The CURSE OF IGNORANCE_ A History of Mankind From primitive times to the end of the Second World War

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The CURSE OF IGNORANCE A History of Mankind From primitive times to the end of the Second World War BY ARTHUR FINDLAY IN TWO VOLUMES

Ignorance is the curse of God. Knowledge is the wing wherewith we fly to heaven.”—SHAKESPEARE

VOLUME ONE

CONTENTS FIRST VOLUME Foreword CHAPTER I Happiness Or Misery? .........................................................................

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Education, The Hope Of The Human Race.............................................

12

Knowledge Is Essential To Ethical Progress ...........................................

21

CHAPTER

II

Religion Or Ethics? ..............................................................................

29

Righteousness And Wisdom Come From Mental Development ...............

38

First Place Must Be Given To The Virtues ..............................................

50

The Key To The Correct Understanding Of History.................................. 55 CHAPTER

III

Primitive Man........................................................................................

59

Man’s Place In The Universe..................................................................

60

From The Prehistoric Age To The Beginning Of Civilisation ....................

74

CHAPTER

IV

The Oldest Civilisations.........................................................................

91

Sumerian, Babylonian And Assyrian Civilisations (3000—332 B.C.) ......

96

Egyptian Civilisation (3000—332 B.C.) ..................................................

111

Indian Civilisation (2500-126 B.C.)........................................................

121

Chinese Civilisation (2356 B.C.—A.D. 384)............................................

134

CHAPTER V Hebrew Civilisation (1800 B.C.—A.D. 614.) ...........................................

142

Early Tradition Of The Children Of Israel ..............................................

142

The Rise And Fall Of The Kingdom Of Israel ..........................................

150

The Jews, From The Captivity To Their Final Dispersal..........................

159

CHAPTER VI Greek Civilisation (2500—146 B.C.) ......................................................

170

Aryan Nomads Become Known As Greeks .............................................

173

The Political, Social, And Religious Life Of Greece..................................

176

Greece Saves Europe From A Persian Invasion ......................................

188

The Intellectual Life Of Greece...............................................................

195

Greece Is Devastated By Civil War .........................................................

208

Education Spreads From Greece Throughout The Roman Empire..........

210

Alexander Conquers Much Of The Civilised World .................................

216

The Decline And Conquest Of Greece ....................................................

223

Contribution Greece Made To The Christian Religion.............................

226

CHAPTER VII ROMAN CIVILISATION ........................................................................... 233 The Republic, From Its Inception To Its First Dictator............................. 237 Julius Caesar, And The Emperors To Marcus Aurelius ..........................

250

Rome’s Contribution To The World’s Mental Wealth...............................

263

The Tragic History Of The God-Emperors ..............................................

274

The Origin And Growth Of The Christian Church. .................................

277

From Constantine To The Collapse Of The Empire.................................

304

CHAPTER VIII CHRISTIAN CIVILISATION.....................................................................

321

The Rise To Power Of The Christian Church ..........................................

326

The Beginning Of Christian Civilisation .................................................

342

Europe Before And After The Fall Of The Roman Empire .......................

360

The Middle East After The Collapse Of The Roman Empire ....................

368

CHAPTER IX Moslem Cilivisation ...............................................................................

376

Mahomet Sets The Arab World Ablaze ...................................................

379

The Rise And Fall Of The Arabian Empire..............................................

385

The Turks Become A Great Power..........................................................

393

India During Moslem Rule.....................................................................

403

Moslem Spain Becomes A Beacon In Europe's Night..............................

405

CHAPTER X CHRISTIAN CIVILISATION.....................................................................

417

Europe Takes Shape as Separate Kingdoms ..........................................

424

Christendom’s Holy War On The Moslems. ............................................

436

Germany And Italy Iin The Middle Ages. ................................................

454

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France During the Crusades. ................................................................

467

England Becomes A United Nation ........................................................

474

Chinese Civilisation ..............................................................................

496

CHAPTER XI Christian Civilisation ............................................................................

504

England And France At War for Over A Hundred Years..........................

507

The Kings Of Europe Command And The Servile People Obey................

528

Spain Under Christian Rule ..................................................................

538

Exploration And Colonisation Beyoung The Sea ....................................

542

The Torch Of Knowledge Begins To Glow In Europe ...............................

563

The Basis Is Laid For Parliament And Education In England .................

591

Europe Prior To The Reformation ..........................................................

597

End Of Volume І ...................................................................................

615

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DEDICATED TO ALL WHO HAVE DIED OR SUFFERED IN THE CAUSE OF HUMAN FREEDOM AND LIBERTY

FOREWORD The aim of this book is to increase knowledge, as only by education, along the path of what we know to be true, can ethical conduct the world over rise to a level which will bring to everyone security, peace, contentment, and happiness. Most of our troubles come from ignorance, and from lack of knowledge of how we all should live together wisely, happily and contented, free from sickness, poverty and war. As ignorance is the root of most of the misfortunes which beset us, nothing is more important than the increase of knowledge, because this leads to wisdom, the source of happiness. Ignorance has been the curse of the human race, from the time our primitive ancestors evolved into the creature which we call man. Away back in the far distant past, the mind which controlled sub-man, then the most advanced of the animal species, decided that it would strike out along a path of its own, and leave the jungle for the open spaces, there to find sustenance for its physical habitation. By so doing it entered an uncharted sea, abounding with rocks and shoals on which it was for ever foundering, but, by leaving safety behind, and seeking danger, it developed until it reached the stage of civilised man. Had this urge for change and exploration been lacking, man would never have risen above the beast. The course set by early man led him against repeated dangers which had to be overcome if he were to survive, and if he had not developed memory, which to him was his compass, he would have foundered and been destroyed. Fortunately, by remembering his past mistakes, he did not always repeat them, and thus mind developed and reasoned thought took the place of instinct. From the time of primitive man to the present day, millions upon millions of causes and effects have evolved the human mind to its present standard, countless millions of thoughts remembered having raised us to the position we now occupy in the realm of life this earth supports. Beginning in the darkness of ignorance, mind has gradually won its way, to some degree, into the light of knowledge. Forever cursed by ignorance, the struggle has been slow and uncertain, and only by finally remembering repeated mistakes did the blackness of ignorance give place to the light of knowledge. There is, however, still a long road to travel before the goal is reached, as many past mistakes have not yet been sufficiently remembered to prevent their repetition. Much knowledge must yet be accumulated, and greater wisdom must still be acquired, before man can secure the state of harmony and happiness he longs to attain. His life is still surrounded by hidden rocks into which he continually blunders, as he cannot yet remember sufficiently well the wounds and bruises they have already caused him. His compass of memory is still far from perfect, and much greater knowledge and experience must yet come his way before the curse of ignorance is finally removed.

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This book has been written to help, in some small degree, the further removal of this sinister failing which brings so much sorrow and trouble in its train. Its subject is the long, long story of man’s upward climb from ignorance to knowledge, and its object is still further to increase knowledge, so that past mistakes may be remembered and not repeated. No better way can be found to remove our present troubles than by learning about the mistakes of our ancestors, of how’ many were remembered and not repeated, and of how those continually forgotten involved them in sorrow, suffering and disappointment. Though experience has taught mankind much, and much has been remembered, one past evil experience is still being constantly forgotten, to his sorrow and impoverishment. Instead of learning that misery and poverty too often come from theft and the desire for domination, man still pursues the methods of his jungle ancestors who grabbed and fought to secure what they wanted. This human weakness is kept in check within each nation by the police and the law, but we have so far discovered no means to prevent one nation from using all its resources to conquer another which it wishes to subdue to its will and pleasure. Nevertheless there is a remedy, and it will be stressed in the pages which follow. This age-old evil, which we call war, is still with us today, and never before has greater destruction, misery and suffering followed in its wake. Nearly a thousand separate wars have been fought in Europe over the past 2500 years, and within the last 4000 years the world has enjoyed peace for only 268 years. Within the lifetime of some people living today twenty-three major wars have been waged, with the accompanying waste of wealth and energy, misery and suffering to all concerned. Besides these major wars numerous minor wars have been fought against native communities, such as Zulus, Matabele, Kaffirs, Sudanese, and on the frontier of India. Considering only the important wars since 1864, we find that during these last eighty-two years war was raging somewhere on earth for forty-six years, from which followed destruction of property, great misery and suffering, and the loss of valuable lives. 1 This is an impressive example of human combativeness, cruelty and stupidity, and should give cause for serious thought. The suffering which the human family has endured from war over the past eighty years is but a small fraction of the misery it has caused since the time of primitive man, and, as we study the story of the past, we have cause to think deeply of the meaning of it all. Is war an infliction which the human race must bear, or, as with the 1

Prussian-Danish war 1864, Prussian-Austrian war 1866, Prussian- French war 1870—71, SerbianTurkish war 1876, Russian-Turkish war 1877—8, First Boer war 1881, Serbian-Bulgarian war 1885-6, Italian-Abyssinian war 1887, Chinese-Japanese war 1894, Italian-Abyssinian war 1896, Grecian-Turkish war 1897, Spanish-American war1898, Second Boer war 1899—1902, Russian-Japanese war 1904—5, Italian-Turkish war 1911-12, First and Second Balkan wars 1912—13, First World War 1914—18, Russian Civil war 1919-20, Paraguayan-Bolivian war 1932—4, Italian-Abyssinian war 1935—6, Spanish Civil war 1936—8, Chinese-Japanese war 1937—45, Second World War 1939—45.

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plague, is it possible to find a remedy so that the great majority of mankind who love peace and hate war may be able to live in peaceful security? That is one of the problems this book sets out to solve. Every war in the past can be traced to selfishness, greed, fear, or intolerance; in fact, in the ultimate analysis, the cause of war can be resolved into ignorance. If we think out the remedy for this curse of ignorance which afflicts mankind, we shall arrive at the conclusion that by education future generations could prevent a repetition of all these past tragedies, if taught the wisdom and importance of unselfishness and compromise, besides being given a thorough grounding in history for the purpose of emphasizing the follies and mistakes of our ancestors. Only by education along these lines will it be possible to build up a stable organisation; to which all nations will loyally contribute, for the purpose of ensuring the future peace of the world. Peace within the nation can only be maintained by force, and likewise international peace can only be so upheld until the ethical development of the race rises to such a level that force becomes unnecessary. If there were no power within the nation to maintain peace there would be chaos, as boundaries would be for ever overrun by those who are always ready to take what does not belong to them. What applies to the nation likewise applies to the world community of nations. We have solved the problem of national peace, and we have now to set to work to solve the problem of international peace, but before this is possible the minds of the people must rise to a higher level. This can only come about by increased knowledge, and an advance in our ethical standards. Until the human family can find a way to live together in peace we are little better than civilised animals. We may accomplish much in other spheres of activity, but, if we cannot find the means to live at peace one with another, all our other conquests of the forces of nature are relatively of little importance. Only wisdom and knowledge can bring to us the peace and happiness we all desire, and it should therefore be the aim of everyone to increase in wisdom and accumulate greater knowledge. This, then, is the conclusion reached in the pages which follow, and the next question to be answered is how to bring home to everyone throughout the world this knowledge, from which will come increased wisdom. Surely the best way is to tell every child, in every school, in every land, honestly and simply, the story of the past achievements and mistakes of their ancestors, so that they may learn to emulate all that was good and avoid all that was evil. We have a record of the past experiences of the race from which to profit, and, if this is put forward for all to read in an attractive form, the lessons it has to teach will some day be learned, to the lasting happiness of all mankind. That is what this book attempts to do. If it also succeeds in throwing further light on the cause of and the remedy for, the greatest curse which afflicts the human race, its purpose will be served, and the labour of writing

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this book will not have been expended in vain. A knowledge of history, and the great latent power behind education, are the two forces which will finally destroy the dragon of war. History, however, must be honestly taught, and education must also include ethical instruction if these two influences are to have the desired effect, as, if misused, they can be equally employed for evil purposes. The future historian must write as a world citizen, as one who belongs to no country, professes no creed and has no party politics, and this is the policy I have tried to follow throughout this book. What has been omitted, or glossed over, in other history books is here included, as only the truth can make us free, free from ignorance and all that it entails, namely, war, cruelty, poverty, suffering and misery. Both politicians and priests have misled the people in the past, and will continue to do so until knowledge increases. A prominent British politician, a member of the Cabinet, for instance, broadcast over the radio on Empire Day (1942) a fulsome story of the rise of the British Empire, which he was at great pains to emphasise was not won by conquest! Leading ecclesiastics likewise, during the Second World War, were permitted to use the radio to give listeners a glowing account of the benefits which Christian civilisation had brought to Christendom. The motive behind all these misrepresentations of facts was to create a favourable effect, and not for the purpose of instruction in what is true. As, however, most people accept what they hear without much knowledge, or reasoned thought to guide them, they carry through life many misconceptions which bias their judgment and affect their comprehension. To counteract these misunderstandings, and to increase knowledge, I have written my various books, the idea of writing for gain being entirely absent. This fact enables me always to express myself freely on all subjects, because I am not restricted by the feeling that unpopular opinions will retard their circulation. Fortunately I am able to give the necessary time and thought to this effort, no other reason influencing me than the advancement of understanding so as to bring about an increase in the happiness of mankind. Much of my time during the past six years has been occupied writing this book, The Curse of ignorance. It, and its immediate predecessor, The Psychic Stream, embrace the religious, political and social history of mankind from primitive times to the present day. The compilation of both these books has been a long, and arduous undertaking, to which I have given much time and thought during the past ten years when I could find the necessary leisure from my many other duties. My labour, however, will be amply rewarded if, by a study of their contents, my aim of greater mental enlightenment is accomplished. The pages which follow comprise the history of mankind from the age when our ancestors, the submen, pelted their enemies with stones from the tree tops, to the time when their descendants climbed into the heavens on wings and dropped high explosive bombs on helpless men, women and

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children. Indeed some of its earlier chapters were written when these latter conditions prevailed in close proximity to my home. The war, to my wife and myself, as it did to others, brought unexpected changes. When it began we offered our home, Stansted Hall, as a gift to the Red Cross for the duration of the war, if they would use it as a Convalescent Home. This offer was accepted in December 1940, and from then until the close of hostilities over 5500 soldiers, recovering from accidents, wounds and illness, recuperated within its walls and enjoyed the beauties and pleasures of its surroundings. As the Red Cross required the entire house we had to seek a war-time home, and I had to give up my duties as Chief Warden for North-West Essex, there being then no other house available in the neighbourhood because so many people from London had sought refuge in the country from the nightly air raids. We were, however, fortunate to be able to rent part of Rockingham Castle in Northamptonshire for the duration of the war, and there I wrote most of this book, having by then come to the definite conclusion that war would never cease to recur until the mental level of the people everywhere was raised to a higher standard, by means of greater knowledge and a much improved system of ethical education. No more suitable place could have been found to write a history of the past, as this historic edifice has sheltered many who have been famous in our island’s history. Doomsday Book mentions that it was originally a Saxon stronghold, and William the Conqueror transformed it into a castle. There, in 1095, his son William II, surrounded by his leading church men and nobles, in the Great Hall, disputed for two days with Anselm, the recently appointed Arch bishop of Canterbury, who insisted on receiving his robe of office from a Pope whom the King had not yet recognised, there being then two claimants to the Holy See. Until 1485 the castle was a royal residence, “The Windsor Castle of the Midlands”, to become in after years the home of men prominent in British history. On its walls hang portraits of some of Britain’s famous rulers, while, in the Great Hall, still stands an iron trunk said to have been left there by King John before he set out to cross the Wash, where disaster, caused by the rising tide, overtook what remained of his baggage. An iron chest, which is said to have belonged to Henry V, stands nearby. In the room where part of this book was written, Charles Dickens, in 1849—50, wrote David C and about the castle he weaved the setting of another of his stories. Throughout the years of peace and war, the Wars of the Roses, and the Civil War, when the Roundheads took possession of the castle, its ancient walls have stood, and still give shelter to a descendant of the family which obtained possession of the property from King James I. What better setting could the historian desire to stimulate his thoughts when recording the deeds of the past, as from my study window I surveyed the ancient keep and battlements which

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remind us of the days when men, clad in armour or leather jerkins, with battle axes, cross bows, pikes and staves drove off their enemies, and left the scars of conflict on the weather-beaten stones. As the centuries passed, and war gave place to peace, Britain became an example of what the world at large may some day be—a peaceful, happy dwelling- place for all mankind. When that time comes ignorance will have been replaced by knowledge, unbridled passions tamed by self-control, and man has raised himself above the beasts. Until this longed-for era comes, let us all help to flood the world with intellectual light, as this alone will end the misery and suffering which comes from ignorance. I know not what the mind of man may still imagine and then construct; I cannot tell to what heights his thoughts may soar; but this I know: that nothing is more desired than liberty, peace, security, happiness, comfort, good health, and prosperity, all of which can be attained by reasoned thought. Just as mental development has brought peace and happiness to our own oncedisordered land, so in time will peaceful conditions spread until they embrace all the nations of earth. Then will have passed the worst of mankind’s many afflictions, the curse of ignorance. My wife, my most candid critic, patiently and willingly helped me at all times, and in various ways, especially in checking the proof sheets; my secretary, Mrs. Goodes, who has typed all my books, did her work again with her usual perseverance and cheerfulness; and Mr. F. S. Cook, M.A., kindly read over, and thoroughly checked, the completed manuscripts and printer’s proofs. Here I acknowledge the help they have given to me, and I take this opportunity to express to them my warmest thanks. ARTHUR FINDLAY. Stansted Hall, Essex.

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CHAPTER I HAPPINESS OR MISERY? Introduction. (1) Eduation, the Hope of the Human Race. (2) Knowledge is Essential to Ethical Progress. HAPPINESS is the desire of the entire human race, and yet how few there be who know how it can be obtained. Ignorance is the cause of most of the world’s troubles, many of which could be overcome by increased knowledge and greater wisdom. Unfortunately the mentality of the race has not yet risen sufficiently to make this possible. Mankind is still under the curse of ignorance. There is no darkness like ignorance, and the only way to enlighten this darkness is by increased knowledge. Whatsoever causes happiness is good, provided no sentient being suffers, and whatever produces unhappiness is evil. The good, or righteous, man is the one who causes happiness; the evil, or unrighteous, man being the one who creates unhappiness. Happiness or unhappiness, apart from causes over which we have no control, are therefore determined by good or evil deeds, done by good or bad people, the former creating the conditions which make for mental harmony and contentment, while the latter create those which produce misery or mental disharmony. He who uses power wisely and with moderation is himself happy, whereas the reverse is equally true. Happiness is caused by the mind being in harmony with its environment, and whatever causes disharmony causes unhappiness and misery. Many causes affect the harmony of the mind, such as fear, pain, discomfort, unkindness, the loss of money, and the loss of friends by separation and death. Fear is one of the chief causes of our unhappiness, and this is nourished by ignorance. Fear of want, fear of suffering, and fear of death are the three chief fears which have played havoc with the happiness of mankind down the ages. What a load of misery fear has caused the race; what unhappiness pain has caused, and yet, as we now see, when turning back the pages of the story of the human family, much of this could have been avoided if our ancestors had known more, if they had been more intelligent, and had had greater wisdom. Much of mankind’s past misery and suffering could have been avoided by wisdom and knowledge. Because these were lacking, the race has suffered from poverty, disease, famine and war. By increased knowledge both disease and famine have been largely conquered. By mechanical invention, combined with scientific treatment, the earth can easily be made to produce all that the human family requires, and, under proper direction, there need be no want of those things which add to our comfort and enjoyment. The last and greatest enemy of everyone, war, must now be fought and finally conquered if the human race is to attain its full measure of happiness. 7

Because of ignorance, the past history of mankind is the story of war, destruction, conquest, slavery, injustice, intolerance and depravity. The people have been the sport and prey of priest and king, of superstition and autocratic might. The people, being ignorant, were just like children who obeyed those they looked upon as their superiors. The king governed by instilling into his subjects respect for his divine majesty, and making the people fear his power to punish all who disobeyed him. The priest has governed by making the people afraid of what awaited them after death if they disobeyed the representatives of the gods on earth, but he has not taught righteousness for the good of the human race. Kings and priests in the past have worked together to keep the people obedient to their wills. Tyranny and superstition, like two birds of prey, have fed on the ignorance of man. Liberty and education, as a rule, were alike distasteful to those in authority, and mental development was seldom encouraged. Both the throne and the altar were against liberty and progress, as these meant the end of servile obedience and the offerings to the priesthood. So kings have always tried to prevent the masses from becoming too independent, and the priests have proclaimed that the people must not think for themselves. These two facts run through the story of the human race, as the following pages will reveal. An interesting relic of this effort to keep the mind in chains is to be found in the old story told in Genesis, of how the gods 1 were angry with Adam and Eve because they ate of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, thus bringing to the race all the afflictions it has had to bear. The Greeks, and other nations, had similar stories produced by the priests, who considered that knowledge was sinful and ignorance a virtue, and the people, being even more ignorant than their masters, accepted this as the will of the gods. Until recent years this story kept Christendom in ignorance, knowledge being looked upon as sinful. A terrible fate, the people were told, overcame the race because Eve ate of “a tree to be desired to make one wise”, and, as this was devoutly believed up to the end of last century, we can better understand why education was denounced by the Church, which directed its efforts towards keeping the people ignorant. The terrible results which followed from this wicked policy will be revealed as we proceed, because ignorance is at the source of all that is evil, and from it has flowed the past and present miseries of the human race. Man, himself, is to blame for all his past and present troubles and miseries, because if he had had more intelligence he would never have allowed others slightly more clever than himself to domineer over him. This is still evident to all thinking people in our own time, as the masses, though now partially educated in civilised countries, can still be swayed this way and that 1

This is the correct translation from the Hebrew.

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by a politician or a priest who is clever and plausible enough to play upon their ignorance. The wise are astonished at such foolishness, just as the foolish are astonished at wisdom. Most of the past and present religious and political systems have failed to bring happiness to the people, because they have given too little thought to ethical principles. These vitally affect the welfare of humanity, and their rejection by those in authority has brought upon the people both unhappiness and misery. Those who protested against injustice were termed traitors, and killed or imprisoned, while those who objected to the superstitions preached and practised by the priests were called infidels, and shared the same fate. Little wonder that man’s climb to liberty and greater knowledge ‘has been slow and uncertain, and that, even now, the average of intelligence in matters affecting the welfare of the race is so backward that quite unnecessary suffering is caused by ignorance of the right way to live. Because of this, ethical principles have received scant attention in the past, as they are the last subject to receive respect from tyrants. Force and fear have been the two weapons used up to now by the rulers of State and Church to make their decisions obeyed. Only through complete liberty of thought can the tender ethical plant grow and flourish, but once it obtains a firm root everywhere on earth it will transform the life of mankind and bring happiness and contentment to all. It is the purpose of this book to emphasise these ethical principles, in such a clear and concise way that future generations will realise plainly that, for the sake of their own happiness and well-being, they should be followed as a guide to human conduct. Besides this, there will be told the story of the past from this higher angle of thought, so that the younger generation may be introduced to history from a new line of vision. Thus, by means of greater wisdom and knowledge, we may expect that in time war, and other evils, will cease to curse mankind. A day will eventually dawn when the people will not only learn the facts, and the lessons history has to teach, but also profit by their knowledge. Knowledge is therefore essential to ethical development, as, when we know about the mistakes of our ancestors, we are less likely to repeat them. All that most people in Christendom know about history, apart from that of their own country, is what is contained in the Old Testament. From youth upwards they have been taught at church and Sunday school about a primitive tribe which had settled in Egypt, and was led by Moses to the Promised Land, of their exploits there, and eventual captivity in Babylon. Besides passages so obscene that no other book would be allowed to print them, the most shocking and revolting descriptions are given of the methods pursued by these savages against their enemies, innocent men, women and children being treated in the most inhuman and brutal manner. Christians have been taught that God gave these savages, whom they call “God’s chosen people”, instructions to carry out

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these barbaric cruelties on their enemies, and on all who did not accept the Hebrew form of religious belief. In the years of ignorance, which fortunately are now passing away, the Bible gave comfort to millions who considered themselves the elect, and who believed that it contained the only way of salvation, but few there be who realise the baneful effect it had on Christendom throughout the Christian era. Likewise few appreciate the fact that Europe, in the 4th century A.D., was faced with the choice of adopting the high ethical philosophy of the Greeks, or the savagery attributed to Jehovah, and that the former was cast aside in favour of the latter. On that fateful decision terrible consequences followed, one being that we are still cursed by the ignorance which leads to war and its accompanying misery. European history is a record of first one nation, and then another, adopting aggression towards its neighbour, and the map of Europe, over the past sixteen hundred years, is like a kaleidoscope, constant changes having occurred in the national frontiers, because one nation after another has devastated, pillaged, and occupied the lands of those unable to resist. Last century Britain and France were the chief world aggressors, whereas this century they have been the victims of aggression—Germany, Italy and Japan haying put on the cloak of conquest. The curse of ignorance is at the root of all the troubles that afflict the world, and only when the people have knowledge can they criticise and refute their priests and politicians if they tell them what is not the truth. Until then they must suffer, but the remedy is in their own hands if they will only make the effort. Unfortunately the great majority prefer to experience some ephemeral pleasure to acquiring real knowledge and wisdom, the consequence being that everyone, wise and foolish, intelligent and ignorant, suffers alike. Ignorance is behind all the miseries the world has recently suffered from the German, Italian and Japanese people following the evil path laid out by unscrupulous politicians intent on their own glorification and domination. No people with knowledge and wisdom would have been deceived as they were, and yet the consequence of ignorance came not only upon them, but upon many millions who were quite innocent of the crimes and wickedness practised by these dupes of political gangsters. This may not always be so, and the last war may have raised the mental level everywhere to a higher range of thought. Great upheavals produce a new outlook, sometimes for the better and at other times for the worse, but if the last great disaster in human affairs is to be the prelude to a wiser and saner order in international relations this book may be appreciated, and its conclusions accepted, in a way never before possible. Two changes are essential to ensure this result. The first is that all on earth must rise to a higher ethical level of thought, helped by the study of ethical science, which is devoted to the promotion of human happiness by the

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development of that which causes happiness, and the elimination from our conduct of all that creates unhappiness. The second essential is that all must acquire greater knowledge, which, in turn, will bring wisdom in its train. These two factors will be stressed and amplified as we proceed. Because ethical principles have been largely ignored in all past international relationships, humanity today finds itself in many respects poor, miserable, battered, and bruised. If only we, the people of earth, could learn that righteousness is always the best policy for everyone, how different our lives would be. If all the labour and thought, which were devoted to produce weapons of destruction in the last two world wars, had been spent on constructive work, and improved methods of production and distribution, we today would be obtaining all our requirements, and enjoying much greater comfort, from half the number of hours of labour now required to maintain our present standard of livelihood. Man, by his stupidity and ignorance, has wasted on destructive purposes earth’s valuable assets, which should have been devoted to his increased comfort and the reduction of his toil. Moreover, he has been guilty of a further folly. From childhood to manhood the individual is a burden to the community, as he must be fed, clothed and educated. Before he returns, by his work, what has been expended upon him, he becomes a soldier, to be, perhaps, killed or incapacitated. If the former, the expenditure on his upbringing has been lost, and, if the latter, it is not only lost but he remains a burden on the nation for the rest of his life. It is much wiser for men to live for their country than to die for it. There is no reason in this senseless cutting short of young lives with all their productive years ahead of them. These men did not die glorious deaths, their tragic end only displaying how great is human folly and wickedness, the entire community suffering from their untimely end. The people who fought against German, Italian and Japanese aggression believe that their sailors and soldiers died, or were incapacitated, so that they might live in freedom. This is true, but it is equally true that the German, Italian, and Japanese fought just as bravely for what they had been taught was the object of the war. However much they were mistaken, the fact remains that men can be trained to think that aggression is right and justified. All the socalled holy wars of the past have been caused by the aggressors believing that they were fighting for a cause which all should share. Consequently both sides in a conflict believed that their soldiers met glorious deaths. Nevertheless the truth is that their death and mutilation were caused by ignorance of the right way to live, and this brought about the inevitable suffering, destruction and misery. Brave and gallant as men may be in warfare, conflict has always been, and always will be, misdirected effort. The art of wise living is to pursue a course from which we all derive the greatest amount of happiness out of life, and this can only come from mutual co-operation between individuals and nations, but never by injustice, intolerance and aggression. 11

The tragedy is that war is something which is unnecessary, and yet it and its accompanying misery and destruction are the most prominent features in history. During the past 4000 years there have been more than 8000 peace treaties signed between nations, but, in spite of this evident desire for peace, man has devoted himself as much to destruction and the creation of misery, as to construction and the production of happiness. By intolerance, selfishness, and the ignoring of ethical principles, the race has reduced its comforts and happiness, and increased its burdens, which could have been greatly lightened by intelligence and wisdom. Nations, in their dealings one with another, have no high moral conceptions, and what interests the individual nation takes first place over the affairs of its neighbours, a short-sighted view which in the end brings trouble to all concerned. All the people of this earth must therefore rise to a higher mental level, and discard the old ideas and low ethical values of the past, when plundering one’s neighbour was considered more advantageous than honest trade and commerce. Everyone, everywhere, must adopt, as a result of past experience, ethical principles which are simple to understand and practise if correctly taught to all when young. If this were done they would in time be accepted and practised naturally as a habit. These principles come from the accumulated wisdom of the human race, and belong to no particular nation, to no special religion or sect, and to no single political organisation. A right or wrong understanding of these principles vitally affects every one of us, and only when they are rightly understood and practised will humanity reach the realm of wisdom. Then will follow greater comfort, increased happiness, reduced toil and enlarged security. This can only come about by increased knowledge, as only through knowledge is wisdom attainable. Knowledge leads to wisdom, and wisdom to a higher level of ethical conduct. Ethical conduct leads to harmony one with another, and so the good are those who create harmony and the evil those who create disharmony. No one can be wise if ignorant, and to increase in wisdom means first of all to increase in knowledge. Then will come wisdom and the practice of the virtues, from which will follow the harmony that brings peace and happiness. (1) EDUCATION, THE HOPE OF THE HUMAN RACE. The people in general are woefully backward in their knowledge of those things which make life worth living, and, because of this, we are losing much of the happiness we might otherwise enjoy. Recently much progress has been made in the improvement of the social conditions of the people in many lands, but this has only taken them part of the distance along the road leading to human happiness. War, the greatest curse of mankind, and the cause of so much misery and suffering, must now be abolished, and this can be done if we approach the problem with intelligence.

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What is required is mental development, and from this all else will follow, as mind is king and we all live under its direction. A well-developed mind is more to be desired than honours, titles, and riches. Mind is man, and honours nothing great; the only thing that counts in life is mind, all else being but some tinsel stuff which falls away at death, to leave the mind unclothed of earthly ware, to build by thought its new domain within the etheric realm. As it thought on earth, so will it think there. Character and mental wealth, being super-physical qualities, are more enduring than things material, and to their cultivation and increase the wise direct their main attention. As we build up our character and develop our mind here, so shall we be there. As the boy and girl make the man and woman on earth, so the man and woman make the etheric man and woman in the after life. What we sow here we reap hereafter, as the character we develop here does not die. If everyone realised the vital fact that we are laying here the foundation of our life hereafter, war would cease, and our way of life would change for the good of every one. Mind determines the individual’s private life, just as the mass mind of the people determines the life of the individual nation, or the community of nations. Raise everywhere the individual mentality, and the national and international mentality will follow in consequence. Everything hinges on mental development. It is because of this evolution that our social conditions have improved of late, and, if this continues, most of the evils from which we suffer will vanish. To attain this end many present-day ideas must change, and certain wellattested facts, not generally known, must be learned. We shall come across these as we proceed, but the following are amongst the most obvious. All religions are based on psychic phenomena, but are encrusted with theological error, which sooner or later must be dismissed as the drapings of an age of ignorance. Politics should only be concerned with matters which have to do with the prosperity, comfort and happiness of the greatest number. Whatever increases these blessings deserves support, so long as individual liberty and freedom are preserved, and justice always prevails. The ethical conduct required by individuals and civilised communities must be extended to all nations by all nations. Only when this is done will war cease, but, so long as ethical conduct is confined to home use, and not practised towards neighbouring nations, aggression and conquest will continue to curse the race. Every human being, so far as conditions permit, should have the same opportunity to receive a good education made up of facts, and be taught the lessons drawn from human experience. This must be divorced from all organised religious or political influences, and each one must have the chance to develop his mind on the lines for which it is best suited.

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The ideas embraced within these four short paragraphs comprise much of what comes within our daily lives, and, as we read on, we shall find how our ancestors misdirected their energies, and lessened their comforts and happiness, by not knowing the right way to live. So the purpose of this book is to tell the history of the past, as a guide to present and future generations, so that they may avoid the mistakes of their ancestors in a way we have not yet learned to do. By examining past history, and the consequences of the mistakes made in ignorance, as the result of an undeveloped ethical standard, we shall better realise how these errors can be avoided in the future. This involves our reviewing the story of man’s upward climb from the time of subman to the present day, just as it entails the consideration of the outstanding crimes committed on humanity by the domination and lust of autocrats, and the simple acceptance of their rule by the people who blindly followed them. Never more than now does humanity need sound guidance in the way to live together in peace and happiness. With the increase of knowledge, and the decay of the old political and religious systems, it is groping for something new to take their place. Ecclesiastical authority, where education exists, is breaking down, but, on the other hand, we have, of late years, experienced abroad the return to tyrannical government, and the enslavement of large numbers of people who, within the past hundred years, had partially won their freedom. Can the human race ever attain to a sane religious and political outlook, and live as sensible intelligent people should live? Yes, most certainly, but before this happens the education of the young must be radically altered. Education (Latin, e=out, duco=I lead) in future must not only mean teaching children certain facts, but be applied in the correct meaning of the word. This means providing intellectual and moral training for the mind, for the purpose of leading it out of the darkness of ignorance into the light of a true understanding of all things, and the development of each individual’s personality. Much of what children are now taught must be abandoned as error, and much new must be taught which is not yet included in a school curriculum. This change must be world-wide if we are to attain the peace and happiness everyone desires, but, because of the different mental levels prevailing amongst the various races, we can only expect the new order in education to come into being very slowly, and to suffer setbacks before the goal is reached. Education for everyone is still so young, so new and novel an endeavour, that the majority have not yet passed the first elementary stage. Some day, when we have progressed further, everyone must be grounded in many subjects now omitted, one especially important study being anthropology (Greek anthropos, a man: logos, reason), the entire science of man from every angle, his origin, destiny, character and mental development. This subject embraces man both physiologically and psychologically, his physical body, his etheric body, and his mind. Every thing that has to do with these should be

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studied for the purpose of developing aright both body and mind, in order to produce what Plato called “the good man”. Science does not create, it only discovers what already exists, and the more we know of what exists the better our mind is furnished to enable us to live aright and make the best and most of life. Every thing we learn should be a means to an end, which is the increase of human comfort, harmony and happiness, this being only possible when, by mental development, all learn a world-wide humanitarianism, and the difficult but important art of world citizenship, which will come when all are tolerant, just, merciful, true and kind to every living creature. What is taught to a child is not easily forgotten. If error, instead of truth, be taught, the child is handicapped throughout its life. On the other hand, if truth, instead of error, be taught, it is unlikely that the child in after life will adopt the wrong way of thinking. There is a right and a wrong way to think, and, because of ignorance, we have, in many instances, been taught the wrong way. Religion has been taught by a specially privileged class, in every country, from the point of view favoured by that class. It was, and is still, in the interests of this class to propagate certain religious beliefs without any regard as to whether they are true or not. These have been handed down over the centuries, and are accepted because of their age and not because of their veracity. The young are encouraged to accept these ancient beliefs, and not to think out for themselves whether they are true or false. Orthodox religion is rarely a subject open to debate, it is a closed formula which each one is taught to accept. To try and examine its mysteries for oneself has, from early times, been looked upon as a sin against the unseen higher powers. To question, or to doubt, the orthodox faith of the times has always been represented by the religious authorities as stepping on to the broad path which leads to destructi