The Early Medieval Pottery Industry at al-Basra, Morocco 9780860544401, 9781407346144

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The Early Medieval Pottery Industry at al-Basra, Morocco

Nancy L. Benco

BAR International Series 341 1987

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. -S341, 198?: 'The Early Jledieval Pottery Industry at al-Basra, Jlorocco' © Baney L. Benco, 198? The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544401 paperback ISBN 9781407346144 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544401 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T ABLE O F C ONTENTS L IST O F I LLUSTRATIONS

i ii

L IST O F T ABLES P REFACE

v i

C hapter 1 . I NTRODUCTION O bjectives o f t he R esearch P revious A pproaches t o t he S tudy o f C raft P roduction i n C omplex S ocieties L imitations o f t he F einman-Rice M odel A n A lternative A pproach 2 .

H ISTORICAL V IEW O F C RAFT P RODUCTION I slamic C raft P roduction R oman C raft P roduction H istorical M odel o f I slamic C raft P roduction

3 .

P OLITICAL A ND E CONOMIC H ISTORY O F A L-BASRA D ocumentary a nd N umismatic E vidence F ormation o f t he I drisid S tate i n N orthern M orocco F atimid a nd U mayyad I mperialism i n t he M aghreb Z enata C onfederacy a nd A lmoravid I mperialism E conomic a nd S ocio-cultural A spects o f a l-Basra H istory o f a l-Basra w ithin a R egional C ontext

4 .

A RCHEOLOGICAL E XCAVATIONS A T A L-BASRA E arly A rcheological I nterest i n a l-Basra 1 980-1981 A rcheological P roject a t a l-Basra S ite S ampling a nd E xcavation S trategies S tratigraphic D ecriptions M ajor C onstruction/Occupation P hases S patial O rganization o f t he U rban C enter

5 .

D ESCRIPTION O F P OTTERY, A NIMAL B ONE, A ND O THER A RTIFACTS F ROM A L-BASRA C eramic M aterial F aunal R emains S keletal R emains M etal, G lass, a nd S tone O bjects S ummary

1 1 1 3 5 6 6 1 1 1 3 1 6 1 6 1 7 2 3 2 4 2 6 2 7 2 9 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 3 5 5 5 8

6 2 6 2 9 2 9 3 9 4 9 4

6 .

D EPOSITIONAL E NVIRONMENT A T A L-BASRA T ypes o f D epositional P rocesses D epositional P rocesses a t a l-Basra C haracteristics o f D eposits R esidual a nd D isturbed D eposits

7 .

A L-BASRA P OTTERY C HRONOLOGY M ethodology T emporal D istribution o f W ares T emporal D istribution o f M ajor F orms T emporal D istribution o f M inor F orms T emporal D istribution o f G lazed a nd P ainted P ottery S ummary o f a l-Basra C hronology S urvey o f E arly I slamic P ottery i n N orth A frica a nd S pain S ummary a nd C onclusions

8 .

C HANGES I N T HE O RGANIZATION O F P OTTERY P RODUCTION A T A L-BASRA D iversity C oncept i n C eramic A nalysis D iversity i n a l-Basra 's P ottery A ssemblages A ssessment o f D iversity R esults i n L ight o f t he P roposed M odels S ummary a nd C onclusions

9 .

S UMMARY A ND C ONCLUSIONS C eramic P roduction a t a l-Basra C eramic I ndustries i n E arly U rban S ocieties H istorical C ontext a nd F ree E nterprise P roduction

9 8 9 8 1 00 1 03 1 05 1 08 1 08 1 09 1 20 1 28 1 31 1 31 1 34 1 42

1 43 1 43 1 44 1 64 1 66 1 68 1 68 1 70 1 70

A PPENDICES

1 73

B IBLIOGRAPHY

1 87

L IST O F I LLUSTRATIONS

3 .1 3 .2 3 .3 4 .1 4 .2 4 .3 4 .4 4 .5 4 .6 4 .7 4 .8 4 .9 4 .10 4 .11 4 .12 4 .13 4 .14 4 .15 4 .16 4 .17 4 .18 5 .1 5 .2 5 .3 5 .4 5 .5 5 .6 5 .7 5 .8 5 .9 5 .10 5 .11 5 .12 5 .13 5 .14 5 .15 5 .16 5 .17 5 .18 5 .19 6 .1 7 .1 7 .2 7 .3 7 .4

M ap o f N orthern M orocco M ap o f E arly I slamic S ites i n t he W estern M editerranean V iew o f A ncient C ity W alls a t a l-Basra, L ooking E ast. S oundings E xcavated a t t he S ite o f a l-Basra i n 1 980-1981 E ast S ection o f G 1 S ounding E ast a nd W est S ections o f G 2 S ounding P lan o f S tone B asin a nd P ebbled F loor i n G 2 S ounding P lan o f P laster F loors i n G 3 S ounding W est S ection o f F l S ounding W est S ection o f F 3 S ounding E ast S ection o f F 5 S ounding E ast S ection o f F 2 S ounding E ast S ection o f F 4 S ounding E ast S ection o f F 6 S ounding P lan o f C istern i n E l S ounding V iew o f C istern i n E l S ounding, L ooking S outh E ast S ection o f B 1 S ounding N orth a nd E ast S ections o f C l S ounding W est S ection o f D 1 S ounding E ast S ection o f H 1 S ounding P ottery a nd B one D ensities i n I ndividual S oundings a t a l-Basra H andmade a nd C oarse C ooking V essels R ed-Painted C ream-colored W ares D ecorated G lazed W ares S mall S torage J ars S mall S torage J ars w ith G rooved B and R ims L arge S torage J ar w ith T riangular R im T all-necked W ater S torage J ar S poutless P itchers C arinated J ars S hallow B owls O il L amps N osed O il L amps F lasks, C ups, a nd S quat J ars M iscellaneous J ars I nterior o f F lat B ase, S howing S piral G rooves E xterior o f F lat B ase, S howing D rag L ines I ncised a nd P unctated P ottery B eads C oins D istribution o f D epositional C ategories, b y A verage S herd S ize, S herd D ensity, a nd B one D ensity B ar D iagram o f P ottery W ares i n F l S ounding B ar D iagram o f P ottery W ares i n F 3 S ounding B ar D iagram o f P ottery W ares i n F 5 S ounding B ar D iagram o f P ottery W ares i n G 1 S ounding

111

1 8

.

.

1 9 2 2 3 2 3 4 3 6 3 7 3 9 4 0 4 2 4 4 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 6 6 0 6 5 6 8 7 1 7 5 7 6 7 7 7 8 8 0 8 1 8 2 8 3 8 4 8 6 8 7 8 8 8 9 9 1 9 5 9 6 1 01 1 10 1 11 1 12 1 13

7 .5 7 .6 7 .7 7 .8 7 .9 7 .10 7 .11 7 .12 7 .13 7 .14 8 .1 8 .2 8 .3 8 .4 8 .5 8 .6 8 .7 8 .8 8 .9

B ar D iagram o f P ottery W ares i n G 2 S ounding B ar D iagram o f P ottery W ares i n A l, D 1, E l, F 2, F 4, a nd F 6 S oundings B ar D iagram o f P ottery W ares i n G 3, H 1, a nd 1 2 S oundings B ar D iagram o f M ajor P ottery F orms i n F l S ounding B ar D iagram o f M ajor P ottery F orms i n F 3 S ounding B ar D iagram o f M ajor P ottery F orms i n F 5 S ounding B ar D iagram o f M ajor P ottery F orms i n G 1 S ounding B ar D iagram o f M ajor P ottery F orms i n G 2 S ounding B ar D iagram o f M ajor P ottery F orms i n A l, D 1, E l, F 2, F 4, a nd F 6 S oundings B ar D iagram o f M ajor P ottery F orms i n G 3, H 1, a nd 1 2 S oundings R elative F requency o f W are-Form C ategories ( Technological T ypes), b y O ccupation P hase T otal, F unctional, a nd T echnological D iversity b y O ccupation P hase R elative F requency o f S ix F unctional C lasses, b y O ccupation P hase T echnological D iversity a nd R elative F requency o f S mall S torage J ars, b y O ccupation P hase T echnological D iversity a nd R elative F requency o f P itchers, b y O ccupation P hase T echnological D iversity a nd R elative F requency o f N osed L amps, b y O ccupation P hase T echnological D iversity a nd R elative F requency o f C arinated J ars, b y O ccupation P hase T echnological D iversity a nd R elative F requency o f W ater S torage J ars, b y O ccupation P hase T echnological D iversity a nd R elative F requency o f L arge S torage J ars, b y O ccupation P hase

i v

1 14 1 15 1 16 . 1 21 . 1 22 . 1 23 . 1 24 . 1 25 1 26 1 27 1 49 1 51 1 52 1 58 1 59 1 60 1 61 1 62 1 63

L IST O F T ABLES

3 .1 4 .1 5 .1 5 .2 5 .3 5 .4 5 .5 6 .1 6 .2 7 .1 7 .2 7 .3 7 .4 7 .5 7 .6 8 .1 8 .2 8 .3 8 .4 8 .5 8 .6 8 .7 8 .8 8 .9 8 .10

M ajor P olitical P rocesses i n t he M aghreb a nd H istorical D evelopment o f a l-Basra A l-Basra P ottery a nd B one D ensities, b y S ounding C ounts a nd W eights o f a l-Basra P ottery C ounts a nd P ercentages o f a l-Basra W ares, b y D iagnostic P art C ounts a nd P ercentages o f a l-Basra G lazed P ottery • • C ounts a nd P ercentages o f a l-Basra F orms C ounts a nd P ercentages o f a l-Basra A nimal B one A verage S herd S ize a nd P ottery a nd B one D ensities, b y D epositional C ategory C ounts o f P rovenience U nits w ith M etal a nd G lass O bjects, b y D epositional C ategory C ounts a nd P ercentages o f a l-Basra W ares, b y O ccupation P hase C ounts a nd P ercentages o f M ajor a l-Basra F orms, b y O ccupation P hase C ounts o f M inor a l-Basra F orms, b y O ccupation P hase P ercentages o f a l-Basra G lazed P ottery , b y O ccupation P hase C ounts o f a l-Basra P ainted P ottery, b y O ccupation P hase E arly I slamic S ites i n M orocco, A lgeria, T unisia, a nd S pain C ounts a nd P ercentages o f M ajor F orms, b y W are G roup C ounts a nd P ercentages o f R im S herds i n S ix F unctional C lasses, b y O ccupation P hase C ounts a nd P ercentages o f T echnological T ypes o f S mall S torage J ars, b y O ccupation P hase C ounts a nd P ercentages o f T echnological T ypes o f P itchers, b y O ccupation P hase C ounts a nd P ercentages o f T echnological T ypes o f L amps, b y O ccupation P hase C ounts a nd P ercentages o f T echnological T ypes o f C arinated J ars, b y O ccupation P hase C ounts a nd P ercentages o f T echnological T ypes o f W ater S torage J ars, b y O ccupation P hase C ounts a nd P ercentages o f T echnological T ypes o f L arge S torage J ars, b y O ccupation P hase P olitical M odel o f C eramic P roduction a t a l-Basra . E conomic M odel o f C eramic P roduction a t a l-Basra

2 8 5 8 6 2 6 4 6 9 7 2 9 3 1 00 1 06 1 19 1 29 1 30 1 32 1 33 1 35 1 48 1 50 1 54 1 55 1 55 1 56 1 56 1 57 1 65 1 66

P REFACE

T his m onograph r eports t he r esults o f f ield w ork c onducted i n 1 980 a nd 1 981 a t t he e arly I slamic s ite o f a l-Basra ( ca . A .D. 8 00-1100) i n n orthern M orocco, u nder t he a uspices o f t he A merican-Moroccan A rcheolog ical M ission d irected b y D r. C harles L . R edman. I t a lso p resents t he r esults o f a d etailed s tudy o f t he a l-Basra p ottery u ndertaken b y t he a uthor i n 1 983 i n T angier a nd s ubsequently a t t he D epartment o f A nthrop ology , S tate U niversity o f N ew Y ork a t B inghamton, a nd t he C onservat ion A nalytical L aboratory , S mithsonian I nstitution, W ashington, D .C. T his p ublication i s a r evised v ersion o f m y P h .D . d issertation s ubmitt ed i n M ay 1 986. B roadly s peaking, t he e xcavations a t a l-Basra w ere u ndertaken t o i nvestigate a n umber o f i ssues r elated t o t he d evelopment o f c ities a nd s tates i n N orth A frica, a mong t hem t he i nteraction b etween i nland c apit als a nd c oastal e ntrepots. T wo s easons o f f ield w ork a t t he s ite h ave b egun t o a ddress s ome o f t hese q uestions. T he e xcavations w ere a lso u ndertaken t o d evelop a b etter u nderstanding o f t he a rchitecture a nd p ottery o f o ne o f M orocco's m ost i mportant a rcheological s ites d ating t o t he e arly I slamic p eriod . T he c ity o f a l-Basra w as e stablished b y t he I drisids, t he f irst I slamic d ynasty i n M orocco. T his w ork i s w ell u nderway w ith t he e xcavation o f s tone s tructures, o ccupation f loors, a nd b rick k ilns, a nd t he r ecovery o f a bundant p ottery , a nimal b one, a nd m etal a nd g lass o bjects. I t i s e xpected t hat f uture e xcavations a t a lB asra w ill c ontinue t o y ield r ich c ultural r emains o f o ne o f M orocco's e arliest A rab c ities. T his m onograph p rovides a d escription o f t he d ocumentary a nd a rcheological e vidence f or a l-Basra, i ncluding a n a ccount o f t he c ity 's h istory, s ite s tratigraphy, p ottery c lassification, a nd p ottery c hronol ogy . I n a ddition, i t o ffers a r econstruction o f t he p ottery i ndustry a t a l-Basra . T he i ndustry c onsisted p rimarily o f s mall, i ndependent a rtisan w orkshops t hat p roduced u tilitarian p ottery f or u rban i nhabit ants. T he i ndustry a ppears t o h ave b een t echnologically c onservative, w ith f ew i nnovations i ntroduced d uring i ts 3 00-year-history . I a m g rateful t o m any c olleagues a nd f riends i n t he U nited S tates a nd i n M orocco w ho p rovided e ncouragement, s upport, a nd f acilities d uring t he c ourse o f t his r esearch . D r. R edman f irst o ffered m e t he o pportunity o f w orking i n M orocco. D r. V incas S teponaitis p rovided e ncouragement a nd a dvise i n t he f ormulation o f t he d ata a nd t heories p resented i n t his w ork. D r. M argaret C onkey o ffered l ively d iscussions o f a rcheological t heory . T homas W ebster p repared m ost o f t he i llustrat ions. M any o ther m embers o f t he f aculty a nd g raduate c ommunity a t B inghamton p rovided i ntellectual s timulation a nd f riendship o ver t he y ears. M de. J oudia H assar B enslimane, C hief o f A rchaeological S ervice i n M orocco, g raciously f acilitated m y r esearch w ork i n t hat c ountry . D r. R obert S hea, h ead o f t he A merican L egation M useum i n T angier, a nd o ther m embers o f t he A merican d iplomatic c ommunity g enerously p roffered a h elping h and d uring m y s tay i n 1 983.

M y r esearch i n M orocco w as s upported b y g rants f rom t he N ational S cience F oundation ( BNS-83-11644), S igma X i S ociety, t he R esearch F ound ation o f t he S tate U niversity o f N ew Y ork a t B inghamton, a nd b y v ario us f ellowships f rom t he D epartment o f A nthropology, S tate U niversity o f N ew Y ork a t B inghamton . T he p reparation o f t his m anuscript w as u nd ertaken d uring m y t enure a s a P ost-Doctoral F ellow i n M aterials S cie nce a t t he C onservation A nalytical L aboratory , S mithsonian I nstitut ion. I a m e specially g rateful t o m y p arents, F red a nd A nne B enco, m y f amily , a nd m any f riends, p articularly R uth S mith B olster, M ary a nd J ohn H ibbits, A rlene a nd H arry M arkowicz, C aroline S teele, a nd L aurie S teponaitis, w ho h ave g iven m e t heir u nswerving e ncouragement a nd s uppo rt d uring t he l ast f ew y ears.

v ii

C HAPTER 1

I NTRODUCTION

O bjectives o f t he R esearch T his s tudy h as t hree m ajor o bjectives. F irst, i t c onfronts t he b road t heoretical i ssue o f p olitical a nd e conomic i nteraction i n s tate a nd i mperial s ocieties b y e xamining o ne a spect o f t he r elationship, t he n ature a nd e xtent o f p olitical/administrative i nvolvement i n t he p rod uction o f c raft g oods. T oward t his e nd, i t u tilizes d ocumentary a nd a rcheological d ata t o d evelop s everal p ossible e xplanations f or c hanges i n c raft p roduction a t am edieval I slamic u rban c enter. S econd, t he s tudy a ddresses t he m ethodological p roblem o f m easuri ng a nd i nterpreting c eramic v ariability i n t he a rcheological r ecord . I t d evelops a n a pproach t o e xamine o ne a spect o f t hat v ariability , t hat i s, t he d iversity o f p ottery t ypes i n a n a rcheological a ssemblage. T he m ethod d istinguishes b etween f unctional a nd t echnological d iversity i n o rder t o i solate t he c hanges t hat a re r elated s pecifically t o p roduct ion f actors a nd, i n a r ough w ay, t o t he d egree o f c ompetition i n a l ocal p ottery i ndustry . T hird, t he s tudy f ills a g ap i n o ur c urrent k nowledge o f m edieval N orth A frican p ottery b y d eveloping a t ypology a nd c hronology f or c eram ic m aterial f rom t he f irst s ystematically e xcavated, m ulticomponent s ite d ating t o t he e arly I slamic p eriod i n M orocco. T he c eramic m ater ial f rom t he s ite o f a l-Basra s erves a s t he b asis f or a c omparative s tudy o f p ottery f rom o ther e arly I slamic s ites i n t he w estern M editerr anean. P revious A pproaches t o t he S tudy o f C raft P roduction i n C omplex S ocieties I n t he p ast t wo d ecades, a rcheological r esearchers h ave d evoted a g reat d eal o f a ttention t o t he r ole o f t he e conomy i n t he d evelopment a nd m aintenance o f e arly s tate a nd i mperial s ocieties. A t t he b eginn ing o f t his p eriod, a rcheologists f ocused o n t he r ole o f i ntensified a gricultural p roduction i n t he c reation o f c entralized, a dministrative b ureaucracies ( e .g., W ittfogel 1 957; S anders 1 968). I n t he 1 970s, t hey s hifted t heir a ttention t o t he r ole o f l ong-distance a nd i nterregional t rade i n t he f ormation o f s tate s ocieties ( Flannery 1 972; J ohnson 1 973; R athje 1 971; a nd W right a nd J ohnson 1 975). M ore r ecently, i nvestigators h ave b egun t o c onsider t he i mport ance o f n on-agricultural o r c raft p roduction i n t he e volution a nd m aintenance o f s tate a nd i mperial s ocieties. T o a l arge d egree, t hey h ave b een c oncerned w ith d efining t he n ature a nd e xtent o f p olitical/ a dministrative i nvolvement i n t he p roduction o f c raft g oods, u sing a rcheological m aterial f rom t he N ear E ast ( Johnson 1 973; W right a nd J ohnson 1 975), N orth A frica ( Myers 1 984), M esoamerica ( Brumfiel 1 980; F einman 1 980, 1 985; F einman e t a l. 1 984; R ice 1 977, 1 981; S pence 1 981), a nd t he A ndes ( Morris 1 974, 1 982; M orris a nd T hompson 1 970). W ith a

1

f ew e xceptions ( e .g., M orris, M yers, S pence), r esearchers h ave e xamined t his i ssue f rom a s ystemic, p rocessual p erspective, w ith a v iew o f a rtisan p roduction a s a n i ntegral a nd c losely i nterconnected p art o f t he l arger p olitical a nd e conomic s ystem . I n m any r espects, t he c onceptual f ramework f or t hese s tudies, w hich w as i nspired b y C hilde ( 1950), w as s et f orth b y W right a nd J ohns on i n t heir r esearch o n t he o rigins o f t he s tate i n M esopotamia ( Johns on 1 973; W right a nd J ohnson 1 975). U sing a rcheological d ata f rom s outhwestern I ran, t hey a rgued t hat t he e mergence o f t he s tate w as a ssociated w ith a s weeping r eorganization o f t he l ocal e conomy, w hich i ncluded b oth p roduction a nd d istribution s ystems. T hey c ontended t hat a g rowth i n p olitical c entralization w as a ccompanied b y a s hift i n t he o rganization o f c raft p roduction f rom s mall, d ispersed w orkshops t o l arge, c entralized s hops l ocated a t a dministrative c enters. A t t he s ame t ime, t hey f ound t hat t echnological p rocesses c hanged f rom t he m anufacture o f i ndividually c rafted i tems t o m ass-produced g oods. F inally , t hey a rgued t hat t he d istribution o f c raft g oods a lso s hifted f rom l ocal t o r egional e xchange. W right a nd J ohnson s peculated t hat t hese c hanges w ere i nstituted b y t he l ocal r uling e lite i n o rder t o m eet t he u npredictable f luctuations i n d emand f or c raft p roducts, a s w ell a s a gricultural g oods, g enerated b y t he a ppearance o f l arge g roups o f s pecialized n omads o n t he S usiana p lain ( Johnson 1 973: 1 59; W right a nd J ohnson 1 975:283). A lthough t hese h ypotheses h ave y et t o b e t ested w ith a rcheological d ata f rom M esopotamia, W right a nd J ohnson 's w ork o utlined t he b asic p remises o f ap olitically a dministered e conomy f or l ater a rcheological s tudies. T hese w ere : ( 1) t hat p olitical f actors m ay h ave a n i mpact o n c raft p roduction, ( 2) t hat c hanges i n p olitical o rganization m ay s timulate c oncomitant c hanges i n t he o rganization a nd t echnology o f c raft p roduction, i ncluding p ottery m anufacture, ( 3) t hat a g rowth i n p olitical c entralization o ften i s a ssociated w ith a n i nc rease i n t he s cale a nd s peed o f p roduction, a nd ( 4) t hat p olitical/adm inistrative i nvolvement i n c raft m anufacture c an b e d etected i n t he a rcheological r ecord b y a s tudy o f t he m aterial o bjects t hemselves. T he i deas p roposed b y W right a nd J ohnson w ere s ubsequently e labora ted u pon b y F einman a nd a pplied t o a n a rcheological s ituation i n t he O axaca V alley o f M exico ( Feinman 1 980, 1 985; F einman e t a l. 1 984). D rawing p rimarily o n r egional s tudies c onducted i n I mperial C hina ( Skinner 1 977a, 1 977b) a nd m odern-day G uatemala ( Smith 1 976), F einman c ontended t hat a n i ncrease i n p olitical c onsolidation i n t he O axaca V alley , a nd t hus s tronger a dministrative c ontrol o ver t he e conomy , l ed t o a g rowth i n t he s cale o f c raft p roduction a nd a r eduction i n t he a mount o f c ompetition a mong p roducers. C onversely , a n i ncrease i n r egional p olitical f ragmentation, a nd t hus w eaker a dministrative i nv olvement i n t he e conomy , r esulted i n a d ecline i n t he s cale o f c raft p roduction a nd a n i ncrease i n c ompetition a mong c raftspeople. F einman p ostulated t hat a g rowth i n p olitical c ontrol o f c raft p roduction a nd d istribution o ccurred d uring p eriods o f v alley-wide f ood s hortages. F ollowing a long t he l ines o f a n a rgument m ade b y B rumfiel f or t he L ate A ztec p eriod i n t he V alley o f M exico ( Brumfiel 1 980), F einman s uggested t hat O axacan a dministrators " monitored a nd m anipulated" t he p roduction o f c raft g oods i n u rban c enters i n o rder t o e ncourage i ntensive, s pec ialized a gricultural p roduction i n r ural a reas ( Feinman 1 985:209).

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F einman t ested t his m odel o n s urface-collected c eramic m aterial c overing a 1 ,000-year p eriod i n t he O axaca V alley, u sing s everal a rcheo logical i ndicators t o m easure c hanges i n p roduction s cale a nd i n d eg ree o f c ompetition a mong p roducers. A s t he m odel p redicted, h e f ound t hat p eriods o f r egional p olitical c onsolidation w ere a ssociated w ith s trong a dministrative c ontrol o f p ottery p roduction, a s r eflected b y a g rowth i n p roduction s cale a nd a d ecrease i n c ompetition a mong p otters; p eriods o f r egional p olitical f ragmentation w ere c orrelated w ith w eak a dministrative i nvolvement i n c eramic p roduction, w hich r esulted i n a r eturn t o s mall p roduction u nits a nd a g rowth i n c ompetition a mong p otters. T he b asic p remises s et f orth b y W right a nd J ohnson a lso u nderlie R ice 's w ork o n t he e volution o f s pecialized p ottery p roduction i n M esoa merica ( Rice 1 977, 1 981). R ice p ostulated t hat a n i ncrease i n p olitic al c entralization , i .e., t he e mergence o f r anked a nd s tratified s ociet ies, r esulted i n a c oncomitant i ncrease i n a dministrative i nvolvement i n p ottery p roduction. S he a rgued t hat a n i ncreasingly p owerful r uling e lite p rovided t he c onditions t hat l ed t o t he d evelopment o f s pecialize d p ottery p roduction, i n t hat t hey r estricted a ccess t o v aluable r es ources, s uch a s s pecial c lay b eds. R ice s uggested t hat a dministrative c ontrol i nitially e xtended t o t he p roduction o f e lite w ares a nd l ater, w hen p olitical p ower b ecame m ore c onsolidated, i t i nvolved t he m anufact ure o f u tilitarian p ottery w hich t he r uling e lite e xtracted f rom a rtis ans a s t ribute. I n c ontrast t o F einman, R ice a rgued t hat a s p olitical c entralization g rew t wo t rends i n p roduction e merged, a ccording t o t he t ype o f w are i nvolved : ( 1) t here w as a n i ncrease i n c ompetition a mong p otters m aking e lite w ares a nd ( 2) t here w as a d ecline i n c ompetition, a s w ell a s a n i ncrease i n t he s cale o f p roduction, a mong p otters m aking u tilitarian w ares.

L imitations o f t he F einman-Rice M odels T here a re s everal s hortcomings i n t he m odels p roposed b y F einman a nd R ice f or r econstructing t he o rganization a nd t echnology o f c eramic p roduction i n c omplex s ocieties. T he f irst i s t he a ssumption t hat p olitical o rganization a nd c raft p roduction, s pecifically p ottery m anuf acture, a re u sually l inked i n a d irect m anner. A s C hapter 2 w ill s how, h istorical e vidence f rom t he R oman a nd I slamic p eriods i n t he M editerranean i ndicates t hat t he s tate w as d irectly i nvolved o nly i n t he p roduction o f c ertain c rafts t hat w ere r equired f or i ts o wn u se . T hese m anufactured p roducts i ncluded t extiles f or t he r uling e lite, t he r oyal p alaces, a nd d iplomatic g ifts; a rmaments a nd, s ometimes, c lothing f or t he m ilitary; a nd m oney f or e xchange. O nly o ccasionally w as t he s tate d irectly e ngaged i n c eramic p roduction a nd t hen o nly f or s pecific p urposes, s uch a s s upplying m ilitary t roops o r f urnishing r oyal p ala ces. A s a s tudy b y M orris s hows, a s imilar s ituation p revailed a t I nca a dministrative c enters i n t he A ndes, w here t he s tate m anufactured p ottery v essels s pecifically f or u se a t s tate b anquets a nd, p ossibly, f or s tate b eer ( chicha) p roduction ( Morris 1 974, 1 982). T his p ottery , w hich i s s tylistically a nd c ompositionally u niform , h as b een f ound a lmost e xclusively a t a dministrative c enters, l ike H uänaco P ampa, a nd r arely a ppears a t s ites i n t he s urrounding c ountryside. I n a ny c ase, t here i s l ittle h istorical e vidence f or d irect g overnment i nvolvement

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i n t he p roduction o f m anufactured g oods f or c onsumption b y t he p opulace i n t he A ndes o r e lsewhere.

g eneral

A s econd, r elated s hortcoming i s t he a ssumption t hat a c hange i n p olitical o rganization n ecessarily l eads t o a s hift i n t he o rganization a nd/or t echnology o f p ottery p roduction. T his a ssumption f ails t o c onsider t wo p ossibilities: t hat p olitical o rganization m ay v ary w itho ut a c oncomitant c hange i n t he s tructure o f c raft p roduction a nd, m ore i mportantly, t hat t he o rganization a nd t echnology o f a c raft i ndustry m ay c hange p rimarily i n r esponse t o s hifts i n c onsumer n eeds a nd d em ands, w hich i n t urn m ay s tem f rom a n umber o f d emographic, c ultural, o r s ocioeconomic f actors. F or e xample, t he a rrival o f i mmigrants w ho t raditionally c ook w ith f lat c eramic g riddles m ight l ead t o a d emand f or s uch p roducts i n a n a rea w here t hey h ad n ot b een a vailable p rev iously . L ikewise, a n i nflux o f r ural p easants i nto a n u rban c enter m ight r esult i n a n i ncreased d emand f or l arge q uantities o f c heaply m ade u tilitarian w ares. T he a ctual m echanism f or s uch c hanges i s t he i ntroduction o f n ew t echniques b y i ncoming c raftspeople o r t he d evelopm ent o f n ew m ethods b y i ndigenous a rtisans. I n a ny e vent, t echnical a nd o rganizational c hanges i n a c eramic i ndustry m ay o ccur e ntirely i n r esponse t o e conomic f actors, w ithout t he i nterference, d irect o r i nd irect, o f t he s tate o r i ts a gents. A t hird d rawback i s t he a ssumption t hat s tate-directed c eramic p roduction u sually l eads t o a n i ncrease i n t he s cale o f p roduction a nd a r eduction i n t he a mount o f c ompetition a mong p otters, a s m anifested b y h ighly s tandardized, m ass-produced p ottery a ssemblages. H istorical e vidence f rom t he M editerranean s uggests, o n t he c ontrary , t hat g overnm ent-sponsored p roduction m ay b e u ndertaken b y s mall p roduction u nits, s uch a s i ndividual a rtisans w ho p roduce a n e ntire p roduct, b ut w ho w ork w ithin t he c onfines o f a s tate w orkshop. I n a ddition, s uch p roduction m ay i nvolve a h igh i nvestment o f t ime, i n t hat t he m anufacture o f e lite w ares b y t echnologically a dvanced p rocesses u sually n ecessitates a n i ncreased n umber o f p roduction s teps, s uch a s i n t he c ase o f l usterw ares f rom I slamic N orth A frica ( Jenkins 1 980) o r s lipped w ares f rom t he M ayan s ite o f B arton R amie ( Rice 1 981). O n t he o ther h and , c ommerc ial p roduction i tself m ay b e c haracterized b y l arge-scale p roduction u nits a nd am onopoly o f o ne o r t wo s uccessful w orkshops i n a n a rea, s uch a s t he p otteries a t A rrezo i n R oman I taly . A f inal s hortcoming w ith t his a pproach i s a g eneral f ailure t o c onsider t he c ultural c ontext o f p ottery, t hat i s, t o t ake i nto a ccount t he f unction a nd v alue o f c eramic g oods w ithin t he p articular s ociety t hat m ade a nd u sed t hem . T o a c ertain e xtent, R ice ( 1981) d oes t his i n h er s tudy o f M ayan p ottery b y d rawing a d istinction b etween e lite a nd u tilitarian w ares a nd, i ndeed, f inds t hat t hey c hanged i n d ifferent w ays o ver a p eriod o f t ime . I n a b roader s ense, h owever, t he v alue a nd u se o f p ottery d epend o n c ultural a ttitudes t oward t he g eneral c ategory o f c eramic v essels. T hese a ttitudes m ay b e f ormed b y s uch c losely i nterrelated f actors a s t he q uality o f l ocal p ottery-making r esources, t he t echnological c apabilities o f t he a rtisans t hemselves, o r t he a vailability o f o ther m aterials, s uch a s m etal, a nimal s kins, o r g ourds, f or u se a s c ontainers.

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A n A lternative A pproach A n a lternative a pproach t o t hat p roposed b y F einman a nd R ice i s a f ree-enterprise, o r e ntreprenurial, m odel. T he f ree-enterprise s cenari o v iews s pecialized p ottery p roduction i n s tate a nd i mperial s ocieties a s c onsisting l argely o f c ommercial p roduction, i nvolving i ndependent a rtisans w ho w ork i n t heir o wn s hops. T his s cenario a ttributes c hanges i n t he t echnology a nd o rganization o f c eramic m anufacture p rimarily t o s hifts i n t he m arketplace, t hat i s, i n c onsumer n eeds a nd d emands r athe r t han t o s tate i nterference i n o r c ontrol o f p ottery m aking. S uch c hanges i n t he m arketplace m ay s tem f rom p opulation m ovements, r ising o r f alling s ocioeconomic l evels, o r e nvironmental f luctuations. F inall y, t his a pproach r ecognizes t hat, i n s ome c ases, s pecialized c eramic p roduction m ay c ome u nder s tate i nfluence b ut t hat t his c onsists o f a r elatively s mall p ortion o f t he t otal p ottery p roduction i n a s ociety a nd i s u sually l imited t o s pecific v essel c lasses, e .g., e lite o r m ilit ary p ottery . T his a pproach w ill b e f urther d eveloped a nd t ested i n t he c hapters t hat f ollow . C hapter 2 p resents t he d ocumentary d ata t hat d escribes t he n ature a nd o rganization o f c raft p roduction i n t he R oman a nd I slamic p eriods i n t he M editerranean . I t i ncludes a d iscussion o f t he d ifferent f orms o f s pecialized c eramic p roduction p resent i n t he I slamic w orld . C hapter 3p rovides a h istorical o verview o f t he d evelopment a nd d ecline o f t he e arly I slamic c ity o f a l-Basra i n n orthern M orocco. T he c ity c onstitutes t he c ase s tudy f or t his r esearch . T he a ccount i s d rawn p rimarily f rom d ocumentary a nd n umismatic e vidence a nd p laces a lB asra w ithin i ts w ider r egional p olitical a nd e conomic c ontext. C hapters 4 t hrough 7 p resent t he a rcheological e vidence u ncovered a t t he s ite o f a l-Basra d uring e xcavations c onducted i n 1 980 a nd 1 981 b y t he A merican-Moroccan A rcheological M ission . C hapter 4 c ontains t he s tratigraphic a nd a rchitectural e vidence f rom a l-Basra . C hapter 5 d escribes t he c ultural m aterial, p rincipally t he p ottery, f ound a t t he s ite. C hapter 6 c oncerns i tself w ith d epositional i ssues. C hapter 7 p resents a c eramic c hronology f or a l-Basra a nd c ompares t he a l-Basra p ottery w ith c eramic m aterial f rom o ther e arly I slamic s ites i n t he w estern M editerranean . C hapter 8 d escribes t he r esults o f a d iversity a nalysis o f a lB asra p ottery t ypes i n t erms o f t he m odel o f c eramic p roduction p res ented i n C hapters 2 a nd 3 . T he s tudy i s u sed t o m onitor c hanges i n t he s cale o f p roduction a nd t he a mount o f c ompetition a mong p otters a t a l-Basra a nd t o i dentify s ome o f t he f actors i nvolved i n i ts c hange t hrough t ime . F inally, C hapter 9 s ummarizes t he f indings o f t he s tudy o f p ottery m anufacture a t a l-Basra a nd c oncludes w ith a d iscussion a bout t he n at ure a nd o rganization o f c raft p roduction i n s tate a nd i mperial s ociet ies.

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C HAPTER 2

H ISTORICAL V IEW O F C RAFT P RODUCTION

T his c hapter e xamines t he d ocumentary e vidence a vailable f or t he o rganization o f s pecialized c raft p roduction i n e arly I slamic s ociety . A lthough i t i s p rimarily c oncerned w ith p ottery m anufacture, i t d isc usses o ther f orms o f c raft p roduction i n o rder t o p resent t he b road s pectrum o f a rtisan a ctivity i n a n u rban s ociety . T he c hapter f ocuses o n t hree a spects o f c raft m anufacture : ( 1) t he r elative v alue o f v ario us c rafts w ithin a c ulture, ( 2) t he b asic f orms o f l abor o rganization, a nd ( 3) t he p olitical a nd e conomic c ontexts o f c raft m anufacture. T his s tudy a lso d raws u pon c omparable d ata f rom t he R oman p eriod i n o rder t o u nderscore t he s trong c ontinuity i n t he b asic f eatures o f a rtisan p rodu ction o ver a p eriod o f 1 ,000 y ears i n t he M editerranean a rea. I t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat, o n t he w hole, c raft p roduction p layed a r elat ively m inor r ole i n t he p olitical e conomies o f b oth s ocieties ( Finley 1 973:139; G oitein 1 967:116; J ones 1 974 :37). I slamic C raft P roduction T he m ost i mportant s ource o f d ocumentary i nformation a bout c raft p roduction i n t he e arly I slamic p eriod i n t he M editerranean i s t he C airo G eniza . T his r emarkable c ollection o f d ocuments d ating t o t he t enth t o t welfth c enturies i ncludes o fficial, b usiness, a nd p rivate c orrespondence w ritten b y m erchants a nd a rtisans f rom a ll o ver t he M editerranean a nd d eposited b y t hem i n a s ynagogue a nd c emetery i n F ustat ( Old C airo), E gypt. A lthough t hey w ere w ritten p rimarily b y J ewish b usinessmen, t he d ocuments a re g enerally b elieved t o r eflect t he w ide r ange o f e conomic a ctivities a nd a rrangements t hat e xisted a t t he t ime. A ccording t o S . D . G oitein, w hose f ive-volume s eries A M editerr anean S ociety i s b ased o n t hese a ccounts, J ewish t raders a nd c raftsmen n ot o nly l ived i n c lose c ontact w ith M uslims a nd C hristians, b ut t hey f requently f ormed p artnerships a nd c ooperated i n o ther w ays w ith t hem ( Goitein 1 970:51-52). I n a ddition t o t he G eniza p apers, o ther t extual i nformation o n I slamic c raft p roduction c omes f rom v arious t ravel b ooks, h istories, a nd l iterary w orks, s ome o f w hich h ave b een t ranslat ed o r c ompiled b y o thers ( e.g., M ez 1 937; M arzouk 1 955). C ultural A ttitudes T owards I slamic C rafts A ccording t o d ocumentary s ources, t he m ost p rominent i ndustry i n t he I slamic w orld w as t he p roduction o f t extiles. T he h ighly s peciali zed i ndustry w as s o l arge, i n f act, t hat i t m ay h ave e mployed m ore t han h alf o f t he w orking p opulation, a mong t hem s pinners, w eavers, a nd d yers ( Goitein 1 967:101). C onsisting p rimarily o f s ilk, l inen, a nd c otton, t extiles w ere u sed f or c lothing a nd h ome f urnishings, s uch a s c arpets, t apestries, a nd c ushions. A s t he f ollowing o bservation i ndic ates, t extiles w ere h ighly v alued i n I slamic s ociety : O f t he t hree b asic n ecessities o f t he h uman b ody , f ood, c lothing a nd h ousing, c lothing w as t he m ost i mportant t o t he d wellers i n t he N ear E ast. T he c lothier's a rt w as m ore e laborated t han

6

a ny o ther, a nd i nterior d ecoration c onsisted a lmost e ntirely i n c oloured h angings f or t he r ooms. L uxury m eant t o h ave h ands ome c arpets o n t he w alls a nd o n t he f loors [ Mez 1 937:459]. T he

h igh v alue p laced o n c lothing a nd o n h ome f urnishings w as

p rimarily f rom t heir b eauty a nd d urability, m ent p otential.

a nd t hereby t heir

d erived i nvest-

C lothing f ormed p art--sometimes a c onsiderable p art--of a f amily 's i nvestment, b eing t ransmitted f rom p arents t o c hildren, t o b e c onverted i nto c ash i n c ase o f a n e mergency . T he f urniture o f ah ouse c onsisted m ostly o f v arious t ypes o f c arpets, c ouches, c ushions, c anopies, a nd d raperies--objects p roduced m ainly b y t he t extile i ndustry . A ll t his e xplains w hy t he l atter w as o f s uch p aramount i mportance [ Goitein 1 967:101]. N ext t o t extiles, t he p roduction o f g old, s ilver, a nd c opper o bj ects w as a p rominent i ndustry i n t he I slamic w orld . A ccording t o t he G eniza p apers, g old a nd s ilver o rnaments, i n a ddition t o b eing d ecorat ive, a lso s erved a s a f orm o f i nvestment a nd s avings ( Goitein 1 967: 1 08). T hey w ere o ften u sed a s p ayment i n c ommercial t ransactions a nd w ere p rominent i tems i n d owry l ists, p articularly a mong J ews. A lthough c opper i tems w ere l ess v alued, t hey o ccasionally a ppeared i n t rousseau l ists, g enerally i n t he f orm o f b etter k itchen u tensils. O ther i mport ant c raft i ndustries i ncluded t he m anufacture o f g lass, l eather, p arti cularly f or f ootwear a nd s hipping c ontainers, a nd p aper p roducts. I n c ontrast, p ottery p roduction i s m entioned r elatively i nfreq uently i n t he G eniza p apers. I t a ppears t o h ave b een a f airly s pec ialized i ndustry , f rom t he v ariety o f n ames g iven t o p otters. F akhk hari, f or e xample, w ere p otters w ho m ade c lay p ipes a nd o ther c lay m aterials u sed f or c onstruction . Q addari w ere p otters w ho m ade v essels f or s erving o r s toring f ood a nd d rink . T he l atter c ould f urther s pecia lize i n t he p roduction o f a p articular t ype o f v essel, e .g., k uzi m ade n arrow-necked w ater j ugs w ithout a s pout, a nd g hada ti ri m ade p orcelainl ike f ine e arthenware d ishes ( Goitein 1 967:110-111). F urthermore, t he v alue o f p ottery i n t he I slamic w orld v aried, d epending o n i ts o rigin a nd m ethod o f m anufacture . I mported C hinese p orcelain w as h ighly p rized, a s a ttested t o b y i ts i nclusion i n w ealthy t rousseaus a nd i ts u se a s a p resentation g ift ( Goitein 1 983: 1 46). F ine g lazed e arthenwares ( e.g., g hadar), w hich s erved a s p opular i mit ations o f p orcelain, w ere a lso i n g reat d emand t hroughout t he M edit erranean . A s an umber o f d ocuments t estify , f ine e arthenwares w ere s hipped l ong d istances b oth b y s ea a nd o verland b y c amel, f or e xample, f rom t he M aghreb t o E gypt a nd f rom E gypt t o t he P ersian G ulf ( Goitein 1 983:146). O n t he o ther h and, u nglazed u tilitarian w ares, s uch a s t he u biquitous c lay s torage j ars, p itchers, b owls, a nd l amps f ound a t a rche ological s ites t hroughout t he M aghreb, w ere n ot m entioned a t a ll i n t he G eniza p apers. T hey w ere n ot i ncluded i n d owry l ists n or l isted i n c ommercial d ocuments, w hich s uggests t hat t hey w ere c onsidered o f r elat ively l ittle v alue a nd w ere p robably n ot t raded a ny d istance. O n t he w hole, u nglazed p ottery s eems t o h ave b een h eld i n r elatively l ow e steem d uring t he e arly m edieval p eriod i n t he w estern M editerranean .

7

F orms o f C raft O rganization T he d ocumentary e vidence i dentifies f our b asic o rganization i n s pecialized c raft p roduction .

f orms

o f

l abor

B y f ar, t he m ost c ommon f orm w as a s mall, i ndependent w orkshop, w hich w as o wned a nd o perated b y a n i ndividual a rtisan, a f amily, o r a s mall n umber o f p artners, u sually n umbering n o m ore t han f ive ( Goitein 1 967:81). A lthough t hey v aried, p artnerships u sually i nvolved a n a rr angement i n w hich a ll p artners s hared l abor, c apital i nvestments a nd p rofits e qually, o r i n w hich s ome p artners c ontributed c apital a nd o thers p rovided l abor ( ibid :170). A s mall w orkshop r arely, i f e ver, e mployed w age l abor. G oods p roduced i n a s mall w orkshop w ere g enerally s old d irectly t o c onsumers i n t he s hop o r t hrough w holesalers i n l ocal m arkets. D uring t he G eniza p eriod, a v ariety o f a rtisans o perated s mall w orkshops, a mong t hem g oldsmiths, s ilversmiths, c oppermakers, g lassmakers, s ilk w eavers, a nd p ottery m akers. A v ariant o f t his f orm w as a n ucleated i ndustry , i n w hich a n umber o f i ndividually o perated w orkshops w ere g rouped t ogether t o f orm a m ore o r l ess t ightly c lustered a rtisan c omplex . A lthough i t i s n ot m entione d i n t he G eniza d ocuments, t his f orm i s e vident a t s ome e arly I slamic s ites, s uch a s S iraf i n t he P ersian G ulf ( Whitehouse 1 970). A t S iraf, a n umber o f s mall k ilns a nd p otting s heds w ere f ound c lustered t ogether i n a n e nclosed c ompound i n t he c ity n ear t he e dge o f t he s ea; i ts l ocat ion s uggests t hat p ottery m ay h ave b een l oaded d irectly o nto s hips a nd t ransported t o d istant m arkets. W hile e ncouraging c ooperation a mong c raftsmen, an ucleated i ndustry a lso t ended t o a ttract m iddlemen w ho o perated r elatively w ide d istribution n etworks. A s w e w ill s ee l ater, n ucleated p otteries w ere p revalent d uring t he R oman e ra ( Peacock 1 982). A l ess c ommon f orm w as a l arge c ommercial w orkshop o r f actory , w hich w as o wned b y a g roup o f p artners, m ost o f w hom w ere p rimarily i nvestors ( Goitein 1 967:81). L arge i ndependent w orkshops o ften e mploye d w age l abor, a lthough t he n umber o f w orkers a nd t he c onditions o f t heir e mployment a re n ot m entioned i n t he G eniza p apers. D uring t he e arly I slamic p eriod, l arge w orkshops s eem t o h ave b een l imited p rim arily t o s ugar a nd p aper p roduction, b oth i ndustries w hich i nvolved t echnologies t hat w ere i mported i nto t he I slamic w orld f rom , r espect ively , I ndia a nd C hina . I mmediately a fter i ts i ntroduction i n t he m id-eighth c entury , p aper w as p roduced i n f actories o wned b y t he e lite, e .g., g overnors a nd s ultans, a nd o nly l ater w as i ts p roduction t aken o ver b y m iddle-class e ntrepreneurs ( ibid:81). B y c ontrast, s ugar m anuf acture w as m ostly i n t he h ands o f p rivate p roducers u ntil i t b ecame a g overnment m onopoly u nder t he M amluks i n t he t hirteenth-century ( Ashtor 1 977). P artly b ecause t hey i nvolved t echnologies w ith n o l ocal t radit ion, t hese s ugar a nd p aper f actories e mployed r elatively l arge n umbers o f u nskilled w orkers ( Goitein 1 967:81). A f ourth f orm w as a l arge, s tate-operated w orkshop o r f actory w hich p roduced g oods f or g overnment c onsumption . D uring t he G eniza p eriod, s tate i ndustries c oncentrated o n t he m anufacture o f t extiles, a rmaments, a nd c urrency ( ibid :81-82). S tate w orkshops u sually e mployed s killed c raftsmen w ho w orked r elatively i ndependently a nd w ere a ble t o f orm p artnerships a mong t hemselves. I n s ome c ases, s killed a rtisans

8

w ere f orced t o w ork i n s tate-run o perations. I n a l etter d ated a bout 1 040 A .D., a n a rtisan i n D amascus c omplained t hat t he l ocal g overnment r ecruiter h ad c hosen t he b est c raftsmen f or t he s tate t extile f actory a nd, o nce i n, t hey c ould n ot g et o ut e xcept b y p etitioning t he C aliph , w hich w as v iewed a s a r ather e xtreme m easure ( ibid :82). A lthough m ost g overnment p roduction t ook p lace i n c entralized w orkshops, s ome o perat ions w ere d ispersed a mong w orkers' h omes, s imilar t o a c ontemporary c ottage i ndustry . I n E gypt, f or e xample, w omen s pun f lax i n t heir h omes, u nder t he d irection o f g overnment a gents w ho p rovided m aterials, s et s tandards, a nd p urchased t he f inished p roduct ( Mez 1 937:461). T wo e arly d ocuments p rovide a g limpse o f t he g overnment 's r ole i n t wo a sp ects o f t extile p roduction--the p rocessing o f r aw m aterials a nd t he w eaving o f t he c loth . T he f irst i s a d escription b y t he t welfth-cent ury t raveler I bn B alkhi: T he f lax i s s oaked i n p onds, t hen p ulled a part a nd s pun i nto t hreads. T he l inen t hread i s w ashed i n t he w ater o f t he R ahban C anal; t hough t he w ater o f t his c anal i s s canty, i t h as t he p roperty o f b leaching t he l inen t hread, w hich b ecomes w hite i n n o o ther w ater. T his R ahban C anal b elongs t o t he r oyal t reasury, a nd i ts e arnings n ow b elong t o t he h ouse o f t he E mir, s ince t he e xchequer g rants t he u se o f i t o nly t o t hose w eavers w ho a re c ommissioned b y i t t o w eave. A f iscal i nspects a s o verseer, a nd b rokers f ix t he p roper p rice o f t he f abrics, s ealing t he b ales b efore t hey a re p ut i nto t he h ands o f f oreign t raders. T hese r elied o n t he b rokers, a nd p urchased t he c orded b ales, j ust a s t hey w ere l ying, a nd i n e ach t own w hither t hey w ere b rought, p eople m erely a sked f or t he c ertificate o f t he b roker o f K azrun, a nd s old t he b ales w ithout u ndoing t hem . H ence i t o ften c ame t o p ass t hat a l oad o f b ales f rom K azrun c hanged h ands m ore t han t en t imes w ithout b eing o pened [ Mez 1 937:462]. T he s econd i s a f ourteenth-century a ccount o f a S ultan 's v isit t extile f actory i n A lexandria, E gypt:

t o

H e [ the S ultan] w as c onducted t o D ar a t-Tiraz ( the t extile f actory) b y h is m inister. H e d ismounted, e ntered a nd w ent u p t he s taircase t o t he p lace w here t here w ere t he l ooms a nd t he s tores. H e o bserved e very w eaver a t h is l oom w eaving v arious d ecorated t extiles a nd c omplete c lothes ( badlat) o f d ifferent c olours, a lready f olded f or t he u se o f t he h arem o f t he S ultan. H e w ent a round t he l ooms, o bserving t hem a nd p utting h is h ead b elow t hem t o s ee t heir l ower p arts a nd e njoyed h imself b y l ooking a t t he w eavers w hile t hey w ere w orking a nd t hrowing t heir s huttles t o a nd f ro. . . T he S ultan t hen s aw w hat w as i n t he D ar a t-Tiraz o f A lexandria n amely : t he z arakish , r aqm , a nd g olden s ilk r obes c ompletely f inished . H e c hose s ome o f t hese t o b e s ent w ith h im a nd l eft t he r est u ntil t hey s hould b e c ompleted [ Marzouk 1 955:65-66].

9

a

P olitical/Administrative C ontext o f C raft P roduction A s t he d iscussion a bove s uggests, I slamic g overnment i nvolvement i n c raft p roduction w as l imited p rimarily t o i ndustries t hat w ere c ons idered v ital t o t he o peration o f t he s tate, n amely g oods r equired b y t he i mperial c ourt, g overnment a dministrators, a nd t he m ilitary . S tate r un t extile f actories m ade c lothing a nd o ther g oods, s uch a s b anners, t ents, a nd p alace f urnishings n eeded b y t he r ulers a nd t heir f amilies; i n a ddition, t hey p roduced s pecial c loths a nd r obes o f h onor f or p res entation a s d iplomatic g ifts. G overnment m ints p roduced c urrency f rom v arious g old a nd s ilver b ars, v essels, a nd o ld c oins a nd o ther f ragm ents. I nstead o f i ssuing m oney p er s e, h owever, t he m ints o btained t hese m etal i tems f rom s uppliers ( murid) a nd r eturned t he e quivalent t o t hem i n c urrency , l ess t he c ost o f l abor a nd a g overnment f ee ( Goitein 1 967:267). T he e xtent o f t he g overnment 's i nvolvement i n p rivate c raft p rod uction a ppears t o h ave b een m inimal. I n g eneral, i t w as d irected t oward r aising r evenues. T he g overnment c ollected t axes f rom p rivate w orkshops i n t he f orm o f am onthly l icense f ee a nd i t i mposed d uties o n g oods e ntering o r l eaving a c ity ( Goitein 1 967:269-271). T he g overnm ent a lso a ppointed m arket s upervisors (1a rif) t o g uard a gainst f raudul ent p ractices i n t he m arketplace, s uch a s o vercharging o r s elling d efective g oods. T he g overnment o ccasionally t ook p ossession o f c omm odities t hat w ere b eing s hipped f rom o ne p lace t o a nother, a lthough i t u sually r eimbursed t he m erchants f or t hem . A ccording t o t he G eniza p apers, t he g overnment c onfiscated s uch g oods a s f ine t extiles, l ead, w ax, a nd o live o il, a ll i tems w hich t he i mperial c ourt o r b ureaucracy p resumably r equired . I n s ummarizing t he a ttitude o f m erchants t oward s tate s eizures o f t his s ort, G oitein w rote: T he t enor o f t he l etter r eporting t his o ccurrence c learly s hows, h owever, t hat t he w riter w ould h ave w elcomed s elling h is m erchandise t o t he g overnment, a nd t he r elatively r are o ccurrence o f r eferences t o t he f orceful s eizure o f g oods b y t he g overnment a gencies s eems t o i ndicate t hat t hese p ractices w ere n ot p articularly o ppressive [ Goitein 1 967:268]. T he s tate 's i nvolvement s pecifically i n p ottery p roduction i s n ot w ell d ocumented. T here i s, h owever, s ome e vidence t o s uggest t hat t he g overnment e ngaged i n c eramic m anufacture f rom t ime t o t ime, a lbeit i ndirectly, i n o rder t o f urnish i mperial p alaces a nd o ther g overnment b uildings a nd p ossibly t o s upply s tationary m ilitary f orces. I t a pp ears t hat t he s tate o btained p ottery f or t hese p urposes b y c ommissioni ng a rtisans o r b y r equisitioning o r p urchasing t hem f rom p rivate w orks hops r ather t han b y o perating i ts o wn p ottery w orkshops. O n t he w hole, t he g overnment 's i nvolvement s eems t o h ave b een i ntermittent a nd o pportunistic a nd d id n ot r epresent a n o ngoing c ommitment o r p olicy . T here i s s ome r eason t o b elieve t hat t he r uling e lite o ccasionally c ommissioned o r p urchased c eramic m aterial t o d ecorate o r f urnish r oyal p alaces a nd o ther g overnment b uildings. T his m aterial c onsisted p rim arily o f l uxury w ares, i .e., p ottery t hat w as h ighly d ecorated a nd/or m ade b y a n a dvanced t echnological p rocess. T extual a nd a rcheological e vidence f rom t he n inth c entury i ndicate t hat t he g overnor o f I friqiya

1 0

( present-day T unisia) r ecruited a B aghdad p otter t o m anufacture l usterp ainted t iles f or t he G reat M osque a t K ayrawan, t hereby i ntroducing t he l usterware t echnique i nto t he M aghreb ( Jenkins 1 980; M arcais 1 928). S imilarly, a n e leventh-century Z irid r uler b rought p otters, p ossibly f rom B ougie i n A lgeria, t o m ake l uster-painted t iles f or t he n ew r oyal p alace i n M alaga ( Jenkins 1 980). T he t enth-century U mayyad C aliph i n C ordova r ecruited o r c ommissioned h undreds o f c raftspeople f rom t he M iddle E ast t o d ecorate t he n ewly b uilt p alaces a t M edina a z-Zahra ( Dozy 1 972:446); a mong t hem a pparently w ere p otters w ho i ntroduced o r d eveloped s everal n ew t echniques, i ncluding c uerda s eca, w hich a ppears i n S pain i n t he e arliest l evels o f M edina a z-Zahra ( Zozoya 1 980b:314). T here i s l ess e vidence f or s tate-sponsored p roduction o f m ilitary p ottery i n t he e arly I slamic p eriod, a lthough a n a rgument h as b een m ade f or m ilitary i nvolvement i n p ottery m anufacture a t Q sar e s-Seghir i n n orthern M orocco d uring t he f ourteenth a nd f ifteenth c enturies ( Myers 1 984). C onsidering t he n ature o f I slamic a rmies i n t he M aghreb d uring t he c enturies i mmediately f ollowing t he c onquest, i t s eems u nlikely t hat t he m ilitary w ould h ave b een e ngaged i n o r e ven i nterested i n m aking p ottery . I n c ontrast t o l arge, s tanding R oman a rmies p osted i n f orts a long t he i mperial f rontiers, A rab a rmies, p articularly i n t he M aghreb, w ere c omposed o f h ighly m obile B erber t roops. B ecause o f t heir m obility, i t s eems l ikely t hat t he a rmies w ould h ave u sed d ura ble, l ightweight e quipment, s uch a s m etal c ooking a nd e ating u tensils, r ather t han f ragile c eramic v essels, d uring t heir c ampaigns. I n t heir g arrisons, w hich w ere o ften l ocated i n u rban c enters, t hey w ould l ikely h ave h ad a ccess t o c ommercially p roduced p ottery f or d omestic p urposes. R oman C raft P roduction A n umber o f s triking p arallels c an b e s een i n t he o rganization o f c raft p roduction b etween t he I slamic p eriod a nd t he e arlier R oman p eri od . T he b asic m odes o f c raft p roduction w ere s imilar, a lthough s ome f orms a ppear t o h ave b een m ore p revalent i n t he R oman p eriod. T he p olitical c ontext o f p roduction, i .e ., g overnment i nvolvement i n t ext ile a nd a rmament f actories a nd m ints, a lso s eems t o h ave b een v ery m uch t he s ame i n t he R oman w orld. I n a ddition t o a bundant d ocumentary i nformation ( Haywood 1 956; W altzing 1 968), t he e vidence f or c raft p roduction i n t he R oman w orld i ncludes d etailed a rcheological d ata, i n p articular t he w ell-excavated r emains o f c eramic w orkshops, k ilns, a nd p ottery m olds a nd s tamps ( Peac ock 1 982; H ayes 1 972). T ogether, d ocumentary a nd a rcheological d ata h ave b een b rought t ogether i n s everal e conomic h istories, w hich f orm t he b asis o f t he f ollowing d iscussion ( e.g., F inley 1 973; H opkins 1 978; J ones 1 974). F orms o f R oman C raft O rganization L ike t hat i n t he I slamic p eriod, t he m ost c ommon f orm o f c raft o rganization i n t he R oman w orld w as a s mall, i ndependent w orkshop o pera ted b y o ne o r ah andful o f i ndividuals. T hese w orkshops w ere s ituated i n m ost t owns a nd c ities w here t hey s erved t he n eeds o f l ocal i nhabit ants, i ncluding l andowners, f armers, a nd o ther c raftspeople ( Jones 1 974:38).

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V ery p rominent i n t he R oman p eriod w as t he n ucleated i ndustry, i n w hich an umber o f s mall w orkshops a nd/or m oderately l arge-scale c omm ercial w orkshops w ere c lustered t ogether i n a n u rban o r r ural a rea . T heir l ocation d epended t o a l arge e xtent o n p roximity t o s ources o f r aw m aterial, s uch a s w ool o r c lay b eds, a nd t o t ransportation n etw orks. N ucleated w orkshops u sually s pecialized i n t he m anufacture o f t echnologically s uperior, m edium-quality p roducts, s uch a s f ine r eds lip t ablewares ( known v ariously a s A rretine, s amian, a nd t erra s igill ata), o r f inely w oven t extiles ( e.g., T arsus l inen). B ecause t hey w ere p roduced o n a l arge s cale a t a r elatively l ow c ost, t hese g oods c ould b e d istributed m ore w idely t han t he p roducts o f a s ingle w orks hop. I n f act, a s P eacock p oints o ut, c raft c enters a ttracted m iddlem en w ith t heir w ide d istribution n etworks ( Peacock 1 982:127). S ome o f t he b est e vidence f or n ucleated i ndustries c omes f rom a rcheological e xcavations o f p otteries i n b oth t he i mperial c enter a nd p rovinces o f t he R oman e mpire. T he n ucleated p ottery i ndustry i n A rezzo i n n orthern I taly , f or e xample, c onsisted o f s malla nd m oderately l arge-scale w orkshops t hat s eem t o h ave o perated f airly i ndependently o f e ach o the r, a s t he l ayout o f t he f acilities s uggests ( ibid :121). S ome o f t he l arge w orkshops o ften e mployed s lave-artisans, a s t he n ames f ound o n p ottery s tamps i ndicate . T he l argest e stablishment, o wned b y a m an n amed R asinus, e mployed u p t o 6 0 s laves, a lthough t hey p robably d id n ot a ll w ork t here a t t he s ame t ime ( ibid:122). M ost l arger w orkshops s eem t o h ave o perated w ith 1 0 o r f ewer w orkers. T he n ucleated i ndustries i n c entral a nd s outhern G aul, o n t he o ther h and, c onsisted a lmost e ntirely o f s mall e nterprises t hat a ppear t o h ave o perated w ithout s lave o r w age l abor, p ossibly b ecause o f a C eltic t radition o f s mall w orkshop o rganiz ation ( ibid :122-123). M any n ucleated i ndustries i n G aul w ere l ocated n ear w aterways t hat c ould p rovide c heap t ransport, s uch a s t hose a t L yon a nd L ezoux. O thers w ere s ituated i n i solated r ural a reas, s uch a s L a G raufesenque, a pparently t o t ake a dvantage o f t he s uperior c lay i n t he a rea . I n B ritain, n ucleated p otteries w ere o ften l ocated o n r oads b etween m ajor t owns, s uch a s t hose a t O xford . F inally, a nother f orm o f c raft o rganization w as t he s tate-run w orkshop. L ike t hat i n t he I slamic p eriod, g overnment w orkshops i n t he R oman p eriod p roduced t extiles, a rmaments, a nd c oins--all i tems n ecess ary f or t he o peration o f t he i mperial c ourt, t he b ureaucracy , a nd t he m ilitary . A ccording t o J ones ( 1974:403), s tate a rmament f actories w ere m anned b y w orkers w ho w ere l egally s oldiers; g overnment m ints w ere l argely s taffed w ith i mperial s laves. I n t he l ate R oman p eriod ( fourth a nd f ifth c enturies), w orkers i n b oth i ndustries b ecame p art o f a h er editary c aste s ystem , i n w hich i ndividuals w ere f ree a nd c ould o wn p roperty . A lthough i t n ormally a cquired m ilitary g arments f rom c ommerc ial t extile m anufacturers t hrough c ompulsory p urchases o r r equisition, t he R oman g overnment b egan t o o perate i ts o wn t extile f actories f or m ilitary c lothing s ometime a fter t he f ourth c entury w hen t he a rmy w as i ncreased i n o rder t o c ombat g rowing i ncursions o n i mperial f rontiers ( ibid :356). S tate w orkers i n i mperial w oolen ( gynaica) a nd l inen ( linyphia) f actories w ere l egally s laves, a lthough b y t he l ate f ourth a nd f ifth c enturies t hey t oo f ormed a c aste s ystem . I n t he i mperial f actories, t he g overnment p rovided w orkers w ith r ations a nd r aw m ateri als a nd, i n t urn, e ach w orker w as r equired t o p roduce a f ixed q uota o f f inished a rticles, e .g., m ilitary t unics o r h elmets ( ibid :356).

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P olitical/Administrative C ontext o f R oman C raft P roduction A s w e s aw a bove, t he R oman g overnment w as d irectly i nvolved p rim arily i n t he p roduction o f m ilitary e quipment, i mperial t extiles, a nd c oins. O n t he w hole, i ts i nvolvement i n p rivate c raft p roduction w as l imited t o t he c ollection o f b usiness t axes ( collatio l ustralis) a nd t o t he i mposition o f d uties o n g oods i n t ransit, v ery m uch l ike t hat i n I slamic t imes. F rom t ime t o t ime, t he R oman g overnment a lso i nstigated c ompulsory p urchases o r r equisitioned g oods t hat i t n eeded, p articularl y m ilitary c lothing a nd e quipment ( Jones 1 974:356). T here i s a lso d ocumentary e vidence t hat t he g overnment p eriodically u sed c raftsmen a nd o ther u rban w orkers t o p rovide c orv4e l abor f or l ocal o r s tate p rojects, b ut t his w ork u sually w as n ot c onnected t o t he w orkers' t rade ( Jones 1 974:50). C orv4e l abor, h owever, w as o ften o rganized t hrough t he l ocal a ssociations o f a rtisans a nd m erchants ( collegia), w hose p rimary f unctions a t t hat t ime w ere r eligious, s ocial, a nd b enevolent. S imilar a ssociations e xisted i n t he e arly I slamic p eriod a nd o nly i n t he l ater I slamic p eriod d id t hey t ake o n t he r egulatory a nd p rotective f unctions c ommon t o m edieval g uilds ( Goitein 1 967:84-85). T he R oman g overnment s eems t o h ave b een m inimally i nvolved i n t he m anufacture o f p ottery . A ccording t o a rcheological e vidence, t he R oman a rmy i n B ritain o btained p ottery i n s everal w ays ( Darling 1 977). T he a rmy i mported h ighly s pecialized v essels, l ike d rinking c ups, f rom t he C ontinent. I ndividual s oldiers o r t roop u nits p urchased t heir o wn k itchen p ottery, s uch a s c ooking v essels a nd m ortaria, f rom l ocal p ott ers. I n e xceptional c ircumstances w hen t roops c ould n ot o btain t he q uantity a nd q uality o f g oods t hey n eeded l ocally, p erhaps b ecause t hey w ere l ocated i n a n i solated a rea, t he a rmy p rovided s killed c raftsmen . M ost R oman m ilitary p ottery i n B ritain, w hich v aries c onsiderably f rom o ne f ort t o a nother, a s w ell a s w ithin i ndividual f orts, s eems t o h ave b een m ade a nd a cquired l ocally , a lthough i t i s n ot c ompletely c lear w hether t he p ottery w as a cquired b y p urchase o r r equisition o r a s p art o f a t axation p rocess ( Young 1 977). O ne e xception t o t his t rend, h owe ver, m ay b e t he m anufacture o f b lack-burnished w are, w hich w as p rod uced i n s outheastern E ngland b ut h as b een f ound a rcheologically a t R oman f orts i n S cotland, f ar t o t he n orth . A ccording t o W illiams ( 1977), t he d istorted d istribution o f t his p articular w are m ay i ndicate t hat t he p ottery w as m ade a nd d istributed u nder a dministered c onditions. H istorical M odel o f I slamic C raft P roduction D rawing o n t he h istorical e vidence p resented a bove, i t i s p ossible t o d evelop a n a lternative m odel o f s pecialized c raft p roduction t hat i s m ore c losely a pplicable t o a n e arly I slamic c ontext i n N orth A frica . I n a ddition, t he m odel c onstitutes a n a lternative t o t he F einman-Rice a pproach f or r econstructing c raft p roduction i n o ther e arly s tate a nd i mperial s ocieties. T he u nderlying p remise o f t he m odel i s t hat m ost c raft p roduction i n p reindustrial s ocieties i s e ntreprenurial, t hat i s, t hat i t i s m ore d irectly a ffected b y m arket f orces t han b y p olitical f actors, a s t he F einman-Rice m odel c ontends. O ne o f t he m ajor t enets o f t he f ree-enterprise m odel i s t hat a l arge p art o f s pecialized c raft p roduction t akes p lace i n s mall, i nde-

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p endent w orkshops, w hich a re o perated b y a f ew s killed a rtisans, o ften m embers o f t he s ame f amily . M ost c raft i tems p roduced i n s mall w orks hops a re s old d irectly t o c ustomers i n t he s hop o r i n n earby u rban o r r ural m arkets. B ecause t hey p roduce p rimarily f or t he n eeds o f l ocal c onsumers, s mall w orkshops a re p articularly s ensitive t o c hanges i n t he l ocal e conomy o r p opulation. T hus, i n r esponse t o a s hift i n t he s ize, s ocioeconomic s tatus, o r e thnicity o f t he l ocal p opulace, t he n umber o f s mall w orkshops m ay i ncrease o r d ecrease, a n ew m anufacturing t echnique m ay b e i ntroduced, o r t he t ype o f p roducts m ay c hange t o s atisfy n ew c ustomers. O n t he w hole, h owever, t he b asic u nit o f p roduction, t hat i s, t he s mall, i ndependently o perated w orkshop i n w hich t here i s r elat ively l ittle d ivision o f l abor, i s l ikely t o p ersist u nchanged t hrough t ime . A s maller a mount o f c raft p roduction o ccurs i n l arge-scale w orks hops o r i n n ucleated i ndustries, w hich m ay c onsist o f l arge a nd/or s mall w orkshops c lustered t ogether. T hese w orkshops a re o ften s ituated n ear s ources o f r aw m aterials, s uch a s g ood c lay b eds. I n a ddition, t hey a re l ocated c lose t o l arge, u rban m arkets o r t o e fficient f orms o f t ransportation, s uch a s w aterways o r r oadways. T he l arge q uantity a nd m oderately l ow q uality o f i tems p roduced i n t hese w orkshops g enerally o ffset t he a dditional c ost o f t ransporting t hem l ong d istances. U suall y, t hese g oods a re s old t o m iddlemen, w ho t hen d istribute t he p roducts t o c ustomers i n d istant t owns a nd c ities. B ecause t heir p roduction i s o ften g eared t oward f araway m arkets, t hese l arge-scale i ndustries a re p articularly v ulnerable t o r egional p olitical o r e conomic u pheavals, w hich m ay d isrupt o r d islocate t ransportation r outes. I n a ddition, t hey r ely h eavily o n m iddlemen t o b uy t heir g oods a t r easonable p rices a nd t o f ind m arkets f or t heir d istribution . T hus, i n r esponse t o s hifts i n a ccess t o c ertain m arkets o r i n t he r eliability o f m iddlemen, t hese i ndustries m ay r etool t hemselves f or n ew m arkets, t hey m ay r eloc ate e ntirely, o r t hey m ay d isintegrate i nto s mall, s cattered p roduct ion u nits. I n l arge p ottery m anufacturing c enters i n c ontemporary S pain, f or e xample, p otters w ho w ere t aken a dvantage o f b y m iddlemen l eft t he c enter a nd r esettled i n s mall t owns w here t hey c ould s ell t heir p roducts d irectly t o l ocal c ustomers ( Vossen 1 984:346). T he d ispersal o f a rtisans f rom n ucleated o r l arge s cale i ndustrial o perat ions a lso s erves t o s pread t echnical k nowledge t hroughout a r egion . U nlike s mall w orkshop u nits t hat a re f airly r esistant t o c hange, l arges cale w orkshops o r n ucleated i ndustries, b oth u rban a nd r ural, a re f ar m ore v ulnerable a nd t end t o b reak d own i nto s mall u nits o r d isappear e ntirely . F inally, a m inor p art o f t he t otal p ottery p roduction i n a n u rban o r s tate s ociety t akes p lace i n s tate w orkshops o r u nder s ome s ort o f g overnment c ontrol. T he p ottery p roduced i n t his w ay c onsists a lmost e xclusively o f l uxury w ares f or t he r uling e lite o r o f u tilitarian w ares f or m ilitary t roops. I t i s m ade b y a rtisans w orking i n g overnm ent f acilities o r i n p rivate w orkshops u nder c ommission t o t he s tate . I n m ost c ases, s tate-sponsored p ottery p roduction i s i ntermittent a nd d oes n ot c onstitute a n o ngoing g overnment o peration, a s t he p roduction o f l uxury t extiles a nd m ilitary a rmaments d o. C hanges i n t he n ature a nd e xtent o f s tate-sponsored p ottery p roduction o ccur m ainly i n r es ponse t o s pecific p olitical o r m ilitary e vents, s uch a s t he c onstruct ion a nd f urnishing o f r oyal p alaces o r t he q uartering o f t roops i n

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a reas w here t here a re i nsufficient p ottery s upplies. O n t he w hole, s tate i nvolvement i n c ommercial c eramic p roduction i s m inimal a nd i s l imited t o t he c ollection o f c ertain t axes a nd d uties.

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C HAPTER 3

P OLITICAL A ND E CONOMIC H ISTORY O F A L-BASRA

T he I slamic t own o f a l-Basra i n n orthern M orocco w as f ounded, f lourished, a nd f ell i nto d ecline d uring a r elatively s hort p eriod o f t ime ( A .D . 8 00-1100). T he A rab c ity w as e stablished i n t he e arly n inth c entury b y t he I drisids, o ne o f M orocco's e arliest d ynastic f amilies. I t p rospered a s a n a gricultural, a dministrative, a nd c ommercial c enter u nder t he I drisids a nd l ater, i n t he t enth c entury, u nder t he F atimid e mpire. T oward t he e nd o f t he t enth c entury , t he c ity w as p artly d est royed . R ebuilt, i t s erved a s a s mall a gricultural c enter u nder t he Z enata c onfederacy i n t he e leventh c entury . T he c ity w as p robably a bandoned s ometime i n t he l ate e leventh o r t he t welfth c entury d uring t he p eriod o f A lmoravid h egemony i n M orocco. T his c hapter t races t he h istory o f a l-Basra w ithin t he c ontext o f t hree m ajor p olitical d evelopments i n t he M aghreb d uring t he e arly I slamic p eriod ( eighth t hrough t welfth c enturies): t he f ormation o f t he I drisid s tate; t he e xpansion o f t he F atimid e mpire i nto t he M aghreb a nd i ts s ubsequent c onflict w ith t he U mayyads o f S pain f or c ontrol o f n orthern M orocco; a nd, f inally , t he p olitical f ragmentation o f t he M ag hreb o n t he e ve o f t he A lmoravid i nvasion. M any o f t hese e vents h ad a d irect b earing o n t he c ourse o f a l-Basra 's h istory a nd s eem t o h ave a ffected t he d egree o f p olitical c entralization t hat p revailed a t t he u rban c enter a nd i n i ts h interland d uring t his p eriod . T he a vailable e vidence s uggests t hat t he a mount o f a dministrative i nfluence a t a lB asra w as s trongest d uring t he l ate I drisid a nd F atimid p eriods, w hen t he c ity s erved a s a p rovincial c apital a nd t he i mpressive c ity w alls w ere b uilt. D ocumentary a nd N umismatic E vidence T he h istory o f a l-Basra i s d erived f rom a n umber o f A rab c hronic les w ritten b etween t he n inth a nd f ourteenth c enturies ( al-Bakri 1 965; I bn A bi Z ar 1 860; I bn H awkal 1 842; I bn I dhari 1 901-1904; I bn K haldun 1 927; a l-Idrisi 1 969; L eo A fricanus 1 956; a l-Mukaddasi 1 950) a nd f rom a h andful o f c oins t hat w ere m inted a t a l-Basra i tself ( Brethes 1 939; E ustache 1 970-71; L avoix 1 891). T he e arly A rab h istories a re a n i mportant s ource o f i nformation a bout a l-Basra . T he h istories c onsist o f " traditions," a ccounts o f e vents w hich h ave b een t ransmitted f rom o ne p erson t o a nother o ver a l ong p eriod o f t ime. B ecause o f t his m ethod o f t ransmission, t hey a re s ubject t o a c ertain a mount o f e xaggeration, e laboration, a nd e rror. I n m any c ases, t he c hroniclers p resent s everal " traditions" s ide b y s ide, w ithout p roviding a ny c ritical e valuation. F or e xample, t he e leventh-century c hronicler, a l-Bakri, o ffers s everal v ersions o f t he m urder o f I dris I b y a n A bbasid a gent. I n o ne a ccount, I dris I i s p oisoned w ith c ivet a nd i n a nother w ith a s lice o f m elon ( al-Bakri 1 965:235 f f.). A l-Bakri m akes n o a ttempt t o r esolve t he d iscrepancy . S uch e laboration o f d etail i s f ound m ore o ften i n l ater " traditions" r ather t han i n t hose w ritten c loser t o t he a ctual e vents.

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O ther i mportant s ources o f i nformation a bout a l-Basra a re A rab g eographies, w hich p rovide d escriptions o f t owns a nd c ities i n t he M aghreb. B ased o n f irst-hand a ccounts o r o n t he r eports o f o ther t rav elers, t he g eographies o ften r eflect t he p ersonal b iases o f t heir a uthors. T he d escriptions o f I bn H awkal ( 1842), w ho t raveled t hrough t he M aghreb p ossibly a s a F atimid s ympathizer, f or e xample, r eveal a n u nusual i nterest i n t he s trength o f c ity w alls a nd t he l ocation o f c ity w ater s upplies. D espite t heir b iases a nd i naccuracies o f d etail, h owe ver, t he c hronicles r emain o ne o f t he m ost i mportant s ources o f i nform ation o n t he p olitical a nd e conomic c limate o f t he M aghreb d uring t he e arly I slamic p eriod . F urther i nformation a bout t he c ity i s a vailable f rom s ix e xtant I drisid c oins s truck a t a l-Basra i n t he l ate e ighth a nd n inth c enturi es. B ecause t hey c ontain t he d ates a nd n ames o f r ulers a t a l-Basra a t t he t ime t hey w ere m inted, t hey p rovide s pecific i nformation a bout c ertain p olitical e vents i n t he c ity . U nfortunately, t he p roveniences o f t hese c oins, w hich b elong i n p rivate c oin c ollections, a re u nknown . T wo o ther c oins w ere f ound a t t he s ite o f a l-Basra i tself d uring t he 1 980-81 e xcavations b ut h ave n ot b een d ated b ecause o f t heir b adly w orn c ondition ( see F igure 5 .19). A lthough f ragmentary a nd s ometimes c ontradictory i n n ature, t he d ocumentary a nd n umismatic e vidence f orms t he b asis o f a s hort h istory o f a l-Basra c ompiled b y D aniel E ustache, a M oroccan h istorian a nd n um ismatist ( Eustache 1 955, 1 970-71). T he f ollowing a ccount i s d rawn i n p art f rom E ustache 's w ork a nd i n p art f rom a n u npublished h istory o f M orocco w ritten b y S chulman ( n.d.). F ormation o f t he I drisid S tate i n N orthern M orocco L ocated b etween t he A tlantic c oast a nd t he R if M ountains i n n orthe rn M orocco ( Figure 3 .1), t he I slamic t own o f a l-Basra w as e stablished d uring a d ynamic p eriod o f i mperial f ragmentation a nd s tate f ormation i n t he w estern M editerranean. L ess t han h alf a c entury a fter t heir c onquest o f N orth A frica a nd S pain, t he A rabs b egan t o l ose c ontrol o f t he w estern p eriphery o f t heir e mpire--for s everal r easons. A fter o verthrowing t he U mayyad C aliphate i n 7 50, t he r uling S hi'ite A bbasids m oved t he i mperial c apital f rom D amacus t o B aghdad, t hereby s hifting t he e mpire 's p olitical a nd e conomic c enter o f g ravity f rom t he M editerr anean t o t he P ersian G ulf a nd I ndian O cean . I n a ddition, t he A rabs f ailed t o f ully s ubjugate t he f iercely i ndependent B erber t ribes i n N orth A frica, w hich c ontinued t heir r ebellion a gainst i mperial a uthori ty . W ithin t his p olitical v acuum , an umber o f i ndependent k ingdoms e merged i n t he M aghreb. T hey w ere e stablished b y p olitical a nd r eligio us d issidents w ho f led t o t he M aghreb t o e scape A bbasid p ersecution ( Figure 3 .2). I n 7 56, t he U mayyad p rince, A bd a l-Rahman I , e stablished t he M erwanid k ingdom i n s outhern S pain ( al-Andalus), w ith i ts c apital a t C ordova; t he k ingdom b ecame a c enter o f S unni r eligious o rthodoxy . I n 7 57, f ollowers o f t he K harijites f ounded t he M aghrawa d ynasty a t S igilmasa i n s outhern M orocco. I n 7 77, t he K harijites a lso e stablished t he R ustamid k ingdom a t T ahert i n c entral A lgeria .1 I n 8 00, I brahim

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1 8 o f n orthern M orocco.

1 9 i n t he w estern M editerranean .

i bn a l-Aghlab, t he A bbasid-appointed g overnor o f I frikiya ( Tunisia), s et u p t he A ghlabid d ynasty b y n aming h is s on t o s ucceed h im w hile h e c ontinued t o p ay t ribute t o B aghdad. I n 7 89, t he A lids, d escendents o f A li, f ounded t he I drisid k ingdom i n n orthern M orocco, w ith i ts c apital a t F ez; i t w as t his d ynasty t o w hich t he f ate o f a l-Basra w as m ost c losely t ied . A ccording t o t he c hronicles, t he f ounder o f t he I drisid d ynasty, I dris I , f led t o t he M aghreb a fter t he A bbasids d efeated m embers o f t he A lid f amily a t t he b loody b attle o f F ahkh n ear M ecca i n 7 87. W ith h is f reedman R ashid, I dris I s ettled i n W alili, t he a ncient R oman t own o f V olubilis, i n n orthern M orocco. I n 7 89, h e w as p roclaimed l eader o f a c onfederacy o f l ocal B erber t ribes ( the A wraba), l aying t he f oundation o f a n i ndependent s tate i n n orthern M orocco. I t h as b een s uggested t hat h is a bility t o u nite t he B erbers m ay h ave s temmed f rom h is d irect d escent f rom t he P rophet ( sharif) a nd c harismatic p ower ( baraka), a lt hough t he b eliefs o f t he e arly B erbers a re n ot w ell k nown ( Norman S tillman, p ersonal c ommunication). I dris I r uled f or o nly f our y ears b efore h is d eath i n 7 93 a t t he h ands o f a n a gent o f t he A bbasid C aliph i n B aghdad . A lthough I dris I l eft n o h eir, o ne o f h is B erber c oncub ines, K enza, g ave b irth t o a s on a f ew m onths l ater. T he b oy w as r aised b y R ashid a nd, a t a bout t he a ge o f 1 1, h e w as p roclaimed o f t he B erber c onfederation .

l eader

I t w as u nder I dris I I's r eign ( ca. 8 04-828) t hat t he M oroccan k ingdom w as e xpanded t o i ts w idest e xtent, s tretching f rom t he S traits o f G ibraltar o n t he n orth , t he A tlantic c oast o n t he w est, t he S us r iver o n t he s outh, a nd c entral A lgeria o n t he e ast. I dris I I e stabl ished a n umber o f n ew c ities, a mong t hem t he r oyal c apital a t F ez a nd t he t own o f a l-Basra, 2 n amed a fter t he a ncient p ort i n I raq. A lthough o ne a ccount c laims t hat a l-Basra w as b uilt o n t he f oundations o f a R oman c ity ( Tissot 1 877), t his h as n ot b een b orne o ut b y a rcheological e vidence. I t i s m ore l ikely t hat t he c ity w as e stablished o n t he s ite o f a n a gricultural v illage i nhabited b y B erbers ( Eustache 1 970-71:119). I dris I I a lso A rabized t he r egion, b ringing A rab s upporters f rom a lA ndalus a nd I frikiya t o s ettle i n t he n ew k ingdom . T he c entralized s tate e stablished b y I dris I I d issolved a t h is d eath i n 8 28. H is e ldest s on, M ohammed, d ivided t he k ingdom a mong h is b rothers, a pparently o n t he a dvice o f h is B erber g randmother K enza . M ohammed k ept F ez a s h is r oyal r esidence . H e g ave t he n orthern p rov-

1 T he K harijite m ovement w as t he f irst r eligious s chism i n I slam . T he K harijites' p rinciples o f a scetism , a usterity, a nd e galitarianism w ere p articularly a ttractive t o t he B erbers i n N orth A frica w here t hey g ained m any c onverts. 2 T he d ates o f t wo c oins s truck a t a l-Basra i ndicate t hat t he c ity e xisted d uring t he t ime o f I dris I I. O ne c oin w as m inted i n 7 96 u nder I dris I I's r egency a nd t he o ther w as s truck i n 8 12 u nder h is r eign ( Eustache 1 970-71:184-185, P late I ).

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i nce o f T angier, A sila, a nd a l-Basra t o a l-Qasim ;3 a reas o f t he R if m ountains o ccupied b y t he S anhaja a nd G homara t ribes t o U mar, t he r eg ions o f S ale a nd W azzekur i n t he s outh t o I sa, a nd o ther p rovinces t o D awud a nd Y ahya . A lthough t he l and p artition w as m eant t o p revent r ivalry a mong t he b rothers, c ivil w ar b roke o ut a lmost i mmediately . O ne o f t he b rothers, I sa, r epudiated M ohammed 's a uthority . I n r esp onse, M ohammed a sked a l-Qasim t o p unish t he r ebel. A l-Qasim r efused, b ut a nother b rother, U mar, a greed . A fter d efeating I sa, U mar a lso t urned o n a l-Qasim a nd c onfiscated h is t erritory . A l-Qasim r etreated t o A sila a nd t he c ity o f a l-Basra p assed i nto t he h ands o f U mar 's f amil y f or a c ouple o f d ecades. A lthough p olitically d ivided, t he I drisid s tate r emained r elativel y p eaceful d uring t he r eigns o f M ohammed 's s ons, A li ( 836-849) a nd Y ahya ( 849-863), i n F ez. I n t he l ate 8 50s, Y ahya u ndertook a m ajor b uilding p rogram a t t he r oyal c apital o f F ez, w hich i ncluded t he c ons truction o f t wo n ew m osques. A t a bout t he s ame t ime, Y ahya r estored t he n orthern p rovince, i ncluding t he c ities o f A sila, a l-Basra, a nd K urt, t o a l-Qasim .4 I n 8 63, a l-Qasim e ntrusted t he g overnment o f a lB asra t o h is e ldest s on, I brahim . F ollowing h is f ather's d eath , I brah im t ook o ver t he g overnment o f t he n orthern p rovince, w hich h e r uled u ntil 9 00, v ery l ikely f rom h is r esidence a t a l-Basra .5 I t m ay h ave b een d uring I brahim 's l ong a nd p eaceful r eign t hat t he i mpressive c ity w alls a t a l-Basra ( Figure 3 .3) w ere b uilt ( Eustache 1 970-71:120). O ther p arts o f t he c ity m ay h ave b een r econstructed o r e xpanded a t t he s ame t ime, a s a rcheological e vidence s uggests ( see C hapter 4 ). A fter I brahim d ied i n 9 00, t he n orthern p rovince c ontinued t o b e r uled b y h is s ons u ntil 9 17 w hen t he F atimids i nvaded t he M aghreb.

3 S omewhat d ifferent d ivisions a re g iven b y f ourteenth-century h ist orians. I bn A bi Z ar ( 1860), f or e xample, a ttributes a l-Basra, A sila, a l-lAra ti s, a nd t heir d ependencies u p t o t he O urregha R iver t o Y ahya i bn I dris I I, a nd T angier, C euta, H ajar e n-Nasr, T etouan, a nd t heir d ependencies t o a l-Qasim i bn I dris I I. A ccording t o I bn K haldun ( 1927), Y ahya r eceived A sila, a l-'Ara 'is a nd t heir d ependencies u p t o t he b order o f t he O urregha . I t i s l ikely t hat s ome o f t his i nformation i s i ncorrect. H ajar e n-Nasr, f or e xample, w as f ounded o nly i n t he t enth c entury . 4 T hree I drisid c oins s truck a t a l-Basra i ndicate t hat t he c ity a nd i ts t erritory p assed f rom U mar 's f amily b ack t o a l-Qasim 's f amily s omet ime i n t he 8 40s o r 8 50s. T wo c oins w ere s truck a t a l-Basra u nder t he n ame o f A li i bn U mar; o ne o f t hem w as d ated 8 46 A .D . a nd t he o ther 's d ate i s u nclear. A t hird c oin w ith t he d ate o f 8 59 A .D . w as m inted a t a l-Basra u nder t he n ame o f a l-Qasim i bn I dris I I ( Eustache 1 970-71:1841 85, P late I ).

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A n I drisid c oin w as s truck a t a l-Basra u nder t he n ame o f I brahim i bn a l-Qasim i n 8 83. T his i s t he l atest I drisid c oin k nown t o h ave b een s truck a t a l-Basra ( Eustache 1 970-71:185, P late I I).

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C r ;

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F atimid a nd U mayyad I mperialism i n t he M aghreb D uring t he t enth c entury, t he M aghreb b ecame a p awn i n t he s trugg le b etween t he p owerful F atimids o f T unisia a nd t he M erwanid U mayyads o f S pain f or c ontrol o f t he F ar W est. A fter o verthrowing t he A ghlabid d ynasty i n T unisia ( Ifrikiya) i n 9 09, t he S hi li te F atimids e xpanded w estwards, e stablishing a n ew e mpire i n N orth A frica . B etween 9 09 a nd 9 21, t hey g ained h egemony o ver t he e ntire M aghreb, i ncluding t he R ustam id, I drisid, a nd M aghrawa k ingdoms. A ccording t o s ome h istorians ( e .g., L acoste 1 974), t he F atimid c onquest w as d irected t oward c ontrol o f t he l ong-distance t rade i n g old a nd s laves t hat h ad b egun t o f low t hrough t he M aghreb i n t he l ate n inth c entury. T he c ities o f F ez, S igilmasa, T lemcen, T ahert, a nd K ayrawan h ad b ecome m ajor h ubs i n t he t rade n etwork b etween W est A frica a nd t he r est o f t he M editerranean. I n r esponse t o t he F atimid t hreat i n t he M aghreb, t he U mayyads o f S pain s eized t he p orts o f C euta, T angier, a nd M elilla d uring t he n ext f ew y ears i n o rder t o e nsure a ccess t o t he s ub-Saharan t rade ( Lacoste 1 974: 3 ). T he b attles b etween t hese m ajor p owers i n t he M aghreb w ere g enera lly f ought b y t heir B erber a llies; t he S anhaja s upported t he F atimids a nd t he Z enatas a ided t he S panish U mayyads. A lthough t he I drisids b ecame v assals o f t he F atimids i n n orthern M orocco, t he f irst F atimid g overnor M usa i bn A bu 'l A fiya e xpelled t hem f rom t heir c ities a nd c hased t hem t o H ajar e n-Nasr, t heir r efuge i n t he R if m ountains. W hen M usa d efected t o t he S panish U mayyads i n 9 30, t he I drisids j oined t he F atimids i n o usting h im f rom t he r egion . S ometime b etween 9 34 a nd 9 38, t he h eirs o f a l-Qasim r eturned t o t heir c ities i n t he n orthern p rovince, w hich t hey c ontinued t o g overn u nder F atimid a uthority . I n 9 58, a fter t he I drisid p rince A bu ll A yyash i n A sila d efected t o t he U mayyads, t he F atimids s ent t heir g eneral J awhar w ith a n a rmy o f 2 0,000 S anhaja a nd K utama h orsemen t o r eestablish F atimid c ontrol i n n orthern M orocco. A ccording t o o ne a ccount, t he F atimids a ppointed a g overnor a t a l-Basra a nd m ade i t t he c apital o f t he n orthe rn p rovince f or t he n ext 2 0 y ears ( Ibn I dhari 1 901-1904). A ccording t o a nother a ccount, A bu ll A yyash 's b rother, a l-Hasan, t he l ast I drisid p rince, r esided a t a l-Basra u ntil 9 74 w hen h e w as e xpelled b y t he S pani sh U mayyads a nd f orced t o r etreat--with h is h arem a nd t reasury--to H ajar e n-Nasr ( Ibn A bi Z ar 1 860). S ometime a round 9 79, t he c ity o f a lB asra w as d estroyed--or i ts w alls d ismantled--possibly b y t he F atimid v assal B uluggin i bn Z iri, w ho m ay h ave d estroyed i t i n h is a ttempt t o r estore F atimid p ower i n t he M aghreb. T his w as t he l ast c ampaign s pons ored b y t he F atimids. B y 9 74, t hey h ad c onquered E gypt, m oved t heir c apital f rom K ayrawan t o t he n ewly b uilt c ity o f C airo, a nd h ad l ost t heir i nterest i n t he M aghreb . T he s pecific c ause a nd t he e xtent o f d estruction a t a l-Basra i s u nclear i n t he c hronicles, a lthough f uture a rcheological w ork a t t he s ite m ay y ield s ome c lues. D uring t his p eriod o f c onflict, t he c ity o f a l-Basra w as d escribed b y t wo A rab g eographers w ho t ravelled t hrough t he M aghreb i n t he t enth c entury . I bn H awkal, a m erchant a nd p robable F atimid s ympathizer, j ourneyed t hrough t he a rea b etween 9 36 a nd 9 51 ( Miguel 1 971). H e d esc ribed a l-Basra i n t his w ay : A l-Basra, a c ity o f a verage e xtent, i s e nclosed b y aw eak w all. T here i s n o w ater i nside t he c ity b ut i t m ust b e d rawn a t s prings

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w hich f low i n g ardens s ituated o utside t he w alls o n t he e ast s ide . T he c ity p roduces a l arge q uantity o f c otton [ flax?] w hich i s e xported t o t he p rovince o f I frikiya a nd e lsewhere. T he o ther p roducts o f i ts t erritory c onsist o f w heat, b arley a nd o ther c ereals i n l arge q uantity . A bundance r eigns a t a l-Basra ; i ts b azaars a re v ery f ine, t he a ir i s p ure, a nd t he p eople a re p ious a nd s tudious. T he i nhabitants o f b oth s exes a re i n g eneral r emarkable f or t heir b eauty a nd t hey h ave a f ine a nd s lender s tature . T hey a re d istinguished b y t heir m odesty a nd t heir g ood m anners [ Ibn H awkal 1 842:192]. I bn H awkal p rovides a n a dditional p iece o f i nformation a bout a l-Basra i n a d escription o f T ochmoch, a s mall c ity l ocated a long t he S agdad r iver ( the p resent-day L oukkos R iver) a bout a m ile f rom t he o cean, p erhaps n ear t he c ontemporary c ity o f M oulay b ou-Selham . T he S agdad i s c omposed o f t wo b ranches, o ne o f w hich r ises i n t he m ountains o f a l-Basra a nd c rosses t he l and o f t he D enhadja . T he o ther b ranch c omes f rom t he l and o f t he K utama . B oth t ributaries a re v ery w ide, a nd t he i nhabitants o f a l-Basra e mbark w ith m erchandise o n t he b ranch t hat p asses t heir c ity ; t hey d escend t o t he o cean i n t his w ay a nd t hen g o w hereever t hey w ish . T ochmoch i s a bout o ne d ay 's j ourney a way f rom a l-Basra [ Ibn H awkal 1 842:191]. T he d escription o f a l-Basra o n a t ributary o f t he S agdad i s c urious. T he o nly r iver t hat f lows p ast t he s ite t oday i s t he M da R iver, a s mall r iver t hat t urns s outh t oward S ouk a l-Arba o f t he G harb r ather t han n orth t oward t he L oukkos R iver. T he s tream m ay h ave c hanged i ts c ourse d uring t he p ast m illennium o r t he g eographer, I bn H awkal, m ay h ave m isconstrued t he n ame o f t he c ity o r t he l ocation o f a l-Basra . T he s econd g eographer, a l-Mukaddasi, t raveled t hrough t he M aghreb a t a s lightly l ater t ime, s ometime i n t he l ast h alf o f t he t enth c ent ury ( Kramers 1 936). B ecause o f t he b revity o f h is a ccount o f t he M aghreb, i t i s c onceivable t hat h e d id n ot o bserve f irsthand m any o f t he s ights t hat h e d escribed. H is r eference t o a l-Basra i s v ery s hort, b ut i t p rovides a n i mportant p iece o f i nformation: " al-Basra w as a l arge c ity , f lourishing a nd i mportant, b ut n ow i t i s i n r uins" ( alM ukaddasi 1 950:273). T his r emark i ndicates t hat a l-Basra w as d estroyed o r b adly d amaged a t t he e nd o f t he t enth c entury .

Z enata C onfederacy a nd A lmoravid I mperialism A fter t he F atimids t ransferred t heir p ower b ase t o E gypt, t he M aghreb o nce a gain b roke u p i nto m any s mall p olities. I frikiya c ame u nder t he a uthority o f t he Z irids, w ho a cted a s F atimid v assals f or a s hort t ime . C entral A lgeria w as c ontrolled b y t he H ammadids, w ho r uled f rom t heir n ew c ities o f Q al la a nd B ougie . N orthern M orocco c ame u nder t he h egemony o f t he S panish U mayyads a nd t heir a llies, t he Z enata B erb ers. A fter t he U mayyad C aliphate d isintegrated i n 1 031, t he Z enatas g overned n orthern M orocco o n t heir o wn a ccord a s a l oose t ribal c onfede racy .

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W ith t he A lmoravid i nvasion i n t he l ate e leventh c entury, t he w estern M aghreb a nd S pain w ere a gain u nited u nder a s ingle p olitical a uthority . U nder t he c harismatic l eadership o f Y usuf i bn T ashufin, t he A lmoravids, B erbers f rom t he S ahara D esert, e stablished t he f irst B erb er e mpire i n t he w estern M editerranean . C entered i n t he n ew c apital c ity o f M arrakesh i n s outhern M orocco, t he e mpire c ontrolled m ost o f t he t rade r outes b etween W est A frica a nd S pain . A nother i nvasion w as u nderway i n t he e astern M aghreb a t a bout t he s ame t ime . T he H ililian A rabs f rom t he d eserts o f E gypt m oved i nto t he a rea a t t he i nstigation o f t he F atimids, w ho w anted t o r evenge t heir f ormer v assals, t he Z iri ds. T he H ililian A rabs g radually d estroyed m ost o f t he c ities i n t he r egion a nd, f or t he f irst t ime s ince t he A rab i nvasions i n t he s eventh c entury, b egan t o a ssimilate t he B erbers i nto A rab c ulture . J ust b efore t he A lmoravid i nvasion i n t he m id-eleventh c entury, t he c ity o f a l-Basra w as d escribed b y t he A ndalusian g eographer, a lB akri. B ased e ntirely o n s econdary s ources s ince h e n ever t raveled i n N orth A frica h imself, a l-Bakri 's a ccounts n evertheless a re r egarded a s b eing r emarkably p recise ( L4vi-Provencal 1 960). H is d escription o f a lB asra s uggests t hat t he c ity h ad b een r ebuilt a fter i t w as d ismantled i n t he t enth c entury : T he c ity o f a l-Basra o ccupies a l arge s ite a nd s urpasses a ll t he n eighboring l ocalities i n t he e xtent o f i ts p astures a nd t he n umber o f i ts f locks. T here e xists s uch a n a bundance o f m ilk t hat t he c ity h as b een c alled a l-Basra-t-ed-Dobban ( "al-Basra o f t he F lies"). I t i s a lso c alled a l-Basra-t-el-Kittan ( "al-Basra o f t he F lax") b ecause w hen i t f irst b ecame p opulated, f lax w as u sed a s m oney i n a ll i ts c ommercial t ransactions. I t i s a lso c alled a lH amra ( "the r ed") b ecause t he l and o n w hich i t i s b uilt i s a r eddish c olor . S ituated b etween t wo h ills, t his c ity i s e nclosed b y aw all t hat i s p ierced b y t en g ates a nd c onstructed i n s tone a nd b rick. T here i s am osque w ith s even a isles a nd t wo b aths. T he p rincipal c emetery i s o n ah ill t o t he e ast o f t he c ity ; t he w estern c emetery i s n amed M acbera C odaa, ( "the c emetery o f t he A rab t ribe o f C odaa"). S ince t he w ater f ound i n t he c ity i s b rackish , t he i nhabitants g et t heir d rinking w ater a t aw ell s ituated o utside t he p rincipal g ate n amed B ir i hn D elfa . T he g ardens o utside o f a l-Basra c ontain n umerous s prings a nd w ells t hat f ürnish s weet w ater. A djoining a l-Basra i s a c ity o f m odern c onstruction, w hich w as f ounded a t a bout t he s ame t ime a s A sila [ al-Bakri 1 965:216-217]. I n a nother p assage, a l-Bakri n otes t hat c aravans f rom a l-Basra, a s w ell a s f rom F ez a nd S igilmasa, t raded m erchandise a t ap eriodic m arket h eld a t t he f ortress t own o f H isn D ay i n s outhern M orocco ( al-Bakri 1 965: 2 94). T he p ossibility t hat a l-Basra h ad b een r ebuilt i s s uggested b y a lB akri's r emark t hat " adjoining a l-Basra i s a c ity o f m odern c onstruc-

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t ion," b uilt a bout t he s ame t ime a s A sila, w hich w as f ounded b y t he I drisids. A s C hapter 4 s hows, a l-Bakri's c omments a re c onsistent w ith t he a rcheological e vidence f rom a l-Basra . S tructures f rom t he f inal t wo o ccupation p hases c oexist s ide-by-side i n s ome p arts o f t he s ite. A lthough a l-Basra 's e xistence i n t he m iddle o f t he e leventh c ent ury i s s ubstantiated b y a l-Bakri, i ts f ate a fter t his t ime i s u nclear. I n t he t welfth c entury, t he g eographer a l-Idrisi c laimed t hat t he c ity w as n ot a s i llustrious a s i t p reviously h ad b een, i mplying--perhaps w rongly--that t he c ity s till e xisted i n h is t ime ( al-Idrisi 1 969:202). I n t he s ixteenth c entury , L eo A fricanus n oted t hat o nly t he w alls o f t he f ormerly p rosperous t own r emained ( Leo A fricanus 1 956:259). I n t he n ineteenth c entury, t he F rench d iplomat C harles T issot w rote t hat h e s aw o nly r ubble a nd d ebris s cattered a cross t he g round a t t he s ite o f a l-Basra ( Tissot 1 877:296). A s l ater c hapters i n t his s tudy s how, t he a rcheological e vidence f rom a l-Basra, i n p articular t he p ottery , i ndicates t hat t he c ity w as a bandoned b efore o r s hortly a fter t he A lmoravid i nvasions i n t he l ate e leventh c entury . E xamples o f s tamped a nd s graffito p ottery a ssociated w ith t he A lmoravid p eriod a t o ther s ites i n t he w estern M aghreb a nd S pain h ave n ot b een f ound i n e xcavations c onducted a t a l-Basra t hus f ar. E conomic a nd S ociocultural A spects o f a l-Basra A s t he c hronicles i ndicate, a l-Basra s erved a s a s mall a gricult ural, c ommercial, a nd a dministrative c enter f or m ost o f i ts h istory . T he c ity 's e conomy w as b ased p rimarily o n a gricultural p roduction, i n p articular f lax, w heat, a nd c attle . T he c ity w as s urrounded b y f ertile a gricultural l and a nd p astures, m uch a s t he a rea a ppears t oday . I ts e arly a gricultural c haracter i s u nderscored b y t he n icknames a ttached t o i t: " al-Basra o f t he F lax" a nd " al-Basra o f t he F lies" ( al-Bakri 1 965). I ts e conomy a lso i nvolved t he m anufacture o f c raft g oods, b ut t o a l esser d egree. A ccording t o o ne i nterpretation o f t he c hronicles, t he c ity m ay h ave b een i nvolved i n t he p roduction o f l inen c loth ( mala) ( Eustache 1 955:232). W hile t his i nterpretation i s s peculative a t p rese nt, i t i s p ossible t hat f uture a rcheological w ork a t t he s ite m ay u nearth s ome e vidence o f c loth w eaving. T he c ity a lso p roduced p ott ery , a s a rcheological d ata i ndicate, b ut m ost o f i t m ay h ave b een m ade f or l ocal c onsumption. A ccording t o t he c hronicles, t he m erchants o f a l-Basra s hipped a gricultural p roducts t o d estinations i n N orth A frica a nd S pain. T hey t ransported t heir g oods b y r iver t o p orts a long t he A tlantic, f rom w hich t hey s hipped t he m erchandise b y s ea . I n a ddition, t hey s ent p roducts o verland t o m arkets a s f ar a way a s t he s outh o f M orocco ( alB akri 1 965). T he e xtent o f a l-Basra 's i nvolvement i n l ong-distance t rade b et ween t he S ahara a nd t he M editerranean i s u nknown, b ut i t w as o bviously o n a f ar s maller s cale t han t hat o f F ez. F ez s erved a s am ajor h ub i n t he l ong-distance n etwork, s hipping g oods f rom S igilmasa e ast t hrough t he T aza c orridor t o T lemcen, T ahert, a nd e ventually t o K ayrawan i n I frikiya ( Figures 3 .1, 3 .2). A t m ost, a l-Basra w ould h ave s erved a s a

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s topover f or c aravans m oving n orth f rom F ez t o p orts a long t he A tlantic a nd t he S traits o f G ibraltar, s uch a s L arache, T angier, a nd C euta. A ccording t o t he h istorical r ecord, a l-Basra 's p opulation c onsiste d p redominantly o f A rabs a nd a s mall n umber o f B erbers. T he B erbers m ay h ave h ad a s mall s ettlement t here b efore t he I drisids a rrived i n n orthern M orocco. A t t he b eginning o f t he n inth c entury, t he A rabs m igrated t o n orthern M orocco f rom S pain a nd o ther p arts o f t he M aghreb. A n umber o f A rabs c ame f rom I frikiya i n a bout 8 05. I n 8 18 s everal t housand n ewly c onverted S panish M uslims ( muwalladun) s ettled i n M orocc o a nd o ther p arts o f t he M editerranean a fter a n u nsuccessful r evolt a gainst t he S panish U mayyad g overnment i n C ordova ( Dozy 1 972:254; L AviP rovencal 1 944:119-120). T he m uwalladun c onsisted f or t he m ost p art o f f armers a nd c raftsmen w ho u ndoubtedly b rought t heir t raditional a gric ultural a nd c raft t echniques t o t he M aghreb ( Hole 1 958; L 4vi-Provencal 1 944:120). I n 8 26, a nother w ave o f i mmigrants a rrived i n M orocco, p ossibly s timulating s ome o f t he m ajor c onstruction p rojects t hat t he I drisids u ndertook a f ew y ears l ater. H istory o f a l-Basra w ithin a R egional C ontext A lthough t he h istory o f a l-Basra i s f airly s ketchy, i t i s l ikely t hat i ts d evelopment a nd d ecline w ere i nfluenced t o a c ertain e xtent b y r egional p olitical, e conomic a nd m ilitary e vents. F or e xample, t he e stablishment o f t he A rab c ity w as c losely t ied t o t he f oundation o f t he I drisid s tate i n n orthern M orocco. T he r econstruction o f a l-Basra m ay b e l inked t o t he c onsolidation o f t he n orthern p rovince u nder t he a uthority o f t he f amily o f a l-Qasim , a s w ell a s t o t he a rrival o f p olit ical r efugees f rom S pain . I ts p artial d estruction m ay h ave b een a ssoc iated w ith t he e nd o f t he I drisid d ynasty i n M orocco a nd t he w ithdrawa l o f t he F atimids f rom t he M aghreb . T able 3 .1 i llustrates t he c ontinu ities a nd d iscontinuities t hat e xisted b etween r egional p olitical c hanges a nd p articular h istorical d evelopments a t t he c ity o f a l-Basra i tself. I n t he f irst h alf c entury a fter i ts f oundation ( ca. 8 00-860), t he c ity o f a l-Basra s erved a s a s mall a gricultural c enter i n t he c entrali zed s tate t hat I dris I I e stablished a t F ez b ut w hich , a t h is d eath, b ecame t erritorially a nd p olitically d ivided. A l-Basra w as a ssigned t o t he n orthern p rovince, w hich h ad n o p ermament r uler f or s everal d ec ades. T hroughout t his p eriod t he c ity c ontinued t o g row a s n ew i mmig rants c ame i nto M orocco f rom S pain a nd o ther p arts o f N orth A frica . D uring t he n ext 1 20 y ears o r s o ( ca. 8 60-980), t he c ity b ecame a n i mportant a dministrative a nd c ommercial c enter i n t he n orthern p rovi nce. S ometime a fter 8 60, t he p rovince w as c onsolidated u nder t he a uthority o f t he I drisid p rince, a l-Qasim , a nd h is s on, I brahim , w ho r esided a t a l-Basra . T he c ity 's m assive w alls m ay h ave b een b uilt a t t his t ime. W ith a f ew e xceptions, t he f amily o f a l-Qasim g overned t he n orthern p rovince f rom t heir v arious c ities--al-Basra, A sila, a nd H ajar e n-Nasr--for t he d uration o f t his p eriod, a t f irst i ndependently, a nd a fter 9 17, a s v assals o f t he F atimids a nd t he S panish U mayyads. I n 9 58 a l-Basra b ecame a p rovincial c apital f or t he F atimids i n n orthern M oro cco, a nd 2 0 y ears l ater i t w as p artly d estroyed.

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T ABLE 3 .1 C HRONOLOGY O F M AJOR P OLITICAL E VENTS I N M AGHREB A ND H ISTORICAL D EVELOPMENT O F A L-BASRA

D ates

8 00

M ajor P olitical E vents i n M aghreb

F ormation o f I drisid S tate

H istorical D evelopment o f a l-Basra

S ettlement o f c ity b y I drisids

8 50 I drisid p rovincial c apital C onstruction o f w alls ( ?) R ebuilding o f c ity

9 00

9 50

F atimid E mpire

D estruction o f c ity R econstruction o f c ity

1 000

U mayyadZ enata C onfederacy

1 050

1 100

A lmoravid E mpire

A bandonment o f c ity

1 150

F or t he n ext c entury o r s o, t he r econstructed c ity s erved a s a c ommercial-agricultural c enter u nder t he d ecentralized U mayyad-Zenata c onfederacy i n n orthern M orocco. A l-Basra s eems t o h ave d isappeared c ompletely s ometime i n t he l ate e leventh o r t welfth c entury .

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C HAPTER 4

A RCHEOLOGICAL E XCAVATIONS A T A L-BASRA

T he p revious c hapter e xamined t he h istorical e vidence f or t he f oundation, f lorescence, a nd d ecline o f t he c ity o f a l-Basra . A s i t s howed, t he d ocumentary r ecord p rovides a s ketchy a nd, i n s ome c ases, c onflicting a ccount o f t he c ity 's p ast. T his c hapter a nd t he n ext d escribe t he a rcheological m aterial u ncovered a t t he t housand-year-old s ite d uring e xcavations i n 1 980 a nd 1 981. T he e xamination o f t he s trat igraphy a nd t he a rchitectural a nd a rtifactual r emains h elps t o a mplify t he d ocumentary e vidence a nd, i n s ome c ases, t o r esolve s ome o f t he p roblems r aised b y t he h istorical r ecord . A t t he s ame t ime, t he d escriptive m aterial p resented i n t he n ext t wo c hapters f orms t he e mpirical b asis f or t he a nalytical a nd i nterpret ive w ork t hat f ollows. B ecause o f i ts i mportance t o t his b ody o f r esearch , t he e mpirical d ata a re d iscussed i n s ome d etail. T his c hapt er p rovides a n a ccount o f t he s ampling a nd e xcavation s trategies, a d escription o f t he s tratigraphy o f i ndividual s oundings, a s ummary o f m ajor c onstruction/occupation p hases a t a l-Basra, a nd a b rief d iscuss ion o f t he s patial l ayout o f t he u rban c enter.

E arly A rcheological I nterest i n a l-Basra T ravelers h ave l ong e xpressed a c uriosity a bout t he r uins o f a lB asra. I n t he l ate n ineteenth c entury, M . C harles T issot, P lenipotent iary M inister o f F rance t o M orocco, j ourneyed t hrough t he n orthern p art o f t he c ountry i n o rder t o l ocate a nd i dentify t he c lassical s ites i n t he r egion ( Tissot 1 877). A ccording t o T issot, t he r uins o f a lB asra a ppeared t o c orrespond w ith t he l ocation o f t he R oman t own o f T remulae, w hich w as s upposed t o h ave b een s ituated a bout 1 8 k m f rom O ppidum N ovum , p resent-day K sar e l-Kebir ( Figure 2 .1). T issot p ointed t o a l-Basra 's s trategic p osition--dominating a s i t d id t he M da R iver v alley t oward t he w est, a v alley e mptying i nto t he L oukkos R iver b asin t oward t he n ortheast, t he r oad t o O uezzane t oward t he e ast, a nd t he r oad f rom K sar e l-Kebir t o F ez a nd M eknes t oward t he s outh--as a n i ndic ation t hat t he I slamic t own m ust h ave b een p receded b y aR oman c ity . D uring T issot 's v isit, h owever, o nly t he r emnants o f t he I slamic c ity w all r emained . T here w as n o e vidence o f aR oman t own o n t he s ite, n or h ave r ecent e xcavations r evealed a ny R oman m aterial. A rcheological i nterest i n t he s ite e merged i n t he 1 950s w hen M . A . L uquet, t hen M oroccan I nspector o f A ntiquities, c onducted a s urvey f or a ncient s ites a long t he A tlantic c oast. H is e xcavations a t t he c oastal s ite o f M oulay b ou-Selham p rompted s peculation t hat t he t own h ad s erved a s a n e ntrepot f or t he m erchants o f t he c ity o f a l-Basra l ocated 4 0 k m t o t he e ast ( Eustache 1 955). L uquet 's e xcavations a t M oulay b ou-Selh am , h owever, s howed, t hat t he s ite d ated t o t he t welfth-century A lmoh ad p eriod, n ot t o t he n inth a nd t enth c enturies w hen a l-Basra w as a t hriving c ommercial c enter ( Eustache 1 955). L uquet 's f indings w ere s upported b y C harles L . R edman 's e xploratory e xcavations a t M oulay b ou-

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S elham i n 1 981, w hich i ndicated t hat t he c oastal s ite w as p robably o ccupied p rior t o t he t welfth c entury ( Redman 1 983, i n p ress).

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D uring a v isit t o a l-Basra i n 1 955, L uquet d rew a m ap o f t he s ite . U sing t his m ap, E ustache l ater p ublished a d escription o f t he I slamic s ite ( Eustache 1 970-71). B ecause i t d escribes t he c haracter o f t he s ite m uch a s i t a ppears t oday , E ustache 's a ccount i s s ummarized b elow : T he r uins o f t he s mall m edieval c ity o f a l-Basra s till e xist t oday . A fter f ollowing t he r oad t hat c onnects S ouk a l-Arba o f t he G harb w ith K sar e l-Kebir f or 9 k m a nd t aking t he r ight h and t urn t o O uezzane, t he r emains o f t he c ity a re v isible 1 3 k m f urther d own t he r oad o n t he l eft s ide . T he r oad c rosses t he l ow p art o f t he a ncient s ite, n ear t he s outhern w all, o f w hich o nly t he f oundations r emain . T he s ite i s s ituated o n t he s lope o f a r idge t hat d ominates t he v ast t erraces o f t he M da R iver v alley . T he c ity w all, o f w hich o nly t he n orthwest s ection i s p reserved, e ncircles t he s ite f or a bout 2 .5 k m . I ts s outhwest c orner i s l ocated s everal m eters s outh o f t he r oad; t he w all r uns d irectly n orth f rom t here, a lthough o nly a l ine o f a sphodeles a nd a gaves m arks i ts f oundations. A fter c rossing a s tream a nd e ntering a c actus t hicket, t he w all p asses n ear a n a ncient c istern--still c ontaining t races o f i ts a rches. B eyond t he c istern, t he f irst v estiges o f t he t hick s tone c urtain w hich i s s upported b y s emicircular t owers a ppear. T he f oundations o f t he w all c ont inue f or a nother 5 0 m , e nding w ith t races o f ap ossible g ate . F rom t his p oint, t he w all r emains i ntact f or a bout 2 20 m , t urning i n a n e asterly d irection t wo t imes a nd f inally r unning a long t he r idge b efore e nding a bruptly . E ight s emicircular t owers s upport t he w alls t hat r emain . T oward t he n orth , a r ectangular p latform e xtends u nder t he r idge, f rom w hich t here i s a b eautiful v iew o f t he e ntire v alley . F urther e ast, i nside t he l ine o f t he w all, t he r emains o f s ome s tructures a re c oncealed i n a c actus t hicket. T hroughout t he s ite, t he g round i s l ittered w ith p otsherds [ Eustache 1 970-71:118-119]. E ustache 's d escription e nds a t t his p oint, b ut t he c ity w all c ont inues i ts c ircuit a round t he s ite. F rom t he n orth r idge, i t d rops d own t he h ill t o t he r oad a nd t hen a scends t he s outh h ill, t urning w est a long t he r idge . T oday, t he c ontemporary v illage o f J ouana-Basra i s l ocated o n p art o f t he n orth s lope a nd v illagers' g ardens, o rchards, a nd t hreshing f ields e xtend a cross t he v alley f loor. D espite h opes t hat a rcheological w ork w ould b egin a t a l-Basra i n t he 1 950s i n o rder t o s hed l ight o n t he c ity 's a ncient p ast, e xcavat ions d id n ot s tart t here f or a nother q uarter o f a c entury . 1 980-1981 A rcheological P roject a t a l-Basra A rcheological e xcavations b egan a t a l-Basra i n 1 980 a nd 1 981 a s p art o f t he w ider A merican-Moroccan A rcheological M ission u nder t he d irection o f C harles L . R edman ( Redman 1 983, i n p ress; R edman e t a l. 1 980). T he l ong-term p roject, w hich h ad f ocused o n t he e xcavation o f

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t he I slamic-Portuguese p ort o f K sar e s-Seghir o n t he S traits o f G ibralt ar s ince t he m id-1970s, w as a imed a t t esting a n umber o f t heories c onc erning t he g rowth o f c ities a nd s tates i n t he M aghreb ( Redman 1 985). I n o rder t o a ccumulate c omparative i nformation, R edman c onducted s hortt erm e xcavations a t s everal o ther i mportant I slamic u rban s ites i n n orthern M orocco . T hese w ere N akur a nd B adis a long t he M editerranean c oast a nd a l-Basra, M oulay b ou-Selham , a nd J ebila a long t he A tlantic l ittoral. O f t hese s ites, a l-Basra c onstitutes o ne o f t he e arliest c ities b uilt b y t he A rabs i n M orocco . I n a ddition, i t r emains l argely a ccess ible t o a rcheological w ork . U nlike m any o ther e arly A rab c ities i n t he M aghreb, s uch a s F ez, A sila, a nd T lemcen, t he a ncient s ite o f a lB asra h as n ot b een b uilt o ver b y am odern c ity . T he s ite o f N akur, a nother i mportant e arly I slamic c ity t hat w as i nvestigated b y R edman, a lso r emained r elatively u ntouched u ntil t he 1 980s w hen i t w as c overed b y d am c onstruction o n t he N akur R iver. S ite S ampling a nd E xcavation S trategies A m ultistage, s tratified r andom s ampling p rocedure w as u sed t o t est t he 3 0-ha a rea i nside t he c ity w alls i n o rder t o a ssess t he e xtent a nd d epth o f c ultural r emains b elow t he s urface a nd t o c ollect a r epres entative s ample o f m aterial f or a nalysis ( Figure 4 .1). D uring t he 1 980 f ield s eason, t he e ntire s ite w as s ampled. I t w as d ivided i nto 1 0 z ones b ased o n m odern l and u se a nd t opographic f eatures--such a s c actus f ields, v illage c ompound, a nd v alley f loor--and a t l east o ne s ounding w as p laced a t r andom i n e ach z one. D uring t he f ollowing f ield s eason, t wo z ones ( F a nd G ) t hat h ad y ielded t he m ost p romising m aterial w ere i nvestigated m ore t horoughly w ith a dditional s oundings. I n a ddition t o t he s tratified, r andom s ampling s trategy, t he l ocat ions o f s everal s oundings w ere d etermined b y t he r esults o f a m agnet ometer s urvey u ndertaken i n t he F z one w here a p ottery k iln h ad b een f ound d uring t he f irst s eason . S oundings w ere p laced i n a reas t hat s howed b oth h igh a nd l ow a nomalies i n t he m agnetometer r esults, p artly t o t est t he r eliability o f t he m ethod. T hose s oundings p laced i n a reas w ith h igh, r ectangular-shaped a nomalies y ielded a s econd k iln ( F3) a nd t he r emains o f a b urned m ud-brick s tructure ( F5). T hose p laced i n a reas w ith l ow a nomalies p roduced s tone w alls w ithout a ny b urned m udb rick ( F2, F 6) o r n o a rchitecture a t a ll ( F4). T hese p romising r esults s uggested t hat t he m ethod m ight b e u seful i n l ocating s ubsurface f ired c lay s tructures a t t he s ite i n t he f uture. F inally , a c ouple o f s oundings w ere p laced f eatures t hat w ere v isible o n t he s urface o f t he p laster f loor ( G3) a nd a l ime k iln ( I2).

o ver a rchitectural s ite, i ncluding a

T he e xcavation p rocedures w ere r elatively s traightforward . S oundi ngs w ere g enerally 2 -by-4 o r 4 -by-4 m i n s ize, d epending o n t heir l ocation. T hey w ere e xcavated h orizontally b y 2 0 c m . a rbitrary l evels, e xcept w hen f loors o r o ther s tratigraphic f eatures o ccurred . T hey w ere s eparated v ertically i nto l oci, w hich w ere d efined b y s tone w alls o r o ther a rchitectural s tructures. T he a ctual d igging w as c onducted b y l ocally h ired w orkers w ho u sed p icks a nd s hovels f or m ost o f t he w ork.

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T hey r emoved c ultural m aterial f rom t he s oil b y h and . A f ew p rovenie nce u nits w ere s creened t o d etermine t he a mount o f c ultural m aterial t hat w as l ost; t his a mounted t o a n e stimated 1 0% b y w eight f or p ottery . S tratigraphic D escriptions T he s tratigraphy o f a ll 1 8 s oundings e xcavated a t a l-Basra a re d escribed b elow . T he d escriptions a re b ased o n f ield n otes, f ield d rawings, a nd v arious p ublished m aterials ( Redman 1 983, i n p ress; R edm an e t a l. 1 980). T he s tratigraphy o f s ome o f t he m ore i mportant s oundings a re i llustrated i n a ccompanying s ections a nd p lans ( Figures 4 .2-4.17). R esidential A rea ( G S oundings) T hree s oundings t hat w ere l ocated n ear t he c enter o f t he s ite i n t he l owest p art o f t he v alley r evealed w hat a ppears t o b e t he r esident ial a rea o f t he c ity . T wo o f t he u nits y ielded a s eries o f s uperimp osed s tone w alls, w hich e xtended 3 m b elow t he s urface. T hese u nits p rovide a f airly c omprehensive p icture o f t he s uccessive b uilding a nd/ o r o ccupation p hases a t t he s ite. G 1 S ounding G 1 ( Figure 4 .2), a 4 -by-4-m e xcavation u nit l ocated a bout 2 0 m s outh o f t he v illage c ompound, y ielded a l ong s tratigraphic s equence f eaturing a t l east t hree b uilding l evels. T he u ppermost 5 0 c m c onsisted o f d ark b rown t opsoil t hat a ccumulat ed a s a r esult o f w ind a nd w ater e rosion o f t he h ills a round t he s ite; t his d eposit c ontained r elatively l ittle c ultural m aterial. T he r emn ants o f t wo r oughly b uilt s tone w alls, o ne r unning n orth-south a nd t he o ther e ast-west ( Wall 2 ), w ere f ound t oward t he b ottom o f t he d eposit. T he n ext 5 0 t o 6 0 c m c onsisted o f b urned r ed c lay t hat c ontained a l arge q uantity o f b roken r oof t iles a nd r elatively l ittle p ottery o r b one. T he r ed c lay d eposit, w hich w as a lso e vident i n m any o ther s oundings a t t he s ite, c onsisted o f d isintegrated m ud-brick w alls a nd c ollapsed t iled r oofs f rom s tructures a pparently d estroyed b y f ire . T wo l imestone-and-mortar w alls, o ne o riented e ast-west ( Wall 3 ) a nd t he o ther n orth-south , a ppeared b elow t he r ed c lay . T he e xtant w alls m easured a bout a m eter h igh a nd h alf a m eter w ide; a 2 0 c m w ide c hannel r an d own t he m iddle o f t he n orth-south w all a nd a cross t he w idth o f t he e ast-west w all a t t he p oint w here t hey j oined t ogether. I n t he n ortheast q uadrant o f t he s ounding w ere 8 0 c m o f g reenishb rown f ill c ontaining a m oderate a mount o f p ottery a nd b one . S outh o f W all 3 w as a l imestone d eposit, p ossibly c onstituting t he r emains o f a p laster f loor. B elow t he l imestone w ere 7 0 c m o f f ill, s imilar t o t hat p resent i n t he n ortheast s ection, e xtending d own t o n early t he b ase o f t he w alls. A d rain-like s tructure w as f ound a m eter s outh o f W all 3 . T he 2 0-30 c m d irectly b elow t he w alls c ontained a l arge q uantity o f s tone r ubble, p ottery a nd b one . T his d eposit m ay h ave c onsisted o f c onstruction f ill b ecause o f i ts h igh d ensity o f c ultural m aterial.

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A nother s tone w all ( Wall 5 ) r unning i n a n e ast-west d irection a ppeared b elow t he f ill. T he w all w as c overed w ith 2 0-30 c m o f b urned r ed c lay r epresenting s ome s ort o f b urning e pisode; b elow t he r ed c lay w ere 3 0 c m o f f ill c ontaining a h igh d ensity o f b one a nd p ottery . T he l ower w all s tood i n a l ime-flecked g ray c lay t hat w as c ulturally s teri le. G 2 S ounding G 2 ( Figure 4 .3), a 4 -by-4-m e xcavation u nit l ocated a bout 5 0 m s outh o f G l, a lso r evealed a d eep s tratigraphic s equence f eaturing a t l east t hree c onstruction p hases. T he u ppermost 4 0-50 c m c onsisted o f d ark t opsoil w ith v ery l ittle c ultural m aterial. T he n ext 4 0-90 c m c onsisted o f b urned r ed c lay t hat c ontained l arge t ile f ragments, p resumably f rom a c ollapsed r oof. T he r ed c lay s tratum r ested o n t op o f t wo r oughly b uilt s tone w alls ( Walls 1 a nd 2 ), w hich r an p arallel i n a n e ast-west d irection a bout 6 0 c m a part. T he w alls w ere b uilt o f l arge, u nshaped r ocks t hat w ere m ortare d w ith m ud, b one, a nd s herds, a nd r ested o n a c obble f oundation . L arge p ottery f ragments, p robably t he r emains o f v essels b roken i n s itu w hen t he r oof f ell, w ere f ound i n t he n arrow p assageway b etween t he w alls. S outh o f t he w alls b elow t he r ed c lay l ayer, a b asin-like s tructure b uilt o f l arge f lat r ocks r ested o n ap ebbled f loor ( Figure 4 .4). S everal b roken s torage j ars w ere f ound i n s itu o n t he f loor n ear t he b asin, i ndicating t hat t he a rea--possibly a n o utdoor c ourtyard--was a bandoned q uickly, p erhaps j ust b efore t he b uildings c ollapsed . U ndern eath t he p ebbled f loor w ere 2 0 c m o f r ed c lay a nd b elow t hat 3 0 c m o f g reenish-brown f ill c ontaining n umerous p ebbles. I n t he s outhwest q uadrant o f t he s ounding, t he r ed c lay r ested o n t op o f t wo w ell-built l imestone a nd m ortar w alls ( Walls 3 a nd 4 ), w hich w ere o riented i n an orth-south a nd e ast-west d irection a nd j oined t og ether a t a n a cute a ngle. T he w alls s tood a bout 1 m h igh a nd 5 2 c m w ide a nd c onsisted o f s even c ourses o f s tone. T he l ower t wo c ourses j utted o utward f rom t he i nterior f ace o f t he w all, p ossibly t o s upport t he w eight o f a 1 0 c m t hick p laster f loor t hat e xtended s outhward f rom t he w alls. T he f loor r ested d irectly b elow t he r ed c lay d eposit i nside t he w alls. T he f loor a lso e xtended o utside t he w alls w here i t a ppeared t o h ave b een b lackened b y f ire. T he l imestone a nd m ortar w alls w ere s upported b y a f oundation t rench t hat w as p artly f illed w ith a n a shy r esidue . B elow t he l imestone w alls w ere 2 0-30 c m o f f ill t hat c ontained a l arge q uantity o f s tone r ubble, b one a nd p ottery , s imilar t o t hat p res ent b elow t he l imestone w alls i n t he G 1 s ounding. T he n ext 2 0-30 c m c onsisted o f b urned r ed c lay w ith l arge t ile f ragments s cattered t hroughout i t. T he c lay d eposit r ested o n t op o f a nother w all ( Wall 5 ), w hich r an i n a n e ast-west d irection. A f lags tone p avement e xtended s outhward f rom t he b ase o f t his w all. A g reeni sh-brown f ill a ssociated w ith t he w all c ontained r elatively l ittle c ultural m aterial. T he w all s tood o n ag ray s andy s oil b elow w hich w as a c ulturally s terile g ray c lay .

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s ounding .

3 7

G 3 S ounding G 3 ( Figure 4 .5), a 6 -by-8 -m s ounding l ocated a bout 4 0 m w est o f G l, w as p laced o ver a p laster f loor t hat w as p artly e xposed b y a v ill ager p lanting h is g arden. O nly t he t op 5 0 c m o r s o o f f ill b elow t he s urface o f t he g round w as e xcavated d ue t o t ime c onstraints. T he u ppermost 2 0-30 c m c onsisted o f d ark t opsoil. T he s tubs o f a r oughly b uilt s tone w all ( Wall 1 ) t hat r an i n an orth-south d irection a ppeared t oward t he b ottom o f t he d eposit. T he n ext 2 0-30 c m c onsisted o f b urned r ed c lay t hat c ontained a bundant r oof t ile a nd p laster f ragments. T his m aterial r ested d irectl y o n t op o f a n early i ntact p laster f loor t hat a pparently b elonged t o a t l east t wo r ectangular-shaped r ooms. T he s outhernmost r oom , w hich m easured a bout 2 b y 4 .5 m i n s ize, w as c onnected b y an arrow c orridor t o a s econd r oom , w hich w as 2 b y 4m i n s ize. A p artially e xcavated c orridor e xtended n orthward f rom t his r oom . T he f loors w ere m ade o f a 1 0 c m t hick m ixture o f p laster a nd s tone a nd w ere p artly d ecorated w ith r ed p aint. T hey w ere c urbed a t t he p oint w here t hey j oined t he w alls o f t he b uilding. A s ilver c oin w as f ound o n t he f loor o f o ne r oom , s uggesting t hat t he d welling m ay h ave b een a bandoned a bruptly . U nfort unately, t he c oin w as b adly a braded a nd t hus h as n ot b een d ated . I t i s n oteworthy t hat t he l ayout o f t he r ooms--with t heir c onnecti ng c orridors--is s ignificantly d ifferent f rom t he t raditional a rrangem ent o f I slamic h ouses, i n w hich r ooms l ead d irectly o nto a c entral c ourtyard r ather t han i nto a nother r oom . E xamples o f h ouses b uilt a round a c ourtyard w ere f ound i n f ourteentha nd f ifteenth-century I slamic l evels a t K sar e s-Seghir ( Jeffers 1 981). T hey a lso a ppear i n c ontemporary v illages i n t he G harb a nd R if a reas o f n orthern M orocco ( Mikesell 1 961). I ndustrial A rea ( F S oundings) S ix s oundings s ituated b etween t he r esidential a rea a nd t he w este rn w all o f t he c ity p roduced e vidence o f i ndustrial a ctivities, i nc luding t he r emains o f t wo u pdraft p ottery k ilns. T he s oundings g enera lly c ontained l ess a rchitecture a nd l arger q uantities o f p ottery a nd b one t han t he r esidential a rea, s uggesting t hat t he a rea m ay a lso h ave b een u sed a s a d ump f or c ity t rash . F l S ounding F l ( Figure 4 .6), a 6 -by-6-m s ounding l ocated a bout 8 0 m e ast o f t he c ity w all, p roduced t he r emains o f a n u pdraft c eramic k iln b elow a m eter o f r elatively u ndifferentiated f ill. T he u ppermost 5 0 c m c onsisted o f d ark t opsoil t hat c ontained a g reater q uantity o f s mall, w orn p otsherds, b one, a nd p ebbles t oward t he b ottom o f t he d eposit. T he a braded c ondition o f t he p ottery s uggested t hat t he m aterial h ad b een t ransported f or s ome d istance .

o f

T he n ext 2 0-30 c m o f g rayish b rown s oil c ontained m oderate a mounts p ottery a nd b one . B elow t his w as 2 0 t o 7 0 c m o f l ight b rown s andy

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f ill t hat b ecame i ncreasingly c layey t oward t he b ottom . T he f ill t ained f ragments o f b roken b rick a nd t iles f rom t he k iln c ollapse. B elow t he b rick r ubble w as t he f loor o f t he f iring c hamber,

c on-

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m easured 3 .2 m l ong a nd 2 .4 m w ide a nd w as m ade o f f ired b rick l ined w ith p laster. T he f loor w as s upported f rom b elow b y a s eries o f t ransv erse a rches m ade o f b rick. I t w as l ined w ith s everal r ows o f f lue h oles t hat a llowed h eat t o r ise f rom t he f irebox u p i nto t he c hamber w here t he p ottery w as s tacked . T he e ntrance t o t he f irebox c onsisted o f a n a rched d oorway b uilt o f b rick a nd m ortared w ith t iles. T he f orm o f t he u pper c hamber i s n ot c lear. I t i s p ossible t hat i t w as n ot a p ermanent s tructure b ecause r elatively l ittle b roken b rick w as f ound i n t he e xcavation u nit . I f i t w ere n ot a p ermanent s tructure, t he c hamber m ay h ave b een s ealed w ith t iles o r m ud d uring f irings, a s i t i s d one i n m any I slamic a reas t oday ( Rye 1 981; R hodes 1 981). T his i s p ossible b ecause o f t he u nglazed n ature o f t he a l-Basra p ottery, w hich w ould n ot h ave r equired t he h igh f iring t emperatures t hat a p ermanently e nclosed u pper c hamber c ould p rovide . I n a ddition, m uch o f t he p ottery i s c hara cterized b y b uff-colored s urfaces a round a g ray c ore, i ndicating t hat i t h ad b een c ooled a bruptly i n a n o xidizing a tmosphere a t t he e nd o f f iring, a p rocess t hat w ould h ave p robably c racked a p ermanently e nc losed k iln ( Rye 1 981:110). N orth o f t he k iln w as a b rick w all t hat r an p arallel t o i t. T he s pace b etween t he w all a nd k iln w as f illed w ith b rick r ubble, s uggesting t hat t he f loor m ay o riginally h ave e xt ended t o t he w all a nd l ater c ollapsed ( Redman 1 983). I f t his w ere t he c ase, t he o riginal k iln w ould h ave m easured a bout 4 .75 b y 4 .0 m i n s ize . T o t he w est a nd s outh o f t he k iln, t he t opsoil e xtended d own t o a d epth o f h alf a m eter. B elow t his w as h alf a m eter o f f ill t hat c ont ained ah igh d ensity o f b one a nd p ottery . S ome o f t his m aterial m ay h ave c onsisted o f d iscarded p ottery f rom t he o peration o f t he k iln. B elow t he f ill w as a g ray c alcareous c lay w ith l ittle c ultural m ateria l, i ndicating t hat t he l ower p art o f t he k iln h ad b een b uilt i nto s terile g round . F 3 S ounding F 3 ( Figure 4 .7), a 6 -by-5-m e xcavation u nit l ocated a bout 5 0 m n orthwest o f F l, y ielded t he r emains o f a s econd u pdraft k iln. U nlike F l, h owever, t he F 3 k iln w as o verlain b y a t l east t wo s ubsequent b uildi ng p hases. T he u ppermost 3 0 c m c onsisted o f d ark b rown t opsoil w ith l ittle c ultural m aterial. B elow t his w ere 3 0 c m o f b urned r ed c lay t hat c ont ained n umerous r oof t iles. U nderneath t he r ed c lay w ere t he r emnants o f a g ravel s urface a nd a s tone w all ( Wall 1 ) o riented i n an orth-south d irection . T he a ssociated f ill c ontained a l arge q uantity o f s tone, p ottery, a nd b one . A f ew m eters e ast o f t he w all w as a n u nusual f eat ure c onsisting o f a c ircle o f s tone r ocks a bout 8 0 c m i n d iameter, w hose f unction i s u nknown. A w ell-built l imestone-and-mortar w all ( Wall 2 ), r unning i n a n e ast-west d irection, w as f ound s outh o f W all 1 , b ut a t a l ower e levat ion. T he w all, w hich m easured a bout 7 0 c m h igh a nd h alf a m eter w ide ,

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r elated d eposits, h e s uggested t hat t he h andmade m aterial w as m ade t he p otters' w ives f or h ome u se .

b y

M ore r ecently, h andmade w ares h ave b een r eported i n t he f inds f or a n umber o f I slamic s ites i n n orthern M orocco, i ncluding K sar e sS eghir, N akur, a nd B adis, w hich w ere e xcavated b y R edman. I n o rder t o e xplain t he v ariation i n t he p roportion o f h andmade s herds f rom s ite t o s ite, R edman ( 1983) h as s uggested t hat t he r elatively l ow a mounts f ound a t c ities l ike a l-Basra a nd K sar e s-Seghir i ndicates t hat t hese c enters h ad w eak t ies w ith r ural p ottery p roducers, u nder t he a ssumption t hat h andmade w ares w ere m ade i n t he c ountryside . O n t he o ther h and, t he r elatively h igh p roportions a t N akur a nd B adis s uggests t hat t hese c ities m aintained s trong t ies t o r ural p roducers. O ther e xplanations a re e qually p lausible. I f h andmade p ottery w as p roduced a t o r n ear t he u rban c enter, a s c hemical a nalyses o f t he a l-Basra m aterial s uggest ( Benco n .d .a), t he l ow p roportion m ay r efect t he i nhabitants ' p refere nce f or a nd a ccessibility t o o ther k inds o f c ooking v essels, s uch a s c opper p ots, w hich w ere c ommonly u sed i n t he I slamic w orld a nd a re k nown h istorically t o h ave b een i mported i nto M orocco f rom S pain d uring t his t ime ( Goitein 1 973:17, 5 1-56). U nlike N akur a nd B adis, a l-Basra a nd K sar e s-Seghir w ere b oth l ocated a long o ne o f t he m ajor t rade r outes c onnecting s ub-Saharan A frica w ith t he M editerranean, w hich w ould h ave g iven t hem a ccess t o m aterial m oving f rom o ne t o t he o ther. W heelmade w ares B y f ar, t he l argest p art ( 95%) o f t he a l-Basra c ollection c onsists o f p ottery t hat w as t hrown o n aw heel a nd f ired i n a k iln. U nlike t he h and-built w ares, t he w heelmade p lainwares w ere v ery l ikely p roduced b y a rtisans i n p ottery w orkshops a nd s old i n u rban a nd r ural m arkets. W ith t he e xception o f g lazed w ares, m ost o f t he w heelmade p ottery f ound a t a l-Basra s eems t o h ave b een m ade a t t he s ite ( Benco n .d.a). B uff w ares--sandy, f ine, a nd v ery f ine. T he m ost c ommon w heelmade p ottery c onsists o f a b uff w are t hat i s u sually u ndecorated, e xcept f or s ome o ccasional i ncising, s lipping o r p ainting. A s a g roup, b uff w ares a re c haracterized b y a p aste t hat r anges i n c olor f rom b uff t o g ray o n t he s urface a nd i s o ften g ray i n t he c ore . T he v ariation i n s urface c olor i s b elieved t o h ave b een c aused b y a n u neven o xidizing o r r educi ng a tmosphere i n t he k iln d uring f iring, r ather t han t o a ny d eliberate a ttempt b y p otters t o a chieve a p articular h ue . A s a r esult, b oth b uff a nd g ray s herds a re l umped t ogether a s b uff w ares f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy . B uff w ares h ave r elatively h ard s urfaces a nd f airly t hin w alls. T he p aste c ontains s mall a mounts o f c alcite, f eldspars, m ica, a nd i ron o xides a nd v arying a mounts o f q uartz. T he v ariation i n t he s ize a nd q uantity o f q uartz f orms t he b asis f or d ividing b uff w ares i nto t hree g roups: s andy, f ine, a nd v ery f ine. A s w e w ill s ee l ater, t he v ariation r epresent a s hift i n t he m anufacturing t echnology e mp loyed b y t he p otters a t a l-Basra . S andy w ares, w hich c onstitute a bout 1 2% o f a ll a l-Basra p ottery ( Table 5 .2), r epresent t he s mallest o f t he t hree b uff-firing g roups. T his w are i s c haracterized b y a p aste t hat c ontains r elatively l arge, d ensely-packed q uartz p articles, g iving i t a g ritty t exture o n t he s urface . B ecause o f t he c oarseness o f t he p aste, t he c olor s eparation

6 6

b etween b uff s urface a nd g ray c ore i s u sually b lurred . A bout 1 5% o f s andy s herds a re c overed w ith a w hite s lip o n t he e xterior s urface a nd n one a re p ainted . F ine w ares r epresent t he l argest w are g roup a t a l-Basra, c onstitut ing 5 5% o f t he e ntire c ollection ( Table 5 .2). A lthough t hey m ay o verl ap s omewhat w ith s andy a nd v ery f ine w ares, f ine w ares f orm a f airly d istinct a nd h omogeneous g roup. T hey a re c haracterized b y a p aste t hat c ontains a m oderate a mount o f q uartz p articles--resembling a l oose n etwork o f g rains u nder a 1 0x l ens--and a r elatively s mooth s urface. T he c olor s eparation b etween s urface a nd c ore i s f airly d istinct b ec ause o f t he f ineness o f t he p aste . L ess t han 1 0% o f t hese w ares a re s lipped a nd l ess t han 1 % a re p ainted . V ery f ine w ares a mount t o a bout 1 3% o f t he a l-Basra c ollection ( Table 5 .2). T his w are i s c haracterized b y ap aste t hat c ontains v ery s mall q uartz i nclusions a nd c onsequently a s mooth, a lmost p olishedl ooking, s urface. B ecause o f t he f ineness o f t he p aste, t he c olor s eparation b etween s urface a nd c ore i s e xtremely s harp, g iving i t a " sandwiched" a ppearance ( Redman 1 983, n .d .; R edman e t a l. 1 980). O f a ll t he b uff w ares, v ery f ine w ares h ave t he h ardest a nd t hinnest w alls. A bout 1 1% o f t hese w ares a re s lipped a nd l ess t han 1 % a re p ainted . C ream-colored w ares. T hese w heelmade w ares m ake u p a bout 1 1% o f t he a l-Basra p ottery ( Table 5 .2). T hey a re d istinguished b y a h ighly c alcareous c ream-colored p aste t hat r anges i n h ue f rom l ight b rown t o l ight o live-green, v ery l ikely t he r esult o f v ariable a tmospheric c ond itions i n t he k iln. T he p aste i s r elatively s oft a nd p orous a nd h as a p owdery s urface t exture; i t c ontains c alcite, q uartz, a nd i ron o xide i nclusions. O f a ll t he w ares f ound a t a l-Basra, c ream-colored s herds a re m ost f requently p ainted . A bout 1 3% ( 81 o f 6 48) o f t he r ims a re d ecorated w ith a s imple l inear a nd d ot m otif w hich m ay b e e pigraphic i n n ature ( Figure 5 .2). T he i ron o xide p aint r anges i h c olor f rom l ight r ed t o d ark b rown, t he r esult o f v ariable a tmospheric c onditions i n t he k iln. P ainted c ream-colored w ares, w hich a re o ften f ound i n t he f orm o f a s poutless p itcher w ith a h andle, r esemble a t ype o f p ottery d escribed a s " Berber w are" a nd f ound a t o ther I slamic s ites i n S pain ( VelaquezB osco 1 912, Z ozoya 1 969) a nd i n t he M aghreb ( Bel 1 914). T his p ottery h as b een c alled B erber w are b ecause o f i ts s imilarity i n f orm a nd d ec oration t o p ottery p roduced b y c ontemporary B erbers i n t he R if m ount ains ( van G ennep 1 911). I t d iffers, h owever, i n t echnique, s ince t he a rcheological p ottery i s w heel t hrown a nd k iln f ired a nd t he m odern-day w are i s u sually h andmade a nd f ired i n a n o pen-air p it. C oarse w ares. T his g roup e ncompasses a v ariety o f d ifferent c oarse w ares, w hich t ogether c onstitute a bout 2 % o f t he a l-Basra p ott ery ( Table 5 .2). I n g eneral, t his g roup i s c haracterized b y a c oarse p aste a nd/or t hick v essel w alls. O ne v ariety h as a p inkish-buff c olore d p aste w ith l arge c alcite i nclusions a nd i s u sually f ound i n t he f orm o f a l arge s torage j ar. A nother h as a f inely-textured, b rick r ed p aste a nd i s f requently f ound i n t he f orm o f h eavy j ars a nd b asins, s uch a s t hose r ecoverd f rom t he c ity w ater c istern a t a l-Basra. A ccording t o

6 7

I I I I 8

6 8

c hemical s tudies, b oth w ares a ppear t o h ave b een m ade a t a l-Basra ( Benc o n .d .a). G lazed w ares. T his s mall g roup o f w heelmade s herds, w hich r epres ent a bout 2 % o f t he a l-Basra c ollection ( Table 5 .2), c onsists o f g lazed w ares. D espite t heir s mall n umber, t his g roup e ncompasses a w ide v ariety o f d ecorated a nd u ndecorated m onochrome a nd p olychrome t ypes ( Table 5 .3). T hey a lso d iffer i n p aste c omposition . U nlike t he o ther w ares d escribed a bove, m ost o f t he g lazed p ottery s eems t o h ave b een m ade a t o ther p roduction c enters i n N orth A frica o r S pain a nd b rought t o a l-Basra t hrough v arious c ommercial o r s ocial t ies.

T ABLE 5 .3 C OUNTS A ND P ERCENTAGES O F A L-BASRA G LAZED P OTTERY

C ount ( No.)

G laze T ype

P ercentage ( %)

U ndecorated G laze : G reen H oney H oney a nd G reen B rown Y ellow L ight G reen H oney o n W hite S lip G reen o n W hite S lip H oney o n G reen P aint

1 17 5 6 1 7 3 4 6 6 2 2 1 1 1 9

3 4.2 1 6.4 5 .0 9 .9 1 .8 1 .8 6 .4 3 .2 5 .6

2 5 3 1 5 2

7 .3 0 .9 4 .4 0 .6

9

2 .6

D ecorated G laze : M anganese-on-Honey G reen/Manganese G laze P ainted C uerda S eca I ncised/Punctated u nder G laze

T otal'

3 42

1 00.0

1 T he g lazed p ottery t otal i ncludes a ll r im , b ase, h andle, a nd b ody s herds r ecovered a t t he s ite.

T he m ost c ommon t ype i s a g reeno r h oney-colored, l ead-based g lazed w are w ith n o d ecoration . T his w are i s u sually g lazed o n b oth e xterior a nd i nterior s urfaces a lthough, i n s ome c ases, i t i s g lazed o n t he e xterior o nly . A f ew e xamples h ave a g reen-colored g laze o n o ne s ide a nd a h oney-colored g laze o n t he o ther, p robably r eflecting t he r ange o f c olors t hat l ead-based g lazes c an a cquire, d epending o n a tmos-

6 9

p heric c onditions i n a k iln . L ead-based g lazes b ecome g reen i n a n o xidizing a tmosphere a nd h oney c olored i n a r educing a tmosphere ( Rye 1 981, R hodes 1 981). A

s maller

g roup c onsists o f u ndecorated b rown

( manganese

o xide

b ase), y ellow , a nd l ight g reen g lazed w ares, a nd h oney- o r g reen-colore d g lazed w ares o ver a w hite s lip o r g reen p aint. A s mall p roportion o f t he g lazed p ottery i s d ecorated. T he m ost c ommon t ype i s am anganese-painted, h oney-colored g lazed w are w ith a d ark b rown t o p urplish-brown m anganese d esign a ppears o n a c lear, h one y-colored g laze ( Figure 5 .3a). T he d esign u sually c onsists o f a s imp le l inear o r c urvilinear m otif p ainted o n t he i nterior s urface o f t he v essel. M any o f t hese v essels a re f lat-bottomed, s hallow b owls. A r arer t ype h as a l ight y ellow g laze o ver a g reen-painted m otif; i n o ne e xample, t he m otif c onsists o f a f loral p attern w ith a d ark g reen c urvi ng s tem a nd l ight g reen b uds ( Figure 5 .3d), s omewhat s imilar t o t he d esign o n a p late f ound a t t he e arly I slamic s ite o f ' Abbasiyya i n T unisia ( Marcais 1 928:Figure 1 6). A l ess c ommon t ype i s w hat I c all a g laze p ainted w are, w hich i s s imilar t o t he c eramique ä rsery d escribed b y M arcais ( 1928). S ome e xamples a re d ecorated w ith a g reen o r h oney-colored g laze t hat h as b een d ribbled o r p ainted o n t he s urface w ith a b rush w ithout a ny a ppare nt g uidelines. O thers h ave m otifs t hat h ave b een o utlined i n a b rowni sh-black p aint f irst a nd t hen f illed i n w ith a g laze. T he d esigns a re p ainted d irectly o nto t he s urface a nd c over o nly a s mall p ortion o f t he e ntire v essel ( Figure 5 .3e, f ). T heir p astes a re g enerally c ream c olored a nd r elatively f riable . A n i mportant e xception i s a g reen g laze p ainted b ase f ragment ( Figure 5 .3 0 m ade o f a f ine b uff-firing p aste t hat i s v ery s imilar i n c hemical c omposition t o o ther l ocal a lB asra w ares ( Benco n .d .a). I t i s p ossible t hat t his s herd r epresents a n e xperiment b y a n a l-Basra p otter t o i mitate t he g laze-painted w ares t hat w ere i mported i nto t he s ite . A f ew s herds a re d ecorated i n c uerda s eca s tyle, i n w hich a d esign i s t raced w ith a n on-fluxing s ubstance, l ike p aint, a nd t he e ntire v essel s urface i s c overed w ith v ariously c olored g lazes; t he p aint p revents t he g lazes f rom r unning i nto e ach o ther d uring f iring ( Figure 5 .3c). F inally , a f ew g lazed f ragments a re d ecorated w ith i ncised o r p unctated d esigns u nder a g reen- o r h oney-colored g laze. T he d esigns c onsist o f s imple l ines e tched i nto t he s oft c lay a nd l ater c overed w ith g laze. T his t ype o f d ecoration s eems t o a ppear m ost f requently o n l amp b ases. F orm C ategories T he a l-Basra c ollection c ontains n early 4 0 d ifferent v essel f orms ( Table 5 .4), b ut o nly 1 1 o f t hese a re c ommonly f ound a t t he s ite. T he 1 1 f orms, w hich i nclude s mall a nd l arge s torage j ars, p itchers, c ooking v essels, b owls, a nd o il l amps, t ogether c onstitute a bout 9 5% o f a ll t he r im s herds. T he r emaining 2 9 f orms o ccur i n v ery s mall q uantities ( from o ne t o 4 0 s herds a piece) a nd m ake u p a bout 5 % o f t he c ollection.

7 0

b

a

C

d 0

5c m

e F igure

5 .3.

f D ecorated g lazed wares.

h oney-colored g lazed b ody s herd , l ight-yellow

( bisque)

g lazed b ody s herd ,

c uerda s eca b ody s herd , l ines.

( d)

( a)

Manganese-painted ,

w ith l inear m otif .

( b)

Manganese-on-

w ith g eometric m otif .

( c)

w ith g reen g laze s eparated by d ark b rown painted

G reen-on-light-yellow

( bisque)

g lazed b ody s herd .

( e)

G laze-painted r im s herd w ith g reen g laze f loral

( ?)

d ark brown paint.

w ith g reen g laze m otif

( f)

G laze-painted base s herd ,

o utlined i n d ark b rown p aint,

m otif o utlined i n

p ossibly o f l ocal a l-Basra p roduction . 7 1

T ABLE 5 .4

C OUNTS A ND P ERCENTAGES O F A L-BASRA F ORMS ( 133 P ROVENIENCES)

F unctional C ategory : F orm N umber

C ount ( No.)

P ercentage ( %)

C ooking V essels: 1 0 1 1 2 5

3 39 9 5 2 0

6 .3 1 .8 0 .4

T otal

4 54

8 .5

B owls: 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7

8 4 3 4 2 4 6 3 1 33

T otal

1 .6 0 .6 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 2 .5

B asins: 1 9 2 0

1 4 5

0 .3 0 .0

T otal

1 9

0 .3

J ars: 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 9 5 0 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 7 2 7 4 7 6 7 8

8 72 9 25 1 37 8 15 2 26 1 2 1 0 2 0 2 7 2 4 1 3 3 1 06 1 5

T otal

3 ,214

7 2

1 6.2 1 7.2 2 .5 1 5.1 4 .2 0 .2 0 .2 0 .4 0 .5 0 .5 0 .0 0 .6 2 .0 0 .0 0 .0 5 9.7

T ABLE 5 .4 -Continued F unctional C ategory : F orm N umber

C ount ( No.)

P ercentage ( %)

P itcher: 4 8

1 ,076

2 0.0

T otal

1 ,076

2 0.0

B eaker: 5 6

9

0 .2

T otal

9

0 .2

6 8 6 9 7 0 7 1 7 9

2 5 7 4 1 2

0 .5 0 .1 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0

T otal

3 9

0 .7

F lasks:

L amps: 9 3 9 4

4 17

7 .7 4

T otal

0 .0

4 21

7 .8

1 10

2 3

0 .4

T otal

2 3

0 .4

_ C tm _ : _

G rand T otal

5 ,388

1 00.1

A v ariety o f b ases, h andles, a nd m iscellaneous c eramic o bjects a re a lso p resent i n t he c ollection a nd a re d escribed b riefly a t t he e nd o f t his s ection. S mall a nd l arge s torage j ars T he m ost c ommon v essel f orm f ound a t a l-Basra i s a s mall s torage j ar ( Forms 4 1, 4 2, 4 3). T hese j ars a re c haracterized b y s hort, c urved n ecks, p ear-shaped b odies, a nd f lat b ases ( Figures 5 .4 a nd 5 .5). T hey a re a bout 1 8 c m i n h eight. T he s houlders a re s ometimes i ncised w ith

7 3

h orizontal l ines a nd t he l ower p art o f t he b odies a re o ften T hese j ars a re a lmost a lways m ade o f a b uff-firing p aste.

r ibbed .

S mall s torage j ars c an b e d ivided i nto t hree d istinct f orms o n t he b asis o f r im s hape. F orm 4 1, w hich o ccurs m ost f requently ( 17%), i s c haracterized b y a t riangular l ip, i n w hich t he r im i s p artially f olded o ver o n t he e xterior t o f orm a t riangular c ross-section ( Figure 5 .4b). F orm 4 2, w hich i s m uch l ess c ommon ( 3%), i s d istinguished b y a b anded r im , i n w hich t he r im i s p ressed o ver c ompletely o n t he e xterior t o f orm a f lat b and ( Figure 5 .4a). F orm 4 3, w hich o ccurs a lmost a s f req uently a s F orm 4 1 ( 15%), i s c haracterized b y a b anded r im w ith a g roove m ade b y p ressing a r ounded t ool o r f inger i n t he s oft c lay a s t he v essel r otated o n aw heel ( Figure 5 .5a-d). T wo l arge f orms o f s torage j ars a lso o ccur a t a l-Basra, a lthough m uch l ess f requently ( 2-4%). F orm 7 4 i s s imilar i n s hape t o F orm 4 1, b ut h as l arger d imensions ( Figure 5 .6). I ts r im d iameter i s g reater t han 1 8 c m , i ts h eight i s a bout 4 0 c m , a nd i ts w alls a re r elatively t hick . O therwise, i t i s c haracterized b y t he s ame t riangular r im , s hort c urved n eck, a nd p ear-shaped b ody a s F orm 4 1. I ts b ase i s s lightly c onvex r ather t han f lat. I ts n eck a nd s houlder a re f requently d ecorated w ith b ands o f h orizontal o r w avy i ncised l ines. T he j ar i s u sually m ade o f a b uff w are . T he w idth o f t he m outh s uggests t hat t his j ar m ay h ave b een u sed t o s tore d ry g oods, s uch a s g rains, r ather t han l iquids. F orm 4 4, o n t he o ther h and, i s c haracterized b y a t all, n arrow n eck t hat o ften h as a r idge o n t he e xterior a t a bout m idpoint, p ossibly t o t ie a c ord a round ( Figure 5 .7a-b). I ts r im i s f olded o ver t o f orm a t riangular o r s nub-nosed p rofile . T he n eck c urves i nto t he s houlder g radually . T he s loping s houlder i s f requently d ecorated w ith c omb i ncising. T he b ody i s p robably r ound a nd s lightly e longated a nd t he b ase r elatively f lat, a lthough t he l ower p art o f t his v essel h as n ot b een r econstructed. T he j ar i s g enerally m ade o f a b uff w are . T he h eight a nd n arrowness o f t he n eck s uggest t hat t his j ar m ay h ave b een u sed f or s toring l iquids, s uch a s w ater o r o il. S torage j ars t hat r esemble t he o nes f ound a t a l-Basra a re s eldom m entioned i n t he l iterature o n I slamic p ottery . A mong t he f ew p ossible a nalogues t hat h ave b een i llustrated a re s everal r im f ragments w ith t riangular r ims a nd s hort, c urved n ecks r ecovered b y B el a t T lemcen ( 1914:Figures 1 5, 1 7, 1 8) a nd a c ouple o f r ims f rom N akur ( Redman 1 983: F igure 8 ). O ther e xamples m ay e xist b ut h ave n ot b een p ublished. A n umber o f s torage j ars k nown f rom e leventh- o r t welfth-century c ontexts d iffer i n s hape f rom t he a l-Basra s pecimens. J ars f rom t he H ammadid s ites o f Q al'a d es B anu H ammad a nd B ougie i n A lgeria, f or e xample, f eature h igh , n arrow n ecks w ith e laborately p ainted a nd e tched d ecorat ions ( Golvin 1 965:Figures 7 8, 7 9, 8 2; M arcais 1 913:Plate 4 , 1 916:Plate 2 3); t hose f rom t he A lmohad f ortress o f D chira i n M orocco h ave i nverte d, c onical b odies ( Terrasse 1 937:Plate I I); t hose f rom S alk i n M orocco f eature s hort, v ertical n ecks a nd f lat, e verted r ims ( Delphy 1 955: P lates 4 , 7 ).

7 4

a

b 0 C

F igure 5 .4. r im a nd r ibbed b ody r im

S mall s torage j ars. ( Form 4 2).

( b)

( Form 4 1). 7 5

( a)

IZ I

C I I I

5cm M

S mall s torage j ar w ith band

S mall s torage j ar w ith t riangular

a

L .

b

C

d o m oo n =m on

F igure 5 .5.

S mall s torage j ars w ith g rooved-band r ims

7 6

s e , . =m om

( Form 4 3).

0 M

F igure

5 .6.

L arge s torage j ar w ith t riangular r im

7 7

5 cm E

( Form 7 4).

a

\ b

0 M

F igure

5 .7.

T all-necked w ater s torage j ar

7 8

5cm I

( Form 4 4).

P itchers A nother f orm t hat o ccurs f requently a t a l-Basra ( 20%) i s a s poutl ess p itcher, o ften w ith a h andle ( Figure 5 .8a-d). T he v essel i s c hara cterized b y a s imple r ounded o r s lightly b eveled l ip, a t all, n early v ertical n eck, a nd a r ounded o r s harply p ointed c arina a t t he s houlder. T he l ower b ody h as s traight s ides t hat s lope i nward t oward a f lat b ase. T he h andle, w hich i s a ttached d irectly t o t he r im o r s lightly b elow i t, e xtends t o j ust b elow t he s houlder. T his v essel i s u sually m ade o f a c ream-colored o r b uff w are . A s n oted e arlier, c ream-colored p itchers a re s ometimes d ecorated o n t he n eck a nd s houlder w ith r edo r b rownp ainted m otifs ( Figure 5 .2). D escribed a s B erber w are b ecause o f i ts s imilarity t o e thnographic ally k nown e xamples f rom t he R if m ountains, t his t ype o f p itcher o cc urs a t o ther I slamic s ites, a mong t hem t he t enth- o r e leventh-century s ite o f T lemcen i n A lgeria ( Bel 1 914:Figure 4 0) a nd t he t enth-century U mayyad p alaces a t M edina a z-Zahra a nd M edina E lvira i n s outhern S pain ( Zozoya 1 980a :Figures 2 , 3 , 4 ; V elazquez B osco 1 912:Plate 3 9). C arinated j ars A nother j ar f orm t hat o ccurs f airly f requently a t a l-Basra ( 16%) i s aw ide-mouthed, s quat j ar w ith a c arinated s houlder ( Form 4 0). T his f orm f eatures a n e verted r im a nd a b ody t hat s lopes o utward t o a s harp, o ften r idged o r g rooved c arina; b elow t he c arina, t he b ody s lopes i nw ard t oward a f lat b ase ( Figure 5 .9a-d). T he l ower p art o f t he b ody i s o ften r ibbed o r g rooved . T he j ar i s g enerally m ade o f a b uff w are . O ther e xamples o f t his f orm o f j ar h ave n ot b een f ound i n o ther p ublic ations o n e arly I slamic p ottery f rom S pain o r N orth A frica . S hallow b owls A l ess c ommon f orm ( 2%) i n t he a l-Basra c ollection i s a s hallow b owl w ith a f lat b ase ( Form 1 2). T he b owl i s u sually c haracterized b y a s imple, r ounded l ip a nd s moothly c urving s ides ( Figure 5 .10b,c). I t i s m ade p redominantly o f a b uff o r c ream-colored w are . A f ew e xamples w ith m ore v ertical s ides a re g lazed ( Figure 5 .10a). A c ouple o f o ther v ariants i nclude F orm 1 3, w hich h as a b evelled l ip ( Figure 5 .10d), a nd F orm 1 4, w hich h as a n e verted l ip. N osed l amps A r elatively c ommon f orm ( 7.7%) i s an osed o il l amp ( Form 9 3). T he l amp h as a f lattened, r ound b owl w ith a s hort, c urved n eck a nd f laring r im ( Figures 5 .11a, 5 .12). A s mall h andle i s a ttached t o t he r im a nd e xtends t o t he b owl. A l ong n ose i s a ttached t o t he o pposite s ide o f t he b owl. T he n ose i s f requently c harred a t t he t ip w here t he f lame b urned . T he l amp i s u sually m ade o f a b uffo r c ream-colored p aste. T his t ype o f u nglazed o il l amp o ccurs f requently a t o ther I sl amic s ites i n N orth A frica ( Bel 1 914:Figure 2 0; D elphy 1 955:Plate 9 ; G olvin 1 965: F igure 7 6) a nd S pain ( Zozoya 1 980a :Figure 1 1; V elaquez B osco 1 912:Plate 3 9).

7 9

s c m mm==mm =mm

o

F igure 5 .8.

S poutless p itchers

( Form 4 8).

( a)

P itcher w ith h andle

a nd r ounded s houlder. ( b) P itcher w ith h andle a nd s harply c arinated s houlder. ( c) P itcher w ith r ounded s houlder . ( d) P itcher w ith s harply c arinated s houlder a nd i ncised l ines o n n eck . 8 0

a

b

C

0 IM I I

F igure 5 .9.

C arinated j ars 8 1

( Form 4 0).

O

6cm C : IM M

b

C

d

0

F igure 5 .10. r ounded l ip

S hallow b owls.

( Form 1 2).

( d)

( a-c)

5 cm

S hallow b owl w ith s imple

S hallow b owl w ith b evelled l ip

8 2

( Form 1 3).

a

(

1 1 1 1 ?1

"2

1

0

F igure 5 .11.

O il l amps.

a ttached b elow r im ( Form 9 3). g reen g laze.

( a) ( b)

S em

L amp w ith p rotruding n ose a nd h andle L amp w ith i ncised d ecoration u nder

8 3

8 4

N osed o il l amps,

C ooking v essels T he m ost c ommon c ooking v essel ( 6.3%) i s a s hallow , h andmade p ot ( Form 1 0). I t i s c haracterized b y a s imple l ip, e ither r ounded o r s lightly f lattened, a f inger- o r t ool-impressed s trip a pplied j ust b elow t he r im o n t he e xterior, a s lightly r ounded b ody, a nd a f lat t o s lightly c onvex b ase ( Figure 5 .1b). I t i s o ften c harred o n t he e xteri or. A l ess c ommon v ariety ( 1.8%) i s a d eep, h andmade c ooking p ot ( Form 1 1). I t i s c haracterized b y a r ounded o r s lightly f lattened r im , v ertical o r i nwardly s loping s ides, u sually w ith a n i mpressed s trip o r h orizontal l ug b elow t he r im , a nd a f lat b ase ( Figure 5 .1c). I ts e xt erior i s a lso f requently c harred . M inor f orms A n umber o f o ther v essel f orms f ound a t a l-Basra o ccur m uch m ore r arely a t a l-Basra . T hese i nclude f lasks w ith a v ariety o f d ifferent r im s hapes ( Forms 6 1, 6 2, 6 8, 7 1, a nd 7 9: F igure 5 .13a-b, g -h); s mall c ups w ith v ertical s ides a nd f lat b ases ( Form 1 10: F igure 5 .13c-d); a nd a n umber o f m iscellaneous j ars ( Form 5 4: F igure 5 .1a; F orm 7 8: F igure 5 .14c). T here i s a lso a s mall g roup o f f orms, s ome o f t hem j ars w ith b odies t hat s lope i nwardly, t hat a re d istinguished f rom t he r est o f t he c ollection b y t heir t hick w alls a nd b rick r ed p aste ( Form 0 0: F igure 5 .14a). B ases a nd h andles U nlike t he r ims, t he v ariety o f b ases a nd h andles i s r ather l imite d . V irtually a ll o f t he b ases a re f lat, o r s lightly c onvex ( Form 8 0). A lthough t hey r ange i n s ize f rom a bout 5 t o 1 5 c m i n d iameter, t he m ost c ommon s ize i s a bout 1 0 c m . T he b ases t ypically h ave s piral g rooves a nd r idges o n t he i nterior s urface, m ade w hen t he p otter " opened" a b all o f c lay t o f orm t he v essel a s t he w heel r otated ( Figure 5 .15). T hey a lso h ave s traight, p arallel l ines o n t he e xterior s urface ( Figure 5 .15), i ndicating t hat t he v essel w as r emoved w ith a s tring o r c ord f rom t he w heel b ase w hile i t w as s tationary ( Figure 5 .16) ( Rye 1 981:748 0). R ing, i nset, f langed, a nd f ooted b ases, w hich a re u sually f ound o n g lazed v essels, a re p resent i n v ery s mall q uantities ( Forms 8 2, 8 3, 8 4, 8 7). H andles o ccur i n t wo s izes. S mall, r elatively n arrow h andles s eem t o h ave b een a ttached t o p itchers a nd l amps. L arge, t hick h andles a ppear t o b elong t o l arge s torage j ars. A f ew s mall h andles h ave a c onical-shaped b utton o n t he t op o f t he h andle, p robably t o s erve a s a g rip f or t he t humb; s imilar c onical p rotuberances h ave b een f ound o n v essels a t o ther I slamic s ites i n N orth A frica ( Bel 1 914: F igure 1 9; G olvin 1 965:Plate 7 1; Z ozoya 1 980a :Figures 9 , 1 4). F inally, t here a re a f ew e xamples o f s mall h andles m ade o f t wo p arallel c oils a ttached t o e ach o ther. I n a ddition t o r ims, b ases, a nd h andles, a n umber o f o ther c eramic o bjects w ere f ound a t a l-Basra . O ne o f t he m ost p revalent w as a s mall r ound d isc ( Form 1 00), g enerally a bout 3 c m i n d iameter, w hich a ppeared t o b e c ut f rom b roken p ieces o f p ottery . T hese d iscs, w hich w ere f ound t hroughout t he s ite, m ay h ave s erved a s s ome s ort o f g aming o bject.

8 5

a

0

F igure e verted r ims

5 .13.

F lasks,

( Form 7 1).

5cm

c ups,

( c-d)

a nd s quat j ars.

C ups

( Form 1 10).

( a-b) ( e)

F lasks w ith

F lask w ith g rooved

band r im ( Form 7 9). ( f) F lask w ith o utset b and r im ( Form 6 8). S quat j ar w ith r ibbed b ody ( Form 6 1). ( h) S quat j ar ( Form 6 2). 8 6

( g)

a

b

C 0 IM I

F igure

5 .14.

M iscellaneous j ars.

( a)

C. 155

5cm =1 1 1 1 M

J ar w ith band r im a nd t hick ,

b rick-red walls ( Form 0 0). ( b) Jar w ith t all, c urved n eck ( Form 0 0). ( c) Jar w ith t riangular l ip, c urved n eck , a nd r ibbed b ody ( Form 7 8). 8 7

i n

e

r emoved

F igure 5 .16.

w as

E xterior o f

f lat

f rom w heel-head.

s howing d rag l ines m ade w hen v essel

M uch l ess c ommon w ere c eramic f ilters ( Form 9 7) w hich h ad h oles p unct ured t hrough t he c lay w ith a s harp t ool a nd w hich w ere p laced i n t he n eck o f w ater s torage j ars i n o rder t o p revent d irt o r i nsects f rom f alling i nto t he w ater; c ylindrical s pouts ( Forms 9 0, 9 1); a nd s mall, r ound l ids w ith b utton-like h andles ( Form 9 2). D ecorative T echniques T he d ecorative t echinques e vident i n t he a l-Basra c ollection c ons ist o f a pplique o n h andmade w ares, a nd i ncising, s igi114, p ainting, a nd g lazing o n w heelmade w ares. A t a l-Basra, a ppliqu4 i nvolved t he a pplication o f a s trip o f c lay t o a h andmade v essel; t he c lay s trip w as t hen p ressed w ith a t ool o r f inger t o c reate a d ecorative p attern ( Figure 5 .1b, c ). T he m ost c ommon d ecorative t echnique p resent o n u nglazed p ottery a t a l-Basra i s i ncising ( described a s c l 4cor g ra l i4 o r c l icor t rain 4b y e arly F rench a rcheologists). A p opular i ncised m otif c onsists o f a l ine o r b and o f l ines i ncised h orizontally o r i n aw avy p attern a round t he n eck o r s houlder o f av essel ( Figures 5 .5b, 5 .6, 5 .7b, 5 .17e). T he l ines a re m ade w ith a p ointed t ool o r a c omb p ressed i nto t he s oft c lay a s t he v essel t urned o n aw heel; s ometimes t he b ands a re c ross-hatched w ith d iagonal l ines. I n a ddition t o b eing d ecorative, i ncised l ines m ay h ave s erved t o c onceal a s eam i n v essels t hat w ere m ade i n s everal s tages, p articularly i n t he s houlders o f l arge s torage j ars. I ncised d ecoration i s u sually f ound o n b uff o r c oarse w ares a t a l-Basra. I nc ising a ppears t o b e t he m ost p revalent d ecorative t echnique f ound o n u nglazed u tilitarian w ares a t I slamic s ites i n N orth A frica ( Bel 1 914; G olvin 1 965). A l ess c ommon d ecorative t echnique f ound a t a l-Basra i s s igill , i n w hich l ines o r m otifs a re c ut i nto s oft c lay w ith a v ariety o f p ointed a nd s harp, f lat t ools ( Figure 5 .17a-c, d , f ). T he m otifs g ene rally c onsist o f g eometric p atterns i ncised i nto t he s oft p aste w ith a k nife o r o ther s harp i nstrument. T he l ines a re p arallel o r c rossh atched . I n s ome c ases, t he m otif c onsists o f a s eries o f t riangular s hapes m ade b y a t ool p ressed i nto t he c lay . S igill4 i s a f airly c omm on d ecorative t echnique p resent a t o ther e arly I slamic s ites i n N orth A frica . A nother d ecorative t echnique o ccasionally f ound a t a l-Basra i s p ainting. A s w e n oted e arlier, t he p aint i s u sually a pplied d irectly t o t he s urface, a lthough s ometimes o ver a w hite s lip. T he p aint g enera lly c onsists o f a n i ron-oxide b ase w hich t urns v arious s hades o f r ed a nd b rown d uring f iring, d epending o n a tmospheric c onditions. T he m otifs a re s imple l ines a nd d ots, s ome o f w hich m ay b e e pigraphic ( Figu re 5 .2). M ost p ainted d ecoration a ppears o n c ream w ares, a lthough i t i s o ccasionally f ound o n b uff w ares. A lthough n ot t echnically a d ecorative m ethod, s lipping w ith a w hite c lay o r s elf-slipping w ith a w et r ag i s am ethod t hat a ppears t o h ave b een u sed o ccasionally b y a l-Basra p otters t o f inish t he s urfaces o f t heir p ottery .

9 0

b

C

a

e d

0

F igure l ines

5 .17.

I ncised a nd p unctated p ottery.

i ncised o r c rosshatched i nto s oft c lay

c arved g eometric m otif . w avy l ines

( decor g rave).

f

5c m

( e)

S herd w ith bands

( f)

( a-c)

( sigi116).

S herds w ith ( d)

S herd w ith

o f i ncised h orizontal a nd

S herd w ith punctated d ecoration .

9 1

G lazing i s a nother d ecorative t echnique e vident i n t he a l-Basra c ollection. W ith v ery f ew e xceptions, h owever, t his p rocess d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een p racticed a t a l-Basra . T he c omposition o f g lazed w ares a ppears t o d iffer f rom t he b uff a nd c ream w ares t hat p redominate a t a l-Basra . O nly a f ew s pecimens, n amely a g reen g laze p ainted b ase s herd ( Figure 5 .3f), s eems l ikely t o h ave b een m ade a t a l-Basra. W hile t he d ecorative t echniques f ound a t a l-Basra a re r elatively c ommon t hroughout I slamic N orth A frica, a n umber o f o ther p opular t echn iques a re c ompletely a bsent f rom t he a l-Basra c ollection . A s w e w ill s ee i n C hapter 7 , t he a bsence o f p ottery w ith s tamped i mpressions a nd s graffito ( scratched) w ares p rovides a w ay t o t entatively d ate t he a lB asra m aterial. F aunal R emains A l arge q uantity o f f aunal m aterial, a mounting t o n early 6 00 k g b y w eight, w as r ecovered d uring t he a l-Basra e xcavations. A nimal b one, i n f act, c onstitutes t he s econd l argest c ategory o f a rtifacts f ound a t t he s ite . L ike t he p ottery , t he m aterial w as c ollected a nd w eighed b y p rovenience u nit a nd p rocessed a nd s tored i n t he l aboratory i n T angier . A s mall s ample o f b ones w as e xamined i n 1 981 i n o rder t o i dentity t he t ypes o f a nimals t hat w ere p resent a t a l-Basra a nd t o d etermine t heir r elative p roportion i n t he d iets o f c ity r esidents ( Wattenmaker 1 981). T he s tudy s howed t hat d omestic a nimals p rovided t he m ajor d ieta ry c ontribution a t a l-Basra ( Table 5 .5). G oat a nd s heep a ppear t o h ave b een b utchered m ost f requently , f ollowed b y c attle. D ogs a nd e quids w ere p resent i n t he c ity, b ut d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een e xploited f or f ood . T he f ollowing s pecies w ere i dentified a t a l-Basra : C anis f amiliaris ( domestic d og) w as r epresented b y o ne b one s howed n o s igns o f b urning o r b utchering.

w hich

E quus s p. ( equids) w as r epresented b y 1 4 b ones, n one o f w hich e xhibited e vidence o f b utchering o r b urning, i ndicating t hat e quids w ere p robably n ot u sed a s a f ood s ource. E quids a re u sed i n n orthern M orocco t oday f or t ransport a nd a s d raft a nimals. O vis a ries ( sheep) w as r epresented b y 8 1 b ones. p loited i n M orocco t oday f or m ilk, w ool, a nd m eat.

S heep

a re

e x-

C apra h ircus ( goat) w as r epresented b y 3 8 b ones. f or m ilk, m eat, a nd h ides i n M orocco.

G oats a re r aised

S ome 7 97 b ones w ere a ssigned t o t he g eneral c ategory o f O vis-Capra d ue t o t he s imilarity o f s heep a nd g oat b ones. I n a ddition, o ne b one w as i dentified a s O vis-Capra-Gazella . B os t aurus ( cattle) w as r epresented b y 2 49 b ones. e xploited f or m ilk, m eat, a nd h ides a nd a s d raft a nimals M orocco.

9 2

C attle a re i n n orthern

T ABLE 5 .5 C OUNTS A ND P ERCENTAGES O F A L-BASRA A NIMAL B ONE ( SELECTED S AMPLE)

C ount ( No.)

T axon C anis d omesticus

1

E quus s p.

1 4

S us s crofa

0

P ercentage ( %) 0 .0 1 .2 0 .0

C apra h ircus

3 8

3 .2

O vis a ries

8 1

6 .9

O vis c apra

7 97

6 7.5

B os t aurus

2 49

2 1.1

1 ,180

1 00.0

T otal

S keletal R emains T he r emains o f t wo h uman s keletons w ere a lso f ound a t t he s ite, b oth o f t hem i nside t he a ncient w alls. O ne a ppears t o b e a d eliberate b urial w hile t he o ther s eems t o r epresent a n a ccidental d eath o r a s econdary b urial. T he p artly a rticulated s keleton o f o ne i ndividual w as f ound i n t he H 1 s ounding i n t he e astern p art o f t he s ite . L ocated a bout 1 m b elow t he s urface, t he s keleton l ay f lexed o n i ts l eft s ide a nd f aced e astw ard . S everal f lat r ocks w ere p laced d irectly a bove i t. A lthough i t i s n ot c lear w hen t he b ody w as b uried, i ts p osition b elow t he f oundat ions o f t wo n earby l ate-phase w alls s uggests t hat i t m ay h ave o ccurred s ometime p rior t o t he f inal o ccupation p eriod . T he d isarticulated r emains o f a s econd i ndividual w ere f ound b et ween t he p reserved f iring c hamber a nd t he o uter w all o f t he F 3 k iln i n t he w estern p art o f t he c ity . T he s keletal m aterial w as s cattered i n a nd u nder t he m ud-brick d ebris t hat r esulted f rom t he c ollapse o f t he k iln. B ecause o f t he p osition o f t he r emains a nd t he a bsence o f c harr ing o n t he b ones, i t i s l ikely t hat t he b ody w as p laced i n t he k iln a fter i t c eased o perating b ut b efore t he f loor c ollapsed . R edman ( 1983) h as s uggested t hat t he i ndividual m ay h ave d ied w hile r epairing t he k iln o r t hat t he b ones o f a n a lready d ead i ndividual m ay h ave b een t hrown i nto w hat h ad b ecome a n i nactive k iln .

9 3

A lthough

i t i s p ossible t hat i ndividuals w ere b uried

i nside

t he

c ity d uring i ts h eyday , t hey w ere m ore l ikely i nterred i n o ne o f t wo c emeteries t hat e xisted o utside t he c ity d uring t he e arly I slamic p eri od a nd t hat a re m entioned i n t he c hronicles ( al-Bakri 1 965). O ne, w hich i s s till v isible t oday, i s s ituated a bout 1 00 m eters w est o f t he c ity, o n t he c rest o f ah ill o verlooking t he M da R iver v alley . T he o ther i s l ocated e ast o f t he c ity . T he s keletons t hat w ere f ound i ns ide t he c ity w alls t hus m ay r epresent a ccidental d eaths o r b urials t hat o ccurred d uring p eriods o f d estruction o r a bandonment a t t he s ite . M etal

G lass

a nd S tone O bjects

A n umber o f m etal, g lass, a nd s tone a rtifacts w ere u ncovered i n t he a l-Basra e xcavations. B ecause m ost o f t he o bjects a re f ragmentary , t heir o riginal f orm a nd f unction c annot b e d etermined i n m any c ases. T he b ulk o f t he m aterial c onsists o f i ron, e ither i n t he f orm o f b uilding n ails o r p ieces o f i ron s lag. I n a f ew c ases, t he i ron i s s haped i nto r ings. C opper a rtifacts a re a lso r elatively a bundant. T hey g enerally c onsist o f i tems o f p ersonal a dornment, s uch a s p ins, f inger r ings, a nd e ar r ings, a s w ell a s a f ew t hin c opper l eaves p ossib ly m ade o f h ammered n ative m etal. L ead o bjects a re r elatively r are, a nd i nclude w hat a ppears t o b e ap air o f r iding s tirrups. G lass o bjects a re f airly a bundant. A lthough c onsiderably f ragm ented, t hey c onsist p rimarily o f b ottle, v ase, a nd/or l amp b ases t hat a re c oncave i n s hape w here t hey w ere r emoved f rom t he b lowing i nstrum ent. M any o f t he s urfaces a re b adly d eteriorated f rom w eathering a nd a re c haracterized b y a n i rridescent s heen . T he f ragments t hat r etain t heir o riginal c olor a re g reen, b lue, o r y ellow . T wo s mall b eads a re a lso a mong t he g lass o bjects f ound a t t he s ite ( Figure 5 .18). S tone o bjects o ccur v ery r arely . T hey i nclude s everal f ragments o f l arge, r ound g rinding s tones a nd s ome p robable f lint t ools. F inally, t hree c oins w ere f ound a t t he s ite ( Figure 5 .19). T wo s ilver c oins a re b elieved t o d ate t o t he e arly I slamic p eriod b ut t hey h ave n ot b een i dentified b ecause o f t heir b adly w orn c ondition. O ne w as f ound o n t he s urface o f a p laster f loor i n t he G 3 s ounding a nd t he o ther w as f ound i n t he m iddle l evels o f t he F 5 s ounding. A t hird c oin, m ade o f c opper, i s c learly m odern . I t i s c haracterized b y a f ivep ointed I slamic s tar o n o ne s ide a nd w as d iscovered n ear t he s urface o f t he D 1 s ounding. S ummary T he a rtifacts f ound a t a l-Basra e ncompass a w ide v ariety o f c ult ural m aterial u sed i n t he c onstruction o f t he c ity a nd i n t he e veryday l ife o f i ts i nhabitants. A lthough t he m aterial i s d erived f rom a c omp aratively s mall p ortion o f t he s ite, i t i s a ssumed t o b e f airly r epres entative o f t he t otal, n ot o nly b ecause o f i ts l arge q uantity b ut b ecause i t c omes f rom s oundings d istributed a cross t he s ite . T he p ottery, w hich c onstitutes t he l argest c ategory o f a rtifacts r ecovered a t t he s ite, e ncompasses a w ide v ariety o f w ares a nd f orms.

9 4

F igure 5 .18.

c o d e a > p r a

9 5 f rom a l-Basra.

F igure 5 .19.

C oins

f rom a l-Basra.

m odern c oin w ith f ive-pointed s tar; 3 r esidential a rea c ontext;

T op a nd b ottom,

f rom l eft:

u nidentified c oin f ound i n P hase

u nidentified c oin f ound i n P hase 3 i ndus-

t rial a rea c ontext. 9 6

T he b ulk o f t he p ottery c ollection, h owever, c onsists o f o nly a f ew v essel t ypes, w hich w ere u sed p rimarily f or t he p reparation a nd s torage o f f ood a nd l iquids a nd f or a rtificial l ighting. T he c ollection c ont ains v ery f ew e xamples o f c eramic o r o ther m aterial t hat m ay h ave b een u sed s olely f or d ecorative p urposes, s uch a s t he e laborately d ecorated g lazed p lates o r t iles f ound a t o ther e arly I slamic s ites i n t he w este rn M editerranean . I t i s p ossible t hat t he e xcavations a t a l-Basra, b ecause o f t heir p reliminary n ature, f ailed t o u ncover a reas o f t he c ity w here e lite r esidences w ere l ocated a nd w here l uxury g oods w ould b e c oncentrated . O n t he o ther h and, i t i s p ossible t hat t he e xcavat ions r ecovered t he r emains o f s ome o f t hese a reas, p articularly i n t he G s oundings, b ut t hat t hey y ielded r elatively m odest o bjects, r eflecti ng t he p rovincial n ature o f t he t own . O nly a dditional w ork a t t he s ite w ill r esolve t his q uestion. W hat i s r emarkable a t t his s tage i n o ur r esearch i s t he o verall h omogeneity o f t he a l-Basra p ottery c ollect ion--with a l imited v ariety o f w ares a nd f orms d ominating t he t otal a ssemblage.

9 7

C HAPTER 6

D EPOSITIONAL E NVIRONMENT A T A L-BASRA

B efore m oving o n t o c hronological i ssues, i t i s i mportant t o c ons ider t he p rocesses b y w hich p ottery, a nimal b one, a nd o ther a rtifacts f ound t heir w ay i nto t he a rcheological r ecord a t a l-Basra . T hese p roc esses i nclude b oth c ultural a ctivities, s uch a s t rash d isposal a nd b uilding c onstruction, a nd n oncultural a ctions, s uch a s w ind a nd w ater e rosion . A s s everal r esearchers h ave s hown ( e .g., S chiffer 1 976, 1 983), d epositional p rocesses c an h ave a c onsiderable e ffect o n t he h orizontal a nd v ertical d istribution o f a rtifacts a cross a s ite. I n i nvestigating s ome o f t hese i ssues, t his s ection ( 1) d escribes t he t ypes o f d epositional p rocesses t hat a re l ikely t o b e i nvolved i n t he f ormation o f a n u rban s ite, ( 2) e xamines t he c haracteristics o f a rtifacts, i .e., s ize, d ensity , a nd t ype, p resent i n d ifferent t ypes o f d eposits a t a l-Basra, a nd ( 3) i dentifies r esidual o r b adly d isturbed d eposits t hat c ould a ffect t he c hronological o rdering o f a rtifacts a t a l-Basra . T ypes o f D epositional P rocesses T he p rocesses i nvolved i n m oving a rtifacts f rom t heir o riginal, o r s ystemic, c ontext t o t heir f inal p osition i n t he a rcheological r ecord a re p articularly c omplex a t u rban s ites w here m aterial s eldom r emains w here i t i s u sed, d ropped, o r d iscarded ( Boone 1 980; S chiffer 1 976, 1 983; W right 1 981). A b roken w ater j ar, f or e xample, m ay b e r emoved f rom a k itchen w here i t w as u sed a nd t hen d iscarded i n a n a bandoned l ot o n t he p eriphery o f t he c ity; a t a l ater t ime, t he m aterial i n t he l ot m ay b e r eused a s f ill i n t he c onstruction o f an ew b uilding; t he b roken j ar b ecomes p art o f t he a rcheological r ecord w hen t he b uilding c ollaps es. T hus, t he a rcheological c ontext o f t he v essel v aries c onsidera bly--both s patially a nd t emporally--from i ts o riginal p lace o f u se a s a r esult o f h uman i ntervention . S everal p rocesses a re g enerally a t w ork i n t he f ormation o f a n u rban a rcheological s ite ( Schiffer 1 976, 1 983; W right 1 981). P rimary d eposition i nvolves t he l oss o r d iscard o f a rtifacts a t t heir p lace o f u se. A s w e m entioned a bove, t his p rocess r arely o ccurs a t u rban s ites b ecause b roken o r u nusable i tems a re u sually r emoved f rom h abitation a reas a nd d iscarded e lsewhere . H owever, i t d oes o ccur w hen s ites h ave b een a bandoned r apidly o r d estroyed c ataclysmically , s uch a s P ompeii o r A kroteri ( Thera). A rtifacts f ound a t t heir p lace o f u se s erve a s r elia ble i ndicators f or s patial a nd t emporal s tudies. S econdary d eposition i nvolves t he c ollection o f b roken a nd/or u nusable i tems f rom t heir p lace o f u se a nd t heir s ubsequent d iscard a s s econdary t rash e lsewhere. T his p rocess i s p robably r esponsible f or t he d eposition o f m ost c ultural m aterial a t u rban s ites. A s s tudies o f d isposal p ractices a t o ther u rban s ites s how ( Boone 1 980; B rewster-Wray n .d.), b roken o r u nuseable i tems a re c ommonly d iscarded i n a bandoned b uildings o r e mpty l ots b y c ity r esidents w ho d o n ot h ave a ccess t o

9 8

m odern t rash d isposal s ervices. C ultural m aterial t hat i s d iscarded a s s econdary g arbage s erves a s a f airly r eliable c hronological i ndex b ut a r elatively p oor s patial m arker. T ertiary d eposition i nvolves t he r euse o r r ecyling o f s econdary t rash f or o ther p urposes, s uch a s c onstruction f ill o r i n b uilding m aterial. T his t ype o f d epositional b ehavior i s p resent a t s ites w ith s ubstantial a rchitecture a nd/or m ultiple b uilding l evels. T he c ultural m aterial i n t ertiary d eposits g enerally i s n ot w ell s uited f or c hronol ogical o r s patial s tudies b ecause t he m aterial h as b een c ompletely r emoved f rom i ts o riginal s ystemic c ontext. N oncultural d eposition i nvolves t he t ransportation a nd r edeposit ion o f a rtifacts b y n atural f orces, s uch a s w ind a nd w ater e rosion o r a nimal a ctivities. A lthough t his t ype o f d epositional p rocess i s g ene rally n ot am ajor f actor a t u rban s ites, i t m ay b e p resent t o t he e xtent t hat a s ite i s s ubjected t o f looding d uring i ts o ccupation o r t o w ind a nd r ain e rosion a fter i ts a bandonment. C ultural m aterial i n d eposits f ormed b y n atural p rocesses d oes n ot s erve w ell a s a c hronolog ical o r s patial i ndicator b ecause t he m aterial i s a lmost e ntirely r esidual. T he c haracteristics o f a rtifacts f ound i n d eposits f ormed b y d iff erent p rocesses--theoretically, a t l east--should v ary . W hile a v arie ty o f a ttributes h ave b een u sed i n p revious s tudies ( see S chiffer 1 983 f or e xamples), I w ill c oncentrate o n t hree a ttributes t hat s eem t o b e m ost r elevant t o t he a l-Basra m aterial. T hese a re s herd s ize, s herd a nd b one d ensities, a nd t he p resence o r a bsence o f m etal a nd g lass o bjects. T he s ize o f s herds f ound i n a rcheological c ontexts m ay b e d irectly r elated t o t he a mount o f d isturbance a nd r edeposition t hey u ndergo d uring t heir d epositional l ifetime ( Bradley a nd F ulford 1 975; B rewsterW ray n .d .). A ll o ther t hings b eing e qual, t he s ize o f s herds d ecreases a s t he n umber o f e pisodes o f r edeposition i ncreases b ecause t he s herds c ontinue t o b e s ubjected t o b reakage . F or e xample, s herds f ound i n s econdary c ontexts s hould b e s maller t han t hose f ound i n s itu ; t hose f ound i n t ertiary c ontexts s hould b e s maller t han t hose p resent i n e ither p rimary o r s econdary s ituations. S herd a nd b one d ensities i n t erms o f w eight c an a lso b e r elated t o t he d epositional b ehavior o f u rban r esidents ( Boone 1 980; B rewster-Wray n .d .). T he d ensities o f b oth p ottery a nd b one s hould b e h igher i n d umps w here t hey a re d elibera tely d iscarded t han o n f loors w here t hey a re p eriodically s wept u p a nd r emoved . T he d ensity o f a nimal b one s hould b e p articularly l ow o n o ccupation s urfaces b ecause o f i ts n oxious c haracter. F inally, t he p resence o r a bsence o f m etal a nd g lass o bjects c an a lso b e a ssociated w ith t he d epositional h abits o f c ity i nhabitants w hich, i n m ost c ases, a re d etermined b y c ultural a ttitudes t oward t he v alue a nd/or r euse p otential o f c ertain o bjects. A t t he m edieval s ite o f K sar e s-Seghir, f or e xample, t he o ccurrence o f c opper a nd g lass f ragments p rimarily i n d umps r ather t han o n f loors s uggests t hat t hese i tems m ay h ave h ad l ittle r euse v alue o r w ere h ighly n oxious t o l ocal r esidents ( Boone 1 980).

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D epositional P rocesses a t a l-Basra M ethod o f S tudy T he s tudy o f d epositional f actors a t t he s ite o f a l-Basra p roceede d i n t he f ollowing w ay . I ndividual p rovenience u nits, i .e ., l evell oci, w ere a ssigned t o s pecific d epositional c ategories o n t he b asis o f s tratigraphic e vidence, i ncluding a rchitectural f eatures a nd s ediment ary c haracteristics. T his i nvolved m ost o f t he 2 15 l evel-loci e xcavat ed a t t he s ite . A verage s herd s ize, s herd a nd b one d ensities, a nd t he p resence o r a bsence o f m etal a nd g lass w ere d etermined f or e ach p rovenience u nit f or w hich s uch i nformation w as a vailable. A verage s herd s ize w as c alc ulated b y d ividing t he t otal w eight o f s herds ( in k ilograms) b y t he t otal n umber o f s herds i n a p rovenience u nit. S herd d ensities w ere c alculated b y d ividing t he t otal w eight o f s herds ( in k ilograms) r ecove red f rom a p rovenience u nit b y t he e stimated t otal v olume o f e arth ( in c ubic m eters) r emoved f rom t he u nit. B one d ensities w ere c omputed i n t he s ame w ay . T he p resence o r a bsence o f m etal a nd g lass o bjects i n e ach p rovenience u nit w as d etermined f rom f ield r ecords. C alculations w ere m ade f or a t otal o f 1 37 p rovenience u nits, i ncluding n early a ll l evel-loci i n d eeply s tratified s oundings a nd a s ample o f l evel-loci i n s hallow s oundings. T his i nformation i s p resented i n A ppendices 1 a nd 2 . F inally, t he m ean s herd s ize, t he m ean s herd a nd b one d ensities, a nd t he n umber o f p rovenience u nits c ontaining m etal a nd g lass o bjects w ere d etermined f or e ach d epositional c ategory . T his i nformation i s s ummarized i n T able 6 .1 a nd F igure 6 .1.

T ABLE 6 .1 A VERAGE S HERD S IZE, A ND P OTTERY A ND B ONE D ENSITIES, B Y D EPOSITIONAL C ATEGORY

D eposit C ategory S terile s oil T opsoil M ud-brick c ollapse P rimary f loor S econdary f loor K iln c ollapse G ravel f ill U ndifferentiated f ill C onstruction f ill

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T ypes o f D eposits T he n ine d epositional c ategories p revalent a t a l-Basra c ribed b elow .

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P rimary-floor d eposits ( F1) P rimary f loor d eposits o ccur d irectly a bove p laster, s tone, o r h ard-packed e arth s urfaces. T hey a re o verlain w ith t he d ebris o f c oll apsed b uildings, s uch a s b uilding s tone , d eteriorated m ud b rick, a nd b roken r oof t iles. I n s ome c ases, p rimary f loor d eposits c ontain t he r emains o f p ottery v essels t hat w ere a pparently b roken i n s itu b y t he w eight o f f alling r oofs a nd w alls, e .g., G 2 5 -2/6-2, G 2 5 -1/6-1, a nd F 3 3 -0, o r w ere l eft b ehind w hen t he b uildings w ere a bandoned. S econdary-floor d eposits ( F2) S econdary f loor d eposits o ccur d irectly a bove p laster, s tone, o r h ard-packed e arth s urfaces. I n c ontrast t o p rimary d eposits, h owever, t hey a re n ot s ealed f rom a bove b y b uilding c ollapse d ebris. I nstead, t hey c onsist o f a r elatively t hick l ayer o f u ndifferentiated f ill w hich a ppears t o h ave b een d iscarded o ver a r elatively l ong p eriod o f t ime . K iln-collapse d eposits ( KC) T hese p rimary a nd s econdary d eposits o ccur i n d irect a ssociation w ith t wo u pdraft k ilns f ound a t t he s ite . T hey c ontain t he d ebris o f c ollapsed k ilns, i ncluding b rick a nd r oof t ile f ragments, a nd o ther m aterial d eposited a s s econdary f ill i n t he a rea . U ndifferentiated-fill d eposits ( UF) T hese s econdary d eposits a re f ound i n a ssociation w ith s tone w alls a nd f loors a nd i n o pen a reas w ithout a ny a ssociated a rchitectural m ater ial. T he d eposits c ontain l ittle o r n o b uilding d ebris. T hey a re c haracterized b y s ediments t hat a re u sually l oose a nd s andy a nd, l ess f requently , c layey . T he d eposits a ppear t o h ave a ccumulated a s a r es ult o f n umerous s econdary d umping o r d iscard e pisodes. C onstruction-fill d eposits ( CF) T hese t ertiary d eposits a re f ound a djacent t o o r d irectly b elow t he b ase o f s tone w alls o r f loors. T hey c onsist o f f ill--often i ncludi ng b uilding s tone f ragments--that p resumably a ccumulated i n a nother p art o f t he s ite a nd w as s ubsequently r eused f or t he f oundation o f a n ew b uilding.

M udbrick-wall-collapse d eposits ( MC) T hese t ertiary d eposits a re u sually f ound t oward t he u pper p art o f s tone w alls. T hey r epresent t he d eteriorated m ud b rick u sed i n t he c onstruction o f t he u pper p art o f w alls a nd t he d ebris o f f allen r oofs. T he d eposits a re d istinguished b y t heir o rangish-red c layey m atrix a nd n umerous r ooftile a nd c harcoal i nclusions. O ther c ultural m aterial

1 02

f ound i n t hese d eposits m ay h ave s erved a s a t empering m aterial i n m anufacture o f u nfired m ud b rick.

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G ravel-fill d eposits ( GF) T hese t ertiary d eposits c ontain l arge q uantities o f g ravel t hat a ppear t o h ave b een d eposited b y f luvial a ction. T hey a re f ound i n a ssociation w ith s tone w alls a nd i n a reas w ith n o a rchitecture . T he m aterial i n t he d eposits i s v ery l ikely r esidual a nd w as r edeposited a long w ith t he g ravel b y w ater a ction . T opsoil d eposits ( TS) T hese t ertiary d eposits a re f ound a t t he s urface o f t he s ite a nd r ange i n d epth f rom a f ew c entimeters o n t he h ill s lopes t o h alf a m eter o n t he v alley f loor. T hey a ccumulated a s a r esult o f s oil e ros ion f rom t he h ills a round t he s ite . T he c ultural m aterial i n t hese d eposits h as m oved a c onsiderable d istance o ver a p eriod o f s everal c enturies. S terile-soil d eposits ( SS) T hese d eposits a re l ocated b elow t he c ultural l evels a t t he s ite . T hey c onsist o f d ark g ray t o b lack c alcareous c layey s ediments i n t he v alley a nd p ebbly r ed c layey s ediments o n t he h illsides. T hey c ontain a s mall a mount o f c ultural m aterial t hat h as f iltered d own f rom t he h abitation l evels a bove. C haracteristics o f D eposits A verage s herd s izes A s F igure 6 .1 i llustrates, a rtifact s izes a nd d ensities v ary o ne d epositional c ategory t o a nother. A lthough t hey f ollow t he t erns w e e xpected i n m ost c ases, t hey d iverge i n o thers.

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T he a verage s herd s ize i s r elatively s mall i n t opsoil, s teriles oil, a nd m ud-brick-wall-collapse d eposits, a ll o f w hich r epresent t ertiary e nvironments. T he s herds i n t hese d eposits a re l ikely t o h ave b een r educed i n s ize b y p lowing, t rampling, a lluvial a ctivities, o r r ecyling a s b uilding m aterial. T he s herd s ize i s u nexpectedly s mall i n s ome p rimary-floor d eposits. A lthough s ome o f t hese d eposits c ontained v essels t hat a ppeared t o h ave b een b roken i n s itu w hen t he r oof c oll apsed a nd t hus w ere c haracterized b y l arge, o ften r efittable s herds, s uch a s t hose f ound i n G 2 5 -2/6-2 ( see F igure 4 .4), o ther p rimary f loor d eposits s eem t o h ave c ontained m aterial t hat w as d iscarded a s s econd ary t rash o r e mbedded i n t he f loor a s a r esult o f t rampling. T he v ariation i n a verage s herd s ize i n p rimary f loor c ontexts s uggests t hat a n umber o f d ifferent f actors w ere o perating a nd, c onsequently, s uch d eposits a re n ot e asily c ategorized. T he a verage s herd s ize i s r elatively l arge i n u ndifferentiated f ill, s econdary-floor, a nd k iln-collapse d eposits, a ll o f w hich r epres ent s econdary d eposits f ormed w hen m aterial w as m oved f rom i ts p lace o f u se a nd r edeposited i n a d ump o r t rash a rea. S urprisingly, l arge

1 03

a verage s herd s izes a re a lso f ound i n g ravel a nd b uilding f ill, w hich a re t ertiary d eposits a nd w ould b e e xpected t o h ave f airly s mall s herd s izes b ecause o f f requent d isturbance. T he f act t hat t hey d o n ot r aises s ome q uestions. S herds f ound i n g ravel d eposits, w hich w ere a lmost a lways l ocated i n t he l owest p art o f t he v alley f loor, m ay h ave a ctually b een s ubjected t o r elatively b rief e pisodes o f a lluvial d ist urbance, e specially i n c omparison w ith t he d ebris i n t opsoil d eposits t hat e xperienced s everal c enturies o f r edeposition. T he b rief p eriod o f d isturbance m ay n ot h ave b een l ong e nough o r c onstant e nough t o r educe t he s herds i n s ize. P ottery f ound i n c onstruction f ill m ay h ave b een s elected f or i ts s ize, s ince l arger f ragments w ould f ill a n a rea m ore q uickly . S herds f rom w aster d umps, f or e xample, m ay h ave b een u sed f or b uilding f ill, a lthough t he m aterial f ound i n c onstruction f ill d oes n ot e xhibit a n u nusually h igh p roportion o f b loated o r o verf ired p ieces. I n s ummary, t he v ariation i n a verage s herd s izes i n d ifferent k inds o f d epositional e nvironments a t a l-Basra s eems t o b e p artly a f unction o f t he a mount o f d isturbance a nd r edeposition t hat t he m ateria l u nderwent d uring i ts d epositional h istory . A verage s herd s ize m ay a lso b e a ffected b y s everal o ther f actors, s uch a s t he n ature o f t he d isturbance, e .g., t rampling v ersus r oof c ollapse, a nd t he d uration o f t he d isturbance, e .g., t en y ears v ersus s everal c enturies. I t m ay a lso b e a f unction o f t he c haracter o f t he p ottery i tself. F or e xample, t he r elatively h ard, k iln-fired p ottery f ound a t a l-Basra m ay b e m ore r es istant t o b reakage a nd w ear t han m ost l ow-fired c eramics, m aking i t a l ess s ensitive i ndicator o f d epositional p rocesses. S herd a nd b one d ensities S herd a nd b one d ensities a lso v ary a mong d epositional c ategories ( Figure 6 .1). A s w as e xpected, a rtifact d ensities a re r elatively l ow i n t opsoil a nd s terile-soil d eposits; n either t ype o f d eposit i s a ssoc iated w ith a ctual h abitation l evels a t t he s ite. O n t he o ther h and, s herd a nd b one d ensities a re m oderately l ow i n p rimary- a nd s econdaryf loor, m ud-brick-collapse, a nd k iln-collapse d eposits, a lthough u nusu ally h igh b one d ensities o ccur i n g ravel d eposits. T he d eposits i n m ost o f t hese c ases a re a ssociated w ith w orking o r l iving a reas, i n w hich t he a mount o f d ebris w ould b e e xpected t o b e k ept t o a m inimum . A rtifact d ensities a re m oderately h igh i n u ndifferentiated f ill d eposi ts w here c ultural m aterial w as d eliberately d iscarded . F inally , s herd a nd b one d ensities a re h ighest i n c onstruction-fill d eposits, i n w hich c ultural d ebris m ay h ave b een p urposely a dded i n o rder t o b uild u p a reas o f t he s ite f or n ew c onstruction . R esearchers a t o ther u rban s ites h ave d iscovered t hat a rtifact d ensities g enerally s eem t o b e l ower i n f loor d eposits t han i n s econda ry-fill d eposits, w hich a ccumulate a s a r esult o f d eliberate t rash d isposal ( Boone 1 980; B rewster-Wray n .d .). A t a l-Basra, h owever, s herd a nd b one d ensities i n s econdary-floor d eposits, w hich w ere a ssumed t o b e l oci o f s econdary t rash d isposal, w ere u nusually l ow i n c omparison w ith g eneral f ill d eposits. T his s uggests t hat t rash a ccumulated o n a bandoned f loors a t a s lower p ace t han i t d id a t o ther s econdary t rash l ocations, p erhaps b ecause f loors, e specially t hose l ocated i nside b uildings, w ere r elatively i naccessible t o u rban r esidents f or d umping.

1 04

P resence o f M etal a nd G lass O bjects A s T able 6 .2 s hows, t he p resence o f m etal a nd g lass o bjects v aries i n r elation t o d epositional t ype. I ron, a s a c ategory

a lso t hat

i ncludes n ails a nd s lag, a ppears f requently i n m ost t ypes o f d eposits, p articularly i n u ndifferentiated f ill, g ravel f ill, k iln c ollapse, a nd t opsoil d eposits. I ron n ails a s a s eparate c ategory, h owever, o ccur f ar l ess f requently i n t hese d eposits. I nstead, t hey a re f ound p rimari ly i n f loor d eposits a nd i n m ud-brick w all d ebris, b oth o f w hich a re a ssociated w ith a rchitectural m aterial. T his s uggests t hat t hey w ere u sed i n w all o r r oof c onstruction a nd d ropped i nto f loor d eposits w hen t he s tructure c ollapsed. I nterestingly, a s imilar c oncentration o f n ails i n f loor d eposits w as f ound i n t he P ortuguese l evels a t K sar e sS eghir ( Boone 1 980). L ike n ails, c opper o bjects a lso w ere c oncentrated i n f loor, m ud-brick, a nd t opsoil d eposits a t a l-Basra, s uggesting t hat t hey t oo m ay h ave b een u sed i n b uilding c onstruction. T hose c opper o bjects t hat c onsisted o f i tems o f p ersonal a dornment m ay h ave b een a bandoned i n r ooms b efore t he b uildings c ollapsed . G lass f ragments o ccur a t a l-Basra m ore f requently i n c onstruction-fill, s econdary-fill, k iln-collapse, a nd f loor c ontexts. T he d istribution o f c opper a nd g lass o bjects d iffers s omewhat f rom t hat a t K sar e s-Seghir w here b oth k inds o f i tems w ere f ound m ainly i n d umps. T he d ifferences m ay r ef lect, a mong o thers, c ultural d ifferences c oncerning t he v alue o f c opp er a nd g lass a mong t he P ortuguese o r I slamic p opulations o f t hese c ities. R esidual a nd D isturbed D eposits A s a r esult o f t he s tudy , s everal t ypes o f d eposits a t a l-Basra w ere i dentified a s p otentially r esidual a nd b adly d isturbed . T hese w ere d eposits t hat c onsisted o f t opsoil, b uilding f ill, a nd t he d ebris o f c ollapsed m ud b rick. I n t he c ourse o f d eveloping a p ottery c hronol ogy f or a l-Basra ( see C hapter 7 ), i t b ecame e vident t hat a f ew o f t hese d eposits c ontained p ottery m aterial t hat w as c learly m ixed, i .e ., t he p roportions o f p ottery w ares a nd f orms d iffered s ignificantly f rom t hose i n e arlier o r l ater d eposits. O n t he b asis o f b oth s tratigraphic a nd d epositional e vidence, t he p ottery d ata f or t hese p rovenience u nits w ere n ot u sed i n s ubsequent a nalyses t hat r equired t emporally c oherent a ssemblages. T he c learly r esidual p ottery i n t opsoil d eposits w as t reated a s p ost-urban m aterial ( Phase 4 ) f or l ater c hronological s tudy . T he c eram ic m aterial f rom c ertain b uilding-fill d eposits t hat a ppeared t o b e b adly m ixed, e .g., G 1 1 0-1, w as n ot u sed i n f urther a nalyses; h owever, t he p ottery f rom b uilding-fill d eposits t hat f ell i nto t he n ormal p ott ery s equence w as r etained . T he p ottery i n m ud-brick-wall d eposits, w hich w as a lso e xpected t o b e b adly m ixed, i n f act c losely r eflected t he c eramic m aterial f ound i n a ssociated f loor d eposits, s uggesting t hat s ome o f i t m ay o riginally h ave b een p laced o n f loors o r t hat t he m ud b ricks w ere t empered w ith c ontemporaneous c eramic m aterial. A s a r esult, t he p ottery i n t hese d eposits w as c onsidered i n t he c hronologic al s tudy . I n a ddition t o i dentifying d isturbed d eposits a t a l-Basra, t he s tudy u nderscores t he c omplex a nd o ften p articularistic n ature o f d epo-

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1 07

C HAPTER 7

A L-BASRA P OTTERY C HRONOLOGY

T he d evelopment o f a c eramic c hronology f or t he e arly I slamic s ite o f a l-Basra i s i mportant f or a n umber o f r easons. F irst o f a ll, i t p rovides a t emporal f ramework f or a s tudy o f t he p ottery i ndustry a t a l-Basra ( see C hapter 8 ). W ith r elatively s ecure c hronological c ont rols, i t i s p ossible t o m onitor c hanges i n t he o rganization a nd t echn ology o f p ottery p roduction a t t he c enter d uring i ts 3 00-year h istory . T he d evelopment o f a c eramic s equence a lso s ets t he s tage f or f uture e xcavations a t a l-Basra a nd f or a rcheological s urveys i n n orthern M oro cco. W ith a p ottery s equence e stablished , i t w ill b e p ossible t o d ate o ther a rchitectural a nd a rtifactual m aterial e xcavated a t a l-Basra a nd i dentify o ther I slamic s ites i n t he s urrounding r egion . F inally , t he d evelopment o f a c eramic c hronology p rovides a n i mportant c ontribution t o t he c omparative s tudy o f e arly I slamic p ottery i n t he w estern M edit erranean. T he a l-Basra p ottery s equence r epresents o ne o f t he f ew c hronologies a vailable f or t he e arly p eriod o f A rab s ettlement i n N orth A frica a nd S pain t hat i s b ased o n f irm s tratigraphic e vidence a nd s yst ematic s ampling p rocedures. T he c hronological e vidence i s p resented i n t his c hapter i n t hree s ections: ( 1) a d iscussion o f t he m ethodology u sed t o d evelop t he s eq uence, ( 2) a d escription o f t he c hronology i tself, a nd ( 3) a c omparat ive s tudy o f c eramic m aterial f rom o ther e arly I slamic s ites i n M oro cco, A lgeria,

T unisia,

a nd S pain. M ethodology

B ecause o f t he a vailability o f a bundant s tratigraphic e vidence a t a l-Basra, t he m ethod I u sed t o d evelop a p ottery c hronology w as f airly s imple a nd s traightforward . I t i nvolved c alculating t he r elative f req uencies o f w ares a nd f orms f or e ach p rovenience u nit a nd o rdering t he u nits i nto a s equence a ccording t o t heir s tratigraphic p osition i ndividual s oundings.

w ithin

T he w ares a nd f orms s elected f or t he a nalysis c onsisted o f t hose t hat a ppeared t o b e p articularly s ensitive t o t emporal c hange . T hese w ere a ll o f t he w are c ategories ( sandy b uff, f ine b uff, a nd v ery f ine b uff, c ream-colored, c oarse, g lazed, a nd h andmade) a nd s ix m ajor f orm c ategories ( 40, 4 1, 4 2, 4 3, 4 8, a nd 9 3). A lthough a f ew m inor f orms ( those a mounting t o l ess t han 2 % o f t he c ollection) a lso e xhibited s ome t emporal v ariation, t hey w ere n ot i ncluded i n t he m ajor f orm a nalysis b ecause o f t heir s mall q uantities. T hey a re, h owever, b riefly d isc ussed i n a s eparate s ection o f t his c hapter. I n a ll, m ore t han 5 ,000 r im s herds, i dentified b y w are a nd f orm , w ere i ncluded i n t he c hronol ogical s tudy . T he p rovenience u nits u sed i n t he a nalysis i ncluded n early a ll o f t hose f rom d eeply s tratified s oundings ( F1, F 3, F 5, G l, a nd G 2) a nd a s election o f o thers f rom m inor s oundings ( Al, C l, D 1, E l, F 2, F 4, F 5, G 3, H 1, a nd 1 2). A lthough e very e ffort w as m ade t o k eep t he s mallest

1 08

p ossible u nits o f a nalysis i ntact i n o rder t o m onitor g radual t emporal c hanges, a f ew p rovenience u nits w ith l ow s herd c ounts w ere c ombined w ith a djacent u nits. A t otal o f 1 33 p rovenience u nits w ere c onsidered i n t he s tudy . T he r elative f requencies o f w ares a nd f orms f or e ach p rovenience u nit i n i ndividual s oundings a re d isplayed i n t he b ar d iagrams i n F igu res 7 .1-7.14. T he a ctual c ounts a re p resented i n A ppendices 3 a nd 4 . I n t he b ar d iagrams, t he c olumns r epresent w ares a nd f orms a nd t he r ows r epresent s pecific p rovenience u nits ( level-loci). P rovenience u nits a re d isplayed v ery m uch a s t hey a ppeared s tratigraphically, w ith u nits g rouped b y l ocus a nd a rranged b y l evel f rom t op t o b ottom . L evels t hat r epresent t he e arly o ccupation p hase ( Phase 1 ) a re a t t he b ottom ; t hose t hat r epresent t he p ost-urban p hase ( Phase 4 ) a re a t t he t op. A v isual i nspection o f t he b ar d iagrams i ndicates t hat t he r elat ive f requencies o f s ome w ares a nd f orms c hange i n a c onsistent m anner f rom e arly t o l ate a ssemblages. T he d iagrams a lso s how t hat t he r elat ive a bundances o f s ome w ares a nd f orms c hange i n a s imilar w ay f rom o ne s ounding t o a nother, t hereby a llowing p rovenience u nits f rom d iff erent p arts o f t he s ite t o b e c orrelated o n t he b asis o f c eramic e vid ence. F inally , t he d iagrams d emonstrate t hat m ajor s hifts i n t he p resence o r r elative a bundances o f c ertain w ares a nd f orms c oincide w ith i mportant a rchitectural c hanges, t hus a llowing p ottery a ssemblages t o b e a ssigned t o s pecific o ccupation p hases. M inor f orms a nd g lazed a nd p ainted p ottery a re n ot i ncluded i n t he b ar d iagrams b ut t hey a re d iscussed i n a l ater s ection . S ome o f t hese r elatively r are p ottery t ypes s erve a s p otential d iagnostic m arkers f or c ertain o ccupation p hases a t a l-Basra . T emporal D istribution o f W ares A s F igures 7 .1-7.7 s how, t he r elative a bundances o f s everal a lB asra w ares i ncrease o r d ecrease i n a c onsistent w ay t hrough t ime . T he m ost s triking c hanges o ccur i n f our o f t he s even w are g roups: s andy b uff, v ery f ine b uff, c ream-colored, a nd g lazed. M ost o f t hese c hanges s eem t o b e t he r esult o f t echnological i nnovations i n p ottery p roduct ion a t t he u rban c enter. I n t he c ase o f i mported g lazed w ares, h owe ver, t he c hanges a ppear t o b e t he r esult o f s hifts i n t rading p ract ices b etween t he m erchants o f a l-Basra a nd o ther u rban c enters. I n t he f ollowing d iscussion, t he e arly o ccupation p hase r efers t o P hase 1 , t he m iddle o ccupation p hase t o P hase 2 , t he l ate o ccupation p hase t o P hase 3 , a nd t he p ost-urban p hase t o P hase 4 . S andy w ares S andy b uff-firing w ares a re c oncentrated i n t he l owest l evels a t a l-Basra, w here t hey a re a ssociated w ith a rchitectural r emains f rom t he e arly o ccupation p hase. T he c oarsely t extured w ares a re r elatively a bundant i n t he l owest l evels o f t he r esidential s oundings ( G1 a nd G 2 [ Figures 7 .4-7.51) a nd i n o ne o f t he k iln s oundings ( F3 [ Figure 7 .21), w here t hey r ange f rom 2 0% t o 6 0% o f e ach a ssemblage . S andy w ares d ec line i n r elative f requency i n t he s econd a nd t hird o ccupation p hases a t t he s ite .

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e arly o ccupation p hase t o 3 % i n t he t hird o ccupation p hase . C reamc olored w ares a lso d ecrease, f rom 1 7% t o 8 % d uring t he s ame p eriod . B y c ontrast, v ery f ine w ares i ncrease d ramatically f rom l ess t han 1 % i n P hase 1 t o 3 5% i n P hase 3 . G lazed w ares i ncrease f rom a bout 1 % i n t he e arly p hase t o 3 % i n t he l ate p hase . F ine b uff w ares, h andmade w ares, a nd c oarse w ares d o n ot d emonstrate a ny c onsistent p attern o f c hange d uring t he o ccupation o f a l-Basra . T emporal D istribution o f M ajor F orms T he r elative a bundances o f s everal v essel f orms f rom a l-Basra a lso v ary t hrough t ime. T he m ost s triking c hanges i nvolve s ix o f t he 1 1 m ajor f orms: t hree t ypes o f s mall s torage j ars ( triangular-rim j ars [ Form 4 1], b and-rim j ars [ Form 4 2], a nd g rooved-band-rim j ars [ Form 4 3]), c arinated j ars ( Form 4 0), p itchers ( Form 4 8), a nd n osed l amps ( Form 9 3). S torage j ars A s F igures 7 .8-7.14 s how, t he r elative f requencies o f a ll t hree s torage j ars ( Forms 4 1, 4 2, a nd 4 3) c hange i n r elation t o o ne a nother o ver t ime. B and-rim s torage j ars ( Form 4 2) a re c oncentrated a lmost e xclusively i n a ssemblages a ssociated w ith t he e arliest o ccupation l evels, w here t hey a re p resent i n m oderate q uantities; t hey a re v irt ually a bsent i n m iddle a nd l ate p hase a ssemblages, a t rend t hat i s a pparent i n n early a ll o f t he s oundings. G rooved-band-rim j ars ( Form 4 3), l ikewise, a re r elatively a bundant i n e arly a ssemblages a nd g radu ally d ecline i n r elative f requency i n l ater o nes. B y c ontrast, t he p roportion o f t riangular-rim j ars ( Form 4 1) s teadily i ncreases f rom e arly t o l ate l evels; i n a f ew c ases, t he t rend r everses i tself b riefly a t p oints i n t he s oundings w here t he d eposits a re l ikely t o h ave b een d isturbed, e .g., i n F l, G l, a nd G 2 ( Figures 7 .8, 7 .11, a nd 7 .12) b ut o verall i t t ends t oward i ncreasing f requency . I n t erms o f s torage v essels, t hen, b and-rim a nd g rooved-band-rim j ars a re p revalent i n t he e arly a ssemblages; b and-rim j ars d isappear i n t he m iddle l evels, w ith t he o ther t wo t ypes p resent i n a bout e qual p roportions; i n t he l ate a ssemblages, t riangular-rim j ars b ecome t he d ominant f orm . I t i s p oss ible t hat t he s imultaneous c hanges i n t he p roportions o f t hese f unct ionally s imilar b ut s tylistically d ifferent s torage j ars r eflects a s hift i n t he n umber o r s ize o f t he w orkshops t hat p roduced t hem . P itchers P itchers ( Form 4 8) e xhibit a n i ncrease i n r elative f requency t hrough t ime. T he p roportion o f p itchers i s r elatively l ow i n t he e arly l evels, i t i ncreases m oderately i n t he m iddle l evels, a nd i t b ecomes t he p redominant v essel f orm i n l ate a ssemblages. T he r elative a bundance o f p itchers r ises s teadily a nd s omewhat s teeply i n t he l ate l evels, s uggesting t he p ossibility o f a c hange i n t he e ating o r d rinki ng h abits o f a l-Basra r esidents. C arinated j ars

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1 29

i n P hase 2 d eposits. T he r ecovery o f a dditional p ottery w ill h elp t o d etermine i f, i ndeed, t hese m inor f orms a re r eliable m arkers f or v ario us t emporal p hases a t a l-Basra .

T ABLE 7 .3 C OUNTS O F M INOR A L-BASRA F ORMS, B Y O CCUPATION P HASE

B owls O ccupation P hase

R im T otal' ( No.) 1 3

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t otal e xcludes 3 02 s herds f rom p rovenience u nits t hat n ot b e a ssigned t o a n o ccupation p hase. t otal e xcludes 2 6 s herds f rom p rovenience u nits t hat n ot b e a ssigned t o a n o ccupation p hase.

1 30

0

T emporal D istribution o f G lazed a nd P ainted P ottery I n a ddition t o l ooking a t t he p roportions o f a l-Basra w ares a nd f orms, I e xamined t he r elative a bundances o f g lazed p ottery a nd p ainted w ares. T his i nformation p rovides f urther e vidence f or t emporal c hanges i n t he a l-Basra p ottery c ollection . I t a lso s ets t he s tage f or a c omp arison o f t he a l-Basra m aterial w ith o ther I slamic p ottery c ollections f rom N orth A frica a nd S pain, m ost o f w hich h ave b een s tudied f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f d ecorative t echniques. A s w e s aw i n C hapter 5 , g lazed w ares c onstitute a v ery s mall p rop ortion o f t he a l-Basra c ollection. D espite t heir s mall n umbers, t hey e ncompass a r ange o f g laze c olors a nd d ecorative t reatments. A s T able 7 .4 s hows, m any o f t hem c hange i n r elative a bundance f rom o ne o ccupat ion p hase t o t he n ext. T he m ost c ommon t ype--an u ndecorated g reen a nd/or h oney-colored w are--varies f rom a bout 5 0% t o 6 7% o f a ll g lazed m aterial. T hree o ther t ypes o ccur a lmost e xclusively i n t he e arliest o ccupation p hase . O ne o f t hese i s a l ight y ellow ( bisque) g lazed w are d ecorated w ith a g reen-and-manganese m otif. A nother t ype i s i ncised w ith a s imple l inear m otif u nder a g laze . A t hird t ype i s a m ottled l ight g reen, p ossibly t in-based, g lazed w are . A nother t ype--a g lazep ainted w are--occurs i n s mall a mounts i n a ll t hree o ccupation p hases. T his w are i s ap ossible p recursor o f c uerda s eca, a t ype o f g lazed p ottery t hat a ppeared i n t he w estern M editerranean i n t he m id-tenth c entury . F inally, f our t ypes o f g lazed p ottery a re p resent o nly i n t he l ast t wo o ccupation p hases. T wo o f t hem h ave a h oney- o r g reen-colored g laze o ver aw hite s lip. A v ariant h as a h oney-colored g laze o ver g reen p aint; t his o ne o ccurs m ostly i n t he t hird p hase. A f ourth i s t he d istinctive m anganese d ecorated, h oney-colored g lazed w are, w hich i s f ound a t m any l ater I slamic s ites i n M orocco; i t o ccurs a lmost e xc lusively i n a ssemblages a ssociated w ith t he f inal o ccupation p hase a t a l-Basra . P ainted p ottery i s a lso r elatively r are i n t he a l-Basra c ollect ion . U nlike t he v ariety o f g lazed t ypes, h owever, p ainted w ares a re r elatively h omogeneous i n t erms o f d ecorative t echnique a nd d esign. T hey a re a lmost i nvariably d ecorated w ith s imple l inear a nd d ot m otifs i n a r ed- o r b rown-matte p aint. T hey u sually b elong t o p itcher-like v essels ( Form 4 8) w ith a c ream-colored p aste, s imilar t o t he w ares p roduced b y m odern-day B erbers. A s T able 7 .5 s hows, p ainted s herds a re c oncentrated i n t he e arly o ccupation l evels a t t he s ite . T he r elative a bundance o f p ainted s herds i n t he t otal a l-Basra c ollection d rops f rom 4 % i n P hase 1 t o a bout 1 % i n P hases 2 a nd 3 . S ummary o f a l-Basra P ottery C hronology T he a l-Basra p ottery s equence c an b e d ivided i nto t hree m ajor p hases, e ach a ssociated w ith s pecific a rchitectural f eatures a t t he u rban s ite . T hese p hases a re c haracterized b y t he a ppearance o r t he p redominance o f c ertain p ottery w ares a nd f orms. P hase 1 , w hich i s a ssociated w ith a rchitecture f rom t he e arliest s ettlement a t t he s ite, i s c haracterized b y a p redominance o f s andy b uff-firing a nd c ream-colored w ares, s ome o f w hich a re p ainted, a nd b y

1 31

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T ABLE 7 .5 C OUNTS O F A L-BASRA P AINTED P OTTERY, B Y O CCUPATION P HASE

O ccupation P hase 4

P ost-Urban

3

L ate

R im T otal' ( No.) 3 50

P ainted R ims ( No.) ( %) 3

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' Rim t otal e xcludes 3 02 s herds f rom p rovenience u nits t hat c ould n ot b e a ssigned t o a n o ccupation p hase.

t he a bsence o f v ery f ine w ares. I t i s a lso m arked b y t he p resence o f b and-rim s torage j ars ( Form 4 2) a nd a h igh p roportion o f g rooved-bandr im s torage j ars ( Form 4 3) r elative t o t riangular-rim j ars ( Form 4 1). G reen-and-manganese-on-light y ellow g lazed s herds a re a lso p resent i n t hese e arly a ssemblages. P hase 2 , w hich i s r elated t o am ajor r ebuilding o f t he c ity i nv olving t he c onstruction o f w ell-shaped l imestone w alls a nd p laster f loors, i s d istinguished b y t he a ppearance o f v ery f ine b uff w ares a nd ad ecline i n t he p roportion o f s andy b uff a nd c ream-colored w ares. I t i s a lso a ssociated w ith t he n early c omplete d isappearance o f b and-rim j ars ( Form 4 2) a nd a l ow p roportion o f g rooved-band-rim j ars ( Form 4 3) r elative t o t riangular-rim j ars ( Form 4 1), w hich b ecome t he d ominant f orm o f s mall s torage j ars. P hase 3 , w hich i s a ssociated w ith a s econd r econstruction o f t he c ity i nvolving r oughly b uilt s tone w alls, i s c haracterized b y a r elat ively h igh p roportion o f v ery f ine b uff w ares a nd g lazed w ares, p art icularly a m anganese-painted, h oney-colored v ariety . I t i s a lso c hara cterized b y ah igh p roportion o f p itchers ( Form 4 8) a nd t riangular-rim j ars ( Form 4 1) a nd a l ow p roportion o f g rooved-band-rim j ars ( Form 4 3) a nd c arinated j ars ( Form 4 0). P hase 4 , w hich i s a ssociated w ith e phemeral s ettlements t hat t ook p lace a fter t he c ity 's f inal c ollapse, i s c haracterized b y a n a brupt r eversal i n m any o f t he t rends d escribed a bove . T he a ssemblages f rom t his p ost-urban p hase c ontain r esidual p ottery t hat h as b een e roded f rom t he s urface o f t he s ite d uring t he l ast c enturies. T he c hanges e vident i n t he a l-Basra c eramic a ssemblages a re t he r esult o f a n umber o f d ifferent, b ut c losely i nterrelated c ultural p henomena . T he s hift f rom s andy t o v ery f ine b uff-firing w ares i n t he m iddle o ccupation p hases, f or e xample, r epresents a t echnological i nno-

1 33

v ation o n t he p art o f s ome a l-Basra p otters. T he i mpetus f or t his c hange m ay h ave c ome f rom i nside t he l ocal p ottery c ommunity , w ith t he d iscovery o f n ew c lay s ources o r c lay t reatment m ethods, o r f rom n ew p otters w ho m igrated t o a l-Basra, b ringing w ith t hem n ew t echnological k nowledge a nd s kills. B ecause t hey c losely r esemble o ther w ares m ade a t a l-Basra i n t erms o f v essel f orm a nd p aste c omposition, v ery f ine w ares w ere l ikely d eveloped b y l ocal p otters a s a n i mprovement o ver t he c oarser s andy b uff-firing w ares. T he i ncrease i n t heir r elative a bund ance i n t he t hird o ccupation p hase i ndicates t hat t hey w ere a ccepted a nd u ltimately p referred b y a l-Basra r esidents, p ossibly a t a t ime w hen t he s tandard o f l iving i n t he c ity w as o n t he u pswing. I t i s p ossible t hat t he i ntroduction o f v ery f ine w ares a t a l-Basra s timulated a c ert ain a mount o f c ompetition a mong l ocal p otters, p erhaps m arking t he d emise--or t he r etooling--of w orkshops t hat p roduced s andy w ares. T he c hange i n t he p roportion o f c ream-firing w ares, o n t he o ther h and, m ore l ikely r epresents a s hift i n t he e thnic c haracter o f t he u rban c enter. A s w e n oted e arlier, c ream w ares s eem t o h ave b een p rod uced b y B erber p otters f or a B erber m arket. I f t his w ere t rue, t he c oncentration o f c ream-firing w ares i n t he e arliest l evels o f t he s ite w ould s how t hat t he B erbers c onstituted a s ignificant p art o f t he o rigi nal p opulation a t a l-Basra. T he d ecrease i n t he p roportion o f c reamf iring w ares i n l ater a ssemblages w ould i ndicate t hat t he B erber p opul ation d eclined o r t hat i t h ad b een a ssimilated i nto A rab c ulture, a lthough i t d id n ot d isappear e ntirely . T he s mall b ut d istinct i ncrease i n i mported g lazed w ares a t a lB asra r eflects a nother c ultural p henomena--a s hift i n r egional t rade o r e xchange n etworks. T he i ncrease i n g lazed p ottery, p articularly m ang anese-on-honey w ares, i n t he l ate a ssemblages s uggests t hat t he m erc hants a nd/or r esidents o f t he c ity g ained a ccess t o t he p roducts o f a n ew m anufacturing c enter. T his a ccess m ay h ave c ome a bout b ecause o f t he l ifting o f p revious p olitical a nd e conomic b arriers, f or e xample, t he o pening o f s outhern S pain t o M orocco a fter t he f all o f t he I drisid d ynasty a nd t he w ithdrawal o f t he F atimids f rom t he M aghreb . C ultural p rocesses, s uch a s t echnological i nnovation, e conomic c ompetition, a nd o utside c ommercial t ies, s eem t o b e i mplicated t o s ome e xtent i n t he c hronological c hanges e vident i n t he a l-Basra p ottery a ssemblages. A s w e w ill s ee i n C hapter 8 , t hese p henomena n eed t o b e d istinguished f rom o ne a nother i n a ny s tudy t hat d eals w ith c eramic d iversity a nd s tandardization. S urvey o f E arly I slamic P ottery i n N orth A frica a nd S pain R elatively l ittle i s k nown a bout e arly I slamic p ottery i n t he w estern M editerranean . U ntil r ecently , f ew s ites o r c omponents o f s ites d ating f rom t he e ighth t o t he e leventh c entury h ad b een i nvestig ated a t a ll ( see T able 7 .6). M ost o f t he s ites t hat h ave b een e xcavat ed, p articularly t hose i n t he w estern M aghreb, d ate t o a l ater p eriod o r c ontain i mportant a rchitectural r emains, s uch a s t hose a t K sar e sS eghir ( Redman 1 985), B elyounesh ( Grenier 1 980, T errasse 1 976), C euta ( Posac M on 1 960, 1 962), a nd M arrakesh ( Deverdun a nd R ouche 1 949, T err asse a nd M eunier 1 957). I n a ddition, m uch o f t he p ottery t hat h as

1 34

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b een r ecovered f rom t hese s ites h as b een p oorly p rovenienced, b ecause o f a l ack o f g ood s tratigraphic c ontrols d uring e xcavations ( Golvin 1 980; M ohamedi 1 980). F urthermore, m ost o f t he m aterial t hat h as b een r etained c onsists o f h ighly d ecorated p ottery o r o ther m useum q uality m aterial ( Vitelli 1 981). F inally, m uch o f t he I slamic p ottery h as n ot b een p ublished, i ncluding s ome r ecently e xcavated m aterial f rom ' Abbas iyya, S abra M ansuriyya, a nd R akkada i n T unisia ( Daoulatli 1 980). W ith t he e xception o f a l-Basra, n o o ther e arly I slamic s ite i n M orocco h as b een i nvestigated i n a s ystematic m anner. O nly a s mall p art o f t he s ite o f N akur, w hich w as b uilt b y t he A rabs i n t he e ighth c entury , w as e xcavated i n 1 980 b efore i t w as b uried u nder d am c onstruct ion o n t he N akur R iver ( Redman 1 983, n .d .). T he I slamic l evels a t F ez a nd T aza, t he m ajor e ntrepöts e stablished b y t he I drisids i n t he e ighth a nd n inth c enturies, h ave b een e xamined o nly s poradically ( Ricard a nd D elphy 1 931). T he I slamic c omponents a t T angier, A zila a nd K urt, a mong o ther s ites, h ave n ot b een e xamined i n a ny s ubstantial w ay . S igilmasa, a n i mportant t rade e ntrepöt i n t he S ahara , h as b een s cheduled f or e xcav ation o nly i n r ecent y ears. A lthough s ome c eramic m aterial f rom t his e arly p eriod i n M orocco's h istory h as f ound i ts w ay i nto m useum c ollect ions, m uch o f i t h as r emained u nprovenienced o r u npublished . T he s ituation i s s omewhat d ifferent i n A lgeria a nd T unisia w here m ore a rcheological w ork h as b een f ocused o n e arly I slamic s ites ( i.e ., f rom t he A ghlabid, F atimid, a nd H ammadid p eriods). I n t he c entral M aghreb, t he c ity o f T lemcen ( formerly A gadir), e stablished b y t he I drisids i n t he n inth c entury, w as e xcavated i n t he e arly p art o f t his c entury ( Bel 1 914). T he e leventh-century H ammadid s ites o f Q al 'a a nd B ougie h ave b een r eexamined m ore r ecently ( Golvin 1 965, 1 980; M arcais 1 913, 1 916). T he I slamic c omponents o f c lassical s ites, s uch a s S 4tif, a re c urrently u nder e xcavation ( F4vrier e t a l. 1 970, M ohamedi 1 980). I n T unisia, t he m ajor c ommercial c enter o f K ayrawan, f ounded b y t he A ghlabids i n t he e ighth c entury, a nd t heir r oyal p alaces a t ' Abbasiyya a nd R akkada, w ere i nvestigated i n t he e arly p art o f t his c entury ( Marc ais 1 928) a nd w ere r eexamined r ecently , b ut t he n ewly r ecovered m ateri al h as n ot y et b een p ublished. L ikewise, t he t enth-century F atimid c apital o f M andiyya a nd r oyal p alace a t S abra M ansuriyya ( Marcais 1 924; Z biss 1 956) a nd t he F atimid-Hammadid c omponents o f C arthage ( Ferron a nd P inard 1 954) w ere e xamined i n t he e arly p art o f t he c entury a nd h ave b een r einvestigated i n t he l ast f ew y ears. O nly t he r e-analysis o f t he C arthage I slamic p ottery h as b een p ublished ( Vitelli 1 981). A u seful s ummary o f t he I slamic m aterial f rom m any o f t hese s ites a lso h as b een p ublished r ecently , a lthough i t i s l imited t o d ecorative w ares, p artic ularly t hose t hat r esemble S yrian a nd I raqi I slamic w ares ( Daoulatli 1 979, 1 980). I n S pain, t oo, a n umber o f i mportant I slamic s ites f rom t he U mayy ad p eriod h ave b een e xcavated, a mong t hem t he C aliphal p alaces a t M edina a z-Zahra n ear C ordoba a nd M edina E lvira ( Ilbira) n ear M alaga ( Velaquez B osco 1 912, 1 923). A r elatively c omprehensive s ynthesis o f e arly I slamic p ottery f rom s outhern S pain, b ased p rimarily o n a n e xami nation o f m useum c ollections, w as p ublished r ecently ( Zozoya 1 980a, 1 980b), m aking t he S panish I slamic m aterial a mong t he b est d ocumented i n t he w estern M editerranean.

1 36

D espite i ts l imitations, t he c eramic d ata f rom o ther e arly I slamic s ites i n t he M aghreb a nd S pain l ets u s p lace t he a l-Basra p ottery i nto a b roader t emporal a nd r egional c ontext. T he a l-Basra p ottery s hows s ome s imilarities t o c ontemporaneous m aterial f rom N 4grine a nd ' Abbasi yya i n T unisia, a nd M edina a z-Zahra, M edina E lvira, a nd o ther s ites i n S pain, a ll o f w hich d ate t o t he n inth a nd t enth c enturies. T he a lB asra c ollection, h owever, d iffers i n s everal r espects f rom p ottery a ssemblages e xcavated a t S alk a nd D chira i n M orocco a nd a t T lemcen, Q al 'a, a nd B ougie i n A lgeria, m ost o f w hich d ate t o t he e leventh a nd t welfth c enturies. T he a l-Basra c ollection a lso d iverges i n s everal w ays f rom t he e xcavated N akur m aterial, w hich s eems t o d erive f rom e leventh- o r t welfth-century c ontexts a t t he e arliest. T he c omparative d ata a llow u s t o a ssign d ates--albeit t entatively--to c eramic m aterial f rom s pecific o ccupation p hases a t a l-Basra .

E ighth- t o E leventh-Century I slamic P ottery N orth A frica T he p ottery e xcavated f rom N akur a ppears t o d ate t o t he e leventh o r t welfth c entury r ather t han t o t he e ighth c entury w hen t he c ity w as f ounded. T he m aterial c omes m ostly f rom t wo s oundings e xcavated t o a d epth o f 1 .5 m t o b edrock o n ah illtop w est o f t he N akur R iver ( Redman 1 983). L ike t hat f rom a l-Basra, t he m aterial c onsists l argely o f u ng lazed w ares, a f ew o f w hich a re d ecorated w ith i ncised l ines a round t he v essel n eck o r s houlder ( Redman 1 983:Figure 8 a, h ) a nd v ery f ew g lazed p ieces. B y c ontrast, t he N akur m aterial c ontains a m uch l arger p roportion o f h andmade w ares t han t he a l-Basra m aterial ( 30% c ompared w ith 5 % a t a l-Basra). S ome o f t he N akur f orms a re s imilar t o t hose f ound a t a l-Basra, s uch a s a s poutless p itcher ( Redman 1 983:Figure 8 g, h , k ), a t all-necked j ar w ith a s nub-nosed r im ( Redman 1 983:Figure 8 i), a nd a g lazed b owl ( Redman 1 983:Figure 8 m , p ); a lso t he b ases o f m ost v essels a re f lat, o r s lightly c onvex, l ike t hose a t a l-Basra. O n t he o ther h and, s everal N akur f orms a re e ntirely u nknown a t a l-Basra, i nc luding a t hree-legged j ar w ith a d ouble c arinated b ody ( Redman 1 983: F igure 8 o), a g reen-glazed, b rown-and-white p ainted j ar w ith a f ilter i n t he n eck ( Redman 1 983:Figure 8 t, u ), a nd a p edestaled l amp, a ll o f w hich c ame f rom t he l owest l evels e xcavated a t t he s ite. A s w e w ill s ee l ater, t hese f orms c learly b elong t o a g enre o f v essels t hat a ppear i n t he e leventh a nd t welfth c enturies i n t he M aghreb. O n t his b asis, w e c an s uggest t hat t he N akur p ottery s ample p robably d ates t o n o e arl ier t han t he e leventh c entury . I t i s v ery p ossible t hat e arlier p ott ery e xists a t t he s ite b ut i t w as n ot r ecovered d uring t he b rief e xcav ations c onducted t here. T he p ottery f rom t he T unisian s ites o f ' Abbasiyya a nd N kgrine d ate f airly c learly t o t he n inth a nd t enth c enturies. T he p alace a t ' Abbasi yya, a f ew k ilometers s outh o f K ayrawan, w as o ccupied b y t he A ghlabids f rom 8 01 t o 8 77 a nd t hen s ettled b y o thers u ntil t he l ate 9 00s ( Marcais 1 928). T he o asis t own o f N kgrine w as s ettled s ometime i n t he e ighth o r n inth c entury b ut w as d efinitely a bandoned b y t he m iddle o f t he e leve nth c entury w hen t he H ilalian A rabs i nvaded T unisia ( Pianel 1 951). T he p ottery f rom t hese s ites c onsists o f b oth g lazed a nd u nglazed w ares. U nglazed w ares a re g enerally d ecorated w ith i ncised l ines, b oth

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h orizontal a nd u ndulating, a nd w ith f inger- a nd t ool-impressed d esigns o n s trips o f c lay a pplied t o v essel s urfaces ( Pianel 1 951:Plates 3 -4). G lazed p ottery i s d ecorated a lmost i nvariably w ith b rown ( manganese), g reen, o r b lue m otifs o n a v ariety o f d ifferent g lazed b ases. T he m ost c ommon s tyles a re m anganese m otifs o n a g reen o r w hite t in-based g laze; m anganese a nd/or g reen m otifs o n aw hite t in-based o r y ellowish g laze; a nd m ore r arely m anganese a nd b lue m otifs o n aw hite g laze ( Marcais 1 928:Figures 1 5-17; P ianel 1 951:Plates 7 -21). A ccording t o D aoulatli ( 1980), g reen g lazed m otifs o n a y ellowish b ase w ere p articularly p opul ar d uring t he A ghlabid p eriod . O ne f ine e xample n oted b y M arcais ( 1928:Figure 1 6) f eatures a d elicate g reen f loral d esign o n a b isquec olored b ase; t he s inuous s tems a re s urmounted b y p ointed l eaves a nd l arge c ircles. T his m otif i s s imilar t o t hat f ound o n t wo g reen-onl ight-yellow ( bisque) s pecimens e xcavated f rom t he e arliest l evels a t a l-Basra ( see F igure 5 .3d). T he m otifs o n g lazed p ottery f rom t he T unisian s ites u sually c onsist o f g eometric, f loral, a nimal, o r e pigrap hic t hemes. A v ariation o f a g lazing t echnique t hat M arcais c alls c 4r amique ä r eserve a lso o ccurs i n t he e arly a ssemblages; t his t echnique c onsists o f a pplying a n o paque g laze d irectly o n a c lay s urface t o f orm a d esign; a lthough M arcais d oes n ot s ay h ow t he g laze w as p revented f rom r unning, i t i s p ossible t hat a s ubstance l ike w ax w as u sed . A f ew e xamples o f t his t echnique o ccur a t a l-Basra, i n a s mall g roup d esc ribed a s g laze p ainted w ares. T he d ecorative t echniques a nd s tyles o f T unisian g lazed w ares a re b elieved t o h ave c ome f rom p ottery-making c enters i n I raq a nd S yria, e ither d irectly b y i mporting t he p ottery o r i ndirectly t hrough t he a rtisans t rained i n t he t echniques ( Marcais 1 928; P ianel 1 951). I t i s s ignificant t hat t hese e arly I slamic c ollect ions d o n ot a ppear t o i nclude a ny e xamples o f s tamp-impressed o r s graffito p ottery, w hich u sually a re p resent i n e leventh- o r t welfthc entury c ontexts i n t he w estern M editerranean . S pain A ccording t o Z ozoya ( 1980a, 1 980b), t he e arly I slamic S panish p ottery c an b e a ttributed t o a t l east f ive d ifferent p eriods: t he U mayy ad E mirate ( 756-942); t he U mayyad C aliphate ( 942-1035); t he p eriod o f t he T aifas ( 1035-1085); t he A lmoravid p eriod ( 1085-1180); a nd t he A lmoh ad p eriod ( 1180-1232). T he p ottery f rom t he f irst t wo p eriods, w hich i s m ost i mportant t o t he a l-Basra s tudy , i s m arked b y a n a brupt c hange i n d ecorative t echniques a nd v essel f orms a round A .D. 9 40. A ccording t o Z ozoya, t he c hange o ccurred w hen l arge n umbers o f a rtisans m igrated f rom t he e astern M editerranean t o b uild a nd f urnish t he n ew a dministrat ive-residential p alaces a t M edina a z-Zahra a nd M edina E lvira f or t he r ecently e stablished C aliphate. A g radual c hange i n t he t hird p eriod c oincides w ith a d ecline i n t he p ower a nd i nfluence o f t he r oyal c ourt. T he a ppearance o f n ew e lements i n t he l ast t wo p eriods i s a ttributed t o t he i nvasion o f t wo p owerful B erber g roups f rom N orth A frica--the A lm oravids a nd A lmohads. D uring t he U mayyad E mirate, S panish p ottery r etains t races o f R oman a nd V isigothic i nfluences, a s m anifested i n t he f orm o f l arge, g lazed c arinated b owls w ith s tamped i mpressions, s mall j ars w ith s lightly c onvex b ases a nd d ecorated w ith w hite p aint, a nd p itchers w ith t ri-cornered m ouths ( Zozoya 1 980a:Figures l a-b, 2 a-b, 3 a-b), n one o f w hich a re f ound i n t he a l-Basra c ollection . T he p eriod i s a lso m arked

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b y t he a ppearance o f r ed- a nd b rown-painted w ares, w hich a re u sually d ecorated w ith s imple v ertical s tripes o r l inear m otifs ( Zozoya 1 969, 1 980b). A ccording t o Z ozoya, t he w are w as i ntroduced i nto S pain b y N orth A frican B erbers, p ossibly d uring t he r eign o f A bd a l-Rahman I I b etween A .D . 8 22 a nd 8 52 ( Zozoya 1 980b:312). T his g enre o f p ainted p ottery o ccurs a t a l-Basra, p articularly i n a ssemblages a ssociated w ith t he e arly o ccupation p hase . A d istinctive f eature o f E mirate p ottery i s t he p revalence o f f lat o r s lightly c onvex b ases o n a ll c ommon w ares a nd o n t he g reen-and-manganese-glazed w ares t hat a ppear t oward t he e nd o f t he p eriod . A s w e m entioned e arlier, f lat b ases a re a lso p redomina nt a t a l-Basra. A t t he b eginning o f t he U mayyad C aliphate i n 9 42, S panish p ottery u ndergoes a n a brupt c hange, p articularly a t M edina a z-Zahra a nd M edina E lvira w here t he C aliphal c ourt u ndoubtedly d emanded h igh q uality l uxur y g oods. A ccording t o Z ozoya, t his p eriod m arks t he i ntroduction o f i mported l usterware a nd C hinese p orcelain f rom t he e astern M editerranea n a nd c uerda s eca, w hose o rigin i s u nknown . I t a lso m arks t he a pogee o f r ing-based, g reen-and-manganese-decorated w hite t in-glazed p lates, w hich s eem t o h ave b een m ade a t b oth p alace c omplexes. A v ariety o f m onochrome a nd b ichrome w ares, i ncluding m anganese-decorated, h oneyc olored p ottery , a re a lso p resent a t t his t ime. U nglazed w ares a re u sually i ncised o r, l ess f requently , p ainted w ith r ed, b lack, o r w hite l inear m otifs o r d ecorated w ith s tamped d esigns. O nly a f ew o f t hese d ecorative t echniques, i ncluding m onochrome a nd b ichrome g lazing, c uerda s eca, a nd i ncising a nd p ainting, a re p resent a t a l-Basra; g reena nd-manganese-on-white g lazed s herds a ppear t o b e t otally a bsent. I n t erms o f f orms, t he S panish m aterial f rom t his p eriod i ncludes a w ide v ariety o f b owls, p lates, j ars, s mall j ars, j ugs, b ottles, c ups, c ooki ng p ots, a nd n osed l amps. A n umber o f t he b owls, c ooking p ots, a nd l amps ( Zozoya 1 980a :Figures 5 , 1 0, 1 1) r esemble f orms c ommonly f ound a t a l-Basra, b ut o thers d o n ot. O ther i mportant c hanges i n S panish I slamic p ottery o ccur d uring t he n ext t hree p eriods. T he T aifas p eriod i s c haracterized b y t he a ppearance o f a d ecorative t echnique c alled v erdugones, a v ariant o f c uerda s eca i n w hich t he v essel s urface i s o nly p artly g lazed ( Zozoya 1 980a: 2 81). I n a ddition, c onvex b ases a re a lmost e ntirely r eplaced b y r ing b ases ( Zozoya 1 980a :Figures 1 3, 1 4, 1 5) a nd f ilters, s ome w ith f loral d esigns, b egin t o a ppear i n t he n ecks o f t wo-handled j ars. T he A lmoravid p eriod i s d istinguished b y t he i ntroduction o f s graffito, a d ecorative t echnique t hat i nvolves s cratching a d esign t hrough a s lip o r g laze; t his t echnique i s b elieved t o h ave o riginated i n n orthern A frica ( Zozoya 1 980b :315). T he A lmohad e ra i s m arked b y t he c ontinuing p resence o f s graffito a nd b y t he d isappearance o f f ilters f rom j ars. T he s imilarities i n d ecorative t echniques a nd v essel f orms a ttest t o a c ertain a mount o f i nteraction b etween a l-Basra a nd s outhern S pain. I t i s l ikely t hat t his i nterchange o ccurred a mong t he g eneral p opulace, r ather t han a mong t he e lite . W ith t he e xception o f c uerda s eca, t he d ecorative t echniques a nd v essel s hapes c ommon t o b oth p laces a re p ecul iar t o u tilitarian w ares r ather t han t o h igh-status, d ecorative p ott ery . F or e xample, t he a l-Basra c ollection c ontains e xamples o f r edo r b rown-painted p ottery a ssociated w ith B erbers a nd f lat b ases o n u tilitarian w ares b ut n o e xamples o f t he f ancy g reen-and-manganese-

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p ainted p lates w ith r ing b ases m anufactured i n t he C aliphal c ourt t he l usterware a nd C hinese p orcelain i mported f rom t he M iddle E ast. T he

a nalogs

a lso p rovide a t emporal f ramework f or

t he

o r

a l-Basra

p ottery . T he p resence o f r ed- a nd b rown-painted p ottery i n a ssemblages a ssociated w ith t he o riginal s ettlement o f a l-Basra, h istorically d ated t o t he e arly 8 00s, c oincides w ith t he a ppearance o f B erber w ares i n S pain, e stimated b y Z ozoya t o h ave o ccurred s ometime b etween 8 22 a nd 8 52. T he p resence o f t his p ottery i n t he e arliest l evels a t a l-Basra c onfirms t hat t he s ite w as i ndeed o f I slamic f oundation, n ot R oman, a s s ome a uthors h ave s uggested ( Tissot 1 877; E ustache 1 955), a nd t hat t he s ite w as p robably s ettled i n t he l ate 7 00s o r e arly 8 00s. T he a ppearance o f c uerda s eca p ottery , m anganese-on-honey g lazed w ares, a nd r ing b ases i n a ssemblages a ssociated w ith t he t hird a nd f inal o ccupation p hase a t a l-Basra a llows u s t o d ate t hese a ssemblages t entatively t o s ome t ime a fter 9 40. A s w e s aw a bove, t hese c eramic f eatures m ake t heir d ebut i n S pain w ith t he e stablishment o f t he C alip hate. T he f act t hat t hey m ake t heir a ppearance a t a l-Basra a t a bout t he s ame t ime s upports t he i dea t hat t hey m ay h ave c ome f rom S pain. I n a ddition, t heir o ccurrence a t a l-Basra s uggests t hat t he M oroccan c ity m ay h ave b ecome m ore o riented t oward S pain i n t he m idt o l ate-tenth c entury . T his w ould c orroborate t he d ocumentary e vidence t hat i ndic ates t hat S pain e xtended i ts p olitical i nfluence i nto n orthern M orocco i n t he l ate t enth c entury a fter t he F atimids w ithdrew f rom t he M aghreb . F inally, t he t otal a bsence a t a l-Basra o f s graffito w ares, w hich a ppear i n S pain w ith t he A lmoravid i nvasion i n a bout A .D. 1 085, s ugg ests t hat a l-Basra m ay h ave b een a bandoned b y t hat t ime . E leventh- a nd T welfth-Century I slamic P ottery N orth A frica T he d ivergence i n d ecorative t echniques a nd v essel s hapes b etween a l-Basra a nd s everal e leventh- a nd t welfth-century s ites i n M orocco a nd A lgeria p rovides f urther e vidence f or a t erminus a nte q uer n f or a l-Basra o f a bout A .D . 1 050. T he p ottery f rom T lemcen, w hich B el a ssigned t o t wo g roups--the e arlier o ne t o t he l ate t enth- e arly e leventh c enturies a nd t he l ater o ne t o t he e leventh-twelfth c enturies ( Bel 1 914), i s r emarkably s imilar i n m any r espects t o t hat f rom a l-Basra . T he b ulk o f t he T lemcen m aterial c onsists o f u nglazed a nd u ndecorated w heelmade w ares, a long w ith a s mall n umber o f h andmade v essels. A s maller p ort ion o f t he c ollection w as d ecorated w ith h orizontal o r u ndulating i ncised l ines o r b ands o f l ines a round t he v essel n eck o r s houlder . S ome o f i t w as p ainted w ith r ed o r b rown l inear o r g eometric m otifs. T he g lazed p ottery f rom t he e arlier a ssemblage w as n ot d ecorated, a lt hough t he l ater m aterial w as, i ncluding g reen a nd b rown ( manganese) d ecorated t in-glazed b owls a nd p lates a nd a f orm o f c uerda s eca, i n w hich y ellow a nd g reen d esigns a re o utlined i n b rown, p ossibly l ike t he e xamples f rom l ate a ssemblages a t a l-Basra ( see F igure 5 .3e, f ). S eve ral T lemcen v essel f orms a re a lso s imilar t o t hose f ound a t a l-Basra , i ncluding t riangular-shaped j ar r ims, f lat o r s lightly c onvex b ases, a nd n osed l amps ( Bel 1 914:Figures 1 5, 1 7, 2 0, 2 1). U nlike t he a l-Basra m aterial, h owever, t he T lemcen c ollection a lso c ontains n umerous e x-

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a mples o f s tamped p ottery . T he p ottery w as d ecorated w ith s tamped m otifs p laced a round t he e dges o f p lates a nd s erving b owls; s ome o f i t w as c overed w ith a w hite s lip o r g reen g laze, a lthough m ost o f i t w as p lain. S tamped p ottery s eems t o h ave b een m ade a t T lemcen, a s e vid enced b y t he d iscovery o f s everal s tamps i n t he e xcavations. T he p ottery f rom Q al 'a o f t he B anu H ammad i s d ated f airly r eliably t o t he b eginning o f t he e leventh c entury w hen t he m ountaintop s ite w as s ettled b y t he H ammadids ( ca . 1 010-1090) a t t he e nd o f t he t welfth c entury ( Marcais 1 913; G olvin 1 965, 1 980). L ike a ssemblages a t a lB asra a nd T lemcen, t he m ajor p art o f t he c ollection c onsists o f u ng lazed w ares t hat w ere u sually d ecorated w ith i ncised l ines ( Golvin 1 965:197). U nlike t he a l-Basra m aterial, h owever, t he r est o f t he Q ala p ottery c onsists p rimarily o f g lazed w ares, m ost o f w hich h ad b rown, g reen, y ellow, o r v iolet d esigns o n aw hite, t in-glazed b ackground . T here w ere a lso s ome s tamped a nd s igill w ares, e ither p lain o r c overed w ith g reen g laze, a nd, m ore r arely, l usterware a nd c uerda s eca . I n t erms o f v essel f orms, t he Q al'a m aterial a lso d iverges f rom t hat o f a l-Basra . I n g eneral, t he v essels h ave r aised b ases; n osed l amps h ave n o f unnel a nd a s hort h andle o r ah andle w ith a s mall c onical p rotubera nce; a nd l arge s torage j ars, w hich s tand u p t o 8 0 c m i n h eight, a re o ften d ecorated w ith f loral o r g eometric m otifs a round t heir n ecks ( Golvin 1 980:Figures 2 , 3 , 6 , 7 ). I n a ddition, e ntirely d ifferent f orms a re p resent, i ncluding f ooted b raziers a nd c ylindrical v essels ( Golvin 1 980:Figures 5 , 8 ). T hus, a side f rom t he d ecoration f ound o n u tilitarian w ares, t he m aterial f rom Q al 'a d iffers s ubstantially f rom t hat a t a l-Basra i n t erms o f d ecorative t echniques a nd v essel f orms. T he d ifferences a re e ven m ore r emarkable i n t he c eramic m aterial f rom S al , D chira, a nd T aza, a ll o f w hich a re c loser g eographically t o a l-Basra t han a ny o f t he o ther s ites d escribed a bove. T he p ottery f rom S al 4d ates t o n o e arlier t han t he e leventh c entury ( Delphy 1 951-1952, 1 955), a nd t hat f rom T aza ( Ricard a nd D elphy 1 931) a nd t he A lmohad f ortress a t D chira t o t he t welfth c entury ( Terrasse 1 937). S tamped p ottery i s r elatively a bundant a t a ll t hree s ites. I n f act, a n umber o f s tamps w ere f ound a t S al , a s a t T lemcen, i ndicating t hat t he p ott ery w as v ery l ikely p roduced t here . T he s tamps u sually c onsist o f f loral o r e pigraphic m otifs ( e .g., R icard a nd D elphy 1 931:Plates 7 -24). C uerda s eca p ottery i s a lso p resent i n t hese c ollections, p articularly a t S al , w here w hite, g reen, b rilliant y ellow, a nd d ark b rown g eometric d esigns c over e ntire v essel s urfaces ( Delphy 1 951-52:Plate 5 ). O ther g lazed m aterial f rom t hese s ites i ncludes m anganese-on-honey g lazed w ares, m anganese-and-green d ecorated, w hite t in-glazed v essels, a nd a f ew p ieces o f l usterware . T here a re a lso s ome e xamples o f s graffito a t S al . T he v essel f orms a re a lso s trikingly d ifferent f rom t hose a t a l-Basra. R aised b ases, i ncluding r inged, f ooted, a nd f langed v ariet ies, a re p redominant. P edestaled l amps, c ylindrical v essels, a nd c eramic w ell c overings ( margelle d e p uit), w hich w ere o ften e laborately d ecorated w ith s tamped i mpressions ( Delphy 1 955:Plates 3 -9; R icard a nd D elphy 1 931:Plates 2 5-30), w ere a lso p resent. T he c eramic m aterial f rom t hese e leventha nd t welfth-century s ites p rovides f urther e vidence f or a t erminal d ate o f n o l ater t han t he e leventh c entury f or a l-Basra. T he p ottery f rom t hese e leventha nd t welfth-century s ites i s c haracterized b y s tamped d ecoration a nd a

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v ariety o f n ew f orms, s uch a s r aised b ases, c ylindrical v essels, b raziers, a nd p edestal l amps--none o f w hich o ccur a t a l-Basra.

f ooted

S ummary a nd C onclusions U sing b oth t he c eramic a nd h istorical e vidence, w e c an a ssign t he a l-Basra p ottery c ollection t o ap eriod o f t ime t hat b egins a round A .D . 8 00, w hen t he c ity p resumably w as f ounded, a nd e nds s ometime i n t he e leventh c entury, p robably b efore o r d uring t he A lmoravid i nvasion o f M orocco i n A .D . 1 070. I n a ddition, w e c an t entatively s uggest t hat t he a l-Basra p ottery o n t he w hole r epresents a p rovincial i ndustry t hat m ay h ave e volved f rom a n i ndigenous p ottery t radition w ith i ts r oots i n t he l ate R oman p eriod . T he v essel f orms t hat d ominate t he a l-Basra a ssemb lage--carinated j ars ( Form 4 0) a nd s mall a nd l arge s torage j ars w ith s hort, c urved n ecks ( Forms 4 1, 4 2, 4 3 a nd 7 4)--show s tronger r esemb lances t o l ate R oman f orms ( Hayes 1 972) t han t o t he b owls a nd p lates t hat s eem t o o ccur a t m ost I slamic s ites. T his r emains s peculative b ecause t he s hapes o f u tilitarian v essels f rom o ther e arly I slamic s ites i n N orth A frica a re n ot w ell k nown. W e c an s ay w ith s ome d egree o f c onfidence, h owever, t hat t he a l-Basra c ollection c ontains p ottery w ith B erber i nfluence, s pecifically t he r ed- a nd b rown-painted p itchers w ith o ne o r t wo h andles t hat a re m ost p revalent i n t he e arly p hase. T he i mported g lazed w ares t hat a ppear i n t he a l-Basra c ollection i ndic ate t hat t he u rban c enter w as i n c ontact w ith o ther c ities i n t he M aghreb a nd S pain f rom t he t ime o f i ts o riginal s ettlement i n a bout A .D. 8 00. W e c an a lso s uggest t hat t he g lazed w ares p resent i n t he e arliest a l-Basra a ssemblages e xhibit s ome s imilarities t o t he A ghlab id-Fatimid m aterial i n T unisia, i n p articular t he g reen a nd/or m ang anese-on-light y ellow g lazed p ottery . I n a ddition, t he s uite o f g lazed w ares t hat a ppears i n l ate a ssemblages a t a l-Basra s hows a c lose r r esemblance t o S panish U mayyad p ottery, s pecifically m anganese-onh oney g lazed a nd c uerda s eca w ares. A gain, t his r emains h ypothetical b ecause o f t he g ap i n o ur k nowledge a bout t he o rigin a nd d iffusion o f m any e arly I slamic g lazing t echniques i n t he w estern M editerranean . I t m ay b e p ossible t o r esolve s ome o f t hese q uestions i n t he f uture b y u ndertaking p rovenience s tudies o f g lazed w ares f rom s ites t hat a re c hronologically w ell d efined, s uch a s ' Abbasiyya, N 4grine, S abra M ans uriyya, M edina a z-Zahra a nd M edina E lvira, a s w ell a s a l-Basra .

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C HAPTER 8

C HANGES I N T HE O RGANIZATION O F P OTTERY P RODUCTION A T A L-BASRA

O ne o f t he m ain o bjectives o f t his r esearch h as b een t o r econs truct t he o rganization o f t he p ottery i ndustry a t a l-Basra a nd , a s f ar a s p ossible, t o i dentify t he f actors t hat w ere i nvolved i n i ts c hange t hrough t ime . I n m any w ays, t he a l-Basra c ollection c onstitutes a g ood c ase s tudy b ecause o f t he a vailability o f p ottery f rom w ell-defined o ccupation p hases, t he u nambiguous e vidence o f p ottery p roduction a t t he s ite, a nd t he a vailability o f h istorical i nformation a bout t he s ite i tself a nd a bout I slamic c raft p roduction i n g eneral. T his s tudy b rings t his e vidence t ogether i n a n e ffort t o d evelop a d etailed p ict ure o f c eramic p roduction a t t he u rban c enter d uring t he e arly I slamic p eriod, a t ime o f r apid p olitical a nd e conomic c hange i n t he M aghreb. T he b road q uestions t hat i t a ddresses a re : ( 1) t o w hat e xtent d id p olit ical o r a dministrative f actors h ave a n i mpact o n t he p ottery i ndustry c entered a t a l-Basra, ( 2) t o w hat d egree d id e conomic f actors s timulate c hanges i n i ts o rganization a nd t echnology a nd, ( 3) i s i t p ossible t o d istinguish b etween t hese f actors i n t he a rcheological r ecord. W hile a n umber o f d ifferent i ndicators h ave b een u sed b y o ther r esearchers t o i nvestigate c hanges i n t he o rganization o f c eramic p rod uction ( e.g., F einman e t a l 1 981; H agstrum 1 985), t his s tudy f ocuses o n o ne: t he d iversity, o r v ariety , o f p ottery a ssemblages. A s i t i s u sed h ere, t he c oncept o f d iversity r efers b oth t o t he n umber o f d iff erent c lasses o f i tems p resent i n a n a ssemblage ( the d imension o f r ichness) a nd t o t he u niformity w ith w hich i tems a re d istributed a mong t he c lasses ( the d imension o f e venness). T his c hapter p resents t he r ationale f or t he u se o f t he d iversity c oncept i n c eramic a nalysis. I t a pplies a d iversity i ndex t o t he a l-Basra p ottery i n o rder t o i nfer t he r elative n umber a nd s ize o f a rtisan w orkshops d uring e ach o ccupation p eriod a nd, i n a r ough w ay, t o m onitor a ny c hanges i n t he d egree o f c ompetition a mong p otters. T he c hapter t hen d iscusses t hese r esults i n t erms o f t he F einman-Rice s cenario, i n w hich p olitical a nd a dministrat ive f actors a re i mplicated i n t he r eorganization o f a c eramic i ndust ry, a nd i n l ight o f t he e ntrepreneurial m odel, i n w hich e conomic f orces a re c onsidered p rimarily r esponsible f or c hanges i n p roduction o rganization . D iversity C oncept i n C eramic A nalysis O ne o f t he m ost s ensitive i ndicators o f t he o rganization o f c raft p roduction i s t he d iversity, o r v ariety, o f l ocally m ade p ottery . I n a n e thnographic s tudy o f N orth A frican p otters, B alfet ( 1965) f ound t hat t he d iversity o f p ottery p roduced i n d omestic c ontexts v aried m arkedly f rom t hat m ade b y s emi-skilled a nd s killed a rtisans, i n t erms o f b oth t echnological a nd d ecorative c haracteristics. S he a ttributed t his t o d ifferences i n t he r elationships b etween p otters a nd t heir p ottery a nd p otters a nd t he u sers o f t he p ots i n e ach o f t hese c ont exts. B alfet f ound t hat, i n t erms o f t echnique a nd d ecorative s tyles, d omestically p roduced p ottery w as s patially h eterogeneous b ut t emporal-

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l y h omogeneous, t hat i s, i t v aried g reatly f rom p lace t o p lace w ithin a r egion b ut i t d id n ot c hange v ery m uch t hrough t ime . O n t he o ther h and, s he f ound t hat t he t echniques a nd d ecorative s tyles o f a rtisanp roduced p ottery w ere s patially h omogeneous b ut t emporally h eterogen eous, t hat i s, t hey w ere r elatively u niform w ithin a r egion b ut t hey w ere s ubject t o i nnovation a nd c hange w ith t he p assage o f t ime . I n a s imilar w ay , c eramic d iversity c an b e u sed t o i nfer c hanges w ithin a p redominently a rtisan p ottery i ndustry . A lthough o verall d iversity i n s pecialist-produced p ottery a ssemblages i s c omparatively l ow , i t d oes v ary w ithin t hat n arrow r ange a s t he n umber a nd s ize o f p roduction u nits c hange . F or i nstance, i f t he n umber o f w orkshops i ncreases, i t s eems l ikely t hat t he d iversity o f p ottery w ould i ncrease a s w ell, s imply b ecause m ore p otters u sing d ifferent m anufacturing t echniques a nd/or d ecorative s tyles a re i nvolved i n t he i ndustry . I f t he s cale o f s ome w orkshops e xpands, r esulting i n f ewer p roduction u nits, i t s eems r easonable t hat c eramic d iversity w ould d ecrease a s w ell, b ecause f ewer p otters o r w orkshops a re m aking p ottery . A lthough n o e thnographic s tudies h ave b een d irected s pecifically t oward t he q uestion o f c eramic d iversity i n a n a rtisan-dominated i ndustry, t wo s tudies p rovide s ome h elpful c lues. I n a n i nvestigation o f t raditional p ottery-making i n P akistan, R ye a nd E vans ( 1976) f ound t hat l arge-scale p ottery w orkshops t ended t o s pecialize i n ap articular v essel t ype, o ften p roducing o nly o ne o r t wo k inds, w hile s mall w orkshops t ended t o m ake aw ider r ange o f v essels f or s ale t o l ocal c onsumers. A s imilar o bservation w as m ade b y V ossen ( 1984, 1 986) i n a s tudy o f p ottery-maki ng c enters i n M orocco a nd S pain. H e f ound t hat l arge-scale o perations s pecialized i n s pecific v essel t ypes, e .g., w ater s torage j ars o r u ng lazed c ooking p ots, w hich w ere w idely d istributed t hroughout a r egion . T hus c hanges i n t he d iversity o f l ocally p roduced c eramic g oods w ould t end t o r eflect a s hift i n t he o rganization o f t he i ndustry--either t oward a m ore c ompetitive i ndustry o r o ne m onopolized b y f ew l arges cale p roducers. D iversity i n a l-Basra 's P ottery A ssemblages A lthough t he a l-Basra p ottery c ollection a ppears r elatively h omog eneous d ue t o t he f act t hat i t i s a lmost e ntirely w heelmade a nd u ndec orated, i t c onsists o f av ariety o f d istinct w ares a nd f orms. A s C hapter 5 i ndicated, a l-Basra p otters m ade a w ide r ange o f f orms f rom e ach o f t he b uff-firing c lays, i .e ., s andy, f ine, a nd v ery f ine, a nd t he c ream-firing c lays. T hese l ocally m ade w ares m ake u p n early 8 0% o f t he c ollection . G lazed w ares a re b elieved t o h ave b een i mported i nto t he s ite a nd c onstitute o nly a s mall p roportion o f t he c ollection. A lthough h andmade w ares w ere p roduced l ocally, t hey w ere v ery l ikely m ade b y d omestic p otters f or t heir o wn u se r ather t han b y s killed a rtis ans. F unctional a nd T echnological D iversity I n t his s tudy , Im easure c eramic d iversity a t s everal h ierarchical l evels i n o rder t o f ully u nderstand t he c hanges t hat t ook p lace i n t he o rganization o f c eramic p roduction a t a l-Basra d uring i ts t hree o ccupat ion p hases. T he t otal d iversity i n e ach a ssemblage r eflects t he t otal n umber o f l ocally p roduced v essel t ypes a nd t he d istribution o f s herds

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a mong t hose t ypes. W hile t otal d iversity p rovides a r ough i ndicator o f t he o verall c omplexity o f a n a ssemblage, i t a ctually c onsists o f t wo c omponents--functional a nd t echnological d iversity . F unctional d ivers ity r epresents t he v ariety t hat e xists a mong f unctional c lasses, s uch a s s mall s torage j ars, p itchers, s erving j ars, e tc. T hese c lasses a re d istinguished b y t heir g eneral s ize a nd s hape, f eatures t hat a re r el ated t o v essel f unction. T echnological d iversity r epresents t he v ari ety a mong w are-form t ypes, s uch a s c ream-colored j ars w ith b and r ims, c ream-colored p itchers, a nd c ream-colored l amps, w hich a re f ound w ithin e ach f unctional g roup. T hese t echnological t ypes a re d ifferentiated b y t heir p aste c omposition, r im a nd n eck m orphology, a nd d ecorative t reatm ent, a ttributes t hat a re r elated t o m anufacturing t echniques. I n o rder t o i solate t he d iversity t hat i s r elevant t o t he o rganization o f c raft p roduction, i t i s n ecessary t o l ook a t t hese a spects s eparately . I n av ery r eal s ense, t he d iversity i n e ach o f t hese c omponents i s c aused b y d ifferent c ultural o r b ehavioral f actors. T he v ariety o f f unctional c lasses i n a n a ssemblage i s d ue p rimarily t o s ocio-economic, e thnic, a nd/or e nvironmental f actors. F or e xample, t he d iversity o f f unctional c lasses m ay c hange b ecause o f t he a rrival o f n ew e thnic g roups w hose t raditional f ood p reparation a nd s erving c ustoms r equire n ew k inds o f c eramic u tensils; i t m ay c hange b ecause o f a g rowth i n s ocial o r o ccupational g roups w hose t astes, s tatuses, o r j obs r equire n ew k inds o f v essels o r m ore o f o ne k ind, s uch a s e lite c eremonial p lates o r m ilitary c ooking p ots; i t m ay a lso c hange b ecause o f s hifting c limatic o r e cological c onditions w hich s timulate a n eed f or n ew k inds o f v essels o r f or m ore v essels o f c ertain f unctional c lasses, s uch a s w ater s torage j ars d uring t imes o f d rought. O n t he o ther h and, t echnological d iversity i s b elieved t o b e p rim arily t he r esult o f p roduction p rocesses. I n a g eneral w ay , t echnolog ical d iversity w ithin f unctional g roups r eflects t he n umber o f i ndivid ual p otters o r w orkshops p roducing c eramic g oods a nd t he r elative p roportion o f t heir s hare o f t he m arket, i .e., t he a mount o f c ompetit ion p resent a mong p roducers d uring a p articular t ime . A s e thnographic s tudies h ave s hown, t raditional p otters t end t o u se r aw m aterials, c lay p reparation t echniques, a nd f orming a nd f iring p rocedures w hich d iffer i n s ome w ay f rom t hat o f a nother w orkshop o r p otter. T hese t echnologic al v ariations a re l ikely t o a ppear t o s ome d egree i n t he f inished p roduct. F urthermore, t raditional p otters o r p ottery w orkshops t end t o m anufacture a s imilar r ange o f g oods, t hat i s, e ach w orkshop m akes o ne k ind o f s erving j ar, o ne k ind o f p itcher, e tc., a lthough t hey m ay s pec ialize i n o nly o ne o r t wo f unctional c ategories ( Balfet 1 965; R ye a nd E vans 1 976; V ossen 1 984, 1 986). T he i mportant t hing i s t hat w orkshops s eldom p roduce m ore t han o ne v ariety o f e ach f unctional c lass. T heref ore, b y m easuring t he v ariability o f t echnological t ypes w ithin e ach f unctional g roup, i t i s p ossible t o d etermine i n a r ough w ay t he r elat ive n umber o f p ottery w orkshops t hat w ere i nvolved i n t he p roduction o f a p articular f unctional c lass a nd t heir r elative s hare o f t he m ark et. T he d iversity o f t echnological t ypes m ay c hange, f or e xample, a s t he n umber o f s mall p roduction u nits i ncreases o r a s t hey b egin t o s hare t he m arket m ore e quitably . T he d iversity m ay d ecrease a s t he n umber o f p roducers d eclines o r a s o ne m anufacturing u nit e xpands t o m onopolize t he p roduction o f c ertain c lasses o f p ottery .

1 45

H ierarchical D iversity M easure I n o rder t o e xamine b oth f unctional a nd t echnological c omponents o f c eramic d iversity a t a l-Basra, t he s tudy e mploys a h ierarchical d iversity m easure t hat w as d eveloped i n m athematical e cology ( Pielou 1 977). T his m easure t akes i nto a ccount t he h ierarchical n ature o f c ertain c lassifications, s uch a s t hat o f p ottery , i n w hich t he t otal d iversity o f a n a ssemblage i s a c omposite o f f unctional a nd t echnologic al d iversity . F or e xample, i n a c omparison o f t wo p ottery a ssemblages t hat c ontain t he s ame n umber o f t echnological t ypes i n t he s ame r elat ive p roportions, t he d iversities o f t he t wo a ssemblages a re e qual . I f, h owever, i n o ne a ssemblage a ll o f t he t ypes b elong t o o ne f unctiona l g roup a nd i n t he o ther a ssemblage e ach t ype b elongs t o a d ifferent f unctional g roup, i t i s r easonable t o r egard t he l atter a ssemblage a s t he m ore d iverse o f t he t wo. T his u nderscores t he v alue o f s plitting t he t otal d iversity o f a n a ssemblage i nto i ts c omponent p arts. O n t he b asis o f a f ormula p resented b y P ielou ( 1977:303-304), t otal d iversity i s e qual t o t he s um o f f unctional d iversity a nd w eighte d a verage t echnological d iversity w ithin f unctional g roups:

H t(f ,t) =

+H i(t)

w here H '(f,t) i s t he t otal d iversity ; HI( f) i s t he d iversity o f f unct ional g roups; a nd H '(t) i s t he w eighted m ean d iversity o f t echnologic al t ypes w ithin f unctional g roups. T he d iversity o f f unctional g roups i s c alculated a s HI( f) =

-2 :pi

l og pi

w here pi i s t he p roportion o f t he i th f unctional c lass w ithin t he t otal a ssemblage ( this f ormula i s t he s tandard S hannon i ndex o f d iversity). T he w eighted m ean d iversity o f t echnological t ypes w ithin f unctional g roups i s c alculated a s H '(t) = w here H 'i i s t he d iversity o f t echnological t ypes w ithin e ach f unctiona l c lass. T he d iversity w ithin e ach f unctional c lass i s c omputed a s H '

i

= -

w here pi j c lass i .

pi j

l og

i s t he p roportion o f t echnological t ype

j

w ithin

f unctional

I n t hese f ormulas, H ' t akes o n av alue o f z ero w hen d iversity i s a t i ts t heoretical m inimum--i.e., w hen a ll t he c eramics i n a n a ssemb lage b elong t o a s ingle t ype ( or c lass); a s t he n umber o f t ypes a nd t he e venness o f t he d istribution o f i tems a mong t ypes i ncrease, s o t oo d oes t he v alue o f t he i ndex. T he S hannon i ndex, i n p articular, h as b een u sed i n an umber o f r ecent a rcheological s tudies o f a rtifact d iv ersity ( e .g., C onkey 1 980; R ice 1 981). I n o rder t o a djust f or d ifferences i n s ample s ize a nd t o a ssess t he s ignificance o f c hanges i n d iversity f rom o ne p ottery a ssemblage t o

1 46

a nother, Iu sed a c omputer s imulation p rogram d eveloped b y K intigh t o d etermine d iversity v alues ( 1984a, 1 984b). T he p rogram c alculates t he e xpected d iversity f or a ssemblages o f d ifferent s izes o n t he b asis o f a n u nderlying f requency d istribution, w hich i n t he a l-Basra c ase w as t he a ctual d istribution o f t ypes w ithin e ach a ssemblage. A lso i n t he a l-Basra c ase, d iversity w as c alculated o n t he b asis o f am ean s ample s ize f or a ll t hree a ssemblages, i n o rder t o m ake t hem c omparable . T he c onfidence i nterval w as s et a t 9 0%. P ottery U sed i n t he D iversity S tudy T he m aterial c hosen f or t he d iversity s tudy c onsisted o f p ottery t hat w as m ost l ikely p roduced i n t he a rtisan w orkshops a t a l-Basra . T his m aterial i ncluded 4 ,093 o f 5 ,388 r im s herds, o r a bout 7 6% o f t he c ollection . T hese s herds b elonged t o 2 4 w are-form t ypes f rom a ll t hree u rban o ccupation p hases a t t he s ite ( see T able 8 .1 a nd F igure 8 .1). T he s tudy e xcluded a ll g lazed w ares, w hich a re b elieved t o h ave b een p roduced e lsewhere i n N orth A frica o r S pain, a nd h andmade w ares, w hich w ere v ery l ikely m ade b y d omestic p otters r ather t han b y a rtisans. I n a ddition, i t e xcluded t ypes t hat o ccur v ery r arely , i .e., l ess t han 2 0 e xamples i n t he c ollection, a nd m aterial f rom m ixed o r r esidual d eposi ts o r f rom t hose t hat c ould n ot b e a ssigned t o a s pecific p hase . T he s herds w ere g rouped i nto b oth f unctional c ategories a nd t echn ological c ategories b y o ccupation p hase. O f t hese s herds, 1 ,003 b el ong t o P hase 1 a ssemblages, w hich r epresent t he e arliest o ccupation a t a l-Basra; 1 ,931 s herds b elong t o P hase 2 a ssemblages, w hich a re a ssocia ted w ith t he m ajor r ebuilding a nd s econd o ccupation o f t he s ite; a nd 8 89 s herds c ome f rom P hase 3 a ssemblages, w hich r epresent t he t hird a nd f inal o ccupatin a t a l-Basra. S ome 2 70 s herds f rom P hase 4 a ssemblages w ere n ot i ncluded i n t he d iversity s tudy b ecause t hey a re a ssociated w ith t he p ost-urban p eriod a t t he s ite .

F unctional D iversity : 11( f) T he a nalysis o f f unctional d iversity i s b ased o n t he c lassificat ion o f t he a l-Basra p ottery i nto s ix f unctional c lasses, a ccording t o v essel s ize a nd s hape ( Table 8 .2). T hese c lasses i ncluded s mall s tora ge j ars, p itchers, l amps, c arinated j ars, w ater s torage j ars, a nd l arge s torage j ars. A s F igure 8 .2 s hows, f unctional d iversity c hanges r ather d ramat ically t hrough t ime . A lthough t he n umber o f f unctional c lasses s tays t he s ame, t he e venness d imension i ncreases f rom P hase 1 t o P hase 2 a nd l evels o ut i n P hase 3 . T he i ncrease i s s ignificant a t a 9 0% c onfidence l evel. O n t he w hole, t here i s am ore e ven d istribution o f s herds a mong f unctional c lasses i n P hases 2 a nd 3 t han t here a re i n P hase 1 . T he c hanges i n d iversity a re c learly r eflected i n F igure 8 .3, w hich s hows t he r elative f requencies o f f unctional c lasses b y o ccupat ion p hase . T he r elative a bundance o f s mall s torage j ars d rops s harply f rom P hase 1t o P hase 3 w hile t he r elative a bundances o f p itchers, c arinated j ars a nd, t o a l esser e xtent, l amps i ncrease s teadily d uring

1 47

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T otal,

I 2 PHASE

f unctional,

o ccupation p hase.

1 51

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R elative f requency o f s ix f unctional c lasses, 1 52

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t he s ame p eriod. A s t he c harts s how, o ne c lass--small s torage j ars-d ominates t he e arly p hase w hile t hree c lasses--small s torage j ars, p itchers, a nd c arinated b owls--are m ore e venly d istributed i n P hases 2 a nd 3 , r esulting i n ah igher d iversity v alue. I n s ummary, w e c an s ay t hat, a lthough a l-Basra 's p ottery w orkshops p roduced t he s ame r ange o f f unctional c lasses f or a bout 3 00 y ears, t hey m anufactured v arying p roportions o f t hese c lasses. F or s ome y et u nk nown r easons, l ocal d emand f or s everal o f t hese c lasses, i .e ., p itche rs, c arinated b owls, a nd l amps, r ose d uring t he m iddle a nd f inal o ccup ation p hases a t t he u rban c enter. A t t he s ame t ime, t he n eed f or s mall s torage j ars d eclined.

T echnological D iversity : 11( t) T he s tudy o f t echnological d iversity i s b ased o n t he c lassificat ion o f t he a l-Basra p ottery i nto 2 4 t echnological t ypes ( ware-form c ombinations), a ccording t o p aste c omposition a nd r im a nd n eck m orphol ogy . T hey i nclude, f or e xample, s andy b uff-firing p itchers, f ine b uff-firing p itchers, e tc. T hese t ypes w ere t hen a ssigned t o o ne o f t he s ix f unctional c lasses ( Tables 8 .3-8.8). A s F igure 8 .2 i ndicates, t echnological d iversity, l ike f unctional d iversity, c hanges, b ut i n t he o pposite d irection . T he w eighted m ean d iversity o f t echnological t ypes w ithin a ll f unctional c lasses c onsid ered t ogether d rops f rom P hase 1 t o P hase 2 a nd t hen s tays t he s ame i n P hase 3 . T echnological d iversity o n t he w hole i s a t i ts l owest p oint d uring t he l ast t wo o ccupation p hases a t a l-Basra . W e c an g et a b etter i dea o f t he r easons f or t he o verall d ecline i n t echnological d iversity b y e xamining t he v ariety w ithin e ach f unctional g roup c onsidered s eparately . W ithin t he l argest f unctional c lass-s mall s torage j ars--technological d iversity d rops i n a s ignificant w ay f rom P hase 1 t o P hase 2 a nd t hen e vens o ut i n P hase 3 ( Figure 8 .4a). T he d ecline i n d iversity o ccurs a t t he s ame t ime t hat t he o verall p rop ortion o f s mall s torage j ars f alls ( Figure 8 .4b). I n t erms o f p roduct ion f actors, i t s eems t hat f ewer a nd/or l arger w orkshops p roduce s mall s torage j ars a t at ime w hen c onsumer d emand f or t his k ind o f j ar i s o n t he w ane . T he a mount o f c ompetition a mong p roducers w ho m ake t his k ind o f j ar s eems t o d rop a s t he d emand f or i t f alls. A d ifferent p attern e merges i n t wo o ther f unctional g roups--pitche rs a nd l amps. A s F igure 8 .5a i llustrates, t he d iversity o f p itchers i ncreases--significantly--from P hase 1 t o P hase 2 a nd t hen l evels o ut i n P hase 3 . I n a s imilar f ashion, a s F igure 8 .6a s hows, t he d iversity o f l amps i ncreases s harply f rom P hase 1 t o P hase 2 a nd c ontinues t o r ise i n P hase 3 . T he g eneral r ise i n t echnological d iversity w ithin t hese t wo v essel c lasses t akes p lace a t t he s ame t ime t hat t he r elative a bundance o f e ach c lass r ises ( Figures 8 .5b a nd 8 .6b). I t s eems t hat m ore a nd/or s maller w orkshops b egin t o p roduce p itchers a nd l amps a s c onsumption f or b oth i tems g rows. C ompetition a mong p otters w ho m ake p itchers a nd l amps i ncreases a s t he m arket f or t hese i tems g rows.

1 53

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T ABLE 8 .4 C OUNTS A ND P ERCENTAGES O F T ECHNOLOGICAL T YPES O F P ITCHERS, B Y O CCUPATION P HASE

P itchers O ccupation P hase

T otal ( No.)

4 P ost-urban

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F ine 4 8 ( No.) ( %)

V ery F ine 4 8 ( No.) ( %)

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T ABLE 8 .5 C OUNTS A ND P ERCENTAGES O F T ECHNOLOGICAL T YPES O F L AMPS, B Y O CCUPATION P HASE

L amps O ccupation P hase

T otal ( No.)

F ine 9 3 ( No.) ( %)

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T ABLE 8 .6 C OUNTS A ND P ERCENTAGES O F T ECHNOLOGICAL T YPES O F C ARINATED J ARS, B Y O CCUPATION P HASE

C ar mated J ars

O ccupation P hase 4

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T ABLE 8 .7 C OUNTS A ND P ERCENTAGES O F T ECHNOLOGICAL T YPES O F W ATER S TORAGE J ARS, B Y O CCUPATION P HASE

W ater S torage J ars

O ccupation P hase

T otal ( No.)

F ine 4 4 ( No.) ( %)

V ery F ine 4 4 ( No.) ( %)

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2 6

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1 78

1 28

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T ABLE 8 .8 C OUNTS A ND P ERCENTAGES O F T ECHNOLOGICAL T YPES O F L ARGE S TORAGE J ARS, B Y O CCUPATION P HASE

L arge S torage J ars O ccupation P hase 4 P ost-urban

T otal ( No.) 1

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A t hird t rend a ppears i n a nother o f t he m ajor f unctional g roups-c arinated j ars. A s F igure 8 .7a i llustrates, t he d iversity o f t echnolog ical t ypes w ithin t his f unctional g roup c hanges r ather e rratically . I t f alls a l ittle f rom P hase 1 t o P hase 2 a nd t hen i ncreases i n P hase 3 . O verall, t echnological d iversity i s a t i ts h ighest p oint i n t he f inal o ccupation p hase. A s F igure 8 .7b i ndicates, h owever, t he r elat ive p roportion o f c arinated j ars d rops i n P hase 3 , w hen i t a pparently w as i n l ow d emand . O ddly e nough , t he v ariety o f t ypes o f c arinated j ars i ncreases a t t he s ame t ime t hat c onsumption o f t his k ind o f v essel w as l ow . T he p attern s uggests e ither t hat m ore p otters/workshops b egan t o p roduce c arinated j ars o r t hat i ts p roduction b ecame m ore e venly d istributed a mong w orkshops d uring t he l ast o ccupation p eriod, w hile t he n umber o f v essels t hat w ere p roduced a pparently d ecreased . T he d iversity p atterns o f t he r emaining f unctional c lasses--water s torage j ars a nd l arge s torage j ars--behave s omewhat e rratically , p rim arily b ecause o f t heir v ery l ow r elative a bundances. A s F igure 8 .8 s hows, t he d iversity o f w ater s torage j ars i ncreases f rom P hase 1 t o P hase 2 a nd c ontinues t o r ise i n P hase 3 . T he d iversity i s g enerally h ighest i n t he l ast t wo o ccupation p hases. I n s pite o f t he i ncrease i n d iversity, t he r elative p roportion o f t his f unctional g roup b arely c hanges. A s F igure 8 .9 i ndicates, t he d iversity o f l arge s torage j ars d eclines f rom P hase 1 t o P hases 2 a nd 3 , a lthough n ot s ignificantly , w hile t he r elative p roportion o f t his c lass r emains a t t he s ame l evel t hroughout a ll t hree o ccupation p hases. T hese t rends s uggest t hat t he n umber o f p otters/workshops m aking t hese v essels i ncreased ( or d ec reased) w ithout a c oncomitant c hange i n t he t otal n umber o f v essels b eing p roduced . I n s ummary, t wo p oints a bout t echnological d iversity n eed t o b e e mphasized . T he f irst i s t hat t he d ecline i n w eighted m ean t echnolog ical d iversity f or a ll v essel c lasses c onsidered t ogether l argely

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1 63

r eflects t he d rop i n t he v ariety o f s mall s torage j ars, w hich c onstit ute m ore t han 4 0% o f t he a l-Basra p ottery . A c hange i n t he d iversity o f t his l arge g roup h as a s trong i mpact o n t he a mount o f t echnological d iversity a s aw hole . T he s econd p oint i s t hat t he t rends f ound w ithin e ach f unctional c lass c onsidered s eparately a re w hat w e w ould e xpect u nder n ormal m arket c onditions, w ith t he p ossible e xception o f c arinat ed j ars. I n m ost c ases, t he d iversity o f t he c eramic m aterial i nc reased a s t he d emand f or s uch p roducts i ncreased, s uggesting t hat m ore p otters/workshops e ntered t he f ray i n a n e xpanding m arket, a nd v ice v ersa . T otal D iversity : W(f,t) A s w e n oted e arlier, t otal c eramic d iversity i s e qual t o t he s um o f f unctional a nd w eighted m ean t echnological d iversity . A s F igure 8 .2 s hows, t otal d iversity a ppears t o c hange r elatively l ittle t hrough 3 00 y ears o f o ccupation a t t he s ite, a lthough i t r ises s omewhat f rom P hase 1 t o P hase 2 . O f t he t wo c omponents o f t otal d iversity , f unctional d iversity p robably c ontributes m ost t o t his i ncrease i n t he m iddle p eriod . T he d iversity o f t his c omponent r ises s harply b etween P hase 1 a nd P hase 2 . A t t he s ame t ime, t he w eighted m ean t echnological d ivers ity f alls. A s t he s tudy s hows, a n e xamination o f t otal d iversity a lone, a s p revious s tudies o f c eramic h omogeneity/heterogeneity h ave a ttempted ( e .g., F einman 1 980), m ay p roduce m isleading r esults. W hile t otal d iversity o f t he a l-Basra a ssemblages i ncreases s omewhat i n t he m iddle o ccupation p hase, t he d iversity o f t echnological t ypes--which p rovides m ost o f t he i nformation a bout t he s ize a nd n umber o f p ottery w orks hops--actually d ecreases d uring t he s ame p eriod o f t ime . T hus, b y s eparating t otal d iversity i nto i ts c omponent p arts, w e a re a ble t o i solate a nd m easure t he v ariability d ue t o p roduction f actors i ndepend ently o f t hat d ue t o f unctional r easons.

A ssessment o f D iversity R esults i n L ight o f t he P roposed M odels i nteresting T he r esults o f t he d iversity s tudy a re p articularly T he p olitical m odel i n l ight o f t he t wo m odels d escribed i n C hapter 1 . c ontends t hat c hanges i n t he o rganization o f c raft p roduction i s p rig r o w i n g p o l i t i c al m an ly t he r esult o f a dministrative f actors, e .g., o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c ontrol o f p roduction . T he f ree-enterprise m odel, a rgues t hat s uch c hanges a re m otivated p rimarily b y e conomic p ressures, e .g., p opulation g rowth o r m ovement. A s t he a nalysis o f t echnological d iversity s hows, t here i s s ome i ndication o f a c hange i n t he o rganization o f c eramic p roduction d uring t he c ity 's 3 00-year-history . T he s hift i s f rom a m ore d iverse a nd, p resumably , am ore c ompetitive c eramic i ndustry i n t he e arly p hase t o a l ess d iverse a nd, b y i mplication, a l ess c ompetitive p roduction c ontext i n t he m iddle a nd l ate p hases. I n o ther w ords, r elatively f ewer a nd/or l arger w orkshops a ppear t o d ominate t he p ottery i ndustry d uring t he m iddle a nd l ate p hases a t t he m edieval s ite .

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I n p art, t hese r esults c onform t o t he e xpectations o f t he F einmanR ice m odel ( see T able 8 .9). I f g overnment i nvolvement i n e conomic a ctivities i ncreased d uring t he l ate I drisid-Fatimid p eriod w hen a dmini strative i nfluence w as p otentially h ighest a t a l-Basra, c ompetition a mong p otters/workshops w ould h ave d eclined a s w ell, l eading t o a l ower t echnological d iversity o f c eramic p roducts. T he d iversity s tudy i ndic ates t hat t his m ay h ave h appened . O n t he o ther h and, i f a dministrat ive i nvolvement i n p roduction a ctivities d ecreased d uring t he f inal p eriod a t a l-Basra, w hen t he U mayyads a nd Z enatas r uled n orthern M orocc o, c ompetition a mong p roducers--and t hus t echnological d iversity-w ould h ave i ncreased . T he s tudy, h owever, s hows v ery l ittle c hange i n t echnological d iversity b etween t he m iddle a nd l ate o ccupation p hases.

T ABLE 8 .9 P OLITICAL M ODEL O F C ERAMIC P RODUCTION A T A L-BASRA

P hase

P olitical C entralization

E conomic C ompetition

E xpected T echnological D iversity

4 P ost-urban

3L ate

F ragmented U mayyadZ enata c onfederacy

S trong

H igh

2M iddle

I drisid-Fatimid a dministrative c enter

W eak

L ow

1E arly

F ragmented I drisid s tate

S trong

H igh

A lthough i t i s t empting t o a ttribute t he c hanges i n t echnological d iversity t o s hifts i n t he d egree o f p olitical/administrative i nvolvem ent i n t he c eramic i ndustry a t a l-Basra, p articularly i n t he m iddle p hase, a n a lternative p ossibility n eeds t o b e c onsidered. W hile a s hift t o l arger a nd/or f ewer p ottery w orkshops i n t he m iddle a nd l ate p hases i s f airly c lear, t he r easons f or t he c hange a re n ot a s s traightf orward . I t i s p ossible t hat t he s hift c onsisted o f a c hange t oward l arger c ommercial w orkshops o perated b y p rivate e ntrepreneurs, i n o rder t o m eet t he r ising d emand f or c onsumer g oods i n a n e xpanding m arket ( see T able 8 .10). T his p ossibility i s s upported b y t he a nalysis o f t echnological v ariety w ithin f unctional g roups. A s w e n oted e arlier, t echnological d iversity i ncreased o r d ecreased i n t andem w ith a r ise o r f all i n t he r elative p opularity o f t he i tem . F or e xample, t he d ivers ity o f s mall s torage j ars d ropped a t t he s ame t ime a s t he p roduction o f t his v essel c lass f ell. T he v ariety o f p itchers, l amps, a nd p ossib ly w ater s torage j ars i ncreased a t t he s ame t ime t hat d emand f or t hem a pparently i ncreased. T hese p atterns w ere n ot a s purious e ffect o f s ample s ize. I nstead, t hey r eflect a n ormal m arket s ituation i n w hich a n umber o f p roducers w ere a ttracted t o a l ocale w here t he d emand

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T ABLE 8 .10 E CONOMIC M ODEL O F C ERAMIC P RODUCTION A T A L-BASRA

P hase

U rban P opulation

P roduction U nits

E xpected T echnological D iversity

4 P ost-urban

3 L ate

C ity d estroyed, r ebuilt P opulation d eclines

F ew ,

2M iddle

C ity r ebuilt P opulation p eaks

F ew , l arge-scale/ M any, s mall-scale

L ow/ H igh

1E arly

C ity s ettled P opulation e xpands

M any,

H igh

s mall-scale

s mall-scale

L ow

f or c ertain p roducts w as g rowing, o r v ice v ersa . B y c ontrast, t he d iversity o f c arinated j ars i ncreased a t a t ime w hen t his v essel c lass s eemed t o b e i n l ower d emand. I t i s d ifficult t o p ostulate w hy t his h appened, s ince i t s eems t o r un c ounter t o t he n ormal f ree-market p att ern . V arious p roducers m ay h ave c ontinued t o m ake t his k ind o f v ess el, d espite t he f act t hat l ocal d emand f or i t w as i n d ecline . I t i s c onceivable t hat t his v essel w as d istributed t o o ther t owns a nd c ities i n t he r egion . T he r emarkable f act i n t his a nalysis i s t hat i n n o c ase d id t echn ological d iversity d rop w hile t he r elative a bundance o f t he f unctional g roup c ontinue t o r ise, a s ituation t hat o ne m ight e xpect i f t he g ove rnment b ecame i nvolved i n p ottery p roduction--especially m ass p roduct ion--as t he F einman-Rice m odel p ostulated . I f g overnment i nterference i n p ottery p roduction i ncreased d uring P hase 2 w hen a l-Basra b ecame a p rovincial a dministrative c enter f or t he I drisids a nd F atimids, o ne w ould e xpect t o s ee a d ecline i n c ompetition a mong p ottery p roducers a t t he s ame t ime t hat t he s cale o f p roduction o f c ertain k inds o f v essels i ncreased . I n o ther w ords, t he d iversity w ithin f unctional c lasses p roduced b y s tate-controlled s hops s hould d rop a s t he r elative a bund ance o f t he v essel g roup i ncreased. T his d id n ot h appen. I nstead, d iversity w ithin f unctional g roups, s uch a s p itchers a nd l amps, i nc reased a s t heir r elative a bundances r ose i n P hases 2 a nd 3 .

S ummary a nd C onclusions T he r esults o f t he d iversity s tudy s trongly s uggest t hat t he a lB asra p ottery w as p roduced b y i ndependent a rtisans i n s malla nd/or l arge-scale c ommercial w orkshops. T he i ndustry c hanged s omewhat f rom o ne p hase t o a nother, a s t he n umber o f p roducers i ncreased o r d ecreased o r a s t he s cale o f p roduction i n o ne o r t wo w orkshops c hanged, p robably i n r esponse t o s hifts i n t he s ize o f t he u rban p opulation. T here i s,

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h owever, n o e vidence f or g overnment i nvolvement i n p roduction, e ither i n t he p atterns f ound i n t he d iversity s tudy o r i n t he t ype o f p ottery t hat w as p roduced . A s t he s tudy s uggests, t he n umber a nd s ize o f a rtisan w orkshops i nvolved i n t he p roduction o f p ottery v aried o ver t ime, m ost l ikely i n r esponse t o f luctuations i n t he u rban m arket. T he s hift w as f rom a m ore c ompetitive t o a l ess c ompetitive a nd, t hus, l ess d iverse i ndustry b etween t he e arly a nd m iddle o ccupation p hases. D uring t he m iddle p hase, f ewer p roducers a nd/or l arger w orkshops b egan t o m anufacture u tilitarian p ottery a t a l-Basra . S ome o f t hese p otters s eem t o h ave s hifted f rom t he m anufacture o f s mall s torage j ars t o t he p roduction o f p itchers a nd l amps, w hich s eem t o h ave b ecome i ncreasingly p opular. I n a ddition, s ome o f t hese p roducers b egan t o m ake a h igher q uality p rod uct, i n t he f orm o f v ery f ine w ares, p erhaps i ndicating a g eneral i mprovement i n t he s tandard o f l iving. T hese c hanges c oincided w ith t he c onstruction o f w ell-made s tone-and-mortar s tructures t hroughout t he c ity a nd, p ossibly , t he m assive c ity w alls, a nd s eem t o r eflect a p eriod o f r elative g rowth a nd p rosperity a t a l-Basra .

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C HAPTER 9

S UMMARY A ND C ONCLUSIONS

T he a l-Basra s tudy h as b rought t ogether b oth a rcheological a nd d ocumentary e vidence i n a n i nvestigation o f c raft p roduction a n e arly m edieval s ociety . T he h istorical i nformation h as b een u sed a s a f ramew ork f or e xamining a nd i nterpreting t he a rcheological r ecord f rom a lB asra i n o rder t o r econstruct t he p ottery i ndustry i n t his s mall, p rov incial t own. T he h istorical d ata h ave a lso b een u sed t o d efine t he p arameters o f c ertain f orms o f c raft p roduction i n e arly s tate a nd i mperial s ocieties, i n p articular a dministratively-directed p ottery p roduction . T hese h ave b een u sed t o d evelop a n a lternative m odel i n o rder t o b roaden t he s cope o f f uture a rcheological i nquiries i nto t he o rganization o f c raft p roduction a nd i nto t he f actors t hat m ay h ave b een r esponsible f or i ts t ransformation. T his c hapter r eviews t he m ajor f indings o f t he r esearch a nd d isc usses s ome f uture d irections f or a rcheological s tudies o f n on-agricult ural p roduction i n c omplex s ocieties. C eramic P roduction a t a l-Basra A s b oth h istorical a nd a rcheological e vidence i ndicate, p ottery p roduction i n t he e arly m edieval t own o f a l-Basra w as u ndertaken b y i ndependent a rtisans i n r elatively s mall w orkshops a nd w as a ffected p rimarily b y e conomic a nd c ultural f actors, s imilar t o m ost p ottery i ndustries i n t he I slamic w orld . T he c eramic m aterial t hat w as p roduced a t t he s ite c onsisted a lm ost e xclusively o f u tilitarian w ares, i .e ., v essels u sed f or s torage, c ooking, a nd l ighting. T he u tilitarian p ottery w as m ade o n aw heel a nd f ired i n a k iln a nd, f or t he m ost p art, r emained u ndecorated . I n t he I slamic w orld, t his k ind o f p ottery w as g enerally p roduced f or a nd s old t o l ocal u rban a nd r ural i nhabitants a nd w as n ot i ntended f or l ongd istance e xchange . A rcheological e vidence, s uch a s k iln r emains a nd w asters, f rom o ther s ites i n t he M aghreb i ndicate t hat p ottery w as p roduced i n v irtually a ll u rban c enters. A lthough s ome o f t his p roduct ion m ay h ave c onsisted o f g lazed a nd d ecorated w ares f or s hipment t o d istant m arkets, i t i s r easonable t o c onclude t hat m ost c enters a lso p roduced a l ower q uality u tilitarian p roduct f or l ocal c onsumption . T he c oncentration o f u tilitarian p ottery p roduction i n e arly I slamic c ities d iffers s omewhat f rom t hat f ound i n t he l ate R oman w orld, w here m ajor p ottery c enters s pecializing i n u tilitarian w ares w ere o ften l ocated i n p rovincial a reas, s uch a s G aul a nd N orth A frica . T he a vaila bility o f e fficient t ransportation s ystems, i ncluding r oads a nd w aterw ays, m ade s uch d ecentralized c ommercial p roduction f easible i n t he R oman p eriod w hereas, d uring t he I slamic e ra, t he l ack o f r oadways a nd l arge s hipping v essels ( Unger 1 980) m ade t he l ong d istance m ovement o f c ommon, e veryday c eramic v essels i mpractical a nd u neconomic.

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B oth t he t echnology a nd t he o rganization o f t he p ottery i ndustry a t a l-Basra w ere h ighly s table . A s a rcheological e vidence i ndicates, m any o f t he p ottery w ares a nd f orms m ade w hen t he A rabs o riginally o ccupied t he c ity c ontinued t o b e p roduced u p t o t he t ime t hat t he c ity w as f inally a bandoned, s ome t hree c enturies l ater. T hese i ncluded f ine b uff-firing s torage j ars, p itchers, c arinated j ars a nd l amps, w hich c onstituted t he b ulk o f t he p ottery f ound a t a l-Basra . T hey r epresente d am anufacturing p rocess t hat w as h ighly r esistant t o c hange . T his p rocess c ontinued t o d ominate t he i ndustry e ven a fter t he i ntroduction o f a n ew m anufacturing t echnology d uring t he s econd o ccupation p hase w hen t he c ity w as r ebuilt. T he n ew m ethod, w hich i nvolved e ither t he u se o f an ew c lay s ource o r a d ifferent c lay p reparation t echnique, s uch a s l evigation, r esulted i n a n a esthetically m ore p leasing a nd p ossibly m ore d urable v essel. B y t he t hird a nd f inal o ccupation p hase a t a l-Basra, h owever, t he v ery f ine b uff-firing w ares h ad i ncreased i n r elative a bundance, s uggesting t hat t hey w ere i n g reater d emand b y t he l ocal p opulation t han o ther w ares. A s t he s tudy i ndicates, h owever, t he i ntroduction o f an ew m anufacturing p rocess i n a n a rtisan-dominate d, u rban i ndustry d oes n ot m ean t hat i t w ill b e a dopted r apidly b y o ther l ocal p otters, n or t hat i t w ill b e i mmediately p opular w ith a b road s pectrum o f l ocal c onsumers. I nstead, t he r eplacement o f o ne p roduct b y a nother i s l ikely t o b e f airly g radual. T his f inding u nders cores t he h ighly c onservative n ature o f s pecialized a rtisans w ho r ely o n a r elatively c omplicated t echnological p rocess f or t heir l ivelihood . T he a l-Basra s tudy a lso e mphasizes t he c onservative n ature o f t he o rganization o f l abor i n c raft p roduction . A s a c omparative h istorical s tudy o f R oman a nd I slamic c raft p roduction s uggests, t he s ame b asic f orms o f w orkshop o rganization p ersisted i n t he M editerranean w orld f or m ore t han a m illennium . T hese s imilarities i ncluded n ot o nly t he a ctu al w orkshop a rrangements b ut a lso t he i nvolvement o f t he s tate o r i mperial g overnment i n c ertain k inds o f c raft p roduction. T he a rcheol ogical e vidence f rom a l-Basra s uggests t hat t he p ottery i ndustry c ons isted o f a f ew s mall, i ndependent w orkshops. T he n umber a nd s ize o f t he w orkshops s eem t o h ave c hanged s omewhat t hrough t ime b ut t he c hange w as r elatively m odest. D uring t he e arly o ccupation p hase, t he n umber o f a rtisans w as r elatively h igh a nd t heir p roduction s cale w as f airly m odest. D uring t he s econd a nd t hird o ccupation p hases, t heir n umber d ecreased a nd t he s cale o f p roduction i n a f ew w orkshops i ncreased, r eflecting a d ecline i n c ompetition a mong t he c ity 's p otters. A lthough t he r easons f or s uch a c hange a re d ifficult t o a scertain, t he c eramic m aterial p rovides s ome c lues. A ccording t o t he d iversity s tudy , a n i ncrease i n t he n umber o f p otters/workshops p roducing a s pecific k ind o f v essel o ccurred i n t andem w ith a n i ncrease i n t he p roduction o f a nd, p resumably, c onsumer d emand f or t hat p roduct, a nd v ice v ersa . I n o ther w ords, t he i ndustry e xpanded i n r esponse t o g rowing c onsumer d emand f or c ertain k inds o f v essels a nd c onstricted i n t erms o f p roduction w hen d emand f ell. I t i s p ossible t hat a d rop i n c onsumer d emand f or c ertain k inds o f v essels, s uch a s s mall s torage j ars, j eopardized t hose w orks hops t hat p roduced t hem a lmost e xclusively . T his m ay e xplain w hy p otters w ho c oncentrated o n t he p roduction o f s mall s torage j ars u sing s andy, b uffing-firing c lays m ay h ave g one o ut o f b usiness, o r m ay h ave s witched t o an ew m anufacturing t echnology, w hen t he d emand f or t hose v essels d ropped i n t he s econd a nd t hird o ccupation p hases. O n t he o ther h and, p otters w ho p roduced a w ide r ange o f v essels, s uch a s t hose

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e mploying f ine b uff-firing c lays, s eem t o h ave h eld o nto a l arge s hare o f t he m arket. I n a ll c ases, h owever, c hanges i n t echnology a nd i n t he n umber a nd s cale o f p roduction u nits s eem t o h ave b een s timulated b y e conomic f actors r ather t han b y a ny i nvolvement o n t he p art o f s tate o r i mperial a dministrators. C eramic I ndustries i n E arly U rban S ocieties O n a b roader s cale, t he a l-Basra s tudy s uggests t hat a rtisan p ott ery i ndustries i n o ther e arly s tate a nd i mperial s ocieties m ay h ave b een, a t l east i n p art, e ntrepreneurial. A s b oth t he d iscussions o f R oman a nd I slamic c raft p roduction s howed, g overnment a nd/or a dminist rative i nvolvement i n t he m anufacture o f c raft p roducts w as u sually l imited t o i tems t hat t he g overnment n eeded f or i ts o wn o peration . T hese i tems a lmost a lways i ncluded t extiles f or p alace f urnishings a nd d iplomatic e xchanges, a rmaments f or m ilitary t roops, a nd c oinage . W ith f ew e xceptions, i .e., m ilitary p ottery a nd e lite w ares, i t d id n ot i nclude c eramic g oods. I n b oth M editerranean c ivilizations, c eramic p roduction u sually o perated a s a f ree-enterprise s ystem , i n w hich s mall a nd l arge w orks hops w ere o wned a nd o perated b y i ndependent a rtisans. M ost o f t he p ottery t hat t hey p roduced w as s old t o c onsumers e ither t hrough l ocal m arkets f or u tilitarian p roducts o r t hrough m iddlemen f or l uxury g oods. O nly a r elatively s mall p roportion o f t he t otal p ottery p roduced i n t hese s ocieties w as m ade u nder c ommission t o o r d irect c ontrol o f t he s tate o r i ts a gents; t his m aterial c onsisted o f m ilitary w ares, p artic ularly i n t he R oman p eriod, a nd h ighly g lazed a nd d ecorated l uxury g oods, s uch a s l ustre w ares, i n t he A rab w orld. T he F einman-Rice m odel, w hich s tresses p olitical c hange a s a p rim ary m otivation f or s hifts i n c eramic p roduction, d oes n ot s eem a pplic able t o t he p articular c ontext o f p ottery m anufacture i n p re-indust rial I slamic s ociety . I nstead, d emographic, e conomic, a nd c ultural f actors s eem t o h ave h ad a m ore d irect a nd l asting i mpact o n c eramic p roduction i n t he e arly I slamic p eriod . T hese f actors n eed t o b e c ons idered i n a ny r econstruction o f a ncient p ottery p roduction . H istorical C ontext a nd F ree-Enterprise P roduction T he a vailability o f b oth d ocumentary i nformation a nd w ell-provenie nced a rcheological m aterial h as a llowed u s t o r econstruct t he p ottery i ndustry a t a l-Basra i n s ome d etail. T his k ind o f c lose-up s tudy u nd erscores t he s hortcomings o f s ystemic m odels, s uch a s t hose p roposed b y F einman, R ice, a nd o thers ( e.g., A rnold 1 975, 1 985; W right a nd J ohns on 1 975), w hich h ave c ome u nder i ncreasingly c ritical s crutiny i n r ecent y ears b y v arious a rcheological r esearchers ( Adams 1 974; A dams 1 979; H odder 1 982). M any o f t he l imitations c ited b y t hese c ritics a re a pplicable t o t he r ecent s tudies o f c raft p roduction b y A rnold ( 1985), F einman ( 1980, 1 985), a nd R ice ( 1981). I n g eneral, t hese s tudies v iew c ultural p henomena, s uch a s c raft p roduction a s f unctional, a daptive p rocesses, w hich c hange a s t he l arger c ultural s ystem a djusts t o a c hanging e nvironment. F or e xample, F einman a ttributed a n e xtension o f p olitical c ontrol o ver t he e conomy, i ncluding c raft p roduction, t o p eriodic f ood s hortages i n t he O axaca V alley ( Feinman 1 980, 1 985). I n

1 70

a ddition, t hese s tudies i mplicitly v iew h uman b eings a s p assive, u ncons cious b eings r ather t han a s a ctive, g oal-motivated i ndividuals. A cc ording t o F einman, c hanges i n t he O axaca p ottery i ndustry w ere m otiv ated p rimarily b y p olitical/administrative c ircumstances r ather t han b y a n a ctive r esponse b y i ndividual p otters/workshops t o n ew e conomic o r d emographic c onditions. T he s ystemic a pproach, i n f act, m inimizes t he p otential i mportance o f i ndividual a rtisans i n m aking d ecisions a nd t aking r isks i ndependently . F inally , a nd m ost i mportantly , t hese s tudi es d eemphasize t he h istorical c ontext o f p ottery p roduction, b oth i n t erms o f t he p articular h istorical d evelopment o f c raft p roduction i n a r egion a nd o f s pecific c ultural a ttitudes t oward c eramic m aterial. T hus, r esearchers i n t he O axaca V alley h ave a ssumed t hat p rehistoric i nhabitants o f t he v alley p laced a s imilar v alue o n a ll c eramic m ateri al. T he p resent s tudy h as c learly s hown t hat t he e arly I slamic i nhab itants o f N orth A frica p laced d ifferent v alues o n v arious k inds o f p ottery . T hey a ssigned t he v alues a ccording t o a c ulturally s haped p erception o f t he f unction, d urability, a esthetic, a nd/or i ntrinsic v alue o f c ertain k inds o f c eramic v essels. T hese c ulturally s pecific a nd h istorically d erived v alues a nd m eanings a ssigned t o p ottery a nd o ther m aterial g oods n eed t o b e c onsidered i n a rcheological i nvestigat ions o f a ncient s ocieties.

1 71

A PPENDIX 1

A VERAGE S HERD S IZE, A ND S HERD A ND B ONE D ENSITIES, B Y P ROVENIENCE U NIT ( LEVEL-LOCUS)

L evelP hase L ocus 0 0 3 0 0 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 1 2 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 4 3 2 4 2 2 2 4 3 3 2

A 102-0 C 102-0 D 103-1 E 102-2 E 103-2 F 101-0 F 103-0 F 104-0 F 105-0 F 106-1 F 107-1 F 103-3 F 104-3 F 105-3 F 108-4 F 105-5 F 106-5 F 101-6 F 102-6 F 103-6 F 104-6 F 104-7 F 206-1 F 301-0 F 302-0 F 303-0 F 304-0 F 305-0 F 306-0 F 307-0 F 308-0 F 309-0 F 301-1 F 302-1 F 303-1 F 301-2 F 302-2 F 303-2 F 304-2 F 301-3 F 302-3 F 303-3 F 304-3

D eposit T ype M C M C U F U F T S G F U F K C K C K C G F U F K C K C K C K C T S U F U F S S G F T S M C F l G F G F F 2 K C K C K C T S F l G F T S G F G F F 2 T S U F U F G F

A verage S herd S ize ( g) 1 1.7 1 0.5 8 .4 2 9.4 2 7.7 1 2.8 1 3.8 1 1.1 8 .5 9 .2 8 .4 9 .0 1 1.2 9 .9 8 .4 9 .1 1 3.3 1 0.1 1 7.7 1 8.1 1 1.9 1 6.5 1 7.1 9 .1 9 .6 1 4.0 2 4.6 1 9.4 2 2.8 2 0.7 2 3.9 2 4.2 1 4.2 1 1.7 1 7.4 1 8.4 1 7.7 1 8.3 1 7.6 1 4.0 1 4.9 1 7.1 1 6.8

S herd D ensity

B one D ensity

( ms )

( ms )

. 8 4 .4 3 .7 1 .7 2 .0 1 1.8 8 .8 6 .7 5 .0 1 .9 1 6.4 1 0.9 2 .4 5 .0 1 0.6 2 .5 1 .7 3 .6 1 0.7 1 .8 1 .1 5 .7 1 1.4 2 .2 2 .5 3 .2 2 .8 6 .2 3 .4 1 .1 5 .9 3 .7 1 .7 3 .9 1 .1 6 .3 . 9 1 .9 4 .8 4 .2

1 73

1 .1 . 3 . 5 1 .4 7 .6 3 .9 3 .0 2 .2 1 .0 1 6.0 7 .6 1 .7 . 8 4 .2 1 .6 . 8 2 .6 6 .7 0 .0 . 3 2 .3 5 .2 1 .4 1 .3 3 .1 1 .9 2 .1 1 .6 . 3 2 .8 1 .7 . 5 1 .0 . 8 3 .3 2 .9 8 .9 1 .7 2 .1

L evelP hase L ocus 2 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 0 2 3 2 4 3 3 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 4 3 3 3 3 2 2

F 305-3 F 306-3 F 307-3 F 308-3 F 407-0 F 501-0 F 502-0 F 503-0 F 504-0 F 505-0 F 506-0 F 507-0 F 508-0 F 509-0 F 510-0 F 511-0 F 512-0 F 513-0 F 514-0 F 515-0 F 516-0 F 505-1 F 506-1 F 507-1 F 603-0 F 607-0 F 603-1 F 604-1 F 605-1 G 100-0 G 101-0 G 102-1 G 103-1 G 104-1 G 105-1 G 106-1 G 107-1 G 109-1 G 110-1 G 111-1 G 112-1 G 113-1 G 114-1 G 102-2 G 103-2 G 104-2 G 105-2 G 106-2 G 107-2 G 108-2

D eposit T ype U F K C K C K C U F T S T S M C F l U F U F U F U F U F U F U F U F S S S S S S S S F l C F U F M C U F F 2 U F U F T S T S T S M C M C F l U F U F U F C F U F U F U F S S T S M C M C F l U F U F U F

A verage S herd S ize ( g) 1 9.8 2 4.0 1 9.7 2 4.9 1 2.2 7 .8 9 .6 1 2.1 9 .3 9 .8 1 1.1 1 2.2 1 3.2 1 2.4 1 1.7 1 1.2 1 1.0 9 .8 1 0.9 1 7.1 5 .0 1 3.1 1 0.4 1 1.7 1 0.6 1 3.7 1 2.3 1 1.2 1 3.0 1 .6 6 .6 9 .4 1 0.2 1 1.5 1 0.3 1 4.7 1 6.8 1 2.5 1 7.1 1 8.8 1 6.6 1 3.1 2 1.8 9 .5 8 .6 1 2.2 1 1.3 1 4.8 1 4.7 1 4.8

1 74

S herd D ensity ( m3 )

B one D ensity ( m3 )

6 .3 4 .5 4 .4

1 .9 1 .3 0 .0

4 .7 2 .2 4 .4 6 .0 1 5.2 1 9.2 2 7.1 6 .1 6 .6 1 2.3 8 .6 1 2.0 3 .6 2 .6 0 .9 0 .3 8 .4 9 .5 9 .2 1 1.7 1 4.5 5 .4 7 .2 6 .1

0 .1 0 .1 1 .1 2 .0 1 0.2 1 0.6 1 4.0 4 .0 5 .0 5 .5 2 .5 3 .8 1 .4 0 .1 0 .0 0 .0 6 .0 1 2.5 3 .5 9 .7 6 .3 2 .7 3 .8 5 .6

1 .3 1 .5 1 .1 1 .0 1 .9 6 .6 8 .7 6 .8 1 7.0 9 .2 1 3.8 9 .1 3 .0 1 .9 2 .7 1 .4 3 .8 7 .0 3 .2 4 .1

. 3 0 .7 1 .6 . 6 . 4 3 .3 3 .5 2 .1 6 .9 5 .2 1 .8 1 .1 . 3 1 .0 . 9 1 .0 2 .3 4 .4 2 .4 2 .0

L evelP hase L ocus 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 2 2 2 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 3 4 4 3 4 0 0 0 0 0

G 109-2 G 110-2 G 111-2 G 112-2 G 113-2 G 114-2 G 115-2 G 201-0 G 202-0 G 203-1 G 204-1 G 206-1 G 203-2 G 204-2 G 205-2 G 206-2 G 207-2 G 208-2 G 209-2 G 210-2 G 211-2 G 212-2 G 213-2 G 207-3 G 208-3 G 209-3 G 211-3 G 212-3 G 213-3 G 214-3 G 215-3 G 216-3 G 302-0 G 302-2 G 303-2 G 301-3 G 302-3 G 303-3 H 101-0 H 102-0 H 104-0 1 204-2 1 206-2 1 207-2

D eposit T ype C F C F U P U F C F S S S S T S T S M C M C F l M C M C F l F l C F U P F 2 U P C F C F F 2 M C F l U P C F M C F l C F S S S S F l U P F l T S U P F l T S U P U P U P U P S S

A verage S herd S ize ( g) 1 6.3 1 1.5 1 7.6 2 1.2 2 0.2 1 8.5 1 8.3 7 .1 6 .1 5 .4 1 3.9 1 2.3 8 .4 2 3.4 1 7.4 2 0.5 9 .2 1 4.9 2 0.1 2 1.1 1 9.1 1 5.0 1 3.0 1 2.5 1 4.1 1 3.3 1 9.5 1 8.8 1 3.2 1 6.6 8 .5 6 .6 7 .9 6 .9 7 .9 9 .0 1 2.7 9 .4 1 8.8 2 2.4 2 3.5 1 6.4

S herd D ensity

B one D ensity

( m3 )

( m3 )

1 9.3 3 .5 8 .4 1 0.3 2 4.1 7 .9 1 .4 2 .3 5 .6 6 .4 8 .2 1 5.6 6 .2 3 .3 6 .4 6 .5 4 .1 4 .6 7 .0 1 3.8 2 0.3 2 0.0 3 .4 . 9 1 .4 5 .1 1 7.3 4 .2 6 .9 3 .5 . 9 . 7 2 .3 2 .3 4 .8 6 .2 5 .3 2 .1 1 .6 6 .7 2 .1 5 .2 2 .6 1 .4

1 75

4 .2 . 9 3 .3 1 .8 4 .4 . 6 . 1 . 1 . 5 1 .2 . 9 1 .9 2 .3 . 6 . 3 . 4 0 .0 . 9 1 .0 0 .0 2 .1 4 .6 1 .9 . 3 1 .0 2 .8 5 .9 1 .7 1 .7 1 .5 1 .3 0 .0 1 .1 1 .3 3 .3 2 .3 2 .9 1 .2 . 2 1 .3 2 .0 . 5 . 8 . 9

A PPENDIX 2

P RESENCE/ABSENCE O F M ETAL A ND G LASS A RTIFACTS, B Y P ROVENIENCE U NIT ( LEVEL-LOCUS)

L evelP hase L ocus

D eposit T ype

S lag

I ron N ails C opper G lass L ead

0 0

A 102-0 C 102-0

M C

0 0

0 1

0 0

1 0

0 0

0 0

3 0 0

D 103-1 E 102-2 E 103-2

M C U F U F

0 0 0

1 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

4 2 2

F 101-0 F 103-0 F 104-0

T S G F U F

0 1 0

0 1 1

0 0 0

0 0 1

0 0 0

0 0 0

2 2

F 105-0 F 106-1

K C K C

0 0

1 1

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

2 2 2 2 2

F 107-1 F 103-3 F 104-3 F 105-3 F 108-4

K C G F U F K C K C

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0

2

F 105-5

K C

0

1

0

1

0

0

2 4 2 2 1 -

F 106-5 F 101-6 F 102-6 F 103-6 F 104-6 F 104-7

K C T S U F U F S S -

0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

2 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1

F 206-1 F 301-0 F 302-0 F 303-0 F 304-0 F 305-0 F 306-0 F 307-0 F 308-0

G F T S M C F l G F G F F 2 K C K C

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 4 3 2 4 2 2 2

F 309-0 F 301-1 F 302-1 F 303-1 F 301-2 F 302-2 F 303-2 F 304-2

K C T S F l G F T S G F G F F 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

4 3

F 301-3 F 302-3

T S U F

0 0

1 1

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

3 2 2 1

F 303-3 F 304-3 F 305-3 F 306-3

U F G F U F K C

0 0 0 1

1 0 1 1

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0

1 76

L evelP hase L ocus

D eposit T ype

S lag

I ron N ails C opper G lass L ead

1 1 1

F 307-3 F 308-3 F 407-0

K C K C U F

0 0 0

1 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 1 0

0 0 0

4 4 3 3

F 501-0 F 502-0 F 503-0 F 504-0

T S T S M C F l

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1

2 2

F 505-0 F 506-0

U F U F

0 0

1 1

0 0

0 1

0 1

0 0

2 1 1

F 507-0 F 508-0 F 509-0

U F U F U F

0 0 0

1 1 1

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

1 1 1 1

F 510-0 F 511-0 F 512-0 F 513-0

U F U F U F S S

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

0 1 0 1

0 0 0 0

1 1

F 514-0 F 515-0

S S S S

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 3 0 2

F 516-0 F 505-1 F 506-1 F 507-1

S S F l C F U F

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0

0 1 1 1

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0

3 2 4 3

F 603-0 F 607-0 F 603-1 F 604-1

M C U F F 2 U F

1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

3 4 4 4

F 605-1 G 100-0 G 101-0 G 102-1

U F T S T S T S

0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0

1 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

3 3 3 2

G 103-1 G 104-1 G 105-1 G 106-1

M C M C F l U F

0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1

0 1 1 1

0 0 0 0

2 2 0

G 107-1 G 109-1 G 110-1

U F U F C F

0 0 0

1 0 1

0 0 0

0 0 0

1 0 0

0 0 0

1 1

G 111-1 G 112-1

U F U F

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 1 4 3 3

G 113-1 G 114-1 G 102-2 G 103-2 G 104-2

U F S S T S M C M C

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

3

G 105-2

F l

0

1

0

1

1

0

3 2

G 106-2 G 107-2

U F U F

0 0

1 1

0 0

1 0

1 1

0 0

2 2

G 108-2 G 109-2

U F C F

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 1

0 0

2 1

G 110-2 G 111-2

C F U F

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 1

0 0

1 77

L evelP hase L ocus

D eposit T ype

S lag

I ron N ails C opper G lass L ead

1

G 112-2

U F

0

0

0

0

0

0

1 1 1

G 113-2 G 114-2 G 115-2

C F S S S S

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

1 0 1

0 0 0

4 4

G 201-0 G 202-0

T S T S

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 0

0 0

3

G 203-1

M C

0

0

0

1

0

0

3 3 3

G 204-1 G 206-1 G 203-2

M C F l M C

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 1

0 0 1

0 0 0

3 3

G 204-2 G 205-2

M C F l

0 0

0 0

1 1

1 1

1 1

0 0

3 0 2 2

G 206-2 G 207-2 G 208-2 G 209-2

F l C F U F F 2

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0

2 1

G 210-2 G 211-2

U F C F

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 0

0 0

1 1 3 2

G 212-2 G 213-2 G 207-3 G 208-3

C F F 2 M C F l

0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0

2 1 1 1

G 209-3 G 211-3 G 212-3 G 213-3

U F C F M C F l

0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

1 1 1 0

0 0 0 0

1 1

G 214-3 G 215-3

C F S S

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 0

1

G 216-3

S S

0

0

0

0

0

0

3 4 3

G 302-0 G 302-2 G 303-2

F l U F F l

0 0 0

0 1 1

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 1

0 0 0

4 4

G 301-3 G 302-3

T S U F

0 1

1 1

0 0

0 1

0 0

0 0

3 4 0 0 0

G 303-3 H 101-0 H 102-0 H 104-0 1 204-2

F l T S U F U F U F

0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0

1 206-2 1 207-2

U F S S

0 0

0 0

1 1

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 78

A PPENDIX 3

C OUNTS O F A L-BASRA P OTTERY W ARES, B Y P ROVENIENCE U NIT ( LEVEL-LOCUS)

L evelP hase L ocus T otal 0 0 3 0 0 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 2 2 1

A 102-0 C 102-0 D 103-1 E 102-2 E 103-2 F 101-0 F 103-0 F 104-0 F 105-0 F 106-1 F 107-1 F 103-3 F 104-3 F 105-3 F 108-4 F 105-5 F 106-5 F 102-6 F 103-6 F 104-6 F 206-1 F 301-0 F 302-0 F 303-0 F 304-0 F 306-0 F 307-0 F 308-0 F 302-1 F 303-1 F 302-2 F 304-2 F 303-3 F 304-3 F 305-3 F 306-3 F 307-3 F 308-3 F 407-0 F 503-0 F 504-0 F 505-0 F 506-0 F 507-0 F 509-0

2 8 7 5 7 4 2 1 4 2 5 1 04 1 02 8 2 5 3 2 7 1 62 1 54 2 3 4 2 5 2 2 8 1 56 2 02 3 8 1 7 4 7 3 7 7 7 2 6 2 3 2 3 3 8 4 6 1 4 1 3 2 6 4 8 6 4 4 0 3 7 4 2 1 0 2 3 2 9 5 5 1 27 8 1 9 8 6 1

C ream

V ery F ine

1 0 0 0 0 0 4 9 6

0 0 5 5 3 1 1 2 1 6 2 0

5 0 3 7 0 1 0 1 4 1 6

0 0 1 4 1 0 0 1 0

3 1 2 5 1 3 0 4 4 2 7 3 0 7 6 5 1 0 7 9 8 5 1 0 5 1 6 7 1 5 1 5 0 2 1 1 5 3 7 1

5 6 3 6 7 2 1 8 1 3 6 2 8 6 1 4 2 1 3 1 1 1 9 0 0 0 8 0 2 4 6 2 2 4 1 0 3 3 1 7 1 9

1 3 0 1 2 3 6 3 2 2 5 6 0 5 8 1 0 2 4 3 1 0 1 1 6 4 4 1 2 4 6 1 0 0 0 0 6 2 4 2 9 7 8 1

0 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 1 0

F ine

S andy

2 2 7 9 1 1 2 2 0 6 4 6 7 4 4 3 7 1 5 1 03 8 6 1 1 3 0 2 7 9 1 12 1 13 2 6 9 2 3 1 4 3 0 1 0 1 4 1 1 1 6 2 0 8 8 1 2 2 3 4 3 1 9 1 3 1 9 7 1 5 1 6 2 9 8 8 6 6 5 9 3 7

1

8

1 79

1

G laze

1

H andm ade C oarse 0 0 5 2 0 3 9 6 6 4 3 9 1 3 1 1 4 0 5 2 7 1 1 1 5 5 2 0 2 4 4 0 0 0 0 7 6 3 6 1 1 3 0 9 2 6 3

0 0 0 2 0 7 1 1 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 2 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

L evelP hase L ocus T otal

F ine

S andy

1 1 1 3 0 2 3 2 3 4 3 2 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 4 3 4

7 0 4 6 4 1 2 8 1 0 1 9 2 8 4 1 1 5 2 8 1 5 2 4 3 9 3 0 5 7 1 3 3 9 1 7 3 1 0 1 2 4 8 5 6 5 0 1 8 1 3 1 8 3 3 2 0 1 2 1 7 1 0 4 2 4 1 8 2 6 1 4 1 0 2 8 3 9 3 2 3 4 1 2 1 3 3 0 2 8 1 6 3 9 7 2 8

5 2 2 5 0 0 0 3 1 1 3 0 5 1 3 5 3 2 1 7 4 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 6 3 4 6 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 0 5 3 6 2 0 2 7 2 8 4 6 7 4 0 1 9

F 510-0 F 511-0 F 513-0 F 505-1 F 506-1 F 507-1 F 603-0 F 607-0 F 605-1 G 101-0 G 105-1 G 106-1 G 107-1 G 109-1 G 110-1 G 111-1 G 112-1 G 113-1 G 114-1 G 103-2 G 105-2 G 106-2 G 107-2 G 108-2 G 109-2 G 110-2 G 111-2 G 112-2 G 113-2 G 114-2 G 202-0 G 203-1 G 204-1 G 206-1 G 203-2 G 204-2 G 205-2 G 206-2 G 207-2 G 209-2 G 210-2 G 211-2 G 212-2 G 213-2 G 209-3 G 211-3 G 213-3 G 214-3 G 302-2 G 303-2 G 301-3

1 07 1 03 5 6 3 7 1 6 3 2 5 5 5 8 2 8 5 0 3 2 4 1 6 5 5 0 1 31 2 9 6 9 7 4 3 4 3 6 4 7 1 20 3 1 2 9 1 09 4 5 2 9 3 2 8 7 4 1 2 7 2 7 2 0 3 2 6 9 7 5 5 6 5 0 1 9 5 4 7 8 8 1 8 9 5 0 3 9 6 2 4 4 2 0 6 6 1 6 4 8

C ream 2 3 2 1 1 1 5 8 5 1 5 7 4 1 5 0 7 6 7 1 4 8 1 5 3 4 0 1 8 4 3 2 1 7 1 0 2 1 3 1 1 2 5 6 4 3 2 1 4 2 0 1 4 3 1 5 1 9 1 0 7 1 2

1 80

V ery F ine 0 0 1 6 0 3 1 4 0 0 1 2 1 3 6 7 6 1 4 2 3 1 0 1 7 2 1 4 9 2 4 1 9 2 3 1 3 0 0 0 0 9 7 2 8 2 6 3 8 1 3 5 0 6 7 4 0 1 1 3 0 0 1 5 2 6

G laze 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 4 0 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 4 7 1 3 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 2 0 1

H andm ade C oarse 9 1 3 8 2 1 2 5 1 5 2 1 1 3 2 2 0 6 5 4 9 3 7 1 4 2 2 1 5 7 9 5 1 4 0 0 0 3 1 6 0 5 2 2 3 1 1 4 1 1 4 1 3 4 5 3 5 0 3 5 1

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 7 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 1

L evelP hase L ocus T otal 4 3 4 0 0 0

G 302-3 G 303-3 H 101-0 H 104-0 1 204-2 1 208-0

6 4 6 1 2 3 1 2 2 0 1 3

C ream

V ery F ine

F ine

S andy

3 8 2 5 1 7

8

7 1 2

o

7 6 2

8 2 6 2

5 8

0 0

0 1

1

1 81

G laze

H andm ade C oarse

o

2 0 0

o

1 3 0

0 0

3 0

1 2

o

1 0 0 3 1 1 2

A PPENDIX 4

C OUNTS O F M AJOR A L-BASRA P OTTERY F ORMS, B Y P ROVENIENCE U NITS ( LEVEL-LOCUS)

L evelP hase L ocus T otal

4 0

4 1

4 2

4 3

4 4

4 8

9 3

0 0 1 0 0 0 4 1 7 1 0 1 2 4 1 5 3 2 1 1 1 0 2 0 0 2 0

4 0 3 0 1 9 1 0 7 1 3 1 7 1 8 1 0 7 2 4 2 7 8 9 1 2 9 3 0 1 9 8 6 1 5 4 2 1

1 0 3 0 0 5 1 4 1 2 5 3 0 1 6 2 7 2 2 6 4 2 0 2 9 1 1 5 3 1 3

0 0 7 1 4 2 4 1 4 1 9 1 0 9 4 1 7 2 0 3 2 7 2 1 7 4 1 2 4 5 4 8

4 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 4 1 2 1 0 1 0 3 1 6 4 2 6

2 3 2 8 1 6 4 1 1 1 3 9 2 8 2 0 0 9 1 5 4 4 2 0 2 1 1 0

2 2 1 1 2 0 5 3 3 3 4 2 2 2 3 0 8 1 4 3 5 2

2 4 5 4 6 3 2 3 0 1 2 9 6 3 3 1 3 1 0 9 1 0 1 3 1 4

0 0 3 0 0 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 4 3 3

A 102-0 C 102-0 D 103-1 E 102-2 E 103-2 F 101-0 F 103-0 F 104-0 F 105-0 F 106-1 F 107-1 F 103-3 F 104-3 F 105-3 F 108-4 F 105-5 F 106-5 F 102-6 F 103-6 F 104-6 F 206-1 F 301-0 F 302-0 F 303-0

2 8 7 5 7 4 2 1 4 2 5 1 04 1 02 8 2 5 3 2 7 1 62 1 54 2 3 4 2 5 2 2 8 1 56 2 02 3 8 1 7 4 7 3 7 7 7

5 4 5 0 0 3 2 8 2 1 1 7 1 2 5 3 6 2 8 1 1 4 8 4 2 7 4 9 8 2 3 1 2

8 1 9 5 2 5 2 1 9 1 2 9 3 4 5 3 0 3 4 6 3 4 0 2 9 3 3 9 1 8 1 7

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

9 2 2 4 0 1 1 0 2 2 1 3 9 8 1 2 1 7 5 6 1 0 2 1 1 2 5 1 3 1 1 0 5 1 6

2 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 2 2 1

F 304-0 F 306-0 F 307-0 F 308-0 F 302-1 F 303-1 F 302-2 F 304-2 F 303-3 F 304-3 F 305-3 F 306-3 F 307-3 F 308-3 F 407-0 F 503-0 F 504-0 F 505-0 F 506-0 F 507-0 F 509-0

2 6 2 3 2 3 3 8 4 6 1 4 1 3 2 6 4 8 6 4 4 0 3 7 4 2 1 0 2 3 2 9 5 5 1 27 8 1 9 8 6 1

7 6 1 0 1 3 2 4 2 1 4 1 5 1 0 1 1 1 9 1 5 0 5 3 7 1 0 1 5 1 7 1 2

9 7 5 4 1 2 3 2 3 1 1 2 1 5 1 8 2 5 2 9 2 9 1 5 1 6 8

0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 2

0 1 0 5 6 0 1 0 2 8 5 0 3 2 7 2 6 1 4 1 1 2 1 1 3

1 82

O ther

8

L evelP hase L ocus T otal 1 1 1 3 0 2 3 2 3 4 3 2 2 2 0 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 4 3 4

F 510-0 F 511-0 F 513-0 F 505-1 F 506-1 F 507-1 F 603-0 F 607-0 F 605-1 G 101-0 G 105-1 G 106-1 G 107-1 G 109-1 G 110-1 G 111-1 G 112-1 G 113-1 G 114-1 G 103-2 G 105-2 G 106-2 G 107-2 G 108-2 G 109-2 G 110-2 G 111-2 G 112-2 G 113-2 G 114-2 G 202-0 G 203-1 G 204-1 G 206-1 G 203-2 G 204-2 G 205-2 G 206-2 G 207-2 G 209-2 G 210-2 G 211-2 G 212-2 G 213-2 G 209-3 G 211-3 G 213-3 G 214-3 G 302-2 G 303-2 G 301-3

1 07 1 03 5 6 3 7 1 6 3 2 5 5 5 8 2 8 5 0 3 2 4 1 6 5 5 0 1 31 2 9 6 9 7 4 3 4 3 6 4 7 1 20 3 1 2 9 1 09 4 5 2 9 3 2 8 7 4 1 2 7 2 7 2 0 3 2 6 9 7 5 5 6 5 0 1 9 5 4 7 8 8 1 8 9 5 0 3 9 6 2 4 4 2 0 6 6 1 6 4 8

4 0

4 1

4 2

4 3

2 3 1 4 9 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 5 4 2 7 1 7 6 1 3 4 1 9 6 2 2 6 1 1 1 2 3 1 9 5 4 6 1 1 4 2 1 2 0 2 7 6 3 1 1 1 1 4 1 3 8 5 4 9 8 4 5 2 9

9 1 0 5 3 1 4 1 4 1 7 4 1 0 8 8 6 9 3 4 4 1 0 3 0 7 6 2 5 6 5 1 7 1 4 2 3 6 9 9 3

4 1 2 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0

3 1 2 9 1 5 7 2 2 2 1 0 5 5 4 5 1 1 4 1 6 3 1 7 3 0 2 2 2 6 1 5 6 4 6 1 2 3 4 1 3 2 1

9

0

0

0 1 7 7 6 4 4 1 0 1 1 6 5 6 8 6 0 2 1 4 3 1 9

0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 2 1 5 1 6 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 0

0 7 8 1 5 3 2 4 1 2 3 3 3 0 1 2 6 2 1 7 7 4 0 2

1 83

4 4 3 0 2 2 0 0 2 6 1 0 0 3 0 1 9 3 1 2 0 2 1 7 3 2 8 3 0 3 4 0 1 3 1 0 2 5 2 4 0 0 2 3 1 0 3 5 1 2 4 1 4

4 8

9 3

1 9 1 1 5 9 7 1 1 1 2 5 3 1 6 7 9 1 4 1 3 1 8 6 7 6 1 1 3 9 3 1 7 6 1 8 7 2 0 1 3 5 1 3 1 6 8 1 3 3 2 3 0 1 7 5 6 7 1 4 1 1 9 0 4 5 1 3 2 1 3 8

4 4 1 2 4 1 7 5 4 9 6 3 6 9 1 1 3 6 1 0 3 6 1 0 0 2 9 1 4 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 3 5 0 1 1 0 7 2 0 4 5 5 3 0 7 2 0

O ther 1 4 2 3 1 2 4 1 3 1 3 4 6 6 4 6 7 8 2 9 6 8 1 6 1 4 7 1 7 3 0 2 6 3 2 1 1 1 1 8 1 8 4 0 2 7 1 8 6 1 3 1 0 3 0 3 2 1 1 8 1 1 2 1 7 9 1 0 1 4 0 1 0 5 6

L evelP hase L ocus T otal 4 3 4 0 0 0

G 302-3 G 303-3 H 101-0 H 104-0 1 204-2 1 208-0

6 4 6 1 2 3 1 2 2 0 1 3

4 0

4 1

6 1 0 4 2 0 1

2 7 1 5 4 3 3 1

4 2 0 0 1 3 0 2

1 84

4 3 6 1 1 4 0 4 3

4 4 5 2 2 0 0 0

4 8 1 4 1 5 4 1 5 4

9 3 3 4 2 0 0 0

O ther 3 4 2 3 8 2

A PPENDIX 5

T HERMOLUMINESCENCE S TUDY

A t hermoluminescence ( TL) s tudy o f f ired c lay m aterial f rom a lB asra w as u ndertaken i n a n a ttempt t o g et a bsolute d ates f or s ome o f t he d eposits a t t he s ite . A lthough t he h istorical r ecord p rovides a f ew d ates, e .g., i ts s ettlement i n c a . A .D . 8 06, i ts d estruction b y t he U mayyads i n A .D . 9 79, a nd i ts f inal d isappearance s ometime i n t he e lev enth o r t welfth c entury , t hese d o n ot h elp t o a ge s pecific d eposits, i n p articular t he c ultural m aterial a ssociated w ith e ach o f t he t hree b uilding/occupation p hases. I n a ddition, t he e xcavations f ailed t o y ield a ny e vidence t hat c ould b e u sed t o d ate s pecific a rchitectural f eatures; t he I slamic c oins t hat w ere f ound w ere b adly w orn a nd h ave n ot b e i dentified . C onducted a s a j oint p roject b etween M ASCA , U niversity M useum , i n P hiladelphia, a nd t he U niversity o f D urham i n E ngland, t he T L s tudy i nvolved t hree s amples: b rick m aterial f rom t he F l a nd F 3 p ottery k ilns a nd b urned r ed c lay m aterial f rom m ud-brick w alls w hose c ollapse m arked t he e nd o f t he c ity . O nly t he F 3 k iln s ample p roduced a d ate, u sing a p re-dose t echnique ( Fleming 1 979): A .D . 8 25 + 1 75 ( Dur T L 3 4-4AS). D espite t he d isappointingly l arge s tandard d eviation t hat r epresents c lose t o 1 6% o f t he k iln 's a ge, t he d ate d oes p lace t he k iln, w hich i s s tratigraphically a ssociated w ith t he e arliest s ettlem ent a t a l-Basra, t oward t he f irst h alf o f t he c ity 's h istory . T he o ther t wo s amples d id n ot p roduce v iable T L d eterminations. I t i s p ossible t hat t he c ollapsed m ud-brick w alls d id n ot h eat u p t o t he m inimum t emperatures n eeded f or T L d ating ( ca . 4 50 d egrees). I t i s u nlikely, h owever, t hat t he F l k iln, w hich m ust h ave b een h eated r ep eatedly t o t emperatures r anging o ver 7 00 o r 8 00 d egrees c entigrade, f ailed t o r each t he m inimum . I t s eems t hat t he b roader q uestion o f T L d ating o f k ilns m ay b e f ruitfully e xplored i n t he f uture, s ince v ery l ittle w ork a long t hese l ines h as b een c onducted t hus f ar.

1 85

B IBLIOGRAPHY

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J .

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D elphy, A . 1 951-52 " Note s ur u ne e xposition t emporaire d e c eramiques m usulmanes a rchaiques t rouvees a u M aroc." C ahiers d es A rts e t T echniques d e l 'Afrique d u N ord 1 : 7 -14. 1 955 " Note s ur q uelques v estiges d e c eramique r ecueillis ä S ale. H esperis 4 2: 1 29-152. D emains d 'Archimbaud, G .

a nd M .

P icon ( editors)

1 980 L a C eramique M edievale e n M editerranee O ccidentale : X e-XVe s iecles. e ditions d u C entre N ational d e l a R echerche S cientifique, P aris. D everdun, G aston a nd M arcel R ouche 1 949 " Notes s ur d e n ouveaux d ocuments d e c eramique m arocaine d ecouverts ä M arrakech ." H esperis 3 6: 4 51-455. D ozy , R einhart 1 972 S panish I slam : A H istory o f t he M oslems i n S pain. b y F rancis G riffin S tokes. R eprint o f 1 913 e dition. L ondon .

T ranslated F rank C ass,

E ustache, D aniel 1 955 " El-Basra, C apitale I drissite, e t S on P ort." 2 18-238.

H esperis 4 2:

1 970-71 C orpus d es D irhams I drisites e t C ontemporains. M aroc, R abat. 1 971a " Idris I ." I II, p . 1 031. E .

B anque d u

I n E ncyclopaedia o f I slam J . B rill, L eiden.

N ew E dition

V ol.

1 971b " Idris I I." I n E ncyclopaedia o f I slam I II, p p. 1 031-1032. E . J . B rill, L eiden .

N ew E dition --

V ol.

1 971c " Idrisids." I n E ncyclopaedia o f I slam I II, p p. 1 035-1037. E . J . B rill, L eiden .

N ew E dition

V ol.

F erron, 1 954 F einman,

J .

a nd M .

P inard

" Ceramique m usulmane ä C arthage."

C ahiers d e B yrsa 4 :

4 1-65.

G ary

1 980 " The R elationship b etween A dministrative O rganization a nd C eramic P roduction i n t he V alley o f O axaca ." P h .D . d issertation, C ity U niversity o f N ew Y ork, N ew Y ork .

1 90

1 985 " Changes i n t he O rganization o f C eramic P roduction i n P reH ispanic O axaca, M exico." I n D ecoding P rehistoric C eramics, e dited b y B en A . N elson, p p. 1 95-223. S outhern I llinois U niversity P ress, C arbondale . F einman, G ary,

S tephen K owalewski, R ichard E .

B lanton

1 984 " Modelling C eramic P roduction a nd O rganizational C hange i n t he P re-Hispanic V alley o f O axaca, M exico." I n T he M any D imensions o f P ottery; C eramics i n A rchaeology a nd A nthropology , e dited b y S ander v an d er L eeuw a nd A lison P ritchard, p p. 2 97-333. A msterdam . F einman, G ary,

S teadman U pham , K ent G .

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1 981 " The P roduction S tep M easure: A n O rdinal M easure o f L abor I nput i n C eramic M anufacture ." A merican A ntiquity 4 6: 8 71-884. F 4vrier,

P .A ., A .

G aspary a nd R .

G u4ry

1 970 F ouilles d e S 4t .if ( 1959-1966). A rch oloque A lgeria 1 . A lgiers. F inley, M .

S upplement d e B ulletin

I .

1 971

" Archaeology a nd H istory ."

1 973

T he A ncient E conomy .

D aedalus 1 0:

1 68-186.

U niversity o f C alifornia P ress, B erkeley .

F lannery, K . V . 1 972 " The C ultural E volution o f C ivilization ." E cology a nd S ystematics 3 :399-426.

A nnual R eview o f

G lick, T homas F . 1 979 I slamic a nd C hristain S pain i n t he E arly M iddle A ges. P rinceton U niversity P ress, P rinceton, N ew J ersey . G oitein,

S . D .

1 961 " The M ain I ndustries o f t he M editerranean A rea a s R eflected i n t he R ecords o f t he C airo G eniza ." J ournal o f E conomic a nd S ocial H istory o f t he O rient 4 : 1 68-197. 1 967 A M editerranean S ociety , v ol. I : E conomic F oundations. U niversity o f C alifornia P ress, B erkeley . 1 970 " Mediterranean T rade i n t he E leventh C entury : S ome F acts a nd P roblems." I n S tudies i n t he E conomic H istory o f t he M iddle E ast, e dited b y M . A . C ook, p p. 5 1-62. O xford U niversity P ress, L ondon. 1 971 A M editerranean S ociety , v ol. C alifornia P ress, B erkeley .

1 91

2 : T he C ommunity .

U niversity o f

1 973 L etters o f M edieval J ewish T raders. P ress, P rinceton, N ew J ersey . 1 983 A M editerranean S ociety , v ol. C alifornia P ress, B erkeley .

P rinceton U niversity

4 : D aily L ife.

U niversity o f

G olvin, L ucien 1 965 R echerches A rch4ologiques ä l a Q ala d es B anu H ammad ( Algerie). G . P . M aisonneuve e t L arose, P aris. 1 980 " Les C 4ramique 4 mail4es d e Oriode H ammädide Q al'a d es B anü H ammäd ( A1g4ria)." I n L a C 4ramique M 4diAvale e n M 4diterran4e O ccidentale: X e-XVe s iecles, e dited b y G . D 4mains d 'Archimbaud a nd M . P icon, p p. 2 03-217. E ditions d u C entre N ationale d e l a R echerche S cientifique, P aris. G renier d e C ardenal, M icheline 1 980 " Recherches s ur l a c 4ramique M 4di4vale M arocaine." I n L a C 4ramique M 4di4vale e n M 4diterran4e O ccidentale : X e-XVe s iecles, e dited b y G . D 4mains d 'Archimbaud a nd M . P icon, p p. 2 27-250. e ditions d u C entre N ationale d e l a R echerche S cientifique, P aris. H agstrum , M elissa B . 1 985

" Measuring P rehistoric C eramic C raft S pecialization : A T est C ase i n t he A merican S outhwest." J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 1 2: 6 5-75.

H arris, E dward C . 1 975 " The S tratigraphic S equence: A Q uestion o f T ime." A rcheology 7 : 1 09-121. 1 979 P rinciples o f A rchaeological S tratigraphy . N ew Y ork.

W orld

A cademic P ress,

H ayes, J ohn W . 1 972

L ate R oman P ottery .

B ritish S chool a t R ome, L ondon.

H aywood, R . M . 1 956 " Roman A frica." I n A n E conomic S urvey o f A ncient R ome, v ol. I V , e dited b y T enney F rank, p p. 1 -120. P ageant B ooks, I nc., P aterson, N ew J ersey . H odder,

I an

1 982 " Theoretical A rchaeology : A R eactionary V iew ." I n S ymbolic a nd S tructural A rchaeology, e dited b y I an H odder, p p. 1 -16. C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge .

1 92

H ole, E dwyn 1 958

A ndalus:

S pain u nder t he M uslims.

L ondon .

H opkins, K . 1 978 " Economic G rowth a nd T owns i n C lassical A ntiquity ." i n S ocieties, e dited b y P . A brams a nd E . A . W rigley, p p. C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge . I bn A bi Z ar

( d.

I n T owns 3 5-77.

1 310-20)

1 860 R oudh e l-Kartas H istoire d es S ouverains d u M aghreb, E spagne e t M aroc, e t A nnales d e l a V ille d e F es. T ranslated b y A . B eaumier. P aris. I bn H awkal

( ca.

9 77)

1 842 " Description d e l 'Afrique." T ranslated f rom A rabic b y M . S lane . J ournal A siatique, 3 rd s eries, v ol. 1 3: 1 53ff. I bn I dhari

( ca.

1 306)

1 901-1904 H istoire d e l 'Afrique e t d e l 'Espagne . F agnan. A lger. I bn K haldun

( ca.

T ranslated b y E .

1 380)

1 927 H istoire d es B erberes. V ol. L ibrairie O rientaliste, P aris. a l-Idrisi

d e

I I.

T ranslated b y M .

d e S lane.

( 1154)

1 969 D escription d e l 'Afrique e t d e l 'Espagne. E dited a nd t ranslated b y R . D ozy a nd M . d e G oeje. R eprint. O riental P ress, A msterdam . I mamuddin, S . M . 1 965 S ome A spects o f t he S ocio-Economic a nd C ultural H istory o f M uslim S pain, 7 11-1492 A .D. E . J . B rill, L eiden . J effers, M ary V . 1 981 D omestic A rchitecture f rom I slamic Q sar e s-Seghir. M aster 's t hesis, D epartment o f A nthropology, S tate U niversity o f N ew Y ork, B inghamton. J enkins, M arilyn 1 975 " Western I slamic I nfluences o n E gyptian I conography ." d es O rients 1 0:91-107.

K unst

1 980 " Medieval M aghribi L uster-Painted P ottery ." I n L a C 4ramique M& Ii4vale e n M 4diterran e O ccidentale : X e-XVe s iecles, e dited b y

1 93

G . D emains d 'Archimbaud a nd M . P icon , p p. 3 35-342. t ditions d u C entre N ationale d e l a R echerche S cientifique, P aris. J ohnson, G regory A . 1 973 L ocal E xchange a nd E arly S tate D evelopment i n S outhwestern I ran. A nthropological P apers N o. 5 1. M useum o f A nthropology , U niversity o f M ichigan, A nn A rbor. J ones, A . H . M . 1 974 T he R oman E conomy : S tudies i n A ncient E conomic a nd A dministrative H istory . R owman a nd L ittlefield, T otowa, N ew J ersey . J ulien, C harles-Andre 1 970 H istory o f N orth A frica: T unisia R outledge a nd K egan P aul, L ondon.

A lgeria, M orocco.

K intigh, K eith 1 984a " Measuring A rchaeological D iversity b y C omparison w ith S imulated A ssemblages." A merican A ntiquity 4 9:44-54. 1 984b " Sample S ize, S ignificance, a nd M easures o f D iversity ." P aper p resented a t t he 4 9th A nnual M eeting o f t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology, P ortland, O regon. 1 985 " Diversity P rogram V 3.1--PC V ersion ." M anuscript o n f ile, 7 02 E . V ictoria S treet, S anta B arbara , C alifornia . K ramers,

J . H .

1 936 " al-Mukaddasi." E ncyclopaedia o f I slam . V ol. 7 09. E . J . B rill, L eiden.

I II, p p.

7 08-

L acoste, Y ves 1 974 " The G eneral C haracteristics a nd F undamental S tructures o f M edieval N orth A frican S ociety ." E conomy a nd S ociety 3 : 1 -17. L ane, A rthur 1 965 E arly I slamic P ottery; M esopotamia , E gypt a nd P ersia . a nd F aber, L ondon. L aroui, A bdallah 1 977 T he H istory o f t he M aghreb: A n I nterpretive E ssay . T ranslated b y R alph M anheim . P rinceton U niversity P ress, P rinceton, N ew J ersey .

1 94

F aber

L avoix, M . H enri 1 891 C atalogue d es M onnaies M usulmanes d e l a B iblioth4que N ationale: E spagne e t A frique . I mprimerie N ational, P aris. L awless, R ichard I . a nd G erald H . B lake 1 976 T lemcen: C ontinuity a nd C hange i n a n A lgerian T own . P ress, B oulder, C olorado. L eo A fricanus

W estview

( 16th c entury)

1 956 D escription d e l 'Afrique. A drien-Maisonneuve, P aris.

T ranslated b y A .

e paulard .

L eTourneau , R oger 1 949

F es A vant L e P rotectorat.

C asablanca.

1 961 F ez i n t he A ge o f t he M arinids. P ress, N orman . L eToureau, R oger a nd H .

U niversity o f O klahoma

T errasse

1 965 " Fas." E ncyclopaedia o f I slam . N ew E dition . V ol. 8 18-823. E . J . B rill, L eiden .

I I

p p.

L 4vi-Provencal, E . 1 944 H istoire d e L 'Espagne M usulmane. V ol. 1 . L 'Institut F rancais d 'Arch4ologie O rientale d u C aire, C aire. 1 960 " Abu ' Ubayd a l-Bakri." V ol. I , p p. 1 55-157. L Avi-Provencal, E . 1 960 p p.

E ncylopaedia o f I slam . N ew E dition .

a nd L . T orres B albas

" Al-Andalus." E ncylopaedia o f I slam . N ew E dition . V ol. 4 92-501. E . J . B rill, L eiden .

I ,

L ewis, A rchibald R . 1 951 N aval P ower a nd T rade i n t he M editerranean, A . D . P rinceton, P rinceton U niversity P ress.

5 00-1100.

L ewis, B ernard 1 966

T he A rabs i n H istory .

H arper a nd R ow, N ew Y ork .

M arcais, G eorge 1 913 L es P oteries e t F aiences d e l a Q al la d es B eni H ammad ( XIe s iecle). B raham , C onstantine. 1 916

L es P oteries e t F aiences d e B ougie.

1 95

B raham ,

C onstantine .

1 924 R echerches d 'Arch4ologie M usulman e n T unisie . B ulletin d e l a S oci4t4 F rancaise d es F ouilles A rch4ologiques, P aris. 1 928 L es F aiences ä R ef l ets M 4talliques d e l a G rande M osqu4e d e K airouan. L ibrairie O rientaliste P aul G euthner, P aris. 1 941 " La B erb4rie a u I Xe s iecle d 'apres E l-Ya lq oubi." A fricaine, p p. 4 0-61.

R evue

M arcais, G eorge a nd A . D essus-Lamare 1 941 " Recherches d 'archeologie m usulmane T ihert-Tagdemt." A fricaine 9 0:24-57. M arcais, G eorge a nd J .

R evue

S chacht

1 960 " Aghlabids." E ncyclopaedia o f I slam . N ew E dition. v ol. 2 47-250. E . J . B rill, L eiden .

I , p p.

M arzouk, M . A . 1 955 H istory o f T extile I ndustry i n A lexandria A lexandria U niversity P ress, A lexandria . M euni4, J acques, H .

3 31 B .C.-1517 A .D .

T errasse, a nd G . D everdun

1 952 R echerches A rch4ologiques ä M arrakech . G raphiques, P aris.

A rts e t M 4tiers

M ez, A dam 1 937 T he R enaissance o f I slam . B aksh a nd D . S . M argoliouth . H ouse, P atna .

T ranslated b y S alahuddin K huda J ubilee P rinting a nd P ublishing

M ikesell, M arvin W . 1 961 N orthern M orocco: A C ultural G eography . C alifornia P ress, B erkeley .

U niversity o f

M iguel, A . 1 971 " Ibn H awqal." E ncyclopaedia o f I slam . I II, p p. 7 87-788. E . J . B rill, L eiden .

N ew E dition.

v ol .

M ohamedi, A nissa 1 980 " Information s ur l es d 4couvertes r 4centes e n c 4ramique m 4di4vale e ffectu4es ä S 4t .if ( A1g4rie)." I n L a Cramique M 4di4vale e n M 4diterran4e O ccidentale : X e-XVe s iecles, e dited b y G . D 4mains d 'Archimbaud a nd M . P icon, p p. 2 19-220. E ditions d u C entre N ationale d e l a R echerche S cientifique, P aris.

1 96

M orris,

C raig

1 974 " Reconstructing P atterns o f N on-Agricultural P roduction i n t he I nca E conomy : A rchaeology a nd D ocuments i n I nstitutional A nalysis." I n R econstructing C omplex S ocieties, e dited b y C . M oore, p p. 4 9-60. B ulletin o f t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch, P hiladelphia . 1 982 " The I nfrastructure o f I nka C ontrol i n t he P eruvian C entral H ighlands." I n T he I nca a nd A ztec S tates 1 400-1800 . A nthropology a nd H istory, e dited b y G eorge A . C ollier, R enato I . R osaldo, J ohn D . W irth, p p. 1 53-171. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork . M orris, C raig a nd D .

E .

T hompson

1 970 " Huanuco V iejo: A n I nca A dministrative C enter." A ntiquity 3 5: 3 44-362.

A merican

a l-Mukaddasi ( late 1 0th c entury) 1 950 D escription d e l 'Occident M usulman a u I Ve-Xe s i e t ranslated b y C . P ellat. E ditions C arbonel, A lger. M yers, J .

E dited a nd

E mlen

1 984 " The P olitical E conomy o f C eramic P roduction : A S tudy o f t he I slamic C ommonware P ottery o f M edieval Q sar e s-Seghir." P h .D . d issertation, D epartment o f A nthropology, S tate U niversity o f N ew Y ork, B inghamton . N elson, B en A .

( editor)

1 985 D ecoding P rehistoric C eramics. P ress, C arbondale .

S outhern I llinois U niversity

N icklin, K eith 1 971 " Stability a nd I nnovation i n P ottery M anufacture ." A rchaeology 3 :13-49.

W orld

O man, G . 1 971 p p.

" al-Idrisi." E ncyclopaedia o f I slam . N ew E dition. v ol. 1 032-1035. E . J . B rill, L eiden.

P eacock, D .

P .

I II,

S .

1 982 P ottery i n t he R oman W orld : A n E thnoarchaeological A pproach . L ongman, L ondon . P ianel, G . 1 951

" La c 4ramique d e N 4grine ( IXe s iecle)."

1 97

H esperis 3 8:

1 -30.

P ielou, E . 1 977

C .

M athematical E cology .

P osac M on,

J ohn W iley a nd S ons, N ew Y ork.

C arlos

1 960 " Datos P ara L a A rcheologia M usulmana d e C euta ." T amuda 1 : 1 57-165. 1 962 E studio A rqueologico d e C euta . N acional d e E nsenanza M edia, C euta .

H esperis-

P ublicaciones d el I nstituto

R athje, W illiam L . 1 971 " The O rigin a nd D evelopment o f L owland C lassic M aya C ivilization ." A merican A ntiquity 3 6:275-285. 1 975 " The L ast T ango i n M ayapan : A T entative T rajectory o f P roduction-Distribution S ystems." I n T rade a nd E xchange i n A ncient C ivilization, e dited b y J . S abloff a nd C . C . L ambergK arlovsky , p p. 4 09-448. U niversity o f N ew M exico P ress, A lbuquerque . R edman, C harles L . 1 980 " Late M edieval C eramics f rom Q sar e s-Seghir ." I n L a aramique M& Ii4vale e n M 4diterran e O ccidentale : X e-XVe s iecles, e dited b y G . 1 : 1 mains d 'Archimbaud a nd M . P icon, p p. 2 51-263. U nions d u C entre N ationale d e l a R echerche S cientifique, P aris. 1 983 " Comparative U rbanism i n t he I slamic F ar W est." A rchaeology 1 4: 3 55-377.

W orld

1 985 Q sar e s-Seghir: A n A rchaeological V iew o f M edieval L ife. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork. i n p ress " Survey a nd T est E xcavation o f S ix M edieval I slamic S ites i n N orthern M orocco." B ulletin d 'Arch4ologie M arocaine 1 4 . R edman, C harles L ., M . A . W ondriska

J effers, A . M agennis, J .

E . M yers,

S .

P ollock,

1 980 " Progress R eport o f t he M oroccan-American A rcheological P roject: N umber 1 2, Q sar e s-Seghir, A l-Basra, B adis, a nd N akur." A ugust 1 0, 1 980 t o O ctober 5 , 1 980. R enfrew ,

C olin

1 979 " Introduction: P roduction a nd E xchange i n E arly S tate S ocieties, t he E vidence o f P ottery ." I n P ottery a nd E arly C ommerce e dited b y D . P . S . P eacock, p p. 1 -20. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork.

1 98

R hodes, D aniel 1 981 K ilns: D esign, C onstruction a nd O peration . C ompany , P hiladelphia .

C hilton B ook

R icard, P rosper a nd A lexandre D elphy 1 931 " Notes s ur l a d 4couverte d e s p4cimens d e c 4ramique m arocaine d u M oyen-Age ." H esperis 1 3: 2 27-270. R ice,

P rudence M .

1 977 " Whiteware P ottery P roduction i n t he V alley o f G uatemala: S pecialization a nd R esource U tilization ." J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 4 :221-233. 1 981 " Evolution o f S pecialized P ottery P roduction: A T rial M odel." C urrent A nthropology 2 2: 2 19-240. R iley ,

J ohn

1 979-80 " Industrial S tandardization i n C yrenaica d uring t he S econd a nd T hird C enturies A .D.: T he E vidence f rom L ocally-Manufactured P ottery ." S ociety f or L ibyan S tudies 1 1th A nnual R eport ( 19798 0), p p. 7 3-78. R ottlander, R .

C . A .

1 966 " Is P rovincial R oman P ottery S tandardized." 7 6-92.

A rchaeometry 9 :

R ubertone, P atricia 1 979 " Social O rganization i n a n I slamic T own: T he B ehavioral E xplanation o f C eramic V ariability ." P h .D. d issertation, D epartment o f A nthropology, S tate U niversity o f N ew Y ork, B inghamton. R ye, O wen S . 1 981 P ottery T echnology : I nc., W ashington, D .C. R ye, O wen S .

P rinciples a nd R econstruction .

T araxacum

a nd C lifford E vans

1 976 T raditional P ottery T echniques o f P akistan: F ield a nd L aboratory S tudies. S mithsonian C ontributions t o A nthropology 2 1, S mithsonian I nstitution P ress, W ashington, D .C. S anders, W . T . 1 968 " Hydraulic A griculture, E conomic S ymbiosis, a nd t he E volution o f S tates i n C entral M exico." I n R ise a nd F all o f C ivilizations, e dited b y J eremy S abloff a nd C . C . L amberg-Karlovsky, p p. 1 191 33. C ummings P ublishing C ompany, M enlo P ark, C alifornia .

1 99

S chiffer, M ichael B . 1 976

B ehavioral A rchaeology .

A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork .

1 983 " Toward t he I dentification o f F ormation P rocesses." A ntiquity 4 8: 6 75-706. S chulman, n .

A merican

J ay

d . " The H istory o f Q sar e s-Seghir." M anuscript o n f ile, D epartment o f A nthropology , A rizona S tate U niversity , T empe .

S hepard, A nna O . 1 956 C eramics f or t he A rchaeologist . C arnegie I nstitution o f W ashington P ublication 6 09, W ashington, D .C. 1 963 " Beginnings o f C eramic I ndustrialization: A n E xample f rom t he O axaca V alley ." N otes f rom a C eramic L aboratory N o. 2 . C arnegie I nstitution o f W ashington, W ashington, D .C . S kinner, G . W illiam 1 977a " Regional U rbanization i n N ineteenth-Century C hina." C ity i n L ate I mperial C hina, e dited b y G . W . S kinner, p p. 2 49. S tanford U niversity P ress, S tanford . 1 977b " Cities a nd t he H ierarchy o f L ocal S ystems." L ake I mperial C hina, e dited b y G . W . S kinner, p p. S tanford U niversity P ress, S tanford .

I n T he 2 11-

I n T he C ity i n 2 75-351.

S mith, C arol A . 1 976 " Regional E conomic S ystems: L inking G eographical M odels a nd S ocioeconomic P roblems." I n R egional A nalysis. v ol. 1 : E conomic S ystems, e dited b y C . S mith, p p. 3 -63. S pence, M ichael W . 1 981 " Obsidian P roduction a nd t he S tate i n T eotihuacan ." A ntiquity 4 6: 7 69-788.

A merican

S teponaitis, V incas P . 1 983 C eramics C hronology , a nd C ommunity P atterns: A M ethodological S tudy a t M oundville . A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork . T errasse, H enri 1 937 " La c 4ramique H ispano-Maghr4bine d u X IIe s iecle d 'apres l es f ouilles d u C häteau d e l 'Ain G haboula ( Dchira)." H esperis 2 4: 1 3-18. 1 949-1950 H istoire d u M aroc d es O rigines ä l 'Etablissement d u P rotectorate F rancais. 2 v olumes. C asablanca .

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