The Deceased's Life Cycle Rituals in Nepal: Present Cremation Burials for the Interpretations of the Past 9781841711355, 9781407351896

153 83 86MB

English Pages [74] Year 2000

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Acknowledgements
Preface
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: The Problem of Interpretations
Chapter 3: Methodology
Chapter 4: Brahmans and Magars of Nepal
Chapter 5: Life Cycle Rituals
Chapter 6: Funeral Practices and Mortuary Remains
Chapter 7: The Limits of Cultural Elaboration
Chapter 8: The Archaeology of Death
Appendix: Glossary
References

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The Deceased's Life Cycle Rituals in Nepal: Present Cremation Burials for the Interpretations of the Past
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The Deceased's Life Cycle Rituals in Nepal Present Cremation Burials for the Interpretations of the Past

Terj e Oestigaard

BAR International Series 853 2000

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 853 The Deceased's Life Cycle Rituals in Nepal © Terje Oestigaard and the Publisher 2000 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711355 paperback ISBN 9781407351896 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711355 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2000. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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A cknow ledgemen t s T h i s t h e s i s i st h e r e su l t o ft wo f i e ldwo rk s i nN epa l a nd t wo y ea r s o f s t udy . T hu s Ih ave s e v e ra l p e r son s t h a t I o we t h ank s t o b o th i nN o rway a nd N epa l . G ran t s f r om T rygve T e l lef sen s L ega t , L . Me l tz e r s f l oy sko lef ond a nd t h e I n te rna t iona l O ff i ce a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o f B e rgen h e lped m ef i nanc ia l ly ,a nd e nab led m et ot r ave lt oN epa l . F i r s t o f a l l Iw ou ld l i ke t o t h ank a nd a cknow ledge my s upe rv iso rP rof e sso rR and iH ä land w ho i n t roduced m et o N epa la nd e t hnoa rcha eo logy . Ia mi ng r ea td eb tt oh e rf o r a l l h e rh e lp , c ommen t s a nd e n thu s ia sm , a nd s he h a s b een ac on t inuou ss o u rce o fi n sp i ra t ion t h roughou t my w o rk . P rof e s so r G unna r H ä land h a s t o b e t h anked f o r c on s t ruc t ive d i scu ss ion s a nd i d ea s f o r a pp roache s t o my t o p ic a nd t of i e ldwo rk i ng ene ra l , a nd f o r l e t t ing m e s t ay a t" The B e rg en Hou se" i nK a thmandu . T o re S z e t e r sda l a nd N i l s A nf in se t h ave c on t r ibu ted w i th e ncou rag ing e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l d i scu s s ion s , h e lp , c r i t ic i sm a nd ap os i t ive a t t i tude b o th a head , d u r ing a nd a f t e r t h e f i e ld t r ips . T he i r s uppor t h a s b een o f g rea t i mpo r tan ce . Man B ahadu r Kha t t r i h a s b een o f s p ec ia l i mpo r tance . I h ad t h e p l ea su re o fw o rk ing w i th h im d u r ing my s e cond f i e ldwo rk . W i thou th i s h e lp a nd t r an s la t ion s , a nd w i thou t t h e a i d o fh i s f r iend s , Iw ou ld h ave g o t q u i te i n suff i c ien t d a ta .

A l l o fm y i n f o rman t s d e se rve t h ank s f o rt h e i rc oope ra t ion a nd w i l l ingne s s t oa n swe r m y s t range a nd s i l ly q ue s t ion s . S eve ra l p eop le g ave m e v a luab le h e lp d u r ing my f i e ld t r ip s , a mong t h em C ap ta in B i r B ahadu r R oka o f B hak im ly a nd Ama r R oka o fB a ran ja a nd t h e i r f am i l ie s , Ma jo r N anda B i r T hapa o f A rga l a nd t h e s t af f a tt h e H o te l H i l l V iew i n B ag lung B azaa r . F ur the rmo re , Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank a l l o f my f e l low s t uden t s f o r d i scu s s ion s a nd h e lp i nf i nd ing r e levan t a nd i n te re s t ing l i t e ra tu r e . E spec ia l ly Mo r ten H an i sch a nd E spen K u t sche ra d e se rve t h ank s . T hey h ave c on t r ibu ted e mp i r ica l d a ta , i d ea s a nd t i p s o n a pp roache s w h ich Ih ave u sed i nm y l a s t c hap te r a nd w h ich t h ey h ave m ade c ommen t s o n . W i thou t t h e se d i scu s s ion s I w ou ld h ave d r awn o t he r a r chaeo log ica l i mp l ica t ion st h an Ih ave . Mo r eove r , Imu s tn o t f o rge tt ot h ank R agn i ld T odnem f o r t h e f o u r y ea r s w e h ave s t ud ied a r chaeo logy t oge the r . G ah r Sm i th -Gah r sen h a s b een v e ry h e lpf u l w i th E ng l i sh s pe l l ing a nd g r amma r a nd Ia m i ng r ea t d eb t t oh im f o r t h e t ime a nd e f f o r th eh a sp u ti n to m yt h e s i s . T hank s ! A nd f i na l ly , m y b ro the r R une O s t igä rd h a s b een o f t h e u t te rmo s t i mpo r tance r ega rd ing e ve ry th ing t h a th a s t od o w i th l a you t . H oweve r , n eed le s s t o s a y , a ny o m i s s ion s o r e r ro r s i n t h i s t h e s i sa r e s o le ly my o wn .

I nN epa l , Ia m e spec ia l ly i nd eb tt ot h e K ha t t r i f am i ly i n t h e S i le v i l lage i nt h e B ag lung d i s t r i c t . l tw a s a n h onou r a nd p l ea su r e t o h ave t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t o s ha re t h e i r g ene ro s i ty ,h o sp i ta l i ty ,h umou ra nd f r i end sh ip . D r . Om G u rung w a s a lway s as ou r ce o fi n sp i ra t ion . H e g ave m e f r u i tf u l a dv ice s r ega rd ing w h ich v i l lage s t ov i s i t a nd e ncou raged m e t o b e m o re p a r t ic ipa t ing i n my f i e ldwo rk r a the rt han j u s tb e ing ap a s s ive o b se rve r !

T e r je O e s t igaa rd B e rgen , J anua ry 2 000

P reface t o t h em ( R egan 1 993 :9 ) . Ih av e t a ken s om e a s p ec t s i n to c on s ide ra t ion i np r e sen t ing t h e se p i c tu r e s :

Af t e r w i tne s s ing s e ve ra l d ea th r i t ua l s , N ig e l B a r ley r ema rked i nD anc ing o n t h e G rave t h a t " . . . in A f r ica , m y c on s tan t p r e sence a tf u ne ra l s w a s r a p id ly n o t ed . " You a r e l i k e av u l tu r e" , o ne m an r ema rked c oo l ly . " I s e e y ou c l imb ing t h e h i l l s a nd Ik now s omeone e l se m u s t h ave g on e" " ( Ba r ley 1 995 :13 ) . Ih ad t h e s ame f e e l ing w hen I w a s r unn ing a f te r f u ne ra l p r oce s s ion s , a l though Ir a nt ot h e r i v e r . Ic ou ld b es p eak ing w i th p eop le o rj u s tr e lax ing i nt h e v i l lage , w hen Ih ea rd t h e f u ne ra l p roce s s ion c om ing , Ih ad t og o . N eed le s st os a y ,t h e r ea r em any e t h ica lq ue s t ion sa nd c on s ide ra t ion s r e la ted t o t h i s t o p ic . M i r cea E l iade o nce r e f e r r ed t o a n a nonymou s B r i t i sh p sychoana ly s t w ho r e po r ted ly s a id : "We a r e b o rn m ad ; t h en w e a cqu i r e m o ra l i ty a nd b ecome s t up id a nd u nhappy ; t h en w e d i e" ( E l iade 1 977 :13 ) . F in i shed ! B u tt h e p rob lem i st h a ti ti sn o t t h a t e a sy , d ea th i ss t i l l a n a mb iva len t t h eme i n We s te rn s o c ie t ie s . I nw r i t ing a bou t d ea th t h eb e s tt h e a n th ropo log i s t c an p robab ly a s p i r e t oi st h e d i scove ry o fs ome th ing a bou t t h ew o r ld o ft h e l i v ing ( Pa r ry 1 994 :7 ) , i nt h i s c a se n o to n ly i nN epa l , b u t h opef u l ly a l so i n am o r e g ene ra l s e n se . T he o n ly t h ing d ea th i sa bou t , i sl i f e ; i ti sa bou t h uman s , a nd b e ing h uman . S of a rs og ood .

F i r s t ly , Iw i l l e mpha s ize t h a t w h en a r cha eo log i s t s s t udy g r ave s o r m o r tua ry r ema in s , i ti sn o t m e r e ly a s t udy o f a r tef a c t s a si ti so f t en p r e sen ted . P eop l e h ave d i ed ; i ti st h e c on tex t o fd ea th . T he e mo t iona l , s o c ia l a nd s p i r i tua l s e t t ing o f f u ne ra l s w i th in a s o c ie ty i si mpor tan t t ou nde r s tand i n o rde r t oi n t e rp r e t t h e m a te r ia l r ema in s . O r i no t h e rw o rd s , t h e C h r i s t ian n o t ion s o f d ea th a r e i n suf f ic ien t i n i n te rp r e t ing p a s tf u ne ra l s . S econd ly , t h e t r an s i t ion f r om r i t ua l s t o r ema in s o r f r om d ea th t o d e cay i s i mpo r tan t a r cha eo log i ca l ly . T hu s m y i n ten t ion i st h a t t h e p i c tu r e s o ft h e r ema in s w i l l i n sp i r e t o a na log ica lr e a son ing b a sed o nt h ed ocumen t ed m a t e r ia l . T h i rd ly , m y m o ra l j udgemen t i si nt h e e nd a n o n to log ica l q ue s t ; i fw e c an ' t f a ce t h e n on -be ing ( o r a n e x i s t ence w i thou tt h e o r gan ic a nd f l e sh ly n a tu r e o fh uman s ) ,h ow c an w e f a ce t h e b e ing ? N eve r the le s s , t h e m a in p r ob lem i st h e r e la t ive s , b e cau se t h e d ead a r e ap r ob lem o ft h e l i v ing . T o p u t t h e q ue s t ion t oi t sb a s ic : i ft h e d ecea sed h ad b een a ny o f m y r e la t ive s , a nd i f Ih ad a l low ed a n a r cha eo log i s t o r a n th ropo log i s t t o t a k e p ho tog raph s d u r ing t h e f u ne ra l , o r e ven i fi tw a s m e w ho w a s d ead , w ou ld Ih ave h ad a ny o b jec t ion s i ft h ep ho tog raph sw e r eu s ed w i th in a na c adem ic d i scou r se a f t e rwa rd s? N o . H oweve r , Ic a n n o t a s sume t h a t a l l o fm y r e la t iv e s w ou ld h ave s ha r ed m y o p in ion . E th ica l q ue s t ion s w i l l n o rma l ly b e a n swe r ed b y m any v o ice s , I h av e b u t o n e , a nd t h e re m igh t b e o ne s c on t r ad ic t ing m ine . I f Ih ave of ended a ny o ft h e d ecea s ed 's r e la t iv e s , e i the rb y my b ehav iou r a nd p r e sence i n t h e f u n e ra l s o r w i th t h e p r e sen t ed p i c tu r e s i nt h i s t h e s i s , Id o a po log i se a nd It a ke t h ef u l lr e spon s ib i l i ty .

B u tt h e r ea r e s e ve ra lw ay so fp r e sen t ing d ea th a nd t h e r ea r e d if e r en t w ay s o f p r e sen t ing t h e r e cen t r ema in s o f d ea th . A n th ropo log i s t s a r e m o s t ly c oncer n ed w i th t h e r i t ua l s , t h e a r chaeo log i s t s w i th t h e r ema in s , o f t en s e ve ra l t h ou sand y ea r s o l d . B u t Ih ave a l so d ocumen ted t h e t r an s i t ion f r om r i tua l s t or ema in s . When Iw i tne s sed f u ne ra l s , Iw a s o f t en a lowed t o t a ke p ho tog raph s . S ome o f t h e se p i c tu r e s a r e u s ed i nm yt h e s i st o ge th e rw i th p ho tog raph so fr ema in st h a t If o und l y ing e xpo sed a tc eme t e r ie s . A l though d ea th i sa q u i t e c ommon t h eme t o o w r i te a bou t , i ti sr a r e ly p r e sen t ed a nd d ocumen t ed b y p i c tu r e s . Mo ra l q ue s t ion s a r i se i nt h e r e a l w o r ld , a nd ak now ledg e o ft h e r e a l -wo r ld r e la t ion s i n w h ich t h ey a ppea r i se s sen t ia l i fw e w an t t os e ek a n sw e r s

I

C on ten t s •

A cknow ledgemen t s

•

P ref ace

•

Con ten t s

•

L i s to f Map s

• •

L i s to fT ab les L i s to fF igure s

C hap ter 1 :I n t roduc t ion D ea th a s Know ledge . . .. .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

C hap ter 2 :T he p rob lem o fI n te rpre ta t ion s T he P rac t ice o fA rchaeo logy F o rma la nd R e la t iona lA na log ie s

2 2 2

C hap ter 3 : Me thodo logy E thnoa rchaeo log ica lP rac t ic e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . L im i ta t ion s , P rob lems a nd D i sad van tage s . A d van tage sa nd P o s s ib i l i t ie s . T he P rob lem o fV a r iab i l i ty a nd D iver s i t ie s . . .. .

. . . . . . . .

C hap ter 4 :B rah man sa nd Magar so fN epa l G eog raph ica lF ea ture so fN epa l . . . . . . . . . . . . P o l i t ica lO rgan i za t ion a nd P opu la t ion . . .. . T he C a s te S y s tem . T he B rahman sa nd t h e Maga r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

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C hap te r5 :L if eC yc l eR i tua l s

5 5 5 6 7 8 8 8 1 1 2 1 7

T he H indu L if eC yc le R i tua l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 1 8 T he D ecea sed ' sL if eC yc le R i tua l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 G ene ra lR ema rk so nL if eC yc l eR i tua l sa nd B ur ia lC u s tom s . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 C hap te r6 :F une ra lP rac t ice sa nd Mor tua ly R ema ins

2 4

C eme ter ie sa nd H o ly R i ve r s .

2 4

B en i . Magar s Magar s Magar s Magar s Maga r s

3 6 3 7

i nA rga l V DC i nH i la V DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i nT a ra VDC i nB hak im ly V DC i nB a ran ja V DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . 4 0 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .

4 2

G enera lR ema rk s o nB u r ia lC u s toms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C hap te r 7 :T he L im i t so fC u l tura lE labora t ion

4 7

T he P rob lem o fC u l tu ra lE labo ra t ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 4 7 T he D ecea sed , t h eD e scendan t s , t h eS oc ie ty a nd t h eS p i r i tua l W o r ld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 7 F unera lP rac t ice S een i nL igh to ft h eP roce s so fS an sk r i t i za t ion 4 8 B rahman i s t ic I d eo logy a sP owe r . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 P e r sona la nd C u l tura lS ymbo l s . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 9

I I

C hap te r8 :T he A rchaeo log yo fD ea th C ommemo ra t ion o ft h e

. . . . . . .

.

T he I n te rmed ia ry P e r iod w i th in C rema t ion B u r ia l s . Q uan t i ta t ive o rQ ua l i ta t ive D a ta? . . . . . . . . . . . A ppend ix : G lo s sa ry . . . . . R ef e rence s. . .

. . . . . . .

.

5 4 5 4 5

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5 7 5 9 6 1

I v

L i s to fI lus tra t ions : L i s t o f Map s : Map 4 . 1 Map 4 . 2

We s te rn r eg ion o fN epa lw i th t h eB ag lung , Myagd i , P a rba ta nd Mu s tang d i s t r ic t s i nt h e Dhau lag i r iZ one T he r e sea rch l o ca t ion s

9 1 0

T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le

L i s to fT ab le s : P opu la t ion b yc a s te / e thn ic g r oup i nt h eB ag lung a nd Myagd id i s t r ic t s P opu la t ion b yc a s te / e thn ic g r oup s i nt h em a in r e sea rch v i l lage s( g roup A ) P opu la t ion d i s t r ibu t ion b ym o the rt o ngue f o rt h eB ag lung a nd Myagd id i s t r ic t s C a tego r iza t ion o f Maga rg roup si nt h eA rga l v i l lage i nt e rm so fs e t t lemen t

8 1 1 2 3 8

4 . 1 4 . 2 4 . 3 6 . 1

F igu r e4 . 1 F igu r e4 . 2 F igure 5 . 1 F igu r e5 . 2 F igu r e5 . 3 F igure 5 . 4 F igure 6 . 1 F igure 6 . 2 F igure 6 . 3 F igure 6 . 4 F igure 6 . 5 F igure 6 . 6 F igure 6 . 7 F igure 6 . 8 F igure 6 . 9 F igure F igure F igure F igure

6 . 10 6 . 11 6 . 12 6 . 13

F igure F igure F igure F igure

6 . 14 6 . 15 6 . 16 6 . 17

F igure 6 . 18 F igure 6 . 19 F igure 6 . 20 F igure 6 . 21 F igure 6 . 22 F igure 6 . 23 F igure 6 . 24 F igure 6 . 25 F igure 6 . 26 F igure 6 . 27 F igur e6 . 28 F igure 6 . 29 F igur e6 . 30 F igure 6 . 31

L i s to fF igure s : C a s te h i e ra rchy D iag ramma t ic r e p re sen ta t ion o fd i f f e ren tv i ew so fc a s te i nK a thmandu V a l ley A6 5 -yea r -o ld S a rk if r om B h impokha ra i sc r ema ted w i th h i sw if e 's j ewe l le ry o nt h ec he s ta t N i re G ha t S i lve rb race le t B race le t sa nd j ewe l le ry m ade o fp l a s t ic C hau ra s io f aK am ii nt h eB hu ska tv i l lage i nt h e B ag lung d i s t r ic t S a l ig ram N i r eG ha to u t s ide B ag lung B azaa rw i th M t . D hau lag i r i i nt h eb ackg round E qu ipmen tu sed i nf u ne ra lr i t e sa th ome T he b amboo s t re tche ri sp l a ced w i th t h ed ecea sed 's f e e ti n to t h er i ve rw h i le t h ep y re i sb u i l t . . . . T he r e la t ive ss p r ink led h o ly w a te ro nt h ed ecea sed T he s on s of e red g hee t ot h e i rf a the r T he p y re w a s l i ti nt h ed ecea sed 's mou th T he p o l lu ted c l o the sw e re b u rn to nt h ep y re B amboo s t ick sw e r eu sed t or e -e s tab l i sh t h ep y re . Ac r ema t ion o f a5 1-yea r -o ld C hhe tr ia t N i re G ha t T he c r ema t ion T he h a i rc u t t ing c e r emony T he a she sw e re s c a t te red i n to t h er i ve r T he b u r ia lo f a9 6 -yea r -o ld Maga rw oman f r om t h eR e sha v i l lage a tN i r eG ha ts i t t ing i n B uddha p o s i t ion T he b u r ia lr i t ei sp e rf o rmed a nd t h ef une ra lp roce s s ion l e ave st h ec eme te ry N i re G ha t B u r ia ls a sc l o se a sp o s s ib le t ot h er i ve r T aphonom ic p roce s se s . D i s t u rbed b u r ia l so fn a tu ra lp roce s se sa sw e l la sb ya n ima l s . T hu s i t h a sb een d i ff icu l ti ns ome c a se st od e te rm ine w h ich r ema in sd i db e long t oa n i n d iv idua l , e .g . w h ich s ku l lb e long ed t ow h ich s k e le ton r ema in s 6 4 4 4

Sma l lc a i rn w i th t h eh and le so nt h e s t re tche rj u t t ing o u t s ide t h eg rave Sma l lc a i rn C a i rn w he re t h ed ecea sed i sb u r ied i ne i the rB uddha -o rs i t t ing p o s i t ion I nhuma t ion i nt h es a nd i nt h er i ve rbed Af u ne ra lp y re b u i l to nt h et o po f as t one p a ck ing C rema t ion p a tch w i th c i r cu la rs t one s e t t ing T he c eme te ry i nB en i T he g rave y a rd i nt h eA rga lv i l lage A Maga ri nt h eS i le v i l lage s how s ab amboo b a ske ts im i la rt ot ho se t h ey u sed i nt h ep a s t a s g rave g ood s T he c eme te ry i nH i la v i l lage T he c eme te ry i nH i la v i l lage V

1 3 1 4 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 8 2 8 2 9 2 9 3 0 3 0 3 1 3 1 3 2 3 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 7 3 9 3 9

F igure 6 . 32 F igure 6 . 33 F igure 6 . 34 F igure 6 . 35 F igure 6 . 36 F igure 6 . 37 F igure 6 . 38 F igure 6 . 39 F igure 6 . 40 F igure 6 . 4 1 F igure 6 . 42 F igure 6 . 43 F igure 7 . 1 F igure 7 . 2

T he c eme te ry i nG hu sme l i v i l lage A uda ra c eme te ry i nT a ra VDC D hau lag i r i moun ta in s e en f r om B hak im ly C r ema t ion s t ruc tu re a tD o le c eme te ry p o in t ing n o r thwa rd s( t owa rd sD hau lag ir i ) C rema t ion s t ruc tu r ea tD o le c eme te ry p o in t ing t on o r thwe s to rn o r thea s t As po tw he re " way -f ood" i s of e red o nt h ew ay t ot h ec eme te ry T he c r ema t ion s t ruc tu re t ot h eG har t i Maga r s i nw a rd . n o 6 C rema t ion s t ruc tu re c on s t ruc ted e a s t -we s t T he c eme te ry i nt h eB hu ska tv i l lage b y Ma sangd iK ho la K hany ia G ha tv i l lage , P a rba td i s t r ic t S exua le ng rav ing se mpha s iz ing l i f eg i v ing a spec t s H i l lf o r t si nt h eB a ran ja v i l lage T he T r i logy o fD ea th C rema t ion a tH a r i shchand ra G ha ti nB ena r e s /Va rana s i

V I

3 9 4 0 4I 4 2 4 2 4 3 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 6 4 7 5 1

Chap ter 1 :I n troduc t ion I n t h e r e a lm o ft h i s a n a r cha eo log i s t i st h e u n inv i ted b u t c u r iou s t a b le c l eane r w ho t h e d ay a f t e r w onde r s w ha t h a s h appened . Wh i le a n th ropo log i s t s o f t en s e ek t oi n ve s t iga t e d ea th r i tua l s a sp a r t o fl i f e a nd s o c ie ty , a r cha eo log i s t s a r e m a in ly c oncer n ed w i th b u r ia l s s i nce t h ey p r ov ide a n i mpo r tan t c on t ex t f o r t h e d epo s i t ion a nd p r e se rva t ion o f a r tef a c t s . I na r cha eo logy p r ob lem s a r i se w h en t h e a im i st o e l abo ra te t h e s i gn if icance o f m o r tua ry r i t ua l s i nt h e p a s t , a nd h ow t h e se f u ne ra l p r a c t ice s w e r e r e la t ed t o t h e p r eh i s to r ic p eop le a nd s o c ie t ie sa s ac on t ex tua lw ho le .

D ea th a sK now ledge A nc ien tf u ne ra lp rac t ice sa nd m o r t ua ry r ema in sa r e am a jo r s ou rce t ot h e u nde r s tand ing o fp r eh i s to r ic s o c ie t ie s . H ege l w ro te o nce t h a t h i s to ry i st h e r e co rd o f " wha t m an d oe s w i th d ea th " (Wha ley 1 98 1 :1) . T he d i v e r s i ty o fd ea th r i t ua l s a nd t h e i r m an if e s ta t ion s i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l a r e e xp re s s ion s o ft h e u n ive r sa l i mpa c t o fd ea th . N ig e l B a r ley h a sd e s c r ibed t h ep rob lem i nt h i sw ay ( Ba r ley 1 995 :28 -29 ) : " I nf ac t , ' f une ra l" i s av e ry b road c a tego ry , r a the r l i ke " pa r ty" . Ad i nne r p a r ty a t t h e p a lace c an b e af ea rf u l o rd ea l o fr i g id h i e ra rchy , d ecod ab l e i n to l i t t l e e l se b u t s t a temen t s o ffo rma lr e la t ion sh ip s o fr e la t i ve " p lac e" . T he f ood w i l l b e i n ed ib le a nd l a rg e ly i r r e le van t . A n u nd e rg rad ua te p a r ty c an b e aw i ld f e s t i va l o fu n s t ruc tu re , s en se sj ammed b yd r ink , m u s ic a ndf l a sh ing l i gh t s , as e xua l f ree f i r ez one w he re a ny th ing g oe s a nd t h e l o s s o fi d en t i ty a nd h i e ra rchy i so ne o ft h ea vowed a im s o ft h ee v en t . B o th a re p a r t i e s . F une ra l s a round t h ew o r ld c an s how t h es ame h uge r ang e o f v a r ia t ion f rom r i g id f o rma l i ty t o b l ind d i so rd e r . T he w ord f une ra l i sw ha t h a s b een t e rmed a n " odd job w o rd '"

My a im w i th t h i s a na ly s i s i s t o p r e sen t a n e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s o f l i f e c y c le r i t ua l s f r om t h e f u ne ra l p r a c t ice a nd i t s m an if e s ta t ion i n t h e m o r tua ry r ema in s o f B rahman s a nd Maga r s i n C en t r a l D hau lag i r i Z one o fN epa l . Iw i l lt r yt oe xp lo r eh ow t h ec omp lex i ty a nd t h e d i ve r s i ty o ff u ne ra l p r a c t ice s m ay e nab l e a r cha eo log i s t s t o p ene t ra te i n to t h e s o c ia l w o r ld b eh ind t h e r ema in s o f d ea th . I a n Mo r r i s r em ind s u s n o t t o f o rg e t t h e f a c t t h a t a r chaeo log i s t s e x cava t e b u r ia l s a nd n o t w ho le f u ne ra l s ( Mo r r i s 1 987 :36 ) , b u t Ih ave h ad t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t o g o b eyond t h e a r t ef a c t st ot h e h uman sw ho d i ed a nd t h o se w ho p e rf o rmed t h e i r f u ne ra l r i t e s , a nd t h e r eaf t e r l o ok a t t h e m o r tua ry r ema in s . A l though m y u nde r ly ing a s sump t ion i st h a t r e l ig ion a nd h e r eby v a r iou s f u ne ra l p r a c t ice sr e f le c ts ome o ft h e d eepe s t a nd m o s t r e s i l ien t t r ad i t ion s a nd v a lue s i n as o c ie ty , Iw i l l n o t f a l l i n to r e l ig iou s d e t e rm in i sm . Iw i l l s t r e s s t h e i mpo r tan ce o ft h e r i tua l s a nd t h e s o c ia l a c to r sw ho p roduce a nd r e p roduce s o c ia l s y s t em s . A s F r ed r ik B a r th a r gue s , b ecau se o fv a r ia t ion a mong i n d iv idua l s , t h e i mpo r tance i s t o f o cu s o n t h e p roce s se s w he r eby s h a r ed s o c ia l a nd c u l tu ra l c on s t ruc t ion s a r e c r ea ted ( Ba r th 1 9 93 :4 -5 ) , a nd " l ook a th ow p eop le t h rough t h e i r c o l le c t iv e a nd s e pa ra t e a c t iv i t ie s r e p roduce a nd m od if y t h e r e a l t ie s o f t h e i r p a s t a nd p r e sen t l i ve s , e l abo ra t e f e a tu r e s o r l o o s ing t h em , e nhanc ing t h e i r c ohe r en ce o rd i sman t l ing i t "( i b id :8 ) . T hu s i ti sp o s s ib le t o" t ran scend r e ce ived t h eo ry a nd k now ledg e a nd t o l e a rn f r om t h e o n ly f u l ly v a l id s o u r ce : p eop le s p eak ing a nd a c t ing i n al i v ing s o c ie ty " ( i b id :25 ) , a nd t h e r eby e x tend t h ec omp r ehen s ion o fc u l tu r a lp r oce s se sa nd c hange .

A pp roa che s Iw i l l c omb ine t wo a pp roa che s t om o r tua ry r ema in s i nt h i s s t udy . F i r s t , c oncep t ion s o fd ea th a r e p e rvaded b yr e l ig iou s a nd c o smo log ica l i d ea s o f t h e g r ea t B eyond , t h e s ou l 's a f t e r l if e , w ha t d ea th r e p r e sen t s , a nd a c co rd ing ly , t h e se c on s ide ra t ion s a r e m an if e s t ed i n t h e f u ne r a l r i t e s a nd t h e r eby t h e r ema in s l e f tb eh ind . S e cond , f u ne ra l s a r e ap a r t o f as e t o fr i tua l s b y w h ich t h e l i v ing d ea l w i th t h e d ead . T hey a r e t h e i r o wn i n t e rp r e ta t ion o f t h e m ean ing o f o rd ina ry l i f e( Mo r r i s 1 992 :1) . I nt h e se r i tua l s , p eop le m ay e i the rm ake e xp l ic i t t h e s o c ia l s t r uc tu r e b y t h e u s e o f s ymbo l s , o r i tm ay b e i mp l ic i t ly w ov en t o ge the ri nt h e i ra c tua lp e rf o rmance o ft h er i t ua l s .

1

Chap ter 2 : The P rob lem o fI n terpre ta t ions 1 9 87 :45 )? " I t s e em s l o g ica l ly t o b e t h e c a se t h a t , i fw e i n t e rp r e tt h e p a s t b y a na log ie s t ot h e p r e s en t , w e c an n eve r f i nd o u t a bou t f o rm s o fs o c ie ty a nd c u l tu r e s w h ich d o n o t e x i s t t o day " ( Da l ton 1 981 , o p . c i t . H odd e r 1 982a : 14 ) , s o h ow i s i tp o s s ib le t o ( f u l ly ) u nde r s tand t h e v a r ie ty o f p r eh i s to r ic s o c ie t ie s? T he a n swe r i sp robab ly t h a t i ti sn o t p o s s ib le , " s o w ha t w ou ld b e t h e p o in t o f r e pea t ing o u r k now ledge o fc on tempo ra ry s oc ie t ie s b y t a gg ing l a be l s o n t o s o c ie t ie s i n t h e p a s t " ( Hodde r 1 9 82 :14a )? A nd i s a r cha eo logy t h en m o r e t h an j u s t p r eh i s to r ic e t hnog r aphy ( Spau ld ing 1 988 :268 )?

T he P ra c t ice o fA r chaeo logy " I fn ew i d ea s a r e t oh ave m o r e t h an as upe rf ic ia l i mpa c t , t h ey n eed t o b e r e la ted t o t h e p r a c t ice o f a r cha eo logy" H odde r 1 995 [ 199 41) . A p rob lem a r chaeo log i s t s f a ce i s w ha t i st h e ( u l t ima t e ) g oa l w i th a r cha eo logy o r w ha t i s " a r cha eo logy"? My a im i s n e i the r t o d ef ine w ha t " a r cha eo logy" i s ,n o r t or e f e r t ov a r iou s d ef in i t ion s . T he r e a r e al o t o f a dvan tage s b e ing u n -d i sc ip l ined a nd m any d i sadvan tag e s a nd c on s t ra in s i mpo sed b y t r y ing t oc l a im a d i sc ip l ina ry s t a tu s ( M i l le r&T i l ley 1 996 ) . T he p o in t i st h a t d if e r en t d ef in i t ion s o f t h e u l t ima t e g oa l s o f a r chaeo logy h av e s i gn if i can t i mp l ica t ion s f o r w ha t i s c on s ide r ed a s a r cha eo log ica l a c t iv i t ie s ( T r igg e r 1 994 [ 1989 ] :37 1) . T he p rob lem t h en b ecome s " how d o w e d o a r cha eo logy a ta l" ( Hodde r 1 994 [ 1986 ] :4 )? We a c cep t t h e s c ien t if i c a c coun t o ft h ew o r ld , n o ta sc e r ta in ly t r ue , b u ta st h eb e s ta tp r e sen t a va i lab le ( Ru s se l l 1 992 [ 1950 ] :12 ) . T h i s i n vo lve s a n e p i s temo log ica l q ue s t . A l l a r cha eo logy i s at h eo r e t ica l p ra c t ice , b u t n o t a l t h eo r e t ica l p r a c t ice i s a r cha eo logy ( So l l i 1 9 96 :21) .

Wh en a r cha eo log i s t s c on s ide r a r cha eo log i ca l r ema in s , o n e s hou ld a s k , w hy d o t h e se d a ta m a t t e r , o rm o r e p r ec i s e ly , w ha t d o w ew an tt od o w i th t h e se d a ta? Ia g r ee w i th R and i H aa land ( 1 997 ) w ho a r gue s t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t ing s t a tem en t s r e f e r t o t h e i n f e r ence s w e m ake a bou t w ha t t h e o b je c t s " s ay " a sr e ga rd s t h e w ay t h e p eop le o ft h e p a s t l i ved a nd h ow t h ey c oped w i th c on s t ra in s i nt h e i r n a tu ra l a nd s o c ia l e nv i ronm en t . T h i s t h e o b jec t c anno t " s ay " d i rec t ly , o n ly i n d i r ec t ly v i a o u r i n te rp r e ta t ive a c t s . I ti sb y l o ok ing a tt h e o b jec t s i ns u ch t h eo r e t ica l f r amewo rk st h a tw es hou ld t r yt o d e r iv e h ypo the se s a bou t w ha t t h e o b je c t s " say" . T h e o b jec t s a r e f r om t h i s p o in t o f v i ew e v id en ce w h ich m ay c o r robo ra te ( n o t v e r if y ) , w eak en o rr e f u t e o u rt h eo r e t ica l ly d e r ived h ypo the se s . S he t h u s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e d i s t in c t ion b e tw een d i r e c t a nd i n d i rec t e v idence d oe s n o t s e rve a ny i n t e r e s t ing s c ien t if i c p u rpo se a nd t h a t w e c on sequen t ly s hou ld d r op i t( Haa land 1 997 :374 ) .

O n e o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l p r a c t ice s i st h e u s e o fa na logy , b u t t h i s p r a c t ice i so f t en a n eg lec t ed a r ea o f s c ien t if i c r e sea r ch . T hu s t h e r e i s ad i sha rmony i n i n te rp r e ta t ion s , b e tw een m e t icu lou s s t ud ie s o fa r tef a c t s a nd al o o se a nd a d h oc u s e o fa na log ie s . " A l l a r cha eo logy i sb a sed o n a na logy a nd t h e p r oce s s o fa na log ica l r e a son ing c an b e e xp l ic i t o r r i go rou s . B u t w e c anno t s t r ic t ly t e s t t h e a na log ie s a nd h ypo the s e s , w h ich r e su l t f r om t h e i r u s e . A r cha eo log i s t s c anno t p r ove o r f a l s if y t h e i r h ypo the se s o n i n dependen t d a ta . A l l t h ey c an a ch ieve i s ad emon s t ra t ion t h a t o ne h ypo th e s e s o ra na logy i sb e t t e r o rw o r se t h a t a no the r , b o th t h eo r e t ica l ly a nd i nr e la t ion t od a ta " ( Hodde r 1 982a :9 ) . I f t h e a na log ie s a r e u n r e l iab le , t h en t h ey m u s t a l so b e u n sc ien t if i c ( i b id :12 14 ) , b ecau se t h e p rob lem " . .a r cha eo log i s t s f e e l ( i s ) t h a t i ti sa l t o o e a sy f o rd i f f e r en t p eop le t o r e ad d if e r en t t h ough t s a nd m ean ing s i n to t h e p a s t " ( Hodde r 1 987 :43 ) . T he se i n te rp r e ta t ion s d e r ive f r om t h e i n t e rp r e t e r 's o wn e xpe r ience o f t h e w o r ld c omb ined w i th s om ed eg r ee o fe t hnog raph ic a nd h i s to r ica lk now ledge ( i b id . ) . T h e d i s t in c t ion b e tween a r gumen t a nd a s sump t ion , u se o fu n t e s t ed g ene ra l iza t ion s a nd u n suppo r ted i n f e r ence s r e con s t ru c t ed b y ap roce s s o fs ympa th e t ic i mag ina t ion a r e s ome o f t h e m a in w eakne s se s o f m any p o s t -p roce s sua l i n te rp r e ta t ion s ( T r igge r 1 995 :455 ) . A r cha eo logy a s a d i sc ip l in e i sc once rned w i th a r chaeo log ica l d a ta w h ich i t c l u s te r s i n a r cha eo log ica l e n t i t ie s t o i l um ina te a r cha eo log ica l p roce s se s s t ud ied i nt e rm s o fa r cha eo log ica l a im s ,c on cep t sa nd p rocedu r e s( C la rk e 1 968 :13 ) .

I no t h e r w o rd s , t h e m a te r ia l o rt h e a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s a r e n o t s upe r io r t o t h e i n t e rp re ta t ion s o f t h em , b ecau se " t ha to b jec t s d on o ts p eak f o rt h em se lve s , a nd t h a tw e h av e t os p eak f o rt h em" ( Haa land & H aa land 1 995 : 106 ) . I n s t ead o f i mp l ic i t i d io sync ra t ic i n t e rp re ta t ion , t h e i n te rp re ta t ive a s sump t ion s hou ld b e m ade e xp l ic i t , a nd t h en i th a s t ob e g r ound ed i n t h eo r e t ica l ly b a sed f r am ewo rk s ( Haa land 1 997 :374 ) . T h i s c an o n ly b e d one t h rough a n a dequa t e s e t o f g ene ra l t h eo r ie s s o t h a t t h e r e levan ce o f p a r t icu la r a na log ie s c an b e a s se s sed a nd t h e v a l id i ty o fc r o s s -cu l tu r a l c o r r e la t ion s c an b e a cknow ledged ( Hodde r 1 982a :2 12 ) . T h ep r ob lem sm ay b es o lved t h rough a ne xam ina t ion o ft h e u s eo fa na log ie sa s ap a r to fc on tex tua la r cha eo logy .

F o rma la nd R e la t iona lA na log ie s A n a na log y i s" ap a r t ia l s im i la r i ty b e tween s im i la r f e a tu r e s o ft wo t h ing s , o n w h ich ac ompa r i son m ay b eb a sed , i ti sa r e a son ing i nw h ich o ne t h ing i sr e f e r red t oa sb e ing s im i la r t o a no th e r t h ing i n ac e r ta in r e spec t , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e k nown s im i la r i ty b e tween t h e t h ing s i n o t h e r r e spec t s" ( W eb s t e r 's E ncyc lopa ed ic U nab r idged D ic t iona ry ) . A na log ie s t e nd t o b ecom e s im i la r i n a pp ea rance b y a p ro ce s s o f c onve rgen ce . I n a r chaeo logy a na log ie s a r e g en e r a l ly d i v id ed i n to f o rma l a na log ie s a nd r e la t iona l a na log ie s . T h e v a lue o f a na logy i n a r cha eo logy i s

When a r cha eo log i s t s u s e m a te r ia l r ema in s f r om p a s t a c t iv i t i e s t o i n f e r a bou t p r eh i s to r ic s o c ie t ie s , s e ve r a l p rob lem s a r i se . Wha t d oe s t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu r e r ef l ec t a nd h ow i si tp o s s ib le t om ak e i n t e rp r e ta t ion s o f ap a r t icu la r ly p r eh i s to r ic s o c ie ty? H ow d ow ed ec ide w h ich i n t e rp r e ta t ion o r g r oup o f i n te rp r e ta t ion s a r e ( mo s t ) c o r r ec t ( Hodde r 2

s h adowed b y al a ck o fc oncep t ion o ft h e n a tu r e a nd p r ope r u s eo fa na logy ( Hodde r 1 9 82a :14 ) .

t h ey s hou ld b e s ubo rd ina te a na log ica lc r i te r ia .

A cco rd ing t of o rma l a na log ie s , i ft h e r e a r e s im i la r i t ie s i n s ome a s p ec t s , t h e re a r e p r obab ly a l so s im i la r i t ie s i no t he r a s pec t s . When t wo s i tua t ion s a r e c ompa r ed , t h e f o rma l a na logy i s s t reng thened b y a n i n c r ea s ing n umbe r o f s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e t wo c a se s , a nd o t he r s im i la r i t i e s a r e t ob e e xpec ted . T hu s t h e f o rma l a na log ie s , n o m a t t e ro f t i me o r s p a ce , h ave b een d ec la r ed a s c r o s s -cu l tu ra l l aw s ( i b id :16 18 ) , w he reby i ts hou ld b e p o s s ib le t o " t e s t " t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion s b y e mb rac ing a l o g ico -deduc t ive o r h ypo the t i ca l -deduc t ive p r ocedu r e . I mp l ica t ion s a r e t h e r eby d educed l o g ica l ly a cco rd ing t o a" l aw " o r ag ene ra l iza t ion ( i b id :2 11) . O n t h e o t he r h and , r e la t iona l a na log ie s " demon s t ra t e t h a t s im i la r i t ie s b e tw een p a s t a nd p r e sen t s i tua t ion s a r e r e levan t t o t h e " unknown s" t h a t a r e b e ing i n t e rp r e t ed ,w he rea st h ed i f f e renc e st h a tc an b eo b se rv ed d o n o t r e a l ly m a t te r ; t h ey a r e n o t r e levan t b ecau se t h e r e i s l i t le l i nk b e tween w ha t i sd i f f e r en t a nd w ha t i ss ugg e s t ed a s b e ing t h e s ame" ( i b id :19 ) . T h e r ef o r e i ti sn ece s sa ry t o e xam ine w hy o ne v a r iab le i sr e levan t t o a no the r , i . e . t h e r e levan t c a u sa l l i nk s b e tween d i f f e r en t p a r t s o fa n a na logy ( i b id :2 1) . I t i s " an a s se s smen t o f w ha t s im i la r i t ie s a r e r e levan t a nd w ha t a r e r e levan t f o r t h e s u cce s sf u l f i to fa n a na logy . T o b e a b le t o a s se s s r e levance t h e r e m u s t b e a g ood t h eo r e t ica l k now ledg e o f n a tu ra l a nd s o c ia l p r oce s se s" ( i b id :210 ) .

B jo rna r O l sen d i s t ingu i she s b e tween e p i s t emo log ica l a nd s o c ia l o r c u l tu ra l t h eo r ie s ( O l sen 1 997 :16 ) . B y a" gene ra l t h eo ry " Im ean a s o c ia l o r c u l tu ra l t h eo ry b a sed o n c on tempo ra ry d a ta a nd u s ed f o r a na log ica l r e a son ing . T h i s g ene ra lt h eo ry h a st ob e r e la ted t o as p ec if i c a r cha eo log ica l c on tex t . T heo r ie s b r ing n ew k now ledg e i n to b e ing , w h ich i sw ha t ag ood t h eo ry s hou ld d o ; i ti sa l so w ha t ab ad t h eo ry d oe s , i f t h e n ew k now ledg e i s e mp i r ica l ly o r e v iden t ia l ly u n ju s t if i ed ( Obeye seke r e 1 992 :57 ) . I fw e a r e g o ing t o a ccep t g ene ra l t h eo r ie s w i thou t t e s t ing t h em a ga in s t p a r t icu la r c a se s w e d o n o t n eed t o d i g a t a l l ( An thony 1 995 :86 ) . O the r s c an u s e s im i la rd a ta t op r oduce ac oun te rdemon s t ra t ion t h a t " i nva l ida t e s " t h e p r ev iou s t h eo ry o r i n te rp r e ta t ion . I ti s ap rocedu r e o fd i sag r eemen t t h rough a n a c t o f c oun te rdemon s t ra t ion ( Obey e seke re 1 990 :272 ) . A s C l if f o rd G ee r tz s a id , i ti s ap r oce s s o f a pp ra i sa l ; " we m u s t m ea su r e t h e c og en cy o f o u r e xp l ica t ion s ( . .) n o t a ga in s t ab ody o fu n in t e rp r e t ed d a ta ( . .) b u ta ga in s tt h ep ow e ro fs c ien t if i c i mag ina t ion t ob r ing u s i n to t o uch w i th t h e l i ve s o fs t range r s" ( Gee r tz 1 973 :16 ) . I n at h eo ry o f p r a c t ice , t h eo ry i st r an sf onna t ive a nd i t a s se r t s t h a t w e c anno t p a s s ive ly o b se r v e . H en cef o r th , s c ience c anno t b e s e pa ra ted f r om s o c ie ty ( Hodde r 1 995 :3 ) , a nd t h i s a l so i mp l ie s t h a t i n t e rp r e ta t ion s o ft h e p r eh i s to ry a r e b a sed o n c on tempo ra ry k now ledge . I n a r chaeo log ica l t e rm s , ag ene ra l t h eo ry , w h ich d r aw s o n i n s igh t f r om o t he r d i sc ip l ine s , i s t h e b a s i s f o r a na log ica l r e a son ing a nd a r cha eo log ica li n t e rp r e ta t ion so fp r eh i s to r ic s o c ie t ie s .

" Sc ience , i ni t s mo s t f u ndamen ta l d ef in i t ion , i s af r u i tf u l m ode o f i n qu i ry , n o t al i s t o f e n t i c ing c onc lu s ion s . T h e c onc lu s ion s a r e t h e c on sequence , n o t t h e e s sence" ( Gou ld 1 987 [ 1985 ] :4 17 ) . I n t h i s r e ga rd e t hnog raph ic d a ta a nd a na log i e s a r e m a in ly a s ou r ce o f i d ea s t o b roaden t h e h o r izon s o f p o s s ib i l i t ie s a bou t h ow t h e p a s t m igh t b e i n te r p r e t ed ( Hodde r 1 999 :46 ) . T he se d a ta a r e s ub sequen t ly u s ed t od eve lop m ode l s a nd t h eo r e t ica l f r amewo rk s w h ich m ay i l u s t ra te h ow p roce s se s w o rk ed i n t h e p a s t ( Oe s t ig aa rd 1 999 :388 ) . " I t i s w e l l t o r emembe r t h a t e xpe r ien ce o ft h e We s t S axon r e ev e a tP o r t land s ome t i me b e tween 7 86 a nd 8 02 ; h e t h ough t t h a t t h e t h ree s h ip s o f N o r thm en w e re t r ade r s , b u t h e w a s w rong . S cho la r s m ay n ow m ake t h e s am e m i s take , i f w i th l e s s l e tha l c on s equ ence s f o r t h em se lve s" ( Wo rm land 1 982 , o p . c i t . S am son 1 99 1 :123 ) . We a r e d ependan t u pon c on t empo r a ry k now ledg e w hen w e i n te rp r e t t h e p a s t , t h e i n te rp r e t a t iv e p ro ce s s h appen s i n t h e p r e sen t s a nd i ti si mpo s s ib le t o r e a ch t h e " o r ig ina l" m ean ing , a nd t h e r ef o r e i s e t hnoa r cha eo log ica l o ne o fs e v e ra l a pp roa che s t ob r oaden u po u rh o r izon sf o ri n te rp r e ta t ion s .

t o t h e

s am e

s c ien t if i c ,

O ne w ay o f u nde r s tand ing a r cha eo log ica l p r a c t ice i st h e a pp l ica t ion o ft h eo ry i ns p ec if ic c on tex t s ( Hodde r 1 995 :4 ) . T h i s v i ew c omb ine s b o th g ene ra l t h eo r ie s a nd t h e u s e o f r e la t iona l a na log ie s . I n m ak ing a t h eo ry o f p a r t icu la r e ven t s , i ti n vo lve st r an s la t ing t h e se e ven t s i n to t e rm s w h ich w e c an u nde r s tand a nd w h ich t h e r ef o r e h ave s ome g ene ra l i ty ( i b id . ) . A nd a s B a r th a r gue s , " s uch m ode l s b ecome b e l ievab le i fw e c an s how h ow t h e o b s e rved d eg r ee o fc ohe rence i sb rough ta bou ta nd r e p roduced i nt h e l i ve s o fp eop le , t h rough p roce s se s i n vo lv ing t h o se p eop le 's o wn i d ea s a nd a c t iv i t ie s" ( Ba r th 1 993 :7 ) . C oh e r ence i mp l ie s c omp rehen s ion o f c omp lex i ty a nd c on t rad i c t ion s , a s B ou rd ieu a r gue s , " t he a mb igu i ty o fm any s ymbo l s a nd r i tua l a c t s a nd t h e c on t rad ic t ion s w h ich , a l though t h ey a r e p r a c t ica l ly c ompa t ib le , s e t t h em a ga in s t e a ch o t he r o n o ne p o in t o ra no the r , a nd t h e i mpo s s ib i l i ty o fb r ing ing t h em a l l i n to a s i ng le s y s tem t h a t c an b e s imp ly d educed f r om a s ma l ln umbe ro fp r inc ip le s" ( Bou rd ieu 1 995a [ 1980 ]: 1 3 ) . N e i the r a n th ropo log ica l n o r a r cha eo log ica l t h eo r ie s b a sed o n e t hnog raph ic d a ta w i l l t o ta l ly c o r r e spond t o ap a r t icu la r p r eh i s to r ic s o c ie ty , b u t t h ey m igh t g i ve af r u i tf u l a pp roa ch t o i n t e rp r e ta t ion s t h a t m ay c o r robo ra t e w i th t h e a r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l . T he se a na log ie s h ave t ob e l i nked w i th t h e a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s w ho se c on tex t i sc u l tu ra l a nd h i s to r ica l u n ique . I n r e la t ing t h eo ry t o d a ta , i ti s n ece s sa r y t o c omb ine v a r iou s m ode l s , t h eo r ie s a nd a pp roa che s i ns u ch aw ay t h a tt h e i n te rp r e ta t ion c r ea te st h e b e s t c ohe r en t w ho le w h ich c o r robo ra te w i th t h e m a te r ia l , w he the r t h e a im i st o e xp la in o ne s p ec if i c c on tex t i nt h e p a s t o rt od i scu s s c u l tu ra l c hange t h rough p r eh i s to ry . " I t i s

G ene r a lT heor ie s T h e d i s t in c t ion b e tw een " t heo r y" , " mode l" , " hypo the s i s " , " exp lana t ion" a nd " i n te rp r e ta t ion " i so f t en c l ouded a nd b l u r r ed i na r chaeo logy , a nd as t r ingen t u s e o ft h e d i f f e r en t t e rm s i s d if i cu l t t o e s tab l i sh . A d i scu s s ion o f t h e d i f f e r en ce s o f t h e t e rm s i s ad e r a i lmen t f r om t h e f o cu s , b e cau s e m y p o in t i st h a t w h e th e r w e a r e t a lk ing a bou t t h eo ry , m ode l , h ypo the s i s o re xp lana t ion , t h ey a r e a l p a r t s o f a n a r chaeo log ica l p r a c t ice i n vo lv ing a na log ie s . T hu s 3

i n adequa t e t oa s sume t h a t s ome c u l tu r e s i ns p a ce a nd t i me a r e m o r e " l ik e u s " t h an o t he r s a r e" ( Shank s a nd H odde r 1 995 :10 ) . I ti st h e i n d iv idua l a r chaeo log i s t w ho e xp l ic i t ly h a s t oa r gue w hy t h e c ho ice o fo ne o r s e ve ra l t h eo r ie s o r a na log ie s b e s t h o ld t h e i r o wn i n c ompe t i t ion w i th o t he r t h eo r ie s . O the rw i se t h e s c ien t if ic p ra c t ice i si mp l ic i t a nd c l ouded ,a nd a c co rd ing ly i ns ome w ay su n sc ien t if ic .

f rom t h e m od e rn p rac t ice s o fh uman g roup s e l sewhe re i n t h e w o r ld o rf rom a nc ien tp rac t ice s o fp eop le i nt h es ame r eg ion . I ft h e h i s tor ian t r ad i t ion i st h e i mpor tan tv a r iab le , t h en t h ef i tw i l lb ec l o se s tw i th t h i sm a t e r ia l ; ft h ec ommon d om ina to r i sh uman e xpe r i ence , t h en t h ef i t m ay e qua l ly w e l lb ew i th u n re la ted g roup s o fp e op l e " ( Ucko 1 969 :263 2 64 ) .

Ac on t ex tua l e mpha s i s d oe s n o t m ean t h a t a r chaeo log i s t s c an i n t e rp r e t w i thou t g ene ra l iza t ion s . I ti si mpo s s ib le t o a pp roa ch t h e d a ta w i thou t p r e jud ice a nd w i thou t s ome g en e ra l t h eo ry . C on t ex t d oe s n o t o n ly r e f e rt ot h e t h ing s o f t h e p a s t . T hey a r e i n ev i tab ly b ound u p i na r chaeo log ica l p ro jec t s ( i b id :15 ) . T he a r cha eo log ica l p r a c t ice h a s t o b e s e en i nt h er e a lm o fh e rmeneu t ic d i scu s sed i nl e ng th b y f o r i n s tan ce G adam e r ( 1996 [ 1975 ] ) . T he m ovemen t o f u nd e r s tand ing i sc on s tan t ly f r om t h e w ho le t ot h e p a r t a nd b a ck t o t h e w ho le . G adame r e xp r e s se s i t t h i s w ay ; " unde r s tand ing i st ob e t h ough t o fl e s s a s as ub jec t iv e a c t t h an a sp a r t i c ipa t ing i na n e ven t o ft r ad i t ion , ap roce s s o f t r an sm i s s ion i n w h ich p a s t a nd p r e sen t a r e c on s tan t ly m ed ia t ed . T h i s i sw ha t m u s t b e v a l ida ted b y h e rmeneu t i c t h eo ry " ( i b id :290 ) . T hu s t h e a r cha eo log i s t 's c on tempo ra ry k now ledg e a nd p r e jud ice s a r e n ece s sa ry c ond i t ion s o f u nde r s tand ing ; " a t t h e b eg inn ing o f a l h i s to r ica l h e rmeneu t ic s , t h en , t h e a b s t rac t a n t i the s i s b e tween t r ad i t ion a nd h i s to r ica l r e sea rch , b e tween h i s to ry a nd t h e k now l edg e o fi t ,m u s t b e d i sca rd ed T he e f ec t o f al i v ing t r ad i t ion a nd t h e e f ec t o fh i s to r ica l s t udy m u s t c on s t i tu te u n i ty o f e f e c t " ( i b id :282 ) . E thnog raph ic k now ledg e i sa p a r t o ft h e e xp lana t ion s i na r cha eo logy a nd t h e p r a c t ice o f e t hnoa r cha eo logy i saw ay o fe x tend ing t h i sk now ledg e .

T he r e su l t s o fh i s to ry l i e s t r ewn a r ound u s , b u t w e c anno t o b se rve t h e p roce s se s t h a t p rodu ced t h em . H ow i s i t p o s s ib le t ob e s c ien t if i c a bou t t h e p a s t ? T he a n sw e r i st h a t w e h av e t od eve lop c r i t e r ia f o r i n f e r r ing t h e p ro ce s s e s w e c anno t s e e f r om t h e r e su l t s t h a t h av e b een p r e se rved ( Gou ld 1 990 [ 1983 ] :123 ) . " A l though t h eo r ie s m ay b e w innowed a nd p r e se rved e mp i r ica l ly , t h e i r s ou r ce s a r e a s m any a s p eop le a nd t im e a nd t r ad i t ion s a nd c u l tu r e s a r e v a r ied" ( i b id :93 ) . W i th t h e s ame m a t e r ia l a r cha eo log i s t s a s k d i f f e r en t q ue s t ion s a nd w an t t o s o lve d if e r en t p rob lem s . A c on tex tua l a pp roach e nab le s t h i s b e cau se e ve ry th ing i sa s sumed t ob er e la ted t oo t he r s i n ar e la t iona l w ho le , a nd " t he p o in t o fe n t ry i n to t h e c on t ex t i sa r b i t ra ry" ( Hodde r 1 9 87 :45 ) . T h i s i si n t h eo ry , b u t i n p r a c t ice t h e a r cha eo log i s t i sc on s t ra ined b y t h e a va i lab le d a ta ( i b id . ) . T hu s t h e n a tu re a nd a moun t o ft h e d a t a p u t l i m i t s o n t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion s a nd c ho ice o f a pp roa ch . F u r the rmo r e , i t i mp l ie sl i m i ta t ion s i nq ue s t ion p o s s ib le t oa n swe r . B u t i ti sp o s s ib le t o s e ek a " be s t e xp lana t ion" w i th in a f r ame o fr e f e r ence t h a t d ef ine s t h o se a s pec t s o fe mp i r ica l r e a l i ty t h a t a r e r e levan t , i ti sn o t T he T ru th , b u t i ti sa e xp lana t ion t h a t i se mp i r ica l ly a dequa t e a sl o ng a si ti sn o t c on t rad i c t ed b y t h e d a ta a st h ey s t and ( An thony 1 9 95 :87 ) . I ti n vo lve s ap r oce s s o fi n t e l l ig ib i l i ty . D if f e r en t a pp roa che s t oa ne ven to r ap roce s sg i ve d if e r en ta n swe r s , b u ti ti ss t i l l t h e s ame s u b jec t f o r d i scu s s ion . T he r e m u s t a lway s b e m any v e r s ion o f t h e w o r ld a nd t h i s d o e s n o t i mp ly t h a t t h e se s hou ld a l b e r e duc ib le t oo ne , b u t av e r s ion i sc o r r ec t o r i n co r r ec t w i th in i t s f r am e o fr e f e r en ce . D if f e ren t p eop le h ave d if e r en tv e r s ion s o ft h e w o r ld ( W in ch 1 958 , D oug la s 1 992 :245 ) , i nt h e p a s t a s w e l l a s i nt h e p r e sen t . T he se v e r s ion so ft h es o c ia lr e a l i ty a r er a the rd if e r en ta l t er na t ive s t h an r i va l s ( E r ik sen 1 993a ) . B u t t h e a r cha eo log ica l d i scou r se i s ad eba te a mong f e l low s c ien t i s t s w i thou t p o s s ib i l i t ie s t o o t he r v e r s ion s o f t h e p r eh i s to r i c w o r ld e xcep t t h an t h e i r o wn i n t e rp r e ta t ion s o f t h e r ema in s . A s c ien t i s t c hoo se s t h e b e s t h ypo the s i s w i th in t h e r e f e r en ce s o ft h e p h enom enon h e i n ve s t iga te s . T hu s t h e r e w i l l a lway s b e a p l u r a l i ty o f i n te rp r e ta t ion s b a sed o n t h e s ame a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l . Among t h e c o l league s , c hoo s ing t h eb e s th ypo the s i si s ac o l lec t ive a c t( Doug la s 1 992 :240 ) .

My a im i s t h a t t h e a r cha eo log ica l i mp l ica t ion s o f m y e t hnoa r cha eo log i ca l f i e ldwo rk c an b e u s ed a s ag ene r a l t h eo ry f o r a na log ica l r e a son ing . T he a pp l icab i l i ty o f t h e t h eo ry h a s l i m i ta t ion s , i ti s at o o lw h ich w et e s tb ya pp ly ing i t , a nd w h ich w e j udge a s t o i t s f i tne s s b y r e su l t s o f i t s a pp l i ca t ion s . T h e r e levance , t ow h ich d eg r ee i tm igh t h e lp t o e x t end t h e c on tex t , d epend s u pon t h e a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l i ne a ch p a r t icu la r c a se . W i th t h e w o rd o f P e t e r U cko ; " t he r ea l t e s t w he the r o r n o t a ny s e t o fm a te r ia lf rom a p a r t icu la r a r ea i sr ea l ly r e levan t t o t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f e a r l ie r m a t e r ia lf r om t h e s ame r eg ion m u s t a ga in d epend o n t h ep roc ed u r e s i n he ren t i nt h e c ompa ra t ive m e thod ; i t m u s t d epend o n t h e c l o sene s s o ft h ef i t b e tween t h ef ac t s r e vea l ed b y t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a nd t h e m od e l w h ich c an b e c on s t ruc t ed f rom o t he r s ou rce s , w he the r t h e se b e

4

Chap ter 3 : Me thodo logy q ue s t ion s a nd p r ob lem s ( e .g . B a r ndon 1 995 ,A nfm se t 1 996 ) .

E t hnoa r chaeo log ica lP rac t ice A l though d i f f e r en t h uman a nd s o c ia l s c ience s i n f luen ce a r cha eo logy a s a s o c ia l p r a c t ice , e t hnog raphy a nd a n th ropo logy a r e t h e m o s t n a tu ra l s ou r ce s f o r e x ten s ion o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l c on tex t . C h r i s tophe r T i l ley a r gue s t h a t , i ft h e r e h a s b een a p a rad igm i n a r cha eo logy a t a l , t h e d e c i s ive b r eak w a s i n 1 982 w i th l a n H odde r a nd n o t i n 1 9 62 w i th L ew i s B inf o rd ( T i l ley 1 989 : 185 ) . E thnoa r cha eo logy w a s t h e m o s t n ove l a nd f a r r ea ch ing c on t r ibu t ion o f p o s t -p roce s sua l a r chaeo logy b ecau s e i t e nab led an ew a pp roa ch t ot h eu nde r s tand ing o ft h er e la t ion b e tw e en m a te r ia l c u l tu r e a nd s o c ia l o r gan iza t ion ( T r igg e r 1 9 95 :449 , O l sen 1 997 :63 -66 ) . T he i mpo r tance o f e t hnoa r cha eo logy i s , h oweve r , o f t en s h adowed . T hu s , i n m yo p in ion , i ti sn ece s sa ry t od i s t ingu i sh t h e d i f f e r en tw ay s i n w h ich a n e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l p r a c t ice i se xe r c i sed i n o r de r t o i l um ina te t h e r o le o f e t hnoa r cha eo logy i n a r cha eo log ica li n te rp r e ta t ion s :

1 9 92 , Se e r sda l

( b ) I n a p a r t icu la r w ay o n t h e b a s i s o f a s p ec if i c a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l . T he a r cha eo log i s t s t h em se lve s p rov ide t h e s uf i c ien t e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l d ocum en ta t ion t h ey n eed t op u t f o rwa rd ah ypo the s i s o n h ow t h e m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e w a s u s ed b y t h e p r eh i s to r ic p eop le ( e .g . H odde r 1 9 82b , H aa land 1 995 ) . Iw i l l c a l l b o th p r a c t ice s ( a )a nd ( b ) " a c t ive e t hnoa r chaeo logy " b ecau se i ti st h e a r cha eo log i s t s t h em se lve s w ho s t udy h uman b ehav iou r i nr e la t ion t ot h e m a te r ia l c u l tu r e i nl i v ing s o c ie t ie s a nd m ake t h et h eo r e t i ca l f r amewo rk a nd a na log ie sf o ri n f e r ence sa nd s y n the s iz e s . C ommon f o r a l e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l p r a c t ice i s t h a t e t hnog raph ic d ocumen ta t ion i s as ou r ce f o r a na log i ca l r e a son ing a nd e x ten s ion o f t h e c on t ex t , a nd h e r eby a n e s sen t ia l p a r t o ft h e a r cha eo log ica lp r a c t ice . H ow i ti sd one s hou ld t h e r ef o r e b e s ubo rd ina te t o s c ien t if i c c r i t e r ia a nd d eba te . A s p r a c t ic ing a r chaeo log i s t s , Wa t son a r gu e s , " we w i l l s u r e ly b enef i t f r om t h e n ece s s i ty o f e n t e r ing t h a t p o r t ion o ft h e a n th ropo log ica l f i e ld v a ca t ed b y o t h e r s , a nd c a r ry ing o u t a r cha eo log ica l ly o r ien t ed , e t hnog raph ic r e sea r ch o u r se lve s" (Wa t son 1 979 :30 1) .

1 )" E thnoa r chaeo logy " i s ac omb ina t ion o ft wo d i sc ip l in e s : a r cha eo logy w h ich i s t e chn ique s f o r r e cove r ing a nd r e co rd ing m a t e r ia l r ema in s o f c u l tu r e a nd e t hnog r aphy w h ich i s t h e s t udy o f h uman b ehav iou r a nd s o c ia l o r gan iza t ion i nl i v ing s o c ie t ie s ( Haa land 1 988 :130 ) . O nt h e b a s i so ft h ep r ev iou s d i scu s s ion , t h i s d ef in i t ion i mp l ie st h a t a n e t hnoa r cha eo log ica l i n te rp r e ta t ive p r a c t ice i s a n i n t eg ra t ed a nd n ece s sa ry p a r t o f a r cha eo logy s i nce a l i n f e r enc e i sv i aa na log ie s . I ta l so i mp l ie st h a tt h e i n d iv idua l i n t e rp r e t e r w i thou t h av ing t o d o f i e ldwo rk i n l i v ing s o c i e t ie s h im se lf , h a s t o r e ly e n t i r e ly u pon p ub l i sh ed a n th ropo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ica l l i t e ra t u r e a sa n e xp l ic i t o r i mp l ic i t b a s i s f o r a na log ica l r e a son ing . Iw i l l c a l l t h i s p r a c t ice " pa s s ive e t hnoa r chaeo logy" .

F i e ldwo rk I fo ne c ou ld p r ed ic tt h e r e su l t s , w hy d ot h e f i e ldwo rk ?O ne h a s t o j u s t if y a nd v a l ida te o ne 's a s se r t ion s e mp i r ica l ly ( Obeye seke r e 1 992 :xx i i ) . E thnog raphy i si nm any r e spec t s t h e mo s t b a s ic f o rm o f s o c ia l r e sea r ch ( Ham rne r s l ey & A tk in son 1 996 [ 1983 ] :2 ) . C ommon f o r a l f i e ldwo rk a r e p rob lem s a nd l i m i ta t ion s , o ve r a nd o ve r a ga in . N eve r the le s s , i ti sc a r r ied o u t i nd i f f e r en t w ay s , a c co rd ing t ot h e d i sc ip l ine a nd t h e o b jec t ive s o ft h e s t udy . Id i v ided m y f i e ldwo rk i n to t wo p a r t s . T he f i r s t f i e ldwo rk w a s f r om m id D ecembe r 1 996 t o t h e e nd o f Ma r ch 1 997 , a nd t h e s e cond f r om t h eb eg inn ing o fS ep tembe r 1 997 t ot h ee nd o f N ovembe r 1 997 . A s ap a r t o ft h e s e cond f i e ldwo rk Ia l so s p en tt e nd ay s i nV a rana s i( Bena r e s )i nI n d ia i no r de rt os e e h ow t h e f u ne ra l r i t e s w e r e p e rf o rm ed t h e r e , b e cau se i ti s t h e p r ef e r red p l a ce t od i e , a s i ti so ne o ft h e m o s t s a c r ed p i lg r image s i te st oH indu s .

2 ) " E t hnoa r chaeo logy" i s am e thod o f e x tend ing t h e c on t ex t b y c o l lec t ing p r ima ry d a ta i n an one xcava t ion s i tua t ion d i r ec t ly r e la ted t oa r cha eo log ica l p r ob lem s . T h e se d a ta a r e s u b sequen t ly u s ed a s t h eo r e t ica l f r amewo rk s a nd a na log i e s ( O s t igä rd 1 997 ) . T he s p ec if i c a im i s t o u nd e r s t and t h e p roce s se s b e tw een t h e a r t ef a c t s a nd t h e c u l t u r a l e nv i ronmen t t h ey a r e p r odu ced w i th in ( Haa land 1 977 :1 ) . E thnoa r cha eo logy m ay i n c lude s t ud ie s o f" l iv ing " o r " a c t ion " a r chaeo logy a l ong w i th o t he r a pp roa che s ( Gou ld 1 9 77 :162 ) . T hu si tm ay b ed one i nt wo w ay s : ( a ) I n ag ene ra lw ay o nt h eb a s i so f ak nown a r chaeo log i ca l p r ob lem . B y e xp lo r ing t h e c onnec t ion b e tween m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e a nd h uman b ehav iou r i n d if e r en t e t hnog r aph ic s o c i e t i e s , i s i t p o s s ib le t o c omb ine t h e m ean ing o f a r cha eo log ica l o b jec t s i n t h e p a s t w i th l i v ing s o c i e t ie s t o day , c ompa r ing e t hnog raph ic a nd a r cha eo log ica l p a t t e rn ing , w i th s p ec ia l r e f e r ence t o e x cava ted m a t e r ia l . T h e se s t ud ie s a r e n o t d i r ec t ly r e la ted t o a s p ec if i c a r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l a nd t h e r eby p rov ide a p r ima ry a d ju s t ed a na log ica l f r amewo rk a nd a pp roach t op a r t icu la r

L im i ta t ions , P rob lem s a nd D isadvan tage s T he f i e ld m e thod w a s p a r t ic ipan t o b se rva t ion w i th s u rvey s a nd s t ruc tu r ed a s w e l l a s u n s t ruc tu r ed i n te rv iew s . Ia m a wa r e t h a t Im igh t h ave d one a l l t h e m i s take s G anana th O beye seke r e w a rn s a n th ropo log i s t s a ga in s t i n h i s b ook Medu sa ' sH a i r( 1 98 1 :1112 ) : ( 1 ) F ew i n f o rman t s a nd i n te rv iew s i ne a ch v i l lag e . S i n ce I h ave v i s i ted s e ve r a l v i l lage s , Ih ave t o r e ly o n f ew 5

i n f o rman t s i n e a ch c a se , a nd o f t en w i th t h e t y p ica l a n th ropo log ica l i n te rv i ew o f o ne o r t wo s e s s ion s . A s O beye seke r e s a y s i n r e ga rd t o h i s s t udy , i n f o rma t ion s upp l ied i nt h e i n i t ia l i n t e rv iew s w a s o f ten c on t rad ic ted i n l a te r o ne s , a nd i fh e h ad r e l ied o n t h e f i r s t i n te rv iew s h e w ou ld h ave c om et ot o ta l ly f a l se c onc lu s ion s .

( Moo r e 1 9 94 :51) . T he d ea th r i tua l s a r e m a in ly a m a le d oma in , a nd t h u s i ts hou ld b e l e g i t ima t et os a yt h a t Ih ave a g ende rp e r spec t ive ,a l though f r om am an 's p o in to fv i ew . ( 5 ) P sycho log ica l v u lne rab i l i ty . O bey e seke r e ( 1 990 :2312 36 ) d i s cu s se s t h e p rob lem o f t h e e t hnog raphe r 's p sy cho log i ca l v u lne rab i l i ty i nt h e f i e ld ,w h ich a l so i n vo lve s o n to log ica l p r ob lem s . T he p rob lem i s h ow t h e a n th ropo log i s t h im se lf o r h e r se lf h and le s a nd e xp r e s se s e mo t iona l , p e r sona l a nd p r ac t ica l p r ob lem s i n t h e f i e ld b ecau se i ta f e c t s t h e f i e ldwo rk a nd t h e d a ta c o l lec t ed a nd p r e sen ted ,o rw i th o t he rw o rd , a l lt h ee mp i r ica l" f a c t s " . T he s i gh ta nd s me l l o fn ume rou s r o t ten c o rp se sa sw e l l a sb u rn t b od ie s , d ea th i ns ome o fi t sm any f a ce t s , h ave n ece s sa r i ly i nf luen ced b o th m e a nd t h e d a ta t o s ome d eg r ee , b u t h one s t ly , Id o n o t k now t o w ha t e x t en t a nd w ha t t o d o a bou t i t .N eve r the le s s , Ij u s tw an tt h er e ade rt ob e a wa r e o f t h i s p rob lem , t h e p r e sen ted d a ta a r e n o t e mo t ion le s s a nd " ha rd" f a c t s c o l lec ted b y s ome k i nd o f a n o b jec t ive a nd n on sen s ib le " s c ien t i s t" w ho h a ss e en d ea th " a s i ti s " .

( 2 ) T he p r ob lem w i th l a nguage a nd i t s n uance s i n a c co rdance w i th t h e " i n te rp r e te r e f ec t " . S ome o f m y i n f o rman t s s pok e s u ff i c ien t E ng l i sh , b u t o t he rw i se Ih ave t o ta l ly r e l ied o n i n t e rp r e te r s . D u r ing m y f i r s t f i e ldwo rk , I h ad s e ve ra l i n t e rp r e te r s w i th v a r iou s b a ckg round s a nd k now ledg e , b o th i nr e ga rd s t o f i e ldwo rk , a n th ropo logy ( I o f t en g ave u pe xp la in ing w ha te t hnoa r cha eo logy i s )a nd m y s ub jec t . T ime l i m i ta t ion s t o t h e i n te rp r e te r , p rob lem s o f c ommun ica t ion a nd m i sunde r s tand ing s b rough t t o ge the r n ece s s i ta t ed t h e u s e o f d if e r en t i n te rp r e te r s . E spec ia l ly d u r ing f u ne ra l s t h a t Im o s t ly w i tne s sed a l one , s ome o ft h e r e la t ive s a nd v i l lag e r s e xp la ined w ha t h appened . S i nce t h e se a r e s p e c ia l ly e mo t iona l s i tua t ion s w he r e e ven t s h appen f a s t , Id i dn ' t w an t t o i n te r rup t m o r e t h an w ha t i n m y o p in ion w a s m o ra l ly j u s t if iab le ( i f Iw a s r i gh t i nm y j udg em en t s i sa no the r q ue s t ion ) . Of t en i ns i tua t ion s w e r e I h ave g o tt h em o s tv a luab le i n f o rma t ion , Ia mu nab le t og i ve a n a c coun t o f w hom a c tua l ly a r e t h e i n f o rman t s a nd t h e i n te rp r e te r , Ih ad n eve r s e en t h em b ef o r e , n o r h av e Is e en t h em a ga in .

When Ic omb in ea l t h e se c omp la in t sw i th t h e f a c tt h a t Ia m an ov ice i nd o ing f i e ldwo rk , l o g ica l ly aq ue s t ion a r i se s : t o w ha t e x t en t c a n It r u s t m y d a ta ? T h e c on sequence i s l i m i ta t ion s , i nb o th m y c omp rehen s ion o ft h e p roce s se s i n t h e s o c ie ty a nd t h e reby my i n te rp r e ta t ion o f t h em . A cco rd ing ly Ih ave t o i n c lude t h e se c on s ide ra t ion s i nm y e va lua t ion o ft h e d a ta . Ih av eb een a wa r eo ft h e se p r ob lem s d u r ing m y f i e ldwo rk . N eve r the le s s , Is t i l lc ho se t oc on t inue m y s t r a t egy , b e cau se i ti sp a r t ly p o s s ib l e t oj u s t if y , a nd i n m y o p in ion , i te nab led m e t op rocu r e s ome a r cha eo log ica l i mp l ica t ion st o ag r ea te re x ten t .

( 3 ) T he r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e i n f o rman t s . O f c ou r se , a l though Ih av e d i v ided t h e f i e ldwo rk i n to t wo p a r t s a nd w en t b a ck t ot h e s ame v i l lage s , a ny r e la t ion sh ip s w i th t h e i n f o rman t s h ave t o b e m o r e o r l e s s s upe rf i c ia l . A s O beye sek e r e a r gue s , " a l l i n te rv iew d a ta a r e u sef u l , b u t e a r l ie r i n f o rma t ion m ay b e d i s to r ted b y t h e i n f o rman t 's r e s i s tance . A s o n e 's r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e i n f o rman t p rog r e s se s , t h e r e i si n c r ea s ing ly l e s s r e s i s tance o n h i s p a r t t o t a lk ing a bou t i n t ima t e a nd s e n s i t ive e ven t s i n h i s p e r sona ll i f e "( i b id :193 ) .

A dvan tag e sa nd P o s s ib i l i t ie s Iw an ted t os t r e s s t h e i mpo r tance o fa n a wa r ene s s o ft h e a mb iva len ce a nd a mb igu i ty b e tween t h e s o c ia l p roce s se s i n as o c ie ty a nd h ow t h ey a r e e xp r e s sed i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l . T h e m a in p rob lem w i th " pa s s ive e t hnoa r cha eo logy " w hen a n th ropo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e i su s ed a s a na log ie s f o r i n te rp r e ta t ion s , i sd if e r en t a pp roa che s t o t h e c omp lex i ty o f t h e s o c ie t ie s . Whe r ea s a n th ropo log i s t s t e nd t o c on cer n t h em se lv e s w i th a s pe c t s o f c u l tu r e n o t d i r ec t ly m an if e s ted i n a r chaeo log i ca l r ema in s , t h e a r cha eo log i s t s a r e l e f t w i th t h e m a t e r ia l c omp lex i ty w i th f ew p o s s ib i l i t ie s t o r e la t e i tt o t h e s o c ia l w o r ld . T he i n ten t ion b eh ind m y s t ra tegy o f f i e ldwo rk w a s t o c o l lec t d a ta i ns u ch am anne rt h a tm ys t udy m ay p r ov ide ap r ima ry a d ju s ted a n a log i ca l f r amewo rk a nd a pp roa ch t o o t he r s t ud ie so ff u n e r a lp r a c t ice a nd mo r tua ry r ema in s :

T he r e a r e al o t o f o t he r m e thodo log ica l p rob lem s a nd c on s ide ra t ion s a s w e l l , b u t Iw i l l a dd o n ly t wo m o r e , w h ich , i nm y o p in ion , m ay h ave i nf lu en ced t h e f i e ldwo rk a nd i t sr e su l t s : ( 4 ) G ende r . " Any s t udy t h a t d oe s n o t i n c lude t h e r o le o f w omen a s s e en b y w om en - a sp a r t o ft h e w ay t h e s o c ie ty i ss t ru c tu r ed r ema in s o n ly ap a r t ia l s t udy o ft h a t s o c ie ty " ( We ine r 1 976 :228 ) . Ih av et oa dm i ti mmed ia te ly t h a t Ih ave n o t s pok en t o a ny w omen , m ind y ou , f r om a n a cadem ic p o in t o f v i ew , o f c ou r se . T h i s h a s t o b een s e en a nd u nde r s tood i nt h er e a lm o ft h e d u ty o ft h eH ou seho lde r( s ee c hap te r 5 ) . T he m an r e p r e sen t s t h e f am i ly a nd t h e v i l lage , a nd t h u s , i tw a su nna tu ra la nd d i ff i cu l tf o rm et os p eak w i th w omen . T he s t udy i n c lude s w omen a nd t h e r o le o fw omen a s f a r a s p o s s ib le , b u t u nf o r tuna t e ly , o n ly s e en b y m en ( i nf o rman t s ) . N eve r the le s s , g ende r i d en t i ty i s b o th c on s t ruc t ed a nd l i ved . T h e i n d iv idua l o r p e r son i so n ly i n te l l ig ib le w i th r e f e r en ce t o ac u l tu ra l ly a nd h i s to r ica l ly s p ec if ic s e t o f c a t ego r ie s , d i scou r se s a nd p rac t ice s . T hu s a r e t h e r e d if e r en t w ay s i nw h ich t h e c a tego r ie s " woman " a nd " man" a nd t h e d i scou r se s w h ich e mp loy t h o se c a t ego r ie s a r e i n vo lv ed i n t h e p roduc t ion a nd t h e r e p roduc t ion o f n o t ion s a nd p e r sonhood a nd s o c ie ty

( 1 ) S eve ra l v i l lag e s a nd g r aveya rd s . When I c ompa r ed s eve ra lv i l lag e sa nd g r aveya rd s Ig o t ac l ea r e rp i c tu r eo ft h e c on t rad ic t ion s , t h e a mb igu i ty a nd t h e c omp lex i ty i n t h e w ay t h e m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e i su s ed a mong t h e B rahman s a nd Maga r s w i th in a s ma l l b u t s t i l l a r b i t ra ry a r ea . I tm ay i n c r ea se t h e n umbe r o f k nown s im i la r i t ie s a nd t h e r eby s imp l if y a na n a log ica lr e a son ing b a sed o nt h ed i scu s s ion o f t h e s c ien t if i c c r i t e r ia f o r t h i s p ra c t ice . T h i s m ay b e a c on t r ibu t ion t ot h e a r cha eo log i s t 's p rob l em o f f i nd ing t h e mo s t r e l iab l e a na logy . I f Ih ad b een i no ne v i l lag e , t h e r e su l t o f m y s t udy w ou ld n o t h ave d if e r ed m uch f r om 6

d i f f e r ing r e p r e sen ta t ion s f o r d i f f e ren t t a sk s . Wh ich s h ou ld b et h ea n th ropo log i s tp r iv i leg e? O rd ow ea dhe r et o ab e l ief t h a t , i fo n ly i ti st h o rough ly a b s t ra c ted , i ta l c ohe r e s i ni t s e s sen ce?" ( Ba r th 1 993 :4 -5 ) .

o t he r a n th ropo log ica l s t ud ie s , e xcep t m ay b e m y a pp roa ch t h rough t h em a t e r ia lc u l tu r e . ( 2 ) Who m ake t h e a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l? When Ir e la ted t h e m a te r ia l r ema in s t o t h e s o c ia l l i f e , i te nab led m e t o i l um ina te a s p ec t s w h ich t h e i n f o rman t s t h em se lve s w e r e n o t a wa r e o f . S ome o f t h e m a te r ia l e xp re s s ion s m ay b e p e r ce ived a s t h e u n in t ended c on sequence s o f a c t ion ( G idden s 1 982 :30 ) , b u t t h ey a r e i mpo r tan t d a ta f o r a r chaeo log i s t s . I n aw ay t h i s s o lve s t h e a n th ropo log i s t 's o r e t hnoa rchaeo log i s t 's p r a c t i ce o ff i nd ing t h e mo s t g if t ed o r k now ledg eab le f o lk p h i lo sophe r o r i n f o rman t . I ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o f i nd t h e o ne p e rf ec t i n f o rman t w i th d e ta i led k now ledg e o f e ve ry th ing . T h i s i sn o t n ece s sa r i ly t h e a im e i the r , s i nce m o s t o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s a r e p roduced b y p eop le w i thou t t h i s i n f o rma t ion . O r i no t h e r w o rd s : e ve rybody d i e s . O rd ina ry p eop le p r e sen t d if e ren t v i ew s t h an t h e p r ie s t s , n eve r the le s s , m o s t o ft h e m a te r ia l r ema in s a r e m ade b y p eop le w i thou tt h e " be s t" k now ledg e , s ow ho a m Is u ppo sed t ot a lk w i th? I nr e a l i ty , c o inc idence o f t en l e ad m e t o b o th m y r e sea r ch v i l lage s a nd m y i n f o rman t s . A s R o sa l ie Wax s a y s , " t h e m o s t v a luab le t h ing a ny f i e ldwo rk e rc an t a k e w i th h im i n to f i e ld s i sg ood l u ck " ( Wax 1 985 [ 197 1 ] :268 ) , a nd It h ink Ih ave t oa dm i t t h a t I h ave t os om e e x ten tb een l u cky , o ra tl e a s t , Ic an s e ew he r e e ve ry th ing c ou ld h ave g one m uch w o r se .

A s ar e su l t o f t h i s , n a tu ra l ly t h e a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s m u s t a l so b e d i ve r se a nd a mb iguou s . T he p rob lem w h ich a r i se s i sh ow t og r a sp t h i s r e a l i ty i na r chaeo logy , h ow t o c omp r ehend t h e c omp lex i ty i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l . S i n ce a r cha eo log i s t s c an n o t c hoo se a ny o ne o f t h e se p r iv i leg e s , t h e s o lu t ion i so f t en a b s t ra c t ion u n t i l i tm ak e s c oh e r ence . My i n t en t ion i st o s how h ow t h e se d i ve r s i t ie s a r e e xp r e s sed i n t h e c omp lex i ty o f f u n e ra l r ema in s : ( 1 ) " Th e c ha l leng e a s Iu nde r s tand i ti sa bove a l t h eo r e t ica l a nd c once rned w i th h ow t om ode l a n a c coun t f o r v a r ia t ion a nd d i so rde r , e ven m o re t h an h ow t om e r e ly a s semb le t h e d a t a o n v a r ia t ion" ( Ba r th 1 993 :22 ) . ( 2 ) T he a im i st o a na ly s e t h e s o c ie ty ( Ba r th 1 994 :124 ) , b u t o n ly w hen " l ook ing a tt h e s o c ia l l i f e t h a t s u r rounded m e a s m y o n ly r e a l i ty a nd a u tho r i ty " ( Ba r th 1 993 :25 ) , a nd I w i l l a l so i n c lud et h em a te r ia lr ema in st ot h i sr e a l i ty . B ou rd ieu e xp la in s d i ve r s i ty a nd a bundan ce i nh i s b ook T he L og i co fP rac t ic ei nt h i sw ay : " T he p rac t ica ll o g ic , t h rough t h ec ho ice o ft h ef undamen ta l s cheme s i ta pp l i e s a nd t h rough i t s e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e p o l y semy o fs ymbo l s i tu s e s , i ta d ju s t s i ne ach c a se t ot h e p a r t i cu la rl o g ic o fe ach a r ea o fp rac t ice . T h i s e xp la in s t h e u nc e r ta in t ie s a nd e ven i n cohe rence s t h a t a r e e ncoun t e red a s s oon a s o ne t r ie s t o c ompa re m e thod ica l ly a l l t h e p a r t i cu la r a pp l i ca t ion s o f t h e s y s tem s o f s c heme s " (Bou rd ieu 1 995a :26 1) .

( 3 ) H ow t oi n t e rp re t t h e d a ta? T he p r ob lem i sh ow t of i nd t h e " r igh t l e v e l" o fa na ly s i s , t oa s k t h e g ood q ue s t ion s a nd t of i nd af r u i tf u l a pp roa ch . When p eop le a c t a nd p e rf o rm r i t ua l s w i thou t e xp l ic i t k now ledg e o f w ha t t h ey d o , h ow c an Ik now ? T he a n swe rm ay b et h a t" t he t r u th o ft h eT ru th e x i s t s i ns ymbo l ic f o rm s a nd r e s t s o n a mb igu i ty , m e tapho r , o ve rd e t e rm ina t ion . I tn eed n o tr e s id e i n as i ng le p l ace , b u t m igh t b e s c a t t e r ed i nr i t e s a nd my th s , s o s c a t te r ed o r s o i l u s ive t h a tw o rd s c anno te xp r e s s i t sr e a l i ty" ( Obeye seke r e 1 990 :223 ) . R ega rd ing d ea th a nd e s cha to log ica l c oncep t s , I a g r ee , a nd t h en i ti st h e a na ly s t w ho h a s t o i n te rp r e t a nd e l uc ida t e t h e h i dden m ean ing ( i b id . ) . T hu s w e m u s t a lway s s t rugg le t og e to u ro n to log ica l a s sump t ion sr i gh t , t oa s c r ibe t oo u ro b je c to fs t udy o n ly t h o se p r ope r t ie sa nd c apab i l i t ie s t h a t w e h av e r e a sonab le g r ound s t o b e l ieve i tt o p o s se s s ( Ba r th 1 9 87 :8 ) . T h i sb r ing sm et ot h en ex tp rob lem : h ow t o g r a sp t h ec omp lex i ty a nd v a r iab i l i ty?

O r i na r cha eo log ica l t e rm s , d i ve r s i ty a nd a mb igu i ty i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l m o r tua ry m a te r ia l a r e n o t a lway s g ood i n d i ca to r s o f d if e r en t e t hn ic g roup s o r r e l ig ion s ( Ucko 1 9 69 :273 ) , t h ey m igh tj u s t b e d if e r en t u s e s a nd p r a c t ice s a s ac on sequence o ft h e a c to r 's l e ve l o fk now ledg e . H ence t h e c omp lex i ty m u s t b e u nde r s tood i n aw ide r s o c ia l c on t ex t . G idden s ' t h eo ry o fa c t ion i s au s ef u l a pp roa ch . H e d ef ine s s o c ia l s y s tem s a s " r e la t ion s o f i n te rdependen ce , i n vo lv ing t h e s i tua ted a c t iv i t ie s o f h uman s ub jec t s" . S t r u c t u r e s a r e p r ope r t ie s o f s o c ia l s y s t em s o r c o l lec t ive s . S o c ia l s y s tem s o n ly e x i s t i na nd t h rough s t ruc tu ra t ion , a s t h e o u t come o f t h e c on t ing en t a c t s o f am u l t ip l ic i ty o f h uma n b e ing s . " S t ruc tu re s" c an b e i d en t if i ed a s " s e t s o r m a t r ice s o f r u le r e sou r ce p rope r t ie s g ov e rn ing t r an sf o rma t ion s" , a nd t h u s " s t ru c tu r e i sb o th e nab l ing a nd c on s t ra in ing "( G idden s 1 982 :35 -37 ) .

T he P rob lem o fV a r iab i l i ty a nd D ive r s i t ie s Ih ave t o ag r ea t e x ten tu s ed B a r th 's a pp roa ch a nd i d ea s o f h ow t oh and le t h e d i ve r s i ty . I nB a l ine se W o r ld s ( 1 993 ) h e d e sc r ibe st h ep rob lem . " The r e a l i ty t h a t i sb e ing c r ea ted , i n a ny c ommun i ty o r c i r c le m u s t b e d i ve r se . ( 1 ) T h e r e a r e v a r ia t ion s i n t h e l e ve l o f " expe r t i se" i n t h e p opu la t ion : w h i ch l e v e l c ou ld h o ld a u tho r i ty f o r a l? ( 2 ) T h e r e i s d i ve r s i ty o f r e ce iv ed t r ad i t ion s . ( 3 ) T he r e i s av a r ied p a r t icu la r i sm o fl o ca l h i s to ry , c on t en t ion , a nd c on t ex t . ( 4 ) T he re a r e a l t h e d if e r en ce s b e tween p eop le i np o s i t ion ing a nd e xpe r ien ce , b e s ide s t h a t o fe xpe r t i se : o l d a nd y oung , m a le a nd f ema le , r i ch a nd p oo r , p owe rf u l a nd v u lne rab le . ( 5 ) F i na l ly , t h e re i st h e p r agma t ic s o fp u rpo se a nd i n te r e s t :

T h e a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s a r e t h e r e su l t o fh uman a c t ion w h e r e s t r uc tu r e s a r e e nab l ing a nd c on s t ra in ing . T h i s i st h e a r cha eo log ica l r e a l i ty . H oweve r , t h e i n f o rman t 's e xp lana t ion s o f t h e s o c ia l r e a l i ty m ay n o t a lway s c o r r e spond w i th t h e a c tua l r ema in s o ft h e d e sc r ibed a c t ion . I ft h ea im i st oi n te rp r e tt h ew ay o fl i f eo ft h e p eop le o ft h e p a s t , i si tt h en p o s s ib le t oi n co rpo ra te t h i sa mb iva len ce i n to a r cha eo log ica lt h eo r ie s ,m ode l sa nd h ypo the s i s?

7

Chap ter 4 :B rahmans a nd Magars o fN epa l b u t p o l i t ica l u n i t s . O ne v i l lage m ay c on ta in o ne o rs eve ra l w a rd s , a nd t h e r em igh tb es eve ra lv i l lage s i no ne VDC .

G eog raph ica lF ea tu r e so fN epa l T he k i ngdom o fN epa l i ss i tua ted b e tween T ibe t a nd I nd ia . T he c oun t ry e mb ra ce s a n a r ea o f 1 45 , 3 9 1 s qua r e k i lome te r s , s t r e tche s 85 k i lome te r s f r om e a s t t ow e s t w i th a n a ve rage o f 1 60 k i lome t re s f r om n o r th t o s ou th . T he a l t i tude r ange s f r om 1 00 m e te r s a bove t h e s ea l e ve l i nt h e s ou ther n T a ra i a r ea , t om o r e t h an e i gh t t h ou sand m e te r s i n t h e n o r ther n H ima layan a r ea , w i th Moun t E ve re s t a s t h e h ighe s tp o in to nE a r th w i th 8 ,8 48 m e te r s . T hu st h e c l ima te v a r ie s f r om t r op ica l t o a l p ine . Ih ave c a r r ied o u t m y f i e ldwo rk i nt h e B ag lung , Myagd i a nd P a rba t d i s t r ic t s i n D hau lag i r iZ one i n We s ter nR eg ion o fN epa l( Map 4 . 1) .

"W i th f ew e x cep t ion s t h e g rea t m a jo r i ty o f t h e N epa l i p eop le l i ve i n w e l l d ef ined , s pec if ic g eog raph ic r eg ion s . . . Immed ia te ly s ou th o ft h e H ima layan a r e a tra c t ive moun ta in v a l ley s . T h i s r eg ion i s i n hab i ted b y v a r iou s T ibe to -Bu rman a nd I ndo -A ryan s p eak ing h i l l a nd v a l ley p eop le" ( B i s ta 1 980 [ 1967 ] :x i ) . T he p opu la t ion w a s a cco rd ing t o t h e 1 991 P opu la t ion C en su s o f N epa l 1 8 ,491 ,097 i n hab i tan t s . T he r e w e re r epo r ted 6 0 d if e ren t c a s te s /e thn ic g roup s t h a t a c coun ted f o r a bou t 9 6 % o ft h e t o ta l p opu la t ion . T he r ema in ing 4% c omp r i sed o f " o the r s" , " no c a s te" ( f o r e igne r s ) a nd " no t s t a ted" . O ft h e t o ta l p opu la t ion , t we lve g roup s c on s i s ted o f mo re t h an t wo p e rcen t o f t h e t o ta l p opu la t ion , a nd t h e se g roup s t oge the r a ccoun ted f o r m o r e t han 7 0% o f t h e c oun t ry 's i n hab i tan t s . T he t h ree l a rge s t g roup s w e re C hhe t r i s , H i l l B rahman s a nd Maga r s w i th r e spec t ive ly 1 6 .4 , 1 2 .5 a nd 7 . 6 p e r cen t o f t h e t o ta l p opu la t ion ( CBS , 1 993 , V o l . 1 ,P a r t V I I ; 1 993 , U rban T ab le s , C ompu te r P r in tou t s ) . I n t h e B ag lung a nd Myagd i d i s t r ic t s t h e p opu la t ion w a s( Tab le 4 . 1) :

P o l i t ica l O rgan iza t ion a nd P opu la t ion N epa l i s a dm in i s t ra t ive ly , p o l i t ica l ly a nd e conom ica l ly d iv ided i n to ad eve lopmen tp lann ing s t ruc tu re . T he c oun t ry i s d i v ided i n to 5 D eve lopmen t R eg ion s w i th 1 4 z one s , w h ich a r e f u r the r s ubd iv ided i n to 7 5 a dm in i s t ra t ive d i s t r ic t s . T he m a jo r o rgan i sa to ry u n i t i nt h e r u ra l a r ea i n e ach d i s t r ic t i s t h e " V i l lage D eve lopmen t C omm i t tee" ( VDC ) . E ach VDC i sn o rma l ly o rgan ized a nd d iv ided i n to 9s ma l le r w a rd s w he r e e a ch w a rd h a s i t s o wn c ho sen p o l i t ica l l e ade r . A VDC u n i ta nd aw a rd u n i ta r en o tn a tu ra l

T ab le 4 . 1 P opu la t ion b yc a s te /e thn ic g roup i nt h eB ag lung a nd Myagd id i s t r ic t s T o ta l

B rahman

C hhe tr i

Magar

D ama i

K am i

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B ag lung

2 32 ,486

5 4 ,660

4 3 ,035

6 5 ,605

9 , 115

2 9 ,30 1

1 0 ,317

2 0 ,453

Myagd i

1 00 ,552

7 , 744

1 7 ,000

4 3 ,768

5 , 120

1 2 ,669

3 , 325

1 0 ,926

S ou r ce : CBS ,P opu la t ion C en su s 1 991 ,S oc ia lC ha rac te r i s t ic s T ab le s ,V o l . 1 ,P a r tV I I ,p . 185 -194 .

R e sea r ch L oca t ion s

G roup B v i l lage s / ceme te r ie s :

T he r e sea rch l o ca t ion s i nt h e B ag lung , Myagd i a nd P a rba t d i s t r ic t sa r e d iv ided i n to t wo g roup s ( Map 4 . 2 ) : ( 1 )v i l lage s w he r e t h e r e la t ion b e tween l i f e c yc le r i tua l s a nd mo r tua ry r ema in s a r e i n ve s t iga t ed ( g roup A v i l lage s /ceme te r ie s ) , a nd ( 2 ) v i l lage s a nd c eme te r ie s w h ich i lum ina te t h e c omp lex i ty o ft h e f une ra l p r ac t ice a nd mo r tua ry r ema in s i n t h ea r ea ( g roup B v i l lag e s / ceme te r ie s ) :

B ag lung B aza a r , B ag lung d i s t r ic t B en i , Myagd id i s t r ic t B hakunde VDC ,B ag lung d i s t r ic t B h impo ld ia ra VDC ,B ag lung d i s t r ic t B hu ska t VDC ,B ag lung d i s t r ic t B ihu VDC , B ag lung d i s t r ic t G hu sme l iV i l lag e , B ag lung d i s t r ic t K han iya G ha t VDC ,P a rba td i s t r ic t Ma sangd iK ho la G ha t ,B ag lung d i s t r ic t N i re G ha t ,B ag lung d i s t r ic t R e sha VDC ,B ag lung d i s t r ic t

G roup A v i l lage s / ceme te r i e s : A rga l VDC ,B ag lung d i s t r ic t H i la VDC ,B ag lung d i s t r ic t T a ra VDC ,B ag lung d i s t r ic t B a ran ja VDC , Myagd id i s t r ic t B hak im ly VDC , Myagd id i s t r ic t

T he p opu la t ion b y c a s te /e thn ic g roup s i n t h e r e sea r ch v i l lage s ( g roup A ) w he re t h e r e la t ion s b e tween l i f e c yc le r i tua l s a nd f u ne ra l r ema in s a r e i n ve s t iga ted i s( Tab le 4 . 2 ) :

8

Map 4 . 1 Wes tern r e g ion o fN epa l w i th t h e B ag lung , Myagd i , P a rba t a nd Mus tang d i s t r ic t s i nt h e D hau lag ir i Z one .

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P a rba t D is t r ic t

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T ab le 4 . 2P opu la t ion b yc a s te / e thn ic g r oup s i nt h er e sea r ch v i l lage s( g roup A )

B rahman C hhe tr i Magar D ama i K am i S ark i O ther s T o ta l

Ar ga l N /DC

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B hak im ly VDC

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2 64 3 65 1 , 127 1 0 1

5 74 1 , 237 5 27 1 06

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5 46 3 70 2 , 595 1 54

2 41

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6 0 1 2

7 1 34

1 20

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3 , 705

3 , 132

4 , 576

S ou r ce : CBS ,P opu la t ion C en su s 1 99 1 . U npub l i shed C ompu te rP r in tou t s , CBS B ranch O ff i ce B ag lung B azaa r ,N epa l .

A l l r e sea r ch l o ca t ion s a r e a mong s eve ra l o the r v i l lage s l o ca ted i na n a r ea o f3 00 s qua re k i lome t re s . T h i s i s ah i l l a r ea b e low a bou t 3 000 m e te r s a bov e s e a l e ve l w i th s t eep r i dge s u nde rcu t b y t o r ren t ia l s t ream s . B ag lung B azaa r a nd B en i a r e r e spec t ive ly r eg iona l c en t r e s i nt h e B ag lung a nd Myagd i d i s t r ic t s , s i tua ted a l ong K a l igandak i R ive r , o ne o f t h e m o s t h o ly r i ve r s i nN epa l . T he a l t i tude i sh e r e a bou t 8 00 -900 m e te r s , w h i le mo s t o f t h e o t he r v i l lage s a r e l o ca ted b e tween 1 500 -2500 m e te r s . H oweve r , f r om mo s to f t h e a r ea t h e g r ea t ma s s if s o fD hau lag i r i a nd A nnapu rna a r e s e en i n t h e b ackg round , w i th D hau lag ir i , t h e w o r ld 's s e ven th h i ghe s t moun ta in p eak ing a t8 , 167 m e te r s a s t h e m o s t s p ec tacu la r . T he r oad e nd s i nB ag lung B azaa r , a nd f r om h e r e Ic an r each t h e r e sea r ch v i l lage s w i th in 1 2 d ay s b yw a lk ing .

d u t ie s a nd t h e q ua l i t ie s a r e f u r the r d e sc r ibed : " Peacef u lne s s , s e lf -con t ro l , a u s te r i ty , p u r i ty , t o le rance , h one s ty , k now ledge , w i sdom a nd r e l ig iou sne s s -t h e se a r e t h e n a tu ra l q ua l i t ie s b y w h ich t h e b rah tnana s w o rk . H e ro i sm , p owe r , d e te rm ina t ion , r e sou rcef u lne s s , c ou rage i n b a t t le , g ene ro s i ty a nd l e ade r sh ip a r e t h e n a tu ra l q ua l i t ie s o f w o rk o f t h e k sa t r iya s . F a rm ing , c ow p ro tec t ion a nd b u s ine s s a r e t h e n a tu ra l w o rk f o r t h e v a i sya s , a nd f o r t h e s ud ra s t h e r e i sl a bou r a nd s e rv ice t o o t he r s . B y f o l low ing h i s q ua l i t ie s o fw o rk , e ve ry man c an b ecome p e rf ec t" ( Bg . 1 8 .42 -45 ) . T hu s t h e re a r e f ou r c l a s se s i nt h e h i e ra r ch ica l o rde r : ( 1 ) t h e s a ce rdo ta l a nd l e a rned c l a s s , t h e m embe r s o f w h ich may b e , b u t n o tn ece s sa r i ly p r ie s t s , ( 2 ) t h e r e ga l a nd w a r r io r c a s te , ( 3 ) t h e t r ad ing a nd a g r icu l tu ra l c a s te a nd ( 4 ) t h e s e rv i le c a s te , w ho se d u ty i st os e rve t h e o t he rt h r ee . T he p rob lem i st h a t t h i s r e l ig iou s o r ig in d oe s n o t t e l l w h ich g roup i sw he re i nt h e h i e ra r chy , i ti sn o t c onnec ted t ot h e p eop le .

E xcep t f r om B ag lung B azaa r a nd B en i w i th s ome u rban iza t ion , t h e ma jo r s ub s i s tence b a s i s i nt h e r u ra l a r ea s i sa g r icu l tu r e . T he p ea san t f a rm ing i sm a in ly n on i r r iga t ed a g r icu l tu ra l t e r race c u l t iva t ion s upp lemen ted w i th a n ima l h u sband ry a nd i n ten s ive u se o ff o r e s t ry p roduc t s . I nt h e se a r ea s t h e r e i s ap opu la t ion p re s su r e o n t h e c u l t iva ted l a nd , n o t m ea su red i n a b so lu te p opu la t ion d en s i ty , b u t i nt e rm s o f t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f c u l t iva ted l a nd , i . e . i th a s al ow p ropo r t ion o fa g r icu l tu ra l l a nd , a nd i nl e ve l s o fa g r icu l tu ra l t e chno logy a nd e ndowmen t o f o t her e conom ic r e sou r ce s ( S i l l &K i rkby 1 991 :119 ) . T hu st h et e r race b u i ld ing i sb o th d i rec t ly b y u nde r -cu t t ing s t eep s l ope s a nd i n d i r ec t ly t h rough a l te r ing w a te r movem en t , t h e c au se o f i n s tab i l i ty a nd l a nd s l ide s , wh ich i n c rea se t h e p re s su re o n c u l t iva ted l a nd .

C a s te s y s tem s m ay b e d ef ined a s " mo ra l s y s tem s t h a t d i f f e ren t ia te a nd r a nk t h e w ho le p opu la t ion o f as o c ie ty i n c o rpo ra te u n i t s ( c a s te s ) g ene ra l ly d ef ined b y d e scen t , m a r r iage a nd o ccupa t ion" ( Ma r r io t t &I nden 1 974 :982 ) . I t i s b a sed o n as oc ia l p r inc ip le ; h i e ra r chy , a nd t h e r eby d i s t inc t ion s b e tween t h e c a s te s . T h i s i s r e la ted t o o ppo s i t ion s o fp u r i ty a nd i mpu r i ty i no ne o r a no the r w ay ( Dumon t 1 970 [ 1966 ] :44 -46 ) . I t d ef ine s g roup s i n a h i e ra rchy o fr i tua l p u r i ty a nd p o l lu t ion a nd p r e sc r ibe s i n te r c a s te r e la t ion s , e spec ia l ly r ega rd ing m a r r iag e a nd c ommen sa l i ty ( Benne t t 1 983 :8 ) . T he c a s te g roup s a r e i n te rdependen t , b u t t h e r e a r e b a r r ie r s b e tween f r ee s o c ia l i n te rcou r se a nd d i f f e r ence s i n c u l tu r e a nd o ccupa t iona l s pec ia l iza t ion ( Be r reman 1 963 :198 ) . Two v i ew s o f c a s te s y s tem s h ave b een s e en a s mu tua l e xc lu s ive ; L ou i s D umon t 's v i ew o f ah o l is t ic s oc ia l o rde r b a sed o n t h e p r inc ip le o fh i e ra rchy a nd McK im Ma r r io t t 's c oncep to ft h e i n d iv idua l a nd a s oc ie ty o pen t o c hange a nd d ecay . H oweve r , t h e se H indu w o r ld -v iew s a c t m o r e a s " i deo log ie s" i n aMa rx ian s en se w he r e e a ch r e ly u pon t h e o t he rf o rt h e i rp owe r( Pa r ry 1 994 :112 115 ) .

T he C a s te S y s tem O ff ic ia l ly t h e c a s te l aw s ( d if f e ren t ia l p un i shmen t f o r of end e r s o f d if e ren t c a s te s f o r t h e s ame o f f ence ) w e r e a bo l i t ion ed i n 1 963 ( B i s ta 1 99 1 :55) , b u t s t i l l p a r t s o ft h e c a s te s t r uc tu re r ema in s . T he p rob lem i s : w ha t i st h e c a s t e s y s tem a nd h ow d oe si tw o rk?

C a s te d epend s o n b i r th , b u t a l so o nr i t ua l p u r i ty . T he ref o r e , t o b e at o ta l ly a ccep ted m embe r o f ac a s te r e qu i re s p u r if i ca t ion t h rough r i tua l s i n s ub sequen t s t ep s ( Lovd in 1 986 :32 ) . I t i s h e re n ece s sa ry t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t empo ra ry a nd p e rmanen t i mpu r i ty ( Dumon t 1 970 :49 ) . P e rmanen t i mpu r i ty i sf o r i n s tance w hen m a r r iage s o ccu r b e tween d if e ren t c a s t e s , i . e . ah igh c a s te p e r son c hange s

T h e c a s t e s y s tem i nN epa l i sb a sed o n t h e c l a s s ica l H indu v a rna s y s tem . T h i s i s a r e l ig iou s c a tego r iza t ion . T he B hagavad -G i ta ( Bg ) d i s t ingu i she s f ou r c a s te s : " B rahmana s , k sa t r iya s , v a i sy a s a nd s ud ra s a r e d i s t ingu i shed b y t h e q ua l i t ie s b o r n o ft h e i r o wn n a tu r e s i n a c co rdance w i th t h e ma te r ia l m od e s ( . .)" ( Bg . 1 8 .41) . T he 1

u pon t h e c a s te f r om w h ich o ne l o ok sa ti t( F igu r e4 . 2 ) , a nd t h i s c omp r e hen s ion d epend s o ft h e s t a tu s o ft h e r e spec t ive c a s te . T he r e f o r e , ah o l i s t ic mode l o f t h e c a s te s y s tem a s p r e sen ted i nf i g . 1i st os ome d eg r ee d e cep t ive , s e en f r om t h e B r ahma n 's p o in t o fv i ew i td oe s n o t d o j u s t i ce t ot h e s o c ia l r e a l i t y i nN epa l . T oday m o s t o ft h e p eop le i nt h e v i l lage sa r ef a rme r s , b u tt h ep e r sona l r e l ig iou sq ua l i t ie sa nd t h e d u t ie s a s so c ia ted w i th t h e c l a s s i ca l v a rna g r oup s a r e i n co rpo ra ted a nd u s ed . H ence i ti si mpo s s ib le t ou nde r s tand ac a s t e s y s t em w i thou t ac omp r eh en s ion o f p u r i ty i n H indu i sm , h ow eve r , t h e se p r inc ip le s m ay s t i l l b e u s ed a nd h ave as t ra t i f y ing e f ec t i n as oc ie ty w i thou t i tn ece s sa r i ly b e ing ac a s t es o c ie ty .

c a s te t ot h e l owe r c a s t e s t a tu s o ft h e s pou se , a nd t h e r eby b ecome s i mpu r e f r om h i s o rh e r o r ig ina l c a s te . I nt h i s w ay c a s t e s a r e n o t p e rmanen t , i ti sp o s s ib le w i th s o c ia l m ob i l i ty d ownwa rd s , a nd i nr a r e c a se s , a l so u pwa rd s . T he n a tu r e o f d ea th p o l lu t ion i so ne o ft empo ra ry i mpu r i ty . D i s t inc t ion s b e tween t h e c a s t e s a r e e xp r e s sed a nd a c ted o u t t h rough f o od ,w a t e ra nd a dm i s s ion t ot h eh ou se . I n t h e c a s t e s y s t em i ti sn ece s sa ry t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween v a rna a nd f a t . V a rna m ean s " c la s s o r c a s te" , s o d oe s j a t . V a rna c l a s s if i ca t ion e mpha s iz e s t h e c ommon r i t ua l p o l lu t ion b e tw een g r oup s w i th in a v a rna , i n r e la t ion t o o t he r v a rna s . f a t c l a s s if i ca t ion d i s t ingu i she s e a ch g roup e i the r i nt e rm s o fe t hn ic i ty o r d if e r en t l e ve l s o fp o l lu t ion w i th in av a rna . T hu sm ay f a tg roup s b ep e r ce ived a se t hn ic g roup s . T he N epa l i V a rna s y s tem c on s i s t s o f t h e se f o u r c a s t e s ( F igu r e 4 . 1) : ( 1 ) B rahman s , ( 2 ) C hhe t r i s , ( 3 ) Ma twa l i s ( l i quo r d r ink ing ) a nd ( 4 ) S ano J a t ( Sud ra s ) . T he l a s t g roup i su n tou chab le ( o r p o l lu ted ) . T he B rahman s , C hh e t r i s a nd t h e S ud ra s h ave m a in ly a n I n do -A ryan l a nguage o r ig in , w h i le t h e Ma twa l i st o ag r ea te x ten th ave a T ibe to -Bu rman l a nguag eo r ig in .

T he B rahm an sa nd t h e Maga r s F r ed r ik B a r t h 's " I n t roduc t ion" i n E thn ic G roup s a nd B ounda r ie s f r om 1 969 i s ac l a s s ica l s t udy o fe t hn ic i ty . I n t h e w o rd s o fB a r th , " e thn ic g roup s a r e s e en a s af o rm o f s o c ia l o r gan i za t ion . . .A c a tego r ica l a s c r ip t ion i sa n e t hn ic a s c r ip t ion w h en i tc l a s s if i e s ap e r son i nt e rm s o fh i s b a s ic , m o s t g en e ra l i d en t i ty , p r e sump t iv e ly d e te rm ined b y h i s o r ig in a nd b a ckg round . T o t h e e x ten tt h a ta c to r s u s e e t hn ic i d en t i t ie s t oc a tego r iz e t h em se lve s a nd o t he r s f o r p u rpo se s o f i n te ra c t ion , t h ey f o rm e t hn ic g r oup s i n t h i s o rgan iza t iona l s e n se" ( Ba r th 1 969 :13 14 ) . A l though e t hn ic c a tego r ie s t a k e c u l tu ra l d if e rence s i n to a c coun t , t h ey a r e n o t t h e s um o f" ob jec t ive" d if e ren ce s , b u t o n ly t h o se t h e a c to r st h em se lve sr e ga rd a ss i gn if ican t( i b id . ) .

D o r B ahadu rB i s ta a r gue st h a t" t hough N epa l i sc on s ide r ed t o h ave l o ng b een H indu , i t s n a t ive H indu i sm h a s n o t i n c luded ab e l ief i nc a s t ep r inc ip le s , w h ich r ema in af o r e ign i mpor ta t ion w i th l i t t le p opu la r s uppo r t . O n ly i nt h e p a s t h und r ed a nd t h i r ty -f iv e y ea r s h a s t h e c a s te s y s t em g a in ed a ny k i nd o fe ndo r semen t " ( B i s ta 1 99 1 :29 ) , a nd i t" ha s o n ly m a rg ina l ly p en e t ra t ed i t s s o c ie ty w h ich i s c onf ined t o p a r t icu la r c l a s se s o f p a r t icu la r e t hn ic g roup s" ( i b id :35 ) . When m o r et h an s i x ty g r oup s( f a t s )a r ep l a ced i n to aH indu h i e ra r ch ica l s y s t em o f f o u r c a t ego r iz e s w i th d i f f e r en t q ua l i t ie s a nd d u t ie s , t h e r e m u s t b e c on t rad ic t ion s i n t h e c omp r ehen s ion o f h ow t h e s y s tem w o rk s a nd w ha t i ti s , e spec ia l ly w hen m any o f t h e g roup s a r e T ibe to -Bu rman w i th a B uddh i s t o r ig in . H oweve r , t h e p eop le g ene ra l ly t o le ra ted t h e n ew s y s t em a s l o ng a s i td i d n o t t r y t o c on t rad ic tt h e i ro wn r e l ig iou sf a i th a nd p r a c t ice ( i b id :32 ) .

F undamen ta l i s" t he p r inc ip le t h a t e t hn i c i d en t i ty i mp l ie s a s e r ie s o fc on s t ra in t s o n t h e k i nd o fr o l e s a n i n d iv idua l i s a lowed t o p l ay , a nd t h e p a r tne r s h e m ay c hoo se f o r d if e r en t k i nd s o f t r an sa c t ion s . . .reg a rded a s s t a tu s , e t hn ic i d en t i ty i s s u pe r o rd ina te t o m o s t o t he r s t a tu e s o r p e r sona l i t ie s" ( i b id :17 ) . T he B rahman s ( Bahun s ) a nd t h e Maga r s a r e c u l tu ra l ly d i s t inc t ive e t hn ic g r oup s . H ie ra r ch ica l d i s tance b e tween d if e r en t g r oup s i sl a rg e ly a m a t te r o f r u l e s a nd r e gu la t ion s o f r i t ua l p u r i ty a nd p o l lu t ion .

T he r e a r e n o c a s te s y s t em s i nN epa l a st h e c l a s s ica l mode l o f H indu c a s t e h i e ra r chy p r e s c r ibe s , b u t t h e r e a r e h i e ra r ch ica l p r inc ip le s t h a t w o rk a nd a r e l e g i t ima ted i na c o r re spond ing w ay t o v a r iou s e x t en t s . T he r e a l i ty i sn o t s t a t ic , a nd t h e m u tua l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween e a ch g roup i s n e i the r c l ea r ly h i e ra r ch i sed o rde r ly i nt h e r e spec t ive c a s te s ( i b id :43 ) , n o r i st h e c a s t e ( v a rna ) t o a l t h e r e spec t ive g roup s ( f a t ) c l ea r ly o r de r ly i n t h e d a i ly l i f e ( Ry s tad 1 996a :26 ) . T h e u nde r s tand ing o ft h e c a s t e s y s t em d epend s

N epa l i i st h e s t a t e a nd d om inan t l a nguag e . I ti so f I n do E u ropean o r ig i na nd i ti st h e l a nguag eo ft h eB rahman sa nd C hhe t r i s ( S i l l & K i rkby 1 991 :94 -95 ) . O r ig ina l ly t h e Maga r s s poke aT ibe to -Bu rman l a nguag e , t o day o n ly 3 2% o f t h e Maga r s i n N epa l s p eak Maga r l a nguage a s t h e i r m o th e r t o ngue . I nm y r e sea r ch a r ea t h e s i t ua t ion i sw o r se :

T ab le 4 . 3P opu la t ion d i s t r ibu t ion b ym o the rt o ngue f o rt h eB ag lung a nd M a d id i s t r ic t s ' N epa l i T o ta l 2 26 ,933 2 32 ,486 9 5 ,909 1 00 ,552 S ou rce : CBS ,S t a t i s t ica lY ea rbook o fN epa l1 995 ,p .3 2 -33 . B ag lung Myagd i

Magar 4 57 1 0 5

O ther 5 , 096 4 , 538

1A cco rd ing t o Om G u rung ,t h e se a r ep robab ly n o tt r ue s t a t i s t ic sb ecau se h i s to r i c a l ly i th a sb een ag ove rnm en tp o l icy t ou nde rn um e ra te e t hn ic p eop le i no rde rt od ec r ea se t h e i rs o c ia la nd p o l i t ica ls t r eng th ( Gu rung 1 996 :14 ) .

1 2

F igure 4 . 1 C a s te H iera rchy . S chema a nd s ou rce f r om B enne t t 1 983 , p age 9 .

S ANSKR IT VARNA EQU IVALENT

B rahman

NEPAL I VARNA OR CASTE GROUPS

B rahman

CASTES OR J AT

U padhya B rahman J a is i B rahman*

R ITUAL CATEGORY

T agadha r i ( wea r e r s o ft h e s a c red t h read )

K sa t r iya

T haku r iC hhe t r i T haku r i

K ha t r i -Chhe t r idha a C hhe t r i( j ha r ra ) K ha t r i -Chhe t r i ( jha r ra ) C hhe t r i( t h imbu )

V a isya

Ma twa l i ( l iquo rd r ink ing )

J yapu N ewa r* G u rung s* Maga r s* T amang s*

S ud ra

S ano J a t ( l ow c a s te )

K am i S a rk i D ama i

U n touchab le

C hokho ( pu re , w a te r a ccep t a b le

P an i N acha lne ( impu re ,w a te rn o t a ccep ted )

K ey P a rba t iya H indu so fI ndo -A ryan s t ock w ho m ig ra ted i n to t h eH ima layan so ve rt h e l a s t 1 000 y ea r s T ibe to -Bu rman E thn ic G roup s R ank n o tc l ea r ly e s tab l ished w i th in c a s te g roup s

1 3

F igure 4 . 2D iag ramma t ic r e p r e sen ta t ion o fd i f f e ren tv i ew s o fc a s te i nK a thmandu v a l ley . F rom B i s ta 1 99 1 ,p .4 3

D iag ram 2 :

D iag ram 1 :

N epa l i Mode lo f Ca s te H ierarchy ( V iewed b yB ahun -Chhe tr i )

C la s s ica l Mode lo fH indu C a s te H ierarchy

BAH

BRAHMAN

T HAKUR I

IKKHASTR LYA I SHYA

T agadha r i ( Sac r ed th read w ea r ing ) .

CHHETR I

S HUPRA ., ,

S HRESTA UNTOUC II ABLE MAT WALF OTHER E THN IC GROUPS PAN I NACHALNE /M w a te ru naccep tab le / u n touchab le

D iag ram 4 :

D iag ram 3 :

S ecu lar H ierarchy ( V iewed b y Ma jor i ty a nd P rac t iced b ya l l )

N epa l i Mode l o fC a s te H ierarchy ( V iewed b yt he Ma jor ity )

P OL IT ICALLY OR ECONOM ICALLY PO WERFUL ( Mo s t ly B ahun , T haku r i , C hhe t r i , R a jpu t , S h r e s ta a nd C hhe t r i

CHOKHO J AAT ( C lean c a s te )

PAN ! NACHALNE J AAT (Wa te r u na ccep tab le ) COMMON , POOR AND BACK WARD ( Ma twa l ia nd e t hn ic c ommun i t ie s ) K ey : I mpa s sab le b a r r ie r P ermeab le b a r r ie r

1 4

H oweve r , t h e Maga r s ' l o s s o f t h e i r l a nguag e i s ar e cen t p henomenon . I nT a ra VDC f o r i n s tance , t h e Maga r s s p eak N epa l i , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f af ew k i n sh ip t e rm s , b u tw i th a n i n tona t ion a nd a ccen t o t he r s f i nd d if i cu l t t ou nd e r s tand ( Gu rung 1 9 96 :23 ) . I n s e ve ra l o fm y r e sea r ch v i l lage s m y i n f o rman t ' s g r andpa r en t s w e r e a mong t h e l a s t w ho s pok e Maga r l a nguag e . I nt h e s ame v i l lage s , a pp rox ima t e ly s i x ty y ea r s a go , a l v i l lage r s s t a r ted t o c hange f r om r o und t o s qua r e h ou s e s , n o m a t te ro fc a s te o re t hn ic g r oup . W i th in a t wen ty y ea r s t i me , t h e r e a r e i n d ica t ion s t h a t t h ey a l so c hang ed f r om c e ram ic v e s se l s a nd p o t s t ou t en s i l s m ade o f c oppe r ( O e s t igaa rd i n p re s s ) , a nd t h e Maga r s s t opped r a i s ing p i g s . A cco rd ing t o t h e i n f o rman t s , t h e se c hange s h appened q u i t e p ea cef u l ly a mong t h em se lve s , s imp ly b ecau se i tw a s an ew f a sh ion o ft h e t i me , o rs o Iw a s t o ld . B u tt h e r eh a v e b een o t he rm echan i sm s a tw o rk a sw e l l ( s ee c hap te r7 ) .

e v en t h ough t h ey a s ag r oup c on s i s t o f s e ve ra l d i f f e r en t c l an s , t h e Maga r s a r e e ga l i ta r ian ( B i s ta 1 980 :63 -65 , G au tam 1 994 :22 -27 ) . T he p r ef e r r ed m a r r iag e i sb e tw een a m an a nd h i s m o the r 's b ro the r 's d augh te r ( ma te rna l c r o s s c ou s in m a r r iage ) . O r ig ina l ly , t h e Maga r s w e r e a n im i s t s a nd l a t e r B uddh i s t s , b u t g ene r a l ly t h ey h ave b een i n f luenced b y H indu i sm a nd B rahman i sm t h rough a ge s ( H i t chcook 1 966 :20 , G au tam 1 994 :34 ) . T he s ame s i tua t ion a ppea r s i nt h e B ag lung a nd Myagd i d i s t r ic t s i nv i l lag e s w he r e t h e Maga r s a r e i ng r ea t m a jo r i ty . T he Maga r sh ave m o r e o rl e s st h e s ame l i f e c y c le r i t ua l s a s o t he r H indu s , b u t w i th d i f f e r en t c on ten t s . F u r the rmo r e , t h e r e a r e g r ea t l o ca l v a r ia t ion s i nc on ten t a nd e l abo r a t ion o f t h e r i t ua l s a nd c e r emon ie s a mong t h e Maga r s t h em se lve s ( e .g . S hepa rd 1 982 , D haka l 1 994 , K ha t t r i 1 995 , G u rung 1 996 ) . H indu i sm a nd B uddh i sm s h a r e m any r e l ig iou s c oncep t s , b u t i tw ou ld b e w rong t o c on c lude t h a t t h e t wo r e l ig ion s a r e r e a l ly o ne , a nd t h e c oex i s tence i sn o t a lway s a s p ea cef u l a nd h a rmon ic a s p r e sen t ed ( Ge l lne r 1 994 [ 1992 ] :89 ) , " t he d eg ree t o w h ich H indu w ay s o ft h ink ing p r edom ina t e o ve r B uddh i s t v a r ie s f r om i n d iv idua l t o i n d iv idua l , a s w e l l a s a cco rd ing t o c on t ex t " ( i b id :85 ) . A l though t h e r e a r e s t i l l s ome r ema in s o f a n c ien t B uddh i s t f e a tu r e s a mong t h e Maga r s i n m y r e sea r ch a r ea , t h e m a in c u l tu ra l a nd r e l ig iou s p a t t er n s r e f lec t at h o rough H indu o r ien ta t ion .

T he t e rm " B r ahman" i sb o th ac oncep tua l c a tego ry a nd a n e t hn ic g r oup ( Da s 1 977 :6 ) . T he B rahman s r a nk h i ghe s t i n t h e c a s t e h i e r a r chy , a nd a r e n o rma l ly p e r ce ived a s t h e g r oup t o g e th e r w i th C hhe t r i s b y w h ich t h e c a s te s y s t em i s i n t roduc ed t o N epa l . A cco rd ing t o B i s ta , t h e B rahman s m ig ra ted t ot h e w e s te rn h i l l s o fN epa l f r om I n d ia f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e d u r ing t h e t we lf th c en tu ry w hen t h ey w e r e d i s lodg ed b y t h e Mu s l im i n vade r s ( B i s ta 1 980 :2 ) . T rad i t iona l ly t h e B rahman s a r e p e r ce ived a s t h e l e ad ing g r oup i nt e rm s o f e conomy , e duca t ion a nd a dm i s s ion t o p o l i t ica l p o s i t ion s a s w e l l a s t h e l e ad ing i d eo log i s t s w ho d om ina t e t h e H indu r e l ig ion . P a r t o f t h i s e xp lana t ion i s p robab ly d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e H indu p r ie s t s a r e o n ly a lowed t oc ome f r om t h e B r ahman c a s t e . T hu s t h e p r ie s t s a r e l i t e r a t e a nd e a rn m oney b y p e rf o rm ing r e l ig iou s s e rv i ce s t oo t he r H indu s . N eve r the le s s , t h e g r ea t m a jo r i ty o f t h e B rahman s i n t h e v i l lage s a r e l i k e m o s t N epa le se i l i te ra t ea nd p oo rf a rme r s .

Iw i l l f i na l ly m ake s ome c onc lud ing r ema rk s o n t h e e t hn ic i ty o fB rahman sa nd Maga r s : ( 1 ) U s a nd t h em . E thn ic c l a s s if i ca t ion i mp l ie s s t e r eo type s l i k e u s a nd t h em , a nd t h e se m ay b e i mpo sed f r om t h e o u t s ide , b y d om inan t g roup s , o n t h o se w ho t h em se lve s d o n o t w an t m embe r sh ip i n t h e g r oup t o w h ich t h ey a r e a s s igned ( E r ik sen 1 993b :33 ) . D ef in i t ion s o fw hom b e long s t ow h ich e t hn ic g roup ,f a t o rv a rna , d epend u pon ac ho ice o fi n t er n a l o r e x t er na l v i ew s . E spe c ia l ly a s ar e su l t o ft h e c a s te s y s t em , i n d iv idua l s a nd g r oup s m ay d ef ine t h em se lve s i n d i f f e r en t t e rm s t h an o t he r p eop le d o . E x t er na l d ef in i t ion s a r e e mbedded w i th in s o c ia l r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween e t hn ic g roup s , a nd t h u s e x te rna l g r oup s m ay h ave p o s s ib i l i t ie s t o d ef ine o t he r s a s g r oup s e i th e r b y p owe r t o o r a u tho r i ty r e la t ion s ( J enk in s 1 994 :199 ) . I n t h e c a se o f t h e H indu s , t h e se e x ter n a l c a t ego r ie s a r e p roduced b y p eop le w ho h ave t h e l e g i t ima t e a u tho r i ty b y v i r tue o ft h e i rs upe r io rr i t ua l s t a tu s ( i b id :2 17 ) , a sw i th t h eB rahman s ' n o t ion o ft h ec a s t es y s tem .

E ven t h oug h t h e B rahman s r e p r e sen t av a rna a nd a r e c once iv ed a s a n e t hn ic g r oup , t h e r e i s ag r ea t v a r ie ty a mong t h e B r ahman s t h em se lve s , a nd d i f f e ren t B r ahman s a r e a l so r a nk ed i n ah i e ra r chy o fp u r i ty a nd p o l lu t ion . T hu s t h e p r e s c r ib ed r u le s o fp u r i ty a r en o to n ly w o rk ing b e tween t h e v a rna s , b u t a l so w i th in t h e B rahman v a rna ( Ra j 1 996 :15 ) . T he m o r ep u re aB rahman i so rw an t st ob ecome , t h e m o r e r e gu la t ion s a nd r e s t r i c t ion s t h e p e r son h a s t o s ubm i t t o r e ga rd ing c on sump t ion o f f o od a nd r i tua l p a r t ic ipa t ion . S ome B rahman s a r e n o t a low ed t oe a t a ny k i nd o fm ea ta nd a l so h ave r e s t r ic t ion so nv ege tab le s ,w h i le o t he r s c a n a tl e a s t e a t g oa t s a nd r oo s t e r s . A cco rd ing t ot h e l e ve l o f r i t ua l p u r i ty , B rahman s u sua l ly m a r ry monogamou s ly e ven t h ough p o lygamy i sf r equen t ly f o und . C ro s s cou s in m a r r iage i sp roh ib i ted . N owaday s an ew t y pe o f B r ahman i d en t i ty i s c r ea t ed i n u r ban a r ea s , l e s s c oncer n ed w i th r i tua l p u r i ty a nd d i s r ega rd ing a l o t o f r i tua l s , b u t m a r r iage w i th in t h e c a s te i st o al a rg e e x ten t m a in ta in ed ( G len ton 1 994 : 126 127 ) .

Iw i l l m en t ion t h r ee p rob lem s w i th t h e c a s t e h i e ra r chy a sa f r amewo rk f o r a s s ign ing e t hn ic m embe r sh ip . F i r s t ly , i n te rma r r iage s b e tw een c a s t e s . A cco rd ing t o t h e i d ea s o f p u r i ty , ah i gh c a s te p e r son c hange sc a s t et ot h e l owe rs t a tu s o f t h e s pou se , t h e r eby b ecom ing i mpu r e f o r h i s o r h e r o r ig ina l c a s te . T h i s i sn o rma l ly w ha t h appen s , b u t i nr a r e o cca s ion s i td oe s n o t , a nd t h e o ppo s i t e m igh t h app en . S econd ly , t h e i n te rna l h i e ra r chy a mong t h e B rahman s . A l though B rahman s t h em se lve s h ave t h e i r o wn h i e ra r chy o fp u r i ty , b y w h ich w a t e r a nd f o od f r om c e r ta in B rahman s a r e n o t a c cep tab le t o o t he r s , t h e r ema in ing c a s te s a r e n o t r e a l ly c on cer n ed w i th t h i s b ecau se t h ey a r e a l l l owe r t h en t h e B rahman s a cco rd ing t o t h e l a t te r g roup . T h i rd ly , t h e l a rg e g r oup s o fT ibe to -Bu rman s p eak ing p eop le ; a l though

T he M ag a r s a r e r a nked a s Ma twa l i s i n t h e H indu c a s te s y s tem .A c co rd ing t oo r a l l e g end sa nd t r ad i t ion s ,t h e Maga r t r ibe i so n eo ft h e e l de s tt r ibe s i nN epa l . T he o r ig ina l h ome w a s c a l l ed B a ra Maga ran t , w h ich m ean s " The t w e lve r e g ion s o ft h e Maga r s" . A lbe i tt h ey a r e ap a r to ft h e H indu c a s te s y s t em b ecau se o fl a t e r m ig ra t ion s o fB rahman s , a nd 1 5

( 3 ) E thn ic d i cho tom ie s . A cco rd ing t o B a r th , t h e c u l tu ra l c on ten t s o fe t hn ic d i cho tom ie s a r e o ft wo o rde r s : ( a ) o ve r t s i gna l s -t h e d i a c r i t ica l f e a tu re s t h a t p eop le l o ok f o r a nd e xh ib i t t os h ow i d en t i ty , a nd ( b ) b a s ic v a lue o r ien ta t ion s : t h e s t anda rd s o f m o r a l i ty a nd e x ce l lence b y w h ich p e rf o rman ce i sj udg ed ( Ba r th 1 9 69 :14 ) . E thn ic i ty m ay e i the rh ave am a t e r ia l e xp r e s s ion o rn o t . T ow ha te x t en ta r e t h e f u ne r a l s u s ed a s e t hn ic m a rk e r s? I mp l ic i t i s a n a s sump t ion t h a t e t hn ic m a rke r s i n t h e c u l t u r e i mp ly s im i la r i t ie s i nt h e a c tua l a nd r e spe c t iv e r ema in s . A l though t h e r i tua l s a nd t h e p e r f o rmance s a r e s im i la r a nd m ay r e p r e sen t b a s ic v a lue o r ien ta t ion s , i ti sn o t n ece s sa ry t h a t t h e r ema in s a r e e qua l . T he p rob lem i st h en t h e i n t e rp r e te r 's a t t i tude t ow ha t s im i la r i t ie s a nd d if e r en ce s i nt h e r ema in s r e p r e sen t . Wh en c u l tu r a l d if e r en ce s mak e s o c ia l d if e r ence s e t hn ic i ty o c cu r s , b u tw h ich c oncep tua l i sa t ion o f e t hn ic i ty i st h e m o s t u s ef u l i nc ompa r i son ( E r ik sen 1 996 )? I n t h i s r e ga rd , a r cha eo log i s t s h av e s e t a s ide a c r uc ia l p rob lem ; t h e m ed ium o f e t hn i c d i f f e ren t ia t ion a nd d i cho tom iz a t ion i s n o t n ece s sa r i ly t h e m e s sag e . E thn ic s i gn if ie r s m ay c h ange d ue t o c hang e s i n c on t ex t ; t h i s i n d ica te s t h a t t h e e t hn i c s i gn if ie r s t h em se lve s a r e a r b i t ra ry ( E r ik sen 1 99 1 :129 ) . I no t he r w o rd s , a r tef ac t s m ay i n d ica te e t hn ic i ty i no ne c on t ex t , b u t n o t i no t he r s ; t h e m ean ing h a s c hang ed ( e .g . S w t e r sda l 1 995 :120 12 1) . T hu s e t hn ic i ty i s n o t c onnec t ed t ot h e i t em s t h em se lve s b u tt ot h e c on t ex t i n w h ich t h e a r tef a c t s a r e e mbedded a nd o ccu r . I nt h i s r e ga rd i ti sa nu nde r ly ing a im t os e e i ft h em o r tua ry r ema in sm igh t r ef l ec t e t hn i c i ty , a nd i fn o t , h ow i ti sp o s s ib le t od ea l w i th v a r ia t ion .

i n f luen ced b y H indu i sm , al a rge n umbe r a r e s t i l l e i the r B uddh i s t s o r h a s m a in ta ined B uddh i s t ic o r a n im i s t ic f e a tu re s . S ome Maga r s e a t m ea t f r om b u l l ( i . e . l ow c a s t e b ehav iou r ) , b u t t h e B rahman s c anno t t r ea t t h em a s l ow c a s te i ft h e Maga r s a r e i na n o v e rwhe lm ing m a jo r i ty i nt h e v i l lage s . A lbe i t N epa l i sd ec la r ed i n i t s c on s t i tu t ion a s a H indu k i ngdom , i tm igh t b e p e r ce ived a sa n o pp r e s s ion t o c l a s s if y t h e T ibe to -Bu rman g r oup s i n H indu c a s te t e rm ino logy . ( 2 ) N a tu ra l d i f f e rence s ? Ih ave g i v en l o o se d ef in i t ion s o f B rahman sa nd Maga r sb ecau se Id on o tw an tm yc a tego r ie s t oe x c lud e p eop le f r om t h e i r g r oup . T hu s Ih ave c omb ined b o th a n i n t e rna l a nd e x t e rna l v i ew . I nt h e s i ng le v i l lag et h i s i sn o t am a jo r p rob lem . I ta r i se s w hen Ic ompa r e d i f f e r en t v i l lag e sw i th p eop le t e rmed a sb e long ing t ot h es ame e t hn ic g r oup s . E ven t h ough Maga r s k now t h a t n e ighbou r ing Maga r s h ave d if e r en tt r ad i t ion s a nd v a lue s , a nd e mpha s iz e o t he r f e a tu r e s i ne t hn ic c l a s s if y ing , t h ey a cknow ledge e a ch o t he r a se qua l Maga r s a nd t h e r e la t ion sh ip i sp e r ce ived a s u np rob lema t ic ( Ry s tad 1 996b ) . T he p rob lem i sw ha t t h e d i f f e r en ce s t h en r ef l ec t ? B a r th 's a pp roa ch t o e t hn ic i ty i s a h i s to r ica l b ecau se h e p r e sen t ed a g ene ra l m ode l f o r u nde r s tand ing e t hn ic i ty , a nd i fw e i n co rpo ra te t h e s o c ia l a nd h i s to r ica l c i r cum s tan ce s i nt h e l o ca l c u l tu ra l h i s to r ica l c on tex t i n w h ich t h e e t hn ic c onf igu ra t ion s h ave b een d eve loped ( E r ik sen 1 99 1 :128 129 ) , s ome o f t h e c on t rad ic t ion s a nd t h e a mb iva len ce i n t h e m o r tua ry r ema in s m igh t b e s e en a s r e su l t s o f d if e r en t h i s to r ica l p roce s se s .

1 6

Chap ter 5 :L if e Cyc le R i tua l s R i tes d eP a s sage

H indu ism

A rno ld v an G ennep ( 1 960 [ 1909 ] ) w a s t h e f i r s t t os e pa ra te r i te s d e p a s sage a s a s pec ia l c a tego ry o f r i tua l s , " ce remon i e s w ho se e s sen t ia l p u rpo s e i s t o e nab le t h e i n d iv idua l t op a s s f r om o ne d ef ined p o s i t ion t o a no the r w h ich i se q ua l ly w e l l d ef ined" ( Gennep 1 960 :2 ) . T he se r i t e s a r e n o rma l ly c onnec ted t o c hange s , t r an s i t ion s a nd o cca s ion s a s b i r th , i n i t ia t ion , m a r r iage a nd d ea th . v an G ennep s u bd iv ided t h e se r i tua l s i n to r i t e s o f s e pa ra t ion ( p re l i tn ina l r i t e s ) , r i t e s o ft r an s i t ion ( l im ina l r i t e s ) a nd r i t e s o f i n co rpo r a t ion ( po s t l im ina l r i t e s ) . A l though a r i te o f p a s sage t h eo r e t ica l ly i n c lude s a l t h e se t h r ee s t age s , s ome t im e s t h e p ha se s a r e n e i the r e qua l ly e l abo ra ted n o r e qua l ly i mpo r tan t( i b id :11) .

T hough t h e H indu l aw b ook s a nd t h e r e l ig iou s t e x t s p r e sc r ibe h ow t h e r i tua l s a r e t ob e p e r f o rmed , t h ey c anno t b e u s ed a s ad ogma . H indu i sm i n c lude s d i ve r s i ty . T h e r e l ig ion h a s n eve r i n s i s t ed o n t h e n ece s s i ty o fo ne s up r eme f i gu r e i nr e l ig iou s m a t te r s a nd h a s n eve r a g r eed o n c e r ta in a r t ic le s o f b e l ief s a s e s sen t ia l f o r a l H indu s ( K in s ley 1 993 [ 1982 ] :6 ) . T he r ef o r e , t h e r e a r e v a r ia t ion s i n t h e p e rf o rman ce o ft h e r i tua l s , e ven a mong t h e B rahman s , a nd t o ag r ea t e r e x t en t a mong t h e Maga r s . T he Maga r s h ave m o r e o r l e s s t h e s ame l i f e c yc le r i t ua l s a s t h e B rahman s , b u t t o s ome d eg r ee w i th a d i f f e r en t c on ten t . Iw i l l n eve r the le s s t r y t og ene ra te s ome g en e ra l p a t ter n s w i th in a H indu f r am ewo rk c once rn ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween l i f e c y c le r i t ua l s a nd b u r ia l c u s tom s . Af r u i tf u l a pp roach t ot h i s r i tua l p l u r a l i ty m igh t b e B ou rd ieu 's a na ly s i s o ft h e p r a c t ice o fr i t e s( Bou rd ieu 1 995a :18 ) :

V ic to r T u r ne rd eve loped f u r the rt h i sc oncep tua l f r amewo rk ( Tu rn e r 1 9 9 1[ 1967 ] , 1 995 [ 1969 ] ) . A l though r i te s d e p a s sag e a r e f o und i na l s o c ie t ie s , i nr e la t iv e ly s t ab le a nd c yc l ica l s o c ie t ie s t h e c hange s a r e d ependen t o n t h e b i o log i ca l r h y thm s ( Tur n e r 1 99 1 :93 ) . Wha t i su nc lea r i na s oc ie ty i su n c lean . T ran s i t iona l p e r son s a r e t h ough t t o b e p a r t icu la r ly p o l lu t ing s i nce t h ey a r e i n al i m ina l p ha se . T ran s i t ion i sd ange rou s , a nd i ti sc on t ro l led b y t h e r i tua l i d ea s c on ce rn ing p o l lu t ion a nd p u r if ica t ion ( Doug la s 1 994 [1966 ] :97 ) .

" R i t e s a r ep rac t ice s t h a t a r e e nd s i nt h em se lve s , t h a t a r e j u s t i f i ed b y t h e i r v e ry p e rf o rmanc e ; t h ing s t h a t o ne d oe s b ecau se t h ey a r e " t he d one t h ing" , " t he r i gh tt h ing t od o" , b u ta l so b ecau se o ne c anno td oo t he rw i se , w i thou tn eed ing t o k now w hy o rf o r w hom o ne d oe s t h em , o r w ha t t h ey m ean , s u ch a sa c to ff une ra lp ie ty . T h i s i sw ha tt h ew o rk o f i n te rp r e ta t ion , w h ich s e ek s t o r e s to r e t h e i r m ean ing , t o g ra sp t h e i rl o g ic , m ak e s o ne f o rge t : t h ey m ay h a ve , s t r ic t ly s peak ing , n e i the r m ean ing n o r f unc t ion , o t he r t h an t h e f unc t ion i mp l i ed i nt h e i r v e ry e x i s tenc e , a nd t h e m ean ing o b jec t i v e l y i n sc r ibed i nt h e l og ic o fa c t ion s o r w o rd s t h a t a re d one o rs a id i no rd e rt o " d o o rs ay s ome th ing" ( whe re t h e r e a r e " no th ing e l se t ob e d one ' 9 ,o rm o re p rec i se l y i n t h e g ene ra t i v e s t ruc tu re s o fw h ich t h e se w o rd s o r a c t ion s a re t h ep rod uc t , o r e ven i nt h e o r i en t ed s pace w i th in t h ey a re p e rf o rmed " .

T he r e a r ed i f f e r ence s b e tween s t a t ic a nd d ynam ic p o l lu t ion s i tua t ion s . T he s t a t ic p o l lu t ion n o t ion c on ce rn s s t a te sw h ich a r e a mb iguou s ly d ef ined , w h i le t h e d ynam ic p o l lu t ion n o t ion d e r iv e s f r om r i t ua l i sed t r an s i t ion s b e tween s t a te s ( Tu rne r 1 9 9 1 :97 ) . T he p o l lu t ion b e l ief s a r e r e la t ed t ot h e c u l tu re ' s m o ra l v a lue s , t h ey r e inf o r ce t h e c u l tu ra l a nd s oc ia l s t r u c tu r e b u t a l so r e duce t h e a mb igu i ty i nt h e m o ra l s phe re . T hu s a r e t h e r i te s d ep a s sag e n o t p u r if i ca to ry b u t p rophy la c t ic . T hey d o n o t r e def ine o rr e s to r e al o s t f o rme r s t a tu s o rp u r if y f r om t h e e f f ec t o fc on tam ina t ion , b u t t h ey d ef ine e n t ran ce t o an ew s t a tu s ( Doug la s 1 993 [ 1975 ] :54 5 6 ) .

F rom t h i sp o in to fv i ew i ti sn o tt oa n t ic ipa t et h a tt h e s o c ia l r e a l i ty w i l l t o ta l ly t a l ly w i th a r e c ip roca l ly , c ohe r en t h o l i s t ic m ode l , a l though i n c e r ta in r e spec t s i t w i l l . N eve r th e le s s , t h e s ame p a t ter n s a ppea r a mong t h e Maga r s a s t h e B r ahman s , a l though t h e Maga r s g i ve t h em a no the r c on t en t . Ap r a c t ica l u nde r s tand ing o f ag ene ra l e qu iva lence o f ar e la t ion b e tween l i f e c yc le r i tua l s a nd b u r ia l c u s tom s , m ay j u s t if y u s ing B rahman i sm a s aH indu f r amewo rk f o r l i f e c y c l e r i t ua l s . I nt h i s r e g a rd , Iw i l l u s e t h e B rahman s a s t h ep o in to fd epa r tu r e , a nd s t a r tw i th s ome b r ief r ema rk s o n H indu i sm .

B ou rd i eu , o n t h e c on t ra ry , p r ef e r s t h e t e rm r i te s d ' i n s t i tu t ion r a the r t h an r i te s d ep a s sage . H e e mpha s iz e s t h e d i s t inc t ion s b e tw een t h e s t ag e s r a the r t h an t h en t h e d ocum en ta t ion o f t h e r i tua l s . T he i mpo r tance i s t h e e s tab l i shmen t o fn ew s o c ia l r o le s a nd t h e i r f u nc t ion i nt h e s oc ie ty . T he c r uc ia l p o in t i s t h e d i f f e r en ce a nd t h e s epa ra t ion b e tween t h o se w ho h av e u nde rgone t h e r i tua l s f r om t h o s e w ho h av e n o t , b ecau se i tc r ea te s ah i e ra r chy o f l e g i t ima t e d i s t inc t ion s a nd s o c ia l p r a c t ice s ( Bou rd ieu 1 996 :27 -28 ) . Iw i l l c omb ine b o th t h e se t wo a pp roa che s , b ecau s e i ti st h e p e r son 's a ch iev ed s t a tu s i nh i s l i f e t ime w h ich i sm an if e s ted i nt h e mo r tua r y r ema in s . T hu s Ih ave e mpha s iz ed t h e i n d iv idua l 's a ch ieved s t a t u s t h rough t h e l i f e c y c l e r i t ua l s . T he se s t a tu s d i f f e r ence s a r e e xp r e s sed i n t h e f u n e ra l r i tua l s a nd t h e r eby i n t h e a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l .

I nt h eH indu T r iad o fG od sB rahman i st h eC r ea to r ,V i shnu t h e P r e s e rv e r a nd S h iva t h e D e s t roye r . H oweve r , S h iva i s a l so t h e R e c r ea to r , w o r sh ipped a st h e g od o fr e p roduc t ion , s ymbo l iz ed w i th a l i ngam , a p ha l lu s . T he r e l ig iou s c oncep t s o f p u r i ty a nd p o l lu t ion a r e f u ndamen ta l i n H indu i sm . O ne c en t ra l c oncep tua l o ppo s i t ion i ss am sa ra a nd m uk t i , t h e p henomena l w o r ld a nd r e lea se o r s a lva t ion r e spec t iv e ly . S am sa ra i s" t he r ound o f b i r th a nd d ea th " , a nd i tw o rk s a c co rd ing t o k a rma , t h e l aw o fm o ra l c au se 1 7

T he G a rud a P u rana s , h ow eve r , a r e u s ed b y t h e B r ahman p r ie s t s d u r ing t h e f u ne r a l c e remon ie s , a nd t h e p e r f o rmance a nd t h e m ean ing o f t h e d ea th r i t e s a r e d e s c r ibed c omp lemen ta ry .

a nd e f f ec t , w he reby p eop le 's a c t ion s a r e r e pa id t h rough t h e i r o w n s u f f e r ing . T he f i na l g oa l i s m uk t i , r e lea se , s a lva t ion f r om s am sa ra i n to t r an s cenden t r e a l i ty ( Benne t t 1 983 :36 -37 ) . I t i n d ica te s t h e r h y thm s o f t h e c o smo s b ecau se t h e se r hy thm s a r e r e ve la t ion s a nd m an if e s ta t ion s o f t h e f u ndamen ta l s a c r ed p ow e r s b eh ind t h e c o smo s ( E l iade 1 993 [ 1958 ] :388 ) . A s ce t ic v a lue s p ene t ra te t h e r e l ig ion a s r u le s o f p u r i ty a nd p o l lu t ion . E spec ia l ly t h e o rgan ic p roce s se s ; e a t ing , u r ina t ion , d ef eca t ion , c opu la t ion , m en s t rua t ion , b i r th a nd d ea th , a r e a l p e r ce ived a s p o l lu t ing . T h rough r i tua l s t h e i n d iv idua l s t r y t os t ay p u r e , w h ich i sn ece s sa ry f o rr e lea se ( Benn e t t 1 983 :40 -4 1) .

R ega rd ing t h e m ean ing o f o b jec t s a nd r i tua l s , i fm y i n f o rman t s k new a ny th ing a bou t t h i s , t h ey o f t en r e f e r r ed t o t h e h o ly s c r ip tu r e s ( e ven i ft h ey c ou ld n o t r e ad t h e t e x t s t h em se lve s )o rt h ey r e ad a nd q uo ted f r om t h e S an sk r i tt e x t s b ecau se t h ey w an t ed t ot e l lm e t h e" t ru th " a nd t h e s t o ry " a s i ti s " . T he r e h ave b een s om e c hange s a n d l o ca l a dap ta t ion s b o th r e ga rd ing m ean ing a nd c on ten t , s t i l l , many o f t h e i d ea s p r eva i l . E ven t h e b e s t i n f o rman t sm igh t n o tk now t h e m ean ing o ft h e t e x t s h e p r e sen t s a l though h e c ou ld b e a n e xce l len t p e rf o rme r . T he m ean ing m ay b e h i dden f r om t h e i n f o rman t b ecau se i ti sb u r ied i n at r ad i t ion , a nd t ou n rave l ah i dden m ean ing i n vo lv e s a n a r cha eo log ica l t h ru s t : a n i n ve s t iga t ion i n to t h ep a s t( Obeye seke r e 1 990 :221-222 ) .

T he r e a r e al o t o fs ymbo l ic p u r if y ing a c t iv i t ie s . E spec ia l ly t h e a s ce t ic a c t ion s o f f a s t ing , s e xua l a b s t inence , v ow s o f s i len ce a nd g i v ing o f r i tua l g i f t s , g i ve m e r i t a nd p u r if i ca t ion . S i nce a lmo s t e ve ry th ing i s r a nked i n a c oncep tua l h i e ra r chy o f p u r i ty a nd p o l lu t ion , s ome e l emen t s h ave a c t ive p u r if y ing p owe r s , e . g . f i r e , w a t e r , g o ld a nd t h e f i ve p roduc t s o ft h e c ow ( m i lk , c u rd , c l a r if i ed b u t te r ,d ung a nd u r ine )( i b id :43 ) .

T hu s , i nm yo p in ion , i ti sp o s s ib le t ou s et h e h o ly t e x t sa sa s ou r ce a s l o ng a s t h ey a r e u s ed i nt h e r i t ua l s a nd c ohe r e w i th t h e i n f o rma t ion Ih av eg o t , e i the rb yt h e i n f o rman t s o r b y o b se rva t ion s . H oweve r , i tg i ve s r i se t oa no the rp r ob lem t h a t Iw i l l d i scu s s i nc hap t e r7 ;t ow ha te x ten t a r e t h e i d ea s o fB rahman i sm r e p r e sen ta t iv eo ft h ec ommon p eop le ?

I nt h e c l a s s ica l We s te rn p h i lo sophy e ve ry th ing c on s i s t s o f f o u r e l emen t s ( Lund , P i h l a nd S i nk 1 992 [ 1962 ] :70 ) . I nt h e H indu p h i lo sophy t h e r e i s f i v e e l emen t s , i . e . s ky ( i n B hagavad -G i ta t h et e rm " e the r " i su s ed , a nd " spa ce" i sa l so u sed ( Ramanu jan 1 973 : 173 ) ) , a i r , l i gh t , w a te ra nd e a r th . I n e ach o ft h e f i ve e l emen t s d we l l s ag od . S h i va d we l l s i nt h e s ky ( o re t he r ) , V i snu i nt h e a i r ,A gn ii nt h e l i gh t , V a runa i n t h e w a t e ra nd B rahma i nt h e e a r th .A gn ii st h eG od o fF i r e , a nd a ppea r s i nt h r ee p ha se s -i nh eav en a st h e s un , i nm id a i r a s t h e l i gh t en ing , o n E a r th a s o r d ina ry f i r e . H e i s c on s ide r ed a st h e m ed ia to r b e tw een m en a nd g od s a nd t h e p ro tec to ro fm en a nd t h e i rh ome s ( Dow son 1 995 [ 1982 ] :6 ) . V a runa p e r son if i e s t h e G od o f Wa t e r . I ti s" one o f t h e o l de s t o f t h e V ed ic d e i t ie s , ap e r son if i ca t ion o f t h e a l i n ve s t ing s ky , t h em ake ra nd u pho ld e ro fh eaven a nd e a r th . A s s u ch h e i st h e k i ng o ft h e u n iv e r se , k i ng o fg od s a nd m en , p o s se s so r o f i l im i tab le k now ledg e , t h e s up r eme d e i ty " ( i b id :336 ) . H oweve r , i nl a t e r t i me s h e h a s b ecome t h e g od o ft h e s e a s a nd t h e r i ve r s ( i b id . ) . I nt h i s f o rm h e d e s t roy s a l t h e d emon s o f t h e u nde rwa te r w o r ld ( Cha t te r jee 1 996 :21) . When ap e r son d i e s , e a ch o ft h e f i ve e l emen t s g oe s b a ck t o i t s o r ig in , w he the r t h e b ody i s b u rned o rb u r ied , b u t i th appen s i n ad if e r en t o rde r . " On a ccoun t o fd if e r ence b e ing s hown i nd eep s l eep a nd d ea th ( b e tw een t h e i n d iv idua l s ou l a nd t h e B rahman )" ( B rahma S u t ra s 1 . 3 .43 ) . T h i s i s t h e d oc t r ine t h a t t h e b ody c o r re spond s t oa nd e ven i si d en t ica l w i th t h e u n ive r se . T he b ody a s ab e ing i s am ic roco sm a nd t h u s e ncompa s se s t h e w o r ld , t h e m a c roco sm a nd t h e g od s i n p a r t icu la r w ay s ( Goud r iaan 1 979 :57 -58 ) .

T he H indu L if e C y c le R i tua ls " A s t h e e mbod ied s ou l c on t inuou s ly p a s s e s , i nt h i s b ody , f r om b oyhood t oy ou th t oo l da ge , t h e s o u ls im i la r ly p a s se s i n to a no the r b ody a t d ea th . A s ob e r p e r son i s n o t b ew i lde r ed b y s u ch a c han ce" ( Bhagavad -G i ta 2 . 13 ) . H indu i sm m ake s ad i s t inc t ion b e tween d ome s t ic r i tua l sa nd p ub l ic r i tua l s . T h e d ome s t ic r i tua l s a r e r i t ua l s p e rf o rm ed a t t h e o cca s ion o f b i r th , i n i t ia t ion , m a r r iage , a nd t h e p rop i t ia t ion o fa n ce s to r s ( Da s 1 977 :8 ) . T he se r i tua l s a r e a p a r to ft h e l i f ec y c le r i t ua l s i nH indu i sm . T he B rahman s( o r t h e H indu s i n g ene ra l ) h ave f i ve m a in o r o r thodox l i f e c yc le r i tua l s( s am ska ra s ) : ( 1 ) B ir th . Iw i l l i n c lude t h e p r e -na ta l s am ska ra s i nt h i s c a tego ry . T h ep r e -na ta l r i t ua l sc on s i s to f( 1 )t h e c on cep t ion r i t e b y t h e p e r f o rman ce o fw h ich aw oman r e ce ive s s emen s c a t te r ed b y h e r h u sband , a nd ( 2 ) t h e q u i ck en ing am a le c h i ld r i t e b y w h ich m a l e c h i ld i s p r oduced ( Pandey 1 969 :48 -69 ) . Among t h e b i r th c e remon i e s i sn wa ran , t h e n ame -g iv ing c e r emony , t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t , b ecau se " name i st h e p r ima ry m ean s o fs o c ia l i n te r cou r s e , i tb r ing s a bou t m e r i t a nd i ti st h e r o o t o ff o r tune . F rom n ame man a ta in s f ame . T he r ef o r e , t h e n am ing c e r emony i s v e ry p r a i sewo r thy " ( i b id :78 ) . T he n ame -g iv ing c e remony i s p e r f o rmed o n t h e e l even th d ay , a f t e r t h e mo the r h a s c omp le ted h e rb i r th p o l lu t ion . T he f am i ly ' sp r ie s t , ap and i t , w i l l g i ve t h e b aby a n am e a c co rd ing t ot h e a s t ro log i ca l c a lenda r w he r ea s t h e c h i ld 's f a the r g i ve s h i s t ha r ( c lan o r s u rname ) a nd g o t ra ( c lan a sa n e xogamou s a gna t ic u n i t )t o t h e c h i ld a nd t h e r eby a c cep t s i ti n to t h e f am i ly 's c a s t e a nd p a t r i l ine . W i th t h i s c e r emony , w he re t h e c h i ld i s am embe r o fi t sf a the r 's p a t r i l ine ,t h ec h i ld 's e n t ry i n to t h e r eb i r th h a s b egun ( Benne t t 1 9 83 :55 -56 ) . T he Maga r s , h oweve r , m ay

E ven t h ough Is a id t h a tt h e H indu s c r ip tu r e sc anno tb eu sed a s ad ogma , Iw i l l u s e a nd r e f e r t os om e o ft h e S an sk r i t t e x t s a s e xp lana t ion s o f t h e l i f e c y c le r i tua l s a nd t h e o b sequ ie s . I nH indu i sm , t h e m anua l o ft h e l i f e c yc le r i tua l s i sk nown a st h e G r ihya S u t ra s , t h er u l e s o fV ed ic d ome s t ic c e remon ie s . I n H indu i sm t h e r e a r e n o b ook s l i ke T he T i be tan B ook o ft h eD ead , ab ook o fl i be ra t ion t h rough a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e i nb e tween ." The i nb e tween" r e f e r st o t h e w ho le p roce s s b e tween d ea th a nd r e b i r th , a nd t h u s t h e b ook i sa l so " The T ibe tan B ook o fB i r th" ( Thu rman 1 994 ) . 1 8

h ave l e s s d ay s o fb i r th p o l lu t ion , a nd n o t a l u s e B rahman p r ie s t si nt h ec e r emony .

t h a t o f aK sa t r iya i nt h e e l even th y ea ra nd t h a to f aV a i shya i n t h e t w e lf t h y ea r o r a c co rd ing t o s ome , a s i s t h e c onven t ion i n t h e f am i ly " ( Ga ruda P u rana I , 1 . 94 .1 , G obh i la -G r ihya -Su t ra , I P rapa thaka , 1 0 K and ika , 1 4 ) . " Un t i l t h e s i x teen th y ea r t h e t ime h a s n o t p a s sed f o r a B rahmana , u n t i l t h e t wen ty second f o r aK sha t r iya , u n t i l t h e t w en ty -f ou r th f o r aV a i shya . Af t e r t h a t t i me ( h a s p a s sed ) , t h ey b ecome p a t i ta sa v i t r ika ( i . e . t h ey h ave l o s t t h e i rr i gh to fb e ing t a ugh tt h eS a r v i t r i( t he h o ly v e r se so ft h e V eda s ) ) . L e t t h em n o t i n i t ia t e s u ch m en , n o r t e a ch t h em , n o r p e rf o rm s a c r if i ce s f o r t h em , n o r f o rm m a t r imon ia l a l iance s w i th t h em" ( Gobh i la -G r ihya -Su t ra , IP rapa thaka , 1 0K and ika ,5 -6 ) .

( 2 ) P asne , t h e f i r s t r i ce c e r emony . T he r i ce f e ed ing c e remony i st h e r i t e w he r e t h e c h i ld r e ce ive s i t s f i r s t r i ce m ea l . T h i s i sa l so t h e f i r s t m ea l o f s o l id f o od . B y t h i s c e r emony t h ec h i ld h a se n te r ed t h ew o r ld o fr i ce , a nd a st h e c ooked r i ce i se x t r em e ly v u lne rab le f o r t r an sm i s s ion o f p o l lu t ion , t h e c h i ld h a s t h u s e n t e r ed t h e s phe r e o fp u r i ty a nd p o l lu t ion . T he r i t ua l i sp e rf o rm ed a tt h e a g e o f f i ve m on th s f o r g i r l s a nd s i x m on th f o r b oy s , a ta n a u sp ic iou s d ay a nd h ou r a ppo in t ed b y ap r ie s t o r a n a s t ro loge r . A cco rd ing t oL ynn B enn e t t , f ema le s a r e u sua l ly c onnec t ed w i th o dd n umbe r s a nd m a le s w i th e v en n umbe r s i nH indu s ymbo l i sm ( i b id :120 ) , h ow eve r , m y i mp re s s ion i s t h e o ppo s i te , n am e ly t h a t m a le s a r e c onnec ted w i th o dd n umbe r s( s ee c hap te r6 ) . A nyhow , m en a r eu sua l ly s upe r io r t ow om en a nd b oy s a r es u pe r io rt og i r l s . T h i s d om inan ce i s e xp r e s sed i nt h e t wo n ex t l i f e c yc le r i tua l s , a nd a l so i nt h e G r ihya -Su t ra s . Why g i r l s u nde rgo p a sne b ef o r e b oy s i s u ncer ta in , a nd t h e S an sk r i t t e x t s g i ve n o e xp lana t ion s . Among s ome o ft h e Maga r s , t h ey a l so u se m ea t a s ap a r to f t h e m ea l . A c co rd ing t ot h e G r ihya -Su t ra w h ich p r e sc r ibe s t h e r i te , d if e r en t f o od i t em s a r e c onnec t ed w i th d i f f e r en t q ua l i t ie si nl i f e . T he b oy s hou ld b ef e dw i th " goa t 's f l e sh i f h e i sd e s i rou so fn ou r i shmen t , f l e sh o fp a r t r idge i fd e s i rou s o fh o ly l u s t r e , f i sh i fd e s i rou s o fs w if tne s s , b o i led r i ce w i th g hee i fd e s i rou s o fs p lendou r -( s uch ) f ood p r epa r ed w i th m i lk c u rd s , h oney , a nd g hee , h e s hou ld g i ve ( t o t h e c h i ld ) t oe a t" a nd " l e t t h e m o the r e a t t h e r emnan t" ( Sankhayana G r ihya -Su t r a , IA dhyana , 2 7 K handa , 2 11) . T he b oy s h a l l r e ce ive t h e f o od w i th t h e Man t ra ( h o ly v e r se ) : " Lo rd o f f o od , g i v e u s f ood p a in le s s a nd s t rong ; b r ing f o rwa rd t h e g i ve r ; b e s tow p owe r o n u s , o n m en a nd a n ima l s " ( i b id ) , w he r ea s w i th t h e r i t e o n ly ( w i thou t t h e Man t ra ) f o r ag i r l ( A sva layana -G r ihya -Su t ra , IA dhyaya , 1 6K hand ika , 5 6 ) .

A lbe i tt h e r e a r e s ome d i f f e r ence s i nt h e r e la t ion t ot h eh o ly s c r ip tu r e s , t h e m ean ing o ft h e c on ten t i ss t i l lt h e s ame . T he f i r s t t h r ee o f t h e se r i t e s a r e d i r ec ted t owa rd s t h e c h i ld 's a ch iev ing f u l l r e spon s ib i l i t ie s o f a c t ion a nd r i tua l p u r i ty , k a rma c a l eko , t og e t " a c t iva ted k a rma " , b r ing ing t h e c h i ld i n to s am sa ra ( Benn e t t 1 983 :53 ) . I n t h e w o rd o fJ ohn N . G ray ( 1 995 ) , " t he s e cond b i r th i s ar e l ig iou s e ven t o ccu r r ing w h en a b oy r e a che s al e ve l o f m a tu r i ty t h a t e nab le s h im t o" unde r s tand t h e V eda s" -a r ound t h e a ge o f e i gh t f o r B ra lunan s a nd t we lve f o r C hhe t r i s . B ecau se h e i s a b le t o a pp r ec ia t e t h e s a c r ed t e x t s , t h e b oy 's a c t ion s b ecome m o r a l ly s i gn if i can t i nt h a tt h ey a f f ec th i s f u tu r e r e b i r th ( k a rma )" ( G ray 1 995 :32 ) . Af t e r t h i s c e r emony t h e i n i t ia t ed h a s t o b ehave a c co rd ing t o t h e c a s te r u le s a nd p r e sc r ip t ion s . T he i mpo r tance o f r e ce iv ing t h e s a c r ed t h r ead i st ob ecome a n a du l t c apab le o fu nd e r s tand ing t h e V eda sa nd h ence " ma r ry a sb ef i t st h eH ou seho lde r . B e ing a H ou seho lde r , am an w ho c on summa te s h i s s o c ia l l i f e b y h av ing c h i ld r en w ho w i l l m ou rn h i s d ea th a nd c on t inue h i s l i neage a sw e l l a sf u lf i l l ing h i s r e spon s ib i l i t ie s t ot h e g od s t h rough t h e s pon so r sh ip a nd /o r p e rf o rman ce o f s a c r if i ce" ( i b id :34 ) . T h i sh a st ob et os e en i nt h er e a lm o fd ha rma ,t h e m o ra l a c t ion a nd r e l ig iou s d u ty , t h e d u ty o f t h e H ou seho lde r .

( 3 ) B ar tamande , t h e c e r emony o fi n i t ia t ion i n to c a s t e a nd p a t r i l in e . T h e b a r tamand e r i tua l i s o n ly f o r b oy s , a nd c on s i s t s o fs e ve ra l p a r t s . T he t wo m o s t i mpo r tan t r i t e s a r e t h e c hewa r r i t e ( t h e h a i r c u t t ing c e r emony ) a nd t h e u panayana r i t e ( t he i n v e s t i tu r e w i th t h e s a c r ed t h r ead ) . T he c hewa rr i t e i sd one b ya l v a rna o rf a tg roup s , w he r ea s t h e u panayana r i t e i so n ly f o rt h e B rahman s a nd C hhe t r i s . T he s pec if i c m ean ing o ft h e t o n su r e c e r emony i si n t e rp r e ted i n d i f f e r en t w ay s , a s ap r ocedu r e f o r g e t t ing r e lea se f r om s i n ( Pa r ry 1 9 94 :26 ) , a sc a s t ra t ion a nx ie ty t h rough s h av ing , t h e a c t b e ing a s ymbo l i c f o rm o f c a s t ra t ion ( Obey e sek e re 1 990 :43 ) o r a s am e tapho r n o t o n ly f o r p u r if ica t ion , b u t a l so d ea th , b ecau se t h e c h i ld m u s t d i e b ef o r e t h e a du l t c an b e b o rn ( L ea ch 1 976 :79 ) . Mo r eove r , at o n su r e c e r emony i s a l so p e r f o rm ed a st h e e n t rance t ot h e s on s ' d ea th p o l lu t ion i nt h em ou rn ing p e r iod .

T he Maga r s ( o rt h e Ma twa l i s ) i nN epa l a r e n o tt w ice -bo rn , a nd i n t h a t m anne r t h ey o n ly p e r f o rm t h e c hewa r c e r emony . I w i l l h encef o r th d i s t ingu i sh b e tween b a r tamand e ( B rahman s / t w ice -bor n ) a nd c hewa r ( Maga r s 1M a twa l i s ) . T he B rahman s p e rf o rm t h e r i tua l a s t h ey t r ad i t iona l ly h ave d one , w hen t h e b oy i sb e tw een t h e a g eo fe i gh ta nd t we lve y ea r s . T he a ge o fw h ich t h e c hewa r i s p e rf o rmed h a s b een g o ing d own , a nd t h e Maga r s n o rma l ly p e rf o rm i ta tt h ea ge o ft h r ee , f i ve o rs e ven y ea r s . G apha b a sne , t h e f ema le i n i t ia t ion r i t e w h en t h e g i r l g e t s h e r f i r s tm en s t rua t ion . I tm a rk s t h e t r an s i t ion o f ag i r l f r om p r e sexua l t o as e xua l b e ing . G upha b a sne m ean s " s tay ing i nt h e c av e" , a nd t h em o s ti mpo r tan tf e a t u r ei st h es e c lu s ion o f t h e g i r l i n ad a rk r oom ( Benn e t t 1 983 :235 -236 ) . H owev e r , i ti sn o t c on s ide red a s o ne o ft h e o r thodox l i f e c y c le r i tua l s ( s am ska ra ) . T hough t h i s r i tua l i so f s p ec ia l i mpo r tan ce r e ga rd ing p u r i ty a nd p o l lu t ion , i td oe s n o t a f ec t t h e g i r l 's k a rma i n aw ay c o r r e spond ing t ot h e w ay t h e b a r tamand e a f f ec t s ab oy . T h e w omen b ecome k a rma c a l eko o n ly a f t e r t h e m a r r iage c e r emony , w he the r i ti s b ef o r e o r a f t e r t h e g upha b a sne ( i b id :59 ) . T h e w omen 's i n f e r io r i ty i se xp r e s sed i nt h e f a c t t h a t t h ey a r e d ependen t u pon a h u sband t o b ecome k a rma c a l ecko . T h e g upha

B ra lunan s a nd C hhe t r i s a r e i nN epa l t h e t a gad ha r if a t s , w h ich m ean s t h a t t h ey a r e t w ice b o rn b ecau se t h ey a r e w ea r ing t h ej ana i , t h e s a c r ed t h r ead . I n t h e S an sk r i t t e x t s t h e V a i shya f a t i sa l so c on s ide r ed a s at w ice -bo rn f a t , " t he t h r ee f i r s t c a s te s a r e a l c a l led D v i ja s ( tw ice b o rn ) b ecau se a f t e r t h e f i r s t b i r th f r om m o th e r t h ey a r e b or n a ga in w i th t h e s a c r ed g i rd le g i r t ing r o und t h e i rb ody " ( Ga ruda P u rana I ,1 . 94 .24 ) . " The s a c r ed t h r ead i n v e s t i tu r e o fB rahman s h a l l b e p e r f o rm ed i nt h e e i gh ty ea r f r om c oncep t ion o rn a t iv i ty , 1 9

b a sne r i tua l i sm a in ly p e rf o rmed b y t h e B rahman s a nd t h e C hhe t r i s . T he Maga r s a r e t o al e s s e x t en t c once rned w i th m en s t rua l p o l lu t ion , a nd t h ey t r ad i t iona l ly d o n o t o b se rv e t h i s c e r emony . H ow eve r , i no n e o f m y r e sea r ch v i l lag e s , t h e Maga r s h ave r e cen t ly s t a r ted p e r f o rm ing t h i s r i tua l ( s ee c hap te r 6 ) . N ancy C . L uk tehau s a r gue s t h a t " t he u t i l i ty o f l o ok ing a tf ema le i n i t ia t ion r i t e s n o t o n ly i nr e la t ion sh ip t o m a le i n i t ia t ion , b u t , m o r e i mpo r tan t ly , a s p a r t o f al a rg e r c o rpu s o fr i tua l s t h a t c e leb ra te n o t o n ly t h e l i f e c y c le o fa w omen b u t t h e l i f e c y c le o f t h e p ub l ic g r oup s o r l a rge r c ommun i ty i n w h ich t h ey a r e e mbedded" ( Luk tehau s 1 995 :28 ) . I nt h i s c on t ex tt h em a r r iag e i st h em o s t i mpo r tan t r i t e . ( 4 ) Marr iage " ma rk s t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e p roduc t ive a nd s o c ia l ly r e spon s ib le h ou seho lde r s t age f o r w h ich , i n t h e c a se o fm a le s , t h e b a r tamand e i s an ece s sa ry p r epa ra t ion . A s s u ch , m a r r iage i s am a jo r e xp r e s s ion o f t h e v a lue o f f e r t i l i ty a nd c onven t iona l r e l ig ion i n t h e H indu c on f l ic t b e tween i d ea l s o ft h e h ou seho lde ra nd t h o s e o ft h e a s ce t ic" ( Benne t t 1 983 :7 1) . I t i s t h e m o s t p r e s t ig iou s f am i ly c e r emony a nd t h em a in o cca s ion w h ich t h eg r ea te s tn umbe r o fm embe r s o ft h e c a s te a nd o t he r p e r son s g a the r t o ge the r ( Dumon t 1 970 :110 ) .

h oweve r , t h e B rahman b r ide s hou ld b e m a r r ied b ef o r e h e r f i r s t m en s t rua t ion . I f t h e b r ide w a s m a r r ied a f t e r t h e m ena r che , t h e b r ide 's p a r en t s s hou ld d ona te ac ow 's c a lf t o t h e b r ideg room 's p a r en t s a s ac omp en sa t ion f o r h e r l o s s o f p u r i ty . S i nce t h e b r ide s h ou ld b e m a r r ied b ef o r e h e r f i r s t m en s t rua t ion , s h e w ou ld h ave a ch i eved t h e s t a t e o fk a rma c a l eko b ef o re g upha b a sne , a nd t h e r ef o r e t h e l a t t e r r i t e w ou ld b e w i thou t i mpo r tan ce f o r h e r k a rma . A l though t h e m a r r iag e a ge h a s i n c r ea sed a nd m a r r iage n owaday s h appen s a f t e r t h e g upha b a sne , i td oe s n o t a f ec t t h e s t a t e w hen s h eb ecome sm o ra l ly r e spon s ib le f o rh e ro wn a c t ion s . T he w omen 's i n f e r io r i ty i nr e la t ion t om en i se xp r e s sed i n t h e f a c t t h a tt h ey a r e d ependen t u pon ah u sband t ob ecome k a rma c a leko w he r ea s t h e m en a c h ieve t h i s s t a tu s b y t h em se lve s , a nd t h a t a l a spec t s c onnec ted t o t h e i r b i o log ica l , r e p roduc t ive r o le a r e c onnec t ed w i th i mpu r i ty . T hu st h e r e a r e m o r et a boo sa nd r e s t r i c t ion s f o rw omen t h an m en . ( 5 ) D ea th c eremon ie s . T he d ea th c e r emon ie s a r e i n aw ay n eve r e nd ing . T he r e a r e t wo c l a s se so fd e cea sed a n ce s to r s , f i r s t ly t h e f a the r , g r andf a the r a nd g r ea t g r andf a the r o fa ny p a r t icu la r ly p e r son , a nd s e cond ly t h e p rogen i to r s o f m ank ind i n g ene ra l . I n h onou r o f b o th t h e se g r oup s o f a nce s to r s s r addha s r i t e s a r e p e r f o rmed . S radd ha c on s t i tu te s " a d eb t t o t h e d ead" t h a t o ugh t t o b e r e pa id a s sum ing t h e d ead o ne s b e ing a l ive a nd l i v ing w i th u s . I ti s b e l ieved t h a to n e o we st h r ee m a in d eb t s . F i r s ti st h ed eb tt o t h e g od s , n ex t t h e d eb t t ot h e g u ru , a nd f i na l ly t h e d eb t t o t h e f o r ef a the r s . S radd ha s e em s t o b e t h e o u tcome o ft h e k a rma t h eo ry a nd e s tab l i sh e s b r idg e s b e tw een t h e l i v ing a nd t h e d ead ( Pa thak 1 997 ) . T he r e a r e f o u r l e ve l s o fr i t ua l o b l iga t ion :

I nm a r r iag e t h e d ecen t a nd a f f in i ty i st r an sf e r red a sw e l l a s t h e s ub s i s ten ce p roduc t ion , t h a t i st h e a c ce s s t o l a nd a nd t h u s t h e r e la t ion s o f p roduc t ion a nd c on sump t ion . T he r ef o r e t h e m a r r iag e i sa n i mpo r tan t h appen ing i nt h e v i l lage a s i te s tab l i she s n ew r e la t ion s . I t" b r ing s" t h e w oman i n to t h e m an 's h ou seho ld , " t he h ou seho ld a ppea r s a s ap a t r i l inea l c o r e o fm en w i th w om en a ta ched t oi tb y m a r r iage w ho e nab le t h e se m en t o m o ra l ly s a t i sf y t h e i r p a s s ion a nd t o r e a l iz e t h e i r d ha rma t h rough t h e i r w if e 's r e p roduc t ive f e r t i l i ty" ( G r ay 1 995 :50 ) . T he v a r iou s d u t ie s o ft h e h ou seho lde ra r e a mong o t he rs c r ip tu r e s a l so r e f e r r ed t o b y t h e G a ruda P u rana s , " a f t e r g i v ing f e e s t o t h e p r ecep to ra nd t a k ing t h er i tua l i s t ic b a th w i th h i sp e rm i s s ion a nd c on c lud ing h i s s t uden t a g e h e s h a l l m a r ry a g i r l e ndowed w i th g ood c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s . S he s h a l l b e av i rg in . ( . . )" ( Ga ruda P u rana I ,1 . 95 . 1-3 ) .

a )K i r iya b a sne , " s i t t ing i nm ou rn ing " . T he m a in r i t e s a r e (I )d i spo s ing o ft h ec o rp se ,( 2 )f e ed ing t h ep re ta ( ag ho s to r am a levo len t s p i r i t ) a nd r e con s t i tu t ing i t s " body " , ( 3 ) c hang ing t h e p re ta i n to a p i t r i ( f o r ef a the r ) , a nd ( 4 ) p u r if y ing t h e f am i ly a nd t h e c h i ef m our n e r ( Benn e t t 1 983 :98 ) . T he m ou rn ing p e r iod i s f o r t h e B rahman s n o rma l ly t h i r t een d ay s , w h e r ea s t h e r e a r e g r ea t l o ca l v a r ia t ion s a mong t h e Maga r s , f r om t h r ee t ot h i r t een d ay s . My m a in r e sea r ch o b jec t ive i st h i s k i r iya b a sne p a r t o ft h e d ea th c e r emon ie s i nr e la t ion t o t h e d e cea sed 's l i f e c yc le r i tua l s . I na r cha eo log ica l t e rm s , p a r t ic ipa t ion i nt h e v a r iou s l i f e c yc le r i tua l s d e te rm ine s w he the rt h e d e cea sed i sb u r ied o r c r ema ted a nd t h e p r e sen ce o r a b s en ce o fg r ave g ood s , i . e . t h e m a in a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s a f t e r t h e d ea th c e r emon ie s .

I ft h e g i r l i sm a r r ied b ef o r e t h e m ena r che , s h e a cqu i r e s t h e c a s te o f h e r h u sband a u toma t ica l ly , a nd i fs h e m a r r ie s a f terwa rd s t h e c h i ld r en b ecome " ha lf -b r eed s" ( Pa r ry 1 994 :111) . T he m a iden 's f a the r w i l l b e d u ly r ewa rded i n h eaven b y g i v ing h e r a way i nm a r r iag e f o rt h e c on t inuan ce o f h i s a n ce s t ra l l i ne ( P ra sad 1 993 :76 ) . T he w omen 's i n f e r io r i ty i n H indu i sm h a s i t s c oun t e rpa r t i n B uddh i sm w he re a f ema le r e b i r th i st o s ome e x t en t s e en a s l e s s f a vou rab le , b ecau se t h e w omen u nde rgoe s c e r ta in s uf e r ing s t h e m en a r e f r ee f r om ; s h e h a s t o l e ave h e r p a r en t s ' f am i ly , m en s t rua t ion , p r egnancy , c h i ldb i r th a nd s h e h a s t o w a i t u pon am an ( Ha rvey 1 990 :215 ) . T hough b e ing b or na s ah uman i sp r ec iou s a nd ar a r e a nd v a luab le o cca s ion , s am sa ra a s ah o le i sc ha ra c te r iz ed b y s uf e r ing a nd t h e a im i sl i be ra t ion f r om i t( S amue l 1 993 :200 ) . B u t s a lva t ion i s o n ly p o s s ib le t o t h o se w ho a r e l i v ing i n s am sa ra , i . e . o n ly h uman b e ing s w ho a r e s ub jec tt or e b i r th m ay a t ta in l i be ra t ion ( Long 1 977 :78 ) .

T he n ex t t h re e l e ve l s o f m ou rn ing o b l iga t ion s h av e n o t b een ap r ima ry o b jec t o fr e s ea r ch . T h e t h r ee l e ve l s a r e b ) t h e y ea r o fm our n ing a nd i t s m on th ly r i t e s , c )t h e a nnua l c ommemo ra t ion a nd d )t h e c o l lec t ive c e l eb ra t ion i nw h ich f o od of e r ing sa r em ade t om any a nce s to r sa to nce ( Benne t t 1 983 :107 120 ) . I nt h e se t h r ee s r add ha r i t e s t h e of e r ing o f p inda s ( r ice b a l l s ) a r e e s sen t ia l , a s t h e g if t s a r e m ean t t o e nab le t h e d ead t o b e f e r r ied f r om t h e w o r ld o f k a rm ic m i se r ie st ot h ea bode o ft h eb l e s sed ( P r a sad 1 995 :x i ) . T he m ode o f t h e a nnua l s r add ha i sp r e sc r ibed i n t h e G a ruda P u rana s a nd t h u s p r ov ide s i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e p u rpo se a nd t h e p rocedu r e o f t h e p e r f o rman ce s ( Ga ruda

N owaday st h en o rma lm a r r iag ea g e i se i the ra r ound t h ee nd o f t h e t e en s o r t h e e a r ly o f t h e t w en t ie s . I n t h e p a s t , 2 0

P u rana I ,1 . 99 . 1-45 ) . T h e p e r f o rmance o fs r add ha r emove s s i n a nd r e lea se s t h e s o u l f r om g ho s thood , a nd h a s t o b e s e en i nt h e r e a lm o ft h e e t e rna l s ou l . " Fo rt h e s o u l t h e r e i s n e i the r b i r th n o r d ea th a ta ny t i me . H e h a s n o t c ome i n to b e ing , d oe s n o t c ome i n to b e ing , a nd w i l l n o t c ome i n to b e ing . H e i su nbo rn , e t e rna l , e ve r -ex i s t ing a nd p r imeva l . H e i sn o t s l a in w hen t h e b ody i ss l a in " ( Bg . 2 . 20 ) , b ecau se w e " a r e p e rmanen t , ( w e )w an tp e rmanen tr e s idence . We d o n o t w i sh t od i e b ecau se i na c tua l i ty w e a r e p e rmanen t . N o r d o w e w an t t og r ow o l d o rb e d ecea sed b ecau se t h e se a r e a l e x ter na l o r n onpe rmanen t s t a te s . ( . . ) I fs omehow w e c an g e t o u t o f t h e m a t e r ia l b ody , w e c an e s cape t h e m i se r ies t h a t a r e i n teg r a l w i th i t " ( Bhak t ivedan ta S wam i P rabhupada 1 9 80 :27 ) .

U n t i l a nd u n le s s t h e w oman b ur n s h e r se lf a f t e r h e r h u sband 's d ea th s h e i sn eve rr e lea sed f r om t h e b ond o fh e r s ex" ( Ga ruda P u rana I ,1 . 4 .95 -96 ) . " R i se u p , w oman , i n to t h e w o r ld o ft h e l i v ing . C ome h e r e ; y ou a r e l y ing b e s ide a m an w ho se l i f e 's b r e a th h a s g one . Y ou w e r e t h e w if e o f t h i sm an w ho t o ok y ou rh and a nd d e s i r ed t oh ave y ou" ( R ig V eda 1 0 .18 .8 ) . T he w if e o ft h e d ead m an s hou ld l i e w i th t h e f a ce d own b e s ide h im , p robab ly m im ing c opu la t ion ( O 'F lahe r ty 1 994 [ 198 1 ] :53 -54 ) . W idow b u rn ing w a s p roh ib i t ed i nN epa lw i th t h e Mu luk in A in ( C iv i lC ode ) .

T he s on i s a b so lved f r om h i s d eb t t o h i s p a r en t s b y p e r f o rm ing o b sequ ie s . T hu s h e c omm i t s ad oub le s i n i fh e o m i t s o r f a i l s i n t h e p e r f o rmance o f t h e se r i t ua l s , t h e a nce s to r s w i l l s u f f e r a nd h e h im se lf w i l l r e ap t h e f r u i t s o f h i s a c t ion s i nt h e n ex t l i f e , w he r e h e p r obab ly w i l lm ee th i s a nce s to r s . I ti sh i s d u ty a s am an a nd a s aH ou seho lde r i n t h e r e a lm o fd ha rma . Mo r eove r , " wha teve r g if t s a r e m ade b y o ne d u r ing t h e l i f e t i me , b ecome b en ef i c ia l l a te r " ( Ga r uda P u rana I ,1 . 13 . 19 ) b ecau se " wha teve rg if t s am an h a s g i ven h im se lf t h ey s t and i nh i s f a vou r ( a t t h e h ou r o f d ea th )" ( i b id : I I .4 .16 ) . T hey a r e g if t s m ade t om en i nt h e s i gh to ft h e g od s , " ag ene ro s i ty t owa rd st h em " , i nt h et e rm s o f Ma rce l l Mau s s , b ecau s e t h o se g od s w ho g i ve a nd r e tu rn g if t s a r et h e r et og i ve ac on s ide rab le t h ing i nt h ep l a ce o fa s ma l lo n e( Mau s s 1 993 [ 1925 ] :14 17 ) . T he i mpo r tan ce o fh av ing as on t op e r f o rm t h ed ea th r i tua l s i se xp r e s sed e xp l ic i t ly i nt h eG a ruda P u rana s : " The r e i sn o s a lva t ion f o r am an w i thou t as on . H e c an n eve r a t ta in h eaven w i thou t as on " ( Ga r uda P u rana I , 1 . 13 .18 & I I , 1 .29 .4 ) . " A m an i sr e lea sed f r om h i s d eb tt ot h e m ane s o n s e e ing h i s s on 's f a ce . Am an i sr e lea sed f r om t h r ee t y pe so f d eb t s ( t o t h e s age s , g od s a nd m ane s ) o n s e e ing h i s g r and son . O n s e e ing h i s s on , g r and son , a nd g r ea tg r and son h e a t ta in s e t er na l o r c e le s t ia l w o r ld s" ( Ga ruda P u rana I I , 1 .25 .33 -34 ) . " Even am an h av ing s on s , d y ing w i thou t t h e p e rf o rman ce o ft h e se r i t e s , d oe sn o ta t ta in s a lva t ion . Am an w i thou t s on b y d o ing t h e se r i t e s b ef o rehand s h a l l h ave a h appy j ou rn ey o n t h e G r ea t H ighway " ( Ga ruda P u rana I , 1 . 14 .14 ) . T h e f u ne ra l o fa n o l d m an i so f t en d e sc r ibed a s " t he s e cond w edd ing " , a nd t h e f u ne ra l p roce s s ion a s a m a r r iag e p a r ty w h ich a c compan ie s t h e g room t ot h e h ou se o ft h eb r ide ( P a r ry 1 994 :157 ) . T h i s i l um ina te s t h e f a c t t h a t d ea th i sn o t s e pa ra ted f r om , b u t r a the r i n t eg ra ted i nt h e s o c ia l s t ruc tu r e a nd t h e s o c ie ty . T he ref o r e i sm a r r iag e a s as o c ia l i n s t i tu t ion f u ndamen ta l i n t h e u nd e r s tand ing o fd ea th , t h e n ece s s i ty o fh av ing a s o n a nd t h e t r ad i t iona l v a lua t ion o f w omen i n t h e B rahman s oc ie ty . I n t h e h ou seho ld , m en a r e a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e w ho le h ou seho ld a nd t h e g oa l o ft h e m o ra l a c t ion s i nt h e w o r ld , w h i le w omen a r e m ean s a nd t h e r eby s ubo rd ina t e t o m en ( G ray 1 995 :49 ) . T hu s w idow b u rn ing ( s u t tee o rs a t i ) w a s p r a c t iced i nt h e p a s t , " a w oman w ho e n t e r s t h e f i r e a f t e r h e r h u sband p ro spe r s i n h eaven l i k e A rund ha t i ( t he e p i tome o f t h e c ha s te a nd f a i thf u l w if e , am od e l o fc on juga l e xce l lence ) . 2 1

H oweve r , e ven a f te rt h ef i r s t Mu luk in A in o f1 854 as l ave w if em a r r ied t o af r eeman w a sa l lowed t op r a c t ice w idow b u rn ing ( Hof e r 1 9 79 : 126 ) . T he p ra c t ice o fs a t ih a st ob e s e en i nt h e l i gh to fw idow r ema r r iage w h ich t h e Mu luk in A in o f1 8 54 d oe sn o tp r oh ib i t( i b id : 169 ) .

T he D ecea sed 's L i f eC y c le R i tua l s T he c r uc ia l f e a tu r e s o ft h e b u r ia l c u s tom i nr e la t ion t ol i f e c yc le r i tua l s d epend s u pon k a rma a nd t h e p e r son 's a ch ieved s o c ia l p o s i t ion i nt h e s o c ie ty . T o w ha t d eg r ee t h e d ecea sed h a s e n t e r ed s am sa ra , " t he r ound o f b i r th a nd d ea th" ,d epend su pon k a rma c a leko ,t h ee x ten tt ow h ich t h e k a rma i s" a c t iva ted " . T he l e ve l o fe n t rance i n to t h i s w o r ld , d e te rm ine s t h e a c cu r a t e e n t rance t o t h e n ex t , i . e . w hen a p e r son d i e s . T he i n d iv idua l 's s o c ia l s t a tu s i nt h e s o c ie ty i s e xp re s sed i n t h e f u ne r a l r i t e s a nd h a s t h r ee p hy s ica l m an if e s ta t ion s i nt h e m o r tua ry r ema in s : ( 1 ) T he p r e sence o ra b sen ce o fg r ave g ood s . ( 2 ) T he t r ea tm en to ft h e c o rp se , i . e . w he the r i ti s c r ema ted o r b u r ied . ( 3 ) T he w idow 's j ewe l le ry i nh e rh u sband 's f u ne ra l . ( 1 ) T he p re sence o r a b sence o f g rave g ood s . T he o ve rwhe lm ing ly d om inan t a nd i mpo r tan t g r ave g ood s , a nd n o rma l ly t h e o n ly o n e , i sf ood . R aw r i ce i st h e m a jo r d e te rm inan t r e ga rd ing t h e p r e sence o r a b sence o f g r ave g ood s . D ecea sed w i thou tp a sne , t h e r i ce f e ed ing c e r emony , c anno tr e ce ive r aw r i ce o ra ny o t he rg r ave g ood sa s ag r av e g i f t . I ft h e p e r son i si n t rodu ced t ot h e w o r ld o fr i ce , t h en r aw r i ce i sa lway st h e f u ndamen ta l p a r t o ft h e g r ave g ood s , o f t en c omb ined w i th l e n t i l s u s ed i n t h e d a i ly m ea l . P a r t ic ipa t ion i n t h e p a sne r i tua l d e te rm ine s w he the r t h e d ecea sed w i l l r e ce ive g r ave g ood s o rn o t . T he r aw r i ce i sa s ymbo l o ff e r t i l i ty . T he s e ed w i l lg e rm ina te a nd g i ve l i f et o o t he r s .N epa l i st h el a nd o fr i ce . T he G od L o rd G o rakhna th p rom i sed t h e N epa le s e p eop le t h a t t h e i r c oun t ry w a s m ade o f r i ce , a s w e l l a st h a t i nt h i s c oun t ry t h ey s hou ld n eve r s t a rve o rs uf e ro fh ung e r . T he r ef o r et h eN epa le se a r en eve r b egga r s , b u t t h ey w o rk h a rd a nd p r ay f o r r i ce a nd f e r t i l i ty , f o rt h e s e ed w h ich w i l l s p rou t , b ecome m any a nd g i ve n ew l i f e . G o rakhna th w a s am ed ieva l m a s te r Y og i o fn o r the rn a nd w e s t er n I n d ia , af amou s s a in t a nd w o rke r o fm i ra c le s . H e i sc on s ide r ed ar e p r e sen ta t ive o r e v en a n e mbod imen t o fS h iva ( B r igg s 1 973 [ 1 938 ]: 1 79 18 1) . T hu s r aw r i ce i sa s ymbo l o ft h e f o r th com ing l i f e , t h e r e b i r th . T he d aa l o rt h e l e n t i l sh e lp t h e s o u lt or e ce ive t h i s f r eedom o r s a lva t ion . I f o t he r f o od i t em s a r e u s ed a s g if t s t o t h e d ecea sed , t h ey c on t r ibu te t ot h e f u lf i lm en to ft h i s a im . Whe the rt h e f o od i s p u t i n to c on ta in e r s o r n o t , i s ap r a c t ica l s o lu t ion w h ich d epend su pon t r ad i t ion .

( 2 ) T he t r ea tmen t o f t h e c orp se . T he k a rma c a l eko s t a t e o ft h e s o u l d emand s c r ema t ion a st h e b u r ia l c u s tom , i ft h e f un e ra l r i t e s a r e t o b e p e rf o rmed a c cu r a t e ly . O n t h e c on t ra ry , i ft h e s ou l o ft h e d ecea sed h a s n o t b e come k a rma c a l eko , t h en t h e c o rp se i sb u r ied . I no t he rw o rd s , m en w i th b a r tamand e a nd m a r r ied w omen a r e c r ema t ed , w h i le u nma r r ied g i r l s a nd b oy s w i thou t b a r tamand e , a r e b u r ied . D if f e rence s i n g r ave a nd c r ema t ion c on s t ruc t ion s a s p hy s ica l m onumen t s a nd s t ruc tu r e s , a r e o f m ino r i mpo r tance , b ecau se t h e f u ne ra l p r a c t ice s b e long t oe i the r c r ema t ion a s ac a tego ry o rb u r ia la s ac a t ego ry . ( 3 ) T he w idow 's j ewe l lery i n h er h u sband ' s f unera l . Wh en t h e H ou seho lde r d i e s , t h e w idow c hang e s h e r s t a tu s i n t h e s o c ie ty a s w e l l a s i nt h e h ou seho ld . S he b ecome s p a r t ly s t igma t i sed , s h e i sn e i the r s o c ia l ly a lowed t om a r ry a ga in n o r d oe s a ny m an w an t t om a r ry h e r . S t i l l s h e h a s t o c a r ry o u t s ome o fh e r h u sband 's d u t ie s a s aH ou seho lde r , a nd t h u s s h e g e t s o t he r r e spon s ib i l i t ie s a nd o b l iga t ion s i n t h e f am i ly . B ecau se s h e l e ave s o ne p o s i t ion i nt h e s o c ie ty a nd e n t e r s an ew s o c ia l r o le , t h e w idow h a s t om a rk t h i s t r an s i t ion . S he h a s t od i spo se o fa l t h ing s h e rh u sband w a s r e spon s ib le f o r a nd o b l ig ed t og i ve h e r . I nt h e h ou se s h e w i l lt a ke o f fh e rj ewe l le ry a nd b r eak t h eb r a ce le t sa nd p l ace t h em o n t h e d ecea sed h u sband 's c he s t . T he r eaf t e r h e i s c a r r ied t ot h e c eme te ry , a nd e i the r c r ema t ed o rb u r ied w i th h i s w if e 's j ewe l le ry o n h i s c he s t ( F igu r e 5 . 1) . T he w idow w i l l a l so c hange h e rc l o the sa nd t a ke o f ft h et i ka ( am a rk o f b l e s s ing p l a ced o n t h e f o r ehead ) . T he w idow i si n as e n se m o ra l ly r e spon s ib le f o r h e r h u sband 's d ea th a nd m u s t e xp ia te t h e m i sf o r tune s h e h a s b rough t t oh im f o r t h e r e s t

o f h e r l i f e . S he h a s b ecome a " ha lf c o rp se" ( Pa r ry 1 994 :174 ) . T h i s h a s t o b e s e en i nt h e l i gh t o f f e s t iva l s o b se rved o n ly b y w omen w ho a r e m a r r ied o r o f m a r r iag eab le a ge . E spec ia l ly t h e T ee j f e s t iva l r e vea l s a l t h e h i dden w i she s o f aH indu h ou sew if e . T hey f a s t f o r a p roduc t ive m a r r iag e , g ood f o r tune a nd al o ng l i f e f o rt h e i r h u sband ( Ande r son 1 988 : 116f f , J h a 1 9 96 :89f f , K au sh ik n . d . ) . N owaday s t h e w idow 's g o ld a nd s i lv e r j ewe l le ry h ave b ecome h e i r loom s w i th in t h e f am i ly , b u t s i lve r j ewe l le ry c an s t i l l b e f o und a sg r ave g if t s ( F igu r e 5 . 2 ) . H oweve r , t h e b roken p e r sona l d eco ra t ion c on s i s t s o f b race le t s a nd j ew e l le ry m ade o fp l a s t ic ( F igu r e 5 . 3 ) . T h i s r i tua l h appen s i n t h e h ou seho ld f o r t wo r e a son s , t h e c hange o fs t a tu s i s c onnec t ed t ot h e d ome s t ic s phe r e a nd t h e B rahman w omen a r en o ta lowed t op a r t ic ipa te i nt h ef u ne r a l c e remony a tt h e g r aveya rd . T he Maga r w omen a r e a lowed t o a t t end t h e f u ne ra l s , b u t l o ca l p r a c t ice s a nd t r ad i t ion s d ec ide w h e the r t h ey p a r t ic ipa te o r n o t . When u nma r r ied g i r l s a nd w omen d i e , t h ej ewe l le ry a nd b r a ce le t s a r e b r ok en a nd p l a ced o n h e rc he s ti nt h ec eme te ry .

G ene r a lR ema rk so nL if e C y c le R i tua ls a nd B u r ia lC u s tom s E xcep t f r om t h e n wa ran , t h e n ame g i v ing c e remony , i si t p o s s ib le t o t r a ce a l t h e o r thodox l i f e c yc le r i t ua l s ( s am ska ra ) i nt h e m o r tua ry r ema in s : ( 1 ) T he p r e sen ce o r a b sence o fg r ave g ood s f o r b o th m en a nd w omen d epend s

F i gure 5 . 1 A6 5 -yea r -o ld S a rk if r om B h impokha r a i sc r ema ted w i th h i sw if e 's j ew e l le ry o nt h ec he s ta tN i r e G ha t

F igur e5 . 2 S i lve rb r a ce le t

F i gure 5 . 3B ra ce l e t sa nd j ewe l le ry m ade o fp l a s t ic .

u pon p a sne , t h e r i ce f e ed ing c e r emony . ( 2 ) T he t r ea tmen t o ft h e c o rp se s o fm en d epend s u pon b a r tamand e . ( 3 ) T h e m a r r iag e d e t e rm ine s t h e t r ea tm en t o f t h e c o rp se s o f w om en . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t ot r a ce t h e m a r r iag e c e r emony i nt h e m an 's f u ne ra l . I ti se x t r em e ly r a r e t h a t o l de r p eop le i n v i l lage s l i ve u nma r r ied . T hu s i si tp o s s ib le t o d ec id e w he the rt h e d ecea sed m an 's w if e w a s a l ive o rn o tw hen h e d i ed . I ft h e h u sband h a s g o tj ew e l le ry a sg r ave g ood s , t h en h i s w if e h a s b ecome aw idow , o n t h e c on t ra ry , i fn o t , i ti s m o s t l i ke ly t h a t h i s w if e h ad a l r eady d i ed . T he l a s t a s sump t ion i sb a sed o nn ega t ive e v idence , b u t i ti sp o s s ib l e t oj u s t if yt h i si n f e r ence f r om ac on t ex t ua la pp roa ch . E ven t h ough t h i s i st h e p r a c t ice t h e r e l ig ion p r e sc r ibe s , t h e r ea r e al o to fl o ca lv a r ia t ion sa nd a dap ta t ion sw i th in t h i s g ene ra l f r amewo rk . T he r e i sa lw ay s ad i s t inc t ion i ng r ave g ood s c onnec ted t op a sne , n o rma l ly t h e a b sen ce o r t h e p r e s en ce o f f o od . When i ti sp o s s ib le t o c r ema te , o n t h e o t he r h and , s how ag r ea te r v a r ia t ion , a nd a mong s ome o f t h e Maga r s t h e d i s t inc t ion b e tw een c r ema t ion a nd b u r ia l i s n o t c onnec ted t o o ne o f t h e o r thodox l i f e c yc le r i tua l s . H owev e r , t h e c hange i nt h e w idow 's s t a tu s i sp r a c t iced a nd e xp r e s sed i n as im i la r w ay i na l t h e v i l lage s a mong b o th B ra hman s a nd Maga r s . E xcep tf r om t h e d if e r ence w i th t h e j ew e l le ry , t h e t r ea tmen t o f d e cea sed w omen i ss im i la r t o t h a to fm en w i th in av i l lag ew h en t h ey h ave t h es ame mo r a l s t a tu s ,w he the rt h ey a r ek a rma c a l eko o rn o t . A lb e i t o n ly t h e o r thodox l i f e c y c le r i tua l s a r e p o s s ib le t o t r a c e d i r ec t ly i n t h e m o r t ua ry m a te r ia l , o t he r l i f e c yc le r i tua l s h ave am a jo rs i gn if i can ce f o rt h e d ecea sed 's r e b i r th . C hau ra s i i s i n t h i s m ann e r o f s p ec ia l i mpo r tance . T he c e r emony i sc e leb ra t ed w h en ap e r son i s at h ou sand f u l l m oon s o l d , t h a t i si nh i s o rh e re i gh ty -f ou r th y ea r . T he o l d o ne i sw o r sh ipped a s al i v ing a n ce s to r a nd ag od o n t h i s d ay ( F igu r e 5 . 4 ) , a nd t h e r i t ua l r e du ce s t h e p e r son 's s i n .

F igure 5 . 4C hau ra s io f aK am ii nt h eB hu ska t v i l lage i nt h eB ag lung d i s t r ic t . Mo r eove r , a f te r c hau ra s i t h e o l d m an o r w oman h a s a n h onou r ed p o s i t ion i nt h es o c ie ty .

2 3

Chap ter 6 :F unera l P rac t ice s a nd Mor tuary R ema ins

p a s se s b yt h e p i lg r imag e p l a ce Muk t i na th i nt h e Mu s tang d i s t r ic t ( t he d i s t r ic t n o r th o f t h e Myagd i d i s t r ic t ) .The Muk t ina th t emp le w i th i t s 1 08 w a t e r spou t s i st h e s e cond m o s t s a c r ed H indu p l a ce i n N epa l , v i s i t ed b y b o th H indu s a nd B uddh i s t s . ( 3 ) K a l igandak i R ive r c on ta in s t h e a mmon i te f o s s i l s k nown t o H indu s a s s a l ig ram ( F igu r e 6 . 1) . F rom a g eo log ica l p o in t o f v i ew a n a mmon i t e f o s s i l i st h e r ema in s o fa n a qua t i c a n ima l t h a t i sp r e se rved i nr o ck ,n o rma l ly i na ni n t e rna lm ou ld , d a ted t ob e6 5 -345 m i l l ion y ea r so l d( Ham i l ton 1 974 :250 -256 ) . I nt h e H indu r e l ig ion , o n t h e o t he r h and , s a l ig ram i sa n e mbod im en t , a p hy s ica l m an if e s t a t ion o r v i s ib le i n ca rna t ion o fV i shnu . I nt h e w o rd o fM i r cea E l iade , " a s a c r ed s t one r ema in s as t one ; a ppa r en t ly ( . .f rom t h e p rof ane p o in t o fv i ew ) , n o th ing d i s t ingu i she s i tf r om a l o t he rs t one s . B u t f o rt h o se t ow hom as t one r e vea l s i t s e lf a s s a c r ed , i t s i mmed ia te r e a l i ty i st r an smu ted i n to a s upe rna tu ra l r e a l i ty " ( E l iad e 1 9 87 [ 1957 ] :12 ) . K a l igandak i R ive r i st h e r i ve r w he r e a lmo s t a l s a l ig ram i nN epa l i sf o und . ( 4 ) T he r i ve r l e ad st oG ange s . Mo the r G anga i st h e m o s t s a c r ed r i ve r t o t h e H indu s , w h ich f l ow s t o B ena r e s ( Va rana s i ) , t h e h o ly p i lg r image . A c r ema t ion i nB ena r e s e nd s s am sa ra , " t he r o und o fb i r th a nd d ea th " , a nd t h ed ecea sed a ta in ss a lva t ion a nd r e lea se i mmed ia t e ly .

C h i ld r en T he d ea th o f ac h i ld i so fc ou r se am o r et r ag i ce ven tt h an an a tu ra l d ea th o fo l d a g e o rd ec r ep i tude . C h i ld r en i nt h e v i l lage s a r e n o rma l ly n o tb u r ied i nc eme t e r ie s , b u tc l o se r t ot h e i r h ome . B oy s y ounge r t h an b a r tamand e a nd g i r l s u p t ot h e s ame a ge a r e u sua l ly b u r ied i nt h e n ea r e s t n on a r ab le l a nd t o t h e h ou se . I ti s ab i t u n ce r ta in w hy t h i s c u s tom i sp r a c t iced , b u t t h e p a r en t s w an t t o k eep t h e p re sence o f t h e c h i ld 's s ou l a nd s p i r i t c l o s e t o t h e i r h ome . T he d ecea sed c h i ld 's s ou l m igh t i n f luence t h e m o the r 's f e r t i l i ty a nd h e rn ex t p r egnancy . I no n e v i l lage , af am i ly b u r ied t h e i r c h i ld i n ac eme t e ry s om e d i s tance f r om t h e h ou se , a nd t h e m o the rw a s n eve r a b l e t ob ea ra c h i ld a ga in . T he m ou rn ing p e r iod i ss ho r te r f o r c h i ld r en t h an f o r a du l t s , s i nce t h e c h i ld r en h av e n o t b e come k a rma c a leko .

C eme te r ie sa nd H o ly R ive r s G ha t m ean s " wa te r -po t " , " s tep s l e ad ing t o w a t e r " o r " c ro s s ing -po in t" , b u t i s a l so u s ed a s t h e n ame f o r c eme te r ie s . T he l o ca t ion o f c eme te r ie s a tt h e b ank s o f h o ly r i ve r s i sf u ndamen ta l i nB rahman i sm . T h e I n d ian c oncep t o f ar i ve r i s t h a t o f as u s ta in ing m o th e r , a f e r t i l i ty G odde s s , b o th ap hy s ica l a nd s p i r i tua l c l ean se r ( S ingh & N a th 1 995 :83 ) . A l though w a t e r i s ap u r e m ed ium i ni t s e lf a s o ne o ft h e f i ve e l emen t s a nd h a s a n a u sp ic iou s n a tu r e , r i ve r s h ave d if e r en t d eg r ee s o f h o l ine s s . A cco rd ing t o o ne o f m y i n f o rman t s , i t i s i mpo r tan t t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween s t r eam s a nd r i ve r s . T he r e a r e al o t o f s t r eam s i n t h e h i l l r e g ion s i n t h e B ag lung a nd Myagd i d i s t r ic t s , b u t t h ey a r e n o t r i ve r s . K a l igandak i R ive r , h oweve r , i so ne o ft h e m o s th o ly a nd s a c r ed r i ve r s i n N epa l a nd h a s a n i mpo r tan t r e l ig iou s f u nc t ion a l lo ve r We s t er nN epa l . T he r ea r e s e ve ra lr e a son sw hy K a l igandak iR ive rh a st h i s s pec ia l r e l ig iou s r o le : ( 1 ) K a l igandak i R ive r c ome s f r om t h e H ima laya s , t h e ref o r e t h e r i ve r i sp e r ce iv ed a s ag od . T he m oun ta in s a r e h o ly i ng ene r a l , b u t D hau lag i r i h a s a s pec ia l f u nc t ion i nt h i s a r ea . A cco rd ing t of o lk t a le s a nd f o lk b e l ief s D hau lag i r i i st h e g i ve ro fw a t e rt ot h e r i ve r s . K a l igandak i R ive r h a s i t s s ou r ce i nt h i s h o ly m oun ta in , a nd t h u sD hau lag i r i i st h ee ve r la s t ing s ou r ce o fw a t e ra nd t h e r eby l i f e . H oweve r , f r om a g eog raph i ca l p o in t o f v i ew , K a l igandak iR ive rh a s i t so r ig in i no t he rm oun ta in s f u r the r n o r th t h an D hau lag i r i . ( 2 ) B y t h e a c t o f ah e rm i t o r as ad hu r i ve r s m ay b ecom e h o ly . S ad hu s a r e p e r son s w ho h ave w i thd rawn t o as o l i ta ry p l a ce f o r al i f e o f r e l ig iou s s e c lu s ion , w ho d o t a pa sya , r e l ig iou s p enance . P la ce sm ay b ecome s a c red a f t e rk i ng s ,h o ly m en o rg u ru s h ave m ed i ta ted t h e r e . Ac onn ec t ing r i ve rt oK a l igandak i

F igure 6 . 1 S a l ig ra in

2 4

f u ne ra l s I w i tne s sed a t N i r e G ha t , c omb ined w i th i n te rv iew s , e xp lana t ion s g i v en i nt h e G a ruda P u rana s a nd o t he rr e levan t l i t e ra t u r e . T he t wo f u ne ra l s a r et h ec r ema t ion o fa n 8 5 -yea r -o ld B rahman m an f r om t h e B ihu v i l lag e , a nd t h e b u r ia l o f a9 6 -yea r -o ld M aga r w oman f r om t h e R e sha v i l lag e . I nt h e H indu c o smo logy , d ea th i sn o t a n i n teg ra ted p a r t o f t h e d ome s t ic r i tua l s . I d ea l ly aH indu s hou ld n o t d i e i nt h e h ou se , b u t o n t h e g ha t s o ro n t h e b ank s o f as a c r ed r i ve r ( Da s 1 977 :8 ) . " I fh e d i e sa t as a c r ed p l a ce h ea t ta in sm ok sa ( r e lea se f r om r e -b i r th ) a f t e r d y ing t h e r e . I fh e d i e s i nt h e w ay , e a ch a nd e ve ry s t ep h e h a s t a ken i n r e a ch ing t h i s p l a ce p rocu r e s f o r h im t h e f r u i t o fp e rf o rm ing as a c r if i ce" ( Ga ruda P u rana I , 1 .4 .38 ) . I ti so n ly t h e A sva layana G r ihya -Su t ra i n t h e G r ihya S u t ra s w h ich d e sc r ibe s t h e p rocedu r e t o b e f o l low ed a t c r ema t ion . T he r ef o r e , a c co rd ing t oD a s , i ts e em s l i k e ly t h a tc r ema t ion o ft h e d ead w a s n o t a n i n t r in s ic p a r t o f t h e d ome s t ic r i tua l s ( Da s 1 977 :94 ) .

F igure 6 . 2N i re G ha to u t s id eB ag lung B azaa rw i th M t .D hau lag i r i i nt h eb a ckg round . N i r e G ha t o u t s ide B ag lung B azaa r , l o ca ted t o t h e K a l igandak i R ive r , h a s av e ry s p ec ia l r e l ig iou s f u nc t ion a s a c em e t e ry i n t h e B ag lung d i s t r ic t b ecau se o f t h e s a c r edn e s s o ft h e r i ve r ( F igu r e 6 . 2 ) . D ead p eop le f r om u p t o t e n tw e lve h ou r s o fw a lk ing f r om B ag lung B azaa r a r e c a r r ied t o N i r e G ha t , i ft h e d ecea sed 's f am i ly h a s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty . T he S an sk r i t t e x t s d o n o t c on ta in r e f e r ence s t o N i r e G ha t , w he r ea s o t he r h o ly p l a ce s i nt h e n ea rby a r ea s a r e m en t ioned . A cco rd ing t oo r a l l e g end o rm y th , t h e t wo k i ng s o r S a in t s , R a janga R i sh i a nd R a ja r sh i N i rga R i sh i , d i scu s sed a nd d ec ided i mpo r tan t r e l ig iou s a nd c u l t u r a l m a t te r s o n t h i s p l a ce , a nd f o r t h e f u tu re i tb ecame a c eme t e ry .

T he F une ra l R i te s T h e a im w i th t h i s c hap t e r i st o p r e sen t t h e d ea th a s a p roce s s i no rde r t o i l um ina t e t h e c omp lex i ty o f f u ne ra ry r i t e s a nd a r chaeo log ica l m o r tua ry r ema in s . T he r e a r e v a r ia t ion s w i th in t h e H indu m od e i nt h e w ay o fp e rf o rm ing t h e o b sequ ie s , " t he a r rangemen t f o r c r ema t ing t h e c o rp se s hou ld b e m ade a sf a ra st h em ean sa low " ( Ga ruda P u rana I ,1 .4 .43 ) . H encef o r th , t h e r ea r eo t he rp o s s ib i l i t ie st h an t h e d e sc r ibed f u ne ra l s , w h ich a l so e xp la in s t h e d if e r ence s i n t h e m o r tua ry r ema in s . Iw i l l p r e sen t d a ta f r om t wo o ft h e 2 5

N o rma l ly a p e r son d i e s i nh i s v i l lage . When a p e r son i s d y ing , t h e y a rd o u t s ide t h e h ou se s hou ld b e c l eaned a nd b e smea r ed w i th c ow d ung . " I f t h e c o rp se i s k ep t o n u n smea r ed g r ound , t h e f o u l s p i r i t s e n te r t h e c o rp se" ( Ga ruda P u rana I , 1 . 211) . T hen t h e d y ing p e r son i s b rough t o u t a nd l a id d own o n m a t s , c l o se t o t u la s i g r a s s a nd s a l ig ram . T he g r a s s p r even t s t h e s ou l f r om b e ing a t ta ched b ye v i l s p i r i t s , a nd t h u st h e s ou lw i l l g ot oh eav en . " Undoub ted ly o ne a t ta in s s a lva t ion i fo ne d i e s n ea r a S a lag rama s t one w h ich i sp ow e r f u l f o r a nn ih i la t ing a l s i n s a nd d ef ec t s" ( Ga ruda P u rana I , 1 . 38 .9 ) . As i lve r c o in i s p u tu nde rt h e d y ing p e r son 's t o ngue . I fh e i sr e a l ly a bou tt o d i e , h e w i l l s wa l low i t ,i fh e i sg o ing t ol i v e , h e w i l l s p i t i t o u t . T he r eaf t e r , t h e r e la t iv e s p ou r w a t e r i n to t h e m ou th o f t h e d y ing , o t he rw i se t h e t h roa tw i l l d r y a nd t h e p e r son w i l l n o t d i e p ea cef u l ly . I tm ay b e ad if e r en t k i nd o fp u r e w a t e r f o r t h e r e g ene ra t ion o f l i f e , i . e . c omb ina t ion s o f s a c r ed p roduc t s , f o r i n s tan ce w a t e r p ou r ed o ve r g o ld o r s a l ig ram , b y w h ich t h e s ymbo l ic p ow e r i ss t r eng thened ( s ee F i gu r e 6 . 3 f o r e qu ipmen t u s ed d u r ing t h e f u n e ra l r i t e s a th ome ) . When t h e p e r son i sd ead , am ix tu r e o ff i v e g em s s hou ld b e p u t i n to t h e m ou th , a nd t h en t h e l i f e w i l l f l ou r i sh i nt h e n ex t l i f e . T he r e la t iv e s t a k e o f f t h e o l d c l o the s , s p r ink le h o ly w a te r o n t h e b ody , d r e s s t h e d ecea sed i nn ew c l o the s , g i v e t i ka ( a b l e s s ing ) o n h i s f o r ehead , a nd m a la ( y e l low f l owe r )a r ound h i sn eck . " The h and s a nd t h e f e e t o f t h e d ead t o g e the r w i th t h e c ove r ing c l o th s hou ld b e t i ed t ot h e b amboo b i e r . I ft h i s i s n o t d one , t h e re i s ar i sk o f a n a t ta ck b y t h e p i saca s ( ma l ic iou s s upe r h uman s , t h e i r c h ief a c t iv i t ie s b e ing l e ad ing p eop le a s t ray , h aun t ing c eme t e r ie s , e a t ing h uman f l e sh a nd i n du lg ing i ne v e ry k i nd o f w ickedne s s ) . I ft h e d ead b ody i st a ken o u t d u r ing t h e n i gh t t h e r e i sf e a r o f s p i r i t s r o am ing i n t h e s k y . T he b ody s hou ld n o t b e l e f t u na t tended" ( Ga ruda P u rana I , 1 . 35 .4 1-43 ) . T he d i r ec t ion o ft h e d ecea sed l y ing o n t h e b amboo s t re t che ro n t h e w ay t ot h e b u r ia l g r ound v a r ie s . S ome a r e c a r r ied w i th t h e h ead t owa rd st h ec eme te ry w he r ea so t he r sw i th t h ef e e t . A cco rd ing t os ome p r ie s t s ,t h ec o rp se s hou ld b et a k en t o

p i saca s ) . T he se g ho s t s a nd d em i -god s a r e n o rma l ly c once ived i n h uman f o rm s , c au sed b y t h e i r c r ime s , m i sf o r tune s o r u nna tu ra l d ea th ( Kuma r 1 983 : 145f t ) . T he d epa r t ed s ou l i si n ah e lp le s s c ond i t ion , b ecau s e " man i s b o rn a l one ; m an d i e s a l one ; h e e n joy s h i sm e r i tb yh im se lf ; h e r e ap s t h e b i t te r f r u i t s o f h i s s i n s b y h im se lf ' ( Ga ruda P u rana I ,1 . 12 .22 ) . Mo r eove r , a l o ft h e g ho s t s t r y t oa t ta ck t h e d epa r t ed s ou l , t h u s t h e s ou l i s t o ta l ly d ependen t u pon t h e r e la t ive s p e rf o rm ing t h e r i t e s i na n a c cu ra te a nd p r e s c r ibed m anne r . E ven i f t h e k a rma s hou ld h ave p r ed ic ted a g ood i n ca rna t ion , a n i n app rop r ia te p e rf o rman ce o ft h e d ea th r i t e s m igh td e s t roy e ve ry th ing . " I f t h e f u ne ra l r i t e s a r e n o t p e r f o rmed i nt h e p r e sc r ibed w ay , t h e s ou l o ft h e d ecea sed ( i n r e b i r th ) d ev ia te s f r om t h e r i gh teou s p a th a nd f a l l s i n t h e c ompany o f t h e w icked . T hen V r so t sa rga ( s e t t ing f r ee ab u l l o n t h e o cca s ion o fa f u ne ra l r i t e o r ar e l ig iou s a c t g ene ra l ly ) i st h e o n ly r i t e t o r e deem h im" ( Ga r uda P u rana I , 1 .20 .42 ) . A t d ea th t h e s ou lb ecome s ap re t , b u tt h er i t ep e rf o rmed a tt h ee nd o ft h e mou rn ing p e r iod e nab le s t h e d ecea sed t o r e jo in h i s a nce s to r sa nd b ecome ap i t rh im se lf ( Pa r ry 1 994 :75 ) . S im i la r ly , c r y ing a nd w a i l ing b yt h em ou rne r s i so fn oa va i l a nd i sn o t d one , " t hey s hou ld a b s ta in f r om s h edd ing t e a r s w h i le g i v ing t h e w a te r -of f e r ing s a f t e r c r ema t ion . B u t i f t h ey s h ed t e a r s a nd v om i t c ough , t h e d epa r ted s p i r i t c on sume s t h e s ame h e lp le s s ly " ( Ga ruda P u rana I , 1 . 4 .80 ) . Y ama , t h e g od o f D ea th , i sa l so r o am ing a r ound a tt h e c eme t e ry w he r e t h e s p i r i t o ft h e d epa r t ed d w e l l s . H e i st h e L o rd o ft h e H e l l s w he r e t h e s i nne r s a r e p un i shed a f t e rt h e i r d ea th . Y ama a nd V a runa a r e t h e k i ng s t h e d ead m an m ee t s o n t h e w ay t oh eaven . B u tt h e w a te r ( Va runa ) o ve r -powe r s Y ama , s o t h o se w ho b a the i n h o ly w a t e r c anno t b e p un i shed b y Y ama o r h i s m en ( i . e . o t h e r g ho s t s o r d emon s ) (Kuma r 1 983 :104 1 ) . T he r ef o r e t h e b amboo s t r e t che r w i th t h e d ead m an i sp l a ced w i th t h e d ecea sed 's f e e t i n to t h e r i ve r i mmed ia te ly a f t e r t h e p r oce s s ion e n t e r s t h e c eme te ry , w h i le t h e g r ave o r t h e p y r e i sb u i l t ( F igu r e 6 . 4 ) . T hu st h e d ead p e r son d oe sn o th ave t os u f f e rf r om t h e p a in so fh e l l .

F igure 6 . 3E qu ipmen tu s ed i nt h ef u ne ra lr i t e s a th ome . t h e g ha t w i th t h e h ead f i r s t b ecau se t h i s i st h e w ay ab aby i sb o rn ( Pa r ry 1 994 :175 ) . T h e f u ne ra l p roce s s ion o ft h e d ecea sed B rahman c on s i s t ed o f a bou t s i x ty m en . I n f r on t o f t h e f u ne ra l p r o ce s s ion a c oup le o f m en b l ew o n c onch s h e l l s , t o s ymbo l iz e a nd n o t if y t h e d ea th , t o g e the r w i th a no th e r m an w ho t h r ew " way -f ood" o f m ixed g r a in s . T he r eaf t e r c ame s e ve r a l p eop le w ho c a r r ied a" way -c lo th" i nf r on t o ft h e s t r e t che r w i th t h e d ead . T he " way c lo th" i s al o ng p i ece o f w h i t e c l o th f a s tened t os ma l lb amboo s t i ck s ,w h ich l e ad st h ed ead t ot h e c em e t e ry . T he m o r e h onou r ed ap e r son i s ,t h e l o ng e r t h e" way -c lo th " i s . T h e p e r iod b e tween t h e m omen t o f d ea th a nd t h e p e rf o rmance o ff u ne ra l r i t e s , i st h em o s td ange rou st i me f o r t h e d ecea sed . T h i s i s ,i nm y o p in ion , t h e r e a l l i m ina l p ha se d u r ing t h e f u ne ra l r i t e s . " The s t ruc tu ra l " i nv i s ib i l i ty " o f l i m ina lp e r sonae h a s at wof o ld c ha ra c te r . T hey a r e a to n ce n o l o nge r c l a s s if i ed a nd n o t y e t c l a s s if ied" ( Tu rn e r 1 99 1 :96 ) . When ap e r son d i e s , t h e s ou l c hang e s c ond i t ion i mm ed ia te ly i n to a v u lne rab le a nd d ang e rou s c ond i t ion . T he s ou l w ande r sa r ound i n as t a te o fu nhappy r e s t le s sn e s s , a nd i s n o t a lowed t o m ix w i th t h e o t he r d ead . T h e c ond i t ion i s c a l led p re ta , w h ich m ean s " decea s ed " o r " depa r ted" . T h e p re ta r e p r e sen t s t h e s ou l d u r ing t h i s t r an s i t iona l p e r iod . T h rough s ub sequen t r i t e s , t h e p r e ta b ecome s ap i saca a nd f i na l ly h e r e a che s t h e d i gn i ty o ft h e p i t r .

F igure 6 . 4T he b amboo s t r e t che ri sp l a ced w i th t h e d ecea sed 's f e e ti n to t h er i ve rw h i le t h ep y r ei sb u i l t .

H oweve r , t h e t e rm p re ta i sa l so r e f e r r ed t oa sm a levo len t b e ing s a l ong w i th o t he r h o s t i le s p i r i t s o ft h e d ead ( a s t h e 2 6

F i gur e6 . 5T he r e la t ive ss p r ink led h o ly w a te ro nt h ed ecea sed

" ( . . . ) T h e s ou l i nt h e h uman b ody i so ft h e s i z e o f at h umb . When i ti sd r agg ed o u t o ft h e b ody b y t h e m e s seng e r s o f Y ama , i tc r ie s p a inf u l ly l o ok ing w i s tf u l ly a th i s e r s twh i le h om e . T h e d i sgu s tf u lb ody w i thou t l i f e a nd b r ea th b ecome s u n tou chab le s udd en ly , s me l l s f o u l a nd i sd i s l iked b y a l l . T he b ody s u f f e r s i nt h r ee w ay s : E i th e r i ti se a ten b yw o rm s o r t r an sf o rmed t o f e ce s o r r e duc ed t o a s he s" ( Ga ruda P u rana I , 1 . 15 .20 -24 ) . D u r ing t h e c r ema t ion " t he f i r e c on sum e s t h e b ody b u t t h e m e r i t a nd d eme r i t a c company h im . T he b ody i s b u rn t b y t h e f i r e b u t t h e a c t ion s p e rp e t r a t ed b yh im k e ep h i sc ompany "( i b id : I I . 12 .26 -27 ) .

w e r e n o t f am i l ia r w i th t h i s c u s tom ; t h u s Iw i l l a s sume t h a t i ti sn o t ac ommon p r a c t ice . T he o l d e s t s o n l i th i s 8 5 -yea r -o ld f a the r 's p y re b y s e t t ing f i r e t o ap i ece o f c l o th i mme r sed w i th g hee i n t h e d ecea sed 's m ou th ( F igu r e 6 . 7 ) . When t h e p y r e i sg o ing t o b e l i t , i ti sp r ef e r r ed t os t a r t l i gh t ing e i the r t h e f ood i nt h e m ou th o rb eh ind t h ed ecea sed 's h ead . T he r eaf t e rt h ep y r e i s l i ti na l d i r ec t ion s , m ov ing a r ound t h e p y r e f r om t h e r i gh t . T he o n ly a low ed c ombu s t ib le i t em u sed d u r ing c r ema t ion s , i sg he e . T he d ecea sed 's p o l lu ted c l o th s a nd t h e " way -c lo th " w e r e l a id o n t h e t o p o ft h e p y r e ( F igu r e 6 . 8 ) . T he b amboo b i e rw a st a ken a pa r t , a nd t h er e la t ive su sed t h e t wo l o ng b amboo s t i ck s t or e -e s tab l i sh t h e p y re d u r ing t h e f i r e a nd t ob r eak t h e h a lf -bur n t a nd c ha r coa ly c o rp se i n to p i ece s , i n o r de r t o p e rf o rm a t o ta l b ur n ing o f t h e b ody ( F igu r e 6 . 9 ) . I n t h e H indu t h ough t i ti si n au sp ic iou s i f r ema in s o f t h e s k e le ton a r e l e f t a t t h e c r ema t ion p a t ch . F u r the rmo r e , t h e" v i ta lb r ea th " i sr e lea sed f r om t h e c ha r r ed c o rp se o ft h e d ecea sed b y c r a ck ing o pen t h e s ku l l b y t h e b amboo s t ick s , a nd p r ec i se ly a t t h a t m omen t t h e d ea th p o l lu t ion b eg in s . ( P a r ry 1 987 [ 198 479 ) . T hu s t h e t wo s on s ' h a i r i ss h av ed ( F igu r e 6 . 10 ) , a nd t h e r ema in s w e r e l e f ti nt h e c em e t e ry ( F igu r e 6 . 11) . When t h ec r ema t ion w a s c omp le ted , t h e s o n s c o l lec ted p i ece s o f c ha r coa l ( a nd i f p o s s ib le t h e r ema in s o ft h e b ody ) i n ap i ece o fc l o th , a nd t h r ew i ti n to t h er i v e r( F igu r e6 . 12 ) , i nt h e s ame m anne rt h e r ema in s o ft h e b amboo s t r e t che r w e r e g i ven t o t h e r i ve r . Wh en t h e a s he s a r e g i ven t ot h e r i ve r , t h e h o ly w a te r , t h e s ou l w i l l a lway s a ta in f r eedom . T hu s t h e n ex t i n ca rna t ion m ay s t a r t .

T he p y r e s hou ld p r ef e rab ly b e m ade o f s h rekanda ( s anda lwood ) o n t h e g r ound o n w h ich n o o t he r d ead h a s b een c r ema ted p r e sen t ly , i . e . i ts hou ld b e c l ean . T he f i r ewood i se xpen s ive , a nd m ay c o s t o ne m on th s s a la ry . When t h e c r ema t ion p y r e w a s e r e c ted , t h e o l d B rahman w a s l a id n aked o n t h e p y r e w i th a f ew p i ece s o f c l o th c ov e r ing t h e a bdomen , b ecau se ap e r son i sb o rn n aked a nd s hou ld t h e r ef o r e l e av e t h i s w o r ld n aked . C lo the s m ay d i s tu rb t h e s ou l 's a bandonmen t o ft h e b ody . S eve ra l o ft h e r e la t iv e s s p r ink led w a t e r f r om t h e r i ve r o n t h e d ecea sed ( F igu r e6 . 5 ) , t h e r eaf t e rt h eo l de s ts on p l a ced ac o in i n to t h e m ou th ( ap i ece o fg o ld m ay a l so b eu s ed ) , t h en h eg ave r aw r i ce ( of t en c omb in ed w i th r aw d a a l a nd r aw l e n t i l s ) a nd f i na l ly g hee t oh i sf a th e r( F igu r e6 . 6 ) . A s ma l l p o r t ion o f t h e f l e sh f r om t h e c o rp se s hou ld b e r emov ed a nd w r app ed i nw h i te c l o th o rs om e k i nd o fl e af . T h i s f l e sh s hou ld e i th e r b e b u r ied i nt h e g r ound b ef o r e t h e f u n e ra l , o rt h rown i nt h e r i ve rt o g e the rw i th t h e a s he s a f t e r t h e c r ema t ion . H ow eve r , e ven t h ough s om e i n f o rman t s h av e d e sc r ibed t h i s p r a c t ice , Ih av e n eve r s e en i td u r ing f u n e ra l c e r emon ie s . Mo r eove r , s e ve ra l o t he r i n f o rman t s

2 7

F igure 6 . 6T he s on so f f e red g hee t ot h e i rf a the r

F igure 6 . 7T he p y re w a s l i ti nt h ed ecea sed 's mou th

F igure 6 . 8T he p o l lu ted c l o the s w e r e b u rn to nt h e p y re

28

F igure 6 . 9B amboo s t ick sw e r eu s ed t or e -e s tab l i sh t h ep y re . Ac r ema t ion o f a5 1 -yea r -o ld d ecea sed C hhe t r ia tN i re G ha t

F igure 6 . 10 C rema t ion 2 9

B ef o r e t h e f u ne r a l p roce s s ion l e f t t h e c eme t e ry , t h ey a l w en t n o r thwa rd i nt h e c eme te ry a nd h ad ah o ly b a th i nt h e r i ve ra nd p u r if i ed t h em se lve s a f t e rwa rd sw i th g hee . F i na l ly , m oney c o l lec ted f r om t h e l i neag e a nd t h e r e la t ive s w a s d i s t r ibu ted t ot h e p a r t ic ipan t s i nt h e p ro ce s s ion . T he r eaf t e r t h e p roce s s ion w en t b a ck h ome t o t h e i r v i l lage , a nd t h e s on s o b se rved k i r iya , t h e d ea th p o l lu t ion , f o rt h i r teen d ay s . T he c r ema t ion i t s e lf t o ok a bou t t wo a nd a h a lf h ou r s . A cco rd ing t o H indu b e l ief s , t h e t i me i tt a k e s t o b u rn t h e b ody d epend s u pon t h e d ecea sed 's s i n s . T h e m o r e s i nf u l a p e r son h a s b een ,t h e l o nge rt i me t h ec r ema t ion r i t et a ke s . I n V a rana s i Iw a s t o ld t h a tt h e p y r e o f as i nne rc ou ld b u rn f o r a tl e a s ts i xh ou r s . S im i la r ly , w hen t h e C h ief M in i s te r o fB iha r o fI n d ia w a s c r ema ted i nV a rana s i i n 1 983 , t h e c o rp se b u rn t o n ly w i th t h e g r ea te s t d if i cu l ty , d e sp i t e t h e s i z e o ft h e p y r e a nd t h e a moun t o fg hee a pp l ied t oi t .T he r e a son w a s s uppo sed t o b e t h e e no rmou s b u rden o f s i n a c cumu la ted w i th h i s c o r rup te a rn ing s( Pa r ry 1 994 :127 ) . T he Maga r s p e rf o rm t h e c r ema t ion r i t e s m o r e o r l e s s i na c o r r e spond ing w ay . Women a sw e l l a sm en p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h e f u ne ra l p roce s s ion o f t h e 9 6 -y ea r -o ld Maga r w oman f r om t h e R e sha v i l lag e . A th e rh ome , t h e d ecea sed h ad t h a t d ay g o t ac i ga r e t te a nd w a t e r w a s o f e r ed i nh e r m ou th . When t h e p roce s s ion r e a ched t h e r i ve rbank , t h e b amboo s t r e t che r w a s c a r r ied a r ound o ne o f t h e b i g t r ee s a tt h e r i ve r s ide ,b ef o r et h ep roce s s ion w en td own t ot h er i ve rbed .

F igure 6 . 11 T he h a i rc u t t ing c e remony

O rang eg r ave c l o the sc ove r ed t h ed ead b ody . H e rs on sb u i l t t h e g r ave , a nd s h e w a s b u r ied i n ac a i rn l o ca ted h a lf i n to t h e r i ve r , s i t t ing i nB uddha o r l o tu s p o s i t ion f a c ing s ou th , w i th ab i g s t one a th e r b a ck t ot h e n o r th ( F igu r e 6 . 13 14 ) . T he r e la t ive s c l a imed t h a t t h e r e a son w hy s h e w a s b u r ied l i ke t h i s w a s t h a t s h e h ad b een aH indu . A s t h e g r ave w a s b u i l t , i tw a s c on t inuou s ly f i l led w i th w e t s a nd a nd s t one s f r om t h e r i ve r . T he s t r e t che r w a s t a k en a pa r t a nd g i ven t o t h e r i ve r . O n ly d u r ing t h e c on s t r uc t ion o f t h e g r ave , t h e d augh te r sp e rf o rmed c e r emon ia lw eep ing , s i t t ing i nf r on to f t h e g r ave i n ar ow . A pp rox ima te ly h a lf ak i lo o fr aw r i ce w a s o f e r ed a s ag if ti n aw h i t e " way -c lo th " o nt h eb amboo s t ick , p l a ced b y t h e d ecea sed 's h ead w h en t h e g r ave w a s c omp le ted . T he r eaf t e r t h e r e la t ive s s p r ink led w a te r f r om t h e K a l igandak i R ive r o n t h e g r ave , a nd t h e p r oce s s ion w en tf u r the rn o r th i nt h ec eme te ry a nd h ad ah o ly b a th . T he f u ne ra lt o ok l e s st h an o ne h ou ra l i na l .

" For sak ing t he b ody l i ke t h es e rpen tc a s t ing o f fi t s s l ough ,t h es ub t le s ou l o ft i l es i ze o ft h et humb r oams a bou ti ni t sa er ia lf o rm o ppre s sed b yh unger" ( Garuda P urana I I ,1 .25 .14 15 ) . F igure 6 . 12 T he a s h e sw e r es c a t te r ed i n to t h er i ve r

3 0

F igure 6 . 13 T he b u r ia lo f a9 6 -yea r -o ld Magar woman f r om t h eR e sha v i l lage a t N i re Gha ts i t t ing i nB uddha p os i t ion

" I t i st rue t ha t aman l i ve s f or ah undred ' c ar s a ss t a ted i nt he V edas .B u td ue t ot he i n f luence o fm isdeeds h ed ie s ap rema ture d ea th" ( Garuda P urana I I , 1 .24 .10 ) .

"When t he a c t ions o fp rev ious b i r th r i pen , man s uccumb st od ea th . F rom t he t ime o f c oncep t ion t ot he f i f th y ear e ven as l igh ts i n may c ause d ea th . I ti sd ue t o ma jor s i ns t ha t man d ie sa f ter t he f i f th y ear . U sua l ly , h e c omp le te st he a l lo t ted s pan o fl i f e ,d i e sa nd i s b orn a ga in . I ti s ar e su l to ft he i nf luence o f s acred r i te sa nd g i f t sh ei sa b le t oc omp le te h i s l i f e 's t erm" ( Garuda P urana I l l , 1 .24 .31-33 ) .

F igure 6 . 14 T he b u r ia l r i t e i sp e rf o rmed a nd t h e f u nera l p roces s ion l e aves t h e c eme te ry

3 1

w he r e t h e f u ne ra ls t a ke p l ace . T he f u ne ra l s a r e a lmo s t s t r ic t ly l o ca ted b e tween t h e n o r the rnmo s t a nd t h e s ou the rnmo s t o f t h e se s t a ir s , b e tween w h ich t h e r e i s a d i s tance o fa pp rox ima te ly 3 00 m e te r s .

N i re G ha t I nt h e f o l low ing Iw i l l f i r s tp re sen tt h e ma te r ia l o rm o r tua ry r ema in s f r om N i re G ha t a nd t h e reaf te r t h e d if e r ence s i n l i f e c yc le r i tua l s a nd m o r tua ry r ema in s f r om t h e r e sea r ch v i l lage s . T he v a r ia t ion i n t h e r ema in s a nd p r ac t ice s a r e p robab ly l a rge r w i th in t h e r e sea r ch a r ea s i nce Ih ave o n ly b een i ns ome o ft h e v i l lage s .

When Iw a s a tN i re a tt h e e nd o f F eb rua ry 1 997 , i tw a s a bou t h a lf ay ea r s i nce t h e l a s t t ime t h e r i ve r h ad w a shed a way t h e m o r tua ry r ema in s . T hen Ic oun ted 8 6 g r ave s o f v a r iou s t y pe s a nd 3 8 c r ema t ion p a t che s . I n t h e e nd o f S ep tembe r 1 997 , a f te r t h e monsoon f l ood , t h e re w e r e 5 2 g rave s a nd 7 c r ema t ion p a tche s , s e ven w eek s l a te r ; t h e r e spec t ive n umbe r s w e r e 7 4 g rave s a nd 1 3 c r ema t ion p a tche s . H oweve r , t h e se n umbe r s a r e n o t " ha rd f a c t s " e ven t hough t h ey a r et h e mo s tq uan t i ta t ive d a ta Ih ave c o l lec ted .

T he b u r ia l a nd c r ema t ion g round s how s ag r ea tv a r ia t ion o f d i f f e ren t b u r ia l p rac t ice s . A l l c a s te s a nd g roup s m ay b u ry o r c r ema te t h e i r r e la t ive s a tN i r e G ha t ( F igu re 6 . 15 ) . Mo s t o ft h e m or tua ry r ema in s a r e l e s s t h an o ne y ea r o l d . I nt h e r a iny s e a son i nt h e s umme rt ime t h e r i ve r w a she s a way t h e f une ra l m a te r ia l w i th t h e mon soon f l ood . T hu s t h e i n huma t ion m ay b e p e r ce ived a s ac omb ina t ion o fb u r ia l s a nd w a te r -bu r ia l s .

I nS ep tembe r Ir e cogn ized af ew g rave s w h ich Ic oun ted i n F eb rua ry a l so . T he r i ve rt h i sy ea rh ad n o tb een a ss t rong a s i nt h e p r ev iou sy ea r s , t h u s s ome o ft h ew e l l b u i l t c a i rn s h ad " su rv ived" w he rea s c r ema t ion p a tche s w e r e w a shed a way . A nd b ecau se o ft h e mon soon f l ood , t h e r i ve r h ad g r ubbed u po l de ri n huma t ion s i nt h er i ve rbed .

L ikew i se , a f t e r c r ema t ion s t h e a she s a r e t h rown i n to t h e r i ve r , b u t r ema in s o f c ha r coa l a nd a she s a r e s t i l l l e f t a s c r ema t ion p a tche s o n t h e r i ve rbed . When t h e m on soon f l ood w a she s a way t h e c r ema t ion p a tche s , t h e se f u ne ra l s m ay a l so b e s e en a s c omp le ted b ecau se t h en t h e c eme te ry i sc l eaned . T he f une ra l s a r e t o ag r ea t e x ten t l o ca ted h a lf i n to t h e r i ve r . T he c l o se r t h e f une ra l s a r e t ot h e r i ve r , t h e b e t te r ( F igu re 6 . 16 ) . T hu s t h e r ema in s f r om t h e t ime i mmed ia te ly a f t e r t h e mon soon p e r iod i n t h e a u tumn a r e l o ca ted c l o se t ot h e r i ve r s ide , w h i le d u r ing t h e s p r ing t ime a nd i nt h ed ry s e a son , t h e f u ne ra l s a r e l o ca ted f a ro u to nt h e r i ve rbed .

F u r the rmo r e , a s ar e su l t o fd i s tu rbance s c au sed b y n a tu ra l p roce s se s a s w e l l a s a n ima l s ( F igu r e 6 . 17 -6 .20 ) , i th a s i n s ome c a se s b een d i ff icu l t t o d e te rm ine w h ich r ema in s d id b e long t o w h ich i n d iv idua l , e . g . w h ich s ke le ton r ema in s b e long t o w h ich s ku l l . Af te r a n e va lua t ion o f t h e t a phonom ic p roce s se s , t h e p r esen ted n umbe r s o ft h e g r ave s i nr e la t ion t o c r ema t ion p a tche s a r e p r obab ly h ighe r t h an t h e r e a l s i tua t ion . S t i l l , t h e t e ndency i sc l ea r , r ega rd le s s o f e t hn ic i ty , e ven t h ough m o s t o f t h e d ecea sed s hou ld h ave b een c r ema ted ,t h em a jo r i ty i sb u r ied o nt h er i ve rbed .

N i re G ha t i so r ien ted n o r th sou th . T he re a r e t h r ee s t one s t a i r s f r om t h e r i ve r s ide l e ad ing d own t o t h e r i ve rbed

F igure 6 . 15 N i re G ha t

F igure 6 . 16 B u r ia l sa sc l o se a sp o s s ib le t ot h er i ve r .

3 2

F i gure 6 . 17 —6 . 20 T aphonom ic p r o ce s se s . B u r ia l s i te s d i s tu rbed b yn a tu ra lp roce s se sa sw e l la sa n ima l s . T hu s i t h a sb een d i ff i cu l ti ns om ec a se st od e te rm ine w h ich r ema in s d i db e long t ow h ich i n d iv idua l ,e .g .w h ich s ku l lb e longed t o w h ich s k e le ton r ema in s .

3

A s ar e su l t o fp ove r ty a nd d i ff i cu l t ie s i ng e t t ing f i r ewood f o r t h e f u ne ra l p y re , b u r ia l s a r e m o r e c ommon t h an t h e r e l ig ion p r e sc r ibe s . I ft h e d ecea sed h ad ag ood r e pu ta t ion a nd w a s a pp r ec ia ted i nh i s v i l lage , a l t h e v i l lage r s i nt h e p r oce s s ion m igh tc a r ry o ne p i ece o ff i r ewood t ot h e f u ne ra l p y r e a s al a s t h onou r , a nd h e w i l l s t i l l b e c r ema ted . A cco rd ing t oB rahman i sm , i ft h e d ecea sed i sb u r ied w hen h es hou ld h ave b een c r ema ted , i tc au se sn ega t ive k a rma f o r t h e f o r thcom ing l i f e a nd r e b i r th . Ap a r t o ft h e k a rma d i d n o t g e t ap rope r f u ne ra l , i . e . c r ema t ion . I nt h a t r e spec t t h e d ecea sed w i l l g e t al e s s g ood s t a r t i n h i s n ex t l i f e . A f a ta l i s t ic v i ew m ay p ene t ra te t h e a t t i tude t owa rd s t h i s d e s t iny ; i tw a s n o t t h e i n ten t ion t h a t t h e c on cer n ed p e r son s h ou ld g e t ap rope r f u ne ra l i nt h i s l i f e . Mo r eove r , a nd e ven w o r se , i s t h e d e s t iny o f t h e b u r ied a f t e r t h e f u ne ra l c e r emony . S i nce t h e g r av e s a r e b u i l t o fl o o se s t one s , a f t e r igure 6 . 21 S ma l lc a i rn w i th t h eh and le so nt h es t r e t ch e r s om e t i me a l o t o f t h e s k e le ton s c an b e f o und l y ing F j u t t i n g o u t s i d e t h e g r a v e . e xpo sed , e i the r n a tu ra l ly b ecau se t h e s t one s h ave r o l led a way , o rb y p r eda to r s , d og s a nd c a r r ion b i rd s w ho e a t t h e c o rp se s . I n t h e p a s t , t h ieve s a l so s t o le t h e g r ave g ood s w hen j ewe l le ry o fg o ld a nd s i lve rw e r eg i ven . T he se " t rag ic l i ve s " o ft h e c o rp se s a r e ad oub le s i n i nH indu i sm , b o th t h e d ecea sed 's s ou l a nd t h e m i se rab le a n ima l s w ho e a t t h e c o rp se s s uf e r . H oweve r , o rd ina ry p eop le h ave o t he r e s cha to log ica l c oncep t ion s t h an B rahman i sm a nd t h e p and i t s . T he l o ca l f o lk lo r e a nd t r ad i t ion i nt h e a r ea g i ve a d i f f e r en t e xp lana t ion . Ab u r ia l a tN i r e G ha t i sp r ef e rab le b ecau se o f i t s s p ec ia l s a c r edne s s c ompa r ed t o o t he r c em e t e r ie s . Af t e r s ome y ea r s , t h e w a t e r w i l l t r an sf o rm t h e d ecea sed 's b one s i n to s a l ig ram . T hu s t h ey h ave b ecome a n i n ca rna t ion o fV i snu . T he m o s t c ommon g r ave c on s t ruc t ion s a r e s ma l l c a ir n s m ad e o f l o o se w a te r r o l l ed s t one s . H oweve r , t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t f o u r t y pe s o fg r ave s : ( a ) t h e b amboo s t re t che r w h ich F igure 6 . 22 S ma l lc a i rn . t h e d ecea sed i sc a r r ied o n i sp l a ced o n as t one p a ck ing m ade o n t h e r i ve rbed . S ub sequen t ly t h e c o rp se i sb a r e ly c ove r ed b y af ew l a ye r s o fs t one s . Of t en t h e h and le so nt h e s t r e t che r a r e j u t t ing o u t s ide t h e g r ave ( F igu r e 6 . 2 1) , a nd t h u s t h e s i ze s o ft h e g r ave s a r ej u s t al i t t le b i t l o nge r t h an t h e l e ng th o ft h e d ead . S im i la r g r ave s a r e e r ec ted w i thou t t h e d ecea sed l y ing o n t h e b i e r ( F igu r e 6 . 22 ) . T he o ve ra l l m a jo r i ty o f t h e g r ave s a r e l o ca t ed m o r e o r l e s s n o r th sou th w i th t h e h ead i ne i the r o f t h e d i rec t ion s . S t i l l t h e r e i s am ino r i ty o f t h e g r ave s l o ca ted e a s t -we s t o r i nd i r ec t ion s i nb e tween t h e t wo a xe s . T he b ody m ay b e p l a ced i na ny o ft h e se d i r ec t ion s , a nd t h e h ead m igh t b e t u rned a no the r w ay . ( b ) T he d ecea sed a r e b u r ied i n ac a i rn a nd s i t t ing i n B uddha p o s i t ion ( F igu r e 6 . 23 ) . T he d ecea sed m ay s i t i nt h i s B uddha p o s i t ion f a c ing F igure 6 . 23 C a ir nw he r et h ed ecea sed i sb u r ied i ne i the r s ou th , n o r th a nd e a s t , a nd Iw i l l a l so a s sume w e s t , a l though B uddha -o rs i t t ing p o s i t ion . Ih ave n o t s e en s uch a g r ave a tN i r e . ( c ) Two th r ee f e e t i nf lammab le i na dd i t ion t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h e c r ema t ion c an d eep i n huma t ion s i n t h e s a nd i n t h e r i ve rbed w he r e t h e t a ke p l a ce c l o se rt ot h e r i ve r . T he s i z e o ft h e p y r e i sr a r e ly d e cea sed i sl a id i ns up ine p o s i t ion ( F igu r e 6 . 24 ) . ( d ) I nt h e l a rge r t h an w ha t i s n eeded t o f u lf i l t h e c r ema t ion , i . e p a s t , p eop le w e r e b u r ied i nd eep g r ave s i nr i ve rbed s i t t ing m a x im um t w o m e t e r s i n l e n g t h , a n d o n e m e t e r i n w i d t h a n d i nB uddha p o s i t ion , a tl e a s t f a c ing n o r th . A lbe i t Ih av e n o t h e igh t . Mo s t o f t h e c r ema t ion p a tche s a r e p l a ced n o r th c onf i rmed i t , Ia s sume t h a t t h e r e a r e o t he r p o s s ib i l i t ie s s o u t h p a r a l l e l t o t h e r i v e r . S t i l l a m i n o r i t y i s p l a c e d i n o t h e r c oncer n ing i n huma t ion s i nt h er i ve rbed . T h e f u ne ra l p y r e i s d i r e c t i o n s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , m a n y o f t h e s t o n e s e t t i n g s a r e b u i l te i the rw i th o rw i thou t as t one s e t t ing . c i r cu la r , h en cef o r th i si to f t en i mpo s s ib l e t o d ec id e t h e d i r ec t ion ( F igu r e 6 . 26 ) . I n deed , i tc an b e e v en w o r s e w hen T he p y r e c an a l so b e b u i l t o n t h e t o p o f as t one p a ck ing o r t h e re a r en os t one s e t t ing s . p l a tf o rm ( F igu r e 6 . 25 ) . T h i s p r a c t ice m ay f a c i l i ta t e t h e c r ema t ion

i t s e lf i n t h e

w ay

t h a t

i t b ecom e s

m o r e 3 4

F igure 6 . 25 A f u ne ra lp y r eb u i l to nt h et o po f as t one p a ck ing .

F i gure 6 . 24 I n huma t ion i nt h e s a nd i nt h er i ve rbed .

( 1 ) B rahman s ( o r H indu s i n g enera l ) . T hey a r e s uppo s ed t o b o th b u ry a nd c r ema t e i ns u p ine p o s i t ion o r ien t ed n o r th sou th . Whe the r t h e h ead s hou ld b e p o in ted t o t h e n o r th o r t o t h e s ou th a nd t h e f e e t v i ce v e r sa , d epend s u pon t r ad i t ion . Mo s t p eop le p r ef e r t o p o in t t h e h ead o f t h e d ecea sed t o t h e n o r th , a l though t h e r e i s ag ene ra l a g r eemen t t h a t n o r th i s i n o t he r s i tua t ion s a n i n au sp ic iou s d i r e c t ion , e . g . p eop le n eve r s l eep w i th t h e i rh ead t ot h e n o r th . H ow eve r , i ts e em s l i ke v e ry f ew a r e c once rned w i th w hy t h ey p o in tt h ed ecea sed t o t h e n o r th , e xcep t t h a t t h ey f o l low t h e i r t r ad i t ion , a nd t h a tt h e d e cea sed s hou ld b e l a id o n t h e n o r th sou th a x i s . S ou th i s t h e d i r ec t ion o f Y ama 's k i ngdom ( Pa r ry 1 994 :173 ) . ( 2 ) Magar s . T he i rf u ne ra l p r a c t ice d epend s u pon s e ve ra l f a c to r s . ( a ) R e l ig ion . Whe the r t h ey a r e H indu s o r B uddh i s t s , a nd t o w h ich e x ten t r ema in s o f a n a nc ien t a n im i s t ic r e l ig ion a nd p r a c t ice p ene t ra t e s i n to o r h a s s u rv iv ed i n t h e se H indu o r B uddh i s t b e l ieve s m ay i n f luen ce t h e c ho ice o f f u n e ra l p r a c t ice s a nd b u r ia l c u s tom s . ( b ) G eog raph ica l l o ca t ion . Maga r s w ho b e l ieve i n H indu i sm p r ef e r , l i k e o t h e r H indu s , t o c a r ry t h e i r d ecea sed t o N i r e a nd K a l igandak i R ive r , r e ga rd le s s i f t h ey l i ve i n B ag lung B azaa r o r i n t h e n ea rby a r ea s .

F i gur e6 . 26 C r ema t ion p a tch w i th c i r cu la rs t on es e t t ing .

H oweve r , Maga r s l i v ing i nB ag lung B az a a r w ho a r e s t a ted B uddh i s t s , d o a l so u s eN i r ea st h e i rc eme t e ry b ecau se t h ey d o n o t h ave t h e i r o wn . ( c ) D i sag r eemen t . Among t h e Maga r s i n B ag lung B azaa r w h ich a r e B uddh i s t s , t h e r e i sn o g ene ra l a g r eemen t o fw ha t t h e r i gh t f u ne ra l p r a c t ice i s .A s B uddh i s t s t h ey a r e a r e l ig iou s m ino r i ty . T h e r e i s a n i n c r ea s ing c on sc iou sne s s o f t h e i r e t hn i c i ty , a nd s ome Maga r s h ave c hanged t h e i r r e l ig ion f r om H indu i sm t oB uddh i sm a s ap a r t o ft h i s s t ra t egy . I nt h i s m anne rt h ey d o n o th ave ac on t inu ing B uddh i s t t r ad i t ion f r om t h e p a s t t ot h e p r e sen t , a nd t h e r ef o re t h e r e i s ac onf u s ion a s t o w ha t t h e r e a l B uddh i s t b u r ia l c u s tom i s . S ome c l a im t h a t a s B uddh i s t s , t h ey s hou ld b e b u r ied , o t he r s a r gue t h a tt h ey s hou ld b ec r ema t ed . S t i l l , s ome a r e i nf a vou r o f ac omb ina t ion , t o b u r y t h e a she s a f te r t h e c r ema t ion . T hu s t h e Maga r s h ave d if e r en t f u ne ra l p r a c t ice s a tN i r e : ( a ) C r ema t ion . T h e b ody m ay l i eo nt h ep y r ew i th t h e h ead e i the r p o in t ing n o r thwa rd s o r s o u thwa rd s . ( b ) B u r ied l y ing s up ine i ns ma l l c a i rn s . T he o r ien ta t ion d epend s u pon t h e i r t r ad i t ion , a nd v a r ie s f r om n o r th sou th t oe a s t -we s t . ( c ) B u r ied i n B uddha p o s i t ion i n s ma l l c a i rn s . ( d ) B u r ied i n B uddha p o s i t ion i nd eep g r ave s i nt h e r i ve rbed . A t l e a s t u n t i l t wo g ene ra t ion s a go , Maga r s w i th B uddh i s t b e l ief s w e re b u r ied i nt h i s l o tu s p o s i t ion f a c ing n o r th . S t i l l i ti sl i ke ly t h a t t h e r e a r e o t he r Maga r b u r ia l p r a c t ice s , i nt h e p r e sen t a sw e l l a si nt h ep a s t . 3 5

B en i

v a r ia t ion i no r ien ta t ion s . B ecau se o ft h e d i s tu rban ce o n t h e r i ve rbed i s t h e p rob lem o f r e p r e s en ta t ivene s s o n t h is c eme te ry e qua l t oN i r e G ha t . T he p r ob lem i st h a tv e ry f ew d ead b od ie s" s u rv ive" .

T he c eme te ry i s s i tua ted i n t h e c r o s s -po in t o f Myagd i K ho la a nd K a l igandak i R ive r ( F igu r e 6 . 27 ) . T hu s i ti sa s a c r ed a nd h o ly p l a ce f o r t h e n ea rby d i s t r ic t s i n aw ay c o r r e spond ing t o t h a t o f N i r e , a l though t h e c eme t e ry i s s ma l le r . T he l o ca t ion b e tween t wo r i ve r s i s f a vo rab le b ecau se w hen t h e r i ve r s w a sh a way t h e r ema in s , t h e d e cea sed r e ce ive m e r i t f r om t wo r i ve r s . When Iw a s t h e r e i nt h e e nd o f F eb rua ry 1 997 , Ic oun ted 5 g r ave s a nd 4 c r ema t ion p a t che s . I n t h e e nd o f S ep tembe r 1 997 , t h e r e w e r e 5g r ave s a nd 1c r ema t ion p a t ch , s e ven w eek s l a t e r ; t h e r e spec t ive n umbe r s w e r e 1 3 g r ave s a nd 7 c r ema t ion p a t ch e s .

T he p o s tm o r t em p roce s se s a r e c omp lex a nd n um e rou s , a nd m ay b e r e ga rded a s a n i n te rp lay b e tw een p r e se rva t ion a nd d e s t ruc t ion ( Bodd ing ton , G a r land & J anaway 1 987 :4 ) . T he r e a r e b o th i n t r in s ic a nd e x t r in s ic f a c to r s t o b one p r e se rva t ion . T he i n t r in s i c f a c to r s s t em f r om t h e n a tu r e o f t h e b one s i t s e lf , i . e . t h e c hem i s t ry , s h ap e , s i z e , d en s i ty a nd a ge . T he e x t r in s ic f a c to r s a r e m a in ly o ft h r e e c a t ego r ie s ; t h e e nv i ronmen t ( g eog r aphy a nd g eo logy ) , t h e n a tu r e o f l o ca lf a una a nd f l o ra a nd f i na l ly t h ea c t iv i t ie so fm an .

T h e c eme te ry i sh eav i ly d i s tu rb ed , p a r t ly b y a n ima l s a nd t h er i v e r s , b u tm o s t ly b ye x t en s ive q ua r ry ing o fs t one s f r om t h er i v e rbed . If o und s c a t te r ed r ema in so fs k e le ton s a l o ve r t h e a r ea , a s w e l l a s s ma l l c ha r coa l r ema in s b ecau se o fa n i n t en s ive f l ow o fw a te r o n t h e r i ve rbed , t h u s t h e se c oun t s a l so r e p r e sen tt e ndenc ie sr a the rt h an a c cu ra t en umbe r s .

T he e nv i ronm en ta l p ro ce s se s a r e w a t e r , s o i l , t empe r a tu r e a nd a i r , w he r ea s a l l k i nd s o f m i c ro -o r m a c ro o r gan i sm s m ay d e s t roy t h e b one s . B u t h uman sa r et h e m o s t i mpo r tan t f a c to r i n d e t e rm in ing t h e r e la t iv e p r e se rva t ion o f t h e s k e le ton s . T he mode o f d i spo sa l i sc r uc ia l i nt h i s r e ga rd ( Hende r son 1 987 ) .

I n F eb rua ry t h e c eme te ry w a s l o ca ted e a s twa rd s t o K a l igandak i R ive r ( a r ea A ) , w he r ea s i nS ep t embe r i th ad m ov ed w e s twa rd st o Myagd i K ho la ( a r ea B ) . I nN ovembe r , t h e f u ne ra l s h ad a ga in t a ken p l a ce a l ong K a l igandak i R ive r ( a r ea A ) w he r ea st h e r e w e r e n o n ew r ema in s a l ong Myagd i K ho la ( a r ea B ) . B o th t h e g r ave s a nd t h e c r ema t ion p a t che s a l ong K a l igandak i R ive r w e r e d i rec ted n o r th sou th . T h e f u n e r a l r ema in s a l ong Myagd i K ho la s how a g r ea t e r

A l l t h e se f a c to r s w o rk a ga in s tt h e p r e se r va t ion o ft h eb one s a t b o th t h e N i re G ha t a nd B en i G ha t . A t t h e l a t te r , h oweve r , i ts e em s a l so l i ke t a boo s c onnec t ed t o t h e g r aveya rd h ave s t epp ed a s ide f o r m an 's q ua r ry ing o f s t one s . T hu s t h e c u l tu r a l a nd r e l ig iou s i d ea s h av e e i the r p r e se rv ing o rd e s t ruc t ive e f ec t s .

F igure 6 . 27 T he c eme te ry i nB en i . P i c tu r et owa rd sn o r th .

3 6

Maga r s i nA rga l VDC I n t h e A rga l v i l lage i n A rga l VDC t h e Maga r s p e rf o rm p a sne w hen t h e g i r l s a nd b oy s a r e f i ve a nd s i x m on th s r e spec t ive ly , a nd t h e c hewa r r i t ua l i sp e r f o rmed w hen t h e b oy s a r e e i th e r t h ree o r f i ve y ea r s o l d . W i thou t t h e p a sne c e r emony , d e cea sed c h i ld r en d o n o t r e ce ive f o od a sg r ave g if t s . B oy s w i thou t c hewa r a nd u nma r r ied g i r l a r e n o t a lowed t ob ec r ema ted . E ven t h ough Maga r sm ay p r a c t ice c r ema t ion , i n huma t ion i s t h e m o s t c ommon p r a c t ice , p a r t ly o f e c onom ic c on s ide ra t ion s , o r s o t h ey s a y . H oweve r , t h e e c onom ic s i tua t ion i sn o tw o r se t h an i ng ene ra l i nr u ra la r ea s . T he g if t t o t h e d ecea sed f o r h i s j ou rney t o t h e a f t e r l if e i s h i s f a vou r i te c ooked m ea l , m ade o f t h e e l de s t l a dy o f t h e h ou se . Ap e r son i sd ependan t u pon f o od w hen h e i sa l ive , a nd t h e r ef o r e h e i sa l so d ependan t u pon f o od w h en h e i s d ead . T h en h ew i l l g e t p ea ce i nt h e a f t e r l if e . I nb u r ia l s , t h e f o od i sp l a c ed i n ac oppe r p o t o r ab amboo b a sk e t , a nd p l a ced u nd e r t h e i r r i gh t a rm i n t h e g r ave . When t h ey c r ema te , t h e c ooked f o od i s p l a c ed d i r ec t ly o v e r t h e d ecea sed 's h e a r tw hen h e o rs h e i sl y ing o nt h ep y r e . T he r e i s n o d i f f e r ence i n t h e m ean ing o r t h e s ymbo l ic v a lue w he the r t h e f o od i sp l a ced u nde rt h e r i gh t a rm o ro ve r t h e h ea r t . T he d ecea s ed i s c a r r ied o n t h e s t re t che r w i th t h e f e e t t owa rd s t h e c eme t e ry a nd t h e h ead t owa rd s t h e h ou se , o t herw i s e t h e r e i s ap o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h e s o u l m ay h aun t t h e h ome a s ag ho s t . O n t h e w ay t ot h e c eme te ry , " way -f ood " i st h rown i n f r on t o f t h e f u ne ra l p roce s s ion . T he " way f ood" i s am ix tu re o fd i f f e ren t r aw i n g r ed ien t s l i ke s r i ce , m a iz e , w hea t a nd s oya b ean s . I ft h e r e a r e a ny l e f t -ove r o f t h e " way -f ood" w hen t h e p roce s s ion r e a che s t h e c eme te ry , t h e f o od i sp l aced t o g e the r w i th t h e c ook ed m ea l , e i the r i n t h e c on ta in e r o r o ve r t h e h ea r t . H oweve r , " way -f ood" i s o n ly u s ed f o r b oy s a f t e r t h e c hewa r r i t ua l a nd f o r w omen a f te r m a r r iag e . T he d ea th p o l lu t ion l a s t s f o r t h r ee d ay s o n ly .

F igure 6 . 28 T he g r aveya rd i nt h eA rga lv i l lage .

T he r e a r e n i ne c eme te r ie s i nA rg a l VDC , a l though s ome a r e o u t o fu s e n owaday s . T he Maga r s i nt h e A rga l v i l lage h ave t h e i ro wn g rav eya rd s epa ra ted b y as t one w a l l( F igu r e 6 . 28 ) . T he c eme te ry i ss i tua ted n o r th a nd a bove t h e v i l lage i nt h e m idd le o f ah i l l , f u r the r n o r th i s as a c r ed f o r e s t . T he b u r ia l p r a c t ice i si n huma t ion s i ns ma l l f l a t g r av e s w i thou t a ny k i nd o fs t one s t ruc tu r e s . T he d ecea sed i ss u ppo sed t o b e l a id s u p ine w i th t h eh ead t ot h en o r th -ea s ta nd t h ef e e tt o t h e s ou th -we s t , a nd t h e f a ce t u rned t ot h e n o r th . Iw a s t o ld t h a tt h i sd i r ec t ion o ft h e f a ce i sb e cau se , a c co rd ing t om y th , t h e i r f o r ef a the r s m ig ra ted i n to t h e a r ea f r om t h e n o r th . H ow eve r , t h e g r ave s a r e l o ca t ed i na l d i r ec t ion s b e tween t h en o r th a x i sa nd t h es ou th -ea s ta x i s . T he Maga r s a r e s ubd iv ided i n to s e ve ra l c l an s a nd l i neage s , a nd h ave c l a s s if i ed t h em se lve s i n to t wo g r oup s a f t e r w hen t h ey m ig r a ted i n to A rga l , a s t h e " f i r s t c o rn e r s" ( r a i thane ) a nd t h e" l a te rc o rne r s" ( pa suwa ) . T he p ad ( o rt h a r )d i v i s ion o ft h e M aga r s r e f e r st ot h e p a t r i l inea l g r oup s . Ap ad g r oup i s e xogamou s f r om a m a r r iage p o in t o f v i ew , a l though d if e r en tp ad h o lde r sm ay h av et h e s am e s ur name . T hu st h e p ad i s am ean s o fe x c lu s ion , o fc on s t ruc t ing s ma l le r s ub -

F igure 6 . 29 A Maga ri nt h eS i le v i l lag es h ow sa b amboo -ba sk e ts im i la rt ot h o se t h ey u s ed i nt h ep a s ta s g r ave g ood s 3 7

c a t ego r iza t ion o ft h e g r oup s i nt e rm s o f s e t t lem en t s i sa s f o l low s( i b id ) (Tab le 6 . 1) :

g roup s w i th in t h e l a rge r g roup o f Maga r s . T he s u rname c ome s a f t e r t h e p ad n ame , a nd m a r r iage c an t a ke p l a ce b e tw een t h e s ame s u rname h o lde r s ( Kha t t r i 1 995 :39 ) . T he

T ab le 6 . 1 C a t ego r iza t ion o f Maga rg r oup s i nt h eA rga l v i l lage i nt e rm so fs e t t lemen t T he g roup s

P ad

,S urname

" F ir s tc omer s" /R a i thane C ha rT ha r e —F i r s t C ha rT ha r e —S econd C ha rT ha r e —T h i rd C ha rT ha r e —F ou r th

O sa sha N au sa P u l i sa P un

G ha r t ia nd R oka G ha r t i G ha r t i P un

" La ter c o rner s" /P a suwa R oka N a i sa R oka T hapa

S i n ja l i N a i sa R am ja l i P a lpa

R oka G ha r t i R oka T hapa

p r a c t ice . C h i ld r en w i thou t p a sne c anno t r e ce ive f o od a s g r ave g ood s . B u tb oy s a sw e l l a sg i r l sh ave t ob em a r r ied i f c r ema t ion i st o b e p e rf o rmed . I nhuma t ion w a s t h e m o s t c ommon b u r ia l c u s tom i nt h e p a s t . N owaday s c r ema t ion s a r em o r eu sua l a mong a du l t s . H owev e r ,t h ep oo rp eop le a r e m a in ly b u r ied w he r ea s t h e r i ch p eop le a r e c r ema t ed . D ecea sed c h i ld r en u p t ot wo th ree y ea r s o fa ge a r e b u r ied s omewhe re i nt h e v i c in i ty o ft h e h ou se . T he r e la t ive s c a r ry t h e se c h i ld ren i nt h e i r a rm s . C o rp se s c a r r ied o n s t r e t ch e r s a r e p l a ced w i th t h e f e e t p o in t ing t o t h e c eme te ry a nd t h e h ead t o t h e i r h ome . T he d ecea sed a r e b o th b u r ied a nd c r ema ted w i th t h e h ead p o in t ing n o r thwa rd s a nd t h e f e e t s ou thwa rd s . R aw f o od i sp l a ced u nd e r t h e r i gh t a rm , t h e s am e i n g red ien t s a s i n am ea l , e . g . r i ce , v ege tab le s a nd b uf f a lo m ea t . H oweve r , s ome d ecade s a go , t h ey u s ed c ook ed f o od a s g r ave g ood s , a nd t h en t h ey p u t i ti n to a b amboo b a ske ta nd p l a ced i tu nde rt h ed ec ea sed 's r i gh ta rm ( F igu r e6 . 29 ) .

I n t h e A rga l v i l lage , e a ch p ad h a s i t ' s o wn p l a ce i nt h e c em e te ry w he r e t h ey h ave b u r ied t h e d ead s i nce t h e i r a nce s to r s ' t i me . T hu s t h e i n ter n a l o rgan iza t ion o n t h e c eme t e ry m ay b e p e r ce ived a s ar e f lec t ion o ft h e m a r r iag e s t ru c tu r e . T he O sa sha G ha r t i Maga r s w e r e t h e f i r s t m ig ran t s t o t h e v i l lag ea c co rd ing t ol e gend ,t h u st h e i rg r ave s a r el o ca t ed o n ac en t r a l p l a ce i nt h e c eme te ry . S ucce s s ive ly t h e b e s t a r ea s w e r e o c cup ied b y t h e f i r s t a r r iv ing p ad s , w he r ea s t h e l a s t m ig r a t ion s o f Maga r s h ave t h e o u t sk i r t a r ea s o f t h e c eme t e ry . T he r e a r e n o v i s ib le b ounda r ie s b e tween t h e se d if e r en t a r ea s i nt h e g r aveya rd . T hu s i ti si mpo s s ib le t o t r a ce t h i s s o c ia l s t ru c t u r e i n t h e a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l , a l though t h e a c to r s i n ten t iona l ly m an if e s t i ti nt h e f u ne ra l r i t e s . A no the r n o tewo r thy f e a tu r e o f t h e Maga r s i n t h e A rga l v i l lag e i st h a t t h ey a l so b u ry t h e c h i ld r en i n t h i s c eme t e ry . T he c h i ld r en h ave t h e i r o wn a r ea w he r e t h ey a r e b u r ied i r e spe c t ive o ft h e i rp ad , a nd t h ey a r e n eve r b u r ied a mong t h ea du l t s . I n t h e A rga l v i l lage , c ompa red w i th o t he r g r oup s , t h e Maga r s h ave t h e i r o wn r i ve r w he r e t h ey p r ac t ice c r ema t ion s . T h i s c eme t e ry i ss i tua t ed b e tween t wo r i ve r s , l o ca ted n o r th o f t h e o t he r c eme t e ry , s i nce t h e Maga r s o r ig ina l ly m ig ra ted f r om n or th . T he a s he s a r e t h rown i n to t h e r i v e r , a nd t h e r ema in ing c r ema t ion p a tche s a r e w a shed a way b y t h e f l ood . T h e p y r e s a r e n o t e nc lo sed i n s t on e s e t t ing s . T h e d ead p e r son i sl a id s up in e o n t h e f u ne ra l p y r e w i th t h e h ead t o t h e n o r th a nd t h e f e e t t ot h e s ou th . I fa m o the rd i e s i nc h i ldbed , t h eb aby i st a ken o u ta nd b u r ied i n t h e c r o s s -po in t b e tween t h e t wo r i ve r s , t h e mo the r o n t h e o t he r h and , i sb u r ied b y t h e r i ve r s ide . B o th a r e l a id w i th t h e i r h ead p o in t ing n o r thwa rd s . T he m o the r g e t s e i the r a c oppe r p o t o r ab amboo b a sk e t w i th a c ooked m ea l , w he r ea s t h e c h i ld d oe s n o t r e ce ive f o od a s ag r ave g if t , s i nce i th a sn o tu nde rgone p a sne . I nt h e S i le v i l lag e i nA rga l VDC , o ne h ou r a way f r om t h e A rga l v i l lag e , t h e Maga r s f o l low m o r e o r l e s s as im i la r 3 8

N owaday s a l l t h e f u ne ra l s t a ke p l a ce a l ong Ma sangd i K ho la . I n huma t ion s t a k e p l a ce a t t h e r i ve rbank w h e r ea s c r ema t ion s a t t h e c r o s s -po in t b e twe en t wo r i ve r s . T h e Maga r s i nt h e S i le v i l lage h ave c hanged g r aveya rd s s e v e r a l t i me s . T he o l de s t g r aveya rd w a s mad e i n to a r ab le l a nd . T he r eaf t e r , t h ey m oved t o ac eme te ry n amed G ovanpan i , l o ca t ed h a lf a n h ou r a way f r om t h e Ma sagd i K ho la , s i tua t ed i nt h e m idd le o f as t eep h i l l l a nd scape i n ac a lm p l a ce . B u t s i n c e f ew p eop le l i ved t h e r e a nd t h e a c ce s s t o t h e g r avey a rd w a s d if i cu l t , i tw a s a bandoned t wo d e cad e s a go . S t i l l t h e r e a r e r ema in s o ft h e g rav e s i nt h e c eme t e r y . T he g r ave s a r e s ma l l , l o ng b u r ia l c a i rn s , a l o r ien ted m o r e o r l e s s n o r th sou th . T he s i z e i s max imum t wo m e t e r s i n l e ng th . T he a bandonmen t o f Govanpan i i s p robab ly c onn ec t ed t o t h e a c ce s s t ow a t e r r e sou r ce s i nt h e v i l lag e . T he r e i s an a tu r a l s p r ing a tG ovanpan i , w h ich h a s s upp l ied t h e v i l lage w i th w a t e r . B u t t wo d e cad e s a go , o t h e r a l t e rna t ive s , e a s ie r a nd b e t t e r w a te r s ou r ce s b e cam e a va i lab le . T hu s G ovanpan i w a st u rned i n to ar emo t e p l a c e w he r en obody a c tua l ly n eeded t ob e .

Maga r si nH i la VDC T h e Maga r s i n t h e H i la v i l lage i n H i la VDC c e leb ra t e p a sne a tt h e a g e o ff i ve m on th s f o rg i r l s a nd s i x m on th s f o r b oy s . W i thou t p a r t ic ipa t ion i nt h i s r i t ua l , i n f an t s c a n n o t r e ce ive f o od a sg r ave g if t s . C r ema t ion a s af u ne r a l r i t e m ay o n ly b e p e r f o rmed a f t e rm a r r iage f o rb o th m en a nd w omen . T hey p e rf o rm c hewa r a t ab oy a tt h e u neven a g e o ft h r ee o rf i ve y ea r s , b u tt h e e xa c tp u rpo se o ft h e r i tua l i s u n ce r ta in . S im i la r ly , r e cen t ly t h ey h ave s t a r t ed p e rf o rm ing t h e g upha b a sne r i tua l f o r t h e g i r l s a t t h e m ena r che . T he p e r iod o f s e c lu s ion f r om t h e s o c ie ty i s o b se rved f o r e i the r t h r ee , s e ven , n i ne o rt h i r teen d ay s . A s o ppo sed t o t h e mo r e t r ad i t iona l w ay o f p e r f o rm ing t h e s e c lu s ion o ft h e g i r l i n s ide t h e h ou se ( i . e . t h e " c ave" ) , t h e l i m ina l p e r son i ss hu t o u t f r om t h e h ou se . S h e c an n o t c ook , a nd s h eh a s t ow o rk a nd s l eep o u t s ide t h eh ou se . T h e e l de s t s on o b se rve s t h e m ou rn ing p e r iod f o rb o th t h e f a the r a nd t h e m o th e r f o r t h r ee d ay s . D u r ing t h e d ea th p o l lu t ion n obody s p eak sa ta l lt ot h ep e r son i nk i r iya .

F igure 6 . 30 T he c eme t e ry i nt h eH i la v i l lag e , p i c tu r e t owa rd sw e s t .

T he f ood g i v en t ot h ed ecea sed i sc a l led h i r in . I ti st h ef o od t h e d ead w i l l e a t i nt h e a f t e r l if e . I ft h e d ecea sed h ad t h e h ab i t o fs mok ing , t h ey m ay a l so g i ve t o ba cco , b u t i ti sn o t n e ce s sa ry . H i r in c on s i s t s o fc ooked r i ce a nd e i the rb uf f a lo , c h ick en o rg oa t sm ea t , m ix ed w i th g hee ,w rapped i n ap i ece o fc l o th a nd p l a ced b e s ide t h e c o rp se e i the r i nt h eg r av e o r o nt h e p y r e . G ra in s a r eu s ed a s" way -f ood" , a nd i fa ny f o od r ema in s w h en t h e p roce s s ion r e a ch e s t h e c eme t e ry , i ti s p l a ced o n t h e c o rp s . I ft h e d ecea sed h a s n o t u nde rgon e p a sne ," way -f ood" w i l ln o tb eg i ven . T he b u r ia l p r a c t ice d epend s u pon t h e e conom ic c apa c i ty , h oweve r , i n t h e p a s t b u r ia l s w e r e t h e c ommon f u n e ra l c u s tom . I n t h e H i la v i l lage t h e Maga r s h av e t h e i r o wn b u r ia l g r ound d e f ined b y as t one w a l l ( F igu r e 6 . 30 ) . T h e d e cea sed i ss uppo sed t ob e b u r ied w i th t h e h ead t owa rd s t h e i r h ome , i . e . t ot h e n o r th . N eve r the le s s , If o und t h a t t h e g r av es o fw h ich i ti sp o s s ib le t od e te rm ine t h ed i r ec t ion , a r e o r ien ted e a s t -we s t , a l though t h e g r aveya rd i ss o u th o ft h e v i l lage ( F igu r e 6 . 31) . T h e g r ave s a r e s ma l l c a i rn s o f b e tween h a lf a m e te r t o t wo m e te r s i n l e ng th . S ma l l c h i ld ren a r e b u r ied i nt h e v i c in i ty o f t h e h ou s e w i th t h e h e ad t owa rd s t h e i r h ome a nd t h e f e e t t o t h e f o r e s t . T he c r ema t ion g r ound i sf u r the r s ou th i nt h e G hu sme l i v i l lag e i n H i la VDC . T hey a l so c r ema te w i th t h e h ead t owa rd s h ome , w h i ch m ean s t h e h ead i sf a c ing n o r th . E x cep t f r om N i r e G ha t a nd t h e c eme t e ry i nB en i , t h e g ha t i nG hu sme l i i st h e b i gg e s t c eme te ry i nm y r e sea r ch a r ea . T h i s g ha t i s l o ca ted a t t h e c r o s s -po in t b e tween t h r ee r i ve r s ( F igu r e 6 . 32 ) . T h e d ead w i l l a c cumu la te m e r i t f r om a l t h e t h r ee r i ve r s . H en cef o r th t h e c eme te ry h a s as p ec ia l r e l ig iou s f u n c t ion i nt h e n ea rby v i l lage s a s ap r ef e rab le p l a ce f o rt h e p e r f o rman ce o fo b sequ ie s .

F igure 6 . 3 1 T he c em e t e ry i nt h eH i la v i l lag e ,p i c tu r e t owa rd sn o r th .

F igure 6 . 32 T h ec eme te ry i nt h eG hu sme l i

3 9

Maga r si nT a ra VDC T he r i ce f e ed ing c e r emony i sp e rf o rmed w hen t h e b ab ie s r e a ch t h e a g e o fs i x m on th s , a nd t h e c hewa r r i t e w hen t h e b oy i se i the rt h r ee o rf i ve y ea r so l d . Wha tt h e d ecea sed h a s e a t en i nl i f e i sg i ven a sg r ave g ood s , b ecau se e i the rt h es ou l o rt h e b ody w i l l r e ce ive i t .I n f an t s w i thou tp a sne a r e g i ven w a te r , m i lk a nd b u t te rm i lk s i nce t h ey h ave n o t y e t e a ten r i ce o rs o l id f o od . Af t e rp a sne , t h e m ea l c on s i s t s o fc ook ed r i ce m ix ed w i th c u rd , m i lk , w a te r a nd g hee a nd f o r g rownup s , a l so r ak s i . T he f o od i sp u t i n to a p i ece o f a b amboo s t i ck ,w h ich i sp l aced b e s ide t h eh ead i nb u r ia l s . C r ema t ion i sn o t c onnec ted t o m a r r iag e . P eop le y ounge r t h an t h e a g e o ff i f ty a r e r a r e ly c r ema ted , a nd t r ad i t iona l ly t h e d ecea sed a r e b u r ied . I n huma t ion i ss t i l l b y f a rt h e m o s t c ommon p r a c t ice , b u t n owaday s s ome o l d p eop le p r ef e r b e ing c r ema t ed . T he r e i so n e b i g c eme te ry i n T a ra VDC , a nd s e ve ra l s ma l le rc eme t e r ie s a r ound t h e h ou se s . D ecea sed o l de rt h an t e n twe lv ey ea r s a r e c a r r ied t oA uda ra , t h e b i gc eme te ry , t o b e e i the r b u r ied o r c r ema ted ( F igu r e 6 . 33 ) . H ow eve r , c o rp se s a r e a lway s c a r r ied t oA uda ra i nt h e s ame d i r ec t ion a s t h e r i v e r 's f l ow o f w a te r , a nd n eve r i n t h e d i r ec t ion a ga in s tt h ew a t e rf l ow . T he r e a r en o i n au sp ic iou sd i r ec t ion s c on s ide r ing t h e o r ien ta t ion o f t h e c o rp se i n t h e f u ne r a l s r i t e s a mong t h e Maga r s i nT a ra VDC . T he t o pog raphy o f t h e l a nd s cape d e te rm ine s t h e d i r ec t ion o ft h e g r ave o rt h e p y r e , b ecau se " t he r e i so n ly o ne p o s s ib le w ay" t od i r ec tt h e d ecea sed o n t h e c eme te r ie s . G ene ra l ly , t h e c eme t e r ie s a r e l o ca t ed i nh i l ly l a nd scape s . I ns l ope st h eh ead i sl a id h i ghe r

t h an t h e f e e t . A t A uda ra , t h e r i ve r f l ow s f r om w e s t t oe a s t . T he g r av eya rd i s ad ef ined a r ea w i th a s t eepe r a c c l iv i ty f r om s o u th a tt h e r i ve r s ide t on o r th , t h an f r om e a s t t ow e s t . T hu s a r e e a s t -we s t t h e " on ly n a tu r a l" w ay t o b u ry a nd c r ema t e ,w i th t h eh ead t ow e s ta nd t h ef e e tt oe a s t . T he f am i ly m embe r s a nd b one b r o th e r s o b se rve t h e d ea th p o l lu t ion f o r t h r ee d ay s . T he s i s t e r s ' o r d augh te r s ' h u sband s f e ed t h e m ou rne r s a s w e l l a s c ook ing a nd p r epa r ing f o od f o r t h e d ead . T he f o od i sp u t i n as ma l l b a sk e t a nd i sh ung f r om t h e c e i l ing f o r t h e d e cea sed , t h e n ex t d ay i ti sb u r ied i nt h e g round w he r e t h e m ou rne r s a r e p l a ced , a nd n ew f o od i sp r epa red . T he t h ree -day m ou rn ing p e r iod i sc on c luded w i th a r i tua l m ea l . T he f i na l d ea th r i tua l t a k e s p l a ce a y ea r a f t e r t h e d ea th , o n t h e 2 4 th o f K a r t ik ( m id -Novembe r ) . Whe the r t h e d ea th o ccu r s b ef o r e o ra f t e rt h e2 4 th o fK a r t ik i n ac a lenda ry ea r ,t h ef ma ld ea th r i t ua l i so b s e rv ed t h e f i r s t c om ing 2 4 th o fK a r t ik , t h u s t h i s a nnua l d ea th r i t ua l i sa n i mpor tan ts o c io -econom ic , c u l tu ra l a nd r e l ig iou s e ven t . O n t h e 2 4 th o fK a r t ik r e la t iv e s g a the r a tt h eh ou se o ft h ed ecea sed , t h ey a l c on t r ibu t et ot h er i tua l f e a s t , a nd a l m embe r so ft h e f une ra lp r o ce s s ion a r ei n v i ted . Af t e r c omp le t ing t h e d ea th r i tua l , t h e Maga r s c e leb ra te t h e b i r th o fn ew c h i ld r en , a nd ad ance g r oup w a lk s f r om d oo r t o d oo r a nd w e lcome t h e n ew b ab ie s i n to t h e s o c ie ty ( Gu rung 1 996 :24 -28 ) .

Maga r s i nB l iak im ly VDC T he r i ce f e ed ing c e r emony i sp e rf o rmed a tt h e a g e o fs i x m on th s f o r b o th b oy s a nd g i r l s . T he c hewa r h a s t o b e p e r f o rm ed a tt h eu neven a g eo fe i the rf i v e ,s even o rn i ne . I f

F igure 6 . 33 A uda ra c eme te ry i nT a ra VDC ,p i c tu r et owa rd sn o r thwe s t .

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F igure 6 . 34 D hau lag i r im oun ta in s e en f r om B hak im ly . P i c t u r et owa rd sn o r th .

t h e b oy h a s n o t u nd e rgone t h e c e r emony , t h e h a i r -cu t t ing r i t ua l h a s t ob e d one o n t h e m a r r iag e d ay , a nd t h en h e i s a lowed t og e t m a r r ied . C h i ld r en y ounge r t h an f i ve y ea r s o l d a r e b u r ied n ea r t h e h ou se , w he r ea s a f t e r t h e f i r s t p o s s ib l ea g e f o rp e rf o rm ing c hewa r , t h eb oy sa r ec r ema t ed . G i r l s a r e s im i la r ly a low ed t ob e c r ema ted f r om t h e a g e o f f i ve t on i n e y ea r s . T he r e la t ive s o b se rve K i r iya f o r e i the r t h r ee , f i ve , s e ven , n i ne o rt h i r teen d ay s . R ega rd le s s o ft h e b u r ia l c u s tom , a pp rox ima te ly h a lf ak i lo o fr aw r i ce a nd s om e r aw m a s ( at y pe o fg r a in ) i sp l a ced u nde rt h e h ead o f t h e d e cea sed . C ampho ri sa l so p l a ced i nt h e m ou th o ft h o s e w ho a r eg o ing t ob ec r ema ted . T h i sf o od i sp e r ce ived a st h e l a s t f o od , a l though t h e d ead i su nab le t oe a t i td i r ec t ly , t h e d ec ea sed r e ce ive st h em e r i to ft h ef o od a s as ymbo l ic m ea l . T h ep r ef e r r ed f u ne r a lr i t e i sc r ema t ion i nB en i , a nd s ome o f t h e r i ch Maga r s c a r ry t h e i r d ead t ot h i s c eme te ry , b u t t h e c ommon b u r ia l p r a c t i ce i se i th e r b u r ia l o rc r ema t ion i nt h e v i l lag e . T he r e a r e t wo c eme te r ie s i nB hak im ly VDC , D o l e i st h e u ppe r c eme t e ry a nd l o ca t ed i n w a rd n o . 1 , a nd C h i lba sne D ana i st h e l owe r c em e t e ry l o ca t ed i nw a rd n o . 4 .B o th c eme t e r ie s a r e l o ca t ed o n t o p o fh i l l s w i th p e r f e c t v i ew s t oD hau lag i r i , w h ich i sn o r th o ft h e v i l lage . O n t h e w ay t ot h e f u ne ra l , t h ed ead b ody i sc a r r ied o nt h es t r e t che r w i th t h eh ead t owa rd st h ec eme te ry . Whe the rt h ep r a c t ice i s i n huma t ion o r c r ema t ion , t h e d e cea sed i sl y ing i ns up in e p o s i t ion w i th t h eh ead t ot h en o r th a nd t h e f e e tt ot h es o u th . T h e d e cea sed i sp o in t ing t o D hau lag i r i . T he m oun ta in i s p e r ce iv ed a sG od ( F igu r e 6 . 34 ) , t h u s t h i s i st h e a u sp ic iou s d i r ec t ion . Mo r eov e r , i ti st h e o n ly p o s s ib le d i r ec t ion . T h e s u n i sa l so ag od ; t h e s un r i se s i nt h e e a s t a nd s e t s i nt h e w e s t . T h ey a r e n o t a lowed t o i n su l t G od b y s how ing t h e f e e t t oh im , t a c i t ly , y ou d o n o t k i ck G od . C on sequen t ly , i t 4 1

i si mpo s s ib le t ob u ry s omeone l a y ing t h em i na n e a s t -we s t d i r ec t ion . N ever the le s s , g r ave s a nd c r ema t ion c on s t ru c t ion s a r e a l so b u i l t i nn o r th -we s t a nd n o r th -ea s t d i r ec t ion s , e ven t h ough D hau lag i r i i s d i r ec t ly n o r th o f t h e v i l lag e a nd t h e c eme te r ie s . T he g r ave s a r e e i the rs ma l lc a i rn s o rf l a tg r ave s w i th f ew t r a ce s o n t h e s u rf a ce . Wh ich c eme te ry t h e p a r t icu la r f am i ly u s e s , d epend s u pon t r ad i t ion a nd f o r ef a the r s . A l l v i l lag e r s m ay b u ry t h e i r d ecea sed i nt h e c eme te r ie s . P eop le l i v ing i nw a rd n o . 1 2 u s e s t h e D o le c eme te ry . E a ch c a s t e g r oup h a s i t so wn c r ema t ion s t ruc tu r e w he r e i tp e rf o rm s t h e f u ne ra l s , a nd t h e a s he s a r ej u s t l e f t t h e r e ( F igu r e 6 . 35 -6 .36 ) . T he f u ne ra l r i t e s a r e u sua l ly p e rf o rmed i n t h e v i l lage , a nd t h e d ecea sed a r e r a r e ly c a r r ied t o B en i ( o r a no the r r i ve r ) , b ecau se t h e r e a r e n o a nce s to r s t h e r e . Wa rd n o . 3 5 m ay u s e t h e C h i lba sne D ana c eme te ry , b u t m o s t o ft h e i n hab i tan t s c a r ry t h e i r d ecea sed t o B en i , e ven t h ough i ti se xpen s iv e . H ow ev e r , i ft h ey p e rf o rm c r ema t ion a tC h i lba sne D ada , t h e s ame d ay t wo t h r ee p e r son s f r om t h ef u ne ra lp roce s s ion , n o tt h es on s ,w i l l c a r ry as ma l l p i ece o ft h e d ecea sed 's f l e sh a nd r ema in s o f t h e a s he st oB en i , a nd t h row t h em i n to t h e r i ve r . T he p i ece o ff l e sh i sc a l led a s tu , a nd m ean s l i t e ra l ly " a d ead m an 's s k u l l b one" o r a ny " sma l l b one" . T h e f l e sh a nd t h e a s he s w i l l f l oa t w i th t h e r i ve rt oB ena r e s , a nd t h en g o t oh eaven . When t h e a s he s a r e c a r r ied i n ac oppe r p o t t o ah o ly r i ve r a nd s c a t te r ed i n to i t , i ti s ac r ema t ion b u r ia l . T he o n ly d if e r ence f r om o t he rc r ema t ion b u r ia l s i st h a tt h e a s he sa r e o f e r ed t o t h e r i v e r i n s tead o f b u r ied i n a n u r n i n a c eme te ry .

F igure 6 . 36 C r ema t ion s t ru c tu r ea tD o le c eme t e ry p o in t ing t on o r thwe s to rn o r thea s t .

F igure 6 . 35 C r ema t ion s t ruc tu r ea tD o le c eme te ry p o in t ing n o r thwa rd s( t owa rd sD hau lag i r i ) .

T he c em e t e ry i n B a ran ja i sd i v ided i n to d if e ren t a r ea s w i thou t a ny v i s ib le b ounda r ie s . V i l lag e r s f r om w a rd n o . 4 9u s e t h i s c eme t e ry , w he r ea s v i l lage r s f r om w a rd n o . 1 3 w ho l i ve c l o se r t o Myagd i K ho la t a k e t h e i r d ead t o c eme te r ie s a l ong t h e r i ve r . E a ch e t hn ic g r oup a nd e a ch Maga r g r oup f r om e a ch w a rd h a s i t s o wn p l a ce f o r b o th i n huma t ion s a nd c r ema t ion s o n t h e c eme t e ry . T he se s e pa ra te g eog r aph ica l ly l o ca t ion s a r e at r ad i t ion w h ich t h ey f o l low f r om t h e i r a nce s to r s . T he c r ema t ion c on s t ruc t ion s a r es o l id b u i l ts t one s t ruc tu r e s . T he se f u ne r a lp y r e sa r eu s ed f o r c r ema t ion s o ve r a nd o ve r b y t h e r e la t ive s b ecau se t h ey h ave b een f am i ly p rope r t ie s s i nce t h e i r a n ce s to r s . T h e a s he s a nd o t he rr ema in s a r ej u s t l e f ta st h ey a r e s i nce t h e r e i sn o w a te rt h e r e , h oweve r , i ft h ey c r ema t e b y ar i ve r , t h ey g i ve t h e r ema in st ot h e r i ve r . T he g r av e s m ay e i the rb e f l a t g r ave s w i thou t a ny v i s ib le s t ruc tu r e s o n t h e s u r f a ce , o r r e c tangu la rc a i rn s b u i l t a ss qua r e m onumen t s . R ich Maga r s a r e c a r r ied t o B en i o r a no the r c eme te ry a l ong Myagd i K ho la t ob e c r ema ted , w he r ea s t h e p oo r p eop le a r e e i the r b u r ied o r c r ema ted i nt h e v i l lag e . I ti sp r ef e rab le t og e t a f u ne ra l i nB en i b ecau se i ti mp rove s t h e c ond i t ion f o r a nd t h ep o s s ib i l i t ie so ft h e s p i r i ta f t e rd ea th . T hey b e l ieve t h a ti f t h ey c r ema t e i n B en i , t h e d e cea sed w i l l g e t ap l a ce i n H eaven . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e r e a r e n o o ppo s i t e e s cha to log ica l c on cep t s c onnec ted t o o r d ina ry f u ne ra l s i n t h ev i l lag e ,e . g .t h a tt h ed ecea sed 's s ou lw i l lg ot oh e l l .

Magar s i n B ara rna VDC T he r i ce f e ed ing c e r emony i sp e r f o rmed a tt h e a g e o fs i x m on th s f o r b o th g i r l s a nd b oy s . T hey p e r f o rm t h e c hewa r o n ly w hen t h e b oy i se i the r f i ve o rs e ven y ea r s , a nd i th a s t o b e d one b ef o r e h e c hang e s h i s m i lk t e e th . I ft h ey a r e u nab le t od o t h e r i t ua l b ef o r e h e h a s c hanged h i s t e e th , h i s s i s te r o r b r o the r in law h a s t oa bduc t h im a nd c u t h i s h a i r o u t s ide t h e h ome , w i thou t t e l l ing a nybody . When t h e c h i ld r en l o o se t h e i r m i lk t e e th , i tm a rk s t h e d i s t inc t ion s i n t h e b u r ia l p r a c t i ce b o th f o r b oy s a nd g i r l s . Af t e r c hang ing t e e th , t h e c h i ld r en h ave b ecome a du l t s . I ft h e c h i ld r en h ave n o t c hang ed t h e i r t e e th , t h en t h ey a r e b u r ied , w he r ea s i f t h ey h ave u nde rgone t h e c hang e , t h en t h ey a r e a lowed t o b e c r ema t ed , b u t t h e b u r ia l c u s tom d epend s u pon t h e r e la t ive s ' e conom ic c a pa c i ty . W i th in H indu i sm t h e r e i s an o t ion t h a t c h i ld r en a r e i n e l ig ib le f o r c r ema t ion b ef o r e t h ey h ave t e e th t om a s t ica te w i th , s im i la r ly , a n a n ima l i su nf i t f o r s a c r if i ce u n t i l i th a s i t s t e e th c u t ( Pa r ry 1 994 :185 ) . T h e s o c ia l o r r e l ig iou s r e a son s o fp e r f o rm ing c hewa ra r e a mb iguou s . T he k i r iya i s o b se rved f o r t h i r t een d ay s f o r a du l t s , b u t o n ly o ne d ay i f t h e c h i ld r en h ave n o t c hang ed t h e t e e th . T hen t h e c h i ld r en a r eb u r ied c l o se t ot h eh ou se .

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F i gur e6 . 37 A s po tw he r e" way -f ood" i so f f e r ed o nt h ew ay t ot h ec eme t e ry .

When t h ed ecea sed i sc a r r ied t ot h ef u ne ra lo nt h es t r e t che r , t h e h ead p o in t s t o t h e h ome a nd t h e f e e t t ot h e c eme te ry . R aw i n g r ed ien t s f o r t h e d ecea sed 's f a vou r i t e m ea l a r e p l aced u nde rt h e h ead , t o g e the rw i th w ine a nd c i ga r e t t e s i f t h e p e r son h ad s u ch h ab i t s . A t ac r o s s road s o n t h e w ay t o t h e c em e t e ry , m a iz e i so f f e r ed , o n ah i l lc r e s tc l o s eb y , af i r e i sm ad e a nd g hee o f f e r ed , a nd a l t h e m embe r s o f t h e f u ne ra l p r o ce s s ion w a sh t h e i r f a ce i n t h e n e ighbou r ing p ond ( F igu r e 6 . 37 ) . T hen t h e d ecea sed 's s p i r i t w i l l n o t f o l low o rh a rm t h em . "Way -f ood" i sa l so o f e r ed a to t he r s po t s o n t h e w ay t ot h e g r aveya rd . T he f o od i st h e r eaf t e r p l a ced o n t h e c he s t w hen t h e d ead i se i the r b u r ied o r c r ema t ed . Mo reove r , t h e d ecea sed a l so r e ce iv e s as ymbo l ic g if to fm oney f o rw ea l th a nd p ro spe r i ty ,e . g . o n er upee . T he d e cea sed i ss uppo sed t ob e l a id w i th t h eh ead t owa rd s D hau lag i r i b ecau se o fi t ss a c r edne s s , i . e . t owa rd st h en o r th . B u tt h ec em e te ry i sl o ca ted s ou the r ly i nt h em idd le o f ah i l l i na n e a s t -we s t o r ien ted v a l ley . T hu s i ti s i mpo s s ib le t o s e e D hau lag i r i f r om t h e g r ave f i e ld . T he i n f o rman t s howed m e t h e c eme te ry , a nd m o s t o ft h e g r av e s a nd t h e c r ema t ion c on s t ru c t ion s w e r e p o in t ing t o t h e n o r th ( F igu r e 6 . 38 ) . N eve r the le s s , p a r t ly b ecau se o ft h en a tu ra l l a nd s cape , s ome w e r e c on s t ruc ted e a s t -we s t ( F igu r e 6 . 39 ) . Iw a s s t and ing w i th m y c ompa s s , a nd a sk ed h im w hy t h e se g r ave s a nd c r ema t ion s t ruc tu r e s w he r e l y ing i nt h i s d i r e c t ion w hen t h ey w e r e s uppo sed t op o in t t owa rd s t h e n o r th . Iw a s t o ld t h a tt h i sw a sn o tt r ue . T hey w e r e n o tc on s t r u c t ed e a s t -we s t . T hey w e r ep o in t ing t owa rd st h en o r th .

F igure 6 . 38 T he c r ema t ion s t ruc tu r eo ft h eG ha r t i Maga r s i nw a rd n o . 6 .P i c tu r et owa rd sn o r th .

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F igur e6 . 39 C r ema t ion s t ruc tu r ec on s t ruc ted e a s t -we s t .T he c on s t ruc t ion i su s ed f o rs e ve ra lc r ema t ion s .

B rahman s A s m en t ioned b ef o r e , t h e B rahman s h ave am o r e u n if o rm b u r ia l c u s tom a nd f o l low t h e p r a c t ice t h e H indu r e l ig ion p r e s c r ib e s a s f a r a s p o s s ib le . H oweve r , t h e r e a r e d if e r en ce s , b o th r e ga rd ing t h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e d ecea sed a nd t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e c o rp se a s ac on sequence o f e conom i c c on s ide ra t ion s . I ft h e d ecea sed i sn o tc a r r ied t oa s p ec ia l s a c r ed p l a ce a s N i r e , ag ene ra l p r inc ip le i st h a t H indu sa r e s uppo sed t og ot ot h en ea r e s th o ly r i ve r ;t h ey d o n o t c r o s s ar i ve r e i the r t o b u ry o r c r ema t e . T he r ef o r e , i f t h e r e i s ac r ema t ion s i t e o n e a ch s i de o f t h e r i ve r , t h ey p robab ly b e long t o d if e r en t l o ca l i t ie s . T he c r ema t ion s i t e m ay i nt h i s w ay r e f lec t as p ec if i c g eog raph ica l a r ea . A s a r u le , t h e B rahman s t e nd t oc r ema te t h e i r d ead a tt h e m o s t h o ly g ha ti nt h ea r ea . T he B rahman s i nt h e H i la v i l lage c r ema te t h e i r d ead a tt h e g ha t i nt h e G hu sme l i v i l lage . T h e c eme te ry i n Ma sangd i K ho la i su s ed b y t h e B rahman s i nb o th t h e A rga l v i l lag e a nd t h e S i le v i l lag e i nA rga l VDC a sw e l l a sB hu ska t VDC ( F igu r e 6 . 40 ) . T h i s g ha t i su sed b y a l l c a s te s i nb o th A rga l VDC a nd B hu ska t VDC . T he p r a c t ice i se i the r i n huma t ion i n t h e r i ve rbank i n f l a t g r ave s w i thou t a ny v i s ib le s t ruc t u r e s , e ven t h ough t h o rn s m ay c ove r t h e g r ave s p r even t ing t h em f r om b e ing d i s tu rbed b y j a cka l s o r o t he r c a r r ion e a t e r s , o r s ma l l c a i rn s o f w a te r r o l led s t one s , s i tua t ed c l o se t ot h e r i ve r . S ome m ay c a r ry t h e i r d ecea sed t o N i r e , b u t t h i s i sn o t t h e n o rma l p r a c t ice a mong t h e

F igure 6 . 40 T h ec eme t e ry i nB hu ska tv i l lag eb y Ma sangd i K ho la c ommon p eop le . T he B rahman s i n b o th B hak im ly a nd B a ran ja a r es uppo sed t ob r ing t h e i rd ecea sed t oB en i ,e i th e r t oc r ema t e o rb u ry t h em . I nr a r e c a se s , d u e t op ove r ty a nd i n d ig en ce , t h ey m igh t n o t h ave o t he r p o s s ib i l i t ie s t h an b r ing ing t h e i r d ead t ot h e l o ca l c eme t e r ie s i nt h e v i l lag e s . H ow eve r , Ih ave r e ce ived t h i s i n f o rma t ion f r om o t he r g r oup s i n t h e v i l lage s , a nd i ti s n o t c onf i rmed b y a ny B rahman s .

4 4

G ene ra lR ema rk s o nB u r ia lC u s tom s

e mpha s ized , n o tt h e d e s t ruc t ive e l emen t s . T h i s i se xp re s sed t h rough e l abo ra te s exua l e ng rav ing s ( F igu r e 6 . 42 ) . H oweve r , a cco rd ing t o l e gend , t h e r u le r s d i s l iked t h e e ng rav ing s a nd t h e a r t i s t s w e re p ena l ized b y t h e l o s s o f t h e i rh and s .

( I ) N e ighbo r ing p lace s t o K a l igandak i R ive r . D e sp i te o f t h e s ho r td i s tance t oN i r e , p eop le l i v ing i nv i l lage s c l o se t o K a l igandak i R ive r may p r ef e r a nd c ho se t o p e rf o rm t h e f une ra l r i t e s a l ong t h e r i ve r c l o se r t ot h e i r h ome v i l lage . T hu s t h e r e a r e s ca t te red c r ema t ion p a tche s a l ong t h e r i ve r s ide f o ri n s tance b e tween B ag lung a nd B en i . T he K han iya G ha t v i l lage ( F igu re 6 . 41) i n t h e P a rba t d i s t r ic t i sl o ca ted o n t h e o the r s i de o f K a l igandak i R ive r a nd N i re G ha t , b u t t h e v i l lage r s p e rf o rm t h e d ea th r i tua l s o n " t he i r " s i de o ft h e r i ve r . T he o l d c eme te ry ( A ) i nt h e v i l lage w a s m oved t o t h e n o r th ( B ) b ecau se t h ey b u i l t a s choo l . T hey w an ted t oa vo id t h e b ad s me l l o fb o th d ead c o rp se s a nd p y re s b ecau se t h e f u ne ra l s m igh t g i ve t h e s choo l c h i ld r en t r auma t ic , h a r row ing a nd p e r tu rb ing e xpe r ience s . I n t h e v i l lage t h e re i s aS h iva t emp le n amed S huk le sho r Mahadev , b u i l t i n t h e f i r s t p a r t o ft h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry . T he t emp le w a sb u i l tb y aw idow i nh onou ro fh e rh u sband , S huk le sho r , a nd a r t i s t s f r om K a thmandu c ame t o e ng rave t h e p i l la r s . A s w i th a S h iva t emp le l o ca ted n ex t t o t h e c eme te ry i n av i l lage n amed b y t h e g ha t , t h e c r ea t ive f o r ce s , t h e l i f e -g iv ing a spec t s a nd t h e f e r t i l i ty o fS h iva a r e

( 2 ) A cc id en ta l d ea th . I f ap e r son d i e s i na n a c c iden t ; h e i s e a ten b y p r eda to r s , f a l l s o f ac l if f o r s uf f e r s a ny o the r m i sadven tu re , i t i s r a r e ly m an if e s ted i n t h e m a te r ia l mo r tua ry r ema in s . C ommon f o r b o th B rahman s a nd Maga r s i n my a r ea i st h a t t h e f u ne ra l r i tua l s a r e mo re e l abo ra te b ecau se t h ey w an t t o p r even t a nd p ro tec t t h e d ecea sed 's s ou l f o rt wo r e a son s . F i r s t ly , t h e l a ck o f e l abo ra te r i tua l s m igh t h ave n ega t ive c on sequence s f o r t h e d ecea sed 's f o r thcom ing r e b i r th a nd l i f e . S econd ly , a nd c onnec ted t o t h e f i r s t r e a son , p eop le w ho d i e u nna tu ra l ly , a nd e spec ia l ly y oung p eop le , h ave a g rea te rc hance o fc om ing b ack t ot h e v i l lage sa se v i l s p i r i t s . T hu s i ti si nt h e i n te re s t o fa l l t op e rf o rm t h e se r i tua l s . A s f a r a s Ik now , t h e o n ly t y pe o fu nna tu ra l d ea th e xp r e s sed i n t h e mor tua ry r ema in s i nm y r e sea r ch v i l lage s , i st h a t o fa mo the r w ho h a s d i ed i nc h i ldbed . T hey a r e b u r ied i n s tead o fb e ing c r ema ted . B u t t h e re a r e p robab ly o t he r e xcep t ion s a sw e l l .

T he S huk le shor Mahadev t emp le

F i gure 6 . 4 1 K hany ia G ha t v i l lage , P a rba t d i s t r ic t .

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o fa sb e ing t h es ame a st h ec ou r se o f am an t h rough h i s l i f e . T hu s i ti st h e i n ve r s ion o ft h e i d ea l s l eep ing p o s i t ion , w i th t h e h ead p o in t ing e a s t a nd t h e f e e t p o in t ing w e s t , b e cau se s l eep b e long st ot h er e a lm o fl i f e . T h i s i st h e b u r ia lp r a c t ice f o r t h e l a ymen . H oweve r , t h e m ag ica l h ea le r s o r s h aman s s i t u p r igh t i n ac a i rn b u i l t a bove t h e g round , f a c ing n o r thwa rd s , b ecau se t h e i r o r ig in a c co rd ing t om y th w a s i n t h e n o r th ( i b id :384 ) . T he i n huma t ion w i l l t a ke p l a ce a ta l o ca l i ty c ho sen b y t h e d ead man h im se lf , o r b y h i s s on . S t i l l , t h e Maga r s m ay c hoo se t o c r ema te . Whe th e r t h i s i s d ue t o H indu i n f luence o r i ti s ap a r t o f t h e i r o r ig ina l r e l ig ion , i sd i ff i cu l tt os a y , h oweve r , m y th m ay s uppo r tt h a t c r ema t ion i sa l so a p a r t o f t h e i r t r ad i t ion r ega rd le s s o f H indu i sm . T he c ho ice o fi n huma t ion o rc r ema t ion m ay b e d e t e rm in ed b y e conom ic c on s ide ra t ion s , n o tw i th s tand ing , t h e s h aman s h ave n o c ho ice , t h ey a r e a lway s b u r ied ( i b id :387 -390 ) . O nt h ew ay t ot h e f u ne ra l , " way -f ood" , c on s is t ing o fm a iz e , b a r ley , m i l le t , r i ce a nd w hea t , i sp u t o nr e cogn izab le s p o t s , s t one s o r r o ck s , a td i s t inc t i n terva l s . T he d ead s hou ld b e c omf o r tab le d u r ing h i sj our n ey , n e i the rt h i r s ty n o r h ung ry , n o re v en d ep r ived o fh i s h uman a dd i c t ion s . T he ref o r eh e i s g i ven c i ga r e t t e s i fh e w a s as mok e r . Whe the r t h e f o od i s r aw o rc ook ed , a nd i ft h e d ecea sed r e ce ive sa dd i t iona l f o od a s g r av e g ood s , i sn o t m en t ioned ( i b id :387 -388 ) . A no the r d i s t inc t f e a tu r e i s , a f t e r ay ea r o r s o , a n i n sc r ibed s t on e i s e r e c t ed i nh i s m emo ry a t ap l ace o u t s ide t h e v i l lag e , w h ich w i l l b e come ar e s t ing -p la ce f o r t r av e l le r s . T h i s i so fm a jo r i mpo r tan ce t o t h e l i v ing ; t h e d ecea sed h a s b ecom e a n a nce s to r( i b id :394 ) .

F igur e6 . 42 S exua le ng rav ing se mpha s iz ing l i f eg i v ing a s pec t s . ( 3 ) P ref e ren t ia l T r ea tmen t . E spec ia l ly h o ly m en ( s ad hu s ) o r p e r son s w i th s p ec ia l r e l ig iou s f u n c t ion s ( e .g . s haman s ) h ave ap a r t icu la r s t a tu s i nt h e s o c ie ty . T h i s s t a tu s o f t en h a s ad i s t in c t m a t e r ia l e xp r e s s ion i nt h e f u ne ra l r i t e s d ev ia t ing f r om t h e p r e sc r ibed p a t te rn . S adhu s a r e m a in ly b u r ied , b u t m ay a l so b e c r ema ted i na n e r ec ted o r s t and ing p o s i t ion f a c ing n o r th . S im i la r ly , i nB hak im ly as h aman w a s b u r ied i n as t and ing p o s i t ion f a c ing n o r th a tD o le C eme te ry . I n B a ran ja t h e r e a r e t wo a n c ien t h i l l f o r t s , w h ich h a s t u rned i n to h o ly p l a ce s , o ne o n t h e t o p o fe ach o ft h e t wo h i l l s i n t h e v i l lag e ( F igu r e 6 . 43 ) . N ex t t o t h e h i l l f o r t s a r e o l d c r ema t ion s t ru c tu r e s , w e r e h onou red p eop le a s w e l l a s s ad hu sh ave b een c r ema ted . ( 4 ) O the r s t ud i e s o f t h e d ea th r i tua l s o f t h e Maga r s . M ichae l O pp i tz p ub l i shed t h e a r t ic le " Dea th a nd k i n a mong s t t h e N o r ther n Maga r " i n 1 982 . U nf o r tuna te ly , h e r e f e r s o n ly t o" t he N o r ther n Maga r o fD hau lag i r i r e g ion i n We s t C en t ra l N epa l" ( Opp i tz 1 982 :378 ) w i thou t m en t ion ing t h e p a r t icu la r v i l lage ( s ) w he r e h e h a s u nde r tak en h i s f i e ldwo rk . I n m y o p in ion , a f t e r a n e va lua t ion o ft h e a r t ic le , t h e f i e ldwo rk w a s c a r r ied o u t i n o ne s i ng le v i l lage w i th a f o l low ing g ene ra l iza t ion o f t h e N o r th e rn Maga r s a so ne h omog eneou s g roup . Mo r eove r , I a l so s u spec t t h a t h i s s t udy i sn o r th o f m y r e sea r ch a r ea . D e sp i te o f t h i s s ho r t com ing , t h e a r t ic le i s u s ef u l a nd c on ta in s al o t o fe t hnog raph ic i n f o rma t ion . Iw i l l t h e r ef o r e u se i ta sa n e x t e rna l e xamp le t oi l um ina te t h e c omp lex i ty a nd d i ve r s i ty o f Maga r d ea th r i tua l s . O fs p ec ia l i n te r e s t i s t h e l a nguag e s i n ce t h ey s poke aT ibe to -Bu rman d i a lec t o f t h e We s t er nB od ic b ranch c a l led K ham ( i b id :379 ) .

U nna tu r a l d ea th s a r e o ft wo t y pe s ; s t i l lb i r th a nd a c c iden t s . I f ac h i ld i sd e l ive r ed s t i l lbo rn t o ac oup le , t h e l i t t l e b ody w i l l b e b u r ied o u t s ide t h e v i l lage b y o l d p eop le . C h i ld r en w ho d i e b ef o r e t h e a ge o ff i ve a r e l e s se rs o c ia l b e ing st h an a du l t s a r e , a nd n eed l e s s s o c ia l a nd p ub l ic p a r t ic ipa t ion i n t h e f u ne r a l . T he b u r ia l o fs u ch c h i ld r en i sc onduc t ed o n a s ma l l s c a le . A du l t s a f ec t ed b y a cc id en ta l d ea th r e c e ive a f u l ld ea th r i t ua l( i b id :396 -398 ) .

T he d ecea sed i sl a id s up ine i na n e a s t -we s t d i rec t ion i nt h e g r ave a nd t h eh ead i sp o in t ing w e s t , s i n ce t h e Maga r st h ink ad ead p e r son s h ou ld b e a b le t os e e t h e s un r i se . Mo r eove r , t h e c ou r se o ft h e s un i n ad ay f r om e a s t t ow e s t i st h ough t F igur e6 . 43 H i l l f o r t s i nt h e B a ran ja v i l lag e .

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Chap ter 7 :T he L im i t s o f Cu l tura l E labora t ion Mo r tua ry f e a s t s a nd r i tua l s r e c rea te t h e e l emen ta ry s t ruc tu r e o ft h e s o c ie ty o ft h e l i v ing ( i b id : 194 ) . E spe c ia l ly m a r r iage r e la t ion s a r e e mpha s iz ed a nd r e aff i rm ed i nt h e d ea th r i t ua l s a nd m emo r ia l f e a s t s f o r b o th B r ahman s ( e .g . R ahe ja 1 988 :147f f ) a nd Maga r s ( e .g . O pp i tz 1 982 :399f f ) . T he d ea th r i tua l s a r ea n i n teg ra ted p a r t o ft h e s o c ie ty t ot h e d e scenden t so ft h ea nce s to r s .

T he P rob lem o fC u l tu ra lE labo ra t ion I h av e b o r rowed t h e t i t le o f t h i s c hap te r f r om O beye sek e r e 's b ook T he W o rk o fC u l tu r e ( 1 990 ) . C u l tu r e i mpo s e s l i m i t s o n e l abo ra t ion s a nd t h e c omp r ehen s ion o f s ymbo l s , o n t h e c r ea to r s o rm ake r s o ft h e s ymbo l s , o n t h e c o l lec t iv e r e p re sen ta t ion s a nd o n t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h e s ymbo l s b y r e sea r che r s ( Obeye seke r e 1 990 :49f f ) . T he l i m i t s o fc u l tu ra l e l abo ra t ion a r e n o t s o lved b y am e thod , b ecau se t h e h uman s c ience s a r e " on to log ica l" i nt h e b r oad s e n se o f ac once rn w i th h uman e x i s t ence , " and a ny a temp t t od i v e r s e o n to logy f r om e p i s t emo logy c anno t s u cceed b u t c an o n ly p r oduce as h a l low o n to logy " ( i b id :104 ) . T heo r ie s i nh uman s c ience s a r e o n to log ica l i nt h e i rb a s i sb ecau se t h e h uman s c ience s a r e a bou t h uman b e ing s a nd b e ing h uman . T hu s t h e o n to log ica l i n qu i r e s h ave t o b e i n ve s t iga t ed e mp i r ica l ly . T he l e s s a r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l ( e xcava t ed a s w e l l a s n on -excava ted d a ta ) a va i lab le s hou ld i mp ly t h e l i m i ta t ion s t oc u l tu ra l e l abo ra t ion s i ft h e i n t e rp r e ta t ion s a r e t ob e s c i en t if i c , i no r de rt oa vo id as i tua t ion w he r e t h e l e s s d a ta t h em o r et os ay .

T he m u tua l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e l i v ing , t h e d ead a nd t h e s p i r i tua l w o r ld c an b e i l u s t ra ted i nt h e t r i logy o fd ea th ( F igu r e 7 . 1) ( A r r iaza 1 995 :26 ) . T he l i v ing p a r t ic ipan t s m ay f u r the r b e s e pa ra ted i n to t wo c a t ego r ie s , t h e m our n e r s a nd t h e o ppo s i te s b ecau se t h e i r r o le i nt h e r i t ua l a r e r a d ica l ly d i f f e r en t ( Ka s 1 989 :125 ) . T h i s i mp l ie s t h a t t h e r e a r e al o t o f c on s ide ra t ion s t o b e m ade w i th in a s o c i e ty r e ga rd ing h ow t h e f u ne ra lr i t e sa r et ob ep e rf o rmed . T h ed e scendan t s ' p e r f o rmance o ft h e f u ne ra l r i t e i n c lude s ac oncer n f o r t h e s p i r i tua l w o r ld a nd t h e a n ce s to r s a s w e l l a st h e s o c ie ty i n g ene ra l . T he d ea th o f am embe r o f as o c ie ty t h r ea ten s t h e s o c ie ty ( He r tz 1 960 :78 ) . T hu s d ea th i ss om e th ing c on t ra s o c ia l , a nd e xp r e s sed b e l ief s i na n a f t e r l if e m ay m ee t t h e t h rea t t h a t d ea th m ak e s t o t h e s o c ia l s y s tem ( Goody 1 962 :26 ) . T he d ecea sed 's r e su r r ec t ion i si n t eg ra ted i nt h e s o c ie ty a sw e l l a st h er e a l loca t ion o ft h er i gh t sa nd d u t ie so f t h e d ead m an a mong t h e s u rv iv ing m embe r s o ft h e g r oup . I ti si mpo r tan t t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h e t r an sm i s s ion o f i n f o rma t ion a nd t h e p o s se s s ion a nd t r an sm i s s ion o f r e la t ive ly e xc lu s ive r i gh t s .

Iw i l l i nt h i sc hap te rp r ov ide ac on t empo ra ry a na ly s i so ft h e f u ne r a l p r a c t ice . I a n H odde r ( 1 980 ) d i s t ingu i she s b e tw een t h ree l e ve l s o f i n te rp r e ta t ion o f b u r ia l d a ta : r e g iona l p a t t er n ing , w i th in -ceme t e ry p a t ter n ing a nd w i th in -g r av e p a t t e rn ing ( Hodde r 1 980 :16 1f f ) . Iw i l l d i scu s s t h e r e g iona l p a t t e rn ing a s ap a r t o ft h e p roce s s o fS an sk r i t iza t ion . T he d if e r en t m ean ing s o f c r ema t ion a nd i n huma t ion w i l l b e i l um in a t ed a s t h e w i th in -ceme t e ry p a t t e rn ing , a nd t h e m ean ing o fg r ave g ood sa st h ew i th in -g r ave p a t te rn ing .

T he t r an sm i s s ion o fm a t e r ia l h e r i tage m ay b ep o s t m o r tem o rp re m o r tem , b u t i to ccu r s w i th in t h e t o ta l c on tex t o f i n t e rgene ra t iona l t r an sm i s s ion s w h ich i nn o w ay i n vo lve s

T he D ecea sed , t h e D e scendan t s , t h e S oc ie ty a nd t h eS p i r i tua l Wo r ld

T he S p ir i tua l Wor ld

T he p h enomeno log i s t Me r leau -Pon ty s a id t h a t " ne i the rm y b i r th n o r m y d ea th c an a ppea rt om e a se xpe r ience s o fm y o wn , s i n ce , i f It h ough t o ft h em t h u s , Is hou ld b e a s sum ing m y s e lf t ob e p r e -ex i s ten t t o , o ro u t l iv ing , m y se lf , i no r de r t ob ea b le t oe xpe r ience t h em , a nd Is hou ld t h e r ef o r en o tb e g enu in e ly t h ink ing o fm y b i r th a nd d ea th " ( Me r leau -Pon ty 1 995 [ 196 4215 ) . D ea th i s ap r ob lem o ft h e l i v ing . D ead p eop l eh ave n o p rob lem s ( E l ia s 1 985 :3 ) . Af t e ra l , t h ey a r e d ead ( f rom a p rof ane p o in t o fv i ew ) . D ea th i s ag r adua l t r an s i t ion . P eop le 's c u s toma ry r e spon se s t od ea th p r ov ide p o s s ib i l i t ie s f o r p rob ing i n to t h e n a tu r e o f h uman l i f e ( M e t ca lf e & H un t ing ton 1 993 [ 199 1 ] :25 ) . T he f u n e r a l p r a c t i c e s r e v i ta l i se w ha t i sc u l tu ra l ly c once ived t ob e m o s t e s s en t ia l t ot h e r e p roduc t ion o ft h e s o c ia l o r de r ( B loch & P a r ry 1 987 [1982 ] :7 ) . T he r i tua l s t e nd t o a cqu i r e m o r a l c onno t a t ion s w he r e t h e m o ra l e v i lh a st ob er e p roba t ed a nd c omb a t ed ( Hoca r t 1 954 :96 ) . T he i mpo r tan ce o fd ea th a st h e c on t ex to fs oc ia l e l abo ra t ion a nd s o c ia l c r ea t ion i sb a sed o n e n compa s s ing p r inc ip le s o f o ppo s i t ion a nd e x chang e ( Ho lmbe rg 1 996 [ 1989 ] :190 ) . T he l i neag e , t h e h e r i tag e a nd t h e s o c ie ty i st empo ra r i ly t h r ea ten ed i nt h eb r ea ch o fd ea th .

T he L iv ing

F i gure 7 . 1 T he T r i logy o fD ea th .

4 7

T he D ead

t h e l a nguag e o rn ew f o rm s o fl a nguag e ( e .g . S he r r a t t 1 981 , Z ve leb i l & Z ve leb i l 1 988 :58 1 , P r e s co t t & Wa ld e rhaug 1 994 ,P r e sco t t 1 996 ) .

a n a l iena t ion f r om t h e c o rpo ra te u n i t , b u t w h ich f o cu se s o n t r an sm i s s ion s b e tw een r a the r t h an w i th in t h e g ene ra t ion s ( i b id :273 -280 ) . T he c r uc ia lp o in ti st h em e thod o fa cqu i r ing s e xua l r i gh t s a nd p r ope r ty b y t h e p roce s s o f i n he r i tance ; l i v ing p e r son s g a in ing t h e p o s se s s ion o f d ead p e r son 's p rope r ty ( i b id :311) . T he r ef o r e s o c ia l a s pec t s m ay b e e mpha s iz ed i n t h e f u ne ra l s , n o t o n ly t h e d e scendan t s ' r e la t ion s o rt h e d e cea sed 's s t a tu s , b u t t h e s o c ia l o rde r a nd t h e s o c ie ty i n g ene ra l . T he f u ne ra l s r e -def ine s o c ia l r e la t ion sh ip s a nd r e aff i rm c e r ta in r e la t ion sh ip s o fe xchange ( S t ra the rn 1 98 1 :206 ) . D ea th i s a d ua l p roce s s . T he t r an sf o rma t ion o f t h e s ou l f r om o ne s phe r e t o a no the r e xp la in s t h e p a ra l le l s b e tween t h e s ymbo l i sm o f f u ne ra l s , i n i t ia t ion r i t e s a nd m a r r iage ; e a ch r i tua l t r an sf e r s t h e i n d iv idua lt o an ew s o c ia ls t a tu s( B loch a nd P a r ry 1 987 :4 ) .

S an sk r i t iz a t ion , o r p a r t s o ft h e e a s te r n p r oce s se s o fI n do E u ropean iza t ion , m u s t n ece s sa r i ly h av e t a ken o t he r f o rm s t h an t h e w e s t e rn I n do -Eu ropean iza t ion . D av id H o lmbe rg d i scu s s e s t h e p r oce s s o f S an sk r i t iz a t ion o f t h e T ibe to B u rman s p eak ing g roup s o ft h e m idh i l l so fN epa l i nO rd e r i n P a rad ox ( Ho lmbe rg 1 996 ) . T he d eba te i n N epa l h a s b een c on ce rn ed w i th w he the r o r n o t , o r t o w ha t e x ten t , N epa l 's h i s to ry i s am ovemen t t ow a rd s as t anda rd iz ed H indu iza t ion o r S an sk r i t iza t ion a nd i n c r ea s ing a c cu l tu r a t ion t oB rahman ica l i d eo logy . H o lmbe rg ( i b id :15 ) p o in t so u t : "W he the ro rn o tt h i sI ndocen t r ic r econ s t ruc t ion o fN epa li s a ccu ra t e , i t n eg l ec t s t h e i n t r igu ing d ynam ic s o f t h e c onve rg enc e o fB rahman ica lc a s te i d eo logy w i th t h es oc ia l r ea l i ty o fH i l l N epa l a nd u n ique c onf igu ra t ion s o fc a s te g ene ra t ed i n N epa l . F u r the rmore , i t d ownp lay s t h e o b se r va t ion t h a t c a s te s oc i e t ie s , i n c lud ing t h e h i s to r i ca l ly c on t inuou s o ne s o fI nd ia , a l low f o r s i gn if i can t s oc ia l a nd r i tua lv a r ia t ion a c ro s sc a s te b ounda r ie sa nd r eg ion s "

F une ra l P ra c t ice S een i n L igh t o ft h e P roce s s o f S an sk r i t iza t ion Why i st h e r e s u ch av a r ia t ion i nt h ef u ne ra lp r a c t ice s? O ri s t h e v a r ia t ion r e a l ly s o g r ea t? Iw i l l a r gue t h a t t h e f u ne ra l p rac t ice l i e s w i th in t h e s ame r e l ig iou s , i d eo log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l f r amewo rk , w he r ea s t h ep e rf o rmance s d if e r . T h e B rahman s h av e a n a lmo s t h omogeneou s p e rf o rmance w he r ea s t h e Maga r s s h ow ag r ea te r v a r ia t ion . H ow i st h i s p o s s ib le? T h i s h a s t o b e s e en i n l i gh t o f t h e p roce s s o f S an sk r i t iza t ion , o rp a r t s o ft h e e a s t e rn p roce s se s o fI n do E u ropean iza t ion . H ow m ay c hang e s i n l a nguag e b e r e f lec t ed i n t h e a r cha eo log ica l m a t e r ia l? T he " I ndo -Eu ropean iza t ion" i sa p roce s s w he r e c hang e t a k e p l a ce i n al a nguag e t h rough t h e a ccumu la t ion o f d if e r en t p a r t icu la r c hange s i n t h e e l emen t st h a tm ake u pt h e l a nguage ;t h a t i sv a r iou sc hang e s i nt h e c u l tu r e . T he l a nguage s h if t i sa s sum ing ly c onnec t ed w i th a n e t hn ic s h if t ( Eh r e t 1 988 :564 -572 ) . B u t t h e p a s t r e a l i t ie s a nd s o c ie t ie s w e r e d ynam ic . C hang e s i nl a nguag e , e t hn ic i ty a nd m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e a r e n o t l i nked t o ge the r i na o ne t oo n e r e la t ion sh ip . L ingu i s t ic a ff i l ia t ion a nd e t hn ic i ty a r e n o t d i r e c t ly e xp r e s sed i n a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s ( An thony 1 99 1 : 195 ) . F u r the rmo r e , l a nguage s h if t d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly o n ly o ccu r w i th e t hn ic c hange o r m a jo r a nd r a d ica l c u l tu ra l t r an sf o rma t ion s . A no the r p rob lem i st h a t l i ngu i s t ic c ompa r i son i s i n tended t o t h row l i gh t o n r e la t ion sh ip s b e tw een k nown l a nguage s , a nd t h a t l i ngu i s t ic r e la t ion sh ip s p r e se rve m o r e i n f o rma t ion a bou t r e cen t e ven t s t h an a n c ien t o ne s ( She r ra t t & S he r ra t t 1 988 :585 ) . L ingu i s t ic d i s t inc t ion s a r e a s sumed t o b e e xp r e s sed a r cha eo log ica l ly a s c u l tu ra l b ounda r ie s s e pa ra t ing t wo p opu la t ion s w i th d i s t in c t g eog r aph ic o r ig in s a nd c u l tu ra l a nd e conom ic t r ad i t ion s ( An thony 1 99 1 :195 ) . I n E u rope , t h e c hang e o f l a nguag e w a s p robab ly c onnec t ed w i th t h e i n t roduc t ion o f a g r icu l tu r e o r c hange s i n , o r n ew , s ub s i s t en ce t e chn ique s a nd s t ra teg ie s . T he b eg inn ing o f f a rm ing i sl i k e ly t o h ave h ad a s i gn if i can t e f ec t o n t h e l i ngu i s t ic p a t ter n ing a s amo re d en se p opu la t ion w ou ld g i ve r i se t o m o r e c i r cum sc r ibed l a nguage g roup s t h an w e r e p r ev iou s ly p r eva len t ( She r ra t t & S he r ra t t 1 988 :585 ) . S im i la r ly , " The S e conda ry P rodu c t s R evo lu t ion" , o r o t he r m a jo r s o c ia l , t e chno log ica l a nd i d eo log ica l c hange s i nt h e s o c ie ty , c ou ld h ave b een a c compan ied b y at r an sm i s s ion o f 4 8

T h i sq uo ta t ion m ay b eu sed a sa na r gum en tt h a tt h ep r o ce s s o f S an sk r i t iz a t ion h a s n o t t a ken p l a ce , o n t h e c on t ra ry , I w i l l a r gue t h a t i te xp la in s w hy a nd h ow t h i s p roce s s s t i l l h appen s t o day . T he I ndo -Eu ropean iza t ion h ypo the s i s i sa n e xp lana t ion t h a ta c coun t s f o rw hy a pp rox ima te ly h a lf o ft h e e a r th 's p opu la t ion s p eak s i n l a nguage s c l ea r ly r e la ted t o a no the r ( Ma l lo ry 1 994 [ 1989 9 :22 ) . I td oe s n o t i mp ly a c e s sa t ion o f c u l tu ra l a bundance t h roug h t i me i n to o ne h omog eneou s b i g " un i t" . A s am a t te r o ff a c t , mo s t o ft h e Maga r s i nm y r e sea r ch v i l lage s h ave l o s t t h e i r l a nguag e w i th in t h e l a s t t wo th r ee g ene ra t ion s , t h u s t h ey h ave b ecome m embe r s o f t h e I n do -Eu ropean l a nguage f am i ly . S an sk r i t iza t ion a s ap roce s s o fc hang e i n vo lve s a l l p a r t s o f t h e s o c ie ty . Iw i l l a r gue t h a tt h i s p roce s s i ss t i l l g o ing o na s d i f f e r en t c u l tu r a l t r an sm i s s ion s , a nd t h a t a ne xam ina t ion o f t h eb u r ia l c u s tom sm ay i l um ina te s ome o ft h ep r inc ip le so f t h e se c u l tu ra l c hange s . A nd i na r cha eo log ica l t e rm s , t h e se c h ang e sh appen se x t r eme ly f a s t . T h e r e a r e t wo p rob lem s : H ow i s t h e l a nguage s p r ead ( t oge th e rw i th o t he r s o c io -econom ic a nd c u l tu ra l f e a tu r e s )? A nd m o r e i mpo r tan t i nm y c a se , e ven w i th t h e p re sen ce o f n ew c u l tu r a l f e a tu r e s , w hy d o t h e Maga r s a dap t t h em a nd m ake t h em t h e i r o wn? T he f i r s t p rob lem d ea l s w i th h ow n ew e l em en t s b ecome p r e sen t a nd a va i lab le i n as o c ie ty , t h e s e cond p r ob lem d ea l s w i th w hy a nd h ow t h e n ew p r e sen ce i n f lu ence s a n o l d t r ad i t ion . M ig r a t ion t h eo ry a sa s o c ia l s t ra t egy e xp la in s t h e i n t roduc t ion o fn ew e l emen t s , a nd i ti sv i ta l t os e e l a nguag e c hange a s as o c ia l s t r a tegy a nd n o t a s am e r e e p iph enomenona o f d emog r aph ic p roce s s e s ( An thony 1 986 , 1 990 , 1 997 ) . I n my a r ea a c co rd ing t o t h e l o ca l l o r e , i ti s m o s t l i k e ly t h a t t h e B rahman s m ig ra t ed i n to t h e a r ea a f t e r t h e Maga r s . B u t m ig ra t ion i ni t s e lf d oe s n o t e xp la in h ow t h e p roce s se s o f c u l tu r a l t r an sm i s s ion a nd c hange h appened a s a c on sequen ce o fh uman i n t e ra c t ion a nd t r an sa c t ion .

c ommun ica t ion w i th o t he r s ( t he c u l tu ra l d imen s ion ) . P e r sona l s ymbo l s a r e p ub l ic s ymbo l s " t ha t p e rm i t t h e e xp r e s s ion o ft h e u ncon sc iou s t h ough t s o ft h e i n d iv idua l ; b u t s i nce t h ey m ake s e n se t o o t he r s , t h ey a l so p e rm i t c ommun ica t ion s w i th o t he r s i nt h e l a nguag e o f e ve ryday d i scou r se" ( i b id :22 -23 ) . P e r sona l s ymbo l s a r e c u l tu ra l s ymbo l s t h a t a r e r e la ted t o t h e i n d iv idua l m o t iva t ion a nd m ake s en se o n ly i n r e la t ion t o t h e l i f e h i s to ry o f t h e i n d iv idua l a nd t h e l a rge ri n s t i tu t iona l c on t ex t i nw h i ch t h ey a r e e mbedded ( i b id :25 ) . T hu s t h e s ymbo l s a r e b o th e nab l ing a nd c on s t ra in ing t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fc u l tu ra l c hang e . S ub jec t ive i mag e ry i so f t en p ro tocu l tu r e , o r c u l tu r e i nt h e m ak ing . H oweve r , e ven t h ough a l f o rm s o f s ub je c t ive i mag e ry a r e i n nova t ive , n o t a l o ft h em e nd u p a sc u l tu r e . T hey h ave t ob e l e g i t ima ted b y t h e g roup i nt e rm s o ft h e l a rge rc u l tu r e( Obeye seke r e 1 981 :169 ) .

B rahman i s t ic I d eo logy a sP owe r B r ahman i s t ic i d eo logy i s a n o mn ip r e sen t p owe r i n t h e s o c ia l b ody o ft h e s oc ie ty . K now ledg e i s ac ond i t ion o ft h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s o fp owe r r e la t ion s , b e cau se p owe r c r ea te s a nd c au se s t oe me rge n ew o b jec t s o fk now ledg e a nd b od ie s o f i n f o rma t ion , a nd t h u s , p owe r i sn o t o n ly n ega t ive , b u t a l so b o th p o s i t iv e a nd l i nked w i th t h e p roduc t ion o fk now ledg e ( M i l le r&T i l ley 1 984 :6 ) . M icha e l F oucau l t h a s c ha l leng ed t h e n ega t iv e c oncep t ion o f p ow e r . P owe r i se ve rywhe r e , n o t b e cau s e i te mb ra ce s e ve ry th ing , b u t b ecau se i tc om e s f r om e v e rywhe re , i ti sn e i the ra n i n s t i tu t ion n o r as t ruc tu r e , i ti s ac ond i t ion o fp o s s ib i l i ty , p r oduced i ne ve ry r e la t ion f r om o n ep o in tt oa no the r( Foucau l t 1 990 [ 1976 ] :93 ) . P owe r i n t h i s d ef i n i t ion i s n o t a g r oup o f i n s t i tu t ion s o r m e chan i sm s a s ag ene ra l s y s tem o fd om inan ce e xe r ted b y o ne g r oup o ve ra no the r ,i ti s

When r e la t ing t h e se p e r spec t iv e st ot h ef u ne ra lp r a c t ice ,t h e p e r sona l s ymbo l s o pe ra te o n af am i ly o rd e scendan t s l e ve l ( t he m ou rne r s ) . T he r e la t ive s p e rf o rm t h e r i t ua l s a c co rd ing t ot h e i r t r ad i t ion a nd t h e i r a nce s to r s . Wha t i sg i ven t ot h e g od i sn o t t h e g od 's w i sh b u t t h e d evo tee 's o wn d e ep m o t iva t ion ( Obeye seke r e 1 990 :4 ) , a nd t h e o b jec t s a r e r e la ted b o th t ot h e d ecea sed 's l i f e h i s to ry a nd t h e s o c ie ty . T he g od w i l l a c cep t a l l k i nd s o fg if t s , b u t t h ey h ave t ob e e xp r e s sed a nd u nde r s tood i nt e rm s o fc u l tu ra l s ymbo l s b y o t he r s ( t he o ppo s i te s ) . O the rw i se t h e p r a c t ice m ay b e p e r ce ived a s i n su l t ing a nd d e sec ra t ing b y o t he r v i l lag e r s , e . g . t h e Maga r s 's a nc ien t p r ac t ice o f b u l l s a c r if i ce i s p r oh ib i ted b ecau se t h e a n ima l i s s a c r ed i n H indu i sm ( Ma jupu r ia 1 99 1 :87 ) . T hu s t h e c u l tu ra l d imen s ion o f s ymbo l s i mpo se s l i m i t s o n t h e e xp r e s s ion o ft h e p e r sona l d imen s ion . B u t o t he r v i l lage r s d o n o t h ave t ou nde r s tand t h e m ean ing o ft h e p e r sona l d imen s ion , t h ey o n ly h av e t o a c cep t t h a t i ti s w i th in t h e f r amewo rk o f t h e c u l t u ra l d im en s ion s o f t h e s ymbo l s . H encef o r th t h e r e i s a n a mb iva lence b e tween t h e k now ledge o f a n i n d iv idua l p e r f o rme r ,a nd t h er e s to ft h eg r oup o rt h ev i l lage .

" . .no t s ome th ing t h a t i sa cqu i r ed , s e i zed , o r s ha red ( . ) p owe r i s e x e rc i sed f rom i n nume rab l e p o in t s , i n t h e i n t e rp la y o f n onega l i ta r ian a nd m ob i l e r e la t ion s . ( . ) P owe r c ome sf rom b e low ; t h a t i s , t h e re i sn o b i na ry a nd a l l -encompa s s ing o ppo s i t ion b e tween r u l e r s a nd r u l ed a t t h e r o o t o fp owe r r e la t ion s , a nd s e r v ing a s ag ene ra l m a t r i x . ( . ) P owe r r e la t ion s a r e b o th i n ten t iona l a nd n on sub j ec t i ve . I fi nf ac t t h ey a r e i n te l l ig ib l e , t h i s i sn o t b ecau se t h ey a re t h e e f ec t o f a no the r i n s tance t h a t " e xp la in s" t h em , b u t r a the r b ecau se t h ey a re i mbued , t h rough a nd t h rough , w i th c a lcu la t ion : t h e re i sn op owe r t h a t i se x e rc i sed w i thou t as e r i e s o fa im s a nd o b jec t ive s" ( i b id :94 -95 ) . I ti si mpo r tan t t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween p owe r t oa nd p owe r o ve r . P owe r o ve r i s m echan i sm s t h a t e nab le a n a gen t ( i nd iv idua l o r c o l lec t ive ) t o g e t a no the r a gen t t o d o s om e th ing h e o r s h e o t he rw i se w ou ld n o t h ave d one . H ow ev e r , Iw i l l s t r e s s t h e a s pec t s o f p owe r t o . P ow e r s ub jec t s p eop le , n o t t or e nde r t h em p a s s ive , b u t a s a c t ive b e ing s . A s M i l le r&T i l ley a r gue ,p owe rt oi s ac omponen t o fa l s o c ia l i n te rac t ion a nd af e a tu r ee mbedded i na l s o c ia l p r a c t i c e s ,a nd h encef o r th ,p owe r" conce ived a s ad i a lec t ica l m om en t i ni n te rac t ion d r aw s u pon a nd c r ea te s r e sou r ce s a nd i sp r e sen t t h rough i t s e f ec t s ; o n t h i s b a s i s i tm ay b e a t t r ibu t ed t oi n d iv idua l s ,g roup s , i n s t i tu t ion se t c ." ( M i l le r& T i l l ey 1 9 84 :7 ) . T he r e a son w hy Ie mpha s iz e t h i s p o in t i s t h a tt h ep r o ce s s o fS an sk r i t iza t ion h a st h ep owe rt oc hang e , b u t n e v e r the le s s , i ti s t h e Maga r s t h em se lve s b y t h e i r a c t ion s a nd r i tua l s w ho a dop t t h e se f e a tu r e s . T he Maga r s a r e i n m a jo r i ty i n t h e r e sea r ch v i l lage s , n e i the r e conom i ca l ly e xp lo i t ed n o r p o l i t ica l ly c on t ro l led o r d om in a t ed b y t h e B rahman s . N ew e l emen t s a nd f e a tu r e s a r e a dd ed t ot h e i r c u l tu r e , a nd a f t e r s ome t i me i tb ecom e s p a r t o ft h e i r o wn t r ad i t ion p e r ce iv ed a sd i f f e r en t f r om t h a t o ft h eB r ahman s . H ow d oe st h i sh appen?

T he p r ev iou s d e sc r ibed p r agma t ic r e l ig iou s s o lu t ion st ot h e p e r f o rmance o f f u ne ra l r i t e s ( c hap te r 6 ) , a mong t h em e conom ic c on s ide ra t ion s , a r e f r om aB rahman ica l p o in t o f v i ew a l a ccep tab le w i th in t h e i n s t i tu t iona lc on tex t i nw h ich t h ey a r e e mbedded . I t i s n o t p o s s ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh " p r agma t ic" f r om " o the r -wo r ld ly " g oa l s ( P a rr y 1 994 :70 ) . Mo r eove r , Iw i l l e mpha s ize t h a t t h ep and i t s ( t he B r ahman p r ie s t s ) t h em se lve s s t re s s t h a t i n H indu i sm , t r ad i t ion i s m o r e i mpo r tan t t h an w ha t t h e r e l ig iou s t e x t s p r e s c r ibe , e ven t h ough t h i s m ay i mp ly t h a t t h e p r ie s t s b ecome r e dundan t i ns om e o ft h e r i tua l s , e . g . m o s t o ft h e Maga r f u ne ra l s . H ow eve r , t h e Maga r s m ay u s e p and i t s i no t h e r r i tua l s , f o r i n s tan ce i n t h e c hau ra s i . Iw i l l e x t end t h e se p e r sona l a nd c u l tura l d im en s ion s o f s ymbo l s t o i n c lude c o r r e spond ing d imen s ion s i n t h e p e rf o rmance o f r i t ua l s , b ecau se " t he s ymbo l i st h e s ma l le s tu n i to fr i tua lw h i ch s t i l l r e ta in s t h e s p ec if ic p rope r t ie s o fr i tua l b ehav iou r ; i ti st h e u l t ima te u n i t o f s p ec if i c s t ruc tu r e i n ar i tua l c on t ex t " ( Tu rne r 1 99 1 :19 ) . T he f u ne ra l r i t e s a r e b o th p e r sona l a nd p ub l ic r i tua l s , t h e f am i ly m ou rn s t h e d ead a nd t h e v i l lag e r s p ay t h e i r r e spec t s t ot h e d ecea sed a nd t h e d e scendan t s b y p a r t i c ipa t ion i nt h ef u ne ra lp roce s s ion .

P e r sona la nd C u l tu ra l S ymbo l s O bey e s ek e r e d i s t ingu i she s b e tween p e r sona l a nd c u l tu ra l s ymbo l s( Obeye seke r e 1 990 :22 ) . As ymbo l i sb o th p e r sona l a nd c u l tu ra l . T hu s as ymbo l p r ov ide s ab a s i s f o r s e lf r e f le c t ion ( t he p e r sona l d imen s ion ) a s w e l l a s 4 9

i n to t h e t r ad i t ion , a nd t h en i tb ecome s t h e i r " cu l tu r e" . B rahman i sm a s a n i d eo logy h a s t h e p owe r t o c hange t h rough t h e s o c ia l p r a c t ice s a nd t h e i r e f ec t s , r e pea ted a ga in a nd a ga in i n r i t ua l s . T he B r ahman s h ave t h e i r r e l ig iou s t e x t s a s t h e i r m a jo r g u ide l ine i n c u l t u ra l a nd r e l ig iou s m a t t e r s a nd h encef o r th t h ey a r e m o r e r e s i s tan t t o c hang e , w h e r ea s t h e Maga r s u se p a r t s o ft h i s i d eo logy a s i n nova t ive a nd s u b jec t ive i mage ry t o p r o tocu l tu r e . T he se i d ea sa r e l e g i t ima t ed b yt h e l a rge rc u l tu r e , b yt h eB rahman s o f c ou r se , b u t a l so b y t h e Maga r s t h em se lve s . T h i s m ay e xp la in w hy Maga r s i nH i la VDC h av e s t a r t ed p e r f o rm ing g upha b a sne ,a sw e l la su nce r ta in t ie sa nd a mb igu i t ie s i nt h e s o c ia l a nd r e l ig iou s r e a son s f o r p e r f o rm ing t h e c hewa r i n s eve ra l o ft h e v i l lag e s . S he r ry B . O r tn e ra r gue s t h a t w i th in F oucau l t 's c on cep t o fp owe r , e ve ryone s e ek s l e g i t ima t ion , a nd t h e" sma l l p eop le" p a r t ic ipa te w i l l ing ly a nd e ngag ed i n t h i s e n t e rp r i se a nd a c t ing w i th in t h e s ame l e g i t ima t ing s chema a s t h e b i g a c to r s o r a c to r s i np o s i t ion s o fp owe r ( O r tne r 1 9 89 : 150f f ) .

T he Maga r p r a c t ice s d ev ia t ing f r om t h e p r e sc r ibed B ra lunan ica l r u le s m ay a tf i r s t s i gh t s e em a s ton i sh ing a nd p ronounced . B u t ac l o se r l o ok m ay r e nde r p o s s ib le a n i n te rp r e ta t ion t h a ta l t h ev a r ia t ion s a r ew i th in t h e s phe r e o f a n e xpec ted a bundance o fc u l tu ra l s ymbo l s i nf u ne ra l r i t e s w i th in ap roce s so fS an sk r i t iza t ion : a )Ag r ea t d i ve r s i ty o fp e r sona l d imen s ion s a r e e xp r e s sed i nt wo o ve ra l l c u l tu ra l d imen s ion s o fg ene ra l s ynd rome s o f s ymbo l s i nt h e f u ne r a l s : a s pec t s o f f e r t i l i ty a nd p u r if y ing e l emen t s i n o r de r t o r emove s i n s , e . g . d if e r en t g r ave g ood s , v a r iou s p e r f o rman ce s o f t h e r i tua l s a nd c ho ice o f c eme te ry . b ) T he p r e sence o ra b sence o fg r av e g ood s d epend s u pon p a sne , i . e . t h e c u l tu ra l a nd u n if y ing d imen s ion o ft h e l i f e c yc le r i tua l e xp r e s sed i nf u ne ra l r i t e s . Wha t k i nd o ff o od s , mode s o f p r epa ra t ion a nd u s e o r a b sen ce o f ac on ta ine r , b e long t ot h ep e r sona ld imen s ion , i . e .t h ef am i ly 's t r ad i t ion . c )T he t r ea tmen t o ft h e c o rp se ( b u r ia l / c r ema t ion ) s how s a g r ea t e rv a r ia t ion . T he B rahman s m ay b u ry ( mo s t ly b ecau se o f e conom ic r e a son s ) w hen t h e d ecea sed o ugh t t o h ave b een c r ema ted , s t i l l , c r ema t ion i s p r ef e r r ed a s w e l l a s p r e sc r ibed . T he se i n t er n a l d ynam ic s a nd a mb igu i t ie s a mong t h e B rahman s w h ich a low b o th p r a c t ice s , r e nde r i mpo s s ib le a m o r e r i g id r e gu la t ion a mong t h e Maga r s . T hu s t h e p r ac t ice o fi n huma t ion o fg round -up s l i e s w i th in t h e c u l tu ra l d imen s ion o f f u ne ra l r i t e s , n o t p r ef e r r ed b u t s t i l l a lowed . T he s i gn if i can t d if e r en ce i nf u ne ra l p r a c t ice s i s b e tween c r ema t ion a nd b u r ia l . Wha t k i nd o f b u r ia l c on s t ruc t ion s ; i n huma t ion i nt h e g r ound , i nt h e r i ve rbed , o r s ma l l c a i rn s i n d if e r en t s i z e s a nd v a r ia t ion s , i sw i thou t i mpo r tance i nt e rm s o ft h e c u l tu ra l d imen s ion : t h ey a r e a l w i th in t h es ame c a t ego ry o ff u ne ra l s . d ) T h e Maga r s g en e ra l ly o b se rve f ew e r d ay s o f d ea th p o l lu t ion t h an t h e B rahman s . T he B rahman s 's s t r ic t o b se rv ing o f t h e m our n ing o b l iga t ion s s uppo r t t h e i r o wn n o t ion o fb e ing t h e p u r e s t c a s te , a nd t h u s a c t s t om a in ta in t h e i r a pp r ehen s ion o ft h e c a s te s y s tem a nd t h e s t ruc tu r e o f t h e s o c ie ty i ng ene r a l . T hu st h e B rahman sn eed v a r ia t ion i n o rde r t o m a in ta in t h e i r r e l ig iou s a nd e t hn ic s t a tu s i n r e la t ion t oa l lt h eo t h e rg r oup s . e )T h e g ende rr e la t ion s a r e m an if e s t ed i nt h e e xp r e s s ion o f t h e w idow 's c hange i ns t a tu s i nh e rh u sband 's f u ne ra l . T he m a r r iage r e la t ion s a nd t h e r eby t h e s o c ia l s t ruc tu r e a r e e mpha s iz ed , a nd t h i s p r a c t ice c oun te ra c t s t h e t r ad i t iona l e ga l i ta r ian n o t ion o f t h e Maga r s . T he w omen b ecome i n f e r io rt ot h em en . 1 )T h e d i r ec t ion i nw h ich t h e d ecea sed i sl a id , e i the ro nt h e s t re t ch e r , o n t h e p y r e o ri nt h e g r ave , b e long s t ot h e r e a lm o f p e r sona l d imen s ion s w i th in t h e p e r f o rmance o f t h e f une ra l r i t e s . T h e r e f e r en ce s t o i n au sp ic iou sne s s o f d i rec t ion s a r e v a r ia t ion s w i th in t h e f am i l ie s a nd v i l lage s , a nd a r e n o t c onnec t ed t o p a r t icu la r e t hn ic g r oup s o r a s pec ia lr e l ig ion . Iw i l l a s sume t h a t t h e c hange o f l a nguage i s m o r e n o t iceab le t h an s ma l l a dap ta t ion s o f n ew e l emen t s i n r i tua l s . Mo r eove r , i ti se a sy t o i n co rpo ra t e n ew e l emen t s 5 0

T he i n t r igu ing d ynam ic s o f t h e c onve rgen ce o f B rahman ica l c a s t e i d eo logy w i th t h e s o c ia l r e a l i ty o fH i l l N epa l w h ich a low f o rs i gn if i can ts o c ia la nd r i tua l v a r ia t ion a c ro s s c a s t e b ounda r ie s a nd r eg ion s ( Ho lmbe rg 1 996 :15 ) m ake as moo the rp r oce s so fS an sk r i t iza t ion p o s s ib le t h an i f t h e t r an sf o rma t ion s h ad b een mo re d i r e c t ly b yp owe r o ve r m echan i sm s . Mo r eove r , t h e B ahun s a r e m u tua l ly i n te rdependen t o n t h i s v a r ia t ion i n s o f a r a s t h e i r p u r i ty , i d en t i ty a nd e t hn ic i ty d epend u pon t h i s a mb iva len t s o c ia l s e t t ing a s t h e c on t ingen t a c t s o f m u l t ip l ic i ty o f h uman b e ing s . W i thou t d if e r ence s i nt h e p r a c t ice , t h e B rahman s c ou ld n o t h av e b ecome t h e p u r e s t c a s te b ecau se i t n ece s s i ta t e s " impu r e" a c t ion b y t h e o t h e r g roup s , o r i n o t he r w o rd : v a r ia t ion s . I t a l so i mp l i e s c hang e a nd t r an sf o rma t ion s o f t h e B rahman s . T h e p roce s s s e em s " i nv i s ib le " , n a tu ra l , s l ow a nd u n in tend ed , t h e a c to r s ' u n in tended c on sequence s o f a c t ion b ecome u na cknow ledg ed c ond i t ion s o f a c t ion ( G idden s 1 982 :30 ) , a nd t h u s t h e c u l tu r e c hange a nd t h e p ro ce s s o f S an sk r i t iza t ion h appen s . T he Maga r s t h em se lve s c l a im t h a t t h e c hang e s a r e " a cco rd ing t ot ime a nd f a sh ion" a nd t h a t t h ey a r e n o t f o r ced b y t h e B rahman s . I tm ay b e s o , b u tt h e a c tua l k now ledg e a va i lab le i n t h e s o c i e ty i st o ag r ea t e x ten t d ependan t u pon t h e B rah r nan i s t ic i d eo logy . H oweve r , t h e Maga r s k now t h a t t h e i r c u l t u r e i sc hang ing , b u t t h e i r i d en t i ty i sn o t t h r ea t ened ; t oq uo t e B a r th f r om h i s d i scu s s ion o fe t hn i c i ty : " some c u l tu ra l f e a tu r e s a r e u s ed b y t h e a c to r sa ss i g na l s a nd e mb lem s o fd if e r ence s , o t he r s a r e i g no r ed" ( Ba r th 1 9 69 :14 ) . T he c hange s a r e p e r ce iv ed a s n e i the r c onne c ted t o t h e i r e t hn ic i ty n o r f o r ced b y t h e B r ahman s . T hu s t h e c hang e s may h app en f a s t a nd p ea cef u l ly . O n t h e o t he r h and , i nB ag lung B a7a a r s ome Maga r s h ave c hang ed t h e i rr e l ig ion t oB uddh i sm a s ap o l i t ica l movem en t a ga in s t t h e B r ahman s , n eg lec t ing a l l t h e H indu r i tua l s a nd f e s t iva l s . A l though t h ey h ave l o s t t h e i r l a nguage , t h e a s s im i la t ion o ft h e c u l tu r e i n to a H indu u n i t h a s s t opped . T he c u l tu ra l p r oce s s o f I ndo -Eu ropean iza t ion h a s b een c onnec t ed t oe t hn i c i d en t i ty , t h ep owe rt om echan i sm sh av e l o s t t h e i r p ow e r a nd c an o n ly b e s ucceed ed o rr e s to r ed b y p owe r o ve r m e chan i sm s . H ow eve r , t h i s d o e s n o t h appen , a nd i th a s t ob e s e en i n l i gh t o ft h e p r o c e s s e s k nown i n

N epa l a s " t r iba l iza t ion" . T he Ma twa l i s , o r t h e T ibe to B u rman g r oup s , h ave b ecome a wa re o ft h e e f f ec t s o ft h e p roce s s o f S an sk r i t iza t ion a nd s ome s t r ive t owa rd s p re se rva t ion a nd r e s to ra t ion o f t h e i r " o r ig ina l" t r ad i t ion , e t hn ic i ty , v a lue s , r e l ig ion , f e s t iva l s a nd T ibe to -Bu rman l a nguage ( e .g . B is ta 1 99 1 :153f f , G e l lne r 1 99 1) .

w he r e t h e c o rp se o fc r ea t ion w i l l b u rn a tt h e e nd o ft i me ( F igu r e 7 . 2 ) ( Pa r ry 1 994 : 14 , 2 4 ) . T he h ou seho lde r s a c r if i ce s h im se lf o n h i s f une ra l p y re i no rde r n o t o n ly t o b e r e bo rn , b u t a l so t o p e rpe tua te t h e r e gene ra t ion o ft ime a nd o fc o smo s , ar i tua l b y w h ich t h e u n ive r se i sr e c r ea ted ( Kn ipe 1 975 :132 , P andey 1 969 :24 1 , P a r ry 1 987 :74f f , 1 994 :31) . T hu s t h e c r ea t ion i s c on t inua l ly r epea ted i n V a rana s i ( Pa r ry 1 994 :32 ) . A t d ea th i ti st h e m en w ho g i ve b i r th . T he f a the r p ay s h i s d eb t s t ot h e a nce s to r s b y g i v ing t h e l i neage as on , a nd t h e s on r e pay s h i s d eb t s t oh i s f a the r b y g i v ing h im an ew b i r th ( i b id :151152 ) . A t t h e m omen t o ft h e b r eak ing o ft h e s ku l l a nd t h e r e lea s ing o f" t he v i ta l b r ea th" , t h e d ea th p o l lu t ion b eg in s . T he d ecea sed o n ly d i e s w hen h e i sk i l led o n t h e p y r e , h e i sn o t d ead b ef o r e h e i s b ur n t , a nd i ti so n ly a f t e r t h e h u sband 's c r ema t ion aw if e b ecome s aw idow . C rema t ion i s ah uman s a c r if ice ; t h e s on k i l l s h i s f a the r , t h e c h ief mou rne r c omm i t s h om ic ide . T hu s t h e d ea th p o l lu t ion s t a r t s a tt h e momen t o fd ea th , w hen t h e s ku l l c r acked . I ti st h e r epaymen t o ft h e s i n o fb u rn ing t h e f l e sh . B o th t h e f a the r a nd t h e s on a r e r e bo rn t h rough t h e s a c r if i ce , t h e f a the r a t a no the r p l ane a nd t h e s on a s h i s f a the r 's r e p la cemen t( i b id :18 1184 ) .

D ea th a sT r an sf orma t ion A t t h e l e ve l o f w i th in -ceme te ry p a t te rn ing , t h e m a jo r mo r tua ry r ema in s a r e f r om c r ema t ion p a tche s a nd b u r ia l s . T he c o rp se i s ap rac t ica l p rob lem i ns o f a r a s i tw i l l r o t . N eve r the l e s s , s oc ia l , i d eo log ica l a nd r e l ig iou s c oncep t s t r an scendence t h e s imp le b ody -d i spo sa l p rob lem . C rema t ion a s am e thod o f b ody -d i spo sa l i sd i ff i cu l t a nd t ime c on sum ing b ecau se i ti sv e ry h a rd t ob u rn s ome th ing t h a t c on s i s t s m a in ly o f w a te r ( Ho ick 1 987 :27 -45 , B a rbe r 1 990 :379 -380 ) . B u t c ompa red t o o t he r b ody -d i spo sa l m e thod s , i ti sa c tua l ly d e s igned t o d i spo se o ft wo t h ing s , t h eb ody a nd t h es p i r i t( Ba rbe r 1 990 :386 ) . C r ema t ion i sg ene ra l ly p e rce ived a s t h e mo s t a u sp ic iou s f une ra l p r a c t ice . C rema t ion i s c o smogony , a nd t h e i n d iv idua l d ea th i sa s s im i la ted i n to t h e p roce s s o fc o sm ic r egen e ra t ion a nd t h e r e -enac tmen t o fV i shnu 's a u s te r i t ie s , a nd t h e c r ema t ion s t a ke p l a ce o n h i s f oo t s tep s ( Pa r ry 1 987 :76 , 1 994 :44f f ) . T he b ody a nd t h e c o smo s a r e g over n ed b yt h e s ame l aw s . My th s r e la te t h e g ene s i s o ft h e u n ive r se t ob o th Man ikar n ika a nd H a r i shchand ra g ha t s i n V a rana s i a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft ime , a nd t h ey a r e t h e p l ace s

T he f i ve e l emen t s c on s t i tu te b o th t h e b ody a nd t h e c o smo s , e ve ry th ing t h a t e x i s t s i no ne m u s t a l so e x i s t i na no the r , a nd t h u s , a l t h e g od s a nd t h e c o smo s a r e p r e sen t w i th in t h e b ody ( i b id :76 ) . I n c r ema t ion , t h e e l emen t s a r e c hanged i n a no the r w ay t h an i n i n huma t ion s , t h ey a r e mo re a c t ive ly t r an sf o rmed b ack t ot h e i r n a tu re . When ap e r son d i e s , t h e w a te rg oe s t ot h e w a te r , t h e e a r th t ot h e e a r th , t h e a i rt ot h e a i r , t h e s ky t o t h e s ky a nd t h e l i gh t t o t h e l i gh t . T he

F igure 7 . 2 C rema t ion a tH a r i shchand ra G ha ti nB ena re s /Va rana s i .

5 1

s ub s tance a nd s ymbo l ( Fu r s t 1 994 :7 1-72 ) . T o i n co rpo ra te f o od i n to t h e b ody , t h e f o od i sm ade t ob ecome t h e s e lf , i t b ecome s p a r t s o fw ho w e a r e ( Lup ton 1 996 :16 17 ) , a nd i n t h i s c on t ex t , h ow a nd w ho t h e d ead b ecome s , i . e . t h e f o r th com ing i n ca rna t ion . F i r s t o fa l , t h e b od i ly s u b s tance a s w e l l a s t h e m o ra l d i spo s i t ion s a r e c r ea ted f r om f ood ( Ma r r io t t 1 976 :111f f ) . B u tt h e re i sn o c ode o fc onduc t a nd n o f o od t h a t i sm o ra l o r g ood f o r a l p e r son s , b ecau se e ve rybody h a s a u n ique ly p r opo r t ioned c ompo s i te s ub s tance . T hu s s p ec ia l s ub s tance s a r e c ompa t ib le w i th t h e i n d iv idua l s ' b od i ly s u b s tance . Mo r eove r , t h i s u n ique e s sen ce i sc on s tan t ly c hang ing ( Dan ie l 1 984 :70 -72 ) . S i n b ecome s ab i o -mo r a l p henomena w h ich m an if e s t s i t s e lf t o s om e e x t en t i n t a ng ib le a nd m a t e r ia l w ay s ( Pa r ry 1 994 :127 ) . T o d i g e s t i st o c oncen t ra t e w i th in o ne se lf t h e a c t ive p owe r sc a r r ied b yt h e f ood . L ike f o od n ou r i sh e sl i ke , t h e f l e sh o fe a te r s o ff l e sh b ecome s m uch mo r e i n c r ea sed b y m ea t t h an a ny o t he rt i s sue s o ft h e b ody . T he f o od s tuf f s p o s se s s i d en t ica l q ua l i t ie s i na bundan ce , i tmak e s i d en t i ty ( Z imme rman 1 9 82 : 165 169 ) .

c r ema t ion i s p a inf u l a nd d ange rou s ( Kn ipe 1 975 :130 , P andey 1 969 :240 ) b ecau se t h e f i r e d i ge s t s t h e b ody . T he r ef o r e c oo l w a te r i sg i ven t o t h e c o rp se , e i the r b y b a th ing o r i mme r s ion b ef o r e t h e c r ema t ion , i no rde r t ot r y t oc on t ro l t h e r i tua l . F i na l ly , t h e c o rp se i sa ga in r e tu rned t o t h e r i ve r a s a s he s ( Kn ipe 1 975 : 135 ) . T h e a s he s a r e o f ten r e f e r r ed t oa s" bone s" . B one sa r et h ep roduc to ft h e f a the r 's s emen a nd t h u s as ou r ce t o t h e f u tu r e f e r t i l i ty , a nd , t h e c r ema t ion d e s t roy s w ha t o n e h a s t o g e t r i d o f ; s i n a nd f ema le f l e sh ( Pa r ry 1 994 :188 ) . F undamen ta l i n c r ema t ion i sf i r e a s t h e m ed ia to r o f a nd b e tween t h e e l emen t s , i ti st h e v e ry e mbod imen t o fc hange a nd t r an sf o rma t ion . A gn i i si nH indu m y tho logy s e en a s " t he c au se o f s e xua l u n ion . . . When a m an a nd a w oman b ecome h ea t ed , t h e s e ed f l ow s , a nd b i r th t a ke s p l ace" ; t h e h ea t o f s e xua l d e s i r e ( O 'F lahe r ty 1 98 1[ 1973 ] :90 ) . A s a p e r son if ied d e i ty , A gn i i s a n u n sc rupu lou s s educe r o f w omen , a nd a n e r o t ic d ea th i so f t en a s soc ia ted w i th t h e m o t if o f s e lf immo la t ion ( i b id :9 1) . F i r e i s a l so a n e x t r eme ly c ommon a po t ropa ic b ecau se i tw a rd s of e v i l s p i r i t s ( Ba rbe r 1 990 :385 ) , A gn i i st h e s l aye r o f d emon s ( Hube r t & Mau s s 1 964 :26 ) . I th a s p u r if i ca to ry p ow e r s . F ur the rmo r e , A gn i i se n t ru s t ed w i th t h e t a sk o f h and l ing o ve rt h eo f e r ing st ot h eg od s( i b id :4 1) . F i r ec an b er e duced t o h ea t , a nd h ea t c an b e s e en a st h e f i na l p rope r ty o fl i f e ( l ike b r ea th )( Kn ipe 1 975 :37 ) . I ns ome t e x t st h ed ecea sed i s r e f e r r ed t o a s ap e r son w ho e n te r s t h e s moke o f t h e c r ema t ion p y r e , b ecome s c l o th e s a nd r a in , t h en v ege tab le s , a nd i fe a ten , s p e rm ( O 'F lahe r ty 1 98 1 :42 ) . D ea th g i ve sl i f e .

F ood p r a c t ice s a r e t e chno log ica l p r oce s se s , t h u s , t e chno logy i s am ean s t o a n e nd a s w e l l a s a n h uman a c t iv i ty . T op o s i te nd s a nd p rocu r e a nd u t i l ize t h e m ean st o t h em i s ah uman a c t iv i ty ( He idegg e r 1 9 77 :4 ) . F ood i s t h e r eby u nde r s tood a s am ean st os ome o t he re nd . T ha te nd i st h ough t t o d ef ine t h e p r ac t ice ( Cu r t in 1 992 :13 ) . A s a s ub s tance , f o od i sa s m uch m en ta l a nd s p i r i tua l a s i ti s p hy s ica l ( i b id : 10 ) . A s as ymbo l , f o od h a s a n i mmanen t p owe rt og ene ra te a nd c r ea te l i f e . F eed ing i sv i ewed a st h e o ppo s i te o fs e x ( Me igg s 1 992 :116 ) ; t h e s e a r e t h e t wo l i f e g i v ing p ro ce s se s w h ich m a in ta in t h e l i n eag e a nd s o c ie ty . T hey a r e c onn ec t ed a nd m u s t b e c on t ro l led . F u r th e rmo r e , f ood c a l l s i n to q ue s t ion t h e b ounda r ie s o ft h e b ody ( O l ive r 1 992 :7 1) , a nd i nd ea th t h e se b ounda r ie s , b o th s p i r i tua l ly a nd p hy s ica l ly , a r e d i sappea r ing a nd h av e t ob e r e c r ea ted . Mo r eove r , A gn i i sn o t b u rn ing t h e c o rp se , b u t c ook ing i t . C ook ing i sr e ga rded a st h eo ppo s i te o fe a t ing a nd r a i se st h e c o rp se t o ah i ghe rs t a t e ( t o h eaven ) w he r ea s e a t ing r e duce s t h e d ead b ody t o al ow e r s t a te ( t o a n ima l s ) . T hu s A gn i p r epa r e s t h e c o rp se f o rt h e g od s b y c ook ing i t( O 'F lahe r ty 1 994 :49 ) : " Do n o t b u rn h im e n t i r e ly , A g n i , o r e ngu lf h im i ny ou r f l am e s . D o n o t c on sume h i s s k in o r f l e sh . When y ou h ave c ook ed h im p e r f ec t ly , 0 k now e r o f c r ea tu r e s , o n ly t h en s e nd h im f o r th t ot h e f a the r " ( R ig V eda 1 0 .16 .1) . T he s ou l sb e com ef o od o ft h eg od s( B rahma -Su t ra s3 . 1 .7 ) .

B u t w hy t h en , a r e n o t e ve rybody c r ema ted? I td epend s u pon k a rma . T he s t a t e o fk a rma c a l eko r e qu i r e s c r ema t ion . H o ly p e r son s , s ad hu s , a r e n o rma l ly b u r ied , b u t m ay b e c r ema ted . T he a s ce t ic sa r eo r ien ted t owa rd s ad if e r en tg oa l t h an t h e H ou seho lde r , b u t w i th in t h e s ame c omp lex o f r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween l i f ea nd d ea th . T he s ad hu s 's g oa l i sa p e rmanen t a nd u nf e t t e r ed s t a te o f B e ing , w he r ea s c r ema t ion o n ly p rom i se s ar e newed i mpe rmanen t e x i s tence ( Pa r ry 1 987 :74 -75 ) . T he s t a t e o f k a rma c a l eko i s a v u lne rab le c ond i t ion f o r p o l lu t ion w he r e t h e p e r son i s r e spon s ib le f o rh i s o rh e ro wn p u r i ty . T he s adhu s a r e m o r e p u re t h an o rd ina ry p eop le , i n ad if e r en t b u t s t i l l as im i la r w ay , p e r son s w i thou t k a rma c a l eko a r e m o r e p u r e , l e s s v u lne rab le t op o l lu t ion a nd d o n o t h ave r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r t h e i r o wn r i tua l p u r i ty . T hu s i n huma t ion i sa n a u sp ic iou s f u ne ra l p r a c t ice . Mo r eove r , t h e d ea th o f y oung c h i ld r en c anno t b e r e p r e sen ted a s a n a c t o f s e lf sa c r if i ce ( Pa r ry 1 994 :186 ) . B u t w hen ap e r son i sk a rma c a leko , h e o r s h e b ecome s v u lne rab le t ot h ep o l lu t ion f r om t h eb u r ia l a sw e l l a s i nn eed o ft h e a dvan tag e s f r om c r ema t ion t o t h e n ex t r e b i r th .

F a s t ing i st h ough t t og i v e s p i r i tua l m e r i t . I ti st h e s p i r i tua l v i c to ry o ve r t h e m a te r ia l n eed s , s u ch a s h unge r , a nd t h e f a s t ing u sua l ly i n vo lve s a b s t a in ing f r om c e r ta in f ood s , l i ke c ook ed r i ce ( Cap lan 1 994 :12 ) . B u t w hy d oe s t h e o ppo s i t e h appen i n f u ne r a l s? F a s t ing d emand s t h e e x i s ten ce o f b ounda r ie s , al i v ing p e r son , w he r ea s i nd ea th t h e b ody a nd m ind n eed t or e -e s tab l i sh t h e b ounda r ie s . R aw r i ce h a st h i s c apa c i ty a nd l i f e -g iv ing p owe r . T he s ou l i si n as t a te o f h e lp le s sne s s a nd n eed st h i s h e lp . Mo r eove r , t h i s p o s s ib i l i ty o f l i f e -g iv ing i st r an sf e r r ed t o t h e d e cea sed b ef o r e t h e f u ne ra l i sc omp le t ed ,t h e i mmanen tp ow e ro ft h e f ood s t a r t s t h e p roce s s o f r e b i r th i nt h i s " l if e" b ef o r e t h e c o rp se i s b u rn t o r b u r i ed , t o g e t t h e p roce s s " a c t iva ted" i n a f a vou rab le m ann e r . T he g r a in i sa l iv e a nd g i ve s l i f e t o o t he rg r a in s , o ne b ecome s s e ve ra l , b y d i g e s t ing t h e g r a in i t g oe s t ot h e b r a in , a nd b ecome s n ew l i f e . I ti s ab i r th a nd a

A t t h e l e ve l o fw i th in -g ave p a t te rn ing , t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t f e a tu r e i st h e p r e sence o ra b sence o fg r av e -good s . Why i s f o od u sed a s g r ave g ood s? "Man mu s t e a t t o l i ve a ta l ; f o od i sp e rhap s t h e o n e a b so lu t e a nd o ve r r id ing n eed f o r m an" ( Ch i lde 1 971[1944 ] :12 ) . B u t b eyond t h i s , f ood h a s m ean ing s t h a tt r an scend t h en u t r i t ive r o le . T he f ood a lway s c a r r ie s s ymbo l ic l o ad s f a r h eav ie r t h an t h o se o f s imp le n u t r i t ion , s o , t h e s ymbo l i sm t o o s e em s r e ady t os p i l l o ve r i n to e ven w ide r f i e ld s o f m ean ing ( M in tz 1 996 :29 ) . T he r ef o r e i ti sn ece s sa ry t o d i s t ingu i sh f o od i nt e rm s o f 5 2

s ymbo l o ft h e f o r thcom ing i n ca rna t ion . T he s ame h appen s w hen ap e r son i sb o rn . T he f a the rh a sp l an ted as e ed ( w i th t h e s ou l ) i nt h e m o the r 's w omb a nd i tb ecome s l i f e . A c h i ld i st h e t r ue p roduc t o ft h e p a r en t s ' b od i ly s ub s tance s , t h e f l e sh i sf r om t h e u t e r ine b l ood o ft h e m o the r a nd t h e b one s f r om t h e s emen o f t h e f a the r . T he " a she s" o f t h e d ecea sed a r er e f e r r ed t oa s" bone s" ,t h a ti ss emen , s c a t t e r ed i n to t h e r i v e r ( Pa r ry 1 994 :111 , 1 88 ) . Mo r eove r , t h e r aw c ond i t ion i st h e p u r e s t s t a te o ff o od , a nd c an b e g i ven t oa h i gh c a s t e p e r son b y a l ow c a s te p e r son w i thou t p u r if i ca t ion r i t ua l s a nd e xpec ta t ion o f ar e tu rn s e rv ice , b ecau se i ti sa nh onou rab le a c tw h ich g i ve s d i f f u se s p i r i tua l m e r i tt ot h e d ono r ( Ma r r io t t 1 968 : 142 ) . T he r aw c ond i t ion o f r i c e a nd t h e g r ave -good s i ng ene ra l p robab ly p r even t s t h e c o rp s e f r om b e ing r i tua l ly p o l lu ted a s f a r a s i ti s p o s s ib le , h en ce , t h e f o r thcom ing i n ca rna t ion g e t s b e t te r p o s s ib i l i t ie s .

r aw t oc ooked , t h u s t h e f o od m ak e s p o s s ib le t h e c r o s s ing a nd r e c r ea t ion o f b ounda r ie s . T he i reve r s ib i l i ty o f f o od t r an sf o rma t ion s h a s i t s p a ra l le l i nt h e i reve r s ib i l i ty o ft h e c r o s s ing a nd t h e r e c r ea t ion o f t h e b ounda r ie s : d ea th b e come s l i f e a ga in . T hu s c ooked f o od a s ag r ave g if t i s a no the r w ay o f a c t iva t ing t h i s l i f e -g iv ing p roce s s j u s t b ef o r et h ed ead i sb u rn to rb u r ied . C ompa r ed w i th r aw r i ce , c ook ed f o od i sad i f f e r en tm ean st ot h es ame e nd . Why a r e t h e d ecea sed 's l i f e c yc le r i t ua l s e xp r e s sed i nt h e f u ne ra l r i t e s? A nd w hy a r e t r an sf o rma t ive e l emen t su s ed a s m ean s t o a n e nd? L if e i t s e lf i s at r an sf o rma t ion , b e tween d i f f e r en t s t ag e s , t h rough d ea th , t oo t he r f o rm s o f l i f e . A l l t h e se t r an sf o rma t ion s m ay b e s e en a s s am sa ra , t h e l i f e c y c le o r" r ound o fb i r th a nd d ea th" , a nd t h e a im i sm uk t i , r e lea se o r s a lva t ion f r om t h e se t r an sf o rma t ion s . A s m ean s t ot h e f i na l e nd , t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t f e a tu r e s i nt h i s l i f e a r e i n co r po ra t ed i nt h e m o s t d ange rou s c hange b e tween t h e se c ond i t ion s ; d ea th . T he n ex t l i f e r e qu i r e s t h a t t h e se t r an sf o rma t ion p roce s se s i nt h e d ecea sed 's l i f e h ave t a ken p l a ce b ecau se o ft h e i r i mpo r tance f o r t h e p e r son 's k a rma . S im i la r ly , t h e se t r an sf o rma t ion s a r e e xp r e s sed a s d i s t inc t ion s b e tween t h e l i f e c y c le r i tua l s : p a sne , b a r tamand ea nd m a r r iage . P a sne i st h e f i r s t v i ta l l i f e c yc le r i tua lw he r et h e c h i ld i si n i t ia t ed i n to t h e w o r ld o fr i ce ,t h a t i s , f o od a nd f u r the r l i f e . I n b a r tamand e a nd m a r r iag e t h e e mpha s i s i sl a id o n t h e r e gen e ra t ion o f l i f e i nt wo w ay s . F i r s t ly , w i th k a rma c a l eko t h e p e r son e n te r s s am sa ra a nd b e com e s f u l ly r e spon s ib le f o r a c t ion s a nd r i tua l p u r i ty . S e cond ly , a f t e r t h e se i n i t ia t ion r i t e s , m en a nd w oman a r e a low ed a nd o b l iged t o h ave c h i ld r en . H ence l i f e i s c on t inued b o th mo ra l ly a nd c a rna l ly . T hu s t h e l i f e c yc le r i t ua l s a r e c on cer n ed w i th B e ing i n ab road s e n se , a nd t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t f e a tu re s i nt h i s e x i s ten ce a r e t r an sf o rmed i n to t h e r e g ene ra t ion o f l i f e , t i me a nd c o smo s . A l though t h i s i n t e rp r e ta t ion l i e s w i th in ac o smo log ica l a nd r e l ig iou s f r amewo rk , i ti se xp r e s sed i nt e rm s o ft h e s o c ia l s t ruc tu r e i nt h ep r e sen t s o c ie ty , o ri no t he rw o rd s ,t h ew ay c o smo s i s p e r ce ived t o day . T h i s b r ing s m e b a ck t o t h e o n to log ica l q ue s t o ft h e h uman s c ience s : ab r oad c oncer na bou t h uman b e ing sa nd b e ing h uman .

B u t w hy d o s ome o f t h e Maga r s u s e c ooked f o od? T he t r an sf o rma t ion f r om r aw t o c ook ed c an n o t o n ly b e i n t e rp r e t ed a s at r an s i t ion f r om " na tu r e" t o " cu l tu r e" , b u t t h rough i ta nd b y m ean s o f i tt h e h uman s t a te c an b e d e f in ed ( L ev i -S t rau s s 1 994 [ 1964 ] :164 ) . T he f e r t i l i ty c onn ec t ion b e tween e a t ing a nd s e xua l i ty i s o f g r ea t s i gn if i can ce i n H indu i sm . C ook ing i s a n a c t o f t r an sf o rma t ion t h a t i n vo lve s a l p a r t s o ft h e s o c ie ty , f r om p roduc t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion , p r epa ra t ion , t h rough c ook ing t o t h e f i na l p ha se o f d i spo sa l ( Goody 1 994 [ 198 444 -48 ) . F ood c hang e s c ond i t ion w hen i ti sh ea ted . T he se c hang e s a nd t r an sf o rma t ion s o f f ood a r e i reve r s ib le , i fm ea t a nd v eg e tab l e s a r e h ea t ed , t h ey c anno t b e c onve r ted b a ck i n to r aw m ea t a nd v eg e tab le s . T he h ea t c hange s as ub s tance f r om o n e s t a t e t oa no th e r a nd o nce i th a s b een c hang ed i t d oe s n o t r e v e r t t o i t s o r ig ina l s t a t e . " The c oncep t o f a n i rev e r s ib le t r an sf o rma t ion m ed ia t ed b y h ea t p rov ide s a c u l t u ra l s o lu t ion t o t h e c r o s s ing o f b ounda r ie s" ( Co l le t t 1 993 :505 ) . T he m e tapho r o f i r eve r s ib le h ea t -med ia ted t r an sf o rma t ion s c an b e u s ed t op r oduce c hange i nb o th t h e p hy s ica l a nd s o c ia l w o r ld . I ti s ap a r t o f ap e rva s ive m ode o f t h ough t o r s y s t em o f b e l ief s t h a t a l low s h uman s t o " con t ro l " n a tu r e ( i b id :505 -506 ) . T he t r an sf o rma t ion f r om d ea th t o l i f e i ss ymbo l ized w i th t h e t r an sf o rma t ion f r om

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Chap ter 8 : The A rchaeo logy o fD ea th C ommemo ra t ion o ft h eD ead I n t h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra t u r e , i nm y o p in ion , t h e r e i s o f t en , b a sed o n a n i mp l ic i t C h r i s t ian m en ta l i ty , a n a s sump t ion a nd n o t ion o fd ea th a st h e f i na l e nd w he r e t h e d e scendan t s a r e t o ta l ly u nab le b o th t o i n f luen ce t h e d ecea sed 's c ond i t ion a nd p o s s ib i l i t ie s a sw e l l a st oh ave a m u tua l r e la t ion sh ip a c ro s s t h e l i n e b e tw een t h e t wo s t a t e s o f " l if e" a nd " dea th" . T h e m a in e mpha s i s i n t h e a r chaeo logy o fd ea th i so fc ou r se o nt h e r ema in s , o rr a the r t h ea r t ef a c t s , f r om t h et i me w hen t h ed ead w a sd i spo sed o f ( e .g . C hapman , K inne s & R and sbo rg 1 981) . B u t t h e f u n e ra l s h ave t ob e u nde r s tood i n ab r oade r s e n se , o r t o p u t i ti na no the rw ay , i fw e o n ly f o cu s o n f u ne ra l r ema in s w e h ave t o b e a wa r e o ft h e l i m i ta t ion s o n t h e e xpec ted i n f o rma t ion p o s s ib le t og a in . I ti sm i s lead ing t o s e e t h e f u ne ra l a s a n i s o la ted a nd t h e o n ly e ven t w i th in t h e s phe r e a nd r e a lm o fd ea th . F une ra l s a nd c eme te r ie s a r e n o t t h e o n ly o cca s ion s a nd p l a ce s t o s t udy t h e d ea th ( e .g . H umph r ey s 1 98 1 :279 ) . I nt h e d eba te t h e f o cu s i so f t en ab i t c l oud ed ; t i t le s a s" d ia logue s w i th t h e d ead" a r e o f t en u s ed w hen t h e c on ce rn a c tua l ly i sa m a t te r o f d i f f e r en t m ode s o f d i spo sa l o f t h e d ead . T h e d ea th r i tua l s a r e i n aw ay n ev e r e nd ing ; t h e f u ne ra l i st h e e n t rance t o e t e rn i ty . D ea th i sn o t an on -ex i s tence ; i ti s o n ly a no the r e x i s tence , w h ich r e nde r s p o s s ib le d if e r en t f o rm s o f d i a logue s b e tw een t h e l i v ing a nd t h e d ead t h rough v a r iou s p e rf o rmance s a nd m ed ia . Mo r eov e r , i n t h i s s e n se t h i s w o r ld ly e x i s t ence i so f t en p e r ce ived a s i mpe rmanen ta nd t empo r a ry ,w he r ea sn o t ion so ft h eo t he r w o r ld ly e x i s tence , t h e " dea th" , o f t en a r e c onnec ted w i th m o r el o ng te rm o re t e rna ln o t ion so fe x i s tence . B u t a s R icha rd B rad ley a s k s , w hy d o s ome c ommun i t ie s c ommemo ra te t h e i r d ead i n a n a r chaeo log ica l ly v i s ib le w ay , a nd w hy d o o t he r s s e em t od i s r ega rd t h em ( B rad ley 1 984 :15 )? O r , h ow i s i tp o s s ib le t o t r a ce t h e se e i the r i n d iv idua l o r c o l lec t ive c ommemo ra t ion s h e ld i n c yc l ic r e gu la r i t ie s? I ft h e d ecea sed b ecome m onumen t s t h ey c an e i the r h ave a p ro spec t ive o r r e t ro spec t ive f u n c t ion , r e spec t ive ly a s ar e p r e sen ta t ion o ft h e d ead i nt h e f u tu r e w o r ld o r a s ar e c r ea t ion o f t h e d ead a s a n a n cho r f o r m emo ry ( Humph r ey s 1 98 1 :272 ) . I n l i gh t o f t h i s , s o c ia l s t a tu se s d o n o t n eed t ob e m an if e s ted i nf une ra l r i t e s o r r ema in s ( c on s t ru c t ion s ) , b u t r a the r i n c ommemo ra t ion r i tua l sp e rf o rmed a t al a te rs t ag e . P i e r s V i teb sky 's s t udy a mong t h e a bo r ig ina l " t r ibe" S o ra i n I nd ia m ay i l um ina t e p a r t s o f t h i s c omp lex i ty . T he c r ema t ion i s p e r ce iv ed a s " becom ing " a nd d ea th a s a m ode o f " be ing " , t h u s t h e d i a logue s w i th t h e d ead a r e m o r e l i ke r e la t ion sh ip s b e tw een p e r son s o ve r t ime ( V i teb sky 1 993 :9 , 1 34 ) . " L if e" a nd " dea th" a r e b o th p ha se s i n ap e r son 's t o ta l e x i s t en ce a nd c l o se r e la t ion s a r e m a in ta ined a c ro s st h e l o s s o ft h e f l e sh ly n a tu re o fh uman s ( i b id :8 ) .

T he f u ne ra l i s ac r uc ia l r i t e i n vo lv ing t h r ee e l emen t s o f t r an sf o rma t ion . I ti sp a r t ly c o smo log i ca l a s t h e d ecea sed m ove f r om o ne l o ca t ion i nt h e l a nd s cape t o a no the r ; i ti s p a r t ly o n to log ica l a sh e i st r an sf o rmed i n to ad if e r en te n t i ty a nd s t a te o fb e ing , a nd f i na l ly , i ti sp a r t ly s oc ia l a s h e i s r e tur n ed t o t h e a nce s to r s ( i b id :11) . T h i s i sw ha t a n ce s to r w o r sh ip i s a bou t . Wh en d ea th i s i n te rp re t ed a s a t r an sf o rma t ion w i th in t h ef r amewo rk o fr i t e sd ep a s sag e ,t h e m a in p rob lem i st h a t m o s t o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l a na ly se s e nd i mmed ia te ly a f t e r t h e s ou l i s p e r ce ived t o b e t r an sf o rmed , i . e . w hen t h e f u ne ra l i sf i n i shed . B u t t h e m a in p o in t i st h a t t h e f u ne r a l i sn o tj u s t am e r e t r an sf o rma t ion o f t h e c o rp se , t h e r e a r e r e a son s w hy t h e s o u l i st r an sf o rmed . T he f u ne ra l i sn o t t h e e nd . I ti st h e b eg inn ing o f a nd t h e e n t rance i n to t h e o t he r w o r ld w he re t h e d ecea sed p r obab ly b ecome s a n a nce s to r , f o r ef a the r , m a levo len t g ho s t , s p i r i t , d i v in i ty o r ag od . O ne a pp roa ch t ot h i sp r ob lem i st oa n swe r w hy s ome s o c ie t ie s n eed m a t e r ia l e xp r e s s ion s t or e a ch t h e s p i r i tua l w o r ld w he r ea so t h e r sd on o t . A n ce s to r w o r sh ip m ay b e p e rf o rm ed i n m any w ay s . C o l lec t ive c ommemo r a t ion s a r e c omp l ex r i tua l s w h e r e i n ter na l s o c ia l d i s t in c t ion s a r e e xp re s sed a nd a c t ed o u t . I w i l l b r ief ly u s e d a ta f r om p a r t s o ft h e a n ce s to r w o r sh ip o f t h e Maga r s i nt h eA rga lv i l lag e . T he a n ce s to r sh ave a f t e rt h e f u ne ra l t r ave l l ed i n to ad imen s ion o r as p he r e o fd i v in i t ie s a nd g od s , a nd i ti sd if i cu l t t os epa ra t e b e tw een f o r ef a th e r s a nd o t he r d e i t ie s . T he e s cha to log ica l a nd c o smo log i ca l c oncep t s a r e d i f f u se . Wha t h appen s t ot h e i n d iv idua l s ou l a f t e r d ea th i su nc lea r , a nd w h en Ia sked , o ne i n f o rman tj u s t l a ughed a nd a s ked h ow c ou ld h ek now? B u tt h es ou le x i s t s . Mu l t ip le c on cep t s a nd v agu e i d ea s o f w ha t t h e Wo r ld B eyond r e a l ly i s , d o n o t i n f luence t h e p r e sence a nd t h e i mpo r tance o f t h i s o t he r -wo r ld ly d imen s ion . T he g r ea t e s t a nd m o s t i mpo r tan tf e s t iva l sa nd r i tua l s i nt h ev i l lag ea r et h e a nce s to r c e leb ra t ion s a nd c ommemo r a t ion s . E a ch y ea r s e ve ra l a n ce s to r c e leb ra t ion s a r e p e r f o rmed a t d if e r en t s h r ine s a nd a l t e r s a td if e r en t p l ace s i nt h e v i l lage o fa l t h e Maga r s t o ge th e r , r e ga rd le s s o f c l an o r p a t r i l inea l g r oup af i l ia t ion . A n ima l sa r e s a c r if i ced a tv a r iou ss po t sp r e sc r ib ed b y t h e i ra n ce s to r s , a nd s om e o ft h e se r i t e s i n vo lve ag ene ra l f e r t i l i ty c u l t a nd l e g i t im i sa t ion o fl a nd . O fs p ec ia l i n t e r e s t i s a n a nce s to r c e l eb ra t ion p e r f o rmed e ve ry t we lf th y ea r . O n ly o ne p a t r i l inea l g r oup o rc l an p e r f o rm s t h i sf e s t iva l i n ay ea r . T he f e s t iva l l a s t s f o r s e ve ra l d ay s . T h e o t he r c l an s a mong t h e Maga r s m ay p a r t i c ipa t e a s o b se rve r s , b u t t h ey a r e n o t a l lowed t op e r f o rm r i t e s a nd i ti sn o t" t he i r " f e s t iva l . W i th in t h i s c yc le o f t we lve y ea r s , e a ch Maga r c l an h o ld s t h i s f e s t iva l , b u tn o ti nt h e s am ey ea ra sa no th e rc l an . Mo r eove r , t h e se c e leb ra t ion s a r e n o t p e r f o rmed i nt h e t emp le s i nt h e v i l lage , b u th e ld i nt h ec ou r tya rd o ft h eh ou s eo fs ome o ft h e d e scendan t s( Kha t t r i 1 999 ) .

5 4

i n teg ra t ion o r s y n the s i s f o r o ppo s ing s o c ia l a s w e l l a s c u l t u ra l f o r ce s ( Be l l 1 992 : 19 -2 1) . T he e na c tmen t o f ar i t e i s i mp l ic i t ly c on s t ruc ted a s a n e f f ec t ing i n teg ra t ion f o r p a r t ic ipan t s b e tween t h e s uppo sed c oncep t ua l t o ta l i ty a nd t h e p r a c t ica l n eed s o f ap a r t i cu la r t i me a nd p l a ce o r t h e d i spo s i t ion sw i th in t h er i tua l c on tex t( i b id :31) .

F rom R ema in st oR i tua l s B ou rd ieu d i s t ingu i she s i n T he D i s t inc t ion b e tween " cu l tu r a l c a p i ta l" a nd " e conom ic c ap i ta l" ( Bou rd ieu 1 995b ) . I n H indu s o c ie t ie s , a nd I w i l l a dd s t ud ie s o f m o r tua ry p r a c t ice i ng ene ra l , O beye s ek e r e ( 1 997 ) a r gue s t h a t w e n e ed t oe mpha s iz e ak i nd o f" s p i r i tua l c ap i ta l" o r c apab i l i ty i n dependen t o f e conomy , b ecau se t h i s i st h e m o s t i mpo r tan t i d en t i ty . A G u ru 's k now ledge i s e x chang ed i nv a lue " down" r e la t ion s b ecau se i te nhance s t h e r a nk o ft h e g i ve r . H e e s tab l i she s r e c ip roca l r e la t ion s w i th n um e rou s d i sc ip le s b y g i v ing k now ledge a nd r e ce iv ing l ow e r f o rm s o fb enef i t s , e . g . m a te r ia l n eed s a nd o b jec t s ( Ba r th 1 990 :649 ) . P e r son s w i th s p i r i tua l c apab i l i t ie s ( e .g . t h e s h aman i nB hak im ly a nd t h e s adhu s i nB a ran ja )g e tt h em o s te l abo ra te a nd d i s t inc t ive f u n e r a l s . I n O u t l ine o f aT heo ry o fP rac t ice B ou rd ieu s t r e s se s t h e n eed t ot r an scend t h e s ub jec t ive c a t ego r ie s o ft h e n a t ive e xpe r ience a s w e l l a s t h e o b jec t iv e c a t ego r ie s o f t h e o u t s ide o b se rve r ( Bou rd ieu 1 993 [ 1977 1 : 1-2 ) ; t h e p rob lem o f m ov ing f r om t h e m echan ic s o f t h e m ode l t o t h e d i a lec t i c o f s t ra teg ie s . A t h eo ry o f p r a c t ice a pp roa ch r e nde r s p o s s ib le a n i n ve s t iga t ion o f t h e d i a lec t ica l r e la t ion s b e tween t h e m ode o f k now ledg e a nd t h e s t ruc tu r ed d i spo s i t ion s w i th in t h o s e s t ruc tu r e s t h a t a r e a c tua l i sed a nd w h ich t e nd t or e p rodu ce t h em ( i b id :3 ) .

C l if f o rd G ee r tz a r gue st h a t" i nr i t ua l , t h ew o r ld a sl i ved a nd t h e w o r ld a si mag ined , f u sed u nde r t h e a g en cy o f as i ng le s e t o f s ymbo l i c f o rm s , t u rn o u t t o b e t h e s ame w o r ld , p roduc ing t h u s t h a t i d io sync r a t ic t r an sf o rma t ion i n o n e 's s e n se o f r e a l i ty " ( Gee r tz 1 973 :112 ) . H e p o in t s o u t f u r the r t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e b e l ieve r a nd t h e i n te rac t ion w i th t h e d e ta ched o b serve r ( i b id :113 ) . T h i s r e la t ion sh ip c an b e i n te rp r e t ed a s t h e d i f f e r ence b e tw een p e r sona l a nd c u l tu r a l d imen s ion s o f s ymbo l s a nd r i tua l s . A s l o ng a s w e r e cogn iz e o ra c cep t t h e r i tua l m echan i sm o fm ean ingf u lne s s f o r p a r t ic ipan t s , i tm igh t b e p o s s ib le f o r t h e r e sea r che r t o g r a sp t h e m ean ingf u lne s s a s ac u l tu ra l p henomenon ( Be l l 1 992 :28 ) , b e cau se t h e r i tua l s a r e " po r t ray ed a s e na c tmen t s e xh ib i t ed t oo t he r s f o r e va lua t ion o r a pp rop r ia t ion i nt e rm s o f t h e i r m o r e p u r e ly t h eo r e t ica l k now ledg e" ( i b id :31) . R i tua l ss e cu r ec u l tu ra lk now ledge ( i b id :54 ) . " Bu t n o o n e , n o t e ven as a in t , l i ve s i nt h e w o r ld r e l ig iou s s ymbo l s f o rmu la t e a l o ft h e t i me , a nd t h e m a jo r i ty o fm en l i ve i ni to n ly a tm omen t s" ( Gee r tz 1 973 : 119 ) . Mean ing sa r e " s to r ed" i ns ymbo l s u s ed i nr i t ua l s a sa n e xp r e s s ion o fw ha t t h e w o r ld i s ,t h u s s a c r ed s ymbo l s a r e r e la t ed t oa n o n to logy a nd a s ac o smo logy w he r e t h e i r p ow e r d e r ive s f r om t h e a s sumed a b i l i ty t o i d en t if y f a c t a t t h e m o s t f u ndamen ta l l e ve l . T he t o ta l i ty o f s a c r ed s ymbo l s w oven t o ge the r i n to s ome o r de r ed w ho le m ake s u p ar e l ig iou s s y s tem . T h i s s y s tem m ed ia t e s as up r eme k now ledge a nd t h u s e s sen t ia l c ond i t ion s i nt h e w ay l i f e m u s t b e l i ved t ot h o se w ho a r e c omm i t ted t o i t ( i b id :127 129 ) . N o t a l c u l tu r a l p e r f o rmance s a r e r e l ig iou s p e r f o rmance s , s o w ha t d o r i tua l a c t iv i t ie s d o t h a t o t he r a c t iv i t ie s c anno t o r w i l l n o t d o? R i tua l iza t ion o r t h e p rodu c t ion o f r i t ua l i sed a c t s i s a " s t ra teg ic p r oduc t ion o fe xped ien t s c heme s t h a t s t ruc tu r e a n e nv i ronm en t i ns u ch aw ay t h a t t h e e nv i ronmen t a ppea r s t o b e t h e s o u r ce o f t h e s c h eme s a nd t h e i r v a lue s" ( Be l l 1 992 :140 ) .

A s Ih av e s hown f r om N i r e G ha t a nd t h e c eme t e ry i n B en i , a l though m o s t o f t h e d ecea sed s hou ld h ave b een c r ema t ed , t h e m a jo r i ty a r e b u r ied . I no t he rw o rd s , e ven i n c a se s w h e r e t h e s o c ia l s t ru c tu r e o ft h e s o c ie ty i ss uppo sed a nd p r e s c r ibed t ob e r ef l ec ted i nt h e f u ne ra l p r a c t ice , t h e m o r tua ry r ema in s d o n o t r ef l ec t t h e se p a t t e rn s i n ao ne t o o ne r e la t ion sh ip . H ow i s i t p o s s ib le t o g r a sp t h i s a mb igu i ty i nt h e m a t e r ia l r ema in s w i thou t g i v ing u p t h e s c ien t if i c c r i te r ia ? E v en t h ough s o c ia l i d en t i t ie s a r e m an if e s t ed i n t h e m o r tua ry r ema in s ( a s w i th l i f e c yc le r i tua l s ) ,t h em a in p r ob lem i st ou n i t et h e se s o c ia l i d en t i t ie s i n to a c on t ex tua l i n t e rp r e ta t ion o f t h e s o c ie ty . I f t h e p re sc r ibed n o rm i n as o c ie ty i sf o l lowed b y i t s m embe r s a nd t h u s m an if e s t ed i nt h e f u ne r a l r ema in s , i tg i ve s a g o lden o ppo r tun i ty t ou nde r s tand t h e s o c ia l s t ruc tu r e f a r b eyond n o t ion s o rs imp le l a be l s a s" t r ibe " o r" ch ief dom" . T he l i f e -cy c le r i t ua l s m an if e s ted i nt h e m o r tua ry r ema in s w i l l t h en b e am a t e r ia l t r a ce o ft h e s o c ie ty 's o wn s o c ia l d i s t inc t ion s . B u tw ha tt h en i ft h ep r e sc r ibed p r a c t ice i sn o t f o l low ed , o r , h ow i si tp o s s ib le t o e va lua t e w h e the r t h e n o rm o rr u le i sf o l low ed o rn o t ? Whe r e s hou ld w e p u tt h e e mpha s i si nt h ea na ly se s?

H av ing t h i s a s ab a s i s f o r t h e a r gumen t i mp l ie s l i m i ta t ion s o n b u t a l so p o s s ib i l i t ie s o fk now ledg e a va i lab le i nf u ne ra l r ema in s . E ven i ft h e p r a c t i ce d ev ia te s f r om t h e n o rm , a s o c io r i tua l a pp roa ch f o cu s ing o n w ha t i sa c tua l ly d one i n s ub sequen t s t ep s a s d i f f e r en t a c t ion s i nt h e r i t e s , w he r e i t h appened a nd w ho c ou ld h ave p a r t ic ipa ted a nd p e r f o rmed t h e se r i tua l s , r e nd e r s p o s s ib le n ew i n s igh t s a nd a n e n t ran ce t o i n te rp r e ta t ion s o f f u ne r a l p r a c t ice s . F u r the rmo r e , i t c omb ine ss o c ia la nd r e l ig iou si d en t i t ie s .

Af u n e ra l i sm o r e t h an j u s t am e r e h appen ing w he r e t h e s o c ie ty e xp re s se s s o c ia l i n equa l i t i e s . R i tua l s a r e n o rma l ly p e r c e ived a s e i the r 1 ) a c t ion s o r a c t iv i t ie s t h a t e xp re s s c oncep tua l o r ien ta t ion s i n sp i r ed a nd p romo ted b y b e l ief s , s ymbo l s a nd m y th s , a nd t h u s t h e r i tua l s a r e r ou t in iz ed , h ab i tua l o r o b se s s ive a c t ion s , 2 ) m echan i sm s f o r i n t eg r a t ing a c t ion s a nd t h ough t , b ecau se b e l ief s c an e x i s t w i thou t r i tua l s , b u t n o t t h e o ppo s i t e , o r3 ) af i rma t ion o f c ommuna l u n i ty i nc on t ra s t t ot h e s o c ie ty a sp r e sen ted b y T u rn e r . T he r i t ua l s a r e t h u s c r ea t iv e " an t i s t ruc tu r e s" d i s t ingu i shed f r om t h e m a in t enance o f t h e s o c ia l o rde r s a nd h i e ra r ch ie s . I n s um , r i t ua l s a r e a m ed ium o f

T he I n te rmed ia ry P e r iod w i th in C r ema t ion B u r ia l s C r ema t ion i su s ua l ly n e i th e r af ma la c tn o rs uf i c ien ti ni t s e lf . T he a s he s a r e r a r e ly j u s t l e f t a t t h e p a tch . Af t e r a n i n t e rmed ia ry p e r iod ac omp lemen ta ry r i t e o r as e cond b u r ia l i sp e r f o rm ed ( He r tz 1 960 :42 -43 ) . T he r e a r e f o r p ra c t ica l r e a son s l i m i t s t ot h e d i s tance i ti sp o s s ib le t oc a r ry ac o rp se o n as t r e t ch e r i no r de r t op e rf o rm e i the r ac r ema t ion o r a n 5

i n huma t ion . T he p r ef e r r ed f u ne r a l r i t e t o H indu s i s c r ema t ion i n B ena r e s , a t t h e b ank s o f G ange s , t h e h o ly r i ve r i n to w h ich t h e a s he s a r e s c a t t e r ed a f te rwa rd s . I fi ti s i mpo s s ib le t ob r ing t h e c o rp se t oB ena r e s , a n a l te rna t ive i s t oc r ema t et h eb ody a ta no the rc eme t e ry a nd t h e r eaf t e rs e nd t h e a she s i n ac oppe r p o t t ot h e h o ly t own . T hu s t h e a s he s a r e s t i l l s c a t te red i n to G ange s ( P andey 1 969 :26 1 , P a r ry 1 994 :69 ) . I ti sn o tp o s s ib le t od i s t ingu i sh " p ragma t ic" f r om " o the r -wo r ld ly " g oa l s ( Pa r ry 1 994 :70 ) , a nd t h i s w ay o f p e rf o rm ing t h e f u ne ra l c u s tom i sp r a c t i sed a s f a r a s t h e m ean s a low . N o rma l ly t h e r e a r e s p a t ia l l i m i ta t ion s a nd c u l tu ra l c on s t ra in s i n t h e c ho i ce o f c r ema t ion g round s ( Levy 1 992 [ 1990 ] :16 1162 ) . Whe the r t h e a she s a r e s c a t te r ed i n ah o ly r i ve ro rb u r ied i nu r n s a st h ey a r e f o und i nm o s t a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s , i so fn o i mpo r tan ce i nt h i s c a se . T he p o in ti st og e te s tab l i shed t h er i t ua lb ond b e tween t h e g ene ra t ion s o ft h e l i v ing w ho o f f e r a nd t h e d ecea sed w ho r e ce ive t h e g if t s ( Kn ipe 1 977 : 111112 ) . T h i s r e la t ion c hange s t h rough c ommemo ra t ion r i t e s . T he r ef o r e t h e d ead h ave t ob e r e tu rned t oa n a u sp ic iou s p l a ce ( c eme te ry ) , t h a t i sn o rma l ly e i the rb a ck h ome o rt o ah o ly p l a ce . T he r e m igh t b e ac l o se t i e b e tw een t h e s ou l a nd t h e c on ta ine r o f t h e b one s a s t h e s p i r i tua l s ub s tance o f t h e c ha rne l -hou se ( He r tz 1 960 :60 ) . T h i s r e la t ion i ss uppo r ted b yt h eu s eo fc oppe rp o t sa su r n s . C oppe ri sp e r ce ived a sa l i v ing s ub s tance a nd m ake s t h e w a t e rj u s t a sp u r e a s t h e w a te r i n G ange s , a nd t h u s c onn ec t ed t o c o smo log ica l b e l ief s o f c r ea t ion ( Anf in se t 1 996 :116 , 19 ) . T he s a c r edne s s o f c oppe r i sk nown f r om t h e a n c ien t I nd ian c i v i l iza t ion ( Kuppu ram 1 989 :3 ) a nd i ti sa l so p e r ce ived t o h ave i n vu lne rab le p owe r s ( Ga ju r e l &V a idya 1 994 :15 ) . I n t h e R ig V eda ( 7 .89 ) " t he h ou se o f c l ay " i s u s ed a s m e tapho rf o r d ea th ; i ti st h e u r nw h ich i su s ed t os t o r et h e a she s i na f t e rc r ema t ion o rt os t o r et h e i rb one s i n ab u r ia l , i ti st h e e a r th , t h e h ou se o ft h e d ead m an , a nd i ti st h e h ome o f V a runa ( O 'F lahe r ty 1 994 :2 16 ) . Iw i l l t h e r ef o r e r e f e r t ot h e c r ema t ion s t ruc tu r e s i nB a r an ja a nd B hak im ly ( Do le c eme te ry ) a sc ha rne l h ou se p a t che s , ar e po s i to ry o f t h e b u rn t b one s . T h i s i s p o s s ib le b ecau se o f t h e e s cha to log ica l c oncep t s w i th in t h e t r ad i t ion t h a t r e nde r p o s s ib le a n a ma lgama t ion o f t h e t i m e a nd s pa ce o f t h e b eg inn ing a nd t h e e nd o f t h e i n t e rmed ia ry p e r iod . T h e t ime o f t h e i n te rm ed ia ry p e r iod , b e tw een t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond b u r ia l , o r t h e c r ema t ion a nd t h e p l a ce w he r e t h e a she s a r e s c a t te red i n to t h e r i v e r , d ep end s u pon d i s tance . I ft h e c o rp se i sc r ema t ed a t ag ha t n ex t t ot h e r i ve r i n to w h ich t h e a s he s a r e s c a t t e r ed a f t e rwa rd s , t h e d i s tance i s s ho r t , a nd t h e i n te rmed ia ry p e r iod s ma l l ,b u ts t i l l ,t h e r ea r e t wo b u r ia l s , a l though t h e u s e o fa n u r n a s ac on ta ine r o f t h e c o l lec t ed b one s i sn o t n ece s sa ry . B u t i ft h e d i s tance i n c r ea se s ,t h e u rn i s at r an spo r tab le c on ta ine rf o rt h e a she s a nd t h eb on e s : T he t h ree p ha se so fc r ema t ion b u r ia l s : A r chaeo log i s t s i n N o rway , f o r i n s tan ce , h av e f o r mo re t h an o ne c en tu ry b een a wa r e o ft h e f a c tt h a tt h e c r ema t ion r i t e s o f t en w e r e p e r f o rmed a t ad if e r en tp l a ce t h an w he re t h e u rn s w e r e d epo s i t ed i n ab a r row ( Rygh 1 877 :166 168 , R ygh 1 906 , S che te l ig 1 906 , 1 9 12 , S v e rd rup 1 933 , B jor n 1 935 :7 , N i s sen F e t t 1 972 , H e lg en 1 9 82 ) . B u t t h e m a in i s sue i n t h e a r cha eo log ica l d eba t e h a s b een w hen t h e

" r ea l" c r ema t ion b u r ia l s o ccu r r ed ( e .g . S che t e l ig 1 9 12 :88 , Mo l le rup 1 9 50 :44 ) ; t h e b one s a r e s uppo sed t ob e d epo s i ted a t t h e c r ema t ion p a t ch . A s ar e su l t o f t h i s , S che te l ig d i s t ingu i sh e s b e tween c r ema t ion b u r ia l s w i th o r w i thou t ur n s a nd w i th o r w i thou t c i s t s ( S ch e te l ig 1 9 12 :22 ) . T he s e pa ra t ion o ft h e b on e s f r om t h e a s h e so rt h e c l ean ing o ft h e b one s i si n t e rp r e ted a sa s pec t s o f as e conda ry b u r ia l . I nm y o p in ion , t h e d eba t e i s ab i t b l u r r ed b ecau se t h e r e l i e s a n i mp l ic i t a s sump t ion t h a t c r ema t ion i ss u ff ic ien t i n i t s e lf , w he r ea s i fw e e mpha s iz e d if e r en t r i t ua l a spec t s w i th in t h e s ame f u ne ra l p r a c t ice , w e m ay p l unge d eepe r i n to t h e p a s t . C r ema t ion a s af u ne ra l c on s i s t s a lway s o f a s pec t s o f a s e conda ry b u r ia l . T hu s t h e p r ev iou s ly " r ea l" c r ema t ion i s j u s t as p e c ia l v a r iab le o f ah uge v a r ia t ion o f c r ema t ion b u r ia ls . Iw i l l d i s t ingu i sh t h e c r ema t ion b u r ia l a s af u ne ra l r i t ua l i n to t h r ee p a r t s : 1 )

t h e p l ace w ere t h e b ody w as b urn to rc rema ted .

2 )t h e i n termed iary p er iod i nt ime a nd s pace ( whe r e t h e b one s a r e e i the r c l ean ed o r u nc lean ed a nd t h en o f t en t r an spo r ted ) . T h i s i n te rva l i n c r ea se st h er o om f o rm anoeuv r e i n t h o se a s pec t s w h ich a r e c oncer n ed w i th r e new ing , r e o rgan i s ing a nd r e leg i t im i s ing r e la t ion s b e tw een t h e l i v ing . 3 )t h e p l ace w here t h ea she s o r t he b one s w ere d epo s i ted o r b ur ied ( wh ich m ay b e t h e s ame p l a ce w he r e t h e b ody w a sc r ema t ed ,b u tn o rma l ly i ti sa no the rp l a ce ) . I f w e f o cu s o n t h e p l a ce s , t h e p e r f o rme r s a nd t h e p e r f o rmance s o f t h e r e sp ec t iv e r i tua l s i n e a ch a nd a l o f t h e se t h r ee p ha se s w e w i l l b e a b le t og a in n ew i n s igh t s o f c r ema t ion b u r ia l s a s af u n e r a l p rac t ice , a nd a l so t o t r a ce s ma l l c hange s a nd v a r ia t ion s i n t h e c u s tom . W i th a n e mpha s i s o n t h e i n t e rmed ia ry p e r iod i ti sp o s s ib l e t o g a in n ew k now ledg e o ft h e r i t ua l s a nd t h e s o c ie t ie s i n ab r oad s e n se . I ti sn ece s sa ry t op o in t o u t t h a tt h e p eop le i nt h e p a s t w e r e p robab ly a wa r e o f a l t h e d if e r en t p o s s ib i l i t ie s o f b u r ia l s ; c o inc idence s m ay h ave c au sed t h e d ea th b u t n o t d ec ided t h ef u ne ra lp r a c t ice . T hu s t h e ur nr e p r e sen t s t h e p l a ce w he r e t h e d ecea s ed d i ed , t h e c r ema t ed b one s a r e f r om t h e f i r s t b u r ia l r i t e w h e r ea st h e b u r ia l o ft h e u r n a nd t h e d epo s i t ion o fu ndamaged a r tef a c t s a r e f r om t h e s e cond a nd t h e f i na l b u r ia l r i t e w he r e o t h e r r i tua l s w e r e a dded a nd p e r f o rmed b y t h e d e scendan t s , r e la t ive sa nd o t h e r s . D if f e r en t ly a nd a mb iguou s ly d ef ined c oncep t s o f d ea th , a n ce s to r s , s p i r i t s , m a levo len t g ho s t s , r e inca rna t ion a nd h eaven a nd h e l l e x i s t s i de b y s i de , a nd t h i s r e la t ion i s p e r ce ived u np rob lema t i c , a l though f r om a n o u t s ide r 's p o in t o f v i ew t h ey m igh t b e s e en a s c on t rad ic to ry ( I sh i i p e r s . c omm . ) . E scha to log ica l i d ea s a r e m e re t h ough t s , b u tn o t a l r e l ig iou s i d ea s a r e e xp r e s sed i nt h e f u ne ra l r i t ua l s . B lo ch a nd P a r ry a r gue t h a t i ti sn o t" am a t te ro ft h ef a t e o ft h e s o u l d e t e rm in ing t h et r ea tmen to ft h ec o rp se , b u tr a th e rt h en a tu r e o f t h e s o c ie ty a nd t h e s t a t e o f t h e c o l lec t ive c on s c ien ce d e te rm in ing b o th t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e c o rp se a nd t h e s uppo sed c ond i t ion o ft h e s ou l" ( B lock a nd P a r ry 1 987 :4 ) . T he r ef o r er e in ca rna t ion a sa n i d ea i sp robab ly m o re l i k e ly t o b et r a ced i nt h ec ommemo ra t ion r i tua l s . 5 6

p a r t s o ft h e b u r ia l p a t ter n s a r e s im i la r w i th in H indu i sm a nd B uddh i sm , b u t a sm en t ioned e a r l ie r , t h e c o -ex i s tence i sn o t u np rob lema t ic . I nH indu i sm c r ema t ion a nd i n huma t ion a r e b o th a l lowed p r a c t ice s , a nd i n V a rana s i H indu s w ho d i ed " bad d ea th s" o r" d id n o t d i e t h e i r o wn d ea th" a r e i mme r sed i n t h e G ang e s . S ma l l c h i ld r en , m o s t o f t h e a s ce t ic s a nd p eop le w ho h ave d i ed f r om c e r ta in d i sea se sa r eg i ven w a t e r b u r ia l s ( Pa r ry 1 994 :68 , 1 62 ) . T he a im w i th t h e T ibe tan a i r b u r ia l i st og i v ea l t h er ema in st ot h ew ind ,t h u st h ep r a c t ice o f b u r ia l s i n s id e t h e w a l l i s p robab ly t h e o n ly v i s ib le d i f f e r ence b e tw een t h e H indu s a nd t h e B uddh i s t i n t h e a r cha eo log ica lr ema in s .

E thn ic i ty a nd R e l ig ion I n t h e f u ne ra l r ema in s , d i f f e r en ce s i n m o r tua ry c on s t ru c t ion s , v a r iou s w ay s o f d i spo s ing o f t h e c o rp se ( e .g . i n huma t ion , c r ema t ion o r w a te r b u r ia l ) , t h e o r ien ta t ion a nd p o s i t ion o ft h e d ecea s ed i nt h e g r ave a nd t h e a b sen ce o rp r e sen ce o fg r ave g ood s , a r e o f t en u s ed a s i n d ica to r s t od i s t ingu i sh e i the r e t hn ic g r oup s o r d if e r en t r e l ig iou s b e l ief s . I n We s t e rn N epa l , t h e se c r i te r ia a r e i n su f i c ien t . Ih av e a l r eady s hown t h e v a r ia t ion i n m y r e sea r ch a r ea a nd i l um ina t ed t h e d i f f e r ence s f u r the r b y t h e M icha e l O pp i tz ' s t udy o f t h e N o r the rn Maga r o f D hau lag i r i Z one . H ow ev e r , t h i s c omp lex i ty m ay e ven b e e l abo ra t ed f u r the r b y a s h o r t p r e sen ta t ion o f s ome B uddh i s t ic d ea th r i tua l s . M icha e l P e i s se l ( 1 968 ) s t ud ied t h e T ibe tan -Buddh i s t ic g roup L oba s i nt h e Mu s tang d i s t r ic t ( t he d i s t r ic t n o r th o f t h e Myagd i d i s t r ic t ) . I ti st h e m onk s o r t h e l ama s w ho d ec ide w h ich f o rm o f f u ne ra l w i l l b e g i ven t o t h e d ecea sed . T h ey h ave f i v e w ay s o f d i spo s ing o f t h e c o rp se s . T he p r ef e r r ed o r de ri s( P e i s se l 1 968 :197 -200 ) : ( 1 ) C r ema t ion . T he b ody i st i ed u p i nc r ou ch ing p o s i t ion w i th as t ick k eep ing u p t h e h ead . O u t s ide t h e h ou se a l a rg e t r ipod i sm ade o fc l ay w h e r e t h e c r ema t ion t a ke s p l a ce . D u r ing t h e f u n e ra l , t h e l ama s s p r ink le t h e f i r e n i ne t i me s w i th e i gh t d if e ren t o f f e r ing s ; w hea t , b a r ley , r i ce , l i n seed , b uckwhea t , l i n seed o i l , as p ec ia l ly r ampan t g r a s s , a nd s e same s e ed . B u t t h e f u n e r a l i sn o t c omp le ted . A f te r a n i n t e rmed ia ry p e r iod o f e l even o r t w e lve d ay s t h e f i r e i s c hecked t os e e i ft h e r e a r e s t i l l h o t a s he s . I fn o t , t h e c l ay f i r ep la ce i sb roken a nd r ema in s o ft h e b one s a r e c o l lec t ed a nd b rough t i n to t h e h ou se t ob e b l e s sed b yt h e l ama . T he h uman b one s a r e g r ound i n to p owde ra nd m ixed w i th c l ay a nd m ad e i n to s ma l lc ho r t en so rm ou lded t ot h e s hape o fa d i v in i ty . T he se m o r tua ry c e ram ic s a r e d i s t r ibu ted a tt h e c oun t ry s ide a c co rd ing t ow ha tt h e l ama p r e sc r ibe s . I nt h i s w ay t h e a nce s to r s a r e t r an sf o rm ed i n to a r tef a c t s . ( 2 ) A i r b u r ia l . T he c o rp se i sl a id n ak ed u pon al a rge s t one o n t h e s umm i t o f al o ne ly h i l l . T he d ecea sed 's h a i r i sb ur n t w he r ea s e ag le s a nd v u l t u r e s e a t t h e f l e sh . Af t e r t e n o r e l even d ay st h e r ema in ing b one s a nd t h e s ku l l a r e c r u shed i n to ap a s t e w i th t h e b r a in s o ft h e d ecea sed , s o t h e b i rd s c an e a t e ve ry th ing . N o th ing w i l l r ema in o fb ody w h ich i s s a id t ob e " gone t ot h e w ind" . ( 3 ) W a te r -bu r ia l . T h i s i s c on s ide r ed t o b e ar a th e r b ad f o rm o f b u r ia l f o r t h e d ecea sed a s h e i s t h rown i n to t h e r i ve r w i th s t one s f a s t ened t o t h e b ody . ( 4 ) B u r ia l / inhuma t ion . T h i s i st h e m o s t d e sp i sed b u r ia l w h e r e t h e d e cea sed i sb u r ied i nt h e e a r th i n as h a l low h o le i ns i t ing p o s i t ion . ( 5 )B u r ia li nt h e w a l l . T he d ecea sed i sp l a ced i ns a l t , w rapped i n ab l anke t a nd b u r ied i n s ide aw a l l o ft h e h ou se . E xcep t o ft h e l a s t f u ne ra l r i t e , P e i s se l d o e s n o t d i scu s s t h e i n t e rna l c r i te r ia a nd s o c ia l d i s t inc t ion s a nd p e r sona e t h a t d e te rm ine w h ich f o rm o fb u r ia l w i l l b e g i ven t ot h e d ecea sed b y t h e l ama s o r t h e m onk s . I f am an d i e s w i thou t ag r and son o r i fh i s s on s d i e b ef o r e t h ey h av e am a le c h i ld , t h en t h ey a r e b u r ied i n s ide aw a l l o ft h e h ou se , l i k ew i se s ma l l c h i ld r en a r e p l a ced i nt h e w a l l o ft h e i r p a r en t s ' h ou se a nd r ema in t h e r eu n t i lt h ed ea th o ft h e i rp a r en t s( i b id . ) .

T h i s p rob lem i s f u r the r i l um ina ted a t N i r e G ha t . T he B uddh i s t s u s ed t h e c eme te ry i n t h e p a s t , a nd s i n ce t h e B uddh i s t s i nB ag lung B azaa r t o day d o n o t h ave t h e i r o wn g r ave y a rd , t h ey s t i l l u s eN i re G ha t . Mo r eove r , H indu s ( e .g . t h e Maga r w oman f r om t h e R e sha v i l lage ) a r e b u r ied i n B uddha p o s i t ion , a s w e r e B uddh i s t s i nt h e p a s t . I n o t he r w o rd s , i n t h e c em e te r ie s Ih ave v i s i ted , i t h a s b een i mpo s s ib le t os e pa r a t e e t hn ic g roup s a nd d i f f e r en t r e l ig iou s b e l ief s i n t h e m o r tua ry m a te r ia l . D if f e r en t r e l ig ion s m ay h ave s im i la r m o r tua ry r ema in s , w he r ea s w i th in o ne r e l ig ion a nd w i th in t h e s ame c o smo log ica l a nd e s cha to log ica l c oncep t s a n e t hn ic g r oup m ay h av e d i f f e r en t m o r tua ry p r a c t ice sa nd r ema in s .

Q uan t i ta t ive o rQ ua l i ta t ive D a ta ? G o rdon C h i lde a r gue st h a th uman b e ing s d o n o t a dap tt ot h e r e a l w o r ld , b u t t ot h e w o r ld a si ti sp e r ce ived a nd i mag ined t o b e ( Ch i lde 1 9 57 :106f f , 1 979 ) . T h i s i st h e f u ndamen ta l c r ux i n ap henomeno log ica l a pp roa ch : h ow d o p eop le e xpe r ience a nd u nde r s tand t h e w o r ld ( T i l ley 1 994 :11) , t h e p r e sen t a s w e l l a s t h e p a s t . R icha rd B rad ley t a lk s a bou t m onumen t s a si d ea s , b u t a sh e a s k s , w ho se i d ea s a r et h ey t o b e ( B rad ley 1 993 :7 1)? P e r cep t ion i s i n i t ia t ion i n to t h e w o r ld . B ecau se w e a r e i nt h e w o r ld , w e a r e c ondemned t o m ean ing , a nd w e c anno t d o o r s a y a ny th ing w i thou t i t s a cqu i r ing an ame i nh i s to ry ( Me r leau -Pon ty 1 995 :x ix ) . " A t h ing h a s " cha ra c t e r i s t ic s" o r " p rope r t ie s " w h ich a r e s t ab le , e ven i ft h ey d o n o t e n t i r e ly s e r ve t o d ef ine i t , a nd w e p ropo se t oa pp roa ch t h e p henomenon o fr e a l i ty b y s t udy ing p e r cep tua l c on s tan t s . At h ing h a s i nt h e f i r s t p l a ce i t s s i z e a nd i t s s h ape t h roughou t v a r ia t ion s o f p e r spec t ive s w h ich a r e m e r e ly a ppa r en t " ( i b id :299 ) . B u t w e p e r ce ive t h e w o r ld o n ly p rov ided t h a t , b ef o r e b e ing f a c t s o f c ogn i sance , t h a t w o r ld a nd t h o se p e r cep t ion s a r e t h ough t s o f o u r o wn ( i b id :374 ) . H ow i si tp o s s ib le t os t r ive t owa rd s a n a ma lgama t ion o ft h e a r chaeo log i s t 's a nd t h e p eop le o f t h e p a s t 's h o r izon s o f p e r cep t ion? T h i s i sp a r t ly a q ue s t ion o f c l a s s if i ca t ion a nd h ow t h i sw o rk s . C la s s if i ca t ion sa r ea r t if i c ia l , b u tt h ey a r en o t s uppo sed t ob e a r b i t ra ry ( Doug la s 1 992 :248 ) . T h e s c ien t i s t s e lec t s t h e c r i te r ia h e t h ink s a r e s i gn if i can t f o r t h e c l a s s if i ca t ion b ecau se t h e se t r a i t s i nt h e o b jec t s s t ud ied w i l l b e t h e mo s t s i gn if i can t a s c l ue s t o t h e i r n a t u re ( Ha a land 1 977 :1) . T h i s h a s t o b e g rounded i n t h eo r e t ica l ly b a sed f r amewo rk s . O the rw i se o ne m ay a c cumu la t e i re levan t d a ta a nd p r e sen t t h em s e le c t ive ly j u s t t o s uppo r t a n ap r io r i v i ewpo in t( Gou ld 1 9 87 :292 ) .

I n al i be ra l f o rm o fH indu i sm , B uddh i sm i si n co rpo ra t ed a s as e c to rb r an ch ( B i s ta 1 9 9 1 :30 ) . T h i sm ay e xp la in w hy 5 7

N on in ten t iona l c on sequence s o f a c t ion s a s w e l l a s d ev ia ted p r a c t ice s f r om t h e s o c ie ty 's p r e sc r ibed n o rm sa nd r u le s a r e m an if e s ted i n t h e a r cha eo log ica l m a te r ia l , b u t h ow i si tp o s s ib le t oi n c lude t h i s i nt h e i n t e rp r e ta t ion s a nd h ow s hou ld a r cha eo log i s t s r e spond t ot h e se p r ob lem s? I w i l l a r gue t h a tw eh ave t op u tt h ee mpha s iz eo nq ua l i ta t ive d a ta i nc l a s s if i ca t ion s r a the r t h an o n a s sumed q uan t i ta t ive d a ta . Iw i l l s t r e s s t h a t t h e se c on s ide r a t ion s a r e b a sed o n f u n e ra l r ema in s a nd t h u s a r e t h e i mp l ica t ion s m ean t t ob e i nt h e s phe r e o fd ea th s t ud ie s . F u r the rmo r e , t h e r e i so ne i mpo r tan t d i s t in c t ion t ob em ade : T he q uan t i ta t ive s t ra tegy o f t h e p roce s sua l a r cha eo logy , t o b e s c ien t if i c a s a n i n te rp re ta t ive p r a c t ice , w a s o n t h e w rong t r a ck , w he r ea s q uan t i ta t ive m e thod s o f c o l lec t ing d a ta i n e xcava t ion s i tua t ion s a r e i mpor tan t . F l uc tua t ion s a nd v a r ia t ion s i n d i r ec t ion s i l um ina te t h i s p o in t . F o r i n s tance t h e c ogn i t ive d i r ec t ion s o fg r ave s d ev ia te s u p t o9 0 ° f r om t h e c ompa s s c ou r se i nf o r i n s tance B a ran ja . T hu s i ti si nt h e a na ly se s a nd t h e i n te rp r e ta t ive p roce s s w e e va lua te t h e v a lue o ft h e d ocumen ted a nd a s sumed q uan t i ta t ive d a ta . Why d oe s t h e c oun t ing m a t t e r ? C oun t ing i s n o t u nde r taken f o r i t s o wn s a ke , b u t b ecau se w e s u spec t s i gn if i can t c onnec t ion s b e tween t h e g r oup s c oun ted a nd c ompa r ed ( Cohen & N ag e l 1 9 39 :18 1) . T he p rob lem o f r e p r e sen ta t ivene s s s hou ld b e ag ood e nough r e a son f o r a na ly s ing t h ed a ta q ua l i ta t ive ly . A st h e f u ne ra l sa r ea mong t h e m o s t e mo t iona l ly a nd s ymbo l ica l ly l o aded r i tua l s i na s o c ie ty , a n e conom ic o r q uan t i ta t iv e a pp roa ch g i ve s i mpo r tan t b u t l i m i ted c on t r ibu t ion s t ot h e s t udy o fd ea th . T he c on t ex t o f d ea th i s o n e o f r i tua l a c t ion a nd c ommun ica t ion a s o ppo sed t o e v e ryday p r ac t ica l c ommun ica t ion ( Pea r son 1 982 :100 ) . O f c ou r se , " r ich " g r ave s m ay i n d ica te d eg r ee s o fw ea l th p o s s ib le t oo b ta in i n as o c ie ty , b u t w i th t h i s i mp l ic i t e conom ic a pp roa ch " poo r " g r ave s r e p r e sen t s o c ie t ie s i n" c r i s i s" o r at ime o f d ep re s s ion . O n t h e o t he rh and , b y f o cu s ing o n q ua l i ta t ive a s pec t s i ti s p robab ly p o s s ib le t oa na ly se t h e f u ne ra l d a ta i nc a tego r ie s m o r e i n c o r r e spondence w i th p a s t p e r cep t ion s , o r t h e s i gn if i can t c r i t e r ia f o r i n te rp r e ta t ion s . Iw i l l i l um ina te s ome o f t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s w i th in a s o c io r i tua l a pp roa ch f o cu s ing o n q ua l i ta t ive a s pec t s . I ti sa n i n te rp r e ta t ion t h a t g oe s b eyond t h e r aw m a t e r ia l o fi mm ed ia t e o b se rva t ion i n o rde r t o i n f e r t h e m i s s ing c a tego r ie s o f e v iden ce . I ti s i mpo r tan t t ou nde r s tand t h e r e la t ion b e tw een t h e p e r sona l a nd t h ec u l tu ra ld imen s ion o fs ymbo l s . A s Ip r ev iou s ly h ave s a id , t h e c u l tu r a l d imen s ion o f s ymbo l s p u t s l i m i t s o n t h e e xp r e s s ion o f t h e p e r sona l d imen s ion , b u t t h e o t h e r v i l lag e r s d o n o t h ave t o u nde r s tand t h e m ean ing o f t h e p e r sona l d imen s ion , t h ey o n ly h ave t oa c cep t t h a t i ti sw i th in t h e f r amewo rk o ft h e c u l tu ra l d imen s ion s o ft h e s ymbo l s . I tm ak e s n o s e n se t o t h e o t h e r s i ft h e e l i te j u s t d rop s d own a l o t o f v a luab le t h ing s i n t h e g r ave u n le s s i ti su nde r s tood w i th in t h e s phe re o f t h e c u l tu ra l d imen s ion . I n t h i s r e ga rd s oc ia l d i s t inc t ion s e xp re s sed b y s o c ia l s e gmen t s o ft h e s oc ie ty s h a r ing t h e s ame g r ave f u rn i tu r e o rg ood s a r e d ef ined b y t h e c on ten t o f t h e a r t ef a c t s ' p r a c t ica l a nd s ymbo l ica l f u nc t ion s a s m ean s t o a n e nd i n t h e r e a lm o f d ea th ,

e s cha to logy a nd c o smo logy . I n as o c i e ty o n ly af ew s o c ia l s t a tu se s a nd p o s i t ion s a r e a low ed t o b e e xp r e s sed a nd m an if e s ted i n t h e f u ne ra l . D ef ined c a t ego r ie s o f i t em s a lowed d epo s i ted a r e c onnec t ed t ot h e se f ew s o c ia l s t a tu s p o s i t ion s . T he d epo s i ted g r ave g ood s a mong t h e Maga r s i n A rga l i l um ina te t h i s p o in t . C h i ld r en w i thou tp a sne d o n o t r e ce ive f o od a sg r ave g ood s . A f te rp a sne t h e d ecea sed m ay r e ce ive t h e f o od i ne i the r ab amboo b a ske t o r ac oppe r p o t . A c oppe r p o t i so f c ou r se m o r e v a luab le t h an a b amboo b a ske t , b u t t h i s d oe s n o t m a t t e r i nt e rm s o ft h e d ecea sed 's s o c ia l p o s i t ion m an if e s t ed i nt h e f u ne r a l . T hey c on s t i tu te t h e s ame m ean s t oa n e nd a nd e conom ic i n equa l i ty i sa c t ed o u t a s ap e r sona l d imen s ion , b u t o n ly w i th t h o se i t em s t h e s phe r eo fc u l tu ra ld imen s ion a low st ob eu s ed i nf u ne ra l s . Ah i gh s t a tu s p e r son m ay t h u s b e b u r ied w i th " poo r " g r ave g ood s b ecau se t h e o b jec t s o rc omb ina t ion o fo b jec t s d ef ine t h e s t a tu s r e ga rd le s s o ft h e m a te r ia l t h ey a r e m ad e o f T hu s w e h ave t op u t t h e e mpha s i s o n t h er i gh tc a t ego r ie s i no rde r t o u nde r s tand t h e s o c ia l p o s i t ion s a nd s t a tu se s i nt h e p a s t . T he b a s i s i nt h i s a r gumen t i st h a t e conom ic i n equa l i ty d oe s n o t e qua l s o c ia l p o s i t ion s a nd s t a tu se s , a l though p eop le h ad u nequa l a c ce s s t o p a r t icu la r o b jec t s . T he d ead d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly r e ce ive h i s o wn p r ope r ty , m o r eove r , t h e c e r emon ie s d o n o t h ave t o b e p e r f o rmed b y t h e r e la t ive s , e . g .t h es ad hu sh ave b roken a l r e la t ion st ot h e i rf am i ly . Ap e r son h a s m any d if e r en t s t a t u se s w i th d if e r en t s o c ia l c on ten t a nd r e la t ion s ( E r ik sen 1 993c :50f f ) . H oweve r , i ti s n o t n ece s sa r i ly o n ly t h e d ecea sed 's s t a tu s t h a t i sm an if e s ted i nt h e f u ne ra l r ema in s . C hang e s i ns o c ia l r e la t ion s m ay a l so b e m an if e s t ed i n t h e m o r tua ry r ema in s a s t h e w idow 's j ewe l le ry i n h e r h u sband 's f u ne ra l a mong t h e H indu s . I f t h e r e i sn o f l e sh , t h e r ef o r e n o s e x , t h e r e c an s t i l l b e g ende r ( Ba r ley 1 995 :87 ) . C u l tu ra l i d ea s a bou t g ende r d o n o t d i r ec t ly r e f lec t t h e s o c ia l a nd e conom ic p o s i t ion o fw omen a nd m en a l though t h ey h ave o r ig ina t ed w i th in t h e c on tex to f t h o se c ond i t ion s . G ende r s t e r eo type s a r e u s ed a s s t ra t eg ie s i nv a r iou s s o c ia l c on t ex t s ( Moo r e 1 9 88 :37 ) . T he s t e r eo type s m ay c on t inue t oe x i s t e ven i ft h ey b e come p roh ib i ted i nt h e c on tex t i n w h ich t h ey h ave o r ig ina t ed a nd a r e o r ig ina l ly e mbedd ed . T h e p roh ib i t ion o f w idow b u rn ing i s av e ry d i s t inc t e xp r e s s ion i nt h e f u ne r a l m a t e r ia l o f ac hange i n g ende r r e la t ion s . H oweve r , t h e s t e r eo type s a r e c on t inued e ven t h ough t h e p r a c t ice i sf o rb idden ; t h e w om en c hanged t h e i r s t a tu s d r ama t ica l ly i n o ne a s p ec t , b u t t h ey d i d n o t b e t te r ed t h e i r s o c ia l p o s i t ion o r s t a t u s i nr e la t ion t o m en w i th in t h ed a i ly a c t iv i t ie so ft h es o c ie ty i n as im i la rw ay . T ou nde r s tand t h e f u ne ra l r i t e sw eh av et oe x tend o u rn o t ion o f d ea th a s ap r oce s s i n t h e s o c ie ty . F une ra l s a r e t h e e n t rance t o e t e rn i ty . E spec ia l ly c ommemo ra t ion f e s t iva l s e mpha s iz et h e l i v ing a s pec t so ft h ed ead . I fw ed i s r ega rd t h i s a s pec t w e h av e t o b e a wa r e o f t h e l i m i t s o f c u l tu ra l e l abo r a t ion a n a na ly s i s o ff u n e ra l s i mp ly . H en cef o r th t h e re s hou ld b e s om e d eg r ee o f c o r r e sponden ce b e tween t h e q ue s t ion s a s k ed a nd t h e a n sw e r sj u s t if i ed e mp i r ica l ly . " The e nd p roduc t i s c l ea r : t h e a n th ropo log i s t [ a r cha eo log i s t ] b eg in s t ou nde r s tand t h e o t he r c u l tu r e w hen t h e p r ev iou s ly a l ien l i f e -f o rm sb ecome i n te l l ig ib le t oh im , e ven t h ough t h ey d o n o t p o s se s s t h e i mmed ia t e i n t e l l ig ib i l i ty o fl i f e -f o rm s o f h i so wn s o c ie ty "( Obeye seke r e 1 9 90 :229 -230 ) .

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Append ix : G lo ssary N epa l iw o rd su s ed i nt h et e x th ave b een w r i t ten i ni t a l ic s . T he t r an s la t ion sf r om N epa l i t oE ng l ish a r em a in ly b a sed o n : B enne t t ,L .1 9 83 : Dange rou s W ive sa nd S ac red S i s te r s . C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty P re s s .N ew Y o rk . D ow son , J . 1 995 [1982 ] ; A C la s s ica l D ic t iona ry o f H indu My tho log y & R e l ig ion . R upa & C o . D e lh i . I nd ia . E igh t i mp re ss ion . S ingh , C . L .& S ingh , M . L . 1 987 [1971 ] : N epa l i -Eng l i sh D ic t iona ry . E duca t iona l E n te rp r i se ( P ) L td . K a thmandu . N epa l . T h i rd E d i t ion ( Rev ised ) .

A gn i A s tu A rundha t i B ahun B ara Maga ran t B ar tamand e B rahma B rahman i sm B rahman s C hewar C hhe t r i s C haura s i Daa l Dharma D v i ja s G aruda P a rana

G hee ( g hu i ) G ha t G orakna th G o t ra G r ihya S u t ra s Gupha b a sne H i r in J ana i f a t K arma K arma e a l e Ao K ar t ik K ham K han i ya G ha t K i r ya b u s t le k ho la L in igam L obas K sa t r iaya s . 1 Ia la

T he G od o fF i re . " Ad ead m an 's s ku l lb one" o r ap i ece o fh uman f l e sh . W if e o ft h e R i sh i V a s i s tha ; t h e e p i tome o ft h e c ha s te a nd f a i thf u l w if e . T he mo rn ing s t a r . A mode l o fc on juga le xce l lence . T he n ame o fB rahman s i nN epa l ,t h ef i r s tc a s t e . " The t we lve r eg ion so ft h e Maga r s" . Ma le i n i t ia t ion r i t e , i n i t ia t ion i n to c a s te a nd p a t r i l ine . T he f i r s tg od o ft h e H indu t r iad . T he c r ea to ro ft h ew o r ld . T he s up reme s ou lo ft h eu n ive r se , s e lf -ex i s ten t , a b so lu te , a nd e t e rna l , f r om w h ich a l lt h ing e mana te ,a nd t ow h ich a l lr e tur n . T he f o rma l i sed p rac t ice o fo r thodox H indu r e l ig ion . T he f i r s t o ft h e f ou r c a s te s ; t h e s a ce rdo ta l c l a s s , t h e m embe r s o f w h ich m ay b e , b u t a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly p r ie s t s . H a i rc u t t ing c e remony ( pa r to ft h eb a r tamande i n i t ia t ion r i te ) . T he n ame o fK sa t r iya si nN epa l ,t h es e cond c a s te . C e leb ra t ion o ft h et h ou sand th f oo lm oon . L en t i l . R e l ig iou sd u ty , c a s te d u ty . Tw ice b or n . Ac l a s s o fl i t e ra tu re t h a t d ea ls w i th t h e l e gend s o f g od s , s age s a nd k i ng s o f a nc ien t t ime s . A p opu la r e ncyc lopaed ia o fa nc ien t H indu i sm i na l l i t s t r a i t s -r e l ig iou s , p h i lo soph ica l , h i s to r ica l , p e r sona l , s o c ia la nd p o l i t ica l . C la r if ied b u t te r . C eme te ry ." S tep s l e ad ing t ow a te r" ," c ro s s ing -po in t" . AH indu G od . C lan , a ne xogamou sa gna t ic u n i tw ho se m embe r sc l a im t ob e d e scendan t s o f o ne o f s even my th ica l s age so rr i sh i s . T he r u le so fV ed ic d ome s t ic c e remon ie s . F ema le i n i t ia t ion r i te ,c a l led " s tay ing i nt h ec ave" . F ood t ot h ed ead . S ac red t h r ead w or nb yt h et w ice -bo rn c a s t e s . " C la s so rc a s te" . T he l aw o f mo ra l c au se a nd e f f ec t , w he r eby p eop le 's a c t ion a r e r e pa id t h rough t h e i r o wn s uf e r ing . As t a te w he r et h ep e r son h a s f u l lr e spon s ib i l i ty f o r i t sr i tua l p u r i ty a nd i t ss o c ia l a nd e t h ica l a c t ion s ," a c t iva ted k a rma" . N epa l i mon th ( m idOc tobe rt om id -Novembe r ) . AT ibe to -Bu rman d i a lec to ft h e We s te rn B od ic b ranch . V i l lage o u t s ide B ag lung B azaa r , " gha t" l i t .m ean s" s tep sl e ad ing t ow a te r " . T h i r teen d ay so fd ea th p o l lu t ion i mmed ia te ly f o l low ing ad ea th -at ime o fa u s te r i ty a nd s oc ia l i s o la t ion f o rt h eb e r eaved . R ive r . T he ma le o rgan , ap ha l lu s ,o f t en m ade o fs t one . T he s ymbo l u nde rw h ich S h iva i su n ive r sa l ly w o r sh ipped . E thn ic g roup i nt h e Mu s tang d i s t r ic tw i th B uddh i s t ic r e l ig ion . T he s e cond o rr ega lw a r r io rc a s te . Y e l low f l owe r s .

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S hr e h ha nd a S ora S ud ra . S ' ut ee T ag a dh ar i T ap as y a T har T ika T uI a s i R ak s i R up i U panayana V a i sya s V arna

V i shnu V r so t sa r ga Y uma

Am y s t ic f o rmu la o fS an sk r i ts y l lab le s ,w o rd so rp h ra se s ; i ti sm ade e f ec t ive b yr e pe t i t ion a nd m ed ia t ion . C a s t er o ugh ly c ompa r ab le t oV a i sya i nt h ev a rna s y s tem ,o r" t ho se w ho d r ink l i quo r " a nd e a t b uf f a lo m ea t . L en t i l , at y pe o fg r a in . R e lea se f r om r e b i r th . ( Muk t i ) . R e lea se o rs a lva t ion . C iv i lc ode l a id d own o r ig ina l ly b yJ ung B ahadu rR ana i n1 8 54 ,r e v i sed s e v e ra lt ime s . I n i t ia t ion r i t e ,t h en ame -g iv ing c e r emony ,p e r f o rmed o nt h em o rn ing o nt h ee l even th d ay a f t e r t h em o th e rh a so b se rved b i r th p o l lu t ion . P a t r i l in ea la nd e xogamou sg r oup . Al e a rned B rahman m an w ho i sat e a che ro rs c ho la re s pec ia l ly o fS an sk r i t ,w o rk so f t en a sp r ie s t . " La t e rc o rne r s" . I n i t ia t ion r i t ew he r et h ec h i ld r e ce ive si t sf i r s tr i ce ( i . e .t h ef i r s ts o l id m ea l ) .T h er i t et a ke n o rma l ly p a r ta f t e r 5m on th f o rg i r l sa nd 6m on th f o rb oy s . T he l o s so fr i gh tb e ing t a ugh tt h eS av i t r i . Ac e r emon ia lr i ce -ba l lu s ed i no f f e r ing st ot h ea n ce s to r s . Ma l ic iou ss upe rhuman s . T he i rc h ief a c t iv i t ie sb e ing l e ad ing p eop le o u to ft h e i rw ay ,h aun t ing c eme t e r ie s , e a t ing h uman f l e sh a nd i n du lg ing i ne ve ry k i nd o fw i ckedne s s . A n ce s to rs p i r i t . G ho s t ,u n sa t i sf i ed a nd p o t en t ia lh a rmf u ls p i r i t so f ad ecea s ed p e r son w ho h a sn o tb een a b le t o r e a ch t h ef o r ef a the r s . " F i r s tc o rne r s" . Y og i ,a na s ce t ic h e rm i t ;o ne p r a c t i s ing r e l ig iou sm ed i ta t ion . T he l i f ec yc le ," t he r o und o fb i r th a nd d ea th" . L i f ec y c le r i tua l . T he f o u r th c a s te ( l ow c a s te )i nN epa l ,c on s i s t ing b o th t h e S ud ra sa nd t h eU n tou chab le . L ea the rw o rke r . W idow -bu rn ing . T h eH o ly v e r se so ft h eV eda s . T he t h i rd g od o ft h e H indu t r iad . T he d e s t ruc to ra nd t h e r e -c r ea to r . D e s t ru c t ion i nH indu b e l ief i mp l ie s r e p roduc t ion . U nde rt h i s c ha rac te r o fr e s to r e rh e i sr e p r e sen ted b yh i s s ymbo l t h e L inga o rp ha l lu s . U nde rt h i sf o rm a l one , o rc omb ined w i th t h eY on i ,o rf ema le o r gan ,t h er ep r e sen ta t ive o fh i sS ak t i , o rf ema le e ne rgy ,t h a th ei se ve rywhe r ew o r sh ipped . S anda lw ood . E thn ic g r oup , a bo r ig ina l" t r ibe" i nI n d ia . T h ef o u r th o rs e rv i le c a s t e . W idow -bu rn ing . " One w ho w ea r st h es a c r ed t h r ead" :t h e" tw ice -bor n "c a s te sa tt h et o po ft h eh i e ra r chy . R e l ig iou sp enance . C lan o rs u rname ( s ee p ad ) . Am a rk o fb l e s s ing p l a ced o nt h ef o r ehead . V i shnu 's s a c red p l an t ,a mong o t he rt h ing su s ed i nd ea th r i t ua l s . L o ca lm ade w ine / sp i r i tuou s . L oca lc u r r ency , 5 7R s =1 $ . T he c e r emony i nw h ich ay oung m an i si n ve s ted w i th t h es a c r ed t h r ead . T h et h i rd o rt r ad ing a nd a g r icu l tu ra lc a s te . " C la s s o rc a s te" . T he C ha tu r -va rna , o r f o u r c a s t e s , a sf o und e s tab l i shed i nt h e c ode o f Manu , a r e : 1 )B rahman , 2 )K sha t r iya , 3 )V a i sya a nd 4 )S ud ra . T h e f i r s tt h ree c a s t e s w e r e c a l led " tw ice b or no rr e gene ra te" f r om t h e i rb e ing e n t i t led t oi n v e s t i tu r ew i th t h es a c red t h r ead w h ich e f ec ta s e cond b i r th , t h e B rahman s m a in ta in t h a t t h e i r c a s te a l one r ema in s , a nd i ti sg en e ra l ly b e l ieved t h a t t h e r e a r e n o p u r e K sha t r iya s o r V a i sya s n ow e x i s t ing . T h e n ume rou s c a s t e s w h ich h ave s p r ung u p f r om t h e i n t e r cou r se o fp eop le o f d if e r en t c a s t e s o r f r om o t h e r c au se s a r e c a l led V a rna sanka ra ," m ixed c a s t e s" . G od o f Wa te r . T h es e cond g od o ft h eH indu t r iad . T he p r e se rve ra nd r e s to r e ro ft h ew o r ld .T h ew o r sh ippe r so f V i shnu r e cogn i se i nh im t h es up r eme b e ing f r om w hom a lt h ing se mana t e . S e t t ing f r ee ab u l lo nt h eo cca s ion o f af u ne ra lr i t eo r ar e l ig iou sa c tg ene ra l ly . T he G od o f D ea th . T he L o rd o f t h e H e l l s w he r e t h e s i nne r s a r e p un i sh ed a f t e r t h e i r d ea th .

6 0

R ef erence s C o lumb ia Un ive r s i ty P re s s .N ew Y o rk . B e r reman , G . 1 963 .H indu so ft h eH ima laya s . U n ive r s i ty o f C a l if o rn ia P re s s . B e rke ley a nd L o sA nge le s . B hagavad -g i ta . A sI t/ s . (n .d . ) . B yH i sD iv ine G ra ce A . C . B hak t ivedan ta S wam i P rabhupada .1996 . S econd E d i t ion . S econd P r in t . T he B hak t ivedan ta B ook T ru s t .R ekha P r in te r sP v t . L td . ,N ew D eh l i . I nd ia . B hak t ivedan ta S wam i P rabhupada , H i sD iv ine G race A . C . 1 996 [ 1980 ] . B eyond B i r th & D ea th . T he B hak t ivedan ta B ook T ru s t . B ombay . I nd ia . S ix th p r in t ing . B i s ta ,D .B . 1 980 [ 1967 ] . P eop le o fN epa l . R a tna P u s tak B handa rP ub l i she r sa nd B ook se l le r s . B ho tah i ty , K a thmandu , N epa l . B i s ta ,D . B . 1 99 1 .F a ta l i sm a nd D eve lopmen t . O r ien t L ongman . C a lcu t ta . I nd ia . B jor n ,A . 1 935 . A rkeo log i ske m i sce l le r . U n iver s i te te t s O ld sak sam l ing A rbok 1 933 -1934 : 1 20 . O s lo . B loch , M . &P a r ry , J .1 987 [1982 ] . I n t roduc t ion : d ea th a nd t h er e gene ra t ion o fl i f e . I nB loch a nd P a r ry ( e d s . ) : D ea th & r egene ra t ion o fl i f e : 1 44 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . C amb r idge . B odd ing ton ,A . , G a r land ,A .N . 8 r ,J anaway , R .C . 1 987 . F l e sh ,b one s , d u s ta nd s oc ie ty . I nB odd ing ton , A . , G a r land ,A .N . &J anaway , R .C .( e d s . ) : D ea th , d ecay a nd r econ s t ruc t ion : 3 -9 . Manche s te r U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Manche s te r . B ou rd ieu ,P .1 993 [1977 ] . O u t l ine o f aT heory o fP rac t ice . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . C amb r idge . R ep r in t . B ou rd ieu , P .1 995a [1980 ] . T he L og ic o fP rac t ice . P o l i ty P r e s s . R ep r in t . B ou rd ieu ,P .1 995b .D i s t ink s jonen . P ax F o r lag A /S , O s lo . B ou rd ieu , P .1 996 .S ymbo l sk mak t . A r t ik le r iu t va lg . O ve r sa t ta v Ann ick P r ieu r . P ax F o r lag A /S ,O s lo . B rad ley ,R . 1 984 . T he S oc ia lF ounda t ion so fP reh i s to r ic B r i ta in . L ongman . L ondon . B rad ley , R . 1 993 .A l te r ing t h eE a r th . S oc ie ty o f A n t iqua r ie so fS co t land . Monog raph S e r ie s Numbe r8 .E d inbu rgh . B rahma -Su t ra s( n . d . ) . P ub l i shed b yS wam i Mumuk shananda .C a lcu t ta . I n d ia . B r igg s ,G . W . 1 973 [1938 ] . G orakhna th a nd t h eK anpha ta Y og i s . Mo t i la lB ana r s ida s s . D e lh i . I nd ia . C ap lan ,P .1 994 .F ea s t s , F a s t s , F am ine : F ood f or T hough t . B e rg O cca s iona lP ape r si nA n th ropo logy . O xf o rd . CBS ( Cen t ra lB u reau o fS t a t i s t ics ) 1 993 . P opu la t ion C en su s 1 991 : V o l . 1 ,P a r tV I I ; 1 993 ,U rban T ab le s ,C ompu to rP r in tou t s . K a thmandu . N epa l . CBS ( Cen t ra lB u reau o fS t a t is t ics ) 1 993 . P opu la t ion C en su s 1 991 :S oc ia lC harac te r i s t ic s T ab le s , V o l . 1 ,P a r tV I I( Ca s te a nd b ye duca t ion ) . H i s Ma je s ty 's Gove rnmen tN a t iona lP l ann ing C omm i s s ion S ec re ta r ia t , CBS ,K a thmandu ,N epa l . CBS ( Cen t ra lB u r eau o fS t a t i s t ics ) 1 995 .S ta t i s t ica l Y ea rbook o fN epa l1 995 . H i s Ma je s ty 's G ove rnmen tN a t iona l P lann ing C omm is s ion S ec r e ta r ia t , CBS ,K a thmandu ,N epa l .

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I ,t r an s la ted b yO ldenbe rg , M . I n Mu l le r , F .M . ( e d ) : T he S ac red B ook so ft h eE a s t . V o l . 2 9 : 3 1 52 . F i r s tp ub l i shed b yt h eO xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s , 1 886 . R ep r in ted i n1 989 b y Mon t i la l B ana r s ida s sP ub l i she r sP v t . L td . D e lh i . S che te l ig , H . 1 906 .S h ip B ur ia l s . R ep r in ted f r om t h e S aga B ook o ft h eV ik ing C lub . S che te l ig , H . 1 9 12 . V e s t land ske g ra ve rf rajerna ld e ren . B e rgen s Mu seum ss k r if t e r . Ny r mkke . B d . I . No . I .A /S J ohn G r ieg sB ok t rykke r i . B e rgen . S i l l , M . &K i rkby ,J .1 99 1 . T he A t la s o fN epa li nt h e Mod e rn W o r ld . E a r th scan P ub l ica t ion sL td . L ondon . S ingh , C . &N a th , P .1 995 . H indu G odd e s se s . C re s t P ub l i sh ing H ou se .N ew D e lh i . I nd ia . S hank s , M . &H odde r , I .1 995 . P roce s sua l ,p o s tp roce s sua l a nd i n te rp r e t ive a r chaeo log ie s . I nH odde r , I . , S hank s , M . ,A lexand r i , A . , B uch l i , V . , C a rman , J . , L a s t ,J .a nd L uca s , G . ( ed s . ) :I n te rpre t ing A rchaeo log y : 3 29 . R ou t ledge . L ondon a nd N ew Y o rk . S hepa rd , G . 1 982 .L if e Among t h e Maga r s . S ahayog iP res s . K a thmandu .N epa l . S he r ra t t ,A . 1 98 1 . P lough a nd P a s to ra l i sm : a spec t so f s e conda ry p roduc t sr e vo lu t ion . I nH odde r , I .I s aac , G . a nd H ammond ,N . ( e d s . ) : P a t te rn o ft h eP a s t : 2 61-305 . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . C amb r idge . S he r ra t t ,A . &S he r ra t t , S .1 988 . T he a r chaeo logy o fI ndo E u ropean : a na l te rna t ive v i ew .A n t iqu i ty 6 2 ( 1988 ) : 8 54 -95 . S o l l i ,B . 1 996 .N a r ra t ive so fV eoy . U n ive r s i te te t s O ld sak sam l ing s S k r if t e rn r . 1 9 . O s lo . S pau ld ing ,A . C . 1 988 . D i s t ingu i shed L ec tu re : A rchaeo logy a nd A n th ropo logy . Ame r ican A n thropo logy . V o l . 9 0 : 2 63 -271 . Wa sh ing ton . S t ra the rn ,A . 1 981 .D ea th a sE xchange : t wo Me lane s ian c a se s . I nH umph r ey s , S .C . &K ing , H . ( ed s . ) : Mor ta l i ty a nd I mmor ta l i ty : t h ea n th ropo logy a nd a rchaeo logy o fd ea th : 2 05 -224 . A cadem ic P re s s . L ondon . S ve rd rup , G . 1 933 .F ra g ray sk ikk t i ld od s t ro in o rd i sk b ron sea ld e r . S k r if t e ru tg i t ta vD e tn o r ske V iden skap s -Akadem i iO s lo I .H i s t . -F i lo s . K la s se 1 933 .N o .4 .O s lo . S m te r sda l ,T . 1 995 .B eh ind t h e Ma sk U npub l . MA the s i s . D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy . U n ive r s i ty o fB e rgen . B e rgen . T hu rman , R .A . F .1 994 . T he T ibe tan B ook o ft h eD ead . C ompo sed b yS ambhava , P . ,d i scove red b y L ingpa , K .a nd t r an s la ted b yT hu rman , R .A . F .B y B an tam B ook s ,B an tam D oub leday D e l l P ub l i sh ing G roup I n c .N ew Y o rk . T i l ley , C . 1 989 . I n te rp r e t ing m a te r ia lc u l tu re . I nH odde r , I . ( e d . ) . T he Mean ing o fT h ing s : 1 85 194 . H a rpe r C o l l in sA cadem ic . L ondon . T i l ley , C . 1 994 . AP henomeno log yo fL and scape . B e rg P ub l i sher s . O xf o rd . T r igge r , B . 1 994 [ 1989 ] . AH i s tory o fA r chaeo log ica l T hough t . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . C amb r idge . F ou r th r e p r in t . T r igge r , B . 1 995 . E xpand ing m idd le range t h eo ry . A n t iqu i ty 6 9 . ( 1 995 ) : 4 49 -458 . T u rne r , V . 1 99 1[ 1967 ] . T he F ore s to fS ymbo l s . C o rne l l 6 5

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