äglingevägen

7

f rom t he O xie g roup s ite O xie n r.7

( road)

b elonging t o

( 1:1)

1 7 1 9

t he S venstorp g roup ( 1:3)

F ig.

8

S herds

f rom t he S venstorp s ite

( 1:1)

2 0

F ig.

9

S herds

f rom t he S venstorp s ite

( 1:1)

2 1

F ig.10

a -d S herds f rom t he S venstorp g roup s ite O nsvala ( 1:1) ei S herds f rom t he S venstorp g roup s ite V .Kärrstorp

2 2

F ig.11

S herds

2 3

s ite

a nd f lint

i mplements f rom t he S venstorp

( 1:1)

F ig.12

F unnel B eaker f rom t he s ite B ellevuegarden ( c 1 :1)

2 4

F ig.13

F unnel B eaker

2 5

f ragment f rom t he s ite S tolpalösa

( c 1 :1) F ig.15

S herds a nd

f ragments o f

c ollared f lask ( c) F ig.14

S herds ( a-d) a nd f lint B ellevuegarden ( 1:1)

F ig.16

L uggedbeaker

F ig.17a F unnelbeaker 1 7b S herds

l uggedbeakers

( a,d)

a nd

2 7

f rom t he s ite B ellevuegarden ( 1:1) i mplements

f rom t he s ite

2 6

f rom t he s ite S tolpalösa ( c 1 :1)

2 8

f rom t he s ite B ellevuegarden ( c 1 :1)

2 9

f rom t he s ite S .Lindved

( 1:1)

F ig.18

F lint

i mplements

f rom t he s ite S venstorp ( 1:1)

3 1

F ig.19

F lint

i mplements

f rom t he s ite S kabersjö

3 4

F ig.20

F lint

i mplements

f rom t he s ite V .Kärrstorp ( 1:1)

F ig.21

F lint i mplements f rom t he s ite H yby.g i s a b attleaxe m ade o f g reenstone ( 1:1)

( 1:1)

3 6 3 7

P age F ig.22

F ig.23

D anish s ites m entioned

3 9

1 .

B arkaer

onens H Sj 2 . K

3 .

R ustrup

N orsminde T oftum

5 . 8 .

T olstrup R ude

6 . 9 .

M osegarden S arup.

1 0.

K lokkehSj

1 1.

S tengade

1 2.

1 3.

L ohals

1 4.

H esselS

1 5.

S Slager

1 6.

Knardrup

1 7.

V ir um

1 8.

S valeklint

1 9. 2 2.

O rnekul O lstykke

2 0. 2 3.

D ragsholm A amosen

2 1. 2 4.

M uldbjerg K ellerSd

2 5.

S tore V alby

2 6.

H imlingSje

2 7.

H avnelev

S ettlement

s ites

P ollen d iagrams

M ap

o f

S cania

f rom t he E arly N eolithic

T roldebjerg

i n S cania

4 0

s outhwestern S cania

s tages m arked F ig.25

t ext

4 . 7 .

o utside F ig.24

i n t he

t he

f rom S .Sweden w ith t he e xpansion

( after B erglund

i nvestigation a rea

" The Y stad P roject".

s ettlement

s ite,

s mall

4 2

1 969) 4 5

i n s outheastern D ot

i ndicates

f lower M esolithic

s ites,

s tars M egalithic g raves. 1 . K arlsfält 2 . P iledal 3 . S t. K öpinge " Tingshög" F ig.26

S oil

F ig.27

T he

F ig.28

c hart m ap s oil

S turup a rea

4 .

B ellevuegards

2 .

O xie

D etail o f

3 .

S venstorp g roup

g roup

c atchment a reas

i n t he t hree b . s oil m ap F ig.29

f or

s pecific

T he

t he S canian R econnoisance m ap

n orthern p art

m ore

s ites

z onation i n

t he

T he

F ig.32

D etail o f

F ig.33

O xie 7

5 .

K äglingevägen o f

2 .

o f

a .

f rom 1 812

6 7

S turup 1 :88

t he S turup a rea w ith

l andscape

S venstorp 6 .

3 .

t he

6 7

( After W ellinder 1 981)

S kabersjö

4 .

6 9 7 1

E bbarp

E lisedal

S cania w ith d olmens

( After J ennbert M ap

6 6

s hown

t hin b utted a xes ( stars), n ewly d iscovered d olmens,

F g .34

s ites

t he S canian R econnoisance m ap f rom 1 812

1 .

M ap

o f

i mportant

F ig.31

s ettlement

l ocal g roups a . t opographic map c . S canian r econnoisance m ap ( 1812)

s howing t he S turup a rea ( 1:50000) 2 . S turup 1 :107 c . B jörkesakra 6 :1 F ig.30

6 4

c omposition i n t he d ifferent g roups

1 .

S ite

6 3

f rom s outhwestern S cania

( circles),

h oards w ith

1 06

b attle a xes ( dots) a nd o ver p loughed ( stars).

1 984 w ith a lterations)

t he M aglarp a rea

i n s outhern S cania

v i

1 08

Page Fig.35

Map of Scania with the distribution of thin butted axes in the districts of Oxie and Skytts shown

111

Fig.36

The Hassleholm district in northeastern Scania with the distribution of thin butted aces and dolmens shown. Dolmens are indicated by an open circle

113

Fig.37

The length of the thin butted axes a. Oxie and Skytts districts b. Hoards c. Hassleholm district

115

Fig.38

Distribution of copper axes in Scania

118

vii

Tables Page Table 1.

List of available 14c-datings in southern Scandinavia

32

Table 2.

The dating of the Ulmus-decline

57

Table 3.

The calculated number of inhabitants in some northwest European TRB houses

84

Table 4.

Registered impressions in sherds from sites in southwestern Scania

90

Table S.

Hoards with thin butted axes in the districts of Oxie and Skytts

viii

112

Chapter 1:

1.1

Introduction

The introduction of farming in South Scandinavia

For a number of years, the development from a Mesolithic to a Neolithic economy has been discussed in Scandinavia. In the '50s and the '60s three hypotheses dominate the discussion: 1.

The development from a Mesolithic economy to a Neolithic was based on the local Erteb0lle culture.

2.

There was an immigration of farming peoples.

3.

The Mesolithic population was affected by contacts with immigrant groups, and a gradual transition to a Neolithic economy ensued.

Two works play a vital part in this discussion. In 1947, Becker pub­ He lished a study of Early Neolithic ceramics from Danish bogs.1 argued that the Neolithic economy was i troduced by immigrant groups � belonging to the Funnel Beaker Culture. The chronological division made by Becker, into three phases labelled A,B and C, has long provided the foundation for the chronolo ical discussion of the Early Neolithic � period in Southern Scandinavia. The second seminal work was published by Troels-Smith in 1953. 4 On the basis of several years' paleobotanical studies in the Aamosen bog on Zealand, he maintained that he had found evidence which, by and large, supported Becker's division. The A-phase could be dated as belonging to an older part of the Early Neolithic period than the B­ phase. 5 However Troels-Smith regarded the A-phase as an integrated part of the Erteb0lle ulture, and he felt that the latter was of a g semi-agrarian character. With the help of pollen-analysis, Muldbjerg, a semin 1 site in the Aamose bog, could be placed just after the Elm decline. 1 In a work from 1954 Becker presented an opposite view.8 In his opinion there is no connection between the Erteb0lle culture and the Funnel Beaker culture. During the investigation on the settlement site Store Valby on Zealand, there appeared no sherds which could be The flint implements though show attributed to the Erteb0lle culture. a similarity between the Erteb0lle culture and the Funnel Beaker culture. The same types of surface-hewn flake axes and blade scrapers occur in the material from Store Valby.9 T he problems regarding the origin of the Funnel Beaker culture was discussed by Schwabedissen in 1967.10 According to him two different culture traditions which influenced the development in southern Scandinavia can be discerned. One comes from the south-west and can be attributed to the Rossen culture.11 Schwabedissen's Satrup-group and 1

Becker's non-megalithic C-group in north Jutland can thus be considered as a local development of the Rossen.12 The other tradition comes from the south-east and can be assigned to the Lengyel culture.13 In Schwabedissen's view the A-phase is developed from the Baalberg group.14 These thoughts are clearly distinguished from Becker's view in In his opinion the A-phase should be assigned to the Ukraine 1947. while the B-phase ghows a certain connection with the Michelsberg culture in the west.1 To a considerable extent, Becker's views left their mark on the discussion of the '60s; and his chronology is discussed in several works of south Scandinavian archaeologists down the '60s and the beginning of the '70s. In a work from 1963 Salomonsson made a thorough examination of the different local groups during the C-phase.16 The site discussed in the work, Svenstorp in southwestern Scania, was assigned to the non­ megalithic group on Zealand.17 In 1970 Salomonsson published the extensive material from a site at Varby in Scania.18 The site is dated to the A-phase. In a thorough discussion about the differences in ornamentation on the ceramics from different pits on the site, Salomonsson claims that a dating primarily must be based on the shape of the Funnel Beakers because the ornamenta­ Salomonsson also makes a tion may be very locally influenced.19 distraction between the inland settlements, like Varby, and the coastal sites like Soldattorpet and Elinelund in Malmo. In his opinion the tes should be assigned to a local population of fishermen­ latter �� farmers. In the 1970s new aspects emerged. J�rgen Skaarup revised earlier Skaarup was opinions about the midden sites S0lager and Hessel0.2 1 able to proof that in the bone material from some Danish and Swedish Funnel Beaker sites there exist a wide variety of wild animals and fish. These sites were interpreted by Skaarup as hunting stations. The seminal site Muldbjerg, on Zealand, is alligned to the Funnel Beaker culture, and interpreted as a summer hunting camp.22 In Skaarup's next work from 1975, the material from two supposed long-houses from the B-phase and the C-phase was treated.23 In this work the relationship between the A-phase and the B-phase was discussed. Judging from the 14c-datings available at the time, the differences in time appears to be small.2 4 The A-phase sites Muldjerg and Varby are, according to the 14c-datings, younger than the B-phase sites Lindebjerg and some Scanian C-phase sites. The possibility for a certain contemporaneousness between the three groups A,B and C is likely. During the 1970s the immigration theories, and the debate concern­ ing the origin of the Funnel Beaker culture rather receded in the background. Instead, such matters as economy, population pressure, ecology and social structure were felt to be important. The influence of the "New Archaeology" and Lewis Binford asserted itself, for instance, on the articles from the XIIIth Meeting of Nordic Archaeologists held at Troms� (Norway) in 1970. This influence is 2

clearly seen in, for example, an article by Andersen, which deals with the investigations of some largish Erteb0lle sites on Jutland. Around 37OObc, a transition t�gk place from an impermanent settlement pattern to a fixed, stable one. In consequence, the available resources were more severly taxed. According to Andersen, the population grew, the equilibrium was disturbed, and the outcome was a demand for a fresh supply of calories. Against this background, a gradual transition to farming and cattle husbandry may have taken �lace, by way of contacts with farming groups in northwestern Germany.26 Jan Lichardus, a German archaeologist, also stresses the connec­ tions between southern Scandinavia and the later Linearband Keramik Lichardus regards the B-phase as being contemporaneous with groups.27 his late Rossen gro�E III, the B-phase representing a nordic group of the Rossen culture. The connections towards the south are also strengthened by the finds of two Danubian shaft-hole axes in the Store Aamosen bog on Zealand. Fischer is of the opinion that the shaft-hole ffes are not to C-datings of be interpreted as ploughing-implements. The younge�g e Erteb0lle culture are placed between 32OO-31OObc and the olde�O if C-datings of the Funnel Beaker culture are placed around 3OOObc. Because of this new interesting interpretations are possible. Fischer sees trade as a very important factor in the ex�tanation of the transi­ tion from a Mesolithic- to a Neolithic economy. The idea that the Erteb0lle culture comes under great pressure during late Atlantic time is also stressed in a work about the Neolithic in Denmark by Nielsen. The development betw� n c 32OO-3OOObc is very hard to follow in the archaeological material.

2

Using a different approach Hulthen, in a thesis from 1977, was able to prove that there is no technical difference between the ceramics �f the Erteb0lle culture and the Early Neolilhic Funnel Beaker culture.3 These results are also used by Kristina Jennbert in a new work about the trans¼iion from a Mesolithic- to a Neolithic economy in Scania (Sweden). Jennbert considers the material from the site Loddesborg situated at the coast of the straight of �resund. The site has a stratigraphy in which several culture layers could be discerned. There are several indications, that the layers are indeed deposits and were not formed in consequence of sediments floating down.35 Erteb0lle and Early Neolithic ceramics are found together in the different culture layers. The number of Early Neolithic sherds is slight in the lower layers. The Loddesborg site can be regarded as a transit!gn site between the Erteb0lle period and the Early Neolithic period. The alterations in ceramics may be related to the introduction of corn and cattle. Jennbert is of the opinion that corn and cattle were not essential to the economy at first. The importance of corn and cattle would thus have had he character of luxury products in a small-scale Proof that the Erteb0lle people used cereals is agrarian production.3 evJdent in the form of impressions in a few typical sherds.38

7

This view differs radically with the opinions of the above mentioned archaeologists. Jennbert does not stress the ecological factors and the concept of population pressure in the way of several

3

other researchers. During the latter part of the 1970's the research on the Neolithic period has above all been concentrated to studies of se tlement sit s � ? Works by Andersen, 3 9 Madsen, O Skaarup, 1 and their settings, q3 42 44 Stromberg, have discussed the connection Thrane and Welinder between settlement and subsistence. "Site-catchment" analysis is often used to discern, and evaluate an observed settlement pattern in a specific region. Megalithic graves are also a subject which have interested several archae logists duri�g the pa�t few years. In this connection works by � Hardh, 5 Johansson, 4 6 Madsen47 and Stromberg 48 are interesting attempts in trying to place the Megalithic graves in a settlement system as well as a social system. The graves are often seen as territorial markers and as an expression of status in the Neolithic society. They are seen These views have peen advocated ite. as funeral plafgs for a small in Sweden. by Kristiansen and Randsborg in Denmark and Persson 5 Workin with material from Scania, Shanks and Tilley expressed similar � views. 2

50

In recent years purely chronological problems have been made to stand aside. Those chronological studies that have in fact been performed have been apt to deal with specific probleIDs in the Early Neolithic context. In Denmark, Andersen and Madsen 5 J and Ebbesen and 54 Mahler have performed specific studies of local groups - Fuchsberg Madsen and Petersen, though, have tried a and Virum, for ; stance. g different angle. Starting from a site with an extraordinary state of preservation, Mosegarden on Jutland, the authors discuss the various local groups in the Early Neolithic period. In middGe and northern 5 A series of tland the oldest Neolithic group is called Volling. t� C-dates place this group around 3 100bc. On the other hand there is also definite proof that it continues until the beginning of the Middle Neolithic approximately 2600bc. In spite of the long life of the of a chronological differentia­ group, there are only weak indicatio g' tion of its pottery. Oxie group. This group is identical with Becker's A phase. It is undoubtedly concentrated to Zealand and Scania. The group may be dated to about 2900-28 00bc. The Svaleklint group comprises both the non-megalithic C group on Zealand and the B­ phase on the Danish islands. 5 8 We have 14 c-datings that makes it contemporaneous with the Oxie- and Volling groups. The last of the groups identified by Mads n and Petersen is named Virum group, ij Fuchsberg group and MN la. 5 The Virum and Fuchsberg groups can be dated to about 2650bc, Virum perhaps a little earlier. The MN la is the first group with a truly "megalithic style" and covers the whole of Denmark. It is dated to about 2600-25 50bc. 1.2

Delineation of the subject under study

The history of research in chapter 1 indicates the issues which have dominated research on the Early Neolithic in Southern Scandinavia; chronological problems, studies of settlement systems and social structure. Proceeding from the situation in southwestern Scania, the present analysis deals with two aggregations of material:

4

MI

I NVEST IGA T ION A REA

z

0 . A

F ig.

1

S outhern S candinavia w ith t he i nvestigation a rea m arked. i ndicates

t he Y stad

a rea a nd b i ndicates

5

t he Hagestad a rea

a

1.

Chronological analysis.

2.

An analysis of changes with regard to the settlement area preferred, and of concomitant alterations in the social structure.

The aim of the chronological studies is to establish.a chronology for southwestern Scania, drawing on local materials, and subsequently to attempt to apply it to the rest of the Scanian material, hoping to be able to distinguish different local groups during the Early Neolithic period in Scania. The discussion regarding the second problem complex outlined above, proceeds from a site-catchment analysis, which means that one specific area around each site is studied with regard to the distribu­ tion of different soil types, as well as the vegetation. 1.3

Investigation area

During the latest 20 years the intensive exploitation of gravel and farming land has resulted in a large increase in the number of archaeological investigations. In the 1960s the investigations were conducted from the Institute of Archaeology in Lund but from the end of the '60s onwards the major part of the excavations were taken over by the National Trust of Sweden. Within the city of Malmo the investiga­ tions were conducted by the Malmo Museum (Fig.1). The area of investigation has been chosen because it constitutes an area in which a rather large amount of Early Neolithic settlements have been excavated. All the investigations can be referred to as rescue excavations. In the chosen area, though, there is a marked distinction in the grade of exploitation between the city of Malmo, the area around Sturup Airport and the hilly landscape in between. The Urban area of Malmo, and the area around Sturup Airport can be regarded as almost totally investigated with continuous supervision. In the case of Malmo such a supervision has been conducted for the last 15-20 years and for the Sturup area during the construction of the airport between 1969-1971. In the hilly landscape in between the intensity is less obvious. Above all gravel-pits have been supervised in this area. The chosen investigation area is thus constituted of two well The investigated areas and of a more occasional supervised area. chosen area has nevertheless been considered a representative part of the southwestern Scanian landscape with its large ecological and topographical variations. I.4.1

The geographical and topographical features

The investigation area is composed of two different geological and topographical areas; the plains in the west, and the hilly landscape in the east. The plains mainly consist of morainic clay, while the latter is composed of sandy-morainic clay and sand/gravel of glacio-fluvial or1g1n. In this area, there are several lakes, rivers and brooks, some quite large, others small (Fig.2). The investigated region is drawn by

6

F ig.

2

T opographical m ap o f

t he i nvestigation a rea

7

T RELLEBORG

L AKES , MARSHES

B AL T IC S EA

0

L OMMA B AY

•UPPÄKRA D ALBY

, . *

2

• TOTTARP

. . . .

.... ••••. . .

MALMÖ

1

• •.

HUS IE

3

• • • • •

. •• • • • • .

. .

• BARA •H YBY

5

i \ARR IE • SVEDALA

. . . .

• V .KÄRRS TO R P

• 1 3ÖR ING E

4 7

1T I LL P LA IN 2P ART OF T HE ROMELEÄS CHRYSTALL INE

4

H ORS T

3HUMMOCKY MORA INE R EG ION 4H ILLY L ANDSCAPE 5HUM MOCKY MORA INE R EG ION

F ig.

3

G eomorphological

r egions

5 km

i n s outhwestern S cania

8

t he

S ege

r iver,

w hich r uns d own f rom

i mpressive g lacio-fluvial d eposit T he

d e rsit

6 0mas1

1 .

l ake.

T he

e ast o f

c omposed o f m ore o r l ess p lateau-like h ills,

T he

i nvestigation a rea

T he

p lains w est o f a l ine L ockarp-Oxie.

P art

c an b e d ivided

u ndulating m orainic a rea, T he M almö a rea, t hough, i s

o f

f ollows 3 .

t he B örringe

s ituated a t O xie,

m ost M almö.

a bout 3 3-

•

w eakly 4 0masl. 2 .

i s

i s

t he R omele

r idge,

w here

i nto

f ive

z ones 61

( Fig.3).

T his a rea i s m ade u p

o f a

w hich i s s ituated a bout s ituated a t a l ower l evel.

t he s urface

l ayer b y

a nd

1 5-

l arge

t he b edrock .

M orainic

h ill

l andscape.

T his

r egion,

n orthwest o f

K varnby-S.

S allerup-Mölleberga, c onsists o f a reas w ith l ow h ills a nd f lat m orainic h ills. T he a rea i s s ituated a bout 1 0-20mas1 w ith 5 -10m h igh a nd 4 .

h ills.

T he

i s m ade u p o f

r est o f

t he a rea

s oftly r ounded,

T he

a rea o n b oth s ides o f

t he

t he

w est

o n

t he a rea b orders

b orders o n t he s oftly a re a lso

i s

s ituated b etween

1 5-65mas1

2 0-30m h igh, m orainic h ills.

r oad b etween M almö a nd t he p lains,

w hile

i t

Y stad.

i n

t he

I n n orth

t he h ill- l andscape. T he l arge a mount o f p eat b ogs a nd r ounded h ills a re c haracteristic o f t his r egion. T here

s ome s mallish l akes.

H eight a bove s ea-level i s a bout 4 0-

5 5m. 5 .

S outh o f

a l ine V .Kärrstorp-Svedala-Björkesakrasjön w e

u ndulating

l andscape

w hich

t o

a l arge e xtent

i s

f ind a v ery m ade

u p

o f

p lateau-like h ills. T he m ajor p art o f a rea f ive i s s ituated a bout 4 0-75masl. I n t he m ore h illy p art o f t his r egion t he h ills a re a bout 6 0-90m h igh.

T his a rea m ay b e c haracterized a s a v ery h illy

l andscape w ith p eat-bogs T he

m ajor

p art

o f

i n b etween

t he p eat-bogs

d rawn. T hey a re a lso, f or t he p ast c ouple o f

t he h ills. i n

t he i nvestigation

t o a l arge e xtent, c enturies. 62

9

a rea

a ffected b y p eat

a re

d igging

N otes

1 .

B ecker 1 947,

p 5 f f

2 .

B ecker 1 947,

p 2 59

3 .

B ecker 1 947,

p 2 86

4 .

T roels-Smith 1 953,

f f p 5 f f

5 .

T roels-Smith 1 953,

p 2 1

6 .

T roels-Smith 1 953,

p 3 2

f f

7 . 8 .

T roels-Smith 1 953, B ecker 1 954, p 1 27

p 4 2-43

9 . 1 0.

B ecker 1 954, p 1 54 S chwabedissen 1 967,

p 4 21

1 1.

S chwabedissen 1 967,

p 4 21

f f

1 2. 1 3.

S chwabedissen 1 967, S chwabedissen 1 967,

p 4 21 p 4 25

f f

1 4. 1 5.

S chwabedissen 1 967, p 4 28 B ecker 1 947, p 2 85 f f

1 6.

S alomonsson 1 963,

p 6 5

1 7. 1 8.

S alomonsson 1 963, S alomonsson 1 970,

p 1 19 p 5 5 f f

1 9.

S alomonsson 1 970,

p 5 5

f f

2 0. 2 1.

S alomonsson 1 970, p 8 6 S kaarup 1 973, p 1 0 f f

f f

2 2.

S kaarup 1 973,

p 1 18

2 3.

S kaarup 1 975,

p 9 f f p 2 05

2 4.

S kaarup 1 975,

2 5.

A ndersen 1 973,

p 3 1

2 6.

A ndersen 1 973,

p 3 5

f f

f f

f f

2 7.

L ichardus 1 976,

2 8. 2 9.

L ichardus 1 976, p 1 81 A ndersen 1 975, p 8 2 f f

p 2 07

3 0. 3 1.

S kaarup 1 975, F ischer 1 982,

p 2 05 p 1 1

3 2. 3 3.

N ielsen 1 981, H ulthen 1 977,

p 1 4 p 5 f f

3 4. 3 5.

J ennbert 1 984, J ennbert 1 984,

p 7 f f p 3 6 f f

3 6.

J ennbert 1 984,

p 1 28

f f

3 7. 3 8.

J ennbert 1 984, J ennbert 1 984,

p 1 48 p 9 4

f f

3 9.

A ndersen 1 981,

p 6 3

4 0. 4 1.

M adsen 1 982, p 1 01 f f; M adsen a nd J ensen 1 982, S kaarup 1 982a, p 3 9 f f ; S kaarup 1 982b, p 4 5

f f

4 2.

S trömberg 1 982a,

4 3.

M adsen a nd T hrane 1 983,

4 4. 4 5.

W elinder 1 975, p 1 1 H ardh 1 982, p 2 6

4 6.

J ohansson 1 979,

4 7.

M adsen 1 982,

p 4 3

p 1 7

S trömberg 1 980a,

4 9.

K ristiansen 1 982,

f f

p 1 31

5 0.

R andsborg 1 975,

f f

p 2 41

p 1 05

f f

H ulthen a nd W elinder 1 981,

p 2 12

4 8.

f f

f f

f f;

p 8 2

p 6 3

f f

f f

1 0

p 7 f f

5 1.

P ersson 1 978,

5 2.

S hanks a nd T illey 1 982,

p 7 5

f f

5 3. 5 4.

A ndersen a nd M adsen 1 978, p 1 31 f f E bbesen a nd M ahler 1 980, p 1 1 f f

5 5. 5 6.

M adsen a nd P etersen 1 984, M adsen a nd P etersen 1 984,

p 6 1 f f p 9 9

5 7. 5 8.

M adsen a nd P etersen 1 984, M adsen a nd P etersen 1 984,

p 9 8 p 1 00

5 9. 6 0.

M adsen a nd P etersen 1 984, R ingberg 1 980, p 6 6 f f

p 1 00

6 1.

R ingberg 1 980,

p 4 3

6 2.

R ingberg 1 980,

p 1 25

p 1 51

f f f f

1 1

C hapter 2 :

2 .1

T he

T he E arly N eolithic C hronology o f

S outhwestern S cania

s ettlement s ites

T he

m aterial

o n w hich

f rom 2 3 s ettlement s ites

t he

f ollowing d iscussion i s b ased

( Fig.4).

T he m ajority o f

d erives

t hem a re s ituated i n

t he v icinity o f M almö. T he s ize o f t he s ites v aries. T here a re w hich c omprise a v ast a mount o f m aterial, a bove a ll c eramics a nd d ebris.

T he m aterial h as

i s

t he p lace

n ot

t hough

h ave

t o

i nvestigations t hat t he h umus

b e

b een t horoughly d iscussed e lsewhere,

f or a ny d etails

( Larsso la

c ommented u pon.

M .

1 984a).

A s m entioned

t hose f lint

a nd

S ome

i n c hapter 1 a ll

c an b e c lassified a s s alvage e xcavations. l ayer i s s tripped f rom a l arge a rea a nd a ll

t he

T his m eans t hat r emains

i s d ark-coloured p atches i n t he s terile s and o r m orainic-clay. f ew c ases p ockets o f c ulture-layer r emained i n g round h ollows. m atter o f f ireplaces

t his

t hings

I n A s

a a

f act, a ll t hat r eally r emains i s p its o f v arious t ypes, a nd i n a f ew c ases p ost m arks. A s m entioned a bove o nly a f ew

p ost-marks

h ave

b een i dentified.

T his m eans

t hat h ouse c onstructions,

e xcept i n o ne c ase, a re n ot p resent. T he o nly c onstruction t hat m ay b e i nterpreted a s a h ouse d erives f rom t he s ite B ellevuegarden i n Malmö. I t

c onsists

o f

c onstruction

a r ather d eep p it a bout 6 .5m w ide. t here

i s a s ingle,

a bout 0 .75m d eep,

I n t he m iddle

o f

p ost-hole

w ith

t he a

s tone p acking. U nderneath a 0 .3m t hick, b lack l ayer, t here i s a t hin, g rey s andy l ayer. T he h ouse h as a s imilar c onstruction a s t he p ith ouses

i n t he V iking a ge.

T he o ther d ark p atches v arious

t ypes.

T he p its a re, T wo 1 .

2 .

O n

s ome

i n s ome

i dentified o n t he s ites d erive s ites

t here

i nstances,

a re

f rom p its o f

a s m uch a s a bout 1 50 p its.

o ver l m d eep a nd a bout 5 -6m

a cross.

t ypes o f p its m ay b e d iscerned: P its,

w hich a fter

t heir u se a s m aterial p its

f illed

i n w ith w aste m aterial.

P its,

w hich h ave

b een l eft o pen f or a l onger

i mmediately h ave

t ime.

T his m ay

d etected a s t hin, s terile l enses o f s and o r c lay i n t he T hese p its c ontain a w ealth o f m aterial a nd t hey a re o ften d eep, T he d efined. a nything

b e p it. v ery

a bout l m . t ypes

r eferred

t o

a bove a re

t he o nly

o nes

O ther f orms o f p its o ccur, b ut i t i s v ery a bout t heir f unction. O n t he l arge S venstorp

i nterpreted a s a p lace r ather

b een

t hick l ayer o f

f or b urnt

t he m anufacturing o f c lay w as

1 3

f ound.

c eramics.

w hich

c an

b e

h ard t o s ay s ite a p it w as I n t he p it a

1 2•

P I LE B ROOK S EGE R IVER 2 56 B e No 1 3e me

\

: •

2 7e

9 4 3 4

-----PRESENT COAST L INE

F ig.

4

S ettlement

0

5ma s l

s ites

i n s outhwestern S cania

1 4

5 km

1 . KV .N OR E 2 . SO LD A TT OR P E T 3 . E LI N E LUND 4 . BE L LEVU EGÄR DEN 5 . S TO L PA L ÖS A 6 .K V . T AX E R INGSASS , R OS ENGÄR D 7 .B RONSY XEGA TAN 8. SS A L L ER UP 9 .E L IS EDA L 1 0 .0 XI EN R7 T i . KÄG LI N GEVÄG EN 1 2 . ÖN SVA L A 5 : 1 1 3 .T RANB ERGA 1 4 .V ÄRBY 1 5 .S V ENSTO RP 2 : 1 1 6 .SKAB ERS JÖ 2 6 :2 0 1 7 .V .K ÄRS TO RP 7 : 2 1 8 .5 .L I NDV ED 1 9 .S T URUP 1 : 88 2 0 .S TURUP 1 : 07 2 1 .B JÖR K ESÄK RA 6 : 1 2 .HÄS L EB ERGA 2 4 : 1 2 3 .0X IEVÄN G 2 4 .EBBA RP 2 : 1 2 5 . ÄN GDA LA 2 6 .KV .L E RK ÄR L ET 2 7 .H YBY 3 : 5 2 8 .SKAMMARP 1 : 2 9 .W ID E L LS VAG

2 .2

T he c hronology o f

t he e arly F unnel B eaker c ulture i n S outhwestern

S cania I n

o rder

t o

b e a ble

t o d istinguish t he c hronological

g roups

i n

S outhwestern S cania t he p oint o f d eparture h as b een t he o ccurrence o f d ifferent k inds o f o rnamentation a round t he o rifices a nd o n t he b ellies o f t he

t he r elevant v essels. T he a im o f t hese c alculations w as t o a ssess n umber o f w hole d ecorated v essels o n t he b asis o f t hose o rnamented

s herds,

f rom

f rom t he

s ites.

o rifices a nd b ellies,

t hat a re p resent

i n t he

m aterial

T hree g roups c ould b e d istinguished: T he O xie-group c ontains t he f ollowing s ites: B jörkesakra 6 :1, E bbarp, H yby 3 :5, H ässleberga 2 4:1, O xie 7 , S kabersjö 2 6:20, S turup 1 :88, S turup 1 :107 a nd V ärby. T he S venstorp-group c ontains t he f ollowing s ites: B ronsyxegatan/Holkyx estigen, K äglingevägen, S venstorp, V . K ärrstorp 7 :2 a nd ünsvala 5 :1. T he

B ellevuegards-group c ontains

E lisedal, S tolpalösa, W idellsvräg.

t he

t he

f ollowing

T axeringsass

s ites:

B ellevuegarden,

b lock,

V ärby

6 5,

a nd

T he O xie-group s herd m aterial,

a nd

i ndicate,

T he

t hat

i nventory c onsists

v essels,

m iniature

t he c eramic

v essels

t he

a nd

f our p er c ent o f

t he

s everal

F unnel B eakers:

k inds o f

e xceeding 2 5cm;

a nd

3 0cm ;

p aucity o f w hole

c lay d isks.

v essels,

s eem

o f F unnel B eakers, I n a verage n o m ore

t otal c eramic i nventory i s o rnamented. l arge

i s b etween 2 0 a nd

m iniature v essels w ith a r im d iameter o f n o m ore s hort n ecks a nd a g entle t ransition t he v essels a re u sually f lat.

t han 1 0cm. f rom

T hree t ypes o f o rnamentation p revail: s tab i mpressions, s cores a nd p lastic o rnamentation i n t he f orm o f c lay b orders O nly s ome

t han

T here a re

s toring v essels w ith a d iameter

s mall F unnel B eakers w hose d iameter

A ll F unnel B eakers h ave t o b elly. T he b ottom o f

t o

l ugged

n eck

v ertical ( Fig.5).

t he p arts a round t he m ouths o f t he v essels a re a dorned. T here a re e xceptions, t hough, w here t he o rnamentation a round t he o rifice

r ecurs

o n t he s houlder.

T his

t ype o f e mbellishment

i s

f ound i n

O xie

a nd V ärby ( Fig.6C).

t ion

T he s tab i mpressions a re c learly p redominant; t his t ype o f d ecorao ccurs i n 5 0 t o 6 0 p er c ent o f t he r elevant m aterial f rom a ll t he

s ites. T he s core o rnamentation i s m uch m ore u nevenly d istributed. O n t he v arious s ites, 6 t o 4 0 p er c ent o f t he o rnamented F unnel B eakers c arry

t his k ind o f

o rnamentation.

T he S venstorp g roup The l ugged p ossess

c eramic v essels, f eatures

m aterial c omprises

O xie-group ( Fig.7). o f t he r im a nd t he i ndex

F unnel

B eakers,

l ugged

b eakers,

c ollared f lasks a nd c lay d isks. T he F unnel B eakers r esembling t hose f ound i n t he o nes b elonging t o t he A n i ndex o f t he r elationship b etween t he d iameter l ength o f t he n eck r eveals a c lose a ffinity. T he

i s 1 6 p er c ent

i n t he S venstorp m aterial a nd 1 7

1 5

p er c ent

i n

t he

S TURUP 1 :88 ANL .1

B JÖRKESÄKRA 6 :1 ANL .26

' ree rebe \ ' ‘ Ne ere i t i r r ' t e oc c jc c 1c 7 , 0 9

0 Q

B JÖRKESÄKRA 6 : 1 ANL .9

B JÖRKESÄKRA 6 :1 AN L . 26

F ig.

5

S herds f rom t he O xie g roup s ites B jörkesakra a nd S turup i n t he S turup a rea ( 1:1)

1 6

C

A

D

Fig. 6

F

E

Sherds from the Oxie group site Oxie nr.7 (1:1)

17

In the material from the Oxie-group sites Oxie �nsvala material. Varby the index is about 14 per cent.

and

In the ornamentation of the Funnel Beakers, stab impressions prevail (Fig.8A-B,9b,9C,10). It occurs on 39-90 per cent of the decorated Funnel Beakers. Cord ornamentation is common, too (Fig. Its respective shares vary from 14 to 25 per cent. However, 8E,10F). This type of whipped cord ornamentation is almost entirely absent. embellishment only occurs in the material from the sites Svenstorp and Kaglingevagen. On the Svenstorp site only one percent of the mouth sherds have this kind of ornamentation. Furchenstich and stamp impressions are most frequent on rim sherds. In the Svenstorp group, belly ornamentation is present on Funnel Beakers as well as on lugged beakers (Fig.9b,10B-D). Drawn lines are predominant. In the materials from Svenstorp, v. Karrstorp and Unsvala, more complex ornamentation occurs, too, in the form of horizontal and vertical scores, Furchenstich and stamped impressions (Fig.8H-K,9D,F,10H,I). Among the Svenstorp vessels 32 per cent are adorned with chequered patterns (Fig.8I,9D,F,11A,B). The Svenstorp group presents a more heterogenous picture than the Oxie group. The sites belonging to the former have several features in common, namely cord ornamentation, stab impressions, and in some cases ornamented lugged beakers. The Bellevuegards group The ceramic inventory of the Bellevuegards group comprises Funnel Beakers, lugged beakers, lugged vessels, collared flasks, clay disks The shape of the Funnel Beakers and - in all probability - bowls. diverges sharply from that which is found in the above mentioned groups. The neck length/diameter relationship varies from 21 to 26 per cent (Fig.12,13). The transition from neck to belly is clearly defined. In addition there is a number of vessels, from the Bellevue­ garden and Stolpalosa sites, whose rim diameter extends to 40 to 45cm. Such large Funnel Beakers do not occur in the Oxie and Svenstorp groups. A comparison with the materials belonging to the groups previously mentioned, shows that a considerably smaller proportion of the vessels belonging to the Bellevuegards group are decorated around the orifices. Stab impressions do occur (Fig.13), but cord - and whipped cord ornamentation grain in importance (Fig.15A,D,14C,D,16). The last mentioned is represented in the material from the site Bellevuegarden by 20 per cent and in the material from Stolpalosa by five per cent. These types of embellishment occur as horizontal, vertical, and crescent-shaped impressions. The whipped cord is most often found on the lugged beakers (Fig.lSA,16). Those types of lugged beakers are present in the inventory from the sites Bellevuegarden, Stolpalosa and the Taxeringsass block. The belly ornamentation is mainly characterized by drawn lines (Fig.12,17A); but plastic ornamentation is also present (Fig.14A,15B), as well as whipped-cord patterns and ornamentation composed of two variables, for example drawn lines interspaced with horizontal cord impressions. This type of embellishment is dated as belonging to the early Middle Neolithic period (MN I-II).

18

F ig.

7

F unnel b eaker f rom t he s ite K äglingevägen ( road) t he S venstorp g roup ( 1:3)

1 9

b elonging

t o

F ig.

8

S herds

f rom t he S venstorp s ite

2 0

( 1:1)

F ig.

9

S herds

f rom t he S venstorp

s ite ( 1:1)

2 1

b

d

F ig.10

a -d S herds f rom t he S venstorp g roup s ite O nsvala ( 1:1) ei S herds f rom t he S venstorp g roup s ite V .Kärrstorp

2 2

·a

Fig.11

C

Sherds and flint im plements from the Svenstorp site (1:1)

23

Fig.12

Funnel beaker from the site Bellevuegarden (c 1:1)

24

F ig.13

F unnel

b eaker

f ragment

f rom t he s ite S tolpalösa ( c 1 :1)

2 5

F ig.14

S herds

( a-d)

a nd

f lint

i mplements

( 1:1) 2 6

f rom t he s ite B ellevuegarden

Fig.15

Sherds and fragments of lugged beakers (a,d) and collared flask (c) from the site Bellevuegarden (1:1)

27

F ig.16

L uggedbeaker f rom t he s ite S tolpalösa ( c 1 :1)

2 8

F ig.17a F unnel 1 7b S herds

b eaker

f rom t he s ite B ellevuegarden

f rom t he s ite S .Lindved

2 9

( 1:1)

( c 1 :1)

2 .2.1

F lint i mplements W ith t he e xception f or t he f lint a xes,

t he E arly N eolithic

f lin

i mplements h ave n ever b een t he s ubject o f a m ore c omprehensive s tudy. 4 E xtensive a nalysis o f s ingle f lint t ools h as b een e xecuted, b ut t he l ong-term

p erspective

h as

b een

m issing.

3

C ompared

t o

t he

l arge

m aterial f rom M esolithic s ites, l ike A geröd i n S cania 4 a nd R ingkloster i n D enmark, 5 w hich h ave e nabled e xtensive c omparative s tudies, t he m aterial f rom m ost E arly N eolithic s ites i s s mall. W ith t he n ow p resent m aterial f rom s outhwestern S cania a s tudy o f c hange t oolkit d uring t he E arly N eolithic p eriod i s m uch m ore v alid.

i n

t he

F ive t ypes o f i mplements w hich c learly p revail o n t he s ites h ave b een c hosen: f lake a xes, f lake a nd b lade s crapers, b orers, k nives a nd t ransverse a rrowheads. A p atent c hange c an b e d iscerned w hen t he O xie a nd S venstorp g roups a re c ompared t o t he B ellevuegards g roup. F lake a xes a re, b y a nd l arge, o nly f ound i n t he t wo f ormer g roups, w hereas f lake s crapers p revail i n t he l atter. I n a verage t he f lake a xes m ake u p 2 0 p er c ent o f t he f ive i mplements m entioned a bove i n t he O xie a nd S venstorp g roups w hile f lake s crapers m ake u p 7 7 p er c ent i n t he m aterial f rom t he B ellevuegarden a nd S tolplösa s ites ( Fig.18,19,20,21). A n i mplement

s uch a s

t he

" drill"

b orer,

a b orer w ith a l ength n ot

o ver t hree c m o nly o ccurs i n t he f ormer t wo g roups . ( Fig.19D-E). T ransverse a rrowheads a re m uch m ore c ommon i n t he O xie a nd S venstorp g roups, t oo. T hey c onstitute c 1 8 p er c ent i n t hese g roups w hile t hey a re b arely p resent i n t he l atter g roup. T he j oint f lint i nventory i n t he f ormer g roups p resents a M esolithic a ppearance, w ith f lake a xes, b ipolar c ores, c ore a xes, c ore b orers, A n

" drill"-borers, i ssue

w hich

a nd h as

t ransverse a rrowheads. b een t he s ubject o f m uch

d ebate

i n

S outh

S candinavia i s t he r elationship b etween t he p ointed b utted a xe a nd t he t hin b utted a xe. P ointed b utted a xes a re p resent i n t he m aterials f rom E bbarp, O xie, S kabersjö a nd V ärby i n t he O xie g roup, K ärrstorp a nd S venstorp i n t he S venstorp g roup.

a nd

f rom

V .

T he p ointed b utted f ragment f rom V . K ärrstorp i s n ot p ossible t o d ate w ith a ny a ccuracy b ecause a ny s herds w ith o rnamentation w as n ot f ound i n t he p it, w here t he f ragment w as f ound. T he f ragment f ound i n p its N 3 a nd N 1 1 o n t he S venstorp s ite m ay b e d ated t o t he S venstorp g roup. 6 P ointed b utted a xes a re a lso p resent o n t he s ite E bbarp i n t he v icinity o f O xie. 7 T he c eramic m aterial f rom t his s ite i s s mall, b ut m ay b e d ated

a xe

T he i s

t he O xie g roup.

r elationship b etween t he p ointed b utted- a nd t he t hin b utted h ard t o e valuate. I n N ielsen's o pinion t hey a re n ot

c ontemporary. A

t o

8

c lear d ivision,

r egarding

t he f lint i mplements,

c an

b e

m ade

b etween t he O xie/Svenstorp g roups o n o ne h and, a nd t he B ellevuegards g roup o n t he o ther. T he f irst t wo s how a m uch g reater a ffinity t owards t he E rteb 9 411e c ulture i n t he c omposition o f t he f lint t ools.

3 0

B

Fig.18

Flint implements from the site S venstorp (1:1)

31

P lace

D ating b c

D enmark M osegarden

+ 3 130_ +9 0

M osegarden K onens 1 ( 6j

2 940-90 2 9002 1100

R ustrup I R ustrup I I

K -3463 K -3463 K -919 K -2253

0 9

R ustrup I II R ude

2 970± 100 + 2 86070 2 960± 90 2 790

R ude N orsminde N orsminde N orsminde N orsminde B ygholm Wrremark S arup S arup

3 010 2 800 2 760 2 790±90 2 630± 70 2 650±90 + 2 67090 + 2 640-90 +

S arup T oftum T oftum T oftum K lokkehSj L ohals M uldbjerg D ragsholm L indebjerg O lstykke S Slager T hemsens tAweskaer

2 2% 0 0

U lkestrup L yng M aglelyng J ord1Sse m ose K eller § 6d S cania B ronsyxegatan, M almö S venstorp 5 1 V ärby V ärby " 65" H agestad 9 8:1 V ätteryd V ätteryd X ngdala

e

T able 1 .

L ab.nr

L ist o f a vailable

1 4

3 2

K -2254 K -2255 K -3215 K -3124 K -2191 K -2192 K -2190 K -2189 K -3473 K -2628 K -2630 K -2631 K -2983 K -2979 K -2982 K -2954 K -2277 K -124 K -2291 K -1659 K -2356 K -1724 K -3755

2 6001 -15 2 670 2 820± 80 2 890±100 3 060± 100 2 760±65 2 700± 100 3 010 : 1 :65 + 2 910-35 2 7501 '65 3 030t65 2 540±65

K -3778 K -3779 K -3776 K -3515

+ 2 910-60 + 2 830 .+1 00 2 950120 2 870± 100 2 750± 65 2 730± 170 2 600i-1 40 2 610± 70

L u-1866 L u-12 K n-103 L u-10 L u-1349 U -46 U -47 L u-2102

C -datings i n s outhern S candinavia

2 .2.2

1 4

C -datings

A t hird v ariable o f S cania a re T he

t he

i mportance t o l ocal c hronology i n s outhwestern

C -datings

1 4

r elationship

( Table 1 ,

F ig.22).

b etween t he E rteb ille c ulture

a nd

t he

F unnel

B eaker c ulture i s c rucial. T he y oungest d atings o f t he E rtebSlle t . i lture i n D enmark c an b e p laced a pproximately b etween 3 600 a nd 3 200bc, 2 w hereas t he e arliest d atings o f t he F unnel B eaker c ulture a re p laced b etween 3 100-3000bc, a re s omewhat l ater, F resh m ade

t he

d olmen,

d atings

a pproximately.

I n S cania,

1 0

j ust b efore 3 000bc.

t he e arliest d atings

1 1

f rom t he M osegarden s ite o n e astern

g ap b etween t he p laced a cross

t wo c ultures

t he s ettlement,

J utland

s omewhat n arrower.

h ave

T he

L ong-

h as b een p laced a t 3 130 ±

9 0bc

( K-3463) t o 2 940 ± 9 0bc ( K-3464), c onsequently, t he s ite m ust b e r egarded a s b eing o lder t han ( approximately) 3 100bc. 1 2 M osegarden i s t hus o ne o f t he o ldest F unnel B eaker s ites i n s outhern S candinavia. T he s ite m ay b e a ssigned t o a g roup o f s ettlements a nd g raves f rom e astern J utland l ike R ustrup a nd N orsminde. T his g roup h ave r ecently b een n amed t he V olling g roup b y M adsen a nd P etersen. 1 3 I n t he J utish m aterial a c ontinuity f rom s ites l ike M osegarden a nd R ustrup t o t he s omewhat l ater s ite T olstrup I II m ay b e d iscerned. T he l ast m entioned s ite I s a pproximately c ontemporaneous w ith t he F uchsberg p hase. T his is 1 4 C -dated t o a bo ut 2 600bc. 14 T he d evelopment o n J utland a ppears t o h ave b een v ery r egionally a ffected.

T he A - p hase,

o r m ore a ppropriate

t he O xie g roup, i s w eakly r epresented i n t he a rea. T his g oes f or b oth s ettlements a nd p ointed b utted a xes. T he l atter i s r epresented b y a f ew s tray f inds o nly. A ccording t o M adsen a nd P etersen s ites l ike N orsminde a nd R ude s hall b e p laced i n t he V olling g roup. N orsminde i s d ated b etween 2 760bc ( K-2189) t o 3 010bc ( K-2192) L 5 w hile t he R ude g rave i s d a d t o a p eriod b etween 2 860 ± 7 0bc 3 124). 1° F rom

t he

l ater p art o f

t he

i slands

9 0bc

±

t he e arly N eolithic w e h ave q uite

d atings f rom t he c ause-wayed c amp T oftum , T hey a re c entered a round 2 650bc. 1 7 F rom

( K-3125) a nd 2 960

a

( K-

f ew

t aken t ogether a t otal o f I I.

o f F yn a nd L angeland

t here a re n ot

m any

1 4c_

d atings a vailable. T hey c an b e a ssigned t o t he l ater p art o f t he E arly N eolithic. T he o ldest n eolithic p hase o n t he S arup s ite, w hich l ike T oftum

i s a c ausewayed c amp w ith i nterrupted

L ike T oftum t he p reserved d olmen, p ossible

i s

t o p lace t he p rfeary g rave i n t he F uchsberg p hase.

i s 2 600 ± 65bc F rom

d itches 4

t he

F uchsberg.

d atings a re c entered a round 2 650bc. 18 F rom a w ell c alled K lokkehi sj, t here i s a d ating w hich m akes i t T he d ating

( K-2954). i sland o f Z ealand t here a re a t otal o f

I I

1 4

C -datings

a vailaple. T he o ldest i s f rom t he s ite L indebjerg, 3 060 ± 1 00bc ( K.1 659). A I t d erives f rom t he r emains o f a p ost e rected i n c onnection w ith a L ong d o Wen . I n t he p it v essels w ere f ound w hich m ay b e d ated t o t he B -phase, " o r i n m ore m odern t erms t he S valeklint g roup. F rom t his g roup t hree m ore d atings e xist. O ne d erives f rom f ood r emains i n a l ugeed b eaker. I t ns 3 010 6 5bc ( K-3755). B eaker f ound i n J ord Use 3 776). 23 T his v essel h as

f ound d uring p eat c utting, a nd i s d ated t o T he s econd d ing o riginates f roT a F unnel m ose. T he C -dating i s 3 030 — 5 5bc ( Ka lso b een d ated b y m eans o f f ood r emains o n 3 3

F ig.19

F lint i mplements f rom t he s ite S kabersjö ( 1:1)

3 4

t he i nside o f t he b eaker. T he t hird d ating d erives f rom a v essel f ound i n U lkestrup L yng ( Aamosen b og). A s w as t he c ase f or t he F unnel B eaker f rom J ord1Sse, t his v essel i s a lso d ated w ith t he h elp o f f ood r emains o n t he i nside o f F rom

t he

t he v essel. A -phase,

T he d ating i s 2 910

o r O xie g roup,

± •3 5bc

t here a re

( K-3778). 24

o nly

t wo

d atings

a vailable. O ne o f t hem c omes f rom t he s eminal s ite e uldbjerg o n Z ealand. T his s ite h as b een d ated t o 2 820 ± 8 0 ( K-124). 45 T he o ther o riginates f rom a f lat e rave a t D ragsh92 .m , n ot v ery f ar f rom M uldbjerg, w hich i s d ated t o 2 890 — 1 00 ( K-2291). u F rom t he

B ecker's m egalithic C -phase,

V irum g roup,

c omes 6 5bc

t here a re

t hree

1 4

o r a s i t w ill b e c alled

C -datings

a vailable.

h ere,

T he

f irst

f rom a p rimary g rave i n a D olmen, O lstykke. T he d ating i s 2 760 1 2 ( K-2356). 47 T he s econd d ati g o riginates f rom t he s hell m idden

S Slager, 2 700 1 00bc ( K-1724). A c omplete F unnel B eaker M aglelyng i n t he S tore A amosen b og i s d ated t o 2 750 ± 6 5 ( K-3779). T o s ummarize: c haracterized

f rom 2 9

T he o ldest n eolithic p hase o n J utland i s a bove a ll

b y t he V olling g roup.

T he a bove m entioned

s ite

M ose-

g arden i n E astern J utland i s o ne o f t he o ldest F unnel B eaker s ettlem ents i n S outhern S candinavia. I t i s d ated b efore 3 100bc. T he V olling g roup c ontinues u ntil t he b eginning o f t he M iddle N eolithic p eriod a pproximately 2 600bc. I n s pite o f t he l ong l ife o f t his g roup, t here a re o nly p ottery. 30

w eak i ndications o f a c hronological d ifferentiation o f i ts T he O xie g roup i s a lso r epresented b y a f ew s ites o n

J utland. T he F uchsberg g roup s eems t o b e c ontemporaneous V olling g roup i n S outh- a nd M id-Jutland.

w ith

t he

O n t he D anish i sles t he o ldest p hase i s m ade u p o f t he S valeklint g roup. T his c omprises b oth t he Z ealand n on-megalithic C a nd t he B p hase. V irum

P arallel t o t he l ater s ubgroup o f t he V olling g roup w e h ave t he g roup. T his i ncludes w hat w as f ormerly k nown a s t he m egalithic

C -phase.

d ating W s her a s e y S e ct a ; nia t h ie sr e co a nr ce r no ed m , o rw eet h on an l ye p io gh ss te . t here e re f ive d a4ings a vailable V ärby, 33 V ärby " 65 ' a nd X ngdala. 35 c hronological c onnection b etween c an

b e

sa Ins m Sa ou lt lh w nu em sb ter no f Sc ania

- B ronsyxegatan , 31 S venstorp, 32 T hese d atings p oint t o a c lose

t he O xie a nd S venstorp g roups.

T hey

d ated a s p ertaining t o t he p eriod b etween 3 000bc a nd c

2 800bc

( approximately), a nd i t i s p ossible t o a lign t hem c hronologically w ith t he O xie a nd t he S valeklint g roups o n Z ealand. T he S outhwest S canian B ellevuegards g roup m ainly c orresponds t o t he V irum g roup, b ut i t c an p robably b e r egarded a s p aralleling t he d ating i s 2 750-2600bc ( approximately).

2 .3

F uchsberg

g roup,

t oo.

T he

T he E arly N eolithic s ettlement o f S cania

W e h ave i n t he p receeding c hapter d iscussed t he c hronology i n S outhern S candinavia, u sing c omparative m aterial f rom D enmark a nd s outhwestern S cania. T he a im w as t o t ry a nd a im a t a w orking c hronology f or s outhwestern S cania. I n t he p resent c hapter t he m aterial f rom t he r est o f S cania w ill b e b rought i nto t he d iscussion E xcluding t he s outhwestern p art o f S cania w e c an s ee t wo d istinct r egions w here

t here a ppear t o b e a r ather d ense s ettlement d uring E arly 3 5

H

F ig.20

F lint

i mplements

f rom t he s ite V .Kärrstorp ( 1:1)

3 6

F ig.21

F lint

i mplements

f rom t he s ite H yby.g i s a b attleaxe m ade o f

g reenstone ( 1:1)

3 7

N eolithic t imes. s econd r egions T he

i s

T he f irst i s

s outheastern

t he B arsebäck r egion i n t he w est a nd t he

S cania

w ith

t he

H agestad

a nd

Y stad

( Fig.23). f irst a rea i s

c haracterized b y r escue e xcavati2ns

w hile

t he

o thers w . p art o f t wo p rojects, t he H agestad p roject " a nd t he Y stad p roject. '" T he H agestad a rea h as d uring s everal y ears b een t horoughly i nvestigated w ith s ites m eticulously e xcavated b y M ärta S trömberg. T he s econd

p roject,

t he

Y stad p roject,

w as

i nstigated

i n

1 982.

B oth

p rojects a re c haracterized b y a i nter-disciplinary a pproach . W e

w ill,

h owever,

b egin i n t he w est.

S outhwest o f

t he c ity o f

L andskronq n a n umber o f s ites h ave b een e xcavated N . e inge, 38 D ösjebro, -" Raga H örstad, 40 V . K araby 41 a nd L öddesborg. 42 T he s ettlem ent s ites a t N . M öinge a nd R aga H örstad w ill b e d iscussed a s a u nit. T hey a re c haracterized b y c ord o rnamentation, s tab i mpressions, v ertical s hort s trokes a nd, t o a c ertain d egree, " Furchenstich". 43 I n t he f lint i nventory f lake a xes a re c onspicious b y t heir a bsence. 44 B oth s ites m ay b e d ated

t o

t he B -phase,

. or i n t he n ew t erminology

t he

S valeklint g roup. T he s ite a t D ösjebro w as e xcavated

i n 1 972 a nd c 2prises

m aterial

f rom t he l ate E arly N eolithic-early M iddle N eolithic. T he o rnamentat ion i s c haracterized b y w hipped c ord, 2 0 p er c ent o f t he c eramic m aterial i s e mbellished i n i s w ay. 46 T he f lint i nventory i s d ominated b y f lake s crapers. B y a nd l arge t his s ite m ay b e p aralleled w ith t he B ellevuegards g roup i n s outhwestern S cania a nd t he V irum g roup o n Z ealand. A t 70s.48

V . K araby a f ew p its w ere e xcavated i n t he f irst p art o f I n a p it a v essel w ith c ord o rnamentation w as f ound. I t

b e c ompared t o T he o f t he 1 970s.

t he m ay

t he s ites a t R aga H örstad/N.Möinge.

L öddesborg sae i s s ituated b y a s mall i nlet

i n t he

v icinity

L ödde r iver. " T he s ite w as e xcavated d uring t he 1 960s a nd T he m aterial i s v ery l arge. T his i s n ot t he p lace t o d iscuss

t he d ifferent l ayers i n t he m idden a nd t he i dea o f t he E rte Ulle a nd t he F unnel B eaker m aterial b eing c ontemporaneous. I f w e s tudy t he F unnel B eaker c eramics w e c an s ee t hat t he m aterial n ot i n a ny w ay i s h omogenous. T he s ite o bviously c omprises m aterial f rom t he O xie g roup, t he S venstorp/Svaleklint g roup a nd t he B ellevuegard/Virum g roup. 5°

O xie

S outh o f t he c ity o f L und a t S t. g roup w as e xcavated i n t he ' 70s.

R aby , a s ite b elonging t o t he T he s ite w as s ituated o n a

5 1

r idge w hich h as a w est-east d irection. m aterial o f a g lacio f luvial c haracter. T o

s ummarize:

N eolithic g roups,

I n

T he r idge

i s

m ade

t he w estern p art o f S cania a ll o f

t he

w ith t he p ossible e xception o f t he S venstorp

u p

o f

E arly g roup,

a re p resent. T he l atter i s p robably, t hough, p resent i n m aterial f rom t he L öddesborg s ite. T he s herds w hich m ay b e p laced i n t his g roup a re s tray f inds, w hich m akes i t d ifficult t o c onnect t hem t o t he s ite. )2 T he O xie g roup i s p resent i n t he m aterial f rom S t. B ellevuegards d ifficult t o a nd K araby.

R aby w hile t he

g roup i s r epresented b y t he s ite D ösjebro. M ore p lace c hronologically a re t he s ites a round R aga H örstad T hese s ites a re c haracterized b y F unnel B eakers w ith c ord

3 8

q

0

Fig.22

100 km

Danfsh sites mentioned in the text 1. Barkaer 4. Norsminde 7. Toftum 1 o. Klokkeh0j 13. Lohals 16. Knardrup 19. 0rnekul 22. 0lstykke 25. Store Valby

2. 5. 8. 11. 14. 17. 20. 23. 26.

Konens H0j Tolstrup Rude Stengade Hessel0 Virum Dragsholm Aamosen Himling0je

39

3. Rustrup 6. Mosegarden 9 .. Sarup 12. Troldebjerg 15. S0lager 18. Svaleklint 21. Muldbjerg 24. Keller0d 27. Havnelev

0

3 0 km

1/ ONS TO RP 2R AG A HÖR S TAD 2 3 3N . MÖI N G E1 3 , 1 4DÖS J EB RO 5V .K A RAB Y 6L ÖD D E SBO RG 7S T .R AB Y 8 Ö. G R EV I E 4 1 9K ÄMP ING E 1 0A L BÄCKSBO RG 1Y S TAD S ANDSKOG 1 2S T .K ÖP I NG E 1 3T Y GAP I L 1 4H AG ES TAD 9 8 1 1 5S I M R IS 1 6K V .L A R SJ OHAN ( S IM R ISHAMN ) 1 7V I K 1 8K I A B Y 1 9N O SA B Y 2 0V ÄT ERYD 2 1S I R E TO R P 2M EDA L 2 3K A R LS FÄL T 2 4 Ö. V EMM ENHÖG 2 5H AG ES TAD A R EA

F ig.23

S ettlement s ites

f rom t he E arly N eolithic i n S cania o utside

s outhwestern S cania

4 0

ornamentation, and by the absence of flake axes. the Svaleklint/Svenstorp group.

They may be placed in

We now proceed to the area south of the investigation area. this area a couple of sites have been excavated: �­ Grevie Albacksborg.

In and

As the cause of gravel digging near t1. Grevie a rescue excavation was made during the latter part of the 197 O s. The largest amount of the constructions were dated to the late Bronze Age. Three pits, though, were dated to the Early Neolithic. Tg� ornamentation is made up of stab-impressions, small pits and strokes. The "Revsbacken" site in the vicinity of Albacksborg is an old gravel pit where during th� 193O s traces of settlement of a very pf special interest is the Early Neo­ different age was excavated.5 lithic ceramics and flint implements found at the excavation. The ornamentation is characterized by drawn lines on the bellies. Any mouth sherds with decora�ion were not found. Two Funnel Beakers have been reconstructed. O ne of them, the smallest, has drawn lines on the belly while the other, larger vessel has no embellishment at all.5 5 The site may be dated to the late Early Neolithic, parallel to the Of further interest is that Bellevuegards group in the Malmo region. one sherd may pggsibly be dated to the early part of the Middle Neolithic (MN la). We now turn to the southeastern part of Scania where, as mentioned above, an intensive archaeological activity has had as a result a marked increase in the number of Early Neolithic settlement sites. The following g�ve been excavated: Piledal,57 St. Kopinge (Tingshog)58 and Karlsfalt. All these sites are situated in the Ystad region. In tg5 Tygapil, he following siteg have been excg ated: Hagestad area Hagestad 98 :la, 1 Hages �d 98 :lb, 2 Hagestad 47:3, Hagestad 98 :lc64 and Hagestad 98 :1-22:6. The last five sites are locate4 along the Hagestad bog and are rather small. If we go further to the east, around the city of Simrishamn, the following sites have been excavated: The Lars Johan block,66 Tobisborg 67 (Simrishamn) and Simris.68

6

3

6

Above all the first two districts are of a great interest for the discussion regarding both the chronology and not the least the settle­ ment system of the Early Neolithic Funnel Beaker culture in Scania. As was mentioned above they constitute, outside s.w. Scania, the most thoroughly investigated areas. The Ystad area is the subject for inter-disciplinary project "the Culture Landscape during 6OOO-years" since 198 2. The aim is to correlate the human impact visible in pollen diagrams with the archaeological material and the historically known materials from later periods. The project has a long time perspective. Its starting point is the investigations by Berglund concerning the visible expansion stages in human activity recorded in pollen diagrams for southern Scandinavia7O (Fig.24). The project begins with the expan­ sion stage around the transition between late Atlantic times and Early Subboreal times. In this work only the first expansion stage, the Ea�ly Neolithic one, will be considered. The results are as yet preliminary, work is in progress.

g�

41

a—

d . ! §

2

F ä r ske s jön , B l ek inge

5

3 0

9

A

5 ( . 5

3

7 )

g r Et t e

H uman I n f luence

2

LATE SUB ATLANT IC

A .D .• 1 o00 -

EARLY SUB -ATLANT IC

0 B .C .-

LATE SUB -BOREAL

1 000-

2000EARLY SUB BOREAL 3000 LATE A TLANT IC

4000

B j ä r s jöho lm s s jön , S can ia N' D' H cn7 ,7' ; .

1 0 00. I r on Age

s c . r o s» _ B 1 0 2 00-

-

EARLY SUB-ATLANT IC

0 -

' " '-

LATE SUB ATLANT IC

Ag •

L ATE SUB BOREAL

Neo• l i th ic

r An i , . ^^,.

_

C

SUB BOREAL -

00-

ne t

-

ATE - mu, L l i T h. A TLANT IC

F ig.24

r

t

P ollen d iagrams f rom S .Sweden w ith t he e xpansion s tages m arked ( after B erglund 1 969)

4 2

The landscape of the district chosen as investigation area is characterized by a flat coastal zone which is, at its widest, about 3km wide. East of the city of Ystad a large marshy area, the Herrestad bog, dominates the landscape. North of the coastal zone a hilly land­ scape, made up of largely till and to a lesser degree of sand of glaci­ fluvial origin. This part of the investigation area is situated about 60-80masl. Two rather large lakes are found in this area, the Krageholms lake and Ellestad lake. Another smaller lake, the Bjarsjoholms lake, was drained in the 19th century. From this lake a well known pollen diagram exists.71 This has long formed the opinion about the development during neolithic times in Scania. The area is drained by two larger rivers, Svarte an and Nybro an. The investigation on the Early Neolithic period started in 1982 with a comprehensive survey of the existing material present in the In the later part of the summer of 1982 a survey of all museums. The survey is not yet ready. This has as an available ground ensued. aim to record concentrations of flint implements, flint debris, ceramics, burnt stone and other features which, taken together, could mean that a settlement is at hand. The area around the Herrestad bog was chosen as a primary area of investigation. During this survey a ra �er large amount of what may be termed settlement sites were registered (Fig.25). These sites are in most cases hard to date with any certainty. In several cases fragments Taken of polished axes and, to lesser degree, ceramics were found. together several sites could be dated to the Early Neolithic or an early part of the Middle Neolithic. Three sites were excavated in 1983: Piledal, Karlsfalt and St. Herrestad.

7

The Piledal site is situated on a sandy ridge, about 15 m sl, in � close approximity to the Herrestad bog. On this site a 1200m large area was investigated and about 450 prehistoric features were investigated. Among them are a 30m long house from the ti�e of the birth of Christ.73 Most of the other features are to be dated to the Iro2 Age was but a culture layer, from the Early Neolithic, about 30 m excavated. This is dated to a late part of the Early Neolithic. Of special interest is a, rather uncertain, house foundation which to a certain degree was overlayered by the culture layer.74 The construc­ tion consists of two rows of roof supporting rows and a possible entrance construction. A second settlement site was excavated in 1983, Karlsfalt.75 This site was situated on a very prominent ridge in the vicinity of the Karlsfalt farm. The ridge is of glaci-fluvial origin and consists of sand and gravel. In the east and north east the ridge falls off towards the Fararp bog where as a yet preliminary pollen diagram exists. This diagram shows 2 marked increase in human activity in To the southwest a marshy valley constitutes a Early Neolithic time. .boundary for the settlement. The largest amount of material derives from a later, Middle Neolithic settlement, but underne h this layer a 9 layer with ceramics from the Early Neolithic was found. The findings consist of sherds and some flint artifacts. Among the ceramic is a fragment of a collared flask. The ornamentation on the sherds is made up of cord and drawn lines on a few belly fragments.

6

43

T he

t hird e xcavation

T his e xcavation h ad

t he

m2 w ere e xcavated.

t ook p lace n ot

f ar

f rom t he s ite a t P iledal.

c haracter o f a t rial e xcavation a nd o nly a

T his

p articular

s ite w as

s ituated a t a l ow,

f ew

s andy

r idge. T o t he n orth a m arshy a rea i s s till n oticeable. T he f inds w ere r ather m eagre. T hey c onsist o f a f ew o rnamented s herds a nd s ome w orked f lints,

a mong

t hem

c onsists l ines o n

o f w hipped y 9rd o n t he u pper p arts o f t he v essels a nd d rawn t he b ellies. T he s ite m ay b e d ated t o t he e arly p art o f t he

M iddle N eolithic F urther

a p art o f a t hin b utted a xe.

( MN I b).

e ast,

i n

T he

. ornamentation

7 8

S t.

K öpinge

( Tingshög),

a n

E arly

N eolithic

s ettlement w as e xcavated i n t he m iddle o f t he 1 970 s. 79 T he m aterial c omprises F unnel B eakers a nd a f ew s herds b elonging t o c ollared f lasks. T he

o rnamentation i s

w hipped

c ord a round

A nother g raves.

l argely m ade u p o f d rawn l ines o n t he b ellies a nd t he o rifices.

i nteresting

a spect

o f

t he p roject

T oday g nly o ne d olmen e xists

i n

i s

h e a rea,

t he

m egalithic

T rollasten i n

S t.

K öpinge p arish. °° O ld m aps f rom t he 1 8th a nd 1 9th c enturies, t hough, r eveal t hat f our, p erhaps e ven a f ew o thers, e xisted i n t he Y stad a rea b efore t he b reaking u p o f t he v illages i n t he b eginning o f t he 1 9th c entury. a t l east

A n e xhaustive s urvey o f o ld l and-surveyor maps r eveals t hat t hree e xisted i n t he S t. H errestad a rea a nd a nother w as

s ituated b etween S t. K öpinge a nd S t. t hree d olmens i n t he v icinity o f S t. p romotory d etermined

s tretching o ut i nto t he H errestad b og. 8 a s t wo l ong d olmens a nd o ne r ound-dolmen.

T hey

m ay

b e

W e n ow l eave t he Y stad r egion a nd t urn t o t he s outhwest. H ere a i nteresting s ettlement s ite a t U . V emmenhög i s b eing e xcavated. 82

v ery T he

H errestad p arishes ( Fig.25). T he H errestad a re s i tu ated a t a s mall

s ite w as

d iscovered d uring a n i ntensive

s urvey a round

t he S kateholm

b og w here t wo e xtensive m esolithic g rave f ields h ave b een e xcavated. 83 T he s ite c onsists o f a c ulture l ayer, w hich c over a r ather l arge a rea. T opographically t he s ite i s s ituated o n a s lope a bout 5 masl. T his s lope c onstitutes t he h ighest s ea l evel d uring t he E arly S ubboreal t ime. T he r esults f rom t he e xcavation a re v ery i nteresting. T he m aterial s o f ar r ecovered i s r ather l arge w ith c eramics, v ery c omprehensive b one m aterial. T he o rnamentation o n m akes

i t

p ossible

t o

d ate

t he

s ite

t o a v ery

l ate p hase

f lint a nd a t he v essels o f

t he

E arly

N eolithic/Early M iddle N eolithic. M ost i nteresting t hough i s t he b one m aterial b ecause i ts v ery s eldom t hat a b one m aterial o f t his m agnitude i s

r ecovered

p reliminary l ike

p ig

f rom a n E arly N eolithic

r eports

t here

( Sus s crofa d omesticus)

a re a lso p resent i n t he ( Capvicolus c apicolus),

s ite.

J udging

f rom

t he

s till

i s a m arked d ominance o f d omesticated a nimals a nd

c attle

( Bos

t aurus).

W ild a nimals

f orm o f r ed d eer ( Cervus e laphus), r oe d eer o tter ( Lutra l utra), g rey s eal ( Halichoerus

g rypus) a nd f ishes l ike b ream p erch ( Pe a f luviatilis), c od

( Abramis b rama), ( Gadus n orrhua)

p ike a nd

( Exos l ucius), e el ( Anguilla

a nguilla). T he p resence o f m akes, a ccording t o o nly

b een u sed a s

s ite a t U . l t Y stad

c attle a nd p igs t he e xcavator,

a h unting-site

l ess

s eem t o b e v ery o bvious. T his t he p ossibility t hat t he s ite h as p robable.

V emmenhög a s a s easonally u sed

i s n ow ( Fig.1).

t ime I n

W e c an m aybe s ee

s ettlement

t he

s ite. 8i

t o c onsider t he H agestad a rea s outh o f t he c ity o f t his a rea s everal s ettlement s ites f rom t he E arly

4 4

F ig.25

M ap o f t he i nvestigation a rea i n s outheastern S cania " The Y stad P roject". D ot i ndicates s ettlement s ite, s mall f lower M esolithic s ites, s tars M egalithic g raves. 1 . K arlsfält 2 . P iledal 3 . S t. K öpinge " Tingshög"

4 5

N eolithic

h ave

b een

e xcavated.

T he

s ites a re

t o

a

l arge

s ituated a round t he H agestad b og a nd h ave b een n amed h unting b e M ärta S trömberg. 86 ites i T he f lint m aterial f rom t hese s s, n ot w orked u p, b ut t he c eramic m aterial h as b een u b y sed H ulthen f or t echnical a nalysis. b y r ather l arge F unnel B eakers.

e xtent s tations a s y et, B irgitta

T he c eramic m aterial i s c haracterized T he o rnamentation c onsists o f d rawn

l ines o n t he b ellies a nd t he u pper p arts o f t he v essels a re l argely w ithout o rnamente p _on. 8/ F rom a F unnel B eaker f ound a t H agestad 9 8:la t here e xists a 1' 4C -dating 2 750 ± 6 5bc f rom f ood r emains i nside t he v essel. A

l arge

s ite,

T ygapil,

r egion. O n t his s ite o f a c ulture l ayer A pproximately i n t he w as a bout l m a cross. o f

t he

T he

s econd h ouse

o ne

h as a lso b een e xcavated

c ame A

i

t he

H agestad

c entre o f t he s tructure a h earth w as f ound. T his N o p ost h oles, h owever, w ere f ound, b ut t he s hape

f oundation w as

p ossible.

r ectangular i n s hape a nd m easuring

T he s tructure w as o riented N -S.

d eep s ide

T he d ating d erives

t wo h ouse f oundations w ere f ound. 89 O ne c onsists w ithin a d e-limited a rea m easuring 6 x 3 m.

s tructure m akes a i nterpretation a s a h ouse

6 .9 x 4 m. 1 0cm l ong

( Lu-1349). 88

I nside

t he s tructure w as a

c ulture l ayer m ixed a bundantly w ith s oot. A long t he w est f our p ost h oles w ere f ound, a nd a t t he w est s ection a nother

t o

l ight.

9 0

t hird c onstruction i s

i nterpreted a s

a p it

h ouse,

a

w orkshop

m aybe. f ill.

I t w as i rregular, m easuring a bout 3 m a cross a nd h ad a 2 2cm d eep T wo p ost-holes w ere f ound. T he i dea o f a w orkshop m ay b e u nder-

l ined

b y

k napping

K ristianstad T he s mall o n, o n

s tones

f lint.

c eramic

m aterial

o pen b owls.

o r b elow t he

a l arge a mount

o f

f lint a nd

f rom T ygapil c onsists

T he o rnamentation i s m ade

t he r im,

b ellies.

a nd

A t otal o f 3 513g o f

s mall

p ieces n o f

s tone w as

f ound 2 1

o f F unnel B eakers a nd

u p o f

s mall

i mpressions

a nd v ertical d ecoration c onsisting o f d rawn l ines

S ome F unnel B eakers

h ave

a n a ll-over d eco

wion o n t he

n eck. T his i s s ometimes m ade u p o f c ord o r t wisted c ord. T he f lint i mplements c onsists o f f lake a nd b lade s crapers, t hin b utted p olished a xes a nd

t ransverse a rrowheads.

N niceable

i s

t hat

t here a re n o

f lake

a xes i n t he m aterial f rom T ygapil. T he s ite m ay b e d ated t o a l ate p art o f t he E arly N eolithic o r t he E arly M iddle N eolithic. T his s ite i s t o b e c onsidered c ontemporaneous w ith t he s maller s ites a round t he H agestad b og. W e

n ow

l eave

S imrishamn.

T he

a lso

c ity

i n

t he

m aterial

f rom

T he

t he i tself,

T he

s ites

i n

F unnel

B eakers

t urn

t o

a re p roblematic b ecause

f rom

b elly o rnamentation,

t o

a rea

a round

S imrishamn,

t hey a lso

a nd

c omprise

c ulture.

t he s ites e xcavated

l ikeness

t he

t he v icinity o f

t he M esolithic E rte l :411e

b lock s how a d istinctive _ kind o f

H agestad a rea a nd

s ettlement

t he o nes

d rawn l ines,

i n

t he

f rom H agestad.

e xists.

L ars

J ohan

T he s ame

9 4

A t S imris 2 :3 a f ew p its a nd a c ulture l ayer, w ere e xcavated. 95 m ajority o f t he m aterial c onsists o f s herds b ecause t he n umber o L :

f lint i mplements a re r ather s mall. p ronounced p redominance f or p nnel t ypes a re m ade u p o f

I n t he B eakers.

c eramic m aterial t here i s I O ther i dentifiable v essel

c ollared f lasks. T he o rnamentation i s t o a l arge e xtent c ord, s tab i mpressions, a nd s hort s trokes o n t he r im f rag -

4 6

m ents. 97

O nly o ne s herd e xhibits d ecoration o n t he b elly i n t he s hape o f s mall i mpressions. T he m aterial w as i nterpreted b y B erta S tjernquist a s o riginating f rom a s ettlement o f s hort d uration a s t he c eramic m aterial i s h omogenous i n a ppearance. A ccording t o S tjernquist t he

s ite m ay b e d ated

f ew

t o

t he C -phase. 98

I n t he n ortheastern a nd c entral p arts o f S cania t here a re o nly a e xgevated E arly N eolithic s ites: V ätteryd, 99 N osaby l" a nd

K iaby. 1" S iretorp i n B lekinge i s a lso d iscy m arked c onnection w ith t he S canlan m aterial.

ed a s

t his

c omplex h as a

V ätteryd w as e xcavated i n 1 957 d ue t o a r oad c onstruction. 1°3 T he f inds c ome f rom a c ulture l ayer s ituated o n a s lope i n t he v icinity o f a s mall b og. M aterial w ise t he s ite i s o f n o g reat s ize. T he f lint i mplements a re, a bove a ll, m ade u p o f f lake s crapers a nd t ransverse a rrowheads. T he c eramic i nventory c omprises F unnel B eakers, l ugged v essels a nd c lay d isks. 104 T he d ecoration i s m ade u p o f c ord. s tab i mpressions, s f4okes a nd, t o a l esser d egrle, o f F urchenstich. 1U5 F rom t he s ite t wo C -datings e nimate. ( U-46) a nd 2 600 ± 1 40bc ( U-47) . 106

T hey g ave t he v alues 2 730

±

1 70bc

T he N osaby c omplex c onsists o f s everal s ites. O n t he s ites c eramics f rom t he E arly N eolithic a nd t he M iddle N eolithic h ave b een f ound. A t N osaby n umber s ix c ord d ecorated s herds a nd f ragments o f c ollared

f lasks

w ere

f ound.

T he s ame t ype o f

1 0/

c eramics

i s

a lso

p resent a t t he s ite N osaby n umber 1 24 108 . A t est e xcavation d uring t he l atter p art o f t he 1 970s b rought f orward s ome s herds w hi a t s how a c lose a ffinity w ith t he a bove m entioned m aterial f rom N osaby. 109 T he s ites a re s ituated o nly a f ew m iles a way f rom e ach o ther. F urther e ast, i n t he c ounty o f B lekinge, t he s ettlement s ites a t S iretorp a re f ound. T he m aterial f rom t he s ites w as p ublished i n 1 939 i n a m onography b y A xel B agge a nd Knut K jellmark. 1 1° A bove a ll i ts t he s tratigraphy w hich h ave b een t he s ubject o f a l ong a ad s omewhat h eated d iscussion. T he s tratigraphy m ay b e s ummarized a s f ollows, s tarting f rom t he b ottom o f t he s equence; l ayer e a nd g F unnel B eaker l ayer c E rteb o ille c ulture l ayer a F unnel B eaker c ulture a nd P itted

W are

m aterial m aterial. T he

c ulture.

i s

s ituated

I ts

r emarkable

b etween

t wo

t hat t he

l ayer

h orizons

w ith

w ith

c ulture, l ayer d E rteb ( 411e

F unnel

B eaker

1 11

F unnel

B eaker c eramics

i nventory c omprises

F unnel

B eakers,

l ugged v essels, b owls a nd c lay d isks. T he m aterial i s m ade u p o f a bout 3 500 s herds o f w hich o nly s even p er c ent i s d ecorated. 112 T he o rnamentation c omprises c ord, t wisted c ord . ? p its, f inger i mpressions, c omb-stamp, d rawn l ines a nd F urchenstich.' 1 3 T he l ast m entioned i s p resent o n o nly t wo s herds. 1 14 C learly d ominant i s d ifferent f orms o f c ord a nd t wisted c ord o rnamentation. 115 T he

f lint

i nventory o n t he s ite i s d ominated b y

f lake

s crapers.

A bout 8 5 p er c ent o f t he f lint i mplements a re f lake s crapers. 1 16 I nteresting i s t hat n o f lake a xes o r b orers w ere f ound i n t he F unnel B eaker l ayers. T he d ating o f t he S iretorp c omplex i s r ather d ifficult. B ecker, i n h is s eminal w ork f rom 1 947, p laced t he F unnel B eaker l ayer i n h is C p hase

( the S outh S wedish l ocal g roup).

4 7

1 17

A n e xcavation i n 1 971

i n t he

v icinity

o f

t he o lder e xcavation h ad a s a r esult

t hat a p rofile

w ith

T wo 1 4 C -datings n ine d ifferent h abitation l ayers w ere o btained. 1 18 e xists f rom t his e xcavation. L ayer 5 w as d ated t o 2 800 6 5bc ( Lu-S77) a nd

l ayer

c ompared

7

t o 2 540

w ith

B ellevuegards

g roup

s titutes p ossible,

f rom T he

a n i nterval i n v iew o f o f

1 19

T he

f irst

d ating

t he M iddle N eolithic.

b een

t hat w e h ave a r ather l ong

b e t he

d ated

t o

p laces

T hese d atings

o f a bout 2 60 c arbon 1 4 y ears t he s mall b ut d istinctive

t he p ottery

m ay

l ater w ith

r adiocarbon d ating 2 540 f rom S iretorp

t he b eginning o f

d ecoration

( Lu-563).

t he C -phase o n Z ealand a nd

i n S outhwestern S cania w hich h ave

b etween 2 750-2600bc. l ayer 7 i n

7 5bc

±

d atings

c on-

a nd i ts q uite c hanges i n t he l ived

h abitation

o n t his s ite. W e c an d iscern a c hange t owards a m ore p ronounced u se o f t wisted c ord i n t he u pper l ayers, t en p er c ent c ompared t o s ix p er c ent i n

t he

l ower

I f

l ayers.

w e

a ffinity

s ummarize

i n

b oth

b etween

S iretorp

Z ealand t hough,

a nd i s

t he d iscussion i ts p ossible

t he

c eramic d ecoration a nd

a nd

t he

i n

t o d etect

t he

I t

i s

m arked

i nventory,

l ike

V irum

o n

B ellevuegarden i n S .W. S cania. A m arked d ifference, t he l arge a mount o f t ransverse a rrowheads i n t he S iretorp

h unting s tations. 1 20 t he f aunal r emains. s ites.

f lint

l ater E arly N eo ithic g roups

m aterial c ompared t o t he o ther g roups. T his a ttributed t o t he f unction o f t he S iretorp s ites.

t he

a

d ifference m ay b e S kaarup c alls t hem

T his n otion i s t o a c ertain d egree c onfirmed b y T his i mplies t hat s eal h unting w as c onducted f rom

1 Z1

n ow t ime

t o

e valuate

t he c hronological d iscussion.

T he O xie

g roup i s n ot, a s y et, r epresented i n t he s outheastern, c entral a nd n ortheastern p arts o f S cania. T his g roup s eems t o b e r estricted t o t he s outhwestern a nd w estern p arts o f S cania. I n t hese p arts i t i s m ainly f ound i n t he h illy l andscape w ith i ts m osaic o f s mall b ogs, l akes a nd s treams a nd w ith a d iversity i n t he c omposition o f t he l andscape n ot f ound i n s ettlement e xtensive

o ther p arts o f S cania. N o e vidence f or t he e xistence o f s ites b elonging t o t his g roup h ave b een f ound d uring t he e xcavations a nd

s urveys

i n t he Y stad a nd H agestad

T he S venstorp g roup, w hich i s c ontemporaneous w ith t he O xie g roup, S cania. o f

C ertain

c ourse

f ound

s outheast,

b ut

t hought i s n ot

t o b e a t l east p artially f ound o utside s outhwestern

d ecorative e lements

l ike c ord a nd

o n s ome o ther

i n w estern

s ites

s tamped d ecoration i s

r egions.

n ot p resent.

" Furchenstich" a re

S cania

a nd

i n

T he S venstorp

t he g roup

m ay p robably b e c ontemporaneous w ith t he S valeklint g roup o n Z ealand. S ites l ike R aga H örstad a nd N . M öinge i n w estern S cania c an b e s een a s b elonging

t o

t his g roup.

T he B ellevuegards a nd i s w estern

s ettlement -b e

g roup

i s

t o b e

p laced a longside V irum i n D enmark

r epresented i n a ll p arts o f S cania. S ites l ike D ösjebro S cania, A lbäcksborg a nd I .Vemmenhog i n t he s outh a nd

p laced

s ites i n

i n

t his

t he Y stad-, g roup.

H agestad- a nd S imrishamn

A c ertain r egionalization,

r egions a re t hough,

m ay

i n t he t o b e

d iscerned i n t he p ottery. C ertain f orms l ike l ugged b eakers a re n ot k nown o utside w estern S cania. O utside S cania t he s ites a t S iretorp i n B lekinge m ay b e s een a s b eing c ontemporaneous w ith t he B ellevuegards g roup.

48

N otes 1 . 2 .

S alomonsson 1 970, p 5 9 N ielsen 1 977, p 6 1 f f

3 .

S kaarup 1 975,

4 . 5 .

L arsson 1 978, p 1 40 f f A ndersen 1 975, p 8

p3 8

f f,

6 .

S alomonsson 1 963,

7 . 8 .

L arsson, M 1984b, p N ielsen 1 977, p 7 2

p 1 13f

p 9 2

9 . 1 0. 1 1.

A ndersen 1 975, p 8 3; T auber 1 971, M adsen a nd P atersen 1 984, p 9 9 S kaarup 1 975, p 2 05, t ab.31

1 2. 1 3. 1 4.

M adsen a nd P etersen 1 984, M adsen a nd P etersen 1 984, Andersen a nd M adsen 1 978,

1 5. 1 6.

S kaarup 1 975, p 2 05, M adsen 1 981, p 9 5 f f

1 7. 1 8. 1 9. 2 0.

M adsen a nd P etersen 1 984, A ndersen 1 981, p 6 8 T horsen 1 981, p 1 05 f f L iversage 1 981, p 9 7

p 1 27;

P ape 1 979,

p4 5 f f

p 9 9 p9 9 p 1 42 f f

t ab.31

p 1 18,

p 1 01

2 1.

L iversage 1 981,

2 2. 2 3. 2 4.

L etter f rom E va K och-Nielsen , S ee 2 2 S ee 2 2

F ig.117

2 5. 2 6.

S kaarup 1 975, p 2 05 B rinch-Petersen 1 974,

2 7. 2 8. 2 9.

T horsen 1 981, S kaarup 1 973, S ee 2 2

N ationalmuseet,

p 1 17 f f

p 1 36 p 1 17

3 0.

M adsen a nd P etersen 1 984,

3 1. 3 2.

L arsson M 1984a, p 4 9 S alomonsson 1 970, p 9 5

3 3. 3 4. 3 5.

S alomonsson 1 970, p 9 5 S alomonsson 1 970, p 9 5 L arsson M 1984a, p 1 65

3 6. 3 7. 3 8.

S trömberg 1 980b, p 4 7 f f B erglund 1 984, p 2 0 f f P eterson 1 975, p 1 5 f f

3 9.

L öfwall 1 977,

4 0. 4 1.

P etré a nd S trömberg 1 958, O hlsson 1 971, p 2 9

p9 9

p 1 f f

4 2.

J ennbert 1 984,

p2 1

4 3.

P etersen 1 975,

p 5 ;

4 4. 4 5.

P etr6 a nd S trömberg 1 958, L öfwall 1 977, p 1 8,27

4 6. 4 7.

L öfwall 1 977, L öfwall 1 977,

p 1 9 p 7 p 2 9

p7 4 f f

F orssander 1 936a,

4 8.

O hlsson 1 971,

4 9.

J ennbert 1 984,

p2 1

5 0.

J ennbert 1 984,

p 6 0 F ig.49

p 7 8

f f

4 9

p 2 f f

C openhagen 8 21005

5 1.

W yszormirski 1 974,

5 2. 5 3.

J ennbert 1 984, p 5 9 N agmer 1 980, p 6

p5 7

f f

5 4. 5 5. 5 6.

B agge 1 942, p 7 0 S alomonsson 1 970, B agge 1 942, p 7 1,

5 7. 5 8.

L arsson a nd L arsson 1 984, T esch 1 983, p 3 7

p 2 6

5 9. 6 0.

L arsson a nd L arsson 1 984, S trömberg 1 978, p 6 9 f f

p 5 0 f f

6 1. 6 2. 6 3.

H ulthen 1 977, H ulthen 1 977, H ulthen 1 977,

p8 1 n ote 1 p 8 2 p8 5

6 4.

H ulthen 1 977,

p 8 3

6 5. 6 6. 6 7. 6 8.

H ulthen 1 977, p 8 6 S trömberg 1 976, p 3 0 S trömberg 1 976, p 3 0 S tjernquist 1 965, p 3 2

p 7 9, F ig.13b F ig.le f f

6 9.

B erglund a nd S tjernquist 1 981,

7 0. 7 1.

B erglund 1 969, p 1 5 N ilsson 1 961, B ilaga 1

7 2. 7 3. 7 4. 7 5.

L arsson L arsson L arsson L arsson

7 6. 7 7.

L arsson a nd L arsson 1 984, L arsson a nd L arsson 1 984,

p 5 3 f f p4 5 f f p 4 6

a nd a nd a nd a nd

L arsson L arsson L arsson L arsson

1 984, 1 984, 1 984, 1 984,

p p p p

2 2 3 8 f f 3 0 5 0 f f,

7 8.

L arsson a nd L arsson 1 984,

7 9. 8 0. 8 1.

T esch 1 983, p 4 8, F ig.30a S trömberg 1 968, p 1 7 f f L arsson a nd L arsson 1 984, p 4 9,

8 2. 8 3. 8 4.

L arsson 1 983, p 3 6 f f ; L arsson 1 984a, p 5 f f L arsson 1 983, p 3 9

8 5.

L arsson 1 983,

S trömberg 1 978,

8 7. 8 8.

H ulthen 1 977, p 5 2 f f S trömberg 1 978, p 8 0

L arsson 1 984b,

p8 2

8 9.

S trömberg 1 978,

p6 9

9 0. 9 1.

S trömberg 1 978, S trömberg 1 978,

p 7 3 f f p 7 8

9 2. 9 3.

S trömberg 1 978, S trömberg 1 978,

p 7 4 f f p 7 6

9 4.

S trömberg 1 976,

p 3 0 f f

9 5. 9 6. 9 7.

S tjernquist 1 965, S tjernquist 1 951, S tjernquist 1 965,

p 3 2 f f p 2 67 p 5 1

9 8.

S tjernquist 1 965,

p 5 1

9 9.

P etre a nd S trömberg 1 958, K aelas 1 953,

L arsson

f f

p8 6

p4 1

5 0

( n.d.

F ig.4 p 2 5

p3 9

8 6.

1 00.

p 2 0 f f

f f

p 7 7

f f

i n p rint

1 01.

J akobsson 1 980,

1 02.

B agge a nd K jellmark 1 939,

p 2 f f p 1 5

1 03.

P etr2 a nd S trömberg 1 958,

p 8 6

f f

1 04.

P etr

a nd S trömberg 1 958,

p 8 6

1 05. 1 06.

P etrê a nd S trömberg 1 958, T illander 1 958, p 1 00

p 8 6

1 07. 1 08.

S tjernquist 1 951, K aelas 1 953, p 4 1

1 09.

J akobsson 1 980,

1 10.

B agge a nd K jellmark 1 939,

p 1 5 f f

1 11.

B agge a nd K jellmark 1 939,

p 1 34

1 12.

B agge a nd K jellmark 1 939,

p 1 16;

1 13.

B agge a nd K jellmark 1 939,

p 1 16

1 14.

B agge a nd K jellmark 1 939,

p 1 18

1 15.

B agge a nd K jellmark 1 939,

p 1 19

1 16. 1 17.

B agge a nd K jellmark 1 939, B ecker 1 949, p 1 62 f f

p 1 26

p 2 67

p 3 f f

1 18.

B erglund a nd W elinder 1 972,

p 7 6

1 19. 1 20.

B erglund a nd W elinder 1 972, S kaarup 1 973, p 1 32

p 9 0

1 21.

D ahr 1 939,

p 2 43,

t ab.2

n ote 1

f f

f f

C hapter 3 :

T he S ettlement s ystem o f

t he E arly N eolithic F unnel

B eaker c ulture i n S outh W estern S cania,

3 .1

S weden

S ite c atchment a nalysis - a r eview I n

t his

c hapter t he e ssential c haracteristics o f

" site-catchment"

a nalysis a re r eviewed. T o f aciliate a n u nderstanding o f t he i ts b ackground i n C entral P lace T heory ( CPT) i s d iscussed. F our C hisholm T hünens

f undamental

w orks b y v on

T hünen,

a re r eferred t o i n t he p rocess. s eminal w ork " Der I solierter

C hristaller,

m ethod,

L ösch

a nd

T he s tarting p oint i n S taat i n B eziehung

v on a uf

L andwirtschaft", i s t hat i t e xists i n a n i solated s tate w ithout c on t acts w ith t he o utside w orld. 1 V on T hünens m ain i ssue i s t he d evelopm ent o f a s pecific f arming s ystem ; D ue t o t he r aising c osts o f t ransport s ix p roduction z ones d evelop a round t he c entral c ity. 2 E ach o ne h as a v ery s pecialised m ode o f p roduction. T he c ost o f t ransport i s o f

t he g reatest i mportance i n v on T hünens m odel.

W alter C hristaller, i n h is w ork f rom 1 933 " Die Z entralen O rte i n S üdDeutschland", s tarts f rom t he h ypothesis t hat t here e xist c entral p laces o r c ities. A c entral p lace i s d efined a s a p lace o f f undamental i mportance f or t he s urrounding a rea o r t o w hich d egree t he p lace h ave c entral f unctio r s uch a s h ospitals, c ommunications, c entral g overnment a nd

f actories.

a round

L ösch

A s ystem d evelops i n w hi 0 c entral p laces a re g rouped

t he p lace w ith t he h ighest r anking.'

T he m odel d eveloped b y C hristaller w as f urther r efined b y A ugust i n 1 940, " Die r äumliche O rdnung d er W irtschaft". 5 L ösch's w ork

i s e specially c oncerned w ith t he r anking o f t he c entral p laces. r esulting m odel i s l ess r igid t han C hristaller's. T owns o f t he

T he s ame

s ize m ay h ave d ifferent f unctions i n a s ystem. 6 A round e ach l arge c ity, w ith i ts o wn m arket, t here i s a c oncentrical g rouping o f c ompeti ng c ities.

B etween l arger c entral p laces,

t here e xist s maller c 4ties.

T hese a re o ften p laced h alfway b etween t he l arger c entral p laces. A nother

w ork

o f

i mportance i s M ichael

C hisholm's

w ork

" Rural

S ettlement a nd L and U se" f irst p ublished i n 1 962. 8 T he s t ar ting p oint i s v on T hünens's i deas a bout t he c ost o f t ransportation. C hisholm s tudies m odern a griculture a nd n oticed t hat a bout l km f rom t he f arm t he n et

i ncome

-d rastically

s everely d rops. B etween 3 -4km f rom t he f arm d rops s o t hat a griculture i s n ot p rofitable. 1°

A ccording

t o t hese w orks,

t he

t he d istances o perating i n t he

i ncome

f ollowing

r elationships a re c rucial: f armer/work, m anufacturer/consumer a nd c onsumer/central p lace. T he c ost, i n t erms o f l abour a nd t ime, g overn t he

l ocalisation o f

t he a rea w here a p opulation s ettle.

C PT d eals w ith

i ssues w hich m ay b e a ssumed t o b e f undamental i n a s tudy o f p rehistoric e conomies. T hese i ssues a re a nything b ut u niform ; f or i nstance, t he

5 3

i mportance f actor,

o f

t ransportation c osts,

t he c ost

o f

l abour,

t he

t ime

a nd l and u tilisation - a s w ell a s p roblems a ssociated w ith t his

m atter - s uch a s t he c ultivation p otential o f v arious t ypes o f l and a re a ll i nvolved. C PT i s, t hough, a v ital c omponent i n d iscussions c oncerning s ettlement s ystems. T hese t heories a re h ighly s ignificant i n s tudies o f t he i nterralationships o f d ifferent s ettlement a reas a nd t heir i nteraction w ithin a s ystem. T he a bove m ay b e s een a s a n i ntroduction t o " Site c atchment a nalysis." T his i s n ot t he p lace t o d iscuss i n a ny d etail t he v ast l iterature c oncerning t his m ethod b ut a b rief s ummary i s n ecessary, t hough.

1 970

F our 1 . 2 .

T he m ethod w as a dapted f or a rchaeology b y H iggs a nd V ita-Finzi i n 1 1 a nd h as b een a pplied i n a n umber o f w idely d ivergent a reas. f orms o f

s tudies,

w here

t he m ethod i s u sed,

c an b e d iscerned.

1 2

H ypotheses c oncerning t he e conomic b asis o f a s pecific s ite. T he r elationship b etween t he l ocalisation a nd e conomic p otential o f a s ite.

3 .

D iffering a spects o f e conomy b etween d ifferent c ultural g roups.

4 .

E cological s tudies o f a s pecific s ite.

W orks b y t he f ollowing a re a ll e xamples o f t he f our a spects m entioned a bove: e nnel a nd W ebley, 13 H i s a nd V ita ll inzi, 14 J a mu l e t

a l.,

1 5

H es 5 torf, " ' T iff a ny a nd

S akellaridis,

Z velebil,

O ther a spects o f a n p conomi b y,

a mong o thers, K osse, 24

A bb

H awke-Smith

W,

B akels,

F lannery, '

a nd W elinder.

2 3

a rchaeology h ave b een b rought f orward

K ruk 2D

a nd L inke. 26

K osse h as a g eographical-ecological a pproach. S he t hinks t hat a r econstruction o f t he r elationship b etween m an a nd e nvironment n eeds a n a nalysis o f t he r elevant e cological d ata a nd a s ynthesis i n w hich t he e cological a nd c ultural d ata a re i ntegrated. K ruk

d oes n ot u se

t he

2 7

t erm " site c atchment"

a t a ll.

I nstead

h e

c alls h is w ork a s tudy o f s ettlement p atterns. 28 T he e cological a pproach i s n ot s tressed i n t he s ame w ay. A ccording t o Kruk N eolithic s ocieties c hoose t he m ost f avourable ueas f or s ettlement i nstead o f a dopting t o t he l ess f avourable a reas. 7 `T he l ocalisation a re c ulturally c onditioned. A

t hird

t ype

o f

w ork

f actors

t hat g overned

t he

i s

r epresented b y L inke. H e h as a H i s a i m i s t o d e t e r m i n e a n d h istorical-geographical a pproach. 3u d ifferentiate t he n eolithic c ultures b y t heir c hoice o f s ettlement g ite. 31

3 .2

M ethods o f i nvestigation

T he p urpose o f i rregularities, t hat p attern

t he p resent i nvestigation i s t o i nvestigate t he h ave b een o bserved, c oncerning t he s ettement

o f E arly N eolithic g roups. 5 4

C hanges

i n t his p attern w hich c an

b e r ecorded w ithin a l imited g eographical a rea - s outhwestern S cania w ill b e d iscussed,

I n h uman s ocieties, s ize

o f

t he

-

t oo. v arious f actors h ave b een f ound

a rea t hat h ave b een u tilised a round ne

t o a ffect

s ite

w ith

t he t he

s mallest p ossible c ontribution o f l abour a nd t ime. W ith - r egard t o t he t ype o f f arming t hat h ave b een a ssumed t o h ave p revailed d uring t he E arly N eolithic i n S outhern S candinavia - t hat i s s lash a nd b urn - a t erritory w ith a l km r adius w ill p robably h ave b een t he m ost i ntensively u tilised a rea. I n t his s tudy a n a reas w ith a r adius o f l km w ill h ence b e r eferred t o a s t he " site t erritory". B akels h as, i n a c ollation o f i nformation r egarding s ocieties w ith a s lash a nd b urn t ype f arming e conomy, g hown t hat t hese s ocieties s eldom e xceed a t erritory o ver l km i n r adius. 33 W ithin t he c hosen " site t erritory", t he n atural e nvironment w ill b e r econstructed i n a n a ttempt t o g rasp t he e conomical p otential o f t he r elevant s ite. F our

k inds

o f m aterial a re u sed

i n t he

n amely, p ollen d iagrams, s oil-type c harts, i dentification i nvestigations. A s a rea,

r econstruction

p rocess,

o ld m ap m aterial a nd w ood-

t here a re n o w orked u p p ollen d iagrams f or t he i nvestigation o ne d ia gem e xists, t hough , b ut t his o nly s hows t he c omposition

o f t he f orest, J " ' i nformation h ave t o b e t aken f rom a djacent d istricts. T he m ost u seful o nes r efer t o B järsjöholmssjön ( lake) i n s outheastern S cania 35 D iagrams a nd t he B arsebäcksmosse ( bog) i n w estern S cania. 36 f rom D enmark ,

E ngland,

f or a dditional

i nformation.

T he

I reland a nd t he N etherlands h ave b een

s tudied

s oil-type c harts a re h elpful w hen i nvestigating c hanges

i n t he

c hoice o f s ettlement a reas a nd e stablishing t he s oil t ypes t hat w ere p referred d uring t he E arly N eolithic p eriod. T hese c harts a re s upplem ented b y o lder m ap m aterial a s t he S canian R econnaissance M ap f rom a pproximately 1 812; 3 7 a bove a ll t hey f aciliate s tudies o f t he e xtension o f

t he m arshes b efore

t he g reat d raining p rojects t hat

b egan

i n t he 1 9th c entury. T he w ood-identification i nvestigations o f

c harcoal

f rom t he

s ites

c ontributes a dditional i nsights, u nfortunately t hough, t he m aterial i s s canty, w hich m akes e valuations d ifficult. S till, t he r esults o f t he a nalyses g ive a n i dea o f t he s ite s urroundings, a s w ood f or f uel d id n ot

c ome

3 .3 3 .3.1

f rom v ery

f ar a way.

T he E arly N eolithic l andscape T he e lm d ecline T he

i nterpretation

o f

t he e lm d ecline

( Ulmus

d ecline)

a t

t he

A tlantic/Subboreal t ransition i s o f g reat i mportance f or t he d iscussion c oncerning t he d evelopment d uring t he E arly N eolithic p eriod. I n t his c hapter t he d iscussion o f t he l ast f ew d ecades w ill b e s ummarized. T he e lm d ecline c an b e o bserved

i n t he p ollen d iagrams a s a m arked

d ecrease i n t he p ollen c urves o f e lm ( Ulmus), o ak ( Tilia) a nd a sh ( Fraxinus). A t t he s ame t ime t he c ereals,

p lantain

( Plantago l anceolata)

5 5

( Quercus), l ime f irst s igns o f

a nd p lantain m ajor

( Plantago

m ajor)

o ccur.

T he

f irst o ne

t o

i nterpret

t he e lm d ecline a s e vidence

f or t he p resence o f N eolithic m an, w as J ohannes I versen i n 1 941. 3 8 i n I versen d ivided w hat h e c alled t he " Landnam" p hase i nto t hree s tages :" 1 .

P hase o f a ctual c learance.

2 .

F arming p hase.

3 .

R egeneration o f

t he m ajor

f orest e lements.

F rom a b og a t D raved, i n s outhern J utlapd, c omes a p ollen d iagram i n w hich t wo c harcoal h orizons c an b e s een.' ° T he f irst i s c onnected w ith t he T he

p resence o f p lantain a nd a d ecrease i n t he p ollen c urve o f e lm. 41 o ther c harcoal h orizon i s s een h igher u p i n t he d iagram. I n

c onnection w ith t his t he s ame e vidence f or a c learance p hase i s e vident. T he f indings o f c harcoal i n c onnection w ith t he e lm d ecline a re h ad

i nterpreted a s e vidence f or s lash-and-burn a griculture. t he o pinion t hat t his 42f irst c learance p hase w as o f

d uration ,

I versen a s hort

a bout 5 0-100 y ears.

T he e lm d ecline c an b e

I A p ollen d iagrams f rom t he w hole o f

s tudied

N orthwestern E urope a nd a vailable

1 4

C -datings s how a m arked a greement.

T he e lm d ecline a t t he A tlantic-Sub B oareal t ransition i s b y n o m eans, t hough , t he f irst e vidence f or c learance i n t he A tlantic c limax f orest. I n t he L ake-District o f n orthwestern E ngland, s everal i ndicat ions o f c learance h ave b een r ecorded i n t he p ollen d iagrams. 50 T hey h ave b een d ated t o b etween 3 700bc a nd 3 100bc. I n c onnection w ith t hese c learances t here a re s mall, b ut c onsistent, o ccurrences o f g rass ( Gramineae) a nd b racken ( Pteridium). 51 T hese c learings a re t oday o ften v iewed a s t he e ffects o f M esolithic m an, p erhaps a s a w ay t o o btain b etter g razing l and f or r ed d eer. . 5 2 I n a p ollen d iagram f rom B allyscullion, N orthern I reland, t here i s e vidence f or s everal, s mall c learances. T he o ldest i s d ated t o a bout 3 700bc. 53 O ne h ypothesis, s uggested b y t he S wedish a rchaeologist G öran B urenhult, i s t hat t hese c learances a re t he r esults o f t he a ivity o f s mall N eolithic g roups. A s a s upport f or h is h ypothesis a C -dating f rom a M egalithic g rave i n t he v icinity o f C arrowmore h as b een p resented. T he

T he d ating i s 3 800 ± 8 5bc

( Lu-1840). 54

S wedish q uaternary g eologist H ans G öransson i s o f

t he o pinion

t hat t he s mall c learances, r ecorded a round C arrowmore, w ere m ade i n t he p rimeveal f orest t o f avour g razing l and f or c attle a nd p rovide b etter c onditions f or h azel. 55 T he s ame t ype o f c learances h ave b een o bserved i n p ollen d iagrams f rom S weden a nd D enmark . I n t his c ontext o nly a f ew c an b e m entione ü B järsjöholmssjön ( lake), 56 F ararpsmosse ( bog) 5 / a nd V asasjön ( lake) S weden)

w

i n S outheastgrn S cania a nd D agsmosse

a nd O rdrup m ose

( bog) 59

o n Z ealand

( Eastern

m iddle

( Denmark).

I n t he f irst t hree d iagrams a d istinctive r ise i n t he c urves o f p lantain a nd i vy ( Hedera) c an b e s een d uring A tlantic t ime, w ell b efore t he e lm d ecline. I n t he d iagrams f rom F ararp a nd V asasjön t hese c learances a re d ated t o a bout 3 700bc 60 T he s till p reliminary r esults o f a nalyses b y H ans G öransson f rom D agsmosse s how d istinct o penings t he f orest a bout 2 00-250 y ears b efore t he e lm d ecline, w hich D agsmosse i s

1 4

C -dated

t o 3 250bc. 61 5 6

I n t his c ontext G öransson's

i n i n

f inds

o f

c ereals a t

t his

62 l evel a re v ery e xciting .

P lace

D ate b c

D raved m ose,

D enm

+ 3 03Q-100

e 43

A geröd V I, S weden M abo m osse, S weden 45

K - 7 38 L u-1157

3 290±1 0 0 + 3 180- 65 3 39 4120 3 150-420 + 2 8967 6 0 3 195- 7 0

B arfield T arn, E ng 4nd 46 B lea T arn, E ngland'' 4 8 B allyscullion , I relan 9L B allynagilly, I reland " T able 2 .

L ab n r.

T he d ating o f

L u-1121 K 1097 K - 9 57 U B- 1 13 U B- 2 53

t he U lmus-decline

D uring t he l ast d ecade t he t raditional p icture o f a p rimeval f orest, w hich c overed m ost o f E urope a nd w as i mpenetrable, h as b een s everely q uestioned, a s m entioned a bove. I n s everal p ollen d iagrams c learances h ave b een o bserved, a nd t hese h ave l ately b een i nterpreted a s c aused b y M esolithic m an. 63 T hese o penings o f t he f orest h ad a t l east o ne e ffect, t hat b etter g razing l and w as o btained f or, a mong o thers, a urochs a nd r ed d eer. I n C alifornia a v ery m arked r ise i n t he n umber o f d 29r w as o bserved i n a n a rea, w hich h ad b een e xposed t o f orest f ire."' T his e ffect w as r educed a fter a bout 1 0-25 y ears, t he v egetation r ecovered i ts f ormer h eight a nd d ensity.

w hen

I versen's a rchaeologists

m ost b een

o riginal m odel f rom 1 941 w as s oon a ccepted b y a nd q uaternary b iologists b ut s ome c riticism h as

p ut f orward, a nd d uring t he l ast f ew y ears s everal a rchaeologists h ave d iscussed t he e lm d ecline a nd a lternative i nterpretations h ave b een s uggested. T he S wedish q uaternary g eologist T age N ilsson i nterpreted t he d ecline a s c aused b y a c limalic c hange d uring t he t ransition f rom

e lm t he

A tlantic t o t he S ub B oreal." 5 A c limatic c hange i s a ctually s een i n s everal p ollen d iagrams f rom b ogs i n N orthwestern E urope. A l ow d egree o f p eat h umification h as b een o bserved i n c .f. E ngland a nd D enmark. " T his i ndicates a h umid c limate w ith a h igh d egree o f r ainfall. I n t he D raved b og o n J utland, A gby h as s tudied t he d egree o f p eat h umificat ion. o ccurs

A ccording t o a 14 C -dating a l ow d egree o f p eat h umification a bout 3 110bc. " T his i s s omewhat p grlier t han t he e lm d ecline,

w hich i n D raved h as b een d ated t o 3 030bc." T hese r ezults h ave b een c onfirmed b y s tudies o f l ake-level f luctuations. / 0 A c limatic d eterioration w ith d ecreased m ean t emperatures a nd p robable i ncrease i n h umidity s tarted f rom c a 3 050bc. / 1 R owley-Conwy s lash-and-burn

h as

i n s everal w orks d iscussed

a griculture.

I n

1 982

h e s aid

t he e lm d ecline

t hat

" It

t heories o f a n a nthropogenic c ause o f t he e lm d ecline a ; r uled o ut b y t he s cale o f t he o perations t hey d emand". " d ecline

h as a lso b een d iscussed b y s everal a rchaeologists

s eems

a nd t hat

v irtually T he e lm d uring

t he

l ast f ew d ecades. T roels-Smith , a D anish q uaternary g eologist/ a rchaeologist w as i n t he l ight o f t horough p ollen a nalytical i nvestigat ions i n t he S tora A amosen b og o n Z ealand, a ble t o n ote s mall, b ut c onsistent,

t races o f

f arming p recisely a t

5 7

t he e lm d ecline a t a

l ower

l evel

t han

t he

l andnam p hase. 73

p ollen

o f c ereals,

t races

o f w ild g arlic

c ontained

n o

f odder. c attle

o bserved

( Plantago m ajor)

a nd

T he p ollen a nalytical

g

P asture o r

i ndicating

s hamrock

l ater

i ncluded w ild g arlic

( Viscum a lbum)

a s

f ew d ata

p lants

l ike

( Trifolium r epens)

f eatures a re e xplained b y s uggesting t hat r ange f reely. E lm w as i nstead u sed a s

1 . 5 1d m istletoe

w ere a

c attle c attle

( Allium u rsinum),

p ossible

s pecies u sed

a s

f odder.

T hat b een w as

o f p asture.

T roels-Smith

/ 6

( Hedera)

t races w hich h e

( Plantago l anceolata)

a bsent. T hese n ot a llowed t o

i vy

T he

l eaved p lanta39

( Allium u rsinum).

e vidence

r ibworth p lay ain a re w as

b road

l eaves w ere u sed a s

f odder d uring E arly N eolithic

t ime

h as

r ecorded i n t he S wiss l ake-dwelling s ite W eier w here l eaf f odder f ound i n w hat i s u sually i nterpreted a s a s tall. T he f ollowing

s pecies w ere T he

r ecorded:

d ating

o f

e lm,

t his

b irch,

o ak,

f irst L andnam p hase

a bove m entioned D 9xed b og o n J utland, ± . 1 0g4c 7 41).

l ime,

a sh a nd m aple. i s

7 8

i nteres nng.

t here e xists a

F rom t he

C -dating ;

3 030

( K-738). 7 T he e lm d ecline e nds a t a bout 2 930 ± . 1 10bc ( KT he c learances s eem t o h ave h ad a v ery l imited e xistence

a round D raved. T roels-Smith

i nterprets

t hese e arly c learances

a s

e vidence

f or

f arming a nd s tabled c attle. 81 T his f irst l andnam i s c alled t he A l andnam a nd i s b y T roels-Smith c onnected w ith t he A -phase o f t he F unnel B eaker c ulture. 82 T he s econd l andnam p hase i s c alled t he ß -landnam a nd c onnected w ith t he B -phase o f t he F unnel B eaker c ulture. 83 T his p hase h ave b een

1 4

C -dated

W e w ill 1 969

a ble

n ow

i n D enmark t o b etween 2 640-2530bc. 84

t urn

t o

t he S wedish m aterial.

B jörn B erglund w as

t o d istinguish f our e xpansion s tages

i n ne

p ollen

i n

d iagram

f rom B järsjöholmssjön ( lake) i n s outheastern S cania. ° ' ( Fig.24). T hese w ere d ated t o t he e arly N eolithic, M iddle N eolithic, t he b eginning o f t he

B ronze A ge

a nd

t he V iking A ge. 86

The

f irst

t wo p hases c orresponding t o t he A -landnam a nd f irst i s d ated t o a bout 3 000bc w hile t he s econd 2 600bc. 88 I n

f our

s tudies H ans G öransson h as

s tage

c an b e

d ig3ded

i n

t he B -landnam. T he i s d ated t o a bout 2 700-

d evelopge

a n ew

a nd

e xciting

m odel f or t he d evelopment o f N eolithic f arming. T he b asic m aterial d erives f rom p ollen d iagrams f rom e astern m iddle S weden, a nd t o a c ertain d egree I reland. 1 .

G irdling i s

2 .

d ated

o f

t rees

i n c onnection w ith

t he e lm d ecline.

T his p hase

t o a bout 3 200bc.

S lash-and-burn a griculture

c oupled w ith

f ree

r anging

c attle;

3 200-

2 550bc. 3 .

C oppice w oods,

P hase w hich

1

P hase 2 t his

i ndicates a g irdling o f

a re

g irdling

" regeneration p hase"

c onsumed

t he w oods a s

p hase.

a f ire I n

b y a re

t he

f ree

f orest w ish

r anging

t ransformed

p hase.

t he t o

E lm a nd

a bout 2 550bc. "

c attle.

l ine

g rowing

s prouts

A s a R e ffect o f

s hrub-vegetation. r each a v ery

t he p ollen d iagrams a m arked

5 8

1

f ast

i ncrease

t he

7 2

l ow l imit d uring i n

t he

c urves o f

a spen

( Populus)

c omprises P hase 3

a nd

b racken

t he w hole o f i s

a n ew

( Pteridium)

i s

t he E arly N eolithic.

i nterpretation o f

o bserved.

T his

s tage

9 3

t he r egeneration s tage o bserved

i n

p ollen d iagrams i n S outh S candinavia a t t he b eginning o f t he M iddle N eolithic a bout 2 600-2500bc. S hortly t hereafter t he f orest i s a gain o pened a nd

j uniper

A ccording

t o

t ransformed

( Juniperus)

i s v isible

H ans G öransson t his

t o

A lready

i n t he d iagrams.

i ndicates

t hat

9 4

t he w oods

a re

b eing

c oppice w oods. i n

t he 1 920-30s

t he S wedish e cologist M arten S jöbäck

w as

o f t he o pinion t hat c oppice w oods w as a f eature o f t he a ncient c ultural l andscape ?' C oppice w ood m ean t hat g rowing t rees a re c ut a t t he b ase which

r esults

i n l uxuriant

l ime a nd a sh w ere main s tem a bove o ne

s ggout

g razing

i s

s prouts.

p ollarded. l evel.

a llowed

A ccording t o G öransson b oth e lm,

P ollarding m eans T hese a re

t o g row

t his

t he c utting b ack o f

c ut e ach t hird y ear.

c an

b e

p ollarded

t he

I f o nly

a fter

1 0-20

y ears. T his t he

n ew m odel

f orest

d uring

s uggests

t he M iddle N eolithic, 1 0-20

y ears

c oppice w ood w as

n aturally I t

o ld

c oppice w ood w as

f avoured i s

n ow

a t ransition f rom a n e xtensive u se o f t o a m ore

a bout 2 600-2500bc.

A s

t he

t hat

t he E arly N eolithic

c ut

c ut,

i ntensive

t ime

t o

e valuate a nd

d uring

n ot w ith f ire b ut w ith a n

d own l ighter

c onditions p revailed,

t he a ppearance o f a g reen s ward.

t he e lm d ecline.

u se

E very y ear a s mall a rea w ith

s ummarize

a xe.

a nd

t his

9 7

t he d iscussion r egarding

T he m ain d ifficulty r egarding

t he e lm d ecline

i s

t he

d iscrepancy b etween t he d ating o f t he d ecline a nd t he d ating o f t he e arly F unnel B eaker c ulture. T he a verage d ating o f t he e lm d ecline i s 3 200bc i n S outhern S candinavia a nd t he e arliest d atings o f t he F unnel B eaker c ulture a re a bout 1 00-200 y ears y ounger. T he c lassical l andnam p hase i s d ated t o a bout 2 700-2600bc. T he q uestion i s w hether t he e lm d ecline

i s a nthropogenic o r n ot.

N etherlands,

w here

T he s ame p roblem i s p resent i n

t he F unnel B e

er c ulture

t he

i s k nown a rchaeologically

o nly f rom 2 700-2600bc o nwards. 98 B akker s uggests t hat a n a grari a n S wifterbant c ulture m ay h ave e xisted a t t he t ime o f t he e lm d ecline. 9 F or

s outhern S candinavia,

J ennbert h as a lso p roposed

c ulture,

t o a c ertain d egree,

c ouple o f

f inds

L ately, u

w as

t hat

t he E rte Wlle

h alf

T his

i s

t he

f irst A -lendnam,

o f c arbonised g rains

T roels-Smith h as d ated

p ollen a nalytical w ork ,

a graria n . 0 1 0 i n s herds.

o n J utland

t o 3 200bc.

T his

1 01

b ased

o n i s

t he

o n a

b asis

b ased o n a

C -dating f rom a l ayer n ear t he c lassical s ite B arkaer. A ccording t o T roels-Smith t his p hase i s c onnected w ith t hin-butted a xes a nd p ossibly c opper. 102 T he d a Ung i s v ery e arly a nd i s d ifficult t o e valuate. W e d o

n ot

h ave a ny

c ulture. t he

p lace

f or

N orthwest E urope, a bout

L %-datings

A nyhow, a

i t

r aises

l engthy b ut

a s e arly a s s ome

d iscussion

b etween

t he

f rom t he

a bout

a f ew r emarks a re

t he E arly N eolithic s ettlement C ontacts

t his

i nteresting q uestions. t he

n ecessary

F unnel

i s

n ot

n eolithiations

o f

t o m ake a d iscussion

s ystem p ossible.

l ate B andkeramik g roups,

l ike R össen,

E rte 1 :411e/Ellerbek c ulture a re s een i n t he m aterial f rom s outheast o f H amburg o n t he n orthern s hore o f t he r iver E lbe. s tratigraphy,

o r

c losed p its,

h as

b een

5 9

B eaker

T his

f ound b ut

t he m aterial

a nd

t he

B oberg, 1 03

i s

N o r ather

l arge.

F inds o f b oth E rtebSlle-type v essels a nd l ate S tichbandkeramik

v essels h ave b e p m ade.

1 04 A nother i nteresting s ite i s H i lde-Dümmer i n N iedersachsen. O n t his s ite w e h ave e vidence f or l ocally d eveloped v essel-types a nd o rnamentation w hich c learly a re 4 .fluenced b y t he l ate S tichbandkeramik g roups l ike B ischeim a nd R össen.'"' T he s ite h as b een

i nterpreted

a s a h unting s tatfo9 w ith t he b ase c amp s ituated n ot

v ery

f ar a way o n a s andy r idge. ° T he a rea a round t he l ake D ümmer c onstitutes a n a rea w here c ontacts b etween t he l ocal M esolithic p opulat ion a nd t he N eolithic p opulation o f t he l ate S tichbandkeramik w ere p ossible. T he n orthern p arts o f N iedersachsen i s a m arginal a rea i n t he

s ettlement h istory o f

S tichbandkeramik g roups.

I n S chleswig/Holstein s everal w orks, r eferred t o

W

( Northwestern G ermany) S chwabedissen h as, i n t he a ffinity b etween t he E rte l :411e/ E llerbek

t ure a nd t he e arly F unnel B eaker c ulture. 108 T he f irst m entioned i s C -dated t o b etween 4 200-3520bc a nd t he S atrup g roup, w hich c omprise t he F unnel B eaker c ulture, i s d ated t o b etween 3 100-2770bc. S chwabedissen h as b een a ble t o f ill t his g ap d ue t o i ntensive e xcavat ion a nd s urvey w ork i n S chleswig/Holstein . H e h as d iscerned a p hase, t he R osenhof g roup, w hich f its w ell i nto t he c hronological g ap d iscussed a bove. R osenhof g roup

T his g roup i s 14 C -dated b etween 3 510-3130bc. 109 T he h as a c lose r esemblance t o t he M ichelsberg c ulture i n

i ts c eramic t echnology a nd s tyle. 1 10 T he a ffinity t owards t he E rteb$11e/Ellerbek c ulture c an b e d iscerned i n t he " Lamps", t ypical f or t his c ulture, T he

a nd i n t he f lint a ssembly,

R osenhof

g roup,

w hich

f or e xample t he

c onstitutes

a

f lake a xes.

c hronological

1 11

p hase

b etween t he E rte Wlle/Ellerbek c ulture a nd t he f ully d eveloped E arly N eolithic F unnel B eaker c ulture, i s n ot y et p ossible t o d etect i n s outhern S candinavia. L ately J ennbert h as a rgued t hat w e i n S . S candinavia h ave t he s ame t ype o f s ettlement a s i n S chleswig/ H olstein. 1 12 S oldattorpet m akes a n c ertainty

T he p roblem w ith t hese s ites, L öddesborg, a nd o thers, i s t he s tratigraphy w hich i n s everal

e valuation p rove t he

o f t he s ite d ifficult. W e c annot e xistence o f a R osenhof type g roup

V ik, c ases

w ith a ny i n S outh

S candinavia. T oday w e c an, h owever, d iscern a n e arly, p ossibly, a grarian p hase w ell b efore t he e lm d ecline. I n s everal p ollen d iagrams f rom b oth S cania a nd E astern M iddle S weden e vidence f or f arming a re p resent, b oth a s c ereal g rains a nd a s h erbs. T he s ame e vidence h as b een f ound i n S chleswig/Holstein, w here a f ew b ones f rom d omesticated a nimals l ike p ig a nd c ow h ave b een f ound. 1 13 I f a bout

w e l ook a t t he 14 C -datings ( Chapter 2 .2.2) a t ime l apse o f 2 00 y ears e xists b etween t he E rtebSlle c ulture a nd t he F unnel

B eaker c ulture i n S outhern S candinavia. T his h as l ately b eep i nterpreted b y R owley-Conwy a s d ue t o a n a version a gainst f arming. "' M ost l ikely t he s ettlement s ystem o f t he l ate E rtebSlle c ulture w as a s table o ne w ith m ore o r l ess p ermanent s ites a nd a f ew s pecial p urpose s ites. 1 15 T he d eterioration o f t he c limate, w hich h as b een d iscussed a bove o ccurs a bout 3 100-3000bc, m ay h ave r esulted i n a d rastic c hange i n l iving c onditions. T he p ossible d isappearance o f t he i mportant o yster m ay h ave i nvoked a c hange t owards a f arming e conomy. 1 6 S till, t he p roblem c oncerning t he e lm d ecline r emains. T oday m ost q uaternary b iologists f actors: l ot

o f

t hink

o f

e lm-disease, e lms

a dvantage o f

t he

e lm d ecline a s c aused

c limatic c hange a nd m an.

h ad d ied o r w ere d ying, t he s ituation.

1 17

b y

a t

l east

t he p opulation o f

a r egion

W ith t he h elp o f g irdling a nd,

6 0

t hree

I n a n a rea w here a t ook

f or e xample

p igs, i t w as r ather e asy t o m aintain o pen l and f or b oth g razing a nd c eral g rowing. G roenman-Van W aateringe a nd C asparie h ave s uggested t hat t he o riginal w ood c onsisting o f e lm, l ime a nd o ak w as a lready r ather o pen o n ä ccount o f a ctivities i n t hese w oods f or s everal t housand y ears. 11° T his m ay t o s ome d egree e xplain t he e lm d ecline. T o t hink o f t his i n t he t erms o f T roels-Smith a s c aused b y c ollecting l eaf f odder i s h ard t o m aintain t oday b ecause o f t he e normous t ask o f p ollarding s everal t housand e lm t rees. I t i s m ore p robable t hat a t t he t ime o f t he e lm d ecline s everal s mall c learances w ere m ade i n a f orest a lready a ltered t o a c onsiderable d egree b y M esolithic m an. T he w ood w as n ot a n e nemy w ays.

3 .3.4

t o m ankind b ut a r esource

t hat w as e xploited

i n

m any

W ood i dentification s tudies

W ood i dentification i s o ften u sed f or r econstruction o f t he i mmediate s urroundings o f a s pecific s ite. D uring B erta S tjernquist's i nvestigations a t G ardlösa ( S.E.Scania) t he r esults o f t hese i dentific ations w as o f g reat v alue i n t he r econstruction o f t he v egetation. 119 T he a pplication o f t he r esults, t hough, a re a fflicted w ith s ome p roblems. I n t he c ase o f G ardlösa t he h uman s election o f w ood f or f uel a nd d ifferences i n b urning a re m entioned. T he w ood i dentification s tudies m ay b e u sed, t hough , a s a v aluable c omplement t o p ollen d iagrams a s c ertain t ypes o f p ollen m ay b e o ver o r u nder r epresented i n t he d iagrams d ue t o b ad p reservation o r t he f act t hat s everal p lants d o n ot l eave a ny t races o f p ollen. 12° F rom t he i nvestigation a rea i n S .W. f ollowing s ites h as b een a nalysed. 121 1 .

B ellevuegarden,

F osie s n.

( parish)

n umber

s pecies

1

H azel

( Corylus a vellana)

s tone

f ruit,

1 2 .

S turup 1 :88,

n umber

S cania c harcoal

F eature 5 2

f or e xample H awthorn ( Pomoideae)

B örringe s n.

( parish)

F eature 6

s pecies

1

E lm ,

2 4 2

A sh, s tem w ood ( Fraxinus e xcelsior) B eech ( Fagus s ilvatica)

3 .

B ronsyxegatan,

s tem w ood

F osie s n.

( Ulmus s p.)

( parish)

n imber

s pecies

8 6

B irch ( Betula s p.) A sh ( Fraxinus e xcelsior)

1 2

O ak ( Quercus s p.) s tone F ruit ( Pomoideae)

6 1

F eature 1

f rom

t he

3 .4

T he N eolithic l andscape i n S outh W estern S cania: T he

c omposition o f

t he s oil

i n t he

a m odel

i nvestigation a rea i s

s hown

i n

F ig.26. A c alculation o f t he v arious t ypes o f s oil p revailing i n t he s ite t erritories o f t he s ites i s t he b asic m ethod i n t his c hapter. A s m entioned i n c hapter 3 .1 a r adius o f l km w as c hosen f or. t his " site t erritory". T he s oil c omposition i n t he d ifferent c hronological g roups i s s hown i n F igs.27 1 -4. S ome c haracteristic t raits a re e vident f rom t hese d iagrams. I f w e l ook a t t he d iagrams f rom t he Oxie a nd S venstorp g roups i t a b road s ite

i s o bvious t hat t he i nhabitants o f t he s ites c hose a reas w ith e cological d ifferentiation. T he m ajority o f t he s ites h ave

t erritories

m arked b y a p redominance

T he e xistence o f w ater a nd b ogs/carrs s ites

a lso

d rained

s eems

a nd

i mportant.

t heir

f ormer e xtension a re h ard c an b e o f

u nderstanding

t he p rehistoric

s ites

o f s ites

i n

g reat h elp

i n t his a rea a ll

o lder

s oil

t oday

b elong

t o

c hart m ap h ad

( Fig.28).

t o

t o a l arge

e valuate.

i f w e w ant

l andscape.

t o

L ooking

C ompared w ith t he

t he O xie g roup,

b ut

t he

e xtent a t

a chieve a g reater

t he S turup a rea m arked d ifferences

t he s ite t erritories a ppear p redominance o f m orainic c lay. a n

s and/gravel

i mmediate v icinity o f

T he w et a reas a re

o lder m ap m aterial t emporaneous

f or

i n t he

c on-

a ppear.

T he

t he c omposition o f

t o b e m uch m ore m onotonous, w ith a T his c an b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat t o

b e u sed

f or

t his a rea b ecause

o f

t he

b uilding o f t he S turup a irport ( Fig.29-30). I n t wo c ases, B jörkesakra 6 :1 a nd S turup 1 :88, s ettlement s ites a re l ocated t o h illy g round c omposed o f t he

c lay

c ent.

c lay w ith a c lay c ontent o f 1 5-25 p er c ontent,

I nstead

t hough,

i t

t he

m ore

t han 1 p er

M almö

s hown t hat

i t

v aries b etween 1 0-20 p er

s andy a nd w ith a l arge n o

h ave

c ontent o f

c ent.

r egion w here

1 24

s tone.

T his

t he l ime

c ent.

c ent.

T he

l ime

c an b e c ompared

c ontent

i s

A nalysis o f

1 22

s eldom e xceeds 2 0 T he

p er

m orain

i s

c ontent a mounts

t o

1 23

t o

t he c onditions p p

b etween 2 0-30 p er

c ent.

T hese d ifferences must h ave h ad a p rofound e ffect o n t he v egetation

l' '

i n

t he S turup a rea. B ased

o n

t he

s oil

c omposition i n t he

s ite

d ifferent c hronological g roups, a n a ttempt w ill t he E arly N eolithic l andscape i n S .W. S cania. T he 1 .

t erritories b e m ade

o f

t he

t o r econstruct

i nvestigation a rea c an b e d ivided i n t wo g eological a reas:

T he H illy L andscape T his

a rea

i n

t he e astern p arts o f

i s

d ominated b y s and/gravel a nd

i n

t he w estern p arts o f

t he i nvestigation a rea. s andy,

m orainic

c lay

H ere m orainic

c lay

( Fig.26). 2 .

T he L owland p revail

T he

p ollen d iagrams

t ation

i n

s upply n o d etailed

t he a rea.

d enser v egetation A ccording t o l andscape d uring

t han

i nformation r egarding

I t h as b een p roposed t he

l ighter o nes.

t hat h eavier

s oils

t he v egec arry

f rom t he

o ptimum b e o ak

o f 6 0 p er c ent a bout t his t ime. u ercus), w hile e lm ( Ulmus)

B järsjöholmsgjon

a

1 26

t he p ollen d iagrams, m ixed o ak f orest d ominated t he L ate A tlantic a nd E arly S ub B oreal. I n

d iagram

f requent. t han m ixed

t he a rea.

( Fig.26).

( lake) 1 27

t he t he

Q uercetum m ixtum r eaches a n T he d ominant t ree s eems t o a nd

l ime

( Tilia)

a re

l ess

R ecent s tudies, t hough, s how t hat l ime f orest, r ather o ak f orest, w as t he d ominant v egetation i n N .W. E urope i n

6 2

F ig.26

S oil c hart m ap

f rom s outhwestern S cania

6 3

T I L L ,S ANDY

T I L1 00%

1 5 0%

5 0%

F LUV IA L D EPOS ITS P EA T MARSH ES WA T ER

CL A Y T I L L 5 0%

5 0%

F L UV IA L D EPOS ITS P EA T MARSHE S WA TER

CL AY T I L L

5 0%

5 0%

5 0%

GR AVE L , SA ND 5 0%

I

8 JOR KE S ÄK RA 6 : 1 STUR UP 1 : 88 S T URUP 1 : 107

2

T I L L ,S ANDY

GR A VE L , SA ND

S KABERSJ O 2 6 :20 VÄR BY OX I E N R 7 HÄ SSL EBERGA 2 4 : 1

T I L L ,S A NDY

5 0%

F L UV IAL DEPO SI T S P EA T MARSHES WA TER 1 5 0%

CL AY T I L L 5 0% F L UV IAL D EPOS I TS P EA T MARSH ES WA TER

C LA Y T I L L 5 0%

5 0%

5 0%

3 F ig.27

GR AVE L‚ S AND

ONSV A L A5 : 1 KÄ GL INGEVÄG EN SV EN ST ORP 2 : 1 BRONSY XE GA TAN - - V . 1 ( ÄR ST OR P 7 :2

4

GR A VE L‚ S AND 5 0%

T he s oil c omposition i n t he d ifferent g roups 1 . S turup a rea 2 . O xie 3 . S venstorp g roup 4 .

B ellevuegards g roup 64

-

RO SENGÄR D .S ELEVU EGÄR DEN - EL ISE DA L ---ST OLP A LO SA

t he A tlantic a nd E arly S ub B orea1. T he v ariegated h illy

l andscape,

s oil-type i n

1 29

c omposition t hat

i s c haracteristic o f

w hich g lacio-fluvial d eposits a nd s andy

t he

m oraine

f orm a n i mportant e lement, t here h as b een a z oning i n , r espect o f v egetation, o ak , l ime a nd maple o ccurring i n t he u pland r egions. L ower d own o n t he s lopes w e f ind a sh, e lm a nd h azel w hereas a lder a nd s allow p revailed i n t he v alleys b etween t he h ills a nd c lose t o t he w aterc ourses w ith

( Fig.31).

a

T his h illy l andscape m ay b e c haracterized a s

v ariated e cological c omposition.

A s

m entioned

l andscape i s c omposed o f b asically t wo t ypes o f s oil, s andy m oraine. B etween t he h ills, a reas w ith c arrs, w ater e xisted.

T he

z onation d escribed a bove

i s

a n a rea

a bove,

t his

s and/gravel a nd b ogs a nd o pen

r ather g eneralized,

a nd

i s a bove a ll a pplicable i n t he i nner p arts o f t he h illy l andscape. I n o ther p arts l andscape i s r ather f lat, a nd t o a l arge e xtent m ade u p o f s and.

I t

i s

p rimarily

E arly N eolithic.

t hese p arts

T hese

d eveloped u ndergrowth. S weden ( Meadowwood). 1 30

T his I t

t ype o f i s

o ther s pecies o f s tone f ruit S tudies i n t he V eluwe d istrict d ry, s andy b irch, a nd

h ave

t he

b een

t he

p roportion o f

s equently, s ites,

t he

f orest

c lays,

t he

e kskog"

h awthorn

i n e ge

( Pomoideae),

t he i nvestigation a rea,

w here

p resented a d ifferent p icture.

w ith a h igh l ime c ontent,

w as

m orainic

A n i ncreased

p roduced a s urface w hich

t o p enetrate. T here a re p lenty o f l ow a nd t he c lay s oils m ay w ell h ave b een o f w ater b etween t he h ills. C on-

r ather o pen.

s tudies

which

s how

s oils.

T his

c an b e

t he

e xistence

a sh,

e lm

A round

s een f rom o f

t he

t he

c ore

w ood f ruit

s uch a s h awthorn.

t he b asis o f

i nner

S cania.

f orest c ould h ave b een m ade u p o f a bove a ll,

v egetation

O n

" Ängs

w ith

E lm w as p robably d ominant o n t hese

1 33

i dentification

t he

i s n amed

t he w ell

( Pomoideae) a s a n i mportant e lement. i n t he N etherlands h ave s hown t hat t hese

d id n ot a llow much r un-off w ater h ills i n t he d istrict o f M almö, e xtremely d amp, w ith r esidues l ime.

f orest

r ich i n n utrients

c ase i n S .W .

w estern p arts o f

c lays p revail,

a nd

s ettlement d uring

s oils c arried a n o pen w oodland w ith c hiefly o ak , l i h azel a nd a c omparatively w ell d eveloped u ndergrowth. "'

T his m ay a lso I n

t hat a ttracted

a reas h ad a v egetation w ith a r elatively

p arts

o f

t he d iscussion a bove, t he h illy

t he f orest w hich d ominated

l andscape w ill

b e

n amed

t ype

1 .

T he

f orest i s m ainly c omposed o f o ak a nd l ime f airly l iberally i nterspersed w ith e lm a nd a sh. O n t he d rier, s andier p arts, o f t he h illy l andscape a r ather o pen f orest n amed t ype 2 , d ominated b y o ak a nd l ime p revailed. T his

t ype

o f

f orest

H azel

p robably

a bove

a ll

p art o f O n c lay,

c haracterized b y a m uch r icher u ndergrowth.

f orests

t hat a ttracted

i n t hese

s ettlement

f orests.

d uring

t he

I t w as e arlier

t he E arly N eolithic. t he a reas a round M almö,

t he

e xtent

t hese

i s a lso

c onstituted a s trong e lement

w here

e cological v ariety w as

m ade

u p o f

e lm.

T his

t here

l ess g reat.

t ype o f

f orest

i s

a h igher p roportion

T he i s

f orest w as r eferred

o f

t o a l arge

t o a s

t ype 3 .

T he w ood-identification s tudies f rom t he s ite B ellevuegarden i n M almö, s how t hat h azel, a nd m ay b e H awthorn, h ad g rown i n t he v icinity. A r ather o pen l andscape p revailed a round t he s ettlement. A s p atches o f w ood

w ere

g reatly. t hrived

c leared, S pecies

t he

v egetation

s uch a s h awthorn,

i n t he c learings

s urrounding

65

, round a pple,

t he

s ites

c ame

r aspberry a nd

t he s ettlement

s ites.

1 34

t o

v ary

b lackberry

a

k m

S VENSTORP 2 : 1

L JUNGGÄRDEN /

S KA BER S JÖ 2 6 :20

a

' km

S TOLPALÖSA

[

So .hä t V ro r ojh

•

C la . t .0 .1 1 1 S24 %

. p 0 4 4. 1 1 0 . c iS .c l o . t s P luv ia3 I e . F ig.28

o a 4 .

L o . ,1 46 / 1 1r im eg i bc s

S am 4

S ite c atchment a reas f or s pecific s ettlement s ites i n t he t hree l ocal g roups a . t opographic m ap b . s oil m ap c . S canian r econnoisance m ap ( 1812)

6 6

F ig.29

D etail o f

t he S canian R econnoisance m ap

S turup a rea ( 1:50000) C .

a .

S turup 1 :88

f rom 1 812 2 .

s howing

t he

S turup 1 :107

B jörkesakra 6 :1

Xero

17

F ig.30

T he n orthern p art o f

t he S turup a rea w ith t he m ore i mportant

s ites s hown

6 7

3 .5

S ummary A ccording

t ypes

o f

T ype 1

e xisted

v ariegated l arge

t o

t he v egetation m odels d iscussed

f orest d ominated

s oil

i n

t he

i n S .W.

i nner p arts o f

c omposition.

b etween

T he

t hree

t he m any

f or

l andscape t his

w ith

i ts

l andscape i s

s mall c arr,

t he

b ogs a nd w ater

t he h ills.

T ype 2 f orest e xisted o n t he l ight, T ype 3 f orest

t he h illy

C haracteristic

t opographical d ifferences a nd

c ourses

i n c hapter 3 .2,

S cania.

e xisted o n

s ettlement

s andy s oils.

t he m orainic s oils.

s ites

i n t he h illy

l andscape a re

m ostly

s ituated

a long S ege r iver a nd i ts t ributaries, a nd i n t he S turup a rea. T here i s q uite a d ifference b etween t hese t wo a reas. T he f irst c onsists o f l ight,

s andy

s oil a nd

m ore v ariegated T he

S turup

b ogs

a nd

s oil

a rea

i s

r ather

f lat,

w hile t he S turup a rea h as a m uch

c omposition a nd a g reater t opographical d iversity.

i s a lso

c haracterized b y t he

s mall w atercourses.

T his

i s

e vident

l arge n umber i f w e

o f

l ook a t

c arrs,

t he S canian

R econnoissance M ap f rom a bout 1 812 ( Fig.29). T his m ap w as d rawn b efore t he g reat d rainage u ndertakings i n t he 1 9th c entury. T he

h illy

l andscape

i s

c haracterized b y

s ettlement

o f

t he

e arly

F unnel B eaker g roups, O xie a nd S venstorp ( Fig.32). T heir s ettlement s ites w ere m ainly l ocated i n a b order z one b etween t wo d ifferent s oil t ypes,

o r n ear w ater o r m arshy

k ind

o f

l ocalisation

c haracterize

a nimal

b e

" edge e ffect.

c alled a n

a reas.

c onsists

T he a dvantage

o f

t he

o f

w ild

a nimals,

s ite.

A

a mong

i t

E specially a round

. 135

h as

t he

A s m entioned M esolithic

p arts t he

o f N .W. c anopy

t o e xploit

" The

E urope.

f ertilizes

f ood p otential

s taples

o f

t o

t he

f loor.

d uring

t he

i n t he s outh

f orest a nd

t o

o f

f or

s andy

t he r oots

m ultiplied

A s D avid C larke s aid

L ike s oils,

b racken a nd e specially h azel

D uring s een

i n

t he

t he

t hat w ere u sed

l ater p art o f

c hoice o f

a ssociations e lementary f orest

c onnected w ith t his

c hange

i s

t o m ake a s ort o f

a reas.

T he

t he B ellevuegards

68

r oot-

R einhardt

a nd

e specially t hrives o n

f or t hese

a s I t

f ood w as

b read o r p orridge.

t he E arly N eolithic a m arked

s ettlement

o f

m any

t hereby o pening i s a

v egetation r eproducing

i mprove u pon" P138

f rom

s oils. E vidence f or t he u se o f b re Aen ( Pteridium a quilinum) c omes f rom, f or e xample, N .W. U SA ' ( Western W ashington). p rimarily

o f

l ater p art

d iagrams

T he r esults

p lants a nd h azel.

t he p reference

E dible

1 39

a n s ame

f ire-controlled o ak/hazel/bracken

d ifficult

h e a lso n oted c amps.

i n t he p ollen

f ire

f orest

a nd a b asic k nowledge b e

s uch

i n a t ype 2 f orest a ttracted h erbivores a nd

S etting t he

i n

t he a l ot

f rom t he

l arge a nd a f orest h usbandry b ased o n t his

w ould

M ellars w inter

r esources

c an

a reas

s andier s oils w ere u sed

h ave b een o bserved

p articulary

t echnique

A s ettlement

1 36

s everal

t his t hat

T his

d amp

i n c hapter 3 .3.1 c learings d uring t he

p roportion o f e dible h erbaceous i s

t he

b een s tudied b y M ellars a nd R einhardt

T he d enser u ndergrowth p igs.

i n

T he f orest m argin a ttracts

t hem r ed d eer.

p ossible

s ettlement s ystem w here

M esolithic E ngland. 137

i nherent v ariations

l ife a nd v egetation i n a f orest m argin.

v egetation w as m ore v aried a nd o pen. e nvironment m ade

a bundant

c hange

c hronological

g roup.

i s

g roup

T he s ettlement

F ig.31

T he z onation i n t he l andscape

6 9

( After W elvinder 1 981)

s ites

o f

t his

g roup a re m ainly

v icinity o f M almö.

T he

f ound i n t he f lat

l andscape,

l andscape

i n

t he

w ith i ts t ype 3 m ixed-oak f orests,

w here t he e lm w as m uch i n e vidence, m ust b e c haracterized a s b eing v ery m arshy, w ith o pen e xpanses o f w ater b etween t he l ow h ills. W e c an i magine a z onation i n t his l andscape, t hough, w ith e lm a s a d ominant f eature, a nd o n t he h ills w ith l ighter, s andier s oil, o ak a nd l ime. A sh w as p robably a lso a v ital p art o f t his f orest c omposition, a bove a ll

i t

t hrived n ear

t he d amper r egions b etween t he

e ffect, s imilar t o t he o ne i n t he h illy l andscape, w ater f ront z one b etween l and a nd s ea.

t ion

h ills. d eveloped

A n

e dge

i n

t he

I n t he r egion w hich c onstitutes t he w estern p art o f t he i nvestigaa rea, w ith d amp c lays a nd s ilts, a h eavy d ecidious f orest

p revailed a nd t he m ost p roductive a reas w ould b e a reas n ear w ater w here t wo e cotones c oncur.

7 0

t he

f orest

m argin

F ig.32

D etail o f t he S canian R econnoisance m ap f rom 1 812 1 . O xie 7 2 . S venstorp 3 . S kabersjö 4 . E bbarp 5 .

K äglingevägen

6 .

E lisedal

7 1

N otes

1 . 2 . 3 .

H all 1 966, p 7 H all 1 966, p 8 C hristaller 1 933,

p 2 7

4 .

C hristaller

1 933,

p 1 62 f f

5 . 6 .

L ösch 1 940, L ösch 1 940,

p 1 f f p 8 1

7 . 8 .

L ösch 1 940, p 2 87 C hisholm 1 968, p 1 1 p 2 6 p 6 6

f f

9 . 1 0.

C hisholm 1 968, C hisholm 1 968,

f f

1 1. 1 2. 1 3.

H iggs a nd V ita-Finzi 1 970, p 1 f f R oper 1 979, p 1 21 D ennell a nd W ebley 1 975, p 9 7 f f

1 4. 1 5.

R oper 1 979, p 1 31 f f J arman e t a l 1 982, p 3 f f

1 6.

H astorf 1 980,

1 7. 1 8. 1 9.

T iffany a nd A bbott 1 982, B akels 1 978, p 1 f f F lannery 1 976a, p 9 1

p 7 9 f f

2 0. 2 1.

S akellaridis 1 979 p 1 f f Z velebil 1 981, p 1

2 2. 2 3. 2 4. 2 5. 2 6. 2 7.

H awke-Smith 1 979, p 4 f f H ult Hn a nd W elinder 1 981, K osse 1 979, p 5 K ruk 1 980, p V II L inke 1 976, p 7 f f K osse 1 979, p 5 f f

2 8. 2 9. 3 0.

K ruk 1 980, p V III K ruk 1 980, p V II L inke 1 976, p 7

3 1. 3 2. 3 3.

L inke 1 976, p 8 0 f f B akels 1 978, p 5 f f B akels 1 978, p 8 f f

3 4. 3 5.

R ingberg 1 980, p 1 27 N ilsson 1 961, 1 f f

3 6.

D igerfeldt

3 7.

L ewan 1 982,

1 975,

3 8. 3 9. 4 0. 4 1.

I versen I versen I versen I versen

4 2. 4 3.

S mith 1 982, p 1 55 T auber 1 967, p 1 08

4 4.

O ral L und

4 5.

G öransson 1 982b,

4 6. 4 7. 4 8.

S mith 1 981, p 1 51 T auber 1 967, p 1 22 S mith 1 981, p 1 59

4 9. 5 0.

S mith 1 981, S mith 1 981,

p 3 15

p 1 4

p 1 f f

p 1 5 f f

1 941, 1 949, 1 941, 1 973,

p p p p

1 0 1 6 1 0 f f 4 3

c ommunication,

P rof.

L ars L arsson I nstitute o f

p 1 06

p 1 81 p 1 60

7 2

A rchaeology,

5 1.

S mith 1 981,

p 1 62

5 2. 5 3.

S mith 1 981, S mith 1 981,

p 1 62 p 1 64

5 4. 5 5.

B urenhult 1 980, G öransson 1 980,

5 6.

N ilsson 1 961,

5 7.

O ral c ommunication, B iology, L und

5 8. 5 9. 6 0.

S ee 5 7 I versen 1 941, S ee 5 7

6 1. 6 2.

G öransson 1 983, G öransson 1 983,

6 3. 6 4. 6 5. 6 6.

M ellars 1 976, p 5 3 f f B irdsell 1 968, p 2 34 f f N ilsson, 1 948, p 4 5 A aby 1 974, p 9 5 F ig.3, S mith 1 981,

6 7. 6 8. 6 9. 7 0. 7 1. 7 2. 7 3.

A aby 1 974, p 9 3 A aby 1 974, p 9 5 T auber 1 967, p 1 08 G aillard 1 984, p 1 f f G aillard 1 984, p 3 0-31 R owley-Conwy 1 982, p 2 06 T roels-Smith 1 953, p 1 3

7 4. 7 5. 7 6. 7 7. 7 8. 7 9. 8 0.

T roels-Smioth 1 982, p 4 0 T roels-Smith 1 982, p 4 0 T roels-Smith 1 953, p 1 6 G uyan 1 971, p 1 40 f f, T roels-Smith 1 960, G uyan 1 971, p 1 40 T auber 1 967, p 1 08 T auber 1 967, p 1 08

8 1. 8 2.

T roels-Smith 1 982, T roels-Smith 1 982,

8 3. 8 4. 8 5. 8 6.

B r ndsted 1 966, p 1 46 T auber 1 971, p 1 28 B erglund 1 969, p 1 5 B erglund 1 969, p 1 5

8 7. 8 8.

B erglund 1 969, B erglund 1 969,

8 9. 9 0.

G öransson 1 980, p 1 25 f f; G öransson 1 982a, G öransson 1 982b, p 1 00 f f ; G öransson 1 984, G öransson 1 982a, p 2 08

9 1.

G öransson 1 982b,

p 1 02

9 2. 9 3.

G öransson 1 982a, G öransson 1 982b,

p 2 11 p 1 04

9 4. 9 5. 9 6. 9 7.

G öransson 1 982b, p 1 14 S jöbeck 1 964, p 3 0 G öransson 1 982b, p 1 04 G öransson 1 982b, p 1 21

9 8. 9 9. 1 00.

B akker 1 982,

p 1 1 p 1 29

B ilaga 1 D r.

M ervi H jelmroos,

D epartment o f Q uaternary

p8 p7 p 7

p 3 9 p 4 2

p 1 41

p 2 3

f f

p2 1 p 1 7

p 1 16

B akker 1 982, p 1 16 J ennbert 1 984, p 9 4

7 3

p 2 08 f f; p 1 54 f f

1 01.

T roels-Smith 1 982,

p4 4,

1 02. 1 03. 1 04.

T roels-Smith 1 982,

p 4 6

1 05. 1 06.

S chindler 1 961, p S chindler 1 961, p K ampffmeyer 1 983, K ampffmeyer 1 983,

9 9 p p

4 9 n ote 1 5

f f f f 1 20 f f 1 25 f f

1 07. 1 08. 1 09.

K ampffmeyer 1 983, p 1 28-,29 S chwabedissen 1 979a, p 1 71;

1 10. 1 11. 1 12. 1 13. 1 14.

S chwabedissen 1 979a, p 1 71 S chwabedissen 1 979a, p 1 71 J ennbert 1 984, p 1 05 S chwabedissen 1 979b, p 2 08 R owley-Conwy 1 981b, p 5 4

1 15. 1 16.

R owley-Conwy 1 981b, R owley-Conwy 1 981b,

1 17. 1 18. 1 19.

G öransson 1 984, p 1 75 C asparie a nd G roenman-Van W aateringe 1 982, B artholin e t a l. 1 981, p 5 1

1 20. 1 21.

L arsson 1 982a, p 8 9 B artholin, e xamination 1 980-09-24

1 22. 1 23.

H olst 1 905, p 1 f f L indau 1 974, p 4

1 24. 1 25.

W elinder 1 974, R ingberg 1 975,

1 26. 1 27. 1 28.

S akellaridis 1 979, p 9 N ilsson 1 935, p 4 92 N ilsson 1 935, p 4 92

1 29. 1 30.

G reig 1 982, p 3 6 F ältbiologerna 1 981,

1 31. 1 32. 1 33.

F älbiologerna 1 981, p 6 6 C asparie a nd G roenman-Van W aateringe 1 982, L arsson 1 982a, p 9 4 f f

1 34. 1 35.

G roenman-Van W aateringe 1 978, O dum 1 971, p 1 58

1 36. 1 37.

B ay-Petersen 1 978, p 1 28 M ellars a nd R einhardt 1 978,

1 38. 1 39. 1 40.

C larke 1 976, C larke 1 976, N orton 1 980,

S chwabedissen 1 979a,

S chwabedissen 1 981,

p 1 36 f f

p 1 71

p5 2, p 5 4

Z velebil a nd R owley-Conwy 1 984,

p 5 6

p 2 21 p 3 3

p6 6

p 1 38 f f

p 2 82

p 4 74 p4 75 p 3 87 f f

7

p 5 8

C hapter 4 :

S ettlement

s ystem,

e arly p art o f

4 .1

T he

s ettlement

T he

t he

s ystem o f t he F unnel B eaker c ulture - a r eview

s ettlement

c hapters p atterned

p opulation a nd e conomy d uring t he E arly N eolithic

s ites

i ncluded

i n t his w ork h ave

i n

t he

p revious

b een a nalysed r egarding t heir e cological e nvironment. c hange i n t he c hoice o f s ettlement a rea w as o bserved i n

A t he

l ater p art o f t he E arly N eolithic. A t t his p oint i n t ime, d istricts a round M almö p rove t o b e t he m ost a ttractive

t he m orainic o nes. T he

l andscape,

i n e vidence,

m ust

b e

w ith

i ts

t ype 3 f orests,

w here

t he e lm w as m uch

c haracterised a s b eing v ery m arshy.

I n

t his

s ettlement s ettlement

c hapter

t he

f actors

b ehind

t he

o bserved

a rea w ill b e f urther a nalysed r eferring s ystem, p opulation a nd e conomy. T he

i ntroduced b y a r eview o f r egarding t he s ettlement F unnel B eaker c ulture i n S . J örgen S kaarup

i n

c hange

i n

t o f actors l ike c hapter w ill b e

t he d iscussion d uring t he l ast f ew d ecades s ystem o f t he E arly a nd M iddle N eolithic S candinavia. 1 973 d iscussed

t he h unting

s tations

o f

t he

F unnel B eaker c ulture b ased o n a r eview o f t he s ites H esself S a nd S Slager i n D enmark. C oast a nd l ake s ites w ith F unnel B eaker c eramics, a nd o steological m aterial o riginating f rom w ild a nimals, r epresented s easonal h unting/fishing s ites.' T he c oastal s ites w ere u sed d uring t he w inter w hile t he i nland s ites w ere u sed d uring t he s ummer. S kaarup d iscerned a s ettlement p attern w ith p ermanent s ites f or a griculture a nd s easonal

s ites

f or h unting a nd f ishing.

I n a l ater w ork S lparup i ntro-

d uced a t hird v ariable, t he s ize o f t he p ermanent s ites. t he h unting s tations t here a re b asically t wo t ypes o f s ites. s hort

O ne

i s

t ime.

w hich,

c haracterized b y s mall h ouses w hich w ere u sed

T he o ther

a ccordingly,

t ype

s ites; T ype

2 .

1

w ater,

t he

i n t his

H unting

s ites;

s ites

a re

g roup a re

l ocated

3 . t o

t hree c ategories:

i n 5

E . 1 .

J utland, P ermanent

C entral p laces.

f lat a reas,

d irectly b y t he s ea.

s mall,

a

t ime. 4

f rom i nvestigations

a rea i nto

f or

t he o ccurrence o f l ong h ouses

f or a l onger p eriod o f

s tarting

s ites

b ut n ot

i s m arked b y

w ere u sed

T orsten M adsen h as, d ivided

E xcluding a gricultural

v ery o ften i n t he v icinity o f

A ll

t he

s ettlement s ites i n t his

n o o ne e xceeds 5 00-700m 2 .

T ype 2 s ites a re s ituated b y t he s ea o r n ear a l ake. T hey a re a s a r ule s mall a nd l ocated t o a reas a nd s ites p reviously u sed b y t he E rtebSlle

c ulture.

T ype 3 s ites, T hey s ites

h ave,

c entral p laces, a bove a ll,

b elonging

t o

d iffer a g reat d eal

a p rominent

t his

g roup

7 5

t opographical

a re

m ostly

f rom p revious l ocalisation.

l ocated

t o

t ypes. T he

p eninsulas

s urrounded a re

b y

l ocated

a rea

o f

c arrs,

b ogs o r s mall w ater c ourses.

t o a reas w ith n 4rrow f jords.

b etween

1 0-50000m L ,

T his

c ategory

i nterpreted b y M adsen a s m eeting e conomical a ctivities o ccurred. L ars J ohansson 1 .

P ermanent

p laces

h as a lso d ivided

s ites;

2 .

S ometimes

T he c entral o f

t he s ites

S atellite s ites ;

s ites

w here

3 .

i nto

t he s ites

p laces h ave h ave

a n b een

d ifferent

s ocio-

t hree c ategories:

F ortified s ites.

6

T ype 1

c orrespond t o t he p ermanent s ites i n t he m odels o f M adsen a nd S kaarup w hile t ype 2 a re s ites w ith a s pecific e conomic f unction. T hese s ites h ave

n ot o nly b een h unting s tations b ut u sed

w ell.

T ype 3 may b e

l ikened

K arsten D avidsen B eaker

d iscusses

t he s ettlement

c ulture w ith t he s tarting p oint

a s

s ystem o f

i n t he l ater p art

t he

F unnel

o f t he M iddle

( MN

f ollowing p atterns:

f eatures a re o f i mportance i n a d iscussion o f s ettlement 1 . T he s ize, a nd l ocation o f a s ite; 2 . H ouse t ypes; 3 .

l ogical

a ctivities,

r emains.

W ith

t hough.

a ctivities

N eolithic

D iscernible

V ),

f or o ther

t o M adsen's c entral p laces.

s pecific

t o a s ite,

t he

4 .

o pinion

s ites

t hese

i nto

e arlier p arts o f

F aunal- a nd

f eatures,

s even t ypes,

t he N eolithic:

D avidsen d ivides

P ermanent

B

S ites w ith a m ixed e conomy.

C D

S hell m iddens. S ites w ith a s pecific e conomic

E

T emporary s ites.

F

m ent s ite. H unting s ites.

G

D efensive

s ites w ith a s maller p opulation a nd n o l ong h ouses.

s ites.

S uch s ites a re v ery

m odel

h as

f or

m odel

a cted a s

l a-lb:

T he

h as

i mportance T he

t wo T he

i n E .

f or

h as

a

A round

t hat

s omewhat

B eaker

t he

o r a t

T his

t he M egalithic

z one,

c ul-

M egalithic g raves, t o h ave

w ith a r adius o f 1 -

f arming.

i mportance.

T his

t he m ost 1 0km.

z one h as a r adius o f H unting w as o f

g reat

i n t his a rea.

e nvironment b eyond.

• S tig W elinder c ulture

s urrounding.

s econdary

2 -5km,

s ettle-

d ifferent a ctivity z ones a re a ssumed

b een u sed

An a rea o f

3 :

d iscussed t he F unnel

s tarts w ith t he a ssumption

i mmediate

a bout

Z one

s ystem o f

t erritorial m arkings.

2 km, Z one 2 :

r eveals n o m ore t han a

s eldom.

i n q uite a f ew w orks

t he s ettlement

w ith a n earby s ettlement, e xisted: 1 1 Z one

s uch a s ite

f eatures w ith n o o bvious c onnection w ith a l arge

T he

g raves

f unction.

E xcavation o f

M ärta S trömberg 1 U

t o

9

P ermanent s ites w ith a l arger p opulation a nd l ong h ouses.

t ure.

o steo-

t he l ate M iddle

A 2

d ifferent

t he

t hese s hould a lso b e a pplicable

A l

c ouple o f

t hat

8

t he h elp o f

N eolithic

D avidsen i s o f

7

T his a rea h as n o d efinite b orders.

i n s everal w orks d iscussed t he

M iddle S weden.

1 2

F unnel

H e h as d iscerned a p attern w ith

B eaker o nly

t ypes o f s ettlement s ites, a gricultural s ites a nd h unting s ites. 13 E arly N eolithic f arming s ites a re a ll s ituated o n s and s ediment

a reas

a long

g lacio-fluvial

e skars.

7 6

W elinder s ketches

a

s ettlement

p attern

b ased

a rea.

H e

i s

s pecialized

o n s table o ccupation d uring c enturies w ithin a o f

t he o pinion t hat

b ut

t h

d efined

t he s ettlement p attern w as m uch

t he a rchaeological m aterial d o n ot m ake

m ore

f urther

a nalysis p rofitable.

4 .2

T he S ettlement p attern i n S .W. I f

w e

f actors

s ummarize t he d iscussion i t

a re

f aunal

S cania

i mportant

r emains a nd

i s

t opographical

f eatures.

M adsen a nd S kaarup c an b e m entioned. l ocation a nalysis w hile S kaarup's m odel l ogical m aterial. c atchment"

T o

t hose

a nalysis.

S candinavia.

A s

t he

N eolithic

E arly

t he m odels

o n

t he

t he

a dded,

s parsely

w orks b y W elinder 15 b ased

t wo

o steological o f

M adsen's m odel i s b ased o n a i s b ased o n, p rimarily, o steo-

f ollowing d iscussion o f i s

p rimarily

A s e xamples

i s a m ethod r ather

e xamples

T he

t hat

a nalysis;

t wo v ariables a t hird m ay b e

T his

m entioned.

o bvious

i n a s ettlement p attern

a nd

Z velebil 1 6

s ettlement

" site

u sed

i n

S .

c an

b e

p attern

d iscussion

o f

d uring

t he

" site

t erritories" a nd t he v egetational m odels p roposed f or t he d ifferent c hronological g roups. T he d iscussion i s b ased o n o ne f undamental p remise:

t hat m an e xploits h is e nvironment

I mportant a nd a nd

i n a d iscussion o f

l ake s ites w ith s ettlements t he F unnel B eaker c ulture.

i n a r ational w ay.

s ettlement p atterns a re

b riefly r eview s ites a re o f

t hese b efore t urning t o t he o ther s ites. i nterest I n S .W. S cania: S oldattorpet

G ränsstigen,

E linelund 1 9

T he

l ö

s ite

a nd S .

S oldattorpet

t he

c oastal

f rom b oth t he l ate E rtebSlle c ulture I t i s t herefore o f g reat i mportance t o

L indveds m osse

i n M almö w as

( bog).

e xcavated

p ie hl

f ollowing Ky. N ore/

2 0

i n 1 901-1902 b y Knut

K jellmark. 21 T hose p arts o f t he s ite w here t wo s eparate c ulture l ayers w ere o bserved a re t he m ost i nteresting. E arly N eolithic s herds f rom t he O xie a nd B ellevuegards I n

t his

g roup,

w ere o nly

l ayer o nly a f ew E rte Wlle

f ound

s herds w ere

i n t he u pper

f ound.

l ayer o nly t ypical E rtebSlle s herds w ere d iscovered. t he s ite w here t he c ulture l ayer w ere u nstratified, s herds

o f

F unnel

B eaker

E rte lx hlle

c haracter w ere

s herds w ere

f ound

f ound

i n t he

l ayer.

I n t he

2 2

b ottom

I n t hese p arts o f o nly t hick w alled l ower

i n t he u pper p arts.

p arts

w hile

O nly a f ew b ones

w ere f ound, a nd t hey c ome f rom r ed d eer, r oe d eer, s eal a nd d og i n t he l ower l ayer. I n t he u pper l ayer b ones o f s heep a nd p ig h ave b een i dentified T he

2 3

f indings

e xcavations s ituated o n

f rom

t he S oldattorpet

f rom 1 960 a t t he

s ite

c an b e

s upplemented b y

t he b lock N ore/Gränsstigen.

s ame b each r idge

a s

t he S oldattorpet

2 4

s ite.

D uring

e xcavations a t G ränsstigen, 2 00m f rom t he S oldattorpet s ite, s tratigraphy a s b y t he e xcavation a t S oldattorpet w as f ound; l ayers

t hat m erged h igher u p a long

t he b each r idge.

t he

T he s ites w ere

I n t he

t he

t he s ame t wo b lack

l ower

l ayer

o nly s herds o f E rtebSlle t ype w ere f ound. 25 B ones f rom r ed d eer, r oe d eer, a urochs, e lk , w ild p ig, s eal, s hark a nd e ider d uck w ere f ound 2 6 t ogether w ith d omesticated s pecies l ike c ow a nd p ig. I n t he u pper c ulture

l e rr

d ominated. s ions u nder

t hin-walled

O nly o ne

s herd b elong

I n

l ayer b ones

r ed

t his

d eer,

s herds

f rom

t he

F unnel

T he o rnamentation c onsists o f s imple t he r im. T hese s herds c an b e d ated

w ild

t o

c ulture

t he l ater E arly N eolithic B ellevuegards

f rom t he

c at,

B eaker

r ows o f s tab t o t he O xie

f ollowing s pecies h ave

c attle a nd w hite-tailed e agle.

7 7

b een 2 8

i mpresg roup. g roup.

d etermined: I t

i s

w orth

m entioning

t hat

i n

E rtebSlle w are w ere N .E.

o f

t his

l ayer a f ew s herds

o f

t he

t ypical,

t hick

f ound.

t he G ränsstigen s ite

( the N ore b lock)

a s omewhat d ifferent

p icture e merges. T hree l ayers w ere e xcavated a nd i n t he l ower l ayer t he s ame p roportion o f t hick a nd t hin w alled s herds w ere f ound. 29 I n t he m iddle l ayer m ostly t hin w alled s herds o ccurred w hile i n t he l ayer t hin w alled s herds w ere t he o nly o nes f ound.

u pper

T he s ite E linelund i s s ituated a t a b each r idge, 2 00km s outhwest o f t he s ites p reviously d iscussed. 30 T his s ite w as s everely d amaged b efore t he e xcavation a nd n othing c an b e s aid a bout t he o riginal h eight o f

t he b each r idge.

t hin

a nd

t hick w alled

m ostly

F unnel B eaker

f ound

m ostly

B eaker

A c ertain d ifference r egarding

i n t he

s herds

w ere

p ottery w ere r egistered.

s herds w ere

l ower p art o f s mall,

i dentifiable b ones w ere I t

i s n ow

t ime

f ound w hile

t o

b ut

t he

t he o ccurrence o f

I n t he

u pper

t he E rtebSlle

c ulture

c an b e d ated

l ayer. 31

t o

t he

l ayer

s herds

O xie

w ere

T he F unnel g roup. N o

f ound. l eave

t he

c oast a nd

t urn

t o

t he B örringe

l ake

i n

t he h illy l andscape. E arly i n t he 2 0th c entury a n e xcavation t ook p lace i n t he S . L indved m osse ( bog). 32 T he a rchaeological m aterial h as a t ime t he

s pan f rom t he M esolithic

m aterial

i nterest. s herds

f rom

I n

w ere

t he

p eriod, s trokes

t o

t he L ate N eolithic.

l ower p arts o f

f ound w hile

N eolithic c ame

t o

t he E rtebSlle - a nd t he

c ulture

l ayer

i n t he u pper p arts o nly

l ight.

I n t his

t he F unnel B eaker

T hese c an b e p laced

t ypical

s herds

i n t he

c ontext

c ulture

i s

o f

E rteb Ale

f rom t he

l ater p art

E arly o f

t he

t he B ellevuegards g roup ( Fig.17B). T he o rnamentation c omprises u nder t he r im, c ord i mpressions a nd s tab i mpressions. T he

F unnel B eakers

h ave

a l ong n eck.

V ery

f ew b ones w ere

r ecovered d uring

t he e xcevation b ut t he m aterial c omprise b oth w ild a nd d omesticated a nimals. 33 O f d omesticated s pecies c attle, s heep a nd p ig w ere f ound. T o

s ummarize:

L indved, t o t he

a ll o f

t he

c oastal

s ites,

a nd

t he

c ontain m aterial f rom t he E rteb 5 611e c ulture. f indings o f T orsten M adsen i n E . J utland

l ake

T his w here

s ite

S .

c orresponds t he E arly

N eolithic c oastal s ites, a s a r ule, o ver l ayer t he L ate M esolithic o nes. 34 T hese s ites h ave l ately b een d iscussed b y K ristina J ennbert. S he i s o f t he o pinion t hat t hese s ites, o ften t reated a s m ixed s ites, s how

a c ontinuity

f rom t he E rtebSlle

c ulture

t o

t he

E arly

N eolithic,

a nd t hat t he e arly p art o f t he F unnel B eaker c ulture i s c ontemporaneous w ith t he E rtebSlle c ulture, a nd t hat t he d ifferences i n c eramic s tyle a re

a spects

o f m aterial

c ulture.

3 5

T he

l ate p art

o f

t he

E rte l :411e

c ulture i s v iewed a s s emi-agrarian x b oth c attle, p igs a nd c ereals a re i ntergrated p arts o f t he e conomy.J 6 T he d iscussion o f t hese s o c alled m ixed

s ites,

i s

o f g reat

i mportance

f or t he v iew o f

t he

s ettlement

p attern d uring t he E arly N eolithic. E vidence f rom p ollen d iagrams a nd a rchaeological m aterial s how t hat t he l ate E rtebSlle c ulture, a t l east t o a c ertain d egree, c ereal

i mpressions

w as

h alf-agrarian.

I t

i n t he E rtebSlle s herds

i s h ard

t o e xplain a way

f rom L öddesborg

t he

( Scania),

3 7

t hough, a nd t he p ollen a nalytical e vidence f rom b oth S . S candinavia a nd N .W. E urope. E vidence f or c ereal g rowing a nd f or f ree r anging c attle d uring

l ate

A tlantic

t ime a re p lentiful

t oday.

T he

v iew

o f

t he

E rteb 9 411e-Funnel B eaker c ulture a s b eing c ontemporaneous i s h ard, t hough, t o a gree o n. B ased o n s tratigraphical e vidence f rom t he w hole o f S .

S candinavia c ombined w ith

a bout 2 00 y ears

b etween

t he

1 4

C -datings w hich s how a t ime

l ate E rtebi llle c ulture a nd

7 8

l apse

o f

t he E arly F unnel

B eaker

c ulture,

w e f ind s uch a v iew h ard t o d efend.

I n t he f ollowing

d iscussion t he F unnel B eaker m aterial f ound o n t hese c oast a nd s ites w ill b e s een a s o riginating f rom b rief, s easonal v isits.

I n

l ake

W e h ave t his w ay d iscerned o ne t ype o f s ettlement; H unting s ites. t he f ollowing p ages t he s ettlement p attern o f t he e arlier p art o f

t he E arly N eolithic,

w hich c omprises

b e d iscussed. I n t his s ites w ill b e t reated. T he l ocated

s ettlement t o s andy,

t he O xie a nd S venstorp g roup ,

c ontext o ther d iscernible

s ites o f

t ypes o f

t he O xie a nd S venstorp g roup

l ow r idges.

w ill

s ettlement

a re

T he o nly e xception f rom t his

m ostly r ule

i s

V ärby w hich i s l ocated o n c layey s oil. I f w e s omewhat g eneralize t he l ocation o f t he s ites i t i s o bvious t hat t wo f actors w ere d ecisive ; s andy s oil a nd d amp o r m arshy a reas. T he " site c atchment" a nalysis i n c hapter 5 , r egarding t he s oil t ype f requency w ithin t he s ite t erritory, s howed t hat s andy s oil a nd w ater c onstitute a l arge p art o f t he s ite t erritory o f t he i ndividual s ite. T he s ame c haracteristic l ocation h as b een d is ussed b y T orsten M adsen i n a c ouple o f t hought p rovoking a rticles.' ° D uring h is s tudies o f t he F unnel B eaker c ulture i n E . J utland i t b ecame c lear t hat s andy s oil a nd d amp, m arshy a reas w ere t he m ost a ttractive o nes d uring t he E arly N eolithic. 39 H e s uggests t hat, w hile d amp a reas a re r ather u ncommon i n D enmark, t hese s oon b ecame a h ighly v alued a nd s ought a fter r esource. 40 T he s ame t ype o f l ocation h as b een o bserved i n t he N etherlands. B akker d istinguished b asically t wo t ypes o f l andscape c hosen f or F unnel B eaker o ccupation. T he f irst c onsists o f t he h igh a nd v ery d ry i ce-pushed r idges. T he s ettlements a re l ocated a long t he f eet o f t hese r idges i n t he v icinity o f w ater o r d amp

a reas.

T he

s econd

t ype o f l andscape c hosen f or

s ettlement

t he m argins o f t he m oist v alleys. T he s ites, w hi e a re s ituated o n d ry g round, n ear t o m oist s oils o r w ater. 4. I t

i s

o bvious

f rom t hese s tudies

t hat c ertain a reas

k nown,

w ere

w ere a re

m ore

s uited f or s ettlement t han o thers. T he a ppropiate q uestion t o a sk i s w hy? O ne a nswer i s e cological. T he f orest m argin i s a h ighly p roduct ive o ne, a nd e specially t he e cotone b etween f orest a nd w ater. A nother a nswer i s t hat t he v egetation h ad a nother c omposition o n t hese s andy s oils. A s d iscussed i n c hapter 3 .5, a m ore o pen w ood, c onsisting c hiefly o f o ak a nd l ime w ith a m ore d ense a nd c omposited u ndergrowth e xisted o n t he d ry, s andy s oils. o f t his t ype o f f orest ( Type 2 ).

H azel w as p robably a n i mportant p art T he s election o f a l ocation w ill

p rimarily b e d ependent o n t he v egetation c over a nd t hus o nly i ndirectly b y t he s oil t ype. T his h as a lso b een e mphasized b y S mith i n a s tudy o f t he N eolithic i n E ngland. 42 T he t hird a nswer t o t he q uestion i s p urely e conomical. T he d ense u ndergrowth o f t he t ype 2 f orest w as h ighly p roductive w ith a corns, b racken, h azelnuts, a pple, a ssorted b erries a nd h erbs a s i mportant f ood r esources. T he m ore o pen f orest a lso s implified

t he

h olding

o f

l ivestock

a nd

a griculture.

P igs,

f or

i nstance, a re v ery w ell a dopted t o f orest l ife a nd f eed w ell o n a corns, b racken a nd p lantain.'" B racken l ike a corns, t hough, a re p oisonous t o c attle a nd t o s heep. 44 A s m entioned i n c hapter 3 .3.1 b racken i s a v ery l ight-demanding p lant a nd t herefore n eeds a n o pen f orest c anopy. P igs a re a lso g ood a t o pening t he f orest a nd d estroying t he g round c over. B y t hose m eans p igs w ere o f g reat h elp t o m an i n o pening t he f orest a nd b y d oing s o s implified

t he c learance o f

7 9

f ields.

A nother e asily

v ery

v aluable a nd

h ave b een c onducted

i mportant

f rom l ocations

r esource, s uch a s

h unting,

t he

o nes

c ould

d iscussed

h ere. T he f orest m argin i s u sually r ich i n l arge h erbivores s uch a s r ed d eer, a nd t he m ore o pen w oodland o n t he s andy s oils a lso a ttracted t he l arger h erbivores W hat

w e

h ave

s ketched h ere

s ystem ; a b ase c amp I mportant, t hough, l ocated

i n

E rteb ( blle

t he

i nland,

s ites

d iscerned a t

a re

a nd

u sed

Z ealand.

n ot

s ituated.

t he b eginning o f

T his m ay b e M üller

i s

b asically a M esolithic

s ettlement

f rom w hich s everal a ctivities c ould b e c onducted. i s t hat t hese E arly N eolithic s ettlement s ites a re t he

s ea

s hore

i n

w here

s ettlement

t he

l ate

p attern

i s

t he E arly N eolithic p eriod.

p aralleled w ith

t he m odel p roposed b y C arsten P aludan-

o n o bserved c hanges T hrough

b y

A c hange

i n t he

s tatistical

s ettlement

a nalysis

o f

t he

p attern v ery

i n

N .W.

c omprehensive

m aterial c ollected b y T herkel M athiassen i n t he 1 940s, a m arked c hange i n t he c hoice o f s ettlement a rea f rom t he l ate A tlantic t o t he E arly S ub B oreal i s f ound. " D uring t he E arly N eolithic a d istinctive c hange i n t he s ii9 l ocation c an b e o bserved, f rom a c oastal l ocation t o a n i nland o ne. T he l arge d amp a reas, a nd t he l akes, i n t he i nner p arts o f N .W. Z ealand, a ttracted t he p opulation. A round t hese a reas t he f irst t ion

c learings

i n

t he

t o a n e conomy T his

t he

m odel

c limax f orest w ere m ade,

b ased o n c attle a nd

i s

a n a ttractive o ne a nd c orresponds

s ituation i n S .W.

p rinciples, p art

o f

a nd a s uccesive

t he g rowing o f

S cania.

a nd d eterminants,

t he E arly N eolithic

o f

A fter t he

i n N .W.

t his

c ereals

t ransi-

e nsued. 48

r ather w ell

w ith

l engthy d iscussion o f

s ettlement E urope,

s ystem d uring

i t

i s

t ime

t o

t he

t he e arly

t urn t o

t he

i nvestigation a rea i n S .W. S cania a nd t he a rchaeological m aterial. A t f irst t he e arly O xie a nd S venstorp g roups w ill b e d iscussed. A t otal o f

1 4

s ettlement

r egion

d urng

t he

s ites

f rom t hese g roups h ave b een e xcavated

l ast 2 0 y ears.

T he s ites a re m ostly

g round i n t he v icinity o f d amp d ominated b y s and o r s andy m orain. s ystem

i s

b asically

b ase c amp s ystem. i s

h ard

t he M esolithic w ith

t he e arly p hases o f

t o d ifferentiate

t he

t he

a reas. T he s ite t erritories a re A s d iscussed a bove, t he s ettlement

a n e xtension o f

I n

i n

s ituated o n l ow

s ettlement

a

t ype

o f

t he F unnel B eaker c ulture

s ites

r egarding

f unction.

i t A

l ocation h as b een c hosen f rom w hich a ll t ypes o f a ctivities c ould h ave b een p erformed. T his t ype o f s ettlement i ncludes b oth l arge, m aterial w ise

a nd a rea w ise,

V ärby w hich

a nd H yby a re t he

s ettlement

s ettlements.

S ites

l ike O xie

c overed v aries a l ot.

F or e xample

N r.7 w as v ery l arge a nd c overed m aybe 1 0,000m 2 c onsists m ainly o f s tray f inds b ut i ncludes a m aterial. T he e xcavated s ites, l ike S venstorp, b etween 1 50-1600m 2 . T he e xcavations p erformed, i t a rea. g et

I f w e a

r egard

N r.7,

l arge s ites w ith a n e xtensive m aterial.

p roblem i s h ard

T he

a rea

t he s ite

O xie

T his s ite, t hough, v ery c omprehensive c over a n a rea o f

i s t hat, b ecause o f t he t ype o f t o d elimit t he a ctual s ettlement

t he a rea w ith p its a s

v ery v ariegated p icture o f

S venstorp,

t he

t he a ctual

s ize o f

t he

s ettlement a rea w e s ites.

T his

m ay

a ctually b e a c orrect p icture i n v iew o f t he d iscussion a bove o f t he o ptimal c onditions i n s uch a reas, w hich p rimarily w ere c hosen d uring t he e arly

p art o f

T his k ind o f t he i n

t he E arly N eolithic;

s ettlement

s ystem m akes,

a reas w here f or i nstance,

t wo e cotones

m eet.

h unting s tations

i n

i nland r ather u nnecessary. S easonal v isits a t t he c oast, a s s een t he m aterial f rom S oldattorpet a nd G ränsstigen, w ere c onducted,

t hough.

T he

m aterial

r ecovered o n

80

t hese s ites

i s

r ather

s mall

a nd

i ndicates d uring

s hort

s tays,

p rimarily

f or f ishing a nd m aybe

s eal-hunting

t he w inter.

A

t hird

t ype

o f

t ransistory s ites.

s ettlement

F or

c an b e

i nstance s ites

d iscerned,

j ob-specific

o r

l ike S kabersjö a nd E bbarp may b e

s een a s s uch s ites. O n t hese, s pecial a ctivities l ike f lint k napping a nd a xe m anufacturing c an h ave b een c onducted. T hese s pecific s ites m ay h ave b een " satelite" s ettlements t o t he l arge O xie s ite. T he a cted a s

i dea t hat t he s ettlements o f t he O xie a nd S venstorp b ase-camps w ith, s ometimes, s maller s ites a ttached,

s upported b y p osition s crapers,

o f

t he

f lint a ssemblies

f ound o n t he

s ettlements.

t hese a re v ery v arying w ith f lake a xes, b orers, t ransverse a rrowheads, n otched

g roups i s a lso

T he

c om-

f lake a nd b lade i mplements a nd

p olished a xes. T he v ariation i n t he a ssembly o f t he f lint i mplements i s much l arger t han i n t he l ater E arly N eolithic g roups, l ike B ellevuegarden. I t

i s

S venstorp

n ow

t ime

g roups.

t o

s ummarize

S mall g roups

t he

s ettlement

s ystem o f

s ettled i n t he h illy

t he O xie a nd

l andscape,

w ith

i ts v ariegated e cological e nvironment. A long w ith t he c omposition o f i mplements, t he c hoice o f s ettlement a reas i ndicate a d ualism i n t he e conomy. H unting a nd f ishing, a nd p robably a lso t he c ollecting o f f ruits,

b erries,

n uts

a nd

h erbs,

p layed a r elatively

s upplemented b y c rop r aising a nd p ig/cattle h usbandry. p layed a v ery i mportant r ole i n t he e conomy a t t his t ime. m ents

w ere

p robably p ermanent

f arming w as

m ent

p art,

" base c amps" w here h unting a s

w ell

a s

p ractised.

D uring t he l atter p art o f p attern i s t ransformed.

d istricts

l arge

P igs p robably T he s ettle-

a round

l andscape,

t he E arly N eolithic p eriod, t he s ettleA t t his p oint i n t ime, t he m orainic

M almö p rove

w ith

i ts

t o b e

t he

m ost

a ttractive

t ype 3 m ixed-oak f orests,

w ith

o nes.

T he

t he e lm m uch

i n

e vidence, m ust b e c haracterised a s b eing v ery d amp, w ith o pen e xpanses o f w ater b etween t he l ow h ills. A n e dge e ffect s imilar t o t he o ne t hat a rose

i n t he h illy

b etween I n t wo

s ome

b ig s ites

s tudy

l andscape m ay h ave

l and a nd s ea o r n ear c ases,

t he s ites

t he

s eem

l ate

t he

i n t he w ater f ront z one

i n t he r egion.

t o b ecome m ore p ermanent.

B ellevuegarden a nd S tolpalösa,

t he d evelopment o f I n

d eveloped

t he d amp a reas

s ettlement

i t h as

b een p ossible

N o

B ellevuegarden g roup

c ulture

l ayers w ere

t o

i nto M N I I. t wo s ites

s tand o ut

l arger t han t he r est, B ellevuegarden a nd S tolpalösa. c omprise a l arge c eramic m aterial, a bout 3 0kg, a nd a m aterial.

O n t he

f ound

s o

t he m aterial

a s

b eing

B oth v ast

s ites f lint

d erives

f rom

p its a nd f ireplaces. O n i nterpreted a s a p it-house.

t he B ellevuegarden s ite a f eature m ay b e F rom t his s ite c om 8 a s mall o steological

m aterial w hich i s

i n t he

T he c attle g roup.

s ummarized

m aterial

o ver p igs. T he f lint

s crapers, c ategory.

a bout F lake

i s

r ather

s mall,

A ll o f t he i mplements

8 0-90 a xes,

p er

t able b elow : b ut

i ndicates

a

p reference

f or

f eatures a re d ated t o t he B ellevuegards a t t he s ite a re d ominated b y f lake

c ent

w hich h ave

o f

t he

i mplements

b elong

t o

b eing multi-functional i mplements, a nd t ransverse a rrowheads a re t otally m issing f rom t he s ites b elonging t o t he B ellevuegards

8 1

t his

b een e xperimentally d etermined

a s

a lmost g roup.

T his m ay i ndicate

t hat h unting w as n ot c onducted f rom t hese s ites.

F eature

N umber o f b ones

S pecie

2

1 6 8 3 0 5 2

B os S us

2 2

E quus B os B os

1 3

B os S us O vis/Capra B os/Alces?

T he g roup o f

N umber o f t eeth

N umber o f a nimals

8

2 ( Adultes) 1 ( Adultes) 1 ( Adultes)

2 6

1 ( Adultes) 1 ( Adultes)

1

1 ( Adultes) 1 ( Juveniles) 1 1

2 ( Burnt B one) 1 ( Burnt B one) 4 ( Burnt B one)

t wo l arge s ites B ellevuegarden a nd S tolpalösa c onstitute s ites w hich c an b e t ermed p ermanent s ettlement s ites.

A s econd g roup o f s ites a re m ade u p o f E lisedal, T axeringsassistenten b lock. T hese s ites h ave a

t he

a

V ärby " 65" a nd d ifferent c har-

a cter. T hey a re m ade u p o f o nly o ne, o r s ometimes a c ouple o f p its, w ith a r ather m eagre c ontent; a f ew f lints a nd s ome s herds. A ll o f t hese

s ites w ere d iscovered d uring l arge b uilding

e nterprises

d uring

w hich e xtensive s ettlements f rom t he I ron A ge w ere e xcavated. I t h as a lso b een n oted b x D avidsen t hat s ettlements c an b e m ade u p o f o nly o ne p it o r f eature. 5u T he s ites i n t his g roup m ay b e t ermed c amp s ites: s ites w ith a s hort l ived, s pecific f unction - s ay t ransit c amps f or s hepherds. A t hird c ategory i s m ade u p o f t he s ettlement s ites a round t he f lint m ines i n S . S allerup, n ortheast o f M almö. I n t his a rea f lint m ines h ave b een e xcavated s ince t he b eginning o f t his c entury. 5. 1 T he m ain p roblem h as b een t he d ating o f t he m ines. C arl-Axel A lthin w as o f t he o pinion t hat t hey b elonged t o t he R oman I ron A ge, a nd t hat i t w as n ot h e f lint t hat i nterested t he p eople o f t he I ron A ge b ut t he l ime. . 5 2 A n e vidence, h owever u ncertain , t hat t he m ines w ere a ctually w orked d uring t he E arly N eolithic c ame t o l ight i n 1 904. I n a s haft a f ew f ragments o f a c ollared f lask w ere d iscovered. 53 T he u nusual s hape o f t he f lask m ade a d ating d ifficult b ut i n c onnection w ith t he d iscovery o f a f lat g rave f rom O xie ( east o f M almö) t he s ame t ype o f c ollared f lask w as f ound. 54 D uring t he l ast f ew y ears e xtensive a rcheological w ork i n t he c halk d istricts o f M almö h ave b rought g l ight a l ot o f n ew i nformation r egarding t he f unction o f t he m ines.' T he d ating i s, h owever, s till a p roblem. N o f lint i mplements o r s herds f rom t he E arly N eolithic h ave b een f ound i n t he s hafts. F our 1 4c_ d atings,

t hough,

p lace s ome o f

t he m ines i n t he e arliest p art o f

t he

p eriod. T he d atings h ave a r ather s hort t ime s pan ; 3 130bc - 2 990bc. 56 T he e arliest d atings p lace t he m ines i n t he l ate A tlantic p eriod. I s i t p ossible t hat t he E rtebille p eople w orked t he m ore e asily a ccessible f lint i n t he d istrict? O f a g reater i nterest i n c onnection w ith N eolithic f lint m ining i s t he s ite I g ngdala F arm c lose t o t he m ines. T he s herd m aterial o n t his s ite i s c omparable t o t he m aterial f rom S tolpalösa. 57 A 14 C -dating h as g iven t he v alue 2 610 j t 7 0bc ( Lu-2102). T his d ating c orresponds w ell w ith r adio c arbon d atings f rom t he e nd o f t he E arly N eolithic p eriod i n s outhern S candinavia. 5 1 6 W e h ave n o d irect e vidence, t hough, f or a c onnection b etween t he f lint m ines a nd t he

s ettlement

s ite.

T he s ites

8 2

i n t he v icinity o f

t he

f lint

m ines;

Ä ngdala

F arm a nd S .

s ettlement

i n

t he

S allerup, d istrict

i ndicate h owever, d uring

t he

l ater

a r ather p art

o f

c lustered t he

E arly

N eolithic, a nd i t c annot b e o verruled t hat t he f lint w as e xploited a t t he t ime. F uture r esearch w ill s urely c larify t he p roblems c oncerning t he f lint m ines b ut f or t he t ime b eing, h owever, t he s ites s urrounding t he m ines w ill b e n amed j ob-specific s ites. A f ourth s ettlement t ype i s c onstituted b y h unting s ites.

I n

a n

e arlier c hapter t he s ettlement s ite S . L indved w as s een a s s uch a s ite. T he c oastal s ite S oldattorpet a lso s hows e vidence f or m ore s poradic v isits, a f ew s herds w hich c an b e a ssigned t o t he B ellevuegards g roup h ave b een f ound. p ark " Pild e parna"

T he l arge a mount o f s tray f inds f rom a s ite i n t he i n M almö d erive, t o a c ertain d egree, f rom t he E arly

T he s mall l ake " Pildammen" i s a n atural p ool o f w ater w hich d uring t he e arly S ub B oreal l ay m uch c loser t o t he c oast t han t oday. I t w as c onnected t o t he s ea v ia a s mall b rook ( Korrebäcken). T he s ite m ay h ave a cted a s a h unting/fishing s tation. T o s ummarize: I t i s o bvious t hat t here i s a m arked c hange i n t he s ettlement p attern f rom t he e arlier O xie/Svenstorp g roups a nd t he l ate B ellevuegards g roup. I n t he l atter g roup a m ore d iversified s ettlement p attern c an b e d iscerned: P ermanent s ites, c amp s ites, j ob s pecific s ites a nd h unting/fishing s ites. I f

w e c ompare

t hese f our c ategories w ith t he t ypes

d iscussed

i n

c hapter 4 .1 t here i s a m arked c onformity. T he s ettlement t ypes f ound i n S .W. S cania h ave a ll b een i dentified i n D enmark. O ne c ategory i s a s y et u nknown f rom t he E arly N eolithic i n t he i nvestigation a rea; c entral p laces. T hat s uch s ites e xisted d uring t he M iddle N eolithic i n S cania i s s hown b y t he s ite a t S tävie i n w estern S cania. H ere a s ite c omp arable t o q uarrying. I V-V). 60

4 .3

t he D anish I t i s d ated

s ite S arup w as d iscovered d uring g ravel t o t he l ater p art o f t he M iddle N eolithic ( MN

S ite p opulation I n

t he

p receeding

c hapter t he s ettlement p attern o f

t he

E arly

N eolithic F unnel B eaker c ulture w as d iscussed. A p attern w as d iscerned i n w hich t he l atter p art o f t he p eriod w as c haracterized b y a m ore d iversified s ettlement s ystem . I t i s v ery d ifficult t o t ry a nd e valuate t he p opulation o n t he s ites b ecause t here i s n o c lear c onnect ion b etween t he a mount o f m aterial f ound i n t he p its a nd t he t otal s ettlement a rea. I n t his c hapter a b rief r eview o f s ome o f t he m ethods f or t he e valuation o f p opulation f igures i s p resented. T he a im i s n ot t o t ry a nd d iscuss t he v ast l iterature o n t his s ubject, b ut t o a chieve s ome n otion o f t he p opulation f igures o f a n E arly N eolithic s ettlement s ite i n S .

S candinavia.

T he m ost c ommon m ethod i n t he s tudy o f p opulation f igures i s t he c alculation o f t he n umber o f i nhabitants i n a h ouse. N aroll c alculated t he n umber o f i nhabitants o n t he b asis o f d ata f rom 1 8 s ocieties; s ix e ach f rom N . A g lerica a nd t he P acific, t hree f rom S . A merica a nd f rom E uroasia. b1 T he i nvestigation e nds i n a m uch u sed f ormula: i ndividual

p er 1 0m 2 o f

l iving s pace. 62

8 3

o ne o ne

S ettlement

S urface/m 2

D enmark K nardrup 63

1 2 3 1 2

S tengade 64 M uldbjeyg 65 O rnekul "

1 2

S weden M ogetggp 6 7 0 .Vra P iledal 69 T ygapil 70

1 2

2 6 1 0 2 1 1 62 1 98 2 1 7 ,5 3

5 6 1 4 2 4 1 8 2 8

N aroll

7 6 7 2 1 2 4 7 c 3 c l

4 -5 2 3 -4 2 7 3 3 2 1 -2 0 ,5

5 ,6 1 .4 2 ,4 1 ,8 2 ,7

1 0 6 7 6 c 7

9 2 4 3 5

1 1 1 4

1 0 1 5

6 1 9 4

6 9

D ohnsen '

2 4

2

N aro

C asselberry

2 ,6 1 2 1 6 2 0 2 0 ,75 0 ,3

N .Germa5 ty F logeln W ittenv4 er 72

T able 3 .

C ookHeizer

7

4

T he c alculated n umber o f i nhabitants i n s ome n orthwest E uropean T RB h ouses

Ws

c alculations

h ave b een c riticized b y L eBlanc i n a

w ork

f rom 1 971. H e t hinks t hat t he b asic m aterial i n N aroll's i nvestigat ion i s t oo w eak t o a llow a ny c onclusions. T he a rea u sed f or s pecific p urposes m ust b e t aken i nto c onsideration . T he a verage f loor s pace f or s ay s torage p urpose v aries c onsiderably i n t he s ocieties s tudied b y L eBlanc. I f w e c onsider t he l iving s pace o nly t he n umber o f i nhabitants i n a h ouse c ome c lose t o N aroll's c alculations. 7 5 C asselberry i s a lso v ery c ritical o f t he w ay N aroll p resented h is c alculations. T he d ifferent e cological n ature o f t he 4vestigated s ocieties i n N aroll's w ork m ake a ny c onclusions u ncertain . C assel b erry i s o f t he o pinion t hat w e h ave t o c onsider t he h uman a daptation t o d ifferent e cological c onditions. H e s tudies m ulti-family d wellings i n t he N ew W orld. A s a r esult o f t his 2 s tudy h e a rrives e 5a f ormula w hich s ays t hat e ach i ndividual n eeds 6 m C ook

a nd

o f l iving s pace.

H eizer d eveloped t heir f ormula i n aw ork

f rom

1 968.

7 8

B ased o n t he s tudies o f a borigin41 s ettlements i n C alifornia t hey f ound t hat s ix i ndividuals n eed 1 2m' o f f loor s pace a nd e ach i ndividual t hereafter 1 0m . 7 9 T hese d ifferent m ethods g ive t he r esults s ummarized i n t able 3 i f a pplied t o t he k nown e arly F unnel B eaker h ouses f ound i n S . S candinavia a nd N . G ermany. T here i s a m arked d ifference i n t he n umber o f i nhabitants a rrived a t b y u sing t he d ifferent f ormulas. T he d ifferences a re p articularily l arge b etween N aroll a nd C ook a nd H eizer w hile C asselberry c omes i nbetween . I f w e l ook a t t he s ite K nardrup o n Z ealand i t h oused a ccording t o N aroll, s ix p ersons w hile a ccording t o

8 4

C ook a nd H eizer i t h oused 2 0 i ndividuals.

a bove

I f w e t ake a c loser l ook a t t he d ifferent h ouse t ypes m any o f t hem c onsist o f r ather f limsy c onstructions

O rnekul

a nd

Knardrup)

a nd o nly a f ew o f

t hem a re

t o b e

i n t he t able ( Muldbjerg, t ermed

" long

h ouses" o r h ouses w ith a d iscernible c onstruction ( Piledal, T ygapil a nd t he G erman h ouses). E xcept f or t he o nes r eferred t o i n t he t able t here e xist a c ouple S candinavia. A t

o f o ther, r ather u ncertain, h ouses o r h uts i n S . t he s ite M osegarden o n J utland t wo o r t hree s mall h uts

h ave b een f ound. T hey a re h owever r ather u ncertain. M adsen h as e stimated t he s ize t o a bout 2 0m 2 .öu A s imilar h ut h as b een i nv Nfgated a t L indebjerg o n Z ealand. T he s ize i s a pproximately 1 23 0m

. T wo

s ites

i n t he

r est; S tengade 1 -2. h ouse a c onsiderably S tengade

s tand o ut a s

c o l mtitutes a t ype o f

l ong h ouses. " d uring

t able

s ettlement w ith a l arge p opulation

T he c lassical s ites B arkaer a s w ell a s

l ast

f rom

t he

f ew

y ears

b een t he s ubject o f a

S tengade,

h eated

a nd h ave

d ebate

i n

S .Scandinavia. B arkaer h as b een i nterpreted a s a " long b arrow" a nd s ame i nterpretation h as b een a pplied t o S tengade. 83 M adsen,

t he f or

i nstance, i s o f E arly N eolithic. 8 , 4

t he

h ave

t he

t otally d ifferent

T hese " houses" a re m uch l arger t han t he r est a nd l arger p opulation. S kaarup i s o f t he o pinion t hat

t he o pinion t hat n o l ong h ouses e xisted

d uring

T his o pinion c an, h owever, b e q uestioned. A s w e w ell b uilt t imber c onstructions h ave b een f ound t hough, i n

s een,

b oth S .Scandinavia a nd i n N .Germany. T here m ay b e a d ifference t hough, b etween t he e arly a nd l ate p art o f t he p eriod r egarding t ypes o f d well ings. b e

I t

d ated

s eems t o

t hat

t he

s tructures a ll b elong I f s ites

w e i t

t o

t he

n ow c onsider i s

E xcluding

t he m ore

o bvious

t he

b etween 2 -9

f limsy,

f irst p art o f

h ut-like,

t he

m ore

p ermanent

t he

d ifferent

l ater p art.

t he n umber o f

t hat m ost o f

i nhabitants

o n

t he s ettlements w ere

r ather u ncertain s ite S tengade,

i ndividuals

c onstructions a ll c an

t he p eriod w hile

( using C asselberry's

r ather

w e a rrive

a t

s mall. f igures

f ormulp).

T here s eems t o b e a d ifference b etween s rztlements w ith a c ouple o f h ouses, a nd s ites w ith o nly o ne. T he n umber o f s ites w ith m ore t han o ne d welling

i s

y et

t oo s mall,

t hough,

f or a m ore d etailed d iscussion

o n s ettlement s ize a nd n umber o f d wellings. W e c an t oday o nly s ay t hat t he s ettlements s eem t o b e r ather s mall w ith a p opulation o f m ay b e 1 0. T his f igure i s p robably v alid o nly f or t he m ore p ermanent f arming s ites ay h ave d iscussed a bove. T he s maller s ites - s ay h unting s tations - m ite l ike b een s eaonally i nhabited b y m ay b e o nly 2 -3 i ndividuals. A s M uldbjerg,

w hich

i nhabited s omewhat

b y

h as b een i nterpreted a s s uch a s ite,

s uch

l ower

M osegarden Q n i ndividuals. b i 5

t han

a s mall t he

J utland.

g roup o f p eople.

T he

f igures c alculated b y M adsen H e

a rrived

a t a

ave m ay h

f igures

t otal

s um

f or o f

a bove t he a bout

b een a re s ite 1 5

A nyhow, w e c an s ummarize t he a bove d iscussion b y s tating t hat t he s ettlement s ites d uring t he E arly N eolithic w ere s mall a nd h oused a bout 1 0 p ersons.

T he m ethod o f

i ndividuals h as

c orrelating f loor-space w ith t he n umber

b een h eavely c riticized d uring t he

o f

l ast c ouple o f y ears

w hich, o f c ourse, l ends o ne t o b e c areful w hen a ssessing t he p opulation o f a s ite. H odder, f or e xample, f eels t hat t he r elationship b etween m aterial c ulture a nd

s ocial o rganisation h as n ot

85

c ome

i n f or

t he a tten-

t ion

i t

w hile

t here

c an

d eserves. i s

h gy l,

s ites. ° F letcher

F letcher o n t he o ther h and h as p ointed o ut l imit t o t he n umber o f i ndividuals t hat a

8 6

a n u pper

t he

n umber o f

i nhabitants v aries a g reat d eal

o n

t hat s ite

c ertain

H is i nvestigations a re b ased o n a l arge e tnographic m aterial. i s o f t he o pinion t hat b etter, a nd m ore r efined m ethods f or

t he a ssessment d oing

o f

s ite p opulation a re n eeded.

t his;

g raves a nd

H e

s uggests

w ays

o f

4 .4

S lash-and-burn a griculture d uring t he e arly p art o f

t wo p ossible

t he a mount o f w aste. 88

t he N eolithic

i n S .Scandinavia I n

t his,

a nd

t he

f ollowing c hapters,

t he s ubsistence e conomy o f

t he e arly p art o f t he N eolithic F unnel B eaker c ulture w ill b e a nalysed a nd d iscussed. T he d iscussion h as a l ogical s tarting p oint i n a m uch d ebated i ssue, S ince

s lash-and-burn a griculture.

t he a ppearance o f

a nd-burn

h as

b een h eld

s outhern

S candinavia

g raphic p arallels a

r ecapitulation

C arlstein, 90 T he

I versen's

t o b e

d uring

s eminal

t he p redominant

s tudy i n f orm o f

t he E arly N eolithic

1 941,

s lash-

c ultivation

p eriod.

T he

t o s lash-and-burn w ill n ot b e d iscussed h ere, o f

t his d iscussion w e

C arneiro, 91

C onklin, 92

c haracteristic

c ombined w ith b urning.

r efer

H arris, 93

f eatures o f

t o w orks

b y

S teensberg 94

s lash-and-burn a re

T he f ields a re u sed a s

l ong a s

i n

e tnoa nd

B oserup

f or 8 9

a nd W olf. es

f orest

f allow

t hey p rovide

a

g ood h arvest. T he l ength o f t he f allow v aries b etween 2 0-25 y ears. " E xperiments w ith s lash-and-burn a griculture h ave b een p erformed b y S teensberg a nd I versen i n D rä rd S kov, a nd Kardell e t a l T hese

J utland, 97

e xperiments

s howed

t hat

t he y ield w as n ot

mated. T he h arvest r esults o btained d uring o n J utland w ere a s m eagre a s a n e stimated s eed.

T his

t he

i s a c onsiderably

e tnographic

R eynolds

i n E ngland 98

i n S weden.'

l ower y ield t han

p arallels.

I n

t he

s o

g reat a s

e sti-

t he D raved S kov e xperiments t hree t imes t he p lanting t he r esults s tated

D raved

e xperiments

b y

E inkorn

( Triticum m onococcum) g ave a h arvest a bout t hree t imes t he p lanting s eed. 1 O n t he u nburned a reas " Reiter", t he r esults w ere v ery m eagre, l ess

t han

r esults; b ut

n ot

t he p lanting s eed. b ad w eather d uring

T he s howed

e xperiments a b etter

e stimated a t T he b e

T he

s ix

t o

i s

t imes

f actor o f g reat

t he b urning,

b y R eynolds a t

R eynolds

t he p lanting

r eckon s eed.

b ecause

b ut w as

" Butser

t hat

t he

b ad

i mportance t oo

l ow

A ncient

t he h arvest

i n

F arm"

c ould

b e

1"

c onducted b y Kardell e t a l

t he o thers

i nfluenced

a h ard w inter a nd l ast

t hey w ere

i n m iddle S weden c annot

c onducted

i n a

c oniferous

a nd t he t est m aterial w as m ade u p o f p otatoes and r ye. 1°5 T he o btained b y t hese e xperiments, h owever, w ere n ot g , ? nvincing.

b est h arvest T aken

a s

g ave n o m ore a w hole,

i n

S .

t han

t wice

t he p lanting-seed.

t hese e xperiments

a griculture m ay n ot h ave b een f armer

A nother

1 02

r aised b y

p erformed

r esult.

e xperiments

c ompared

f orest, r esults

T his

f actors

t he s owing s eason,

l east b irds a nd r odents.

i s t he P h-value. D raved. 10i

S everal

1 01

S candinavia.

t he b est

s how

s olution

T he n otion t hat

8 6

t hat

1 U6

s lash-and-burn

f or t he E arly N eolithic s lash-and-burn

w as

t he

p revalent

m ethod

o f c ultivation h ave d uring

o pposed b y s everal ig gholars, a nd C hampion e t a l.' " A ccording

t o

a mong

t he

l ast

t hem R owley-Conwy,

f ew 1 0/

y ears

b i n

S herratt

R owley-Conwy s lash-and-burn a griculture

i s

h ighly

u nlikely i n t emperate E urope d ue t o l ack o f e vidence f or i ts e xistence i n t he p ollen d iagrams a nd t hat i t i s e cologically u nsound. H e c ites T auber's w ork f rom 1 965' 10 a nd s uggests t hat t he e ntire l andnam p henomenon m ight r epresent i ncreased f iltration d ue t o a t hickening l akeside

v egetation.

R owley-Conwy

s upport

f or a s widden s ystem,

l ogical t actical

l iterature. s olution t o

i s o f

t he o pinion t hat

i n t emperate E urope,

I nstead s widdep l ocal p roblems. 1 11

t here

i n t he

f arming s hould b e H e

s uggeifg

i s n o

a ntrophos een

t hat

a s

a

p ermanently

c ultivated f ields e xisted. t hat t his i s q uite p ossible.

B ritish 1 12 a nd G erman e xperiments s how O n t he b etter e uropean s oils m ore o r l ess

p ermenent

f easible w ithout

c ultivation

T his

t ype o f

T his

i s

n eeded

e xistence,

w as

c ultivation h as a s t o

c ontrol

i ndirectly,

t he w eed.

o f

b oth f allow

a nd

m anure.

a p re-requisition t he u se o f H is n otion i s

1 14

t he a rd

a n

a rd.

s upported b y

i n b oth D enmark a nd E ngland

2 700/2600bc. T he e xistence o f t he a rd a nd c attle t ogether, p oint t he d irection o f p ermanenfl c ultivated f ields b ecause c attle h ave p lace

t he

a bout i n n o

i n a s widden s ystem. S herratt

i s

o f

t he o pinion,

l ike R owley-Conwy,

t hat

s lash-and-burn

s hould b e s een a s a m arginal p henomenon p rimarily u sed i n t he n orthern p arts o f t emperate E urope, a nd t hen i n f ir w oods. 1 16 T he d ii,lopment d uring t he N eolithic i s i nterpreted b y S herratt a s f ollows; a long c oasts a nd i nland s treams/lakes a s mall p opulation s ettled a nd d eveloped

a

f arming. e arth w as l atter T his

t ype o f

f arming w hich c ould b est

b e

d escribed

a s

g arden

I n m ost c ases n o c learance w as n eeded a nd n o w orking o f n ecessary. T he d evelopment o f f arming t echniques d uring

p art

t ype

o f

T he

o f

s ame

b iologis

t he N eolithic

f arming i s

b rought

f orward n ew

t ermed a rd o r p lough

d evelopment

i s

H ans G öransson w ho

e nvisaged b y

s ees

t he

i nitial

m eans

f arming t he

o f

s ystem.

S wedish

t he t he

t illing.

1 18

q uaternary-

f arming a s a f ire

g razing

p hase. 11 O n s mall a reas b elow g irdled t rees t wigs a nd l eaves w ere b urnt a nd t he s oil w as h oed. W heat a nd/or b arley w as s own i n t he s oil a nd t he c ereals g rew u p, m anured b y t he r eleased n utrients. T his v iew i s

i n a ccordance w ith

a ttractive

t he

o nes

d iscussed a bove,

B oth R owley-Conwy a nd S herratt a griculture a s a m arginal f ir w oods. f orest, i s

a nd

i s

s urely a

v ery

h ypothesis. s ee

t he e xistence o f

s lash-and-burn

p henomenon p rimarily u sed i n N .

S candinavia's

T hat a s widden s ystem c ould w ell e xist i n a b road l eaved p roved b y i nvestigations i n U SA , t hough. I n t he s outhern

h ighlands o f t he U SA s lash-and-burn e xisted u ntil t he m iddle o f t he 1 9th c entury. 1ZU T he m ethod u sed w as g irdling. G irdled t rees w e u l eft s tanding a s t hey w ere e asy t o c ircumvent w ith a n a rd o r h oe. ' The d ead

t rees w ere u sed

a s

f ire w ood.

T his

t he D elaware i ndians i n t he a rea. T his c over a nd t hen t he t rees w ere g irdled a nd w ere

f ound

u nlike

T his s treams

a long

s treams,

g ardening e xisted. m ethod o r

i n

w as

f p r

t echnique w as

c opied

f rom

t ribe f irst b urnt t he u ndert hereby k illed. T he s widdens

i n r iver v alleys w here a c ultivation

n ot

1 22

a dopted

b y

t he

t he v icinity o f w ater.

8 7

c olonialists w hich T he

c learings

s ettled w ere

a t

a long f irst

c onducted

o n

a ccelarated w ashed w ith

l ow

g round,

a way n ew p lots o f t he

b ut a s

t he d emand

t he h illsides w ere c leared.

l and w ere c leared. " 3

h elp o f a n a rd w hich w as v ery

r oots a nd

f or m ore

f arming

W h n t he h umic T he

e arth

l ayer h ad b een

t illing

w as

t ime d emanding b ecause

d one

o f

t he

r ootlets.

T he e conomic p re-requisitions f or a f arming s ystem b ased o n s lasha nd-burn a re a t hin p opulation a nd t he a ccession t o l and. T hese t wo c onditions

w ere

d isturbed

i n t he m iddle

o f

t he 1 9th c entury a s

a l arge

p opulation i ncrease o ccurred. T his i ncrease l ed t o a m igration a nd s maller f arms/homesteads. 124 T hese f acts l end s upport t o t he a pprehens ion t hat t he t ime o f r egeneration t ime o f b etween 4 0 and 6 0 y ears w as n ecessary

f or

t he

s uccess o f

a f arming b ased o n s widden.

s widden s ystem w as c alled H uutha. 125 t wo, m ay b e f our t imes p er c entury. A s

s een f rom

t o a t emperate t o

m ake

t he d iscussion a bove

f orest,

b ut

t he

a s widden s ystem m ay b e

t ime o f

s uch a s ystem p rofitable.

f orest

T he

p arts o f t he U SA a lso c ollapsed, b ut a lso b ecause o f t he l ong

t emperate

f orest.

I mportant, p rominent

o n w ith

s tudied

i n t he

t o

t he

I n

m uch d ebated, s andy s oils.

s andy

s oils,

o f

f orest

t ype o f

s ystem

t he s oil

d estruction

T his e rosion m ay h ave I n t he w estern a nd m iddle T his

1 4°

u sed

a dopted t oo

l ong

i n

t he

m ainly d ue t o a p opulation r egeneration p hase o f t he

a O velopment o f h eath

p ollen d iagrams.

r emoval

t his

i s

b y s lash-and-burn. t he

J utland, d ue

a nd

c aused

r egeneration i s

s lash-and-burn

s outhern i ncrease

e rosion

T his

T he s ame a rea c ould o nly b e

i s

a reas

c aused b y a

a nd

s oil

b een

v ery

p arts h as

o f b een

p odsolisation

c over.

c onnection S vend N ielsen's

i nvestigat

e o f

t he

a rable

l and d uring p rehistoric t imes i s v ery i nteresting. T he s tudy i s b ased o n t he p rehistoric l and s urfaces f ound u nder m egalithic g raves a nd m ounds i n D enmark. T he t hickness o f t he h umic l ayer f ound u nder t hese m onuments a re o ften n o m ore t han 1 4cm t hick w hile t oday i t i s a bout 3 0cm t hick i n t he s ame a rea. 128 T his i s, a ccording t o N ielsen, c aused

b y

t he

E arly

N eolithic

s lash-and-burn

s ystem.

E specially

v ulnerable a re u ndulating a reas w here a h eavy s oil e rrosion o ccurs a s s oon a s t here a re n o r oots t o h old t he s oil i n p lace. D ue t o t he e xtensive c haracter o f t he E arly N eolithic a gricultural s ystem w ith i ts g reat

d emand

h umic

l ayers o ccurred I n

f arming

a

a

t imes

t he

s mall

I n t his a rea a nd

s eed

i s

c hapter

t he

t he d ifferent y ields t he o pinion t hat

o f

a n

E arly

t hey w ere a ble

B y u sin2 a n a rd a y ield

1 30

e nvisaged.

e vidence

w ill b e d iscussed.

S venstorp n o

t he

o f

N eolithic t o s upport a bout

f ive

1 31

f or t he c ultivation a nd c ollecting o f p lants

d etermined

p eriod

o f

p opulation.

p lanting

c leafe re a g radual d egradation o f

i n v ast a reas.

d iscussion

E vidence

p lants

f or

s ystem N ielsen i s o f

o nly

4 .5

f or n ew a reas

i mpressions g roups.

d etermined

I n

1 32

f or

t he

c ultivation and c ollecting o f

t he m aterial

o f g rain a re o nly

F rom

f rom

t he l ater p art o f

i mpressions h ave

a rea.

88

t he

i nvestigation

f ound i n t he o lder

b een f ound

t he

E arly

i n t he

O xie

N eolithic

i nvestigation

I dentifiable T he n umber

o f

i mpressions a re a vailable

i mpressions.

F rom

t he O xie g roup

s ites: B jörkesakra 6 :1, 1 :107 a nd V ärby. F rom s ites:

t he

o f

t he

( Björkesakra,

g roup

V .

t here

( Table 4 ).

e xist

O xie 7 ,

i s m aterial

f rom t he

f ollowing

S turup 1 :88,

f rom

t he

S turup

f ollowing

K ärrstorp 7 :2 a nd Önsvala 5 :1.

i mpressions

o f

c ereals

S turup 1 :88 a nd S turup 1 :107)

b arley ( Hordeum v ulgare) a nd O f o ther p lants i mpressions o f R oegneria c anina a nd M alus. a re a vailable i n t he f orm o f S tellaria m edia h as

s ites

s ometimes o nly a c ouple o f

i mpressions

H ässleberga 2 4:1,

S venstorp

S venstorp 2 :1,

A ll

f rom n ine

i mpressions a re u sually s mall,

f rom

b elong

t o

t he S turup a rea t he

s pecies n aked

i n o ne c ase w heat ( Triticum c ompactum). S tellaria m edia, E uphorbia h elioscopia,

E vidence f or b urned s hells.

b een u sed

t he

c ollecting o f

i n G ermany a s

e mergency

h azelnuts

f ood a s

t he

l eaves a re e dible. 133 E uphorbia h elioscopia i s a c ommon w eed f ound i n t he v icinity o f f arming p lots. R oegineria c anina h ave a c ertain n utritional v alue a nd m ay h ave

b een c ollected.

T he s ettlements o f t he S turup a rea s how a p redominance f or n aked b arley ( Hordeum v ulgare) a nd t hey a lso s how e vidence f or t he c ollecting o f e dible O n

p lants; o ther

v arieties a re

h azelnuts a nd a pple.

s ettlements b elonging

e inkorn

t he m ost

f requent g rain s pecies.

t he f requency o f H ässleberga t here f rom

t here

i s

i n h istorical T he

e vidence

f or

s ites o f

m entioned

f or

g roups

o f

d ifference

O f o ther e dible T his

g roup h ave

a m ore

F rom t his

a pple

a nd

s ite

G alium.

c an b e d etected

f rom

o f

t hat

i ts

c hronological.

O ther

w ith.

p urely

O ne

e asier t o d ifficult c old t his

i s

t he O xie- a nd S venstorp g roup

o bvious,

s olutions

1 4

t o

t echnical

i s

t o

S herratt,

b e a nticipated. t han

t hat

t hough,

1' 4 1

i s l ast

t his p roblem h ave

b arley

i s o f t he o ldest. 138

p robably

t he d ifference

a re

c annot

t o b e

b ecause b arley a nd b read

b e

r eckoned w heat

a re m ore t o

a

t o t he c onclusion t hat i t w as b ecause o f o n t he F unnel B eaker s ites i n m iddle i s o f

t he o pinion

b arley i s c onnected w ith t he c hoice l ight s oil w hich w arm e asily i n t he p lant

e

t hresh w hile e mmer a nd e inkorn a re c onsiderably t o t hresh. 19 T he f act t hat b arley i s l ess v ulnerable

a nd w et c limate h as l ed t he .8 b arley d ominates

S weden.

t hough,

t here 1

t he m aterial:

B ecause

f act

h etero-

f rom t he N eolithic.

a nd w heat g rowers ( emmer/einkorn). H jelmquist t hat t he g roup d ominated b y w heat g rowers i s t he t he

p lant h as

1 36

g rowers o pinion

c ontemporaneous

i n

i mpressions. O n t he S venstorp s ite b arley ( Hordeum v ulgare) w ith a s mall

n ot p reviously k nown f armers

a m arked

i mpressions.

t he S venstorp

t he c ollecting o f

i s a p lant

T wo

t he

i mpressions o f e mmer a nd e inkorn.

e vidence

s imple w heat

I n t he m aterial f rom t he s ite f or e mmer w hile i n t he m aterial

t imes b een u sed a s a s piceplant.

s ettlement

o f

i s

t he

( Triticum d iococcum)

( Peucealanum o reoselinum).

g enous c omposition o f t he c ereal t here i s a p redominance f or n aked n umber

t he O xie g roup a nd e mmer T here

t he t wo s pecies. i s a p redominance

O xie 7 e inkorn d ominates a mong

p lants

a lso

t o

( Triticum m onococcum)

B arley

w heat w hich p refers

t hat

t he

c ultivation o f

o f s ettlement a rea. O n s pring t he c ultivation o f

i s a lso

e cologically a l ess

h eavy,

c layey s oil a nd g ives

8 9

s andy, b arley

d emanding a

p oor

y ield h ave,

o n s andy h owever,

t imes

i n t he

s oi1. 142 T he s imple w heat v arieties e mmer a nd e inkorn b een c vltivated o n p oor, l ight s oils d uring h istorical

B alkans.

T hese v arieties a re v ery

1 43

r esistant

t o

f rost

a nd d ecay d amages. I t

i s

p eriod.

n ow

t ime

t o

c onsider

I n t he o ldest o f

i mpressions m ostly d erive

t he

s ome o f

t wo

t he D anish m aterial

f rom

t he

s upposed l ong h ouses a t S tengade

f rom b arley a nd w heat w hile

t he

e mmer a nd e inkorn

a re o f m inor i mportance. B arley a nd w heat d ominates w ith 7 6 p er c ent w hile t he o ther t wo s pecies h ave b een i dentified i n 2 4 p er c ent o f t he i mpressions. i s c ent

t he y oungest o f

d ifferent w ith 7 7

f or b arley/wheat.

t he m aterial s ite

I n

1 44

t otally

c an b e I n

d ated

t he

t he S tengade h ouses

t he

f requency

c ent e mmer/einkorn a nd o nly

1 6

p er

A s a c omparison i t c an b e m entioned t hat

1 45

f rom S arup

p er

t he

t o a bout

f requency o f t he

S canian m aterial

e mmer

s ame t ime a s

i s 9 4 p er

c ent.

i n T his

1 46

S tengade 2 .

t here a re o nly a c ouple

o f

s ettlements

w ith d etermined i mpressions f rom t he l atter p art o f t he E arly N eolithic. T he o nes t hat e xist - s ay D ösjebro i n w estern S cania - h ave a h igh f requency o f e mmer a nd e i 49Nn. d ominate d uring t he M iddle N eolithic. ' D ennell t ypes

o f

i mpressions t hat m ay

d iscusses

c ereals b e o ne

t he r ole o f e cological

c ultivated a t a s ettlement

i n t he

T hese

1 47

f actors s ite.

s herds a t W indmill H ill h e c ame

t hird o f

t he c eramics

s pecies

f ound o n t his

f or

t he d ifferent

W hile t o

c learly

s tudying

t he

t he

c onclusion

p articular s ite w as

n ot f abricated t here. S ome o f t he i mpressions m ay t herefore i ndicate a t ype o f f arming w hich w as c haracteristic o f a c ompletely d ifferent a rea.

1 49

s ites m ay

D ifferences

i n

t he

i ndicate h eavier

a reas a re n ot S ettlement

s uited B arley

B jörkesakra

f or

t he

W heat

f requency o f c ertain c ereals

s oils,

o r a h igh d egree o f

c ultivation o f b arley, e inkorn

o f

d ifferent

r ainfall.

f or

e mmer e inkorn/emmer

7

i nstance.

T hese 1 50

o ther p lants a pple 2

6 :1

( Malus) h azelnuts 4 ( Corylus) E uphorbia h elioscopia 1

S turup 1 :88 S turup 1 :107

2 1 +1?

1

O xie 7

3

1

H ässleberga

1 ?

R oegneria c anina 1 6 4

1 0

4

P eucealanum 1

2 4:1

o reoselinum

V ärby S venstorp

5 1 5

1 ? 6

3 1

1 5

1 1 a pple 6 ( Malus) G alium 1

V .Kärrstorp

1

2 +1?

1

1

1 1

7

7

7 :2 Ö nsvala 5 :1

T able 4 .

R egistered

1

i mpressions

a pple 1 ( Malus) i n s herds

S cania

90

f rom s ites

i n

s outhwestern

4 .6

C attle a nd p igs

i n t he e arly F unnel B eaker c ulture e cology

a nd e conomy O ne

o f

t he m ore

i mportant

a spects

o f

t he E arly N eolithic

i n

S .

S candinavia i s t he r elative i mportance o f d omesticated a nimals l ike c attle, p igs a nd s heep. T hey a re a ll p resent i n t he o steological m aterial

f rom S .

S candinavia.

m eagre,

t hough,

a nd

m aterial

i s

o f b urnt t hough. 1 52 a rrive

T he

o nly p resent a t

t he c ase

t he

i n

f rom m ost

S W.

s ites

S cania.

B ellevuegarden s ite.

a ny

c onclusions

r egarding

t he

t he E arly N eolithic e conomy. r ather h ypothetic. d ensity

d ifferent

T he m aterial

i s

1 51

S mall

o f

t he

f orest

r elative T he

r ole

i s

o f

g reat

d omesticated a nimals a dopt

t o

t he e nvironment.

t he n umber o f p lants p resent f ore h ave b een o f g reat h elp i t

o pen.

T he

i n E .

s ettlement J utland

T orsten M adsen. a reas. a

r ather a mounts

o f

d ifferent

f ollowing d iscussion

i mportance

f or

h as

T here

d omination

o f

p igs

s ystem o f b een

t hat

o ver

t o

w ay

P igs a re

b est

t o a corn o f d amage, d ecreasing

i n t he u nder s torey. 1 54 P igs c ould t herei n o pening t he f orest, a nd a lso i n k eeping t he E arly N eolithic

t he s ubject

i s a m arked

M adsen c oncludes

I s

t he

a dopted t o a f orest e nvironment b ecause t hey a re r esistant p oisoning. 1 53 T hey c an, h owever, c ause a n i mmense a mount r educing t he g round c over b y a bout 9 0 p er c ent a nd g reatly

c ulture

i s

O steological

b ones f rom B jörkesakra i n t he S turup a rea h ave b een a nalysed, B ecause o f t he l ack o f m aterial i t i s r ather d ifficult t o

a t

a nimals i n b e s een a s

t his

t his

c attle

o f

p reference t ype o f i n

F unnel

a c omprehensive f or

s andy

s ettlement

t he e conomy.

s oil a nd

p attern H is

1 55

B eaker s tudy b y d amp

i ndicates

c onclusions

a re t otally b ased o n a nalysis o f t he s ettlement p attern, b ecause o steological m aterial i s c ompletely a bsent f rom t he s ites i n q uestion. T he p reference o f p igs f or d amp h ilt f orest h ave a lso b een n oted h istorically. 1 56 B racken ( Pteridium) a nd p lantain ( Plantago l anceo_ ________ l ata) a re i mportant i n t he d iet 1 5/ p f w ild p igs. B racken i s p oisonous t o c attle

b ut

T he

p igs a re s ettlement

d iscussed o bserved

f or S W. t hat

S venstorp, o pen

s ystem d escribed a bove S cania.

t he

o ldest

p referred

a nd d iversified

b urned b one a t N o o ther s pecies c an

r esistant.

b e

s andy

I n o f

t he t he

F unnel

s oil a nd

v egetation

" Site

i s

B eaker

d amp a reas.

t hrived.

c omparable

c atchment"

T he

I n

t o

t he

o ne

i t

w as

O xie

a nd

a nalysis g roups,

t hese a reas a m ore

r ather

s mall

a mount

o f

t he B jörkesakra s ite i ndicates a p reference f or p igs. w ere i dentified. A dmittedly t he m aterial i s s mall b ut

t aken a s a p oint

i n

f avour o f

a r elatively h igh

d ependence

o n

p igs. T he

p ollen

i ndicate f avoured t ook

a nalytical

h igh v alues o f b y b urning. 158

p lace.

q uaternary

T his

i s

i nvestigations

i n I reland

a nd

E .

b racken a nd p lantain. B oth t hese s pecies a re E vidently b oth e xtensive b urning a nd g razing c alled

t he

f ire-grazing p hase

b iologist H ans G öransson.

T his

b y

i s a p hase

t he

d ifficult

t o

i dentify i n t he p ollen d iagrams

S wedish

t hat a ccording

h im l asted t he w hole o f t he E arly N eolithic. T he e vidence p hase i n S .Scandinavia w as d iscused i n c hapter 3 .3. T his r ather

S weden

t o

f or t his p hase i s

f rom S cania b ut

i t

i s a v ery e vocative h ypothesis. The d iscussion a bove m ay b e s ummarized a s f ollows: t he c ombination o f p ollen a nalytical, a nd a rchaeological e vidence, s uggest a p reference f or

p igs

d uring

t he

e arly

s tages

9 1

o f

t he

E arly

N eolithic

i n

S .Scandinavia. t o b e m arked

I nteresting,

N eolithic.

c attle.

a s tarting

T roels-Smith

r anging c ulture.

c ettle e xisted 1 6U H e s tated

f odder

w ere

d ecline a s t ion

h as

s ize

o f

i s

t he

f act

t hat

t he

r everse

s eems

D uring t he E arly N eolithic t here w hile p igs d ominate d uring t he

i s a L ate

1 59

T he a bove m akes o f

t hough,

t he c ase i n B ritain. p reference f or c attle,

u sed

c aused

r ecently w ork

i n a d iscussion o f

t he

t he a ssumption i n 1 954

i mportance

t hat

n o

f ree

i n t he e arliest p hase o f t he F unnel B eaker t hat t he c attle w ere s talled a nd t hat l eaf

d uring b y

p oint

m ade

t he

t he w inter.

T roels-Smith

v iewed

l arge-scale p ollarding o f e lms.

b een s everly

i mplied b y

t he

q uestioned

( See c hapter

f odder-collecting

t he

e lm

T his a ssump3 .3.1).

t heory

i s

T he

e normous.

S jöbeck e stimates t he a mount o f l eaf-fodder t o f eed o ne c ow d uring t he w inter t o 1 000kg. 1 61 C onsidering t his g reat a mount o f f odder F leming r eached

t he c onclusion

i n a f orest i mportance

t hat 2 0-30 h ead o f

e nvironment. d uring t he

t radictory t o t he o steological e vidence i n a ccordance w ith t he s tate o f a ffairs A nother v ery f orest

i mportant

e nvironment

p ointed

o ut

c ommunity

t hat

i s

f ree

c attle

p er k m2 i s a

A ccording t o F leming, E arly N eolithic. 1 63 T his

c attle w as

1 62

c onclusion i s c onf rom B ritain, b ut s eems t o b e i n S .Scandinavia.

p roblem c oncerning

t he

r egeneration o f

f ree r anging c attle i n a

t he

f orest.

r anging c attle s ets a l imit

b ased o n s lash-and-burn.

m aximum o f m inor

f or

C attle m ay h ave

H arris

b een

a

i mportant,

t hough, a s p roviders o f e xtra n utrition a nd m ay h ave a ssisted t ransformation f rom s lash-and-burn t echnology t o m ore i ntensive o f

h as

t he g rowth o f

i n a f orms

a griculture. T he

d iscussion

f ollowing

w ay:

S W.Scania,

i n

T he

a nd

t he c hapters

t he w hole

e valuate b ecause

o f

a bove

c an b e

s ubsistence e conomy o f

t he

o f

S .Scandinavia

f or

s ummarized

t he e arliest t hat m atter,

l ack o f o steological m aterial a nd

i n

t he

f armers i s

i n

h ard

e vidence

t o f or

t he c omposition o f p lant f ood. T he h ypothesis r aised h ave a ften b een b ased o n a v ery m eagre m aterial, a nd t o a l arge e xtent o n i ndirect e vidence

l ike

" site c atchment"

a nalysis a nd

T aken t ogether a p icture e merges i s p rimarily

b ased

D uring g roups s andy

s oil

F rom a s ite c attle,

O n f orest t he

a nd

t he

p art

l ike t he

s torey. v icinity

1 0 i ndividuals. c learly

T he

t he E arly N eolithic

b ecause o f

s oils

t imber a nd

S mall t he

f ollowing

i nvestigation a rea

l andscape o f

a nalysis. s ummary

i n S W.Scania.

( c.3000-2750)

t he r egion.

T hey

t he e dge-effect

o f

s uch

f arming,

s mall

p referred a reas.

p ig h erding,

t he c ollecting o f w ild p lants a nd

h azelnuts. w e

c omposed o f o f

h owever.

t he

l ocation"

r esources c ould b e e xploited;

a pple a nd

s andy

m ainly

f rom

o f

h illy

d amp a reas

s everal

a rchaeological a ny

f irst i n

h unting/fishing,

r esources

u nder

t he

s ettled

o n e vidence

" site

c an p ostulate a r ather o ak ,

p lots

f or

t he g rowing o f

s ettlement.

e vidence p oint

t hin

v egetation,

t o

T he

c ereals w ere

s ettlements

a p opulation o f

w ere

n o m ore

c leared s mall.

t races.

9 2

i n T he

t han m ay b e 8 -

T he h ouses h ad a h ut-like c haracter a nd h ave n ot

i nterpretable

a

l ime a nd h azel a nd w ith a r ather d ense

l eft

c haracterised

b y

g eneralized f arming w ith p igs a s a n i mportant f eature. H unting a nd c ollecting o f w ild p lants w ere i mportant a dditions t o t he d iet.

T he

e arliest

p art

o f

t he E arly N eolithic

t he

9 3

i s

N otes 1 .

S kaarup 1 973,

p 1 1

2 .

S kaarup 1 973,

p 1 33

3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 .

S kaarup 1 982a, p 3 3; S kaarup 1 982b, S kaarup 1 982a, p 3 3; S kaarup 1 982b, M adsen 1 982, p 2 01 f f J ohansson 1 979, p 8 5 f f D avidsen 1 978, p 1 56 f f D avidsen 1 978, p 1 57 D avidsen 1 978, p 1 57

1 0. 1 1. 1 2.

f f p 4 5 p4 5

S trömberg 1 980a, p 1 31 f f; S trömberg 1 982a, p 4 3 f f S trömberg 1 982a, p 4 7 W elinder 1 975, p 1 0 f f; H ulthgn a nd W elinder 1 981, p 9 f f W elinder 1 982,

p 7 f f ;

W elinder 1 983,

1 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6.

H ulthgn a nd W elinder 1 981, H ulthgn a nd W elinder 1 981, W elinder 1 975, p 7 7 Z velebil 1 981, p 1 07

1 7.

K jellmark 1 905,

1 8. 1 9.

S alomonsson 1 971, S alomonsson 1 971,

p 4 8 p4 8

2 0.

R osen 1 912,

f f

2 1. 2 2.

K jellmark 1 905, K jellmark 1 905,

2 3. 2 4.

K jellmark 1 905, p 1 03 f f S alomonsson 1 971, p 4 8

2 5. 2 6.

S alonomsson 1 971, S alomonsson 1 971,

p4 8 p 4 8

2 7. 2 8.

S alomonsson 1 971, S alomonsson 1 971,

p 4 8 p 4 8

2 9. 3 0.

S alomonsson 1 971, S alomonsson 1 971,

p4 8 p 4 6

3 1. 3 2.

S alomonsson 1 971, R osen 1 912, p 6 46

p4 6

3 3. 3 4. 3 5. 3 6.

R osen 1 912, p 6 44, 6 46 M adsen 1 982, p 2 04 J ennbert 1 984, p 1 36 J ennbert 1 984, p 1 20

p 4 2

f f

p 9 f f p 7 9

p 1 f f

p 6 26

p 1 f f p 9 0 f f

3 7.

J ennbert 1 984,

3 8. 3 9.

M adsen 1 982, p 1 97 f f; M adsen a nd J ensen 1 982, M adsen a nd J ensen 1 982, p 8 2

p 9 4

4 0. 4 1.

M adsen a nd J ensen 1 982, B akker 1 982, p 1 08 f f

4 2. 4 3.

S mith 1 981, p 1 72 G rigson 1 982, p 2 99

4 4. 4 5.

G rigson 1 982, p 3 09 P aludan-Müller 1 978,

4 6.

M athiassen 1 959,

4 7. 4 8. 4 9.

P aludan-Müller 1 978, p 1 55 f f F ig.3 P aludan-Müller 1 978, p 1 54 D eterminations b y D oc.Ove P ersson, L und

5 0.

D avidsen 1 978,

p8 3

p 1 59

p3 f f

p 1 57

94

p6 3

f f

5 1.

A lthin 1 951, p 3 f f; H olst 1 906, S chnittger 1 910, p 3 f f

5 2.

A lthin 1 951,

5 3. 5 4.

H olst 1 906, p 1 72 L arsson M 1 980, p 2 6

p 1 70 f f;

p 1 54

5 5.

O laus rn,

5 6.

5 8.

3 060 — 6 5bc ( Lu-1633); 3 130 — 6 5bc ( Lu-1636); 2 990 1 10bc ( Lu-1780) A h eartfelt t hanks t o E lisabet R udebeck, M almö c hance t o s tudy t he m aterial. C hapter 2 .2.2

5 7.

R udebeck a nd S äfvesiad 1 980,

5 9.

A lthin 1 954,

6 0.

L arsson 1 982b,

6 1. 6 2. 6 3. 6 4.

N aroll 1 962, p 5 88 N aroll 1 962, p 5 88 L arsen 1 957, p 2 4 f f S kaarup 1 975, p 3 2, 1 09

6 5. 6 6.

T roels-Smith 1 960, p 6 8 B ecker 1 952, p 6 7 f f

6 7. 6 8. 6 9. 7 0. 7 1.

F lorin 1 959, p 5 1 F lorin 1 959, p 8 0 L arsson a nd L arsson 1 984, S trömberg 1 978, p 6 9 f f Z immermann 1 979, p 2 47 f f

p 5 2 p6 5

f f

p2 44;

p 2 7

7 2.

S chirnig 1 979,

7 3. 7 4. 7 5. 7 6.

S chirnig 1 979, p 2 41 f f ; L eBlanc 1 971, p 2 10 f f L eBlanc 1 971, p 2 10 f f C asselberry 1 974, p 1 18

7 7. 7 8.

C asselberry 1 974, p 1 19 C ook a nd H eizer 1 968, p 1 14

7 9. 8 0. 8 1. 8 2.

C ook a nd H eizer 1 968, p 1 15 M adsen a nd J ensen 1 982, p 6 7 L iversage 1 981, p 1 16 S kaarup 1 982a, p 3 3

8 3. 8 4.

G lob 1 975, p 1 2 M adsen 1 979, p 3 08

8 5. 8 6.

M adsen 1 982, p 8 3 H odder 1 982a, p 1 95

8 7. 8 8. 8 9.

F letcher 1 981, p 1 20 F letcher 1 981, p 9 8 B oserup 1 973, p 1 5 f f

9 0. 9 1. 9 2. 9 3.

C arlstein 1 980, p 3 f f C arneiro 1 960, p 2 29 f f C onklin 1 961, p 2 27 f f H arris 1 972, p 2 45 f f

9 4. 9 5. 9 6. 9 7.

S teensberg 1 955, p 6 5 f f W olf 1 971, p 3 6 B oserup 1 973, p 1 5 S teensberg 1 979, p 5 f f

9 8.

R eynolds 1 977,

9 9.

K ardell e tal 1 980,

1 00.

p 1 87

p3 07

f f

V oss 1 965,

p 3 43 f f

P iesker 1 937,

f f p 9 f f

L erche a nd S teensberg 1 980,

p 4 9

9 5

p 1 29 f f

M useum,

f or

a

1 01. 1 02. 1 03.

L er he a nd S teensberg 1 980, L erche a nd S teensberg 1 980, L erche a nd S teensberg 1 980,

1 04. 1 05. 1 06.

R eynolds 1 977, p 3 10 K ardell e t a l 1 980, p 4 8 K ardell e t a l 1 980, p 6 5

1 07. 1 08. 1 09. 1 10. 11. 1 12. 1 13. 1 14. 1 15. 1 16. 1 17. 1 18. 1 19. 1 20. 1 21. 1 22. 1 23. 1 24. 1 25. 1 26. 1 27. 1 28. 1 29. 1 30. 1 31. 1 32. 1 33. 1 34. 1 35. 1 36. 1 37. 1 38. 1 39. 1 40. 1 41. 1 42. 1 43. 1 44. 1 45. 1 46. 1 47. 1 48. 1 49. 1 50.

p4 9 p 5 0 p5 0-51

f f f f

R owley-Conwy 1 981a, p 8 5 f f S herratt 1 980, p 3 13 f f C hampion e t a l 1 984, p 1 26 f f T auber 1 975, p 2 3 R owley-Conwy 1 981a, p 8 7 R owley-Conwy 1 981a, p 9 0 L üning 1 980, p 1 18 f f R owley-Conwy 1 981a , p9 4 f f R owley-Conwy 1 981a, p 9 4 f f S herratt 1 980, p 3 14 S herratt 1 980, p 3 18 S herratt 1 980, p 3 20 G öransson 1 984, p 1 74 O tto a nd A nderson 1 982, p 1 33 O tto a nd A nderson 1 982, p 1 33 O tto a nd A nderson 1 982, p 1 36 O tto a nd A nderson 1 982, p 1 38 O tto a nd A nderson 1 982, p 1 43 Z velebil 1 978, p 2 32 T ansley 1 939, p 9 7; B utzer 1 982, p 1 26 N ielsen 1 980, p 1 03 f f N ielsen 1 980, p 1 16 N ielsen 1 980, p 1 12 N ielsen 1 980, p 1 18 N ielsen 1 980, p 1 19 A h eartfelt t hanks t o P rof. H akon H jelmqvist d eterminations. W illerding 1 983, p 2 02 H jelmqvist 1 979, p 9 H jelmqvist 1 979, p 9 R ausing 1 981, p 1 01 R ausing 1 981, p 1 10 H jelmqvist 1 979, p 2 1 H jelmqvist 1 974, p 2 19 H jelmqvist 1 979, p 1 8 S herratt 1 980, p 3 19 B radley 1 978, p 3 2 J arman e t a l 1 982, p 1 40 H jelmqvist 1 975, p 2 17 H jelmqvist 1 975, p 2 17 J Srgensen 1 977, p 5 6 H jelmqvist 1 979, p 1 9 t ab 3 a irgensen 1 977, p 6 1 t ab 5 D ennell 1 976, p 1 3 D ennell 1 976, p 1 5

9 6

L und,

f or

t he

1 51.

C hapter 4 .2

1 52. 1 53. 1 54. 1 55.

C hristofferson 1 974, p 1 64 R yder 1 981, p 3 20 G rigson 1 982, p 2 99 M adsen a nd J ensen 1 982, p 8 3

1 56. 1 57. 1 58. 1 59.

G rigson 1 982, p G rigson 1 982, p G öransson 1 984, G rigson 1 982, p

2 99 3 09 p 1 75 3 06, 3 07

1 60.

T roels-Smith 1 982,

1 61. 1 62.

S jöbeck 1 933, F leming 1 972,

1 63. 1 64.

F leming 1 972, p 1 83 H arris 1 972, p 2 55

p 3 8

f f

p 1 5 p 1 82

7

C hapter 5 :

T he D evelopment

d uring

t he l ater p art o f

t he

E arly N eolithic

5 .1

O bserved c hanges i n t he s ettlement p attern o f t he E arly N eolithic F unnel B eaker c ulture i n S W.Scania-background. I n

t his

l ed

t o

t he

i ntroductory

w ill

b e a nalysed,

c hapter

s ome o f

t he f actors w hich m ay

c hange i n t he s ettlement s ystem d iscussed i n a nd

s ome

l ikely h ypothesis w ill b e p ut

h ave

c hapter

3 .5

f orward.

T he

S turup a rea h as b een s elected t o f orm a b asis f or a " case s tudy". I n t his a rea, e specially i ts c entral p art, a n umber o f s ites b elonging t o t he Oxie

g roup - s even i n a ll,

p erformed s ame w hile

d uring

t o b e e xact - e merged d uring e xcavations

t he e arly 1 970s.

F ive o f

t hem w ere s ituated o n

t he

r idge ( Fig.30). I n t he a rea a l ime-poor, s andy m orain p revail t he s andy a reas a re s mall. I n t he v icinity o f t he s ites, t here

a re a n umber o f s mall l akes, b ogs, c arrs a nd s treams. T his i s p articularly o bvious i f w e l ook a t t he S canian R econnaissance M ap f rom a pproximately 1 810.

T his map g ives a f air p icture o f

t he e xtension o f

t he m ore o r l ess w ater-logged a reas b efore t he g reat d raining t akings d uring t he l ater p art o f t he 1 9th c entury ( Fig.29). T he s ize o f

t he s ettlements v ary

g reat d eal.

u nder-

T ie i nvestigated,

a nd e xcavated, a reas e xtend f rom 1 50m ( 1:89) t o 2 000m ( 1:17). M ost o f t he s ites c omprise a r ather m eagre m aterial, a c ouple o f k ilograms o f s herds a nd a bout 6 00 p ieces o f f lint w aste a t t he m ost. O n o ne o f t he s ites, 1 :107a, a f eature i nterpreted a s a v ery d amaged h ut o r h ouse f oundation w as t o

f ound.

T he p robable h ouse c onstruction c an b e c ompared

t he o nes e xcavated b y B ecker a t O rnekul. T wo

s ites

s tand o ut

f rom t he

r est,

1

S turup 1 :88 a nd 1 :107a.

T hese

s ites c omprise a m ore c omprehensive m aterial t han t he r est. C eramic m aterial w ere o nly f ound a t t hese s ites. W e c an f or t hat r eason a ssume a t he

d ifferent t wo

f unction o f

s ites,

t he o thers w ere T he o f

w as

s ettlement s ites.

A h ypothesis

p opulation w as

i s

t hat

c onstituted p ermanent s ites a nd

s atellite s ettlements w ith a s pecial

a n E arly N eolithic

u als. 2 5-30

t hese

1 :88 a nd 1 :107a,

p robably s mall. s ettlement w as

f unction.

I n c hapter 4 .3

c alculated

t hat

t o a bout

t he t en

p opulation i ndivid-

T he p opulation i n t he c entral S turup a rea c annot h ave e xceeded i ndividuals. I f w e r eckon t hat t he p opulation i n t he S turup a rea s mall a nd

t ion o f

d ispersed

t he s ettlement a t

i t

i s h ard

t he e nd o f

t o u nderstand

t he o bvious

t ermina-

t he E arly N eolithic p eriod.

T here

i s n o e vidence o f s ettlements o ccurring a fter t his p eriod. T here m ay b e s everal a nswers t o t his p roblem, a nd s ome o f t hem w ill b e d iscussed i n

t he

f ollowing.

C hanges

i n

t he p opulation a re

i mportant

i n a

l ow

t echnological

s ociety. A c ompilation b y S ahlins s hows t he g reat d iffeKences p opulation d ensity i n s ocieties b ased o n s lash-and-burn. I t

9 9

i n i s

i nteresting

t o n ote

t hat a ll o f

t he s ocieties i n t he c ompilation h ave a

p opulation w ell b elow t heir c arrying c apacity. T he

c oncegt

i f

c arrying c apacity h as b een c riticised a s b eing

f ar

t oo s ubjective. I t i s v ery d ifficult t o e stimate t he d istribution o f d ifferent r esources i n a n a rea. T he r esults o btained i n a n e stimation o f t he c arrying c apacity i s o ften v ery g rowth i s e xagerated i n t he d iscussion. G lassow,

t hough,

h as

t ried

t o

u ncertain.

i ntegrate c arrying

f actors l ike e conomy. 5 H is m odel i mplies s istence e conomy i s n ot a r esult o f t hat r eached,

b ut

E arle

t hat

t he

t hinks

f orms

G reen

o f

i s

c apacity

w ith

c ost o f p roduction g oes u p.

t hat

i ntensive

p opulation

t hat a c hange i n t he s ubt he g arrying c apacity i s

e thnographi rl a nalogies

c an b e

e stimation o f t he c ost o f p roduction. H is m odel i s b etween p opulation g rowth a nd t echnological c hange. m ore

T he

o f a griculture

t he o pinion

t hat

i s

u sed

i n

a n

b ased o n t he l ink A c hange r wards

i mplied i n E arle's m odel.

f actors

l ike

e cology a nd

t he

s ocial

s ystem h ave t o b e i ntegrated i n a d iscussion o f e conomic c hange. 9 T he m ain p oint i n G reen's m odel i s i n w hich w ay h uman a ctivity m odifies t he r elationship b etween t he e conomic a nd T he s ociety F ig.29 b een

a uthors

s ocial

m entioned a bove h ave a ll

s ystem.

1 0

t aken a

s ystemic

a nd t his w ill b e c ontinued i n t he f ollowing. i t i s o bvious t hat t he a vailable f arming l and

g reat

e xtensive

i n t he S turup a rea. d amp a reas.

T he

F avourable

s ettlements w ere

a reas - t hat

v iew

o f

I f w e l ook a t c ould n ot h ave s urrounded

i s a reas

w ith

b y

l ight,

w ell d rained s oil - f or f arming a re s carce. O ne s ite, S turup 1 :88, h as a s ite t erritory o f 3 14ha. W e c an e stimate t he a vailable f arming l and t o a bout 6 0 p er " site c atchment"

c ent, t hat i s 1 88ha. T he f igures a re b ased o n t he a nalysis p erformed i n c hapter 3 .5. T he f orest o n

t hese s oils b elong t o t ype 1 m ixed-oak w ood. O n t he l ighter s oils, e specially o n t he r idge w here m ost o f t he s ites a re s ituated, m ore o pen t ype 2

f orest

t hrived.

F rom t he a bove w e c an c onclude

t hat 1 88ha

o f

c limax w ood w as a vailable t o t he p opulation a t S turup 1 :88. T he n otion t hat s lash-and-burn a griculture w as t he p revailing m ethod w as a bandoned i n

c hapter 4 .4 a nd

a t ype o f

g arden f arming w as

u se o f a h oe m ay b e p resumed. I t y ield, a nd t he s ize o f t he f ields,

i s h ard, i n t his

a ssumed

i nstead.

T he

t hough, t o e stimate t he k ind o f f arming. B ritish

s cholars h ave e stimated t he s ize o f t he c learings t o a bout a c ouple o f h ectares. 1 1 I n a s tudy o f m odern d ay s widden f armers H arris o bserved t hat

t he

s eeded a rea s eldom e xceeds 0 ,4ha.

f amily c onsisting o f 5 -6 o f a bout 1 0 b ushels a rea o f c . 4 ha. 13 b een a ble

t o

S everal

i ndividuals,

o f

t ransform c . s tudies

S oudsk9

t hese

A tkinson a ssumes

t hat

a

a w heat c onsumption

( 1 b ushel=36,348 1 ) p er i ndividual, w ould n eed a n I n o ne c entury t hree t o f our g enerations w ould h ave 0 ,9km 2 i nto o pen c ountryside.

h ave

b een m ade o f

s upport o ne i ndividual w ith g rain. p recarious, a nd t he r esults h ave t o e xamples

1 2

a nd w ho h ave

t he s ize o f

1 4

l and

n eeded

t o

o f c ourse A ll s uch s tudies a re B elow a f ew t reated w ith c aution.

c alculations w ill b e d iscussed.

a nd P avia h ave

c alculated

t hat

a R ussian

p easant

f amily

n eeded 1 ,23ha f or t he c ultivation o f g rain. T he R ussian p easant f amily i n t heir s tudy b ased t heir a griculture o n s lash-and-burn w hich g ave a

1 00

y ield o f

b etween 1 000-1200kg/ha.

1 5

M ilisauskas c alculated, i n a s tudy o f L inearbandkeramik, t hat o ne i ndividual n eeded l ha o f l and. l b I n h is e xample t he s ubsistence e conomy w as t otally b ased o n w heat. S everal a ttempts h ave b een m ade t o c alculate t he a mount o f i n t he r eckon

t otal f ood w eb a s w ell a s t hat a y ield o f 4 20kg/ha,

c ereals

t he y ield o f g rain. K ardell e t a l e xcluding t he p lanting s eed, w as

p robable. T his i s a bout 1 7 e ight t imes t he p lanting s eed. B akels, o n t he o ther h and, c alculates w ith a y ield o f b etween 8 00-1600kg/ha i n t he D utch L inearbandkeramik . T he a mount o f w heat i n f ood i s c alculated t o b etween 6 5 p er c ent a nd 8 0 p er c ent. 18 F rom t he a bove i t

i s o bvious

t hat

i t i s v ery d ifficult

t o e stimate

t he p ercentage o f g rain i n t he f ood. T he s ame d ifficulty e xists w e t ry t o e stimate t he s ize o f t he y ield i n t he N eolithic f arming.

w hen T he

e xperiments p erformed a t D raved s howed t hat i n a c ultivation b ased o n s lash-and-burn t he y ield w as p robably v ery l ow. I n t he f ollowing e stimation o f t he y ield i n t he S turup a rea i n S W . S cania t he c alculat ions b y Kardell e t a l w ill b e u sed. T he a mount o f c ereals i n t he f ood i s

e stimated t o 5 0 p er c ent.

a verage c alorie m en, w omen a nd c ereals,

I n t he f ollowing d iscussion t he

d aily,

i ntake i s e stimated t o 2 ,500. 19 T his i ncludes g rown c hildren. I n o ur e xample 1 ,250 c alories c ome f rom

a nd t he r est f rom p igs,

c attle 98 h unting/collecting.

O ne k g

o f w heat i s c alculated t o 3 ,200 c alories." 4 20kg o f g rain c orrespond t o 1 ,340,000 c alories/ha. T he e stimated y early a mount o f c alorie f rom g rain i s 4 56,250. T his i mplicates t hat a lmost t hree i ndividuals c ould g et t heir y early a mount o f g rain o ut o f l ha. T o s upply o ne i ndividual, a pproximately 0 .3ha w as n eeded. I n

t his e xample

c onsideration.

t he l ength o f

t he f allow h as n ot b een t aken

i nto

I n a f arming s ystem b ased o n s lash-and-burn t he f allow

p eriod i s u sually o f a v ery l ong d uration. I n t he t eTperate f orests o f F inland t he l ength o f t he f allow w as u p t o 6 0 y ears." T his m eans t hat v ery l arge a reas w ere n eeded i n t his t ype o f a griculture, b ut, a s d iscussed i n c hapter 4 .4, t he n otion t hat s widden f arming w as t he p revailing f orm o f c ultivation d uring t he E arly N eolithic i n S . S candinavia c an p robably b e a bandoned. I nstead a t ype o f g ardening c an b e a ssumed. T he t rees w ere g irdled, a nd s mall a reas w ere u sed g rowing o f c ereals. A c oppice w ood d eveloped o n h igh g round. I t

i s

n ow t ime

s ite S turup 1 :88.

t o r eturn t o t he S turup a rea a nd

t he

f or t he

s ettlement

A bove t he a vailable b roadleaved f orest i n t he s ite-

t erritory o f t he s ettlement w as e stimated t o 1 88ha. I n c hapter 4 .3 t he p opulation o n a n E arly N eolithic s ettlement w as e stimated t o a bout 1 0 i ndividuals, t his m eans t hat c 3 ha w ere n eeded f or t he c ultivation g rain. T his a rea i s v ery s mall c onsidering t he a vailable a rea. W hy

t hen i s

t here n o t race o f

o f

s ettlement i n t he S turup a rea a fter

t he E arly N eolithic? A s m entioned a bove t he a reas s uitable f or f arming c an h ave b een c onsiderably s maller t han t he e stimated 6 0 p er c ent. T he 1 .

f ollowing i rreversible c hanges c an b e i nferred:

A d estruction o f

t he b rown f orest s oil,

1 01

2 2

2 .

E rosion a long

3 .

A n i ncreased

t he

s lopes,

l eaching o f m inerals n utrients

T hese e ffects c an, t aken t ogether, f arming p ossibilities i n t he S turup a rea. h ave

b een

o f g reater i mportance;

f rom t he

t opsoil.

s everely h ave r estricted A nother f actor, t hough,

t he o vergrowing o f

t he m any

t he c an

s mall

l akes i n t he r egion. A s d iscussed e arlier, t he s ettlement d uring t he e arliest p art o f t he N eolithic w as l ocated i n t he v icinity o f w ater a nd d amp

a reas.

d eveloped,

I t

w as

a nd

i n

t hese

a reas

a r apid o ver g rowing o f

t he a bandonment o f

t hese a reas.

t he

s o

c alled

T his p rocess m ay h ave

d uring t he E arly A tlantic p eriod ( AT1). b een t he l ow l ime c ontent o f t he s oil.

" edge

s mall l akes a nd p onds 2 3

e ffect" l ead

t o

s tarted a lready

A f urther f actor c an h ave T his m ay h ave a ffected t he

y ield i n a v ery n egative w ay. S everal

f actors,

w hich m ay h ave

i nteracted

i n a t ransformation o f

t he s ettlement s ystem d uring t he e arlier p art o f t he E arly N eolithic, c an t hus b e d iscerned. A s imilar t ransformation h ave a lso b een n oticed i n

N W.

f ound w ere

Z ealand. 24

I n t his a rea m ost o f

i n t he i nterior w here,

e g

i n S cania,

t he p ointed-butted a xes w ell d rained,

a re

h illy a reas

t he m ost a ttractive o nes. I n

t he f ollowing c hapters

t he i mplications o f

t he o bserved

c hange

i n s ettlement a rea w ill b e d iscussed.

5 .2

E cological a nd e conomical a daption i n t he l ater p art o f

t he E arly

N eolithic

p lace

P receeding c hapters h ave d ealt w ith t he d evelopments d uring t he e arlier p art o f t he E arly N eolithic, a nd

c hange

i n r espect

t o

s ettlement

t hat w ith

p attern t hat c ould b e o bserved

t ook t he

t owards

t he e nd o f t hat p eriod. A n umber o f f actors s uch a s p opulation, e cology a nd e conomy w ere d iscussed. I n t his c hapter a n a ssumed c hange i n t he e conomic s tructure a nd h ow t his a ffects b e d iscussed. T he

l atter

p art

o f

t he

t he E arly N eolithic i s

s ocial

s ystem

w ill

c haracterised

b y

a

t ypical " landnam-type-of-clearance", e ntailing a m arked d rop i n a bove a ll t he p ollen g raph o f t he e lm. C ompared w ith t he f irst e lm d ecline, a bout 3 200-3000bc, t his c onsiderable p roportions. B erglun4.

D anish

s econd e lm d ecline, o r B -"landnam", i s T his " landnam" i s d ated t o a bout 2 700bc 26

1 4C -datings p lace

t he B -"landnam"

o f b y

b etween 2 640bc

2 530bc. h7 T hese r adiocarbon d ates c orrespond w ell w ith b oth S canian a nd D anish d ates o f t he l atter p art o f t he E arly N eolithic. T his p eriod

c omprises

t he V irum a nd F uchsberg g roups

B ellevuegards g roup i n S W. A s w ere

w as

s tated a bove,

d ominated

b y

t he

i n

D enmark

a nd

t he

S cania. t he m ixed-oak f orests

t ype-3 v ariety,

i n t he

M alm8

r egion

w here e lm w as v ery m uch t o

t he

f ore. A s e lm o ften i s a n i ndicator o f g ood f arming l and t here i s, w ith a ll p robability, a c onnection b etween t his a nd t he B -"landnam". D uring t he l atter p art N eolithic t oo,

o f t he E arly N eolithic, a nd o bviously d uring t he M iddle t he e lm f orests w ere a n a ttractive e nvironment f or m an.

I n t hese w oods v ery I nvestigations

o f

s ubstantial b uried

l ayers o f b rown f orest s oil

s oil-profiles

1 02

f rom

d eveloped.

N iedersachsen

( BRD)

i ndicate

t hat

t he

t hickness o f

t he

h umic-layer

( A-horizon)

v aries

b etween 8 5cm o n c lay t o 4 0-58cm o n 28 s and. E lm f orests a re v ery s uita ble f or g irdling a nd t ransformation t o c oppice w ood. G irdling m akes i t p ossible t o c ontrol t he r egeneration o f s tems w hich g rew u p a fter t his p rocedure.

t he f orest b y c utting t he T here i s s ome e vidence f or

t he e xistence o f c oppice w oods d uring t he N eolithic. T he d eliberate c oppicing o f h azel a ppears w ell e stablished f rom t he S omerset L evels i n B ritain 29 a nd G öransson h as l ong a rgued f or t he e xistence o f c oppice w oods i n E astern M iddle S weden d uring

t he E arly M iddle N eolithic.

F rom

t he s eminal s ite A lvastra 3ut here a re p reliminary r esults w hich i ndicate d eliberate c oppice w oods. I n t he m uch u sed B oserup m odel, f orestf allow w ith s mall f ields i n t he f orest c ultivated f or a f ew y ears a re t ransformed e

a b ush-fallow w ith a m uch s horter

f allow p eriod,

u sually

6 -10 y ears. B oserup s hows t hat i n m ost a gricultural s ocieties d ifferent p roduction s ystems e xist s ide b y s ide. O ften s mall f ields n ear

t he

s ettlements a re u sed v ery i ntensively,

w hile

t he m ain f ields

a re c ultive ed m ore e xtensively. A l arger p opulation c an t hus b e m aintained. J S uch a s ystem m ay b e c ompared t o G öransson's m odel w here t he f orest i s t ransformed t o c oppice w ood. T his r esulted i n a much m ore i ntensive u se o f N eolithic p eriod. A

s horter

p ossible

t he

f allow

f orest

t han i n t he e arlier p art o f

p eriod t hus m ade a m ore

i n t he M almö r egion.

t he

p ermanent

E arly

s ettlement

A c ontinuous s ettlement f rom t he

l ater

p art o f t he E arly N eolithic o nwards ( MN I II) h as b een o bserved o n s ites B ellevuegarden a nd S tolpalösa i n M almö. T his i mplies d evelopment o f

t he t he

c oppice w oods.

T echnically

t his k ind o f

c ultivation c an b e m anaged

i n t wo

w ays;

w ith t he h elp o f a n a rd o r h oe. H oes h ave b een f ound i n D enmark 33 a nd S witzerland. 34 W ooden s hovels, a s t he o nes f ound i n S atrup M oor ( Germany), c an a lso h ave b een u sed i n t he p reparation o f t he f arming l and. 35 I f w e t urn t o t he h oe t here a re s everal d ifferent t ypes; h and h oes, s hovels a nd h oes f urnished w ith a r ope f or t raction b y o ne o r t wo i ndividvals. 36 A ll o f t hese h ave b een d ated t o t he E arly N eolithic w hile 14 C -datings o f t he a rd i n N W.Europe a ll p oint i n t he d irection o f t he B ronze A ge. 37 T owards t he e nd o f t he E arly N eolithic p eriod, t hough

t he

a rd w as

i ntroduced

i n S outhern S candinavia,

a nd

p robably

t hroughout N W.Europe. T his i s s hown b y i nvestigations o f a rd t races b eneath D anish a nd B ritish M egalithic g raves. A c ompilation o f t he D anish

a rd

t races

b y T hrane

s hows

t hat a s m any a s 1 4 cu b e d ated

t ime e arlier t han t he E arly M iddle N eolithic ( MN I a). t races i t i s d ifficult h owever t o s ay a nything a bout t he u sed.

T he

t races m ay c ome

f rom a n a rd

p ulled b y m an

t o

a

F rom t hese t ype o f a rd

( Rope t raction)

a s

w ell a s a n o x o r h orse. T here i s n o g reat d ifference b etween t he u se o f a n a rd o r a h oe. A n a rd p ulled b y a n o x d oes n ot p enetrate t he e arth d eeper I n

t han

D enmark

2 700-2600bc.

t he r oot

s ystem.

t he o ldest

I n

B ritain

3 9

t races o f

a n a rd c an b e d ated

t here a re h owever

o lder

t o

b etween

d atings.

T races

u nderneath t he S outh S treet l ong b arrow i n W iltshire h ave b een d ated c 2 810bc. 4U D uring t he e xcavation o f a l ongbarrow i n t he v icinity A vebury a rd T here t he

t races a re

t hus

l atter p art o f

c onnected w ith

h ave

b een d ated

s everal

t o

b etween 2 800-2500bc.

i ndications

t he E arly N eolithic.

t his k ind o f

f arming. 1 03

f or t he u se o f

t o o f

4 1

t he a rd

d uring

S everal p roblems a re h owever

A m ain p oint i n B oserup's

m odel

i s

t hat

t he p roduction p er u nit o f

l abour d eclines o n p assing

s ystem o f c ultivation t o a nother m ore a mount

o f w ork h as

t o

b e

p ut

i ntensive

i nto a f arming

f rom

o ne

t ype. 42

A c onsiderable s ystem b ased o n t he u se o f

a n a rd. N ielsen i s o f t he o pinion t hat t he y ield i s s maller i n t ype o f c ultivation t han i n a s ystem b ased o n s lash-and-burn. 43 W ailes d evelop T his

h as

i n

p roposed a 9 1 9del

t wo d irections:

i n w hich a n a gricultural

1 .The

4 4

w ay n o g rassod i s d eveloped;

t ime o f

f allow m ay

s ystem

b e

2 .The d evelopment o f

t his

c an

s hortened.

a n

" infield-

o utfield" s ystem i n w hich t he b est s oil i s p ermanently c ultivated m anured w hile t he r est i s u sed f or p asture. W ailes a lso o pposes

a nd t he

c ommon n otion t hat o nly t he l ighter s oils w ere c ultivated d uring t he N eolithic a nd B ronze A ge. 45 H e i s o f t he o pinion t hat t he h eavier c lay s oils w ere c ultivated a s w el1. 46 c ompilation o f D anish a rd t races, c layey

a s

w ell a s s andy s oil. 47 T he o ldest a re a lso c oncentrated t o c layey s oil. 48

D enmark

M egalithic g raves i n T hese s oils a re n ot a nd d egradation a nd c an b e, m ore o r l ess,

s usceptible t o e rosion p ermanently c ultivated.

s oil,

T his i s a t hing t hat T hrane, i n h is n oted. A rd t races h ave b een f ound o n

T he e lm w oods, w ith t heir v ery s ubstantial l ayers o f b rown f orest t hrived o n t he h eavier c lay s oils i n t he M almö r egion a nd w ere

t hus a n i ndicator o f A bove w ith

g ood

t he o bserved

t wo

f actors;

f ollowing a nother

t he

f arming l and. c hange

i n s ettlement a rea h as

" landnam"

i mportant

a nd

f actor

t he u se o f

b een

t he a rd,

c onnected a nd i n

i n t he d evelopment d uring

t he

t he l atter

p art o f t he E arly N eolithic w ill b e d iscussed, c attle h usbandry. m entioned i n c hapter 4 .5 p igs s eem t o d ominate i n t he f irst h alf o f p eriod p art

w hile o f

t he

i mportance o f c attle b ecomes g reater i n

t he E arly N eolithic.

T he

s witch f rom p ig

t o

t he

I n

t he

m aterial

f rom t he E arly

l atter

c attle h usbandry

s eems t o c ome l ater, d uring t he M iddle N eolithic. I n r emains A om t he D anish s ites T oftum a nd T roldebjerg d ominate.

A s t he

M iddle

t he p igs

f aunal s till

N eolithic

s ite

T roldebjerg c attle s eems t o b e o f g reater i mportance. T hat p ig h usbandry w as d ominant d uring t he l atter p art o f t he E arly N eolithic i s e vident n ot o nly w el1. 5U r emains.

f rom T oftum,

b ut

f rom t he S canian s ite

i .

V emmenhög a s

P reliminary w ork s how t hat p igs c learly d ominate i n t he f aunal 5 1 T he o steological m aterial f rom t he s ite B ellevuegarden

i ndicated h owever, t hat c attle h usbandry w as o f g reater i mportance t hat s pecific s ettlement. L ocal p references m ay h ave i nfluenced

o n t he

s tructure o f t he e conomy. I t i s i mportant, t hough, t hat t he c ommunity i s r elatively s edentary/pigs c annot b e h erded o ver l ong d istances. 52 T he i s

m aterial

e vident

p art

o f

t hat

t he

i s

s tll

t oo

l ittle t o a llow a ny c onclusions,

c attle h usbandry b ecame m ore i mportant i n

E arly N eolithic.

A ccording t o S herratt

t he

t hree

b ut

i t

l atter f actors

i nfluenced a t ransition t o a n e conomy b ased o n c attle h usbandry: 53 1 .population g rowth ; 2 .an o pen l andscape; 3 .an e xpansion i nto o ther e cological c hanges

z ones.

T aken t ogether

i n t he s ocial a nd e conomical

t ion a nd e xchange o r p restige a nd

t ranshumance; T he

r iver

t hese

s ame

v alleys

c ultural

c hange

i tems;

3 .patrilineal

t ype o f s outh o f

f actors

s ystems:

l ead

5 4

2 .the u se o f

s ociety,

t o

t he

f ollowing

1 .growing c entralisat he a rd,

p astoralism

r ight o f p ossession.

c hanges h ave b een o bserved b y S truever t he G reat L akes

t ook p lace d uring

i n

U SA.

A

v ery

t he l ast c enturies b efore

1 04

i n

t he

c onspicous t he

b irth

o f

C hrist.

5 5

w hich r esulted s tratified

T his w as t riggered b y a v ery m arked p opulation g rowth i n t he r ise o f c eremonial c entres. A t endency t owards a

s ociety

i s

o bjects a re f ound i ndividuals h ad b y t ime a m arked i s o bvious.

T he

a ccording

c hanges

o bserved

t o S truever,

c ation g raves

P restige t hat t he

s ome s ame

c eremonial

t hese a lterations.

b y S herratt a nd S truever a re a lso

i n S .Scandinavia d uring

T he r ise o f

t he g rave g oods.

t he g raves. 56 T hese m ay i ndicate t ime a chieved a h igher s tatus. A t

i ncrease i n t he n umber o f e xotic a rticles i n t he r egion C hanges i n t he s ubsistence e conomy a nd t he s ettlement

s ystem t riggered,

s tudy

c lear w hen w e l ook a t

i n t his

t he

c entres

l atter p art o f

p ossible

t he E arly

l ike S arup a nd T oftum,

t o

N eolithic.

s ocial

s tratifi-

i s i ndicated b y M egalithic g raves, t he r ichly f urnished a nd t he e xistence o f a n e xchange s ystem w here e xotic i tems

f lat l ike

c opper a nd a mber, a nd i n f lint p oor a reas, f lint, c irculated. I n t he f ollowing c hapters w e w ill l eave t he s ubsistence e conomy, a nd l ook w hat c onsequences N eolithic

5 .3

p henomenons

l ike

t he o nes d iscussed a bove h ad

o n

E arly

s ociety.

M egalithic g raves - t owards a r anked s ociety S outhwestern

g reatest g raves O xie

( Fig.33). a nd

e xist t ions.

S cania

o ne o f

t he S canian

I n t his

a f urther

c ontext o nly

t he d olmens

o f

t hem a re

a nd

e xcavated.

o r

1 1

d olmens

t hrough

e xcava-

T hese

a re:

s hape o f

H indby

S jötorp ( Tygelsjö p arish s n) 60 a nd V . G revie ( V. I n t he n eighbouring d istrig o f B ara o ne d olmen

d olmen a t H indby h as b een d ated T he

t he

i n t he d istricts o f

i s e xcavated, b rnakulla ( Skabersjö p arish s n). N one o f y ielded a ny a rtifacts d atable t o t he E arly N eolithic e nd

l ogical

w ith

f our p assage

I n t hese d istricts

f our a re k nown h istorically,

O nly a c ggple

m osse ( bog) (Fosie'61 G revie p arish s n).

d istricts

w ith 1 5 d olmens

S kytts w ill b e c onsidered.

a nd 5 8

i s

d ensity o f M egalithic g raves,

t he b urial

c riteria.

D olmens

t o

t hem t he

h ave l ong

t he M iddle N eolithic,

c hamber h as o ften b een u sed a s a w ith

a

r ectangular

c hamber

c hrono-

a re

o ften

r egarded a s b eing t he o ldest. 64 A ll o f t he d olmens i n t he r egion b elong t o t he g roup w ith r ectangular b urial c hamber. T hey a re u sually t hought o f a s b urial p lace f or j ust o ne i ndividual. L ater o n, d uring t he f irst p art o f

t he M iddle N eolithic,

p olygonal o r r ound c hambers e volved.

o nly d olmen w ith s uch a c hamber

i s

T he

t he o ne f rom H indby.

I ncluding t hose w hich h ave b een r emoved, s even o f t he d olmens a re l ocated o n s andy s oil; t he o thers b elong t o a reas w ith c layey s oil. I n a f ew c ases, l ike t he d olmen S jötorp, t hey a re s ituated o n a s mall, s andy h ill i n a n a rea d ominated b y c layey s oil. T he l ocalisation o f t he M egalithic g raves t o a reas w ith a v ariegated c haracteristic o f t he L ödde/Kävlinge a rea, n orth o f a rea. 65 t he

A v ery

t ypical

t rait

m arked l ocalisation o f

c ourses.

T hree

o f

T he l ocalisation s outhernmost p art a rea c onsists o f a re

t he d istricts o f O xie a nd S kytts

t he d olmens

t hem a re

i s

t o a reas w ith r idges a nd

w ater

s ituated d irectly o n t he L itorina

w all.

o f t he d olmens i n t he S kegrie/Maglarp a rea i n t he i s e specially c onspicuous. T he c oastline i n t his

d eep r iver v alleys

a n a rchipelago e xisted o utside d olmens

f or

e cology i s a lso t he i nvestigation

k nown i n t he a rea a nd

r oughly n orth-south r iver a xis

a nd p romontorics.

t he c oast a t

t ime.

S omething

l ike

A t otal o f f ive

t hey a re c losely c lustered a long

( Fig.34).

1 05

t his

A ll o f

a

t he g raves a re l ocated

F ig.33

M ap o f S cania w ith d olmens ( circles), h oards w ith t hin b utted a xes ( stars), b attle a xes ( dots) a nd n ewly d iscovered d olmens, o ver p loughed ( stars). ( After J ennbert 1 984 w ith a dditions)

1 06

o n

s andy

m erge.

s oil,

a nd

i n s everal

c ases

t o a z one w here

s and

a nd

The e cological d iversity w as g reat i n t he M aglarp a rea.

s andy s oil

a m ixed o ak f orest o f

t ype 3 t hrived.

h ad a r ather r ick u ndergrowth a nd a t hin t ree

T his

c anopy.

c lay O n t he

t ype o f

f orest

T he e lm w oods

i n

c ontrast, o n t he c lay s oils w ere d amp a nd v ery d ense. T he l ocalisation o f t he d olmens t o a reas w ith g reat e cological d iversity i s . a lso o bvious i n N W .Zealand. 66 A bove a ll, v alleys w ere a ttractive. T he

v ery

p ronounced

r egions w ith f jords,

l ocalisation o f

b ays

t he d olmens

r egion may g ive t he i mpression t hat m arine i mportant p art i n t he e conomy. I nvestigations

a nd

t o

d eep

t he

r iver

c oastal

r esources p layed a n o f t he 1 3 C -content,

t hough, i n s keleton m aterial f rom t he D anish M esol Wic a nd N eolithic s how a n i nteresting d ifference. 6/ W hile t he C -content i n t he M esolithic s keletons i s h igh, i t w as f ound t o b e v ery l ow i n t he N eolithic s ites c oast.

o nes.

e ituated a t

N eolithic m an. t he

c oastal

E arly

s uited

p art

t he c oast,

E xplanations r egions h ave

I f w e a ssume t he

l arger

o f

t he N eolithic m aterial

o r n o m ore

c omes

f rom

f rom

t he

t han 1 00-200m a way

T he s keleton m aterial i s s till s canty, b ut i ndicates t hat r esources d id n ot p lay a v ery l arge p art i n t he d iet o f E arly

6 1 . 3

m arine t o

T he

f or

t hat

N eolithic t his

w hile

s ettlement

a reas.

t he p ronounced

t o b e s earched

c oppice w oods

l ocation o f

t he d olmens

f or e lsewhere.

e volved d uring

t he l atter p art

t he e lm w oods o n t he c layey s oils w ere v ery

p ractice.

h usbandry,

f or

t he

T hese a reas w ere p rimarily u sed

l ighter

W e m ay

s oils w ere u sed

i n t his

s ee

f or

o f w ell

c attle

f or c ultivation a nd

t he b eginning o f

a s

a n " in f ield

-

o ut f ield" s ystem w here t he l ighter s andy-clay s oils w ere, m ore o r l ess, p ermanently c ultivated a nd t he f orest w as g radually t urned i nto a c oppice w ood f or e xtensive c ultivation a nd u sed f or c attle a nd p ig h usbandry. T he f aunal r emains a lso i ndicate t hat a d evelopment t owards c attle

h usbandry

N eolithic.

T he

o ccurred n otion

d uring

t hat

t he

l atter

p art

t he M egaliths a re

o f

t he

E arly

e xpressions

f or

g g

e conomy p rimarily b ased o n c attle h ave b een s uggested l ately. I nvestigations i n c entral F rance i ndicate t hat t here m ay b e a c oupling b etwe9R

t he

M egalithic

g raves a nd c ritical

r esources

l ike

p asture

l and. I n a s tudy o f e conomic s ystems i n D enmark's B ronze A ge, K ristiansen c ame t o t he c onclusion t hat a reas w ith a h igh p roductive p otential

( PP)

c an a bsorb a s urplus p opulation.

7 1

W e c an a ssume

t hat

t he c oastal a reas o f S W.Scania h ad a h igh P P. B ecause o f t his i t w as e asy t o s upport a g rowing p opulation, b ut a t endency t owards c lustering a nd a m ore s edentary s ettlement s ystem m ay h ave g iven r ise t o s ocioe conomic p rocesses l ike c ompetition f or c ritical r esources l ike, f or e xample, f lint a nd t he r ise o f c omplex s ocial s tructures. T he l atter m ay h ave b een m anifested i n r elative r anking a nd h ierarchisation. T his w as meant a s a n i ntroduction t o a m ore t horough d iscussion o f t he M egalithic g raves The

f irst

i n t he a pproach

i nteresting h ypothesis t hat a nd

f ollowing. c an

b e n amed

" tombs

t he M egalithic g raves w ere c oncentrated r ather h igh p opulation. 72 A ccording

i dealised

k inds

o f

t hin a nd c lustered a nd

w as

v ariability

s tructures v iews

a nd

i n

t he

i n

t he

t he n umber o f g rave g oods

t he E arly N eolithic

d ense

7 3

A n

s uggested

a nd

c lustered,

t hin a nd d ispersed. m onumentality

i n

t he

s ociety a s a cephalous,

1 07

e lite". H e

i n a reas w ith a c lustered, t o h im t here w ere f our

p opulation d istribution:

d ense a nd d ispersed, m anifested

f or

h as b een p resented b y R andsborg.

a nd

o f

g raves. t hat

T his

f unerary R andsborg

t here w as n o

t a

WATER

UN IDENT IF IED T YPE OF DOL MEN

" T ILL SAND

F ig.34

Map

o f

DOL MEN

k m

0 T HE A LBÄCKSBORG S ITE

t he M aglarp a rea i n s outhern S cania

a ccumulation o f w ealth a s

t he s urplus w as d eposited i n t he t ombs.

K ristiansen a lso v iews e laborate

p restige

e lite a ttained i ts

i tems

t he d olmens a s

l ike

c opper,

p osition d ue

w ith h igh p roductive

p otential

t o

t he

M egaliths.

f or a s mall e lite w ith

a mber a nd b attle a xes.

t ig s urplus p roduction i n t he

e mphasized

t his p articular f unction

s enior

m ales/lineage h eads.

s econd v iew c an b e t ermed

R enfrew m arkers

h as

T hey

7 /

s uggest

t o e ach g rave,

a nd

t hat

t hey w ere

b y a ble

" territorial a pproach".

s uggested a s ocial

i n a s egmentary s ociety.

b elonged

o f

S hanks a nd T illey v iew t he e eolithic s ociety a s b eing

b y

t ransforming k inship r elations i nto p olitical r elations t o e xercise c ontrol o ver - s ay m arriageable w omen. T he

T his a reas

/ 5

( PP).

S everal o ther w riters h ave c ontrolled

t ombs

7 4

r ole

f or

t he t ombs a s

H e a ssumes

7 8

t hat

t hey h ad

t erritorial

t hat q uite s mall g roups

t heir l and n earby.

T his

7 9

w as a n a pproach t hat h as b een f ollowed b y s everal a rchaeologists d uring t he

l ast

t en y ears.

u nderstood a s

C hapman c .f.

s ymbolic e xpressions

s uggested

t hat

t he t ombs

I n S gendinavia a s imilar a pproach h as b een N ied b y, A ndersen,

H ardh, 81

A ndersen t erritory

a ssumes

t hat,

c ould h ave h ad m ore

f amily b uilt

s mall

M adsen, 82

o ne,

o r m ore,

c an

b e

t o l and r ights.

M adsen a nd T hrane w orking

a mong o ners,

a nd S trömberg.

i n a n a rea i n S W.Fyn,

t han o ne d olmen,

a nd

t hat

t hat e ach

e ach g roup/

t ombs. 85

H ardh w orks j . n t he L ödde/Kävling r iver a rea i n W .Scania. a rea ( 150km ) t here a re 1 6 M egalithic g raves. H er a im

I n a i s t o

" ...analyse t he e nvironment o f g raves a nd s ettlements a nd a ttempt t o d elimit t he t erritories t he g raves a re a ssumed t o m ark , b earing i n m ind w hat

r esources M adsen

e xisted a nd h ow t hey

h as a s imilar v iew.

c ritical

r esources a nd

o n,

v ery c lose

o f

o r

a n i ndividual M adsen

c ould b e u tilized. . 86 H e

s uggests

t he m o5t d esirable

t o g i gem. 8/

g roup.

T he

t hat

t he

t ombs m ark

o ut

l and b y b eing p laced d irectly

t ombs m ainly f unctioned a s m arkings

' 4

a nd T hrane w ork i n t he s ame a rea a s A ndersen

a nd

w uggest

t hat c lusters o f t ombs m ark t he t erritory o f a g roup o r t ribe. 89 a ssume t ect g eographical b arriers a cted a s b orders i n

T hey t hose

s ocieties. S trömberg

h as

f or a l engthy p eriod o f

S E.Scania ( the H agestad p roject). 91 e ach t omb i s s een a s t he c entre o f z onation i n e ach

t erritory:

t ime w orked

i n a n

a rea

g 2

Z one 1 .

A c entral a rea w ith a r adius o f 1 -2km.

Z one 2 .

T he

Z one 3 .

T he e nvironment

( "Home

" Site c atchment" w ith a r adius o f 2 -5km. b eyond.

1 09

i n

S he h as a dvocated a m odel i n w hich a t erritory. T he m odel i mplies a

t erritory").

S ettlement

s ites a re

i n s ome

c ases

f ound

i n t he v icinity o f M egalithic

g raves i n t he H agestad a rea. T hese a re t ermed " Permanent s ites" S trömberg. 93 A nother t ype o f s ite i s t he " HuRting s tations" f ound t he c oast, o r s ituated a long t he H agestad b og. 7 4 A

t hird a pproach

c an b e

t ermed

m arkers". I n t his c onte g T illey 95 a nd o ne b y H odder. T illey b etween t he t he

s ocial w orld. 97

t he

b ones

c eramics

s ymbolic a nd

s tudies w ill b e

d iscussed,

The b oundedness o f

a nd

i n

t he

i n t he

t he

t ombs

s erves

a nd o pposition b etween d ifferent

s ocial o ne

b y

t o

c reate

s ocial

a n

g roups

T he b oundedness i s e xpressed b y t he g rouping t ombs, t he u se o f b ounded f orms f or f unerary

9 8

l eft/right

t reatment o f

t he h uman r emains. 99

T his t erms o f s tatus,

r esults i n a c ompetition b etween g roups m anifested i n r ank a nd p restige. H odder M egalithic

a t

s uggests t he p resence o f a s eries o f s tructural h omologies p rinciples u sed t o s tructure t he m aterial w orld a nd t hus

" us/them" d istinction u sing i ndividual t ombs. o f

t wo

" Megaliths a s

b y

a rgues t hat w hile s everal r ecent a rticles t ombs a s s ymbolic, t hey h ave f ailed t o

h ave e xamined c onsider t he

p articularity o f t he h istorical c ontext i n w hich M egaliths a re f ound. 1 00 H e s uggests t hat t he M egalithic m onuments o f N W.Europe e voked h ouses

a nd

t hat

r esources.

1 01

A

E uropean

N eolithic,

r eproduction, b ecame

T he

f ocus

t erritorial m arkers

u sed w hich s uggests

i s w om m e f actor.

w as

b ut

i nitially b ased

l ater p roductive

H odder s uggests

4

t his w ork ,

S tray

it

i n

t he

o n

e arly

c ontrol

o f

r esources,

l and,

e ach b urial

m ound

d iscussed

a bove w ill b e e laborated

b ut

t his w e h ave

b efore

t o

o f l ate E arly N eolithic s ociety; t he e xchange o ver d imensioned f lint a xes a nd c opper a xes.

5 .4.

f or r estricted

t hat

f or m embers o f a d escent g roup.

a pproaches

c hapter o f

a cted a s

i s

c ompetition

t hat

t he l imiting

f ormed t he

t hey

m odel

f inds a nd h oards a s

i ndicators o f

i n

t he

l ast

s tudy a f urther a spect o f

p restige

i tems

l ike

s ocial s tructure a nd

e xchange s ystems 5 .4.1

T hin b utted f lint a xes - s tray f inds a nd h oards I n

t his

c ollections M ost o f

i nvestigation a t otal o f 2 55 f ound

t hem

( Fig.35).

t hin b utted a xes f rom m useum

i n t he d istricts o f O xie a nd S kytts

d erive S kegrie

f rom t he

s outhern p arts o f

a re

i ncluded.

t he d istrict o f

S kytts

p arish h as a f ind d ensity o f 1 3 a xes/hectare

c om-

p ared t o t he p arishes s outh o f M almö w here t he m ean a rea p er a xe i s 1 18 h ectares. 0 ' 4 A n e xplanation f or t his m ay b e t hat i n t his d istrict h eavy c lay s oil w ith a c lay c ontent o f b etween : 5 ,-·�. ... �:;- .. ··············/ .. •··'

!

I

·····.....:"•''···· /;

....·

Do-s

.. ··•

· ..

DJs-10

0 10km ---=---===:j

Fig.36

The H�ssleholm district in northeastern Scania with the distribution of thin butted axes and dolmens shown. Dol�ens are indicated by an open circle

113

A d ifferent v iew, o f

t hough,

c ontrolled e xperiments,

i s

n o

h as

c lass o f

a v ery

e .g.

i s p resented b y O lausson.

w ear a nd b reakage p atterns

A c ombination

s hows

t het

a xes w hich c an b e d efined a s p restige o bjects.

f unctionalistic a pproach

u ngri ed

a xes

i n h oards

t o

t he p roblem a nd

r epresent w ealth

t here S he

1 1°

s uggests

t hat

i n t heir p otential

a s

w ork a xes. H odder s uggests s tanding

i s

r ather

c ritical

t owards

t he e xperimental

a pproach

a nd

t hat e xperimental a rchaeology i s o f g reatest v alue i n u nderh ow t hings c ould h ave b een u sed, b ut i n a nswering q uestions

w hich s eek t o r elate t echnologies a nd e conomies c ultural c ontexts t he a pproach i s l imited. 1 12 T o

b e a ble

i nvestigation

t o d iscuss

i s

w idened

t he h oards t o

t o b roader

s ocial

a nd

i n a b roader s ocial c ontext

t he

i nclude a n a rea i n t he n orthern

p art

o f

S cania, t he municipality o f H ässleholm ( Fig.36). T he s oil i s m ainly c omposed o f m oraine b ut i n t he e astern p arts s and p revails. T wo M egalithic g raves a re f ound i n t he r egion. T hey a re s iti t Aed a t A raslöv

( Vinslöv p arish)

T he

t otal

a nd

n umber

H ässleholm a mounts

o f

t he

t o

t he g roup l ong d olmens.

t hin b utted a xes

t o 6 3.

o f t hem h ave b een f ound s ituated.

t he

b elong

T his

i n

t he

municipality

i ncludes o nly m easureable

T hese t wo a reas, S W.Scania a nd H ässleholm, h ave b een c hosen t esting o f d ifferent h ypotheses r egarding f lint d istribution

a nd

o f

t he

t hin b utted

a re

t ested:

d istance

t he

r aw m aterial,

t o

3 0cm i n l ength, T he

f lint a xe

1 .The

a re m ainly

a vailability

f ound

o f

i n E arly N eolithic

l ength o f i n t his

t he

o f M ost a re

h ypotheses

w here

a xes.

t wo d olmens

r ole

i n V inslöv p arish,

"

f lint;

2 .The

i n t he v icinity o f

f lint

i n

t he

t wo

T wo

s ociety.

t he a xes d iminishes

c ase

f or

w ith

l ong

t he o ver

a xes,

t he d olmens.

d istricts

i s

h ardly

c omparable. I n S W.Scania, t he d istricts o f O xie a nd S kytts, t here i s a g ood s upply o f g ood q uality f lint. W e h ave e vidence f or t he e xistense o f

f lint

m ines

a vailable

d uring

t he E arly N eolithic

i n n odules u p

t o

i n

t his

a bout 3 0cm i n l ength,

a rea.

w hich

F lint

i s

e nough

t he m anufacture o f s horter a xes. 1 14 T he l onger a xes m ust h ave i mported f rom S tevns o r M Sn i n W estern Z ealand a nd L olland a s m ade a xes o r a s

s emi-manufactures.

n o d irect a ccess K ristianstad

t o

f lint

h igh q uality

I n c ontrast

f lint.

i s a vailabli t

b ut

i s f or

b een r eady

t he H ässleholm a rea h as

I n t he V inslöv a rea

t he l esser

t his h as h ardly b een u sed

f or

t he

m anufacture o f t he l ong a xes. 1 5 I t i s o bvious t hat t he m ain p art o f t he a xes h ave h ad t o b e t ransported t o t he a rea. T he p roblem i s h ow t his w as

d one,

a nd w hat k ind

S herratt i tems t ion.

h as

o f

S ettlement

t hey w ere

s uggested a m oeel o f h ow

c ould h ave b een o rganised: S ettlements a ssociated a reas w ith d irect

w ay o f k inship;

s ystem

4 .Indirect

t he

p art

o f.

e xchange

o f

p restige

1 .Raw m aterial; 2 .Zone o f p roducw ith t he p roduction ; 3 .Contact z one.

1 16

ith t he p roduction z one b y t he c ontact w S ettlements w ithout d irect c on-

e xchange.

T hey r eceive g oods t hrough t act w ith t he p roduction z one. ost p robably f or o ur i nvestiga i ntermediaries. A lternative 4 i s t he m s n ow t ime t o t urn t o t his a rea t ion a rea i n n orth e ast S cania a nd i t i a nd

d iscuss

N eolithic

i n

t he t his

e xchange

he s ystem i n t

r egion.

114

l atter

p art

o f

t he

E arly

a 4 0

3 0

2 0

1 0

L . /c m 1 5

%

2 0

2 5

3 0

3 5

4 0

A

A

4 0 —

4 0

-

3 0-

3 0

-

2 0 —

2 0-

1 0 —

1 0—

L icm 1 5

P ig.37

2 0

2 5

3 0

3 5

1 5

4 0

T he l ength o f t he t hin b utted a xes a . O xie a nd S kytts d istricts b . H oards d istrict

1 15

2 0

2 5

3 0

1 3 5

c . H ässleholm

L/C M 4 0

I f

w e c ompare

t he l ength o f

t he

t hin b utted a xes

i n t he t wo a reas

i t i s o bvious t hat s hort a xes p revail i n t he H ässleholm a rea ( Fig.37a, F ig.37c). T he n umber o f l ong a xes, 3 0-40cm, i s h owever h igher i n t his a rea. T here a re n o h oards i n N E.Scania, t hey a re o nly p resent i n S W.Scania. s tray

T he

f inds

a xes

H odder

a nd

L ane e stablished

B ritain t hat t he r aw m aterial. 1 17 S cania.

o n a verage,

l onger

t han t he

O lausson,

r eworking d uring

I t

i s

t hink,

i n a s tudy o f

g round

s tone

a xes

i n

l ength o f t he a xes d iminished w ith t he d istance t o t he T his c ould a lso b e o bserved i n t he s tudy a reas i n

t o

W e

i n t he h oards a re,

( Fig.37b).

t hough, t he u se

h owever,

i nteresting,

s uggests

c ycle o f

t hat

t hough

t hat

t he a nswer

t hat

t he l ength v ariation i s d ue

t he a xe.

1 18

t o h ypothesis

t he n umber o f

n umber 1 i s y es.

o ver d imensioned a xes

i s

a bout t he s ame i n t he i nvestigation a reas, b ut w ith s ome r eally l ong o nes i n t he H ässleholm a rea. T hese a xes d erive f rom t he f lat l andscape a round a ssume

V inslöv. t hat t he

T he t wo d olmens a re a lso s ituated h ere, l ong a xes c ome f rom d ivided h oards.

a nd w e A s i n

c an t he

d istricts o f O xie a nd S kytts t here i s a c onnection b etween g ood f arming l and, M egalithic g raves a nd h oards w ith t hin b utted a xes. T he a nswer t o h ypothesis n umber 2 i s T he

c onformity

a lso y es.

i n t he d istribution o f o ver d imensional

a xes

m ay

i ndicate a s ystem w here t hese a xes s ymbolize a n a scribed s tatus. I nvestigations i n t he H ighlands o f N ew G uinea h ave s hown t hat t he l ongest

a xes w ere o wned b y m en o f a h igh r ank.

T he a xes w ere

1 19

u süd

a s b ride w ealth a nd t he e xchange o ccurred b etween a llied l ineages. 12° T he r ole o f t he a xe a s t oken o f h igh r ank i s a lso e vident f rom a B andkeramik

g rave

T iszapolgär. 1Z1 s haft h ole a xes

f ield

( Nitra)

a nd a g rave

f ield

f rom

t he C opper A ge,

I n t hese g rave f ields s tatus l inked i tems a ppear, l ike a nd d aggers o f s tone a nd c opper. I n N itra s ome 4 0 p er

c ent o f m en o ver 2 0 y e i mported S pondylus s hells. 122 T he t hey

s tatus

w ere

a ccess e lite.

a ble

o f t o

a r s o f a g e a r e b u r i e d w i t h s t o n e

t hese m en d epended c ontrol.

t o m aterial w ealth a nd m aterial T he

1 24

i ndicates

d iscussion o f

5 .4.2

t he

t he n umber

c ontexts

o f

t ransactions

s tatus m ay d epend

s ymbols m ay b e

t hin b utted a xes

a s ociety w ith m uch e mphasis

i n w hich a r anked

o n

I n s ome

1 23

a x e sa nd

r estricted

i n t he

t wo

t o

o n a n

r egions

p laced o n e laborate r ituals,

a nd

s ociety m ay h ave d eveloped.

C opper C opper

i s

p resent

i n

t he

N .German/S.Scandinavian

l ate

E arly

N eolithic p eriod a s a xes a nd s maller o bjects l ike r ings, t ubes a nd d iscs. T he s maller i tems a re f ound i n g raves a nd h oards l ike R ude, 125 S aiten, a re

1 26

K onens h Sj,

s tray

o bjects

f inds o r

a nd A rupgard 128

1 2/

f ound

i n h oards.

I t

i n D enmark ,

i s

r emarkable

w hile t he t hat

a xes

a ll a nalysed

i n S .Scandinavia/N.Germany a re m ade o f p ure c opper w ith n atural

c ontaminants

l ike a rsenic

c ontent

i s

h igh.

c opper".

2 9

I t

c opper

r eached

c opper

w as

d istribution

i s

a long

l iu

t he

f rom 1 936

a nd

s ilver

n ames

d ifficylt

N .Europe.

t raded m ap

( As)

O ttaway

( Ag).

t his

t ype

E specially o f

t o e stablish t he a reas T he m ost t wo

r ivers

s hows

t hat

116

p robable E lbe a nd

t he a rsenic

c opper, f rom

s olution i s O der.

t he m ain p art o f

" Danish w hich

t he

t hat

t he

F orssander - s t he

a xes

i n

N .Germany h ave T wo

b een f ound

i n t he v icinity o f

a reas w ith a l arge n umber o f

S .Scandinavia; t he m ate nal

t hese

c opper a xes

E .Jutland a nd S cania. 132 w ith o ne e asterly v ariant,

r ivers.

1 31

c an b e

d iscerned

i n

T his d ualism i s a lso s een i n B ygholm, a nd o ne w esterly

v ariant. "' T he m ain d ifficulty w ith t hese e arly c opper i tems i s t he d ating. O nly t he h oards f rom A rupgard a nd B ygholm , c an b e s aid t o b e f irmly

d ated.

a nd

t his

t he

c opper

t hese

i s

T he

d iscs

d iscs

i nventory d eveloped d ating T his

t o

t he

t he

i s d ated

t o

t he l ate E arly N eolithic,

c ase w ith A rupgard a s w ell.

l ate E arly N eolithic a s

w ell,

t he M iddle N eolithic

s upported b y

g rave

a t

t he d iscovery o f

b ut

t he

O ldendorf

( MNIa)

c eramic

( Lüneburg).

T he

p resumably b ronze b owls,

a s r ivets a re r eproduced. g roups

h is

c eramic

" Alttiefstich-Keramik"

a nd

B

t he

a nd

C

W alter

m ore

1 35

t wo O mphalos

b owls

i n

T he d ating o f S chlicht p laces

1 34

i s m ore p roblematic.

t ye t ype o f M egalithic g rave w hich i s m ostly o f a w ith s everal c ap s tones a nd a s hort e ntrance, m akes a

f irst p art o f

a lso

M egalithic

t he

f rom NW.Germany

i n

a nd t ype,

i s

B ygholm h oard

p robably

w hich

l ikely.

b owls

i n

a

p rototypes

a re

L aux p laces

t hese

i s

c owparable

h ienburg g roup.

t o

I n

1 37

t he

S .Scandinavian c hronology t he B g roup i s t o b e p laced a longside t he T roldebjerg g roup ( MNIa), a nd t o a c ertain d egree t he F uchsberg g roup. F rom

t he

a xes/ornaments a reas o f

a bove

w ere d uring

a n

i t

i s o bvious

t hat w e

i n S .Scandinavia/N.Germany a s

e xtensive

t he

c annot

s ee

t he

c opper

i solated p henomena.

T hese

l ate E arly N eolithic/Early M iddle N eolithic p art

e xchange

s ystem w hich d uring

t his

t ime

p enetrated

S .Scandinavia/N.Germany. I t i tems

i s

e vident

i n o ur

f rom

E arly N eolithic, b ut f unction o f t he c opper R andsborg's f ound

i n

t he a bove

t hat

t he m ain p art

i nvestigation a rea c an b e d ated t he i tems

a nd

t he

o f

t he

s how t hat

S cania w hile

t he h eaviest

t he

c opper

l atter p art

o bvious q uestion r emains: w hat i n t he F unnel B eaker c ulture?

i nvestigations

S .Jutland

t o

l ighter

a xes o nes

o f

w as

t he t he

h ave

b een

c ome

f rom

N .Jutland

a nd Z ealand. 138 T his s hould b e f i9 i ndication o f a n e xchange s ystem w here f lint w as t raded f or c opper. T he t wvier o nes a re, a ccording t o R andsborg, f ound i n a reas p oor i n f lint. I4° I f t hing

w e

i s

l ook a t

s triking;

t he d istribution o f t he v icinity

t o

t he c opper a xes

t he c oast.

i n S cania

o ne

T he S canian c opper a xes

h ave b een f ound a t t he c oast, a long t he r ivers o r c lose t othe g reat l akes, R ingsjön a nd I vösjön ( Fig.38). T here i s m arked c orrespondence b etween t he d istribution o f t he M egalithic g raves a nd t he c opper a xes. I t i s i nte mtig t hat c lose b y t he l ake R ingsjön a d olmen h as a lso b een e xcavated. R andsborg

s uggests

t hat

t he c opper a xes w ere v aluables

t hat

t he

T he d istribution r ich f lint r egions d emanded i n e xchange f or f lint. 1 42 o f t he h oards w ith t hin b utted a xes c oincides w ith t he p rimary f lint r egions.

A ll

w hich

a w eakness

i s

S W.Scania d eposit.

o f

i mplies

t he S canlan h oards a re n ot i n

t hat

t he m odel. t his a rea

s hall b e

117

a ccounted

T he e xistence o f

f or,

f lint

t hough, m ines

r egarded a s a p rimary

i n

f lint

F ig.38

D istribution o f

c opper a xes i n S cania

1 18

5 .4.3

C onclusions I n

t his

c hapter a ll

t he l oose

t hreads w ill h opefully b e

b rought

t ogether. T he c entral p oint i n t he c hapter w ill b e t he c hanges o bserved i n t he E arly N eoilithic F unnel B eaker c ulture b etween c . 2 7002 600bc.

I n

c lustered

s ettlement

c opper

w as

t he p receeding c hapters d iscussed.

u nanimous v iew o f s ocial

p attern,

A r eview o f

s imultaneous a ppearance o f h oards

t he

e xisted.

a nd p restige

l iterature

t he l ate E arly N eolithic

s tratification

e vidence o bserved

t he

d olmens,

i ndicated a

s ociety a s

I n t his

i tems

c hapter

r anked

t he

a

l ike

n early

a nd

t hat a

a rchaeological

i n S W.Scania w ill b e e xamined, a nd s ome h ypothesis o f h ow t he c hange i n s ettlement p attern a ffected t he s ocial s ystem w ill

b e d iscussed. D olmens i s t he n atural s tarting p oint, b eing t he d ominant m onument d uring t he p eriod. A s s tated i n c hapter 5 .3 t he d iscussion w ill b e c oncentrated

t o

d olmens w ere

l ocated a t

t he

M aglarp

t he d istricts

r iver

v alley

a rchaeological a ctivity, t he

M aglarp a rea,

o f O xie a nd S kytts.

t he c oast o r w as

T he m ain p art o f

i n t he M aglarp/Skegrie a rea

v ery

a ttractive.

D ue

t o

t he

w here

l ack

o f

t here i s o nly o ne e xcavated s ettlement s ite i n

A lbäcksborg.

T his

i s d ated

t o

t he

B ellevuegards

g roup. T he

d olmens

s eem

t o

b e

l ocated

i n a reas w ith

E specially s andy s oils w ere a ttractive a s t ombs

i n

t he M aglarp a rea,

a nd a long

o ptimal

r esources.

i s s hown b y t he c lustering o f

t he c oast.

I t

i s w orth

t hat m ost o f t he d olmens a re l ocated i n a reas w here t wo t ypes m erge. I n t hese z ones t he m uch d iscussed " edge e ffect" a rose.

n oting o f s oil I n t his

w ay t he d olmens r eflect t he l ocation o f t he s ettlement s ites. T his d ualism h as a lso b een p ointed o ut b y H odder. H e s uggests t hat t he M egalithic t ombs e voked h ouses, a nd t hat t he s imilarity b etween t he l ong b arrows a nd l ong h ouses i s o f a s ymbolic n ature. 1 43 H odder d iscusses

t he c onnection b etween e laborate p ottery,

l ong h ouses a nd t he

s carcity o f r esources, n ot l abour. A ccording t o h im, t here i s a s trong c oherence b etween d ecorated p ottery a nd t he r ole o f w omen. I n a s ociety b ased o n s econdary a nimal

p roducts

i t

i s

l and,

i s t he c ritical r esource a nd w omen g radually l oose n egotiate t heir s ocial p osition. 144 S herratt c oncor

ece

m ents. j c irculated T he A bove

h as b etween

a lso n oted e laborate

L ocal s tyles i n a n e xchange

t hat

a nd a n e xcess

a ggregated o f

c onnection b etween s ettlement a nd M egalithic

t he

m entioned,

s imilar a nd

t his

l ocation o f c onformity

w hich

a bility

i n t he H ungarian p lain t here

p ottery a nd l arge

e volved, s ystem.

n o l abour,

t heir

t ombs a nd s ettlements i s a lso

s een i n t he

i s

i s

g oods

o bvious.

i n S W.Scania

f act

t hat

a

s ettle-

i mported

t omb

t o

w as

s ettlement

s ites a re o ften f ound u nderneath o r a round t he d olmens. 1 46 T he n otion, t hough, t hat t he h ouses d uring t he l ater p art o f t he E arly N eolithic W ere

s mall

i rregular,

i s h ouse

h ard t o

d efend.

H odder

m entions

f oundations a t Knardrup a s

t he

t he

t ypical

s mall, e xample.

r ather T here

a re, h owever, a s m entioned i n c hapter 4 .3, o ther h ouses w hich c ontradict t his. T he r ather s izeable h ouses f rom b oth N W.Germany a nd S cania, t his

w hich a re d ated

t o

t he

l ate E arly N eolithic p eriod,

a pprehension.

119

c ontradict

F rom

t he a bove

i t

i s e vident

t hat H odder's m odel

i s

t oo

s imple,

a nd t hat t he c onnections b etween t omb, h ouse a nd e laborate p ottery a re n ot s o o bvious. H owever, t he a ppearance o f e laborately d ecorated p ottery d uring t he

t he

l atter p art o f

c hronological

s ection

o f

t he E arly N eolithic,

t his b ook,

i s

t o b e

a s d iscussed i n

s een i n

a

s ocial

c ontext a s i deological m anipulation o f m aterial s ymbols. T illey s uggests t hat t he b ounded d esigns o f t he c eramics i n t he S canian M iddle N eolithic

a re

a n

e xpression

o f

e n

d ichotomy b etween d ifferent g roups. i s

s een a lready d uring

v ery i n

" us/them",

1' 4 7

A t rend

t he l ate E arly N eolithic.

c ommon i n t he S W.Danish/NW.German t he

B ellevuegard/Virum

g roups,

t hough,

" insider/outsider"

t owards

b ounded

" Fuchsberg"

g roups a s w ell.

d esigns

b ounded

d esigns

B ounded d esigns

I n

g roup a nd t he

i t

l ast

a re

e xists

m entioned

a re r ather s eldom u sed.

A fter t his l engthy d iscussion o f t he i nherent a mbiguous s ymbolism t he p ottery d esigns i t i s n ow t ime t o s ummarize a nd p resent a

i n

h ypothesis o f o f S W.Scania. g rowth

t he r ole o f t he M egalithic g raves W e c an i magine a s hort p eriod o f

i n t he E arly N eolithic r ather r apid p opulation

w hich r esulted i n a c lustering o f s ettlements

r esource a reas.

T his

l ed

t o

a c ompetition f or

i n s pecific

c ritical

r ich

r esources

l ike

e .g. f lint a nd g ood f arming l and. T he M egaliths c an b e s een a s a w ay t o l egitimate a ccess t o c ertain r esource a reas. I n t he d istricts o f O xie a nd r esources;

S kytts t he d olmens a re l ocated c oasts, p romontories, b ays, g ood

i n a reas w ith o ptimal f arming l and a nd g razing.

T he d olmens r eflect t he l ocalisation o f t he s ettlements a nd i n t his way a cted a s e xpressions f or r ight o f p ossession t o c ertain a reas. R itual p layed g roups

a n i mportant p art i n s ocial c ould b e r egulated b y t his.

c ontrol, a nd A s d iscussed

r elations b etween i n c hapter 5 .4.1,

e lderly m en h ave a h igh s tatus i n s ocieties w ith e laborate p restige i tems l ike l ong a xes, c opper a nd s o f orth. T his s eems t o b e t he c ase i n

t he

l ate E arly N eolithic o f

t o s ee l ineage

S .Scandinavia a nd t his m akes i t p ossible

t he d olmens n ot o nly a s t erritorial m arkers, b ut a s t ombs h eads o r e lders a s w ell. T he t ombs a cted a s f ocal p oints

f or f or

t he g roups o f a s pecific a rea. A s w e d o n ot h ave a ny e vidence f or t he e xistence o f c ausewayed c amps l ike S arup o r T oftum, t he M egaliths a cted a s r itual c entres n ection b etween i ndicative o f p robably o lder s tructure o f

t his. m en,

B oth a spects p oint t o t he e xistence o f p eople, w ith e nough p ower t o c ontrol a nd i nfluence t he

t he s ociety.

T his l eads t o t he p roblem o f e xchange. f lint a xes a nd c opper w ere c onsidered.

l ong o f

f or t he l ocal p opulation. T he v ery p ronounced c ont he d olmens a nd t he h oards w ith t hin b utted a xes i s

o verly

l ong

N E.Scania i mported

t hin b utted a xes

i n t he m unicipality o f

i ndicates a n e xchange s ystem, t o

t he

r egion.

I n p revious c hapters t he T he e xistence o f a n umber

I t b ecame

a s

H ässleholm

t hese a xes m ust h ave

c lear f rom

t he

s tudy o f

t he

i n b een

h oards

t hat w ere

t hese m ostly i ncluded l ong a xes. A ccording t o N ielsen t hese a xes s ymbolic r epresentations o f w ealth. 1 48 I n c hapter 5 .4.1 i t w as s uggested, b ased o n s tudies i n N ew G uinea, t hat t he l ongest a xes w ere

a wned

b y

o lder m en a nd e xchanged

b etween a llied

w ere s ocially a ctive, i n a s ymbolic w ay, h igh r ank, a nd c irculated i n a s pecific b etween o lder m en . C opper s uggest

t hat

o bjects a nd

m ay

h ave

s erved

c opper i n t he t hat

t he

t he s ame

l ineages.

f unction.

f orm o f o rnaments

O ttaway a nd

l ike d iscs.

f lat a xes w ere w holly f unctional.

1 20

T he

a xes

a s e xpressions o f s tatus a nd s egment o f s ociety; t hat i s

1 49

w as

S thrahn p restige

R andsborg o n

t he

o ther h and

E xchange e conomic

s ees c opper o bjects a s g eneralized

a cts e xpress i nterests. 151

T he m ain p roblem, i n a s ocial n etwork . p ossible t o a ssess g oods e xchanged. 1 52

p restige

t he a ctivities o f p arties w ith

s ymbols.

d istinct

1 5°

s ocio-

t hough, i s t o b e a ble t o e valuate c onnectedness B raun a nd P log p oint t o t wo p henomena w hich a re

i n a n a rchaeological m aterial; s tyle a nd t ypes I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he g reater

i nteraction b etween s ocial g roups,

t he h igher

t he s tylistic

o f t he

s imilarity

b etween t hem w ill b e. 1 53 T his n otion i s s hared b y H odder, w ho s trongly a dvocates a v iew i n w hich d ifferences i n m aterial c ulture a re u sed t o D ifferences i n m aterial c ulture a re e xpress e .g. e conomic s tress. 154 o ften d ue t o t ension a nd c ompetition b etween t wo g roups. 155 A n i ntensive s ocial i nteraction l eads t o s tylistic c onformity, i n e .g. d ecoration o f p ottery, w hile c ompetition f or r esources l eads d ifferences T his w ith

i n

v ery

t he

d ue t o a reas.

t he m aterial c ulture. i nteresting h ypothesis

m aterial

S E.Scania.

I n

a t h and,

t his

b ut w e

i s h ard

t o

d iscuss

f or

c an e xtend o ur s tudy

r egion a v ery c omprehensive m aterial

S W.Scania t o

i s

i nclude a vailable

e xtensive a rchaeological a ctivity i n t he H agestad a nd Y stad I f w e c ompare t he p ottery i n t he t wo a reas, i t i s o bvious t hat

d ifferences

e xist;

S E.Scania. i ndicate

I s

d ifferent

i t

p ossible

d esign e lements p revail i n S W.Scania t hat

t he d ifferences

c ompetition f or r esources?

T he o ne

i n m aterial

t hing

t hat c omes

t o

f ind

t races

a rrowheads. 157 f lint s uitable i s

i n

t his

p olishing o n s crapers,

b orers

S trömberg s uggests t hat a n i mportant f or t he m anufacture o f a xes w as

n eighbouring g roup. i t

o f

1 58

r egion

H igh q uality t he

f lint

a nd

a nd

c ulture t o

m ind

i s f lint, w hich i s s carce i n S E.Scania. T his i s s een i n t he f act i mplements m ade o f h igh q uality f lint a re o ften r eworked. I t i s u nusual

t he t o

t hat n ot

t ransverse

r esource s uch a s c ontrolled b y a

i s a bundant i n S W.Scania,and

f lint m ines a re s ituated

a s

w ell.

I t

p ossible t hat t he d ifferences i n m aterial c ulture w ere a ctive p arts t he E arly N eolithic F unnel B eaker c ulture. A l ot a

n ew

o f w ork r emains

f ield

o f

r esearch

t o b e d one b ut i n

t he a bove h ypotheses

t he d evelopment o f

S canian E arly- a nd M iddle N eolithic.

121

l ocal

g roups

o pen i n

i s i n

u p t he

N otes

1 . 2 .

B ecker 1 952, p .67ff. S ahlins 1 972, p .44, t ab.4.1

3 . 4 .

S ahlins 1 972, p .43 H ayden 1 975, p .12

5 . 6 . 7 .

G lassow 1 978, p .33 G lassow 1 978, p .41ff. E arle 1 980, p .5ff.

8 . 9 .

E arle 1 980, p .19 G reen 1 980a, p .209

1 0. 1 1.

G reen 1 980b, p .331 S mith 1 981, p .204

1 2.

S mith 1 981,

1 3. 1 4.

A tkinson 1 968,p.88 A tkinson 1 968,p.88

p .204

1 5. 1 6. 1 7.

S oudskS T a nd P avlü 1 972, p .324 M ilisauskas 1 978, p .79 K ardell e t a l. 1 980, p .77

1 8. 1 9. 2 0.

B akels 1 982, p .37 C lark 1 967, p .130 H annerberg 1 971, p .86

2 1. 2 2. 2 3.

Z velebil 1 981, W elinder 1 983, W elinder 1 971,

2 4. 2 5. 2 6.

M athiassen 1 959, p l.XVI J ensen 1 979, p .79 B erglund 1 969, p .17

2 7. 2 8.

T auber 1 971, p .128 W illerding 1 971, p .148ff.

2 9. 3 0. 3 1. 3 2. 3 3.

S mith 1 981, p .176 B artholin 1 978, p .218 B oserup 1 973, p .15-16. B oserup 1 973, p .17 S teensberg 1 980, p .10Off.

p .373, p .64 p .195

f ig.5.13

3 4.

S chultz Klinken 1 977,

3 5. 3 6. 3 7. 3 8.

S teensberg 1 980, p .102 S chultz Klinken 1 977, p .22ff. L erche a nd S teensberg 1 980, p .81ff. T hrane 1 982, p .21

3 9. 4 0.

J arman e t a l. P iggott 1 981,

1 982, p .55

4 1. 4 2. 4 3.

P iggott 1 981, B oserup 1 973, N ielsen 1 980,

p .54ff. p .34 p .119

4 4. 4 5.

W ailes 1 972, W ailes 1 972,

p .158ff. p .159

4 6. 4 7.

W ailes 1 972, T hrane 1 982,

p .159 p .21

4 8.

B ekmose 1 977,

4 9.

M adsen 1 982,

5 0.

L arsson 1 983,

p .21ff.

p .141

p .69 p .230 p .36ff.,

L arsson 1 984b,

p .27ff.

51. 52. 53. 54. SS. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105.

Oral communication Prof.Lars Larsson, Institute of Archaeology, Lund Bocgucki 1982, p.118 Sherratt 1980, p.286 Sherratt 1980, p.286 Struever 1968, p.288 Struever 1968, p.288 Struever 1968, p.309 Frostin 1977, p.58ff.; Burenhult 1973, p.8ff.; Hansen 1931, p.63ff.; Bruzelius 1854, p.339 Burenhult 1973, p.8ff. Hansen 1931, p.63ff. Bruzelius 1854, p.339 Engstrom 1927, p.2Sff. Burenhult 1973, p.49ff. Br�ndsted 1966, p.193 Hardh 1982, p.39ff. Bekmose 1977, p.58ff. Tauber 1982, p.236 Tauber 1982, p.237 Jarman et al. 1982, p.248 Chapman 1981, p.79ff. Kristiansen 1978, p.172 Randsborg 1975, p.113 Randsborg 1975, p.116, fig.7 Randsborg 1975, p.113 Kristiansen 1982, p.258 Kristiansen 1978, p.259 Shanks and Tilley 1982, p.151. Renfrew 1976, p.205 Renfrew 1976, p.148ff. Andersen 1981, p.63ff. Hardh 1982, p.26ff. Madsen 1982, p.197ff� Madsen and Thrane 1982, p.17 Stromberg 1982a, p.46; Stromberg 1980a, p.131ff. Andersen 1981, p.78 Hardh 1982, p.38 Madsen 1982, p.227 Madsen 1982, p.227 Madsen and Thrane 1982, p.36 Madsen and Thrane 1982, p.37 Stromberg 1982a, p.47ff. Stromberg 1982a, p.46ff. Stromberg 1978, p.82 Stromberg 1978, p.89 Tilley 1984, p.lllff. Hodder 1984, p.Slff. Tilley 1984, p.136 Tilley 1984, p.137 Tilley 1984, p.136 Hodder 1984, p.53 Hodder 1984, p.60 Hodder, 1984, p.62 Hodder, 1984, p.64 Skold 1968, p.40ff. Ebbesen 1982, p.61 123

1 06.

R ech 1 979,

1 07. 1 08. 1 09.

R ech 1 979, p .21, p .40 N ielsen 1 984, p .384 E bbesen 1 982, p .61

p .73

1 10.

O lausson 1 983a,

1 11. 1 12.

O lausson 1 983a, p .63 H odder 1 982b, p .31

p .30

1 13.

C arlie a nd G ötz 1 981,

1 14. 1 15. 1 16.

O ral c ommunication, E . O lausson 1 983b , p .13 S herratt 1 976, p .558

p .27

1 17. 1 18. 1 19.

H odder a nd L ane 1 982, O lausson 1 983a, p .60 1 4 6j1und 1 979, p .43

1 20. 1 21. 1 22.

H Sjlund 1 979, p .38ff. S herratt 1 976, p .567, S herratt 1 982, p .22

1 23. 1 24. 1 25.

H odder 1 982b, p .150 H odder 1 982b, p .151 M adsen 1 980, p .79

1 26. 1 27.

B ecker 1 947, S türup 1 965,

1 28. 1 29. 1 30.

S ylvest a nd S ylvest 1 960, O ttaway 1 973, p .310 O ttaway 1 973, p .311

1 31. 1 32. 1 33.

F orssander 1 936, p .11, R andsborg 1 979, p .306 R andsborg 1 979, p .306

R udebeck,

M almö M useum

p .213

5 68,

f ig.8

p .253 p .61 p .73

f ig.1

1 34.

B ry indsted 1 966,

1 35. 1 36. 1 37. 1 38.

S chlicht 1 979, p .176 K örner a nd L aux 1 980, L aux 1 979, p .79 R andsborg 1 979, p .306

p .187

1 39. 1 40.

R andsborg 1 979, R andsborg 1 979,

1 41. 1 42. 1 43. 1 44.

L arsson 1 979, p .10ff. R andsborg 1 979, p .309ff. H odder 1 984, p .60 H odder 1 984, p .62

1 45. 1 46. 1 47.

S herratt 1 982, p .17 M adsen a nd J ensen 1 982, S alomonsson 1 979, p .58 T illey 1 984, p .137

1 48. 1 49.

N ielsen 1 984, p .383 O ttaway a nd S thrahn 1 975,

1 50. 1 51.

R andsborg 1 979, p .318 B raun a nd P log 1 982, p .511

1 52. 1 53.

B raun a nd P log 1 982, B raun a nd P log 1 982,

1 54. 1 55.

H odder 1 982a, H odder 1 982a,

1 56.

H odder 1 979,

1 57. 1 58.

S trömberg 1 982b, S trömberg 1 982b,

p .159

p .309ff. p .311

p .63ff.;

S trömberg 1 978,

p .317-318

p .509 p .509

p .187 p .56; p .451ff. p .63 p .63

1 24

p .82;

B ibliography A bbreviations A A

A cta A rchaeologica

A AL

A cta A rchaeologica L undensia

A arbSger

A arbSger

A K

A rchäologisches K orrespondenzblatt

f or N ordisk O ldkyndighed

o g H istorie

A nalecta

A nalecta P rechistorica L eidensia

A nt.J.

Antiquaries J ournal

A TS

A ntikvarisk T idskrift

B AR

B ritish A rchaeological R eports,

B ritish S eries

B AR-S

B ritish A rchaeological R eports,

I nternational

f ör

S verige

C BA

S eries C ouncil f or

D GU

D anmarks G eologiske U nders helse

G FF

G eologiska F öreningens

B ritish A rchaeology i S tockholm

F örhandlingar J AA

J ournal o f

J DA

J ournal o f D anish A rchaeology

A nthropological A rchaeology

K VHAA

Kungliga Vitterhets H istorie o ch A ntikvitets

L UNDQUA

U niversity o f L und.

Akademien D epartment o f Q uaternary

G eology M LUHM

M eddelanden

f ran L unds U niversitets H istoriska

M useum N AR

N orwegian A rchaeological R eview

P ACT

J ournal o f

t he E uropean S tudy G roup o n

P hysical, T echniques

C hemical a pplied o f

a nd M athematical t o A rchaeology

P PS

P roceedings

t he P rehistoric S ociety

P Z R AA R apport U V

P raehistorische Z eitschrift R iksantikvarieämbetet R apport

S GU

S veriges G eologiska Undersökning

U ppdragsverksamheten S LU S veriges L antbruks Universitet V eröff.Hannover V eröffentlichungen d er u rgeschichtlichen S ammlungen d es L andesmuseum z u H annover V eröff.Potsdam V eröffentlichungen d es M useums P otsdam

1 25

z u U r- u nd

F rügeschichte

A aby,

B .

1 974.

C ykliske

k limavariationer d e

u ndersSgelser a f h hmoser A rbog.

o g m arine

C .A.

1 951.

T he S canian F lintmines.

A lthin,

C .A.

1 954.

T he C hronology o f

S cania,

S weden I .

N .H.

1 981.

AAL 4 :1. S arup.

b aggrund KUML 1 980. A ndersen,

D GU

C openhagen.

A lthin,

A ndersen,

s idste 7 500 a r p avist v ed

t ransgressionsfaser.

N .H.

f ra y ngre

M LUHM.

L und

t he S tone A ge S ettlement o f

L und

B efaestede n eolitiske a nlaeg o g d eres

A arhus

a nd M adsen,

T .

s tenalder.

O vergangen m ellem t idlig-og

m ellemneolitikum.

K UML

1 978.

S kale o g b aegre m ed

1 977.

s torvinkelband

A arhus

A ndersen, S .H. 1 973. O vergangen f ra a eldre t u ly ngre s tenalder i S yds kandinavien s et f ra e t m esolitisk s ynsvinkel. I n B onde, V eideman.

B ofast

d iskosjoner

i kke

f ra X III.

b ofast

i n ordisk f orhistorie.

F oredrag o g

n ordiske A rkeologmSte i T roms$ 1 970.

T roms$ A ndersen,

S .H.

1 975.

R ingkloster,

E rteb$11e-kultur. A tkinson,

R .J.C.

e n j ysk i nlandsboplads m ed

K UML 1 973/74.

1 968.

A arhus

O ld m ortality:

p opulation i n n eolithic E ngland. D .D.A.

B agge,

A .

( Eds.)

1 942.

M aglarps B agge,

A .

S kane.

a nd K jellmark,

C .C.

K VHAA.

1 978.

J .A.

1 982.

1 982.

T .S.

d ating a nd

S tenaldersboplatserna v id S iretorp i

s tudy o f S ittard,

a nd

t heir

S tein,

E lsloo

s ystem o f t he D utch

A nalecta X V.

L eiden

p atterns o n D utch s andy

s oils.

L eiden

1 978.

A lvastra p ile d welling:

l andscape.

F ornvännen 4 .

T ree s tudies,

t he

S tockholm

B erglund, B .E. a nd M almer, N . 1 981. V egetation a nd i n t he G ardlösa a rea d uring t he I ron A ge. I n

S tjernquist,

B .

( Ed.)

G ardlösa.

n atural a nd s ocial s etting 1 . C .J.

v id A lbäcksborg i

S tockholm

L eiden

T RB s ettlement

t he

B artholin, T .S., e nvironment

B ecker,

L eicester

l inearbandkeramik s ettlements

T he s ettlement

A nalecta X V. B artholin,

1 939.

A nalecta X I.

l inearbandkeramik. B akker,

K .

a p aleoecological

a nd H ienheim. C .C.

F ornvännen.

b urial a nd

a nd S impson,

S tockholm

F our

e nvironment:

B akels,

i n A ncient E urope.

J .M.

S tenalderskeramiken f ran " Revsbaken"

s n.,

B lekinge. B akels,

S tudies

s ome a spects o f I n C oles,

1 947.

M osefundne

A n I ron A ge c ommunity i n i ts L und

l erkar.

126

A arb her.

C openhagen

B ecker,

C .J.

1 952.

O rnekul p aa N ekse14.

A arbSger.

C openhagen

B ecker, C .J. 1 954. S tenaldersbebyggelsen v ed S tore V alby l and. A arb her. C openhagen B ekmose,

J .

1 977.

M egalitgrave o g m egalitbygder.

iV estsjael-

I n A ntikvariske

S tudier 1 t illegnet Knud T horvildsen p a 7 0-ars d agen. B erglund,

B .E.

1 969 . .

V egetation a nd h uman i nfluence

d uring P rehistoric T ime. B erglund,

B .E.

S krifter

O ikos

a nd S tjernquist,

E .

1 973.

B ay-Petersen, Europe.

1 972.

K ulturlandskapsprojekt

1 978.

P .

S tratigrafin i S iretorp.

J .R.

A nimal e xploitation i n M esolithic D enmark.

( Ed.)

1 968.

T he E arly P ostglacial S ettlement o f N orthern

P redictions

J .

1 982.

( Eds.)

f or

t he P leistocene b ased o n

B raun,

1 978.

D .P.

M an t he H unter.

I n L ee,

B AR-S

1 50.

a nd

O xford.

T he P rehistoric S ettlement o f B ritain.

a nd P log,

S .

1 982.

E volution o f

" Tribal"

T heory a nd

p rehistoric N orth A merican E vidence.

A ntiquity

4 7:3.

B rinch-Petersen,

E .

1 974.

N .G.

1 854.

H alland b elägne o g H istorie.

L ondon

s ocial n etworks: A merican

S alt L ake C ity

W nder f or 6 000 a r C openhagen B ruzelius,

R .B.

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E arly N eolithic S ubsistence a nd S ettlement i n t he

P olish L owland. R .

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U mea

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L ake C ity L erche,

G a nd S teensberg,

T ools a nd T illage N o. L ewan,

N .

1 982.

L ichardus,

1 980.

3 .

R össen-Gatersleben-Baalberge.

B eiträge z ur A ltertumskunde L indau,

G .

1 974.

p aper. L inke,

W .

A gricultural T ools

1 7.

A le

1 .

L und

S aarbrückener

B onn

J ordartskartering a v S turups

I nstitute o f Q uaternary G eology.

1 976.

a nd F ieldshapes.

C openhagen

O m s kanska r ekognosceringskartan.

1 976.

J .

A .

f lygplats.

U npublished

L und

F rüheste B auerntum u nd g eographische Umwelt.

P aderborn L iversage,

D .

1 981.

Z ealand. L üning,

J .

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L öfwall, U . S kane. L ösch,

M adsen,

A .

T .

N eolithic M onuments a t L indebjerg,

A A 5 1-1980.

G etreideanbau o hne D üngung.

o f

T .

A K 1 0.

K öln

1 977. E n t rattbägarboplats i D ösjebro, V . Karaby s n., U npublished p aper. I nstitute o f A rchaeology. L und

1 940.

1 978.

D ie r äumliche O rdnung d er W irtschaft.

T oftum v ed H orsens,

t ragtbaegerkulturen. M adsen,

N orthwest

C openhagen

1 979.

e t

K UML 1 977.

E arthen L ong B arrows

" befaestet"

J ena

a nlaeg

t illhörande

A arhus a nd T imber S tructures:

t he E arly N eolithic M ortuary P ractice

i n D enmark.

A spects

P PS 4 5.

C ambridge M adsen, T . 1 981. K UML 1 980. M adsen,

T .

1 982.

E n t idligneolitisk l anghSj A arhus S ettlement

o f E ast J utland,

S ystems o f

D enmark.

v ed R ude,

O stjylland.

E arly A gricultural S ocieties

A R egional S tudy o f C hange.

N ew Y ork

1 34

J AA.

1 .

M adsen,

T .

a nd J ensen,

H .J.

N eolithic D enmark. M adsen,

T .

a nd P etersen,

M osegarden, d ansk M adsen,

J .E.

C a nd T hrane,

H .

P .

1 976.

T idligneolitiske

KUML 1 982/83.

P .

f orskele

A arhus

O dense

N ordvestsjaellands o ldtidsbebyggelse.

F ire e cology,

a nd R einhardt,

i n S outhern E ngland; ( Ed.)

a nlaeg v ed

S ydvestfynske d ysser o g y ngre

F ynske M inder.

a nimal p opulations a nd m an:

o f s ome e cological r elationships C ambridge M ellars,

i n E arly

L eiden

R egionale o g k ronologiske

1 982.

b ebyggelse.

M athiassen, T . 1 959. C openhagen

S ettlement a nd L and U se

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O stjylland.

t idligneolitikum.

s tenalders

M ellars,

1 982.

A nalecta X V.

S .C.

i n P rehistory.

1 978.

A s tudy

P PS 4 2.

P atterns o f M esolithic L and-Use

a g eological P erspective.

I n M ellars,

P .

T he E arly P ostglacial S ettlement o f N orthern E urope.

L ondon M ilisauskas,

N agmer,

R .

S .

1 978.

1 980.

E uropean P rehistory.

B oplatslämningar,

G revie 4 1:1.

Ö .

G revie

s n.,

N ew Y ork

t idigare e j

S kane.

N aroll, R . F loor A rea a nd S ettlement P attern. S alt L ake C ity N ielsen,

P .O.

1 977.

D änemark. N ielsen,

P .O.

D ie F lintbeile d er

A A 4 8. 1 981.

r egistrerade.

R A ÄR apport U V.

O .

S tockholm

A merican A ntiquity 2 7.

f rühen T richterbecherkultur

i n

C openhagen

B ondestenalderen.

D anmarks H istorie,

O ldtiden.

C openhagen N ielsen,

P .O.

1 984.

F lint a xes a nd M egaliths-The

t he E arly D olmens

i n D enmark.

o logy o f C arrowmore. N ielsen, I V. N orton,

S . 1 980. D et C openhagen H .

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P eoples N ilsson,

T .

T .

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( Ed.)

o f

T he A rchae-

A ntikvariske S tudier

f or A boriginal

E conomic B otany 3 3(4).

N ew Y ork

D ie P ollenanalytische Z onengliederung d er S pät-und

P ostglazialen B ildungens N ilsson,

l andbrug.

f or B racken F ern a s a F ood

o f W estern W ashington. 1 935.

t ime a nd c ontext G .

S tockholm

f orhistoriske

E vidence

I n B urenhult,

S chonens.

O n t he A pplication o f

d anish p ollen d iagrams.

S tockholm t he S canian Z one

s ystem t o

Kungliga D anske V idenskapsselskab 5

C openhagen

1 35

N ilsson, T . 1 961. E in n eues S tandardpollendiagramm a us B järsjöholmssjön i n S chonen. L unds U niversitets A rsskrift N .F. A vd.

O dum,

2 b d.56:18.

E .P.

O hlsson ,

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T .

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f ran V .

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O lausson, D .S. 1 983b. F lint a nd G roundstone A xes N eolithic. S cripta M inora 1 982-83:2. L und O lausson,

D .S.

1 983a.

D .;

i n

t he S canian

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b utted F lint A xe. O lausson,

Lund

A A 5 3-1982.

R udebeck,

E .

t he T hin

C openhagen

a nd S äfvestad,

U .

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D ie

S üdschwedischen F euersteingruben. E rgebnisse u nd P robleme. W eisgerber, G . ( Ed.) 5 000 J ahre F euersteinbergbau. B ochum O ttaway,

B .

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P PS 3 9.

T he e arliest

i n n orthern E urope.

C ambridge

O ttaway, B . a nd S thrahn, C . W orld A rchaeology 6 :3. O tto,

c opper o rnaments

I n

1 975. S wiss N eolithic C opper B eads. O xford

J .S. a nd A ndersen, N .E. 1 982. S lash-and-Burn C ultivation i n t he H ighlands s outh: A p roblem i n C omparative A gricultural H istory. C omparative s tudies i n S ociety a nd H istory

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W .

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J .

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R .

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H .

S .

M .

a t R aga H örstad, 1 937.

D ie Kunde P iggott,

S kane.

a nd S trömberg,

S ites

K ontaktstencil 1 5.

N yupptäckta b oplatslämningar,

s n.,

D as

s amhället.

E tt

N .

M öinge,

S tockholm

P rehistoric a nd M edieval S ettlement

A smundtorp.

M LUHM .

L und

s teinzeitliche D orf b ei D ohnsen,

K r.

C elle.

H annover

1 981.

P rehistory.

I n P iggott,

H istory o f E ngland a nd W ales v ol.l. P aludan-Müller,

M ainz

U mea

R AA R apport U V B :48. 1 958.

C ambridge.

G ermania.

M egalitgravarna o ch d et n eolitiska

f ran V ästsverige.

A smundtorp P etr6 ",

H istogramme n eolitischer Cl4 d aten.

1 978.

E xempel

v ol.24(1).

C .

1 978.

S .

( Ed)

T he A grarian

C ambridge

H igh A tlantic F ood G athering

i n N orthwestern

Z ealand, E cological C onditions a nd S patial R epresentation. I n K ristiansen, K . a nd P aludan-Müller, C . ( Eds.) N ew D irections i n S candinavian A rchaeology.

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1 36

R andsborg, P PS

K .

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4 1.

R andsborg,

S ocial D imensions

K .

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i n E arly N eolithic D enmark. C olloqium. G .

I n R yan,

M .

E cology,

7 .

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P .J.

B .

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O ffa B ücher 3 9.

1 977.

D .C.

B eskrivning

1 980.

t ill

1 979.

B eskrivning

S tockholm

t ill

j ordartskartan M almö S O.SGU

U ppsala

T he M ethod a nd T heory o f

R osen , N .En s tenaldersboplats G FF. S tockholm R owley-Conwy, P . N eolithic.

R owley-Conwy,

i n A rchaeological

i S ;a L indveds m osse v id B örringesjön.

E dinburgh

P .

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T emporary S ites G .

S ite C atchment A nalysis:

A dvances

1 981a. S lash-and-Burn i n t he T emperate E uropean I n M ercer, R . ( Ed.) F arming P ractice i n B ritish

P rehistory.

B ailey,

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j ordartskartan T relleborg

a R eview. I n S chiffer, M . ( Ed.) M ethod a nd T heory 2 . N ew Y ork

R owley-Conwy,

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S lash-and-burn e xperiment.

S erie A e N r.38. R oper,

f ifth A tlantic

L ondon

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B .

t he

N eumünster

N V/Malm öS V.SGU S erie A e N r.23. R ingberg,

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P roceedings o f

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L und

d es N ordens. R eynolds,

M .

t he F unction o f

D ublin

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M edeltid R ech,

E arly N eolithic D enmark.

R esource D istribution a nd

M etallurgy i n A tlantic E urope.

R ausing,

o f

C ambridge

( Eds.)

P .

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i n T he D anish M esolithic.

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P ermanent a nd

I n S heridan, B AR-S 9 6.

A .

a nd

O xford

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E urope w ith s pecial r eference t o D enmark: a n A rchaeological v iew. I n B ell, M . a nd L imbrey, S . ( Eds.) A rchaeological A spects o f W oodland E cology. R yder,

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S ahlins,

M .

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B .

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A n E arly N eolithic S ettlement

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A A 4 1.

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S alomonsson,

B .

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M almös

f örhistoria.

M almö S tads H istoria

1 .

M almö S chindler,

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H ammaburg 7 ,

R össener E lemente

H eft 1 3.

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H amburg

S chirnig, H . 1 979. D ie S iedlung a uf d em S chwarzen B erg b ei W ittenwater, K r. U elzen. I n S chirnig, H . ( Ed.) G rossteingräber i n N iedersachsen. S chlicht,

E .

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H ildesheim

H andels-und K ulturbeziehungen a uf g rund v on

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B .

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H .

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S allerup i S kane.

A TS

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S chultz-Klinken, K .R. 1 977. H aken, P flug a nd A ckerbau. N iedersachsens F rühzeit. H eft 4 . H ildesheim S chwabedissen,

I n S chirnig,

V eröff.

E in H orizontierter

" Breitkeil"

A us

a us S atrup u nd

d ie m annigfachen Kulturverbindungen d es b eginnenden N eolithikums i m N orden u nd N ordwesten. S chwabedissen, d es

H .

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F rühneolithikums

S chwabedissen, H . D eutschland.

H .

" Rosenhof-Gruppe".

G ronningen

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i n S chleswig-Holstein.

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N iedersachsen. S chwabedissen,

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I n G ramsch,

P otsdam

H ildesheim

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R esources,

T echnology a nd T rade:

a n E ssay

i n E arly

E uropean M etallurgy. I n S ieveking, G .deG. L ongworth, I .H., a nd W ilson, K .E. ( Eds.) P roblems i n E conomic a nd S ocial A rchaeology. L ondon S herratt,

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W ater,

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s easonality

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t he P ast.

c ereal

c ulti-

I .,

I saac,

C .

G .

C ambridge

s ettlement a nd e xchange a nd S hennan,

S .

i n e arly

( Eds.)

C ambridge

L övängskulturen i S ydsverige.

1 38

i n e arly

O xford

P lough a nd P astoralism. N .

a gricultural E urope.

S jöbeck ,

S oil a nd

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Y mer.

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S kottskog o ch g rässval.

S veriges N atur.

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S kaarup, J . 1 973. H essel y i-S 5 61ager. J agdstationen d er s üdskandinavischen T richterbecherkultur. A rkaeologiske S tudier 1 .

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J .

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H ausresten a us d er l ands M useum. S kaarup,

J .

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f rühneolitischen Z eit.

M eddelelser f re L ange -

R udk y ibing

1 982a.

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s ydskandinavisk t ragtbaegerkultur, e t d iskussionsbidrag. I n T hrane:H. ( Ed.) O m y ngre s tenalders b ebyggelseshistorie. S krifter f ra H istoriske I nstitut,Odense U niversitet n r.30. O dense S kaarup, J . 1 982b. S iedlungs-und W irtschaftsstrukturen d er T richterbecherkultur i n D änemark . O ffa 5 2. N eumünster S köld,

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S mith ,

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I n S immons,

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S ouds e, B . a nd P avlü, J . 1 972. p atterns o f C entral E urope. D imbleby, S teensberg,

G .W.

A .

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1 955.

M an,

a nd T ooley,

M .

L ondon

T he L inear P ottery C ulture S ettlement I n U cko, P .J., T ringham, R ., a nd S ettlement a nd U rbanism .

M ed b ragende

f lammer.

K UML.

L ondon

A arhus

S teensberg, A . 1 979. D raved: a n E xperiment i n S tone A ge A griculture: B urning, S owing a nd H arvesting. N ational M useet. C openhagen S teensberg,

A .

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N ew G uinea G ardens.

p arallels i n P rehistoric E urope.

A s tudy o f H usbandry w ith

L ondon

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B .

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A N ew S canian F ind o f a C ollared F lask .

S tjernquist,

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S .E. S truever,

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L und

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I llinois V alley. I n B inford, P erspectives i n A rchaeology. S trömberg,

M LUHM.

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S .R.

i n t he L ower

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M .

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M .

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S trömberg, M . 1 977/78.

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T hree N eolithic s ites.

A L ocal S eriation?

S trömberg,

1 980a.

N ew

A AL 8 :7.

L und S trömberg,

M .

S iedlungssysteme

M egalitgräbergebieten.

i n S üdschwedischen

F undberichte a us H essen 1 9/20

1 39

M LUHM

S trömberg,

M .

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M LUHM 1 979/80.

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S trömberg, M . 1 982a. I ngelstorp. Z ur S iedlungsentwicklung e ines S üdschwedischen D orfes. AAL4:14. L und S trömberg,

M .

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S pecialized N eolithic F lint p roduction .

H oard o f S capers a t H agestad a s a n E xample. S türup,

B .

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W ith a

M LUHM 1 981/82.

E n n y j ordgrav f ran t idlig-neolitisk t id.

L und

KUML.

A arhus S ylvest,

B .

a nd S ylvest, J .

T ansley,

A .G.

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1 960.

A rupgardfundet.

KUML.

A arhus

T he B ritish I slands a nd t heir V egetation.

C ambridge T auber,

H .

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D ifferential p ollen d ispersion a nd

o f p ollen d iagrams.

D GU S er.11.

N r.89.

t he i nterpretation

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T auber, H . 1 967. D anske k ulstof-14 d ateringer a f a rkaeologiske p river 1 1. A arb her 1 966. C openhagen T auber,

H .

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D anske k ulstof-14 d ateringer a f a rkaeologiske p rimer

A arb4ger 1 970.

T auber, H . 1 982. i n D enmark .

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t he d iet o f P rehistoric h umans

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R A XR apport

T horsen, S . 1 981. K lokkehSj v ed B 4jden. E t s ydvestfynskt d yssekammer m ed v elbevaret p rimaergray. K UML 1 980. A arhus T hrane, H . 1 982. D yrkningsspor f ra y ngre s tenalder i D anmark. T hrane; ( Ed.) O m y ngre s tenalders b ebyggelses h istorie. S krifter f ra H istorisk I nstitut, O dense U niversitet n r.30. T iffany,

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a nd A bbott,

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I .

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T illey, C . 1 979. P ostglacial C ommunities i n t he C ambridge R egion : S ome T heoretical A pproaches t o S ettlement a nd S ubsistence. B AR 6 6. T illey,

O xford C .

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J .

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f odder p lants.

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v ol.

e lm:

4 .

c limatic

i ndicators-

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T roels-Smith, J . 1 982. V egetationshistoriske v idnesbyrd o m s kovrydninger, p lanteavl o g h usdyrhold i E urope, s pecielt S kandinavien. N orden.

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S .

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K r.

U elzen.

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z u e inem L anghaus d er T RB G ermania 4 3.

M ainz

p opulation i n t emperate E urope.

P opulation g rowth.

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