The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 Years of Printed Board Games [Illustrated] 9462984972, 9789462984974

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Adrian Seville Babette Hellemans

The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose 400 years of Printed Board Games This content downloaded from 2.83.161.123 on Mon, 07 Jun 2021 15:26:05 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose

The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose 400 years of Printed Board Games

Adrian Seville with a check list of British games compiled by John Spear

Amsterdam University Press

Cover illustration: Le Ieu Royal de Cupidon. Paris: La Veuve Petit, rue Montorgueil (author's collection) Except where noted, all photographs are the copyright of the author and are from games in his collection. Cover design: Coördesign, Leiden Lay-out: Crius Group, Hulshout isbn 978 94 6298 497 4 978 90 4853 588 0 e-isbn doi 10.5117/9789462984974 nur 685 © A. Seville / Amsterdam University Press B.V., Amsterdam 2019 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the author of the book. Every effort has been made to obtain permission to use all copyrighted illustrations reproduced in this book. Nonetheless, whosoever believes to have rights to this material is advised to contact the publisher.

This book is dedicated to the memory of the late William H. Helfand – collector, mentor and friend.

Contents Preface9 Part I The History of the Game of the Goose and its Variants, from its earliest appearance to the end of the 19th century11 1.

Introduction and overview

13

2.

Early history and meaning of the Game of the Goose

23

3.

French games before the Revolution

37

4.

French games after the Revolution

83

5.

An overview of British games107

6.

British games of the 17th and 18th centuries

143

7.

British games of the 19th century

165

8.

Distinctive features of German Goose Games

195

9.

Italian games to the end of the 19th century

223

10.

Dutch and Flemish games241

11.

Games in Spain, Portugal and Latin America

12.

Countries where the Game of the Goose was less in evidence273

13.

The Board Game links between Europe and the USA279

259

Part II The Legacy of the Game of the Goose in the Modern Era289 14.

The International Background at the end of the 19th century291

15.

Amusement and Education

16.

Propaganda, Polemic and Satire301

17.

Advertising and Promotion317

295

8

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

CONCLUSION331 18.

Printed Board Games as Sources for Cultural History333

Glossary of technical terms

353

Figures359 Literature quoted with abbreviated titles

365

Index of Games

367

Index of Subjects

379

Preface This book grew out of an exhibition based on my collection of board games that I curated at the Grolier Club of New York in 2016. Entitled The Royal Game of the Goose – 400 years of Printed Board Games, its aim was to show how one of the simplest of board games had produced variants in many countries of Europe that covered a very wide range of human activity and interest. Ed Rothstein, writing in the Wall Street Journal, was kind enough to call the exhibition ‘a mind-opening cultural event’. The book seeks to record the cultural legacy of the game, first by tracing its history and development up to about the end of the 19th century, then by showing the persistence of its influence in more modern times, even to the present day. The emphasis on cultural aspects, rather than the technicalities of game design or production, is intended to widen the pool of readers to include historians who are interested in aspects of material culture. International links are fully explored. My sincere thanks go to Thierry Depaulis, whose expertise on French games is unrivalled; to John Spear, who has most kindly contributed a check list of British Games; to my colleague in Italy, Luigi Ciompi, who is responsible for our Giochidelloca web site, and not least to my wife Mirjam Foot, who has read my drafts with her habitual thoroughness and keen understanding. Thanks are also due to the staff of those many museums and libraries whose collections have enriched my studies. 

Adrian Seville

Part I The History of the Game of the Goose and its Variants, from its earliest appearance to the end of the 19th century

1. Introduction and overview 1.1. The Game of the Goose and its significance The Game of the Goose is one of the simplest of games: it is one of a great family of race games, played with tokens to represent each player that move along a track according to the throw of dice, striving to reach the winning space. In the classic Game of the Goose, there is no choice of move or other mental input from the player. This might be thought to lead to a dull game, as indeed many race games are. However, the particular rules of the Game of the Goose (set out in an appendix to this chapter) cleverly combine to produce an exciting and lively game, which even adults can enjoy until the novelty wears off. The game is played with double dice, adding the points on the two dice together, which leads to fast movement. In its classic form, the track has 63 spaces, most of which are undifferentiated and non-active in playing terms: a playing token landing on such a space remains there, unless it is already occupied by another, in which case the tokens change places. Some spaces however are hazards, each with its own characteristic penalty. Of these, the most feared is ‘death’, usually showing a skeleton, demanding that the player begin afresh. Other spaces bear the image of a goose, from which the game gets its name. These goose-spaces are generally favourable, since the player landing on one must move further on by the number of points thrown. However, an important part of the playing interest of the classic game is that, if the winning space 63 is overthrown, the player must count off the excess points by moving backwards from the winning space – only an exact throw wins the game. If, after counting backwards in this way, the player is unfortunate enough to land on a goose, the player must move further back by the amount of the original throw; and of course landing eventually on a hazard space will exact the prescribed penalty. There are also two ‘dice’ spaces, which come into play when a particular initial throw is made. The game is usually played for stakes, held in a pool which goes to the winner: the stakes may be money stakes of low or high value or, where children are concerned, something like nuts or sweets. Alternatively, the game may be played for counters of no monetary value. In this classic form, the game has been current since the late middle ages: it is first recorded in Italy towards the end of the 15th century. The earliest surviving playing board is probably from the 16th century, while printed game sheets appear at the end of that century, at which time the game spread from Italy into many of the countries A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462984974_ch01

14 

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

of Western Europe. Remarkably, the game survives today in its classic form, with rules hardly altered over the centuries. In Italy the game is still just about current. In France, many people know it as a game they enjoyed with their grandmothers, while today in Spain toyshops offer versions reflecting a tradition that has endured for four hundred years. In England, where it was widely played for two centuries, it has been forgotten except by games specialists. But in the Low Countries – the Netherlands especially – the game is part of the national psyche. Dozens of new games based on the Game of the Goose appear every year: the format has even been used to attempt to influence public opinion in recent political elections. The medieval origins of the game give clues to an explanation of its structure. The number of spaces in the track corresponds to the ‘grand climacteric’ number, 63, of high numerological significance since Roman and Greek times. Arguably, the track itself is a symbolic representation of spiritual progress of the human soul, a representation in which the geese denote favourable spiritual guidance while the hazards represent earthly temptations and pitfalls along the way. The origin of the goose as favourable symbol is a matter of debate, the simplest interpretation being that geese are regarded as lucky in Italy. These controversial matters are explored in Chapter 2. Though the symbolism of the classic game is interesting, the real fascination is in the thousands of variant games built upon this basic template. The earliest variants date from the end of the 16th century but begin in earnest with the educational games of mid-17th-century France. They go on to reflect almost every facet of human life, such is their diversity. When one of these themed games has the classic track length of 63, the classic hazard spaces are often present, but interpreted thematically. For example, in a variant related to sailing ships, the death space might be represented by the image of a shipwreck, with the same rule: ‘start again’. Similarly, the favourable spaces classically denoted by geese might be represented by a favourable wind. It is fun, when looking at such a thematic game for the first time, to pick out the death space and see what malevolent image it shows. This book is devoted to showing why the Game of the Goose can lay claim to being the most influential of any printed game in the cultural history of Europe. For the historian, one fascination is how the game was tailored to appeal to different ages and social groups across the years. Francesco de’ Medici and Philip the Second of Spain are prominent in its early history, while the young Louis XIII of France and even Napoleon I appear later as players, fully justifying the game’s ‘Royal’ appellation. But the game is for all classes, ages and conditions: even in its early days the game was spread throughout Europe by colporteurs to supply much meaner households than those of princes. A recurring question in the history of these games is the tension between the high principles of ‘moral’ or ‘instructive’ games and the ‘low-life’ connotations of a game normally played with dice and well adapted to gambling. Over the centuries, the focus of the main target audience has shifted, first from adults to young adolescents,

Introduction and overview

15

then to children in the family group, and finally to children playing for fun on their own, as in the present day. This ‘taming of the Goose’ is a story in its own right and is addressed in the final chapter. A further area of interest is how far the games popular in different countries mirror national traditions and preoccupations. For example, the games of 19th-century Germany differ markedly from those of other nations, games representing journeys (whether real or imagined) being particularly popular. In England, the focus of the thematic games of that century is largely on education and moral improvement for a juvenile audience. By contrast, many of the thematic games of 19th-century France represent a wide range of social activities enjoyed by adults, while others focus on spiritual development. And why did the classic game never take hold in the USA? Isolated examples are found there from the middle of the 19th century but the game most typical of the USA is a moral variant, The Mansion of Happiness, adapted from a game of that name first published in England half a century earlier. For those interested in printing history, the huge variety in printing styles of these games provides a tempting hunting ground. Some of them, especially the finelyengraved games of France before and immediately after the Revolution, are aesthetically beautiful prints in their own right. They were expensively produced in their large formats for the aristocratic market and for the newly-emerging wealthy bourgeoisie. Yet even during this early period there were mass-market versions, cheaply printed from woodblocks. In the mid-19th century, the transition to lithography as a medium for illustration naturally was reflected in the production of the games, at first using hand colour but later using chromolithography. At the end of the 19th ­century, as colour printing became relatively cheap, the first give-away game sheets for advertising begin to appear, while the 20th century shows every kind, from the cheapest mass production to the livre d’artiste. Many of the thematic games provide a rich resource for cultural historians in that they act as snapshots of their often very specific world and time. Through the medium of printing, detailed images were reproduced, giving iconographic material not found elsewhere. Again, several of the games were provided with booklets of rules and instructions, something especially common in Georgian and Victorian games published in England. These booklets often give extensive descriptions of their subject matter, which can lead to new insights. Also, printed games were essentially ephemeral productions, frequently updated. For example, several games produced in France in the early decades after the Revolution were adapted to ensure political correctness under successive regime changes. The games can therefore be important primary sources for the historian, though this aspect of them has been neglected. This book does not aim to be a complete cultural history of the Game of the Goose. That would require a full account of how the game was used in different cultures, including the purposes for which it and its variants were used, who played it and in what circumstances, the economic and practical aspects of its production and

16 

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

distribution, the interaction between different cultures – and how all these things changed over time. It is true that these subjects form the inspiration for the book. However, the reality is that contemporary written sources hardly touch on these aspects and, where they do, the information given is scant – mere flashes of illumination. The gaps have to be filled in by careful study of the games themselves, though this can succeed only to a limited extent, especially since not all of these fragile games on paper have survived. This book is therefore concerned with the cultural legacy of the Game of the Goose: in particular, how the corpus of surviving games reflects their historical provenance and – reversing the process – how study of them can give insights into the cultures which produced them.

1.2. Tracing the lines of descent These games, for all their apparent simplicity, are sophisticated objects. They are not, generally speaking, designed de novo. Instead, the game producer will typically use elements of the rules which are familiar in his or her culture, will often choose the iconography from familiar sources, and may even use the physical means of production of an earlier game, such as blocks or plates, with suitable adaptation. This means that, though there is no DNA in a printed board game, it is often possible to trace a meaningful line of descent. These lines of descent inform the core structure of this book. They are indicated at the level of an overview in the chronology appended to this chapter but will be explained in more detail in the main sections. First, though, it is appropriate to look at the methodology. The most powerful method of tracing the lines of descent of Goose games is to study the variations in rules. The reason this is powerful is because the rules of the game are so often used in their classic form, essentially invariant over centuries and known throughout Europe. This means that what may appear to be trivial variations in rules are (like DNA markers) often highly significant in tracing descent. Once introduced into a culture, whether by careless accident or by deliberate design, they are likely to be copied in that culture across generations. Also, when the same variation then appears in another culture, it is compelling evidence of cross-cultural interaction. The second method useful in tracing lines of descent is to study the iconography. This can be done using standard methods familiar from Art History. However, the nature of Goose games is such that some special techniques are useful. The invariant nature of the classic game means that the iconography of the playing spaces is essentially fixed – for example, a skull or a skeleton will almost always appear on the ‘death’ space. By contrast, the other iconographic elements are not fixed by such playing considerations. Thus, the iconographic scheme for a classic game may include decoration (for example) of the track end, of the entry space,

Introduction and overview

17

of the otherwise empty corners of the sheet, the central space, and of the spaces of the track that have no special playing significance. These decorative elements can of course take any form without interfering with the playing characteristics of the game. Despite this, many of the early producers of these games were content to copy these decorative elements, perhaps mistakenly regarding them as essential features, or simply for the sake of expediency. For example, an entry arch is often found at the start of the track, though it is not required by the playing structure. Analysis of features such as this can provide useful additional clues to the line of descent The third method of tracing lines of decent is to examine the printing and publishing history. Frequently, the materials from which these games were printed were handed down by inheritance or purchase of an existing business. A complication is that the materials concerned are not immutable – a copper plate can be partially re-engraved, for example. Furthermore, a game is not necessarily printed from a single plate or woodblock. Frequently, the printing surface for the playing track is separate from that of the text, and the decorations may likewise have a separate plate or block. In woodblock printing, blocks may be repaired or partially replaced after suffering wear. A further complication dates from the introduction of rule books, which became common in late 18th century England when games began to be presented as sheets, dissected and mounted on linen, that folded into slipcases, like folding maps. Here the complication is that bibliographic information may appear not on the game sheet but on the rule book or indeed the slipcase, and marrying up these diverse sources can present difficulties.

1.3. Sources The main sources for this book, then, are the games themselves. They are scattered across the world in private collections and in museums. Until digital access came along, these games were difficult to study. Even now, the quality of images provided by museums is often inadequate for the detailed examination of the larger-format sheets; and complete digitisation of rule booklets is unusual. These problems provided the impetus for the formation of the author’s own international collection, begun forty years ago and now numbering about 700 games. More recently, the establishment of the giochidelloca web site, by the author with his Italian colleague, Dr. Luigi Ciompi, has opened the study of these games to researchers worldwide. The site offers legible images of well over 2500 games, freely downloadable, with examples from all the countries where the Game of the Goose has significance.1

1 www.giochidelloca.it.

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THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Most private collections and most museum collections (themselves usually resulting from the acquisition of an historic private collection) tend to be limited to the games of their own nations, as noted in the chapters that follow. Yet the international dimension is crucial to understanding the development of these games. Important in this regard is the impressive collection of printed board games assembled by that remarkable example of Victorian achievement, Lady Charlotte Schreiber (1812–95) and now held in the British Museum2. The collection of about 130 printed board games that she assembled late in her life contains some astonishing and unique material, beginning with Italian examples from the late 1500s and continuing with some of the most beautiful French and German games. As with collections, the few existing books on the Game of the Goose and its variants tend to have a national focus. A recent exception brings together in large format 63 race games from several nations, representing real or imaginary journeys, complete with rules and excellent descriptions.3 However, the present book breaks new ground in giving special attention to the cultural significance of the game in an international context.

1.4. Bibliographic information for printed board games Unlike most books and many fine art prints, ‘bibliographic’ information for printed board games can be difficult to identify. Sometimes, they do not even have a title, but just begin with something like: ‘Here are the rules’ implying that the name of the game will be known without explicit labelling. In this book, where no title appears on the game, the name given has been supplied to indicate briefly what kind of game is involved. Often, these games give no clue as to who provided the creative input in their making, as opposed, for example, to publishing it. Where no such name appears, ‘anon’ is implied for the authorship. Even when a designer is named, the term is elastic: it may, for example, refer to the individual who invented the rules of the game, chose its iconography, or executed the layout as a set of drawings for the printer. Only occasionally is sufficient information available to give greater precision to the term In many games, the only name that appears on the game sheet is that of a producer ‒ and a question arises as to whether that means the printer (who prints the game sheet) or the publisher (who owns and controls the original concept and who finances its production in printed format). In the hand-press era, these functions overlapped. For example, one of the the earliest (17th-century) English Games of 2 Not only was she a prodigious collector, but (as Lady Charlotte Guest) she was also renowned for translating the Mabinogion from Middle Welsh. She made a fine porcelain collection, now in the Victoria & Albert Museum; she also made collections of playing cards and of fans, both now in the British Museum. 3 Ernst Strouhal, Die Welt im Spiel. Vienna: Brandstätter, 2016.

Introduction and overview

19

the Goose bears the imprint: ‘printed and sould by John Overton over at St. Sepulchre’s Church: in London’, indicating that Overton was both printer and publisher. In France, in the time of the Ancien Regime, terminology was similarly equivocal: the term éditeur [publisher] is modern. However, the term marchand des estampes, though of frequent use during the period to describe the great Parisian printing houses such as de Fer, Crépy and Basset, ignores their input as primary producers of prints, rather than simply selling the products of others. In this book, following the lead of Maxime Préaud, the term ‘publisher’ will be used to signify this wider role during the Early Modern period.4 In the later era of the machine press the functions of publisher and printer became more distinct, though in the case of large-format games from copper engravings, the printing may have remained in house for longer. As with many published prints, a printed game may appear in several different states or editions. Often these differences are not significant for the cultural impact of the game. Detailed identification of these differences has therefore not been undertaken in this book except where they are indeed significant.

1.5. Structure of the book The book is divided into two main parts. The first part begins by surveying the history of the classic game and its early diffusion from Italy to other countries of Europe about the end of the 16th century. It then moves on to the variant games, country by country, up to about the end of the 19th century. The structure reflects the fact that, during this long period of almost three centuries, most of the innovation occurs within countries rather than by adoption of new ideas across national boundaries, though there are important exceptions to be noted. The second part deals mainly with the 20th century, where the proliferation of games and their international spread is such that a thematic approach cutting across nations is more appropriate; given the thousands of games available for study, this is necessarily highly selective. This part encapsulates the cultural legacy of the game under three headings: amusement and education; propaganda, polemic and satire; and, finally, advertising and promotion. It will be demonstrated that, in many of the countries of Western Europe, the continuing influence of the Game of the Goose on game design and the culture of play is clearly evident in all these fields. In some examples, the influence of the classic game is obvious and direct, especially when the 63-space spiral track is retained. In others, the influence is at a greater distance and needs to be uncovered by careful examination. A final chapter sets the printed

4 Maxime Préaud, Pierre Casselle, Marianne Grivel and Corinne Le Bitouzé, Dictionnaire des éditeurs d’estampes à Paris sous l’ ancien régime. Paris: Promodis – Editions du Cercle de la Librairie, 1987, p.7.

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THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

board game in the context of material culture and indicates what is to be learned from studying the genre.

Appendix 1a Chronological overview to the end of the 19th century This section is intended to give a brief guide to the key events in the geographical spread of the game and the development of its variants, rather than to provide a detailed chronology. Dates followed by a dash represent approximate start dates of general trends. There are also some specific dates, mostly indicating the first appearance of particularly significant games. Dates marked with a question mark are uncertain. Where the description ‘earliest’ appears, ‘earliest known’ is implied. 1400 1463

Italy

Earliest reference to the Game of the Goose (in a sermon)

1500 1500?

Italy?

1580–

Italy

1585?

Spain

1585– 1588

Europe Italy

1597

England

1598

Germany

1598

France

Earliest surviving Goose board (but made in North India?) Earliest printed Goose and allied games of the Monkey and the Baron Goose game sent by Francesco de’Medici to Philip II Internationalisation of the classic Goose game Spanish Filosofia cortesana variant printed in Naples. Goose game registered by John Wolfe, Stationers’ Hall Fortuna game based on classic Goose game, en­ graved on stone Classic Goose game printed in Lyons.

1600 1620?

France

1624?

Netherlands

1640–

France

Earliest Game of Cupid (Snake), a variant of the Goose game. Earliest Dutch games of the Goose and of the Snake (Cupid) Earliest educational variants

21

Introduction and overview

1650?

Germany

1685–

France

1700 1747 1750–

England England

1790

England

1790–

England

1800 1800–

England

1800 1800?

England Netherlands

1826– 1840–

Europe USA

1880–

Europe

1880–

Netherlands

Alphabet version of classical Game of the Goose for teaching children Thematic variants for adults Goose variant Courtship and Matrimony Cartographic Goose variants based on the Grand Tour Game of Human Life based on French original of 1775 Educational and moral games, with some influence from Goose games Educational and moral games, with little influence from Goose games Mansion of Happiness published Classic Game of the Goose ‘for the youth of The Netherlands’ Lithography begins to replace engraving Goose game and Mansion of Happiness, adapted from English sources Chromolithography becomes important for massproduction of games Advertising games based on the Game of the Goose

Appendix 1b Rules for the classic Game of the Goose 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

The players must agree the stakes. Each player must have a distinctive token and place it at the start. Each player places one stake in the centre of the board, making the ‘pool.’ The players each throw the two dice once: the player with the highest total starts. Each player in turn moves their token forward by the sum of the two dice thrown. If your first throw is six and three, move to space 26.5

5 This rule and the next prevent an immediate win on an initial throw totalling nine, which would otherwise mean hopping from goose to goose until space 63 was reached.

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THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

7. 8.

If your first throw is five and four, move to space 53. If a player’s token lands on a space occupied by someone else’s token, it is a ‘hit’ – their owners each pay one stake to the pool and the token that was hit moves back to the space just vacated by the thrower’s token. The tokens thus change places. 9. If a token lands on: – the Bridge at space 6, pay one stake to the pool and go to space 12. – the Hotel at space 19, pay one stake to the pool and lose one turn. – the Well at space 31, pay one stake to the pool and wait until someone comes to pull you out; their token then takes the place of yours and you move yours back to the space just vacated by their token, as for a hit. – the Maze at space 42, pay one stake to the pool and go back to space 39.6 – the Prison at space 52, pay one stake to the pool and wait until someone comes to let you out; their token then takes the place of yours, and you move yours back to the space just vacated by their token, as for a hit. – Death at space 58, pay one stake to the pool and start the game again. 10. If a token in going forward7 lands on a space with a picture of a goose, move forward by the amount of your throw. If you land on another goose, move forward in the same way. 11. To win the game, and take all the stakes in the pool, you must land exactly on space 63. 12. If you are near the winning space, and throw too many, you must count the extra points backwards from the winning space. 13. If you then land on a goose picture, you must continue moving backwards by the amount of your throw until you land on a space with no goose picture. If you land on the Death space, you must start again.

6 7

In French games, the rule is ‘go back to space 30’. But see rule 13 for tokens going backwards.

2. Early history and meaning of the Game of the Goose 2.1. The earliest traces One of the earliest references to the Game of the Goose appears in an obscure book of sermons for Advent given by the Dominican Gabriele da Barletta1 in about 1480. He speaks (disapprovingly) of playing games at Christmas and, moreover, of the need for large and small dice, the large ones to overcome the imperfections of vision due to old age. Si vult venire, in domum meam in istis festis paravi plura. Si voluerit ludere ad triumphos, sunt in domo; si a tavole habeo plura tabuleria; si a locha habeo taxillos grossos et minutos. [If anyone comes to my house in this season, I have prepared several games. If he wishes to play at tarot, there are tarot cards in the house; if at backgammon, I have several boards; for goose I have both large and small dice.]2

This text is paraphrased by Rabelais in the Third Book of Pantagruel, published in 1546,3 which satirically relates the use of dice by Judge Bridoye (literally ‘Bridlegoose’ but meaning, colloquially, ‘nincompoop’) in reaching legal decisions: for difficult cases the judge uses dice too small to see the numbers! In fact much of the Third Book can be interpreted as an ironic Goose game. Recently, diligent searching by Thierry Depaulis has revealed even earlier references from Italy, among which are: 1463: in Argenta (Emilia–Romagna, near Ferrara), Borso d’Este forbids: ‘a zugare over fare zugare in alcuno luoco publico over privato in ascoxo over in palexe in la terra de Argenta et suo destrecto ad alcuno zuogo de dato como è al sozo, ocha, badalasso bolognexe over altro zuogo de dati’ [to play or cause to be played in any place whether public or private, concealed or openly, in the land of Argenta and its district any game of dice, as at [...] goose [...] or any other game of dice].4 1 Gabriele Bruni, da Barletta or Bareletta, called ‘Barletta’ (c. 1435−c. 1500?), Sermones quadragesimales et de Sanctis fratris Gabrielis Barelete. Brescia: Jacobus Britannicus, 1497−98, II, sermon ‘Dominica quarta Adventus’ (4th Sunday of Advent). 2 Thanks go to Thierry Depaulis for this transcription and translation and for numerous early Italian references communicated privately. 3 Paris: Chrestien Wechel. 4 Statuta Terrae Argentae e veteri manuscripto codice nunc primum edita, Ferrara: Typografia Camerali, 1781, p. 214. A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019

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1465 (July): Borso d’Este’s jester, Giovan Battista Scocola, receives from Borso two golden ducats: ‘per zugare a l’ocha’ [to play at the goose].5

It is clear from these references that the Game of the Goose was well established as a vehicle for gambling in the late 15th century, such that prohibitions and condemnations were issued. Given this evidence of an early Italian connection, it is curious that there is no reference to the Game of the Goose in the widest Italian list of games, that given by Alessandro Citolini, in La Tipocosmia.6

2.2. The oldest surviving Game of the Goose The oldest surviving Goose game board (Figure 2.1) is that in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.7 It is made of ebonized wood, elaborately inlaid with ivory, horn and gold wire in a style associated with 16th century Gujarat in North India.8 However, the numbers in the spaces are in a western script consistent with Italian writing of the 15th century, suggesting that the board was made in Gujarat to an Italian design. A curious feature is that, though the board is in all other respects a classic Goose board, it lacks two of the hazards: the bridge and the inn. The explanation for this is not clear. There are various other mysteries: the prison space is occupied by a boat in the form of a Venetian galley, something not known in other Goose games, though a different form of boat is sometimes found. Also, the execution of the drawings on the playing spaces is distinctly strange and crude, contrasting sharply with the meticulous decorative inlay, suggesting that the supposed Indian craftsman had difficulty in producing these unaccustomed shapes. On its reverse, the board is laid out for chess and (to a non-European design) for a form of backgammon. A very similar board has recently (2017) surfaced at the Paris gallery of Sylvie L’Hermite-King. She attributes it to the Portuguese State of North India and dates it to late 16th- or early 17th century. This board, though, has the full set of classic hazards. She comments: This [goose] game and the wooden boards (Italian and Iberian and in the so-called Veneto-Saracenic style) reached Asia, carried by the Portuguese ships on the India Run. The popularity of the game led rich merchants and court officials of the Portuguese 5 G. Bertoni, L’Orlando furioso e la Rinascenza a Ferrara, Modena: 1919, note p. 339, cited in Tito Saffioti, ‘Scocola, “soavissimo” buffone di Borso d’Este alla corte di Ferrara’, Ludica, 23, 2017 (2018), p. 54. 6 Venice: Vincenzo Valgrisi, 1561, p. 484 for the list of dice games – later slavishly reproduced by Tommaso Garzoni in editions of La piazza universale di tutte le professioni del mondo. 7 Accession Number: 62.14, dimensions 430 mm x 419 mm x 29 mm. 8 Compare an Indian chess and backgammon board in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Amin Jaffer, Luxury Goods from India: The Art of the Indian Cabinet-Maker. New York: Harry N Abrams, 2002, pp. 20–21.

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Figure 2.1: The earliest known board for the Game of the Goose (Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York / photograph © Adrian Seville).

State of India to commission boards from local workshops using exotic Indian woods and refined techniques, such as sadeli. Such precious game boards were highly treasured in Europe and often served as diplomatic gifts or objects of display in the Kunstkammer. They were most likely produced in Thane (Bombay), a centre of the Northern Province later known for its sadeli works of a high level of technical sophistication. They are an important testimony to the introduction of the game of goose in Portuguese Asia.

2.3. The international diffusion of the Game of the Goose at the end of the 16th century A welcome point of certainty is provided by a printed game in the British Museum: the printer, Lucchino Gargano, has signed the plate and dated it 1598 (Figure 2.2). It is a classic Goose game in all respects, with characteristically Italianate decoration. Another classic Goose game, this time from France, also dates from about 1598, with the imposing title: LE IEV DE L’OYE RENOVVELLE DES GRECS, IEV de grand plaisir, comme auiourd’huy Princes & grands Seigneur le practiquent (see Chapter 3, Figure 3.1) Publication details are given as ‘A Lyon par les heretiers de Benoist Rigaud’. This woodblock print, of which only one example is known, is the prototype for the classic French jeu de l’oie. The title of the game claims that it is ‘renewed from the Greeks’ and that it is ‘today practiced by great lords and princes’. The first is a reference to the belief that, since the Greeks of the Iliad played games of chance, the Game of the Goose could be traced to that lineage. There is no solid evidence to confirm this connection, though the claim is frequently found in French jeux de l’oie during the succeeding

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THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Figure 2.2: An early Italian Game of the Goose printed by Lucchino Gargano in Rome, dated 1598 (© Trustees of the British Museum).

centuries. The second claim, that the game is played by princes and great lords, may be a reference to aristocratic origins (see below) or may simply be a statement of fact. Although it does not employ the goose as symbol of good luck, a game carved on stone by Michael Holzbecher for Archduke Karl of Austria in 1598 is significant. This, Das khurtzweillige Fortuna-Spill [The Entertaining Game of Fortune, now in the Landesmuseum Johanneum in Graz, Austria] is in fact a classic Goose game except for the replacement of the geese by symbols of the goddess Fortune. An interesting point is that it is decorated with words and music of drinking songs, suggesting that this was not a game for children.

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27

The Goose game registered in London by John Wolfe in 1597 is now lost. However, elements of the Italianate decoration of the Lucchino Gargano game are found in later English Goose games, as discussed in Chapter 6. The Game of the Goose was also sent to Spain in the 1580s, as discussed below, adding further evidence of wide international diffusion of the game in Europe by the end of the 16th century.

2.4. A royal gift from Italy to Spain Pietro Carrera, writing in 1617, gives a unique account of the origins of the game: It is clear that intelligent men, after the first invention of something, will by adding to or modifying the basic idea, make other inventions. We know that this occurred for the Game of the Goose in the time of our fathers: this game was invented in Florence and, since it was much appreciated, Francesco de Medici, Grand-Duke of Tuscany, decided to send it to His Majesty Philip II of Spain. When it was published there, it gave occasion to certain intelligent spirits to invent other games, a little different from the original, among which was the game known under the name of the Filosofia cortesana invented by Alonso de Barros of Spain.9

The credibility of this is much enhanced by the fact that de Barros’ game does exist,10 as does its rule book.11 His is a 63-space spiral game (see Figure 2.4 below) obviously derived from the Game of the Goose but having as its theme the progress of a courtier in his career. Furthermore, there is a direct account of the Goose game appearing at the Court of Spain, contained in a letter12 by Gonzalo de Liagno to Francesco I de’ Medici dated 24 August 1585. The writer (known as ‘Gonzalillo’) was Philip II’s court jester. He writes: ‘Accursed be your servant Luis Dovara, who brought along a devilish game called Gioco dell’Oca, played with two dice [...] It is a game played in Tuscany and God grant that he who made it may burn, for to the Prince and the Infanta and Luis Tristan I have lost 40 scudi’. Though Carrera does not give the date of invention of the Goose game itself, it has often been assumed that he is referring literally to the immediately previous generation, implying a late 16th-century date; this interpretation is negated by the evidence cited above of the game being known in the 15th century.

9 Pietro Carrera, Il gioco de gli scacchi. Militello: per Giovanni de’ Rossi da Trento, 1617, p. 25 (trans. by Adrian Seville). 10 British Museum 1869,0410.2463. 11 Emmanuel College Library, Cambridge: Rare Books Room 326.6.108. 12 Susanne Kubersky-Piredda and Salvador Salort Pons, “Travels of a Court Jester: Gonzalo de Liagno, Art Agent at the Court of King Philip II of Spain,” in Marika Keblusek and Badeloch Vera Noldus, editors, Double Agents. Cultural and Political Brokerage in Early Modern Europe. Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2011, pp. 213–232.

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2.5. Philosophical background of the Medici Court An obvious question is why should Francesco send such a game to Philip II, a man of serious temperament not known for being interested in gaming? The answer is that both were keenly interested in numerology and symbolism. The Medici court was a hotbed of philosophical activity in these areas, as Frances Yates observes: Pico della Mirandola [1463–1494] belonged to the brilliant circle around the Medici court in Florence which included another famous philosopher, Marsilio Ficino [1433–1499]. Ficino and Pico were founders and propagators of the movement loosely known as Renaissance Neo-Platonism. [...] It was Pico who introduced Cabala into the Renaissance synthesis. And, like Ramon Lull, it was as a Christian that Pico valued Cabala.13

Although there is no evidence that either philosopher was concerned directly with the Goose game, there is evidence (below) that Ficino was keenly aware of the significance of the number 63, which is the goal of that game.

2.6. The number 63 as Grand Climacteric The significance of the number 63 as representing the ‘Grand Climacteric’, i.e., turning point or critical year of a person’s life, is an ancient belief, traceable to early Greek philosophers. Sir Thomas Browne summarizes it thus: The numbers 7 and 9 which multiplyed into themselves doe make up 63 commonly esteemed the great Climactericall of our lives; for the dayes of men are usually cast up by septenaries, and every seventh yeare conceived to carry some altering character with it, either in the temper of body, minde, or both [...] The year of sixty three is conceived to carry with it the most considerable fatality […]14

By 1650, when Browne was writing, the belief in the danger of the 63rd year of life was regarded as superstitious – but in Ficino’s time it was mainstream medicine. Ficino

13 Frances Yates, The Occult Philosophy in the Elizabethan Age. London: Routledge, 1979, reprinted 2001, pp. 17–18. The term “Cabala” (alternately Kabbala(h) or Qabala(h)) refers generally to traditional beliefs arising from the continuous transmission of Jewish mysticism, and more specifically to a particular theosophical doctrinal system from the Middle Ages onwards. 14 Sir Thomas Browne, Pseudodoxia epidemica, or, Enquiries into very many received tenets, and commonly presumed truths (London: Printed by A. Miller for Edw. Dod and Nath. Ekins, 1650), Book IV, Ch. XII, repr. in Charles Sayle, editor, The Works of Sir Thomas Browne, Vol. II. Edinburgh: John Grant, 1927, pp. 160–161.

Early history and meaning of the Game of the Goose

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even contributed an explanation as to why ‘septenaries’ [seven year periods] ruled each human life: Just as Saturn rules the babe hidden in the womb for the first month and the Moon for the last, so, as soon as he is born, now in reverse order the Moon should rule in his first year; in his second, if you will, Mercury; in the third, Venus; in the fourth, the Sun; in the fifth, Mars; in the sixth, Jupiter; and in the seventh, Saturn; and afterwards the order should be repeated throughout life. And so in any seventh year of life there occurs a very great and therefore very dangerous change in the body, both because Saturn is alien to man in general and because then the governance returns abruptly from him, the highest of the planets, to the Moon, the lowest of the planets.15

The track length of the Goose game is thus not accidental but is of great numerol­ ogical significance and indicates that it was conceived as representing the evolution of a human life: once the Grand Climacteric was passed, peace and wisdom were to be enjoyed.

2.7.

Nine as the ruling number of the Game of the Goose

In the Game of the Goose, however, there is no evidence of septenaries. This is hardly surprising, given that the geese are favourable, so that we would not expect them to mark climacteric points. Instead, they are in two series, each spaced by nine. In medieval thought, nine is a holy number, being an extension of the Trinity as 3 x 3, the Trinity of Trinities. It represents spiritual advancement as the stages through which the aspirant ascends the spiritual path (see, for example, Dante’s use of the number in the Divine Plan of the Vita Nuova).

2.8.

The Hazard Spaces

If the geese associated with the number nine represent spiritual advancement, it becomes easy to see that the hazard spaces represent obstacles to that advancement. There is no contemporary interpretation giving more detail but in general terms it is clear that the bridge is a rite of passage, perhaps marking adulthood, the inn represents earthly distractions, the well and the prison mean that help of another is 15 Marsilio Ficino, De Vita, Book 2 Chap. XX, quoted in Three Books on Life. A critical edition and translation with introduction and notes by Carol V. Kaske and John R. Clark. Binghamton, NY: Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies in conjunction with the Renaissance Society of America, 1989, p. 231.

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needed, and the labyrinth symbolizes error. Death is not physical death but death of the soul, requiring a fresh start. Attempts have been made to particularize the numerology of the hazard spaces. Of these, the most promising is to use the numerical practices of the Cabala. As indicated above, the Neo-Platonist scheme of Pico did embrace the Cabala, within what was envisaged as a Christian synthesis. For example, the 58 of the death space can be transformed using small-values gematria16 as 5+8 to make 13, the ‘fatal’ number. However, a complete and consistent treatment of all the hazard numbers has not been presented.17 Another approach to the numerology of the death space is to note what would happen if it were possible to be on that space and make a throw of nine. This would obviously overthrow the winning space 63 and, by the reverse-overthrow rule, the excess points then must be counted backward. The player’s token would thus move its nine spaces as follows: 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 62, 61, 60 finally reaching 59. This last is a goose space, so that the throw-doubling rule would apply, moving the token a further nine spaces backwards to arrive at space 50. This also is a goose space. Further applications of the throw-doubling rule would then take the player back to spaces 50, 41, 32, 23, 14 and 5 at which point a failure would occur since a continuation to minus 4 is not possible. The ‘start again’ rule thus both mimics this backward progression and prevents what would otherwise be a ‘bug in the program’.

2.9. The symbolism of the geese As noted in the introductory chapter, an obvious question, but one with no clear answer, is why geese? Certainly, geese are considered lucky in Italy (notably for the part they are thought to have played in the saving of the Capitol from attack) and the presence of Fortune as a replacement for them in the early German game mentioned above would support their being interpreted as good-luck symbols. Against this, some commentators have argued that the iconography of the earliest popular prints of the game suggests a material explanation: catch the goose to get a good meal. An intermediate position is that the goose symbolises ‘plenty’ and indeed images of a cornucopia are not infrequently found on Goose games. And, of course, the letter from Francesco’s jester gives no hint that the game was regarded as anything but a vehicle for costly gambling.

16 Gematria is the Cabalistic process of giving meaning to a word by assigning numerical values to their letters, then adding to obtain a number to which significance is then attached. Adding the digits of that number to obtain further significance is called ‘small-values gematria’. 17 An attempt is made by Jacques Duchaussoy, Le bestiare divin. Paris: Le courrier du livre, 1972, pp. 119–123.

Early history and meaning of the Game of the Goose

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However, the evidence for a symbolic interpretation of the game, and therefore of the geese, is quite strong: would Francesco have sent the game to Philip II if it had just been about material things? And the presence of the ruling number of nine allied to the climacteric aspect strongly indicates that the numerology is significant. On this basis, the geese would need to symbolize spiritual advancement, presumably by divine help. If the geese were in fact pelicans (Christian symbols of divine love) this would be easy! However, there is no evidence that pelicans are involved in the 16th-century games, though in the 18th century at least one French designer18 seems to have recalled the symbol of the ‘Pelican in her Piety’ when ornamenting the final space with a bird feeding its young. It has to be remembered that the stylized iconography of the medieval pelican omitted the large bill that we associate now with its image, so confusion with the image for a goose was certainly possible.19 However, there is no evidence for such confusion in regard to geese on a game sheet. The argument for Christian symbolism in the game receives a boost from the phrase found in the earliest surviving English versions:20 ‘Invented at the Consistory in Rome’, the Consistory being the administrative arm of the Roman Catholic Church. There is no independent evidence for this assertion, no doubt copied unthinkingly from printer to printer. John Wolfe, the introducer of the game to England, had trained in Italy, and it may be that his game included the assertion. It does in any case conflict with the claim by Carrera, that the game was invented in Florence.

2.10. ‘Invention’ of the Game of the Goose In considering such claims, one should reflect on what the term ‘invention’ might mean for the Game of the Goose. Single-track dice games are known from antiquity: the Egyptian game of Mehen [Serpent] played on a spiral track of undifferentiated compartments ending in the centre (sometimes ornamented with a snake’s head), is known from about 3000 BC. Randle Holme, writing at the end of the 17th century, mentions an English Game of the Snake played on a pegged spiral track 18 See Chapter 3 – French games before the Revolution. 19 As late as the 19th century, the formal taxonomic scheme used in Italy for birds included the ‘order’ of the geese, which named the pelican as one of its genera. See, for example, the Dizionario universale della lingua italiana, ed insieme di geografia... mitologia [&c.] by Carlo Antonio Vanzoni. Palermo: 1842, printer Tipografia Demetrio Barcellona. Vol. 8 (N−O) p. 701. ‘Le oche formano un ordine di uccelli che tutti si trattengono sull’acqua, e possono destramente notare co’loro piedi palmate... Quest’ ordine d’ uccelli ha per generi il rincope, la sterna, il laro, il pellicano, il piloto, l’anitra, Io smergo, il colombo, il fetonte, la projellaria, 1’alica e la diomedea.’ [The geese form an order of birds which all swim on water and are further distinguished by their webbed feet. This order has for its genera... the pelican... the domestic goose...]. So in common parlance the pelican might well have been regarded as ‘a sort of goose’. 20 See Chapter 6, on English Goose games.

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of 63 undifferentiated holes.21 So, ‘invention’ of the Game of the Goose must mean the production of a differentiated 63-space track with the characteristic spacing of favourable spaces and some (if not all) of the hazards. It seems unlikely that such a sophisticated game could have been invented starting with nothing more than an undifferentiated track: intermediate stages of development therefore cannot be ruled out, though there is as yet no trace of them. Although an Italian origin for the fully developed Game of the Goose is indicated by every one of the few sources known, there is nothing to say that it could not have been developed from spiral race games from other countries. However, ingenious suggestions that the game is a representation of the pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, or that it derives from games of the Indian sub-continent, appear to lack foundation.22 The connection with spiral race games of the ancient world likewise lacks evidence of intermediate stages between a simple spiral and the full development of the Game of the Goose. The earliest origins of the Game of the Goose therefore remain a mystery.

2.11. Other 16th century printed games Apart from the Goose game printed by Lucchino Gargano in 1598 discussed above, there is a small group of printed games of comparable age, all printed in Italy towards the end of the 16th century. One of these, also in the British Museum, Il Piacevole Gioco dell’Oca (the Agreeable Game of the Goose, museum number 1893,0331.44), bearing the unknown initials G.S., is indeed a Goose game. It can be dated to the 17th century by its decorative iconography, though the design of the numerals of the woodcut track itself looks older. Another early Goose game, Il novo gioco de loca, is in the Bertarelli Collection in Milan; from its decorative style, it must date from around 1600 or earlier.23 These two games serve to indicate that printed examples of the Game of the Goose of some refinement were being produced at that time.

21 Randle Holme, The Academy of Armory; Or, A Storehouse of Armory & Blazon, Book III, edited by I. H. Jeayes. London: printed for the Roxburghe Club, 1905, p. 68. 22 An excellent article by Sagrario López Poza, Expresiones Alegoricas del Hombre como Peregrino en la Tierra [Allegorical representations of Man as Pilgrim upon the Earth] is to be found in the exhibition catalogue by Luisa Rubines, De oca a oca por el Camino de Santiago. Compostela: Museo das Peregrinacións Xunta de Galicia, 2004, pp. 49–72. He casts doubt on those whose love of the esoteric leads them to find correspondences between the places of the game board and the physical locations of the Royal Road. 23 Reproduced as plate G in Ilio Negri, Vergillio Vercelloni and Caterina Santoro, I giochi di dadi, d’azzardo e di passatempo dei gentiluomini e dei pirati. Milano: C.M.Lerici, 1958.

Early history and meaning of the Game of the Goose

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Figure 2.3: Italian Game of the Monkey, by Alittenio Gatti, dated 1588 (© Trustees of the British Museum).

Equally refined is Il novo bello et piacevole gioco della scimia (the new beautiful and pleasant game of the monkey) signed Alittenio Gatti and dated 1588 on the plate.24 This is in fact a Goose game, in all respects except for the substitution of the geese by finely-engraved satirical figures of monkeys in human attitudes. However, the Game of the Goose was by no means the only game current in the late 16th century. One of the others, the Filosofia cortesana invented by Alonso de Barros of Spain, has already been mentioned as resulting from Francesco’s gift of a 24 British Museum 1869,0410.2461. The catalogue attributes it to Altiero Gatti rather than to Alit(t)enio Gatti.

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Figure 2.4: The Filosofia cortesana game, invented by Alonso de Barros of Spain, printed in Naples in 1588 (© Trustees of the British Museum).

Goose game to the Court of Philip II of Spain. It is a distinctly serious game,25 far in concept from gambling and drinking, though it could – like other race games – of course be played for money. A couple of (translated) extracts from the accompanying booklet will make clear its subject matter and moral attitude:

25 Manfred Zollinger, ‘Un jeu retrouvé: la fiolosofia cortesana d’ Alonso de Barros’. Le Vieux Papier, fasc. n°395. Paris: January 2010.

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I represent here a discourse about ambitious men, with the most common means, which are Liberality, Adulation, Diligence, Work [...] there are the risks of oblivion and ‘what will they say’, false friendship, changing ministers, death of the helper and misused fortune, what will others think, and poverty. Going through some of those, you sometimes get to the palm-tree of your desire, but not without a price [...].

In this 63-space game, the ‘goose’ spaces are replaced by ‘work’ spaces, each bearing a suitable moral, e.g. (space 12): ‘the fruit of hope comes through labour’, where fruit is shown hanging out of reach of two oxen toiling at the plough. The hazard spaces are not those of the Game of the Goose, though there are similarities. These spaces, too, bear moral phrases, often with some acerbity, e.g. (space 26, Il Privato – the poor man): ‘Do not ask another to lend a hand unless your own is full’. The game sheet is full of symbolic iconography: e.g. above space 1, a goose perches on a skull, blowing a trumpet from which the maxim, ‘Know thyself’ issues in Latin. This game is quite evidently intended to prompt self-analysis and reflection. Other than those mentioned above, very few printed games survive that can be dated confidently as being pre-1600. Of these, a number – notably Il novo et piacevol gioco del giardin d’amore, by Giovanni Antonio de Paoli26 dating from about 1590 − are not race games at all, but are pay-or-take dice games,27 like the more famous Game of the Owl and indeed like the Game of the Jew,28 infamous for the anti-Semitic iconography of most examples. These are outside the scope of the present book. Another early printed game combines the features of a pay-or-take game with those of a race game. This is the game of Il Barone (the Baron), of which an example is the Nuovo et Piaccevole [sic] Gioco detto il Barone.29 In this woodcut, the spiral track has numbered pictorial compartments from 1 to 76; in the centre there is a rustic military figure carrying a flag inscribed ‘Capitano di Baroni’ (Captain of the beggars), clearly based on the etching by Jacques Callot (French printmaker, 1592−1635) in the series of images of beggars entitled Les Gueux (1622−1623). Although that sets a limit to the date of the particular example, it is possible that the game of Il Barone itself may pre-date this: the Callot figure is not found as a general exemplar on other Barone game prints. 26 British Museum 1869,0410.2467. 27 Such games are of the class that Thierry Depaulis has labelled Les Loteries du Salon [see: Jeux de Hasard sur Papier – Le Vieux Papier, 1987]. In these, the primary object is the winning of stakes, resulting from random events such as the drawing of lots or throwing of dice. They are distinguished from the race games like Goose (which however do also involve stakes) in that they are not games of movement, nor is there an objective of the ‘winning space’ kind. The game board or game sheet just serves as a set of instructions, specifying how much to pay or take from the pool in respect of any particular event. Some commentators, however, confuse the issue by wrongly claiming that these games are Goose variants. 28 Adrian Seville, ‘La Nouvelle Combinaison du Jeu du Juif – un intrigant jeu de dés imprimé du XVIIIe siècle’. Le Vieux Papier, October 2013, pp. 175−188. 29 British Museum 1893,0331.33 The Museum dates it as mid-17th century.

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The figure of a beggar appears in various guises at several points of the track, with the instruction to take one counter from every other player; other spaces require the player to pay to the pool. Some spaces require the player to move to another, usually iconographically related: for example, the Barbary horse at space 5 takes the player to space 12, the Palio (the banner awarded to the winner of a horse race). There are some clear affinities with the Game of the Goose – for example, there is a death space close to the end of the track, at space 73, but this requires the player to go to space 1 (the tomb) rather than to start again. The Barone game is clearly related to the Game of the Goose but does not have the characteristic throw-doubling spaces of that game. Versions of Barone continued to be produced in Italy right up to the 20th century, with essentially the same iconography and rules as the earliest versions. However, unlike the Game of the Goose, it appears never to have spread beyond Italy, nor has it spawned more than a handful of variants.30 To summarise, although by the end of the 16th century there were in circulation in Italy printed games in competition with the Game of the Goose, only that game underwent an international diffusion in Europe, and had a significant and long-lasting influence.

30 E.g. Il Giuoco dei Personaggi [The Game of Characters] produced in a 19th-century version by Remondini (Bassano). An example reprinted from the woodblock is in: Licisco Magagnato. Stampe popolari venete [catalogue of an exhibition in Verona], Verona: Galleria d’Arte Moderna di Verona, 1959. Somewhat similar is Il Bellissimo Giuoco della Birba [the most beautiful game of the scoundrel] North Italy: n.p., c. 1800 Mascheroni and Tinti, Plate XI.

3. French games before the Revolution 3.1. Innovation and invention In France, the classic Game of the Goose remained remarkably invariant. However, from the middle of the 17th century, a great flowering of educational variants took place, followed during the 18th century by an extension of the thematic range to represent various aspects of human life. Nowhere else in Europe enjoyed such a wide range of innovative variant games at this time: in England, for example, the invention of cartographic games in the middle of the 18th century was not followed by further inventions or importations until the very end of the century, at which point the development of moral and other games began in earnest. This chapter begins with an overview of the French games, noting the very significant differences between the provincial production and that of Paris. Next, the history of the classic Game of the Goose in France will be described, followed by that of a closelyrelated non-educational variant, the Game of Cupid. The main body of the chapter is concerned with the educational variants of the 17th century, focussing particularly on descriptions of the earliest known example of each sub-genre, followed by an account of the 18th-century widening both of thematic subject matter and of the target market for these games. The chapter concludes by examining how far evidence from other sources supports the account of cultural history derived from the games themselves.

3.2. Literature The main modern reference work for French Goose games and their variants is the excellent and indispensible book by D’Allemagne.1 It includes fine reproductions of 48 games in legible format, with descriptive notices. There is an extensive and valuable chapter on the history of these games, by René Poirier, who – rather than D’Allemagne himself – was responsible for much of the book. Even more valuable is the ‘iconographie’, or listing of games, also by Poirier. This is not confined to the 48 games treated in detail but is intended to be exhaustive in its listing of all French printed games up to about 1900, though the treatment of post-1900 games is acknowledged to be only partial, particularly in regard to advertising games. The present chapter does not attempt to duplicate Poirier’s work. Instead, the focus is on areas where new 1

H. R. D’Allemagne, Le noble jeu de l’oie. Paris: Librairie Gründ, 1950. Referenced as ‘D’Allemagne’.

A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462984974_ch03

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research has brought significant re-evaluation, particularly regarding the dates of the earliest games in their sub-genres. A second modern reference work is the book by Girard and Quétel,2 which attempts a form of cultural history by relating thematic selections of games to the main periods in French history. It is useful for its legible reproductions of many games and for indicating the relevance of these games to the events of each period, as well as containing much illuminating detail. Of historical reference works, the earliest is La maison des jeux académiques. The first edition of this little compendium of games rules appeared in 1654, attributed to Jean Pinson de la Mar[t]inière [c. 1600–78]. It contains the rules of the Game of the Goose and the Game of Cupid. The third edition [Paris: Estienne Loison, 1665] contains additionally the rules of a number of other games of the Goose type, to be discussed in the present chapter: Le Jeu du monde; Jeu de la Chronologie; Jeu des Villes de France; and the Jeu des quatre fins de l’homme.3 Further editions appeared during the 18th century: that of 1702 is digitised in Google Books.4 It is a valuable source since the rules are taken verbatim from the game sheets and are thus more reliable than those taken from other compendiums.

3.3. Analysis of D’Allemagne’s listing of French games The listing of games in D’Allemagne’s book is exemplary in its thoroughness. Each listing of a game provides the following information (where known): complete title; origin (designer, printer, engraver etc.) and place of publication, with date (formal or indicated); format, and means of reproduction; as well as particulars of the image (centre, corners etc.). The listings are divided thematically into ten classes, beginning with the classic Game of the Goose and ending with Sports and Spectacles. A summary of the listings appears in the appendix to this chapter.

3.4. The printers and publishers The main reference for information on the publishers of prints in Paris under the Ancien Régime is the excellent work by Maxime Préaud et al.5 For provincial production, works on the imagerie populaire, e.g. by Jean Adhémar, should be consulted.6 2 A. R. Girard and C. Quétel, L’histoire de France racontée par le jeu de l’oie. Paris: Balland/Massin, 1982. 3 Le jeu nouveau des quatre dernières fins de l’homme... Paris: G. de Fourcroy, (s. d.,) BnF FRBNF33441347 4 Thierry Depaulis, Les Loix du jeu. Paris: Cymbalum Mundi, 1994. 5 Maxime Préaud, Pierre Casselle, Marianne Grivel and Corinne Le Bitouzé, Dictionnaire des éditeurs d’estampes à Paris sous l’ ancien régime. ‎Paris: Promodis − Editions du Cercle de la Librairie, 1987. 6 Jean Adhémar, Imagerie populaire française. Milan: Electa, 1968.

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Girard and Quétel give a good overview of the French printers and publishers of these games. They note that the Paris production was focussed on the copper engravings of the ‘marchands-éditeurs’ of the rue Saint-Jacques, with the houses of Crépy and Basset being particular specialists in the genre. At the end of the 17th century, and during the 18th, the provincial centres of imagerie populaire multiplied, very largely producing woodcuts rather than copper engravings. Apart from the division between the Parisian and the provincial centres in terms of production techniques, the nature of their output was also complementary. The provincial production was largely of religious images but also included political, folkloric and burlesque subjects, with a growing production of sheets designed for children: these included the jeux de l’oie. The great provincial imagiers, Jean-Baptiste Sevestre-Le Blond and Jean-Baptiste Letourmy (Orléans), always listed examples of the jeu de l’oie in their catalogues, while other provincial centres were at Chartres, Rouen, Poitiers, Alençon, Troyes and Toulouse. There was also a division in terms of price: Girard and Quétel state that, in the second half of the 18th century, an engraved and hand coloured Parisian print of excellent quality could be had for 16 to 18 livres: such a sum represented three or four times the price of a woodcut jeu de l’oie from Chartres or Orléans, coloured au pochoir [by stencil and dabber].

3.5. The Classic Game of the Goose in France From appendix 3a, it is immediately clear that in the 17th and 18th centuries the classic Game of the Goose was largely produced in the provinces (12 provincial examples, as compared with only 1 from Paris). The earliest surviving French jeu de l’oie (Figure 3.1) has already been mentioned in the Historical Introduction as dating from about 1598.7 This unique woodblock print, published in Lyon, may well be the prototype for the classic French jeu de l’oie, though of course an earlier source cannot be ruled out. In contrast to the Italian games of about this date, it is of landscape, rather than portrait format, as are most French printed games, whether of provincial or Parisian origin and whether they are classic Goose games or variants. It also has another distinctive feature, characteristic of all French classic Goose games, in that the rule for the Labyrinth at space 42 is ‘return to space 30’; this is in contrast to the rule for the earliest dated Italian game: ‘return to space 39’.8 The difference in the rule makes no material difference in play and may well have arisen by mistake in copying from a presumed Italian original.9 The significance of the rule lies in its consistency, indicating that 7 Chapter 2, Section 3. 8 M. Zollinger, ‘Zwei unbekannte Regeln des Gaensespiels’, Board Games Studies 6, 2003, pp 61–84. 9 However, as will be discussed in Chapter 6, Section 1, English classic Games of the Goose that are, by their iconography, clearly copied from Italian originals, have ‘return to space 29’ as the instruction for the maze at space 42. An alternative explanation could be that there was more variety of rules in early Italian Games of the

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Figure 3.1: The earliest surviving French jeu de l’oie. Lyon: par les héritiers de Benoist Rigaud, c. 1598. (Herzog-­ August Library, Wolfenbüttel).

the French production was largely derived from internal models rather than being influenced by later imports of games. This, then, is an exemplar of the classic French jeu de l’oie: it is devoid of any images except those essential for playing purposes; the text concentrates on the rules; and there is no theme other than that of a game of life with the geese being the symbols of fortune. The Lyon game is not known to D’Allemagne, who lists the earliest classic jeu de l’oie as dating to about 1650, published at Troyes by ‘Sainton, marchard cartier à l’Enseigne du carreau couronné’. Typical of French provincial production, Sainton’s game is from a woodblock of relatively small format [c. 355 x 470 mm]. Further examples of 17th century French provincial printing, all woodcuts, are given by D’Allemagne. By contrast, the Paris production of the classic jeu de l’oie seems not to have begun in earnest until about 1750, with the use of finely-engraved copper plates in large format. D’Allemagne reproduces an example by Daumont in which the publisher gives notice, in a cartouche at the lower left, that he has produced several games in the same format Goose than we know about today. On the other hand, both ‘errors’ (30 for 39, and 29 for 39) involve changing only a single digit and could easily result from mis-reading a poorly-printed original.

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(size 470 x 650 mm) and is working on others.10 A list is given of those ready for sale: 1. Le Jeu de l’Oye; 2. Le Jeu de la Guerre; 3. Le Jeu des Fortifications; 4. Le Jeu du Blazon; 5. (Blank); 6. Le Jeu des Virtus et des Vices; by the middle of the 18th century, the production of thematic variants had become widespread in Paris, as discussed below. However, the provincial production remained largely of the classic game, with few thematic variants.

3.6. The Royal Game of Cupid The French Game of Cupid is a highly significant Goose variant, known to D’Allemagne only through the listing of its rules in the Maison academique.11 The game was thought to be lost, until an apparently unique example appeared, printed in the rue Montorgueil c. 1640 but probably from an earlier woodblock.12 This was Le Ieu Royal de Cupidon, autrement appellé le passe-temps d’Amour.13 In the Game of Cupid, the track arrangement is based upon the number 7, rather than on the number 9 as in the Game of the Goose. Thus the favourable spaces – each bearing the image of Love as a winged Cupid – occur on spaces 7, 14, 21 etc up to the winning space at 63. That space depicts a formal walled Garden of Love, in which wandering couples are targeted by the arrows of Cupid from on high. The Cupid spaces act like the points-doubling spaces of the Game of the Goose. The hazards are also reminiscent of that game: Space 5: The Bridge of Love – go on to space 12 and pay tribute to Cupid. Space 18: The Throne of Love – pay the feudal dues and render faith and homage to Cupid; and to learn his mysteries, stay there until each player has played twice. Space 30: The Fountain – pay, and stay until released by another player. Space 38: The Banquet – pay, and stay until each player has played once. Space 46: The Labyrinth – pay, and return to space 23. Space 54: The Forest – pay, and stay until freed by another. Space 59: The Tomb – pay, and return to the start. 10 D’Allemagne, op. cit., plate 3. 11 Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 10. 12 No examples of printed games from the rue Montorgueil had come to light until, in 2009, three games, all bearing the imprint of the widow of Charles Petit, appeared together at auction in Paris. This Game of Cupid was one; the others were a Game of the Owl and a Game of War, with the latter two now in the Bibliothèque nationale de France. Their provenance was the library of the Chateau de Balthazar, near Caen. The rue Montorgueil was famous for its woodblock images of popular religious subjects during the second half of the 16th century. 13 Paris: chez La Veufue [veuve] de Charles Petit, Rue Montorgueil, chez vn E[sp]icier deuant les trois Mores, n.d., printed c. 1640, probably from the woodblock of Charles Petit, active 1607–1636; see Thierry Depaulis. ‘Trois jeux imprimés du début du XVIIe siècle par la veuve Petit à Paris’, Arbeitskreis Bild Druck Papier, Band 16. Muenster: Waxmann Verlag, 2012, pp. 35−50.

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Figure 3.2: Detail of the Jeu royal de Cupidon, showing the Cupid’s garden at the winning space.

The winning space must be reached exactly, with reverse overthrows as in the Game of the Goose. The rule for being hit by another is also as in that game: pay and change places. However, because (as the rules emphasise) the number seven is favourable to the game, if a player is hit by another with a throw of seven, there is nothing to pay. Likewise, if any of the hazards are reached by a throw of seven, there is nothing to pay but the throw is doubled. The iconography of the game includes a rarely-seen decorative scheme for the non-essential spaces: a stylized open landscape with an undulating horizon that runs from space to space. The central space represents the Hortus conclusus (Enclosed Garden), where the cultivated landscape contrasts with the wilderness outside the walls: the medieval mind preferred a contained or internalized world. The enclosed garden is also a symbol of virginity, but in the Game of Cupid the walls have been penetrated. The numerology of this game is equally significant. The text says that the number seven is chosen as being pleasant to Love ‘because it is very perfect’. The number represents the union of three and four (signifying the union of masculine and feminine) to produce a ‘holy’ number, highly significant in Christian religious symbolism. The game shares with the Game of the Goose the track length of 63 spaces and the significance of that number in symbolizing the ultimate crux in a human life.

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A remaining puzzle is the interpretation of the crowned serpent motif. This represents sexual temptation, as the text partially explains: This game is presented in the form of a Serpent, because Love in the guise of a Serpent slides into the hearts of those whom he possesses and poisons them with venom; and for several other good reasons which shortage of space on this sheet prevents explanation here.

This ‘explanation’ is indeed obscure. However, enlightenment can be found in a 17th century sermon on the crowned serpent.14 It is based on the text: de radice enim colubri egredietur regulus [From the root of the serpent there shall emerge a ruler].15 The sermon notes that this text is interpreted by Bernard of Clairvaux (1090−1153) as meaning: ‘This serpent is habitual sin, which secretes a venom that will nourish a ruler over the soul and bring it to eternal death’. By this ruler is meant the basilisk, a serpent which carries a crown on its head. It can kill a man with one breath or even one glance. In the state of habitual sin, one breath of a temptation, or one glance from a woman, will lead to a sinful act. The crowned serpent of the game thus serves as a warning to those who would enter the Garden of Love.16 The Game of Cupid is significant in that it provides an irrefutable example of the kind of symbolism that may be inherent in games of its period. It therefore enhances the likelihood that the Game of the Goose, at least in its original form, may well have had the deep spiritual significance argued for in the historical introduction. A separate question arises as to the origins of this game. Claes Jansz Visscher produced a Game of the Snake otherwise called the Royal Diversion of Cupid in Amsterdam around 1640, a date comparable with that of the French example.17 However, this Dutch version lacks the explanation linking Love with the ruling number of the game, suggesting strongly that it is a later derivation, rather than the original form. A seventeenth-century Game of Cupid printed in Antwerp by Pieter de Jode (1573–1634) does indeed have text (in Spanish) explaining the symbolism.18 Antwerp was then 14 Nicolas de La Volpilière. Sermons sur les véritez chrétiennes et morales. Paris: Michallet, 1689, p. 202. 15 Vulgate Bible, Isiah 14:29. 16 A similar warning against sin is found in the game of Il Giardin’ d’Amore published by Giovanni Antonio de Paoli between 1589 and 1599 [BM 1869,0410.2467.] in which the garden represented in the centre is entered by an archway surmounted by the figure of Liberalita and bearing the motto: LASSATE OGNI VIRTUTUE O VOI CH’ENTRATE [Abandon all Virtue, you who enter]. 17 Het Nieuw Slange Spel, anders genaemt Koninclycke Tytkorting van Cupido. See: P J Buijnsters and L Buijnsters-Smets. Papertoys – Speelprenten en papieren speelgoed in Nederland (1640–1920). Zwolle: Waanders, 2005 (in Dutch), pp. 18–19. 18 An example is in the British Library, Maps, system number 004826121 This is discussed by Marjolein Leesberg in ‘El Juego Real de Cupido: a Spanish board game published in Antwerp, c. 1620’. Delineavit et Sculpsit, no. 39 (2015), 23–43.

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within the Spanish Netherlands, so to find Spanish text is unsurprising. This example, though its iconography is in general very closely similar to that of the French version, largely omits its unusual running-landscape decoration of the non-active spaces; however, space 4 is indeed decorated, by the depiction of a fortified building very similar to that shown in the French example. This space has no playing significance, so it is clear that the Antwerp version was copied from the French example rather than the reverse, though a common ancestor for both is of course not ruled out. Both versions of the game have the Cupid’s garden as central decoration, very similarly executed. The courtly figures could well be in French costume of the period, though it is difficult to be sure.19 Examples of the ‘Game of Cupid or of the Snake’ are found in Dutch and British games over a long period, though in these, as with the Visscher example, the explanation of the numerology and symbolism is omitted. Further discussion of these examples will be found in the relevant chapters.

3.7. Defining variants of the Game of the Goose The French invention of educational variants of the Game of the Goose is a key development in the history of the game. Indeed, it can be argued that refreshing the classic game in this way was an essential contribution to the longevity and popularity of the game generally, not just in France. Furthermore, by investing the game with an educational purpose, respectability is conferred upon it, in contrast to the association with gambling found in England or drinking and gambling, as in Germany. Over the centuries, this new-found respectability will move back from the educational and other socially-acceptable variants into the classic game itself, which becomes a game for family amusement in the 19th century and in the 20th century a game fit for children.20 A question thus arises as to what defines a Goose-Game variant. The answer is typical of the ‘fuzzy’ definitions found in the social sciences: some games will be very clearly based on the parent game, while others will show no more than a passing resemblance. An essential feature of a good definition is that it should be useful to the community of scholars who have need of it. Experience shows that it is indeed useful to restrict the category primarily to single-track (unicursal) race games that, like the Game of the Goose, are dependent wholly on chance, i.e. with no choice of move. The restriction to unicursal games needs to be relaxed somewhat because there are several games invented in the 19th century (e.g. Tramway) that use two or more tracks, each clearly under Goose-like rules. Each player keeps to a single track, 19 Per contra, Marjolein Leesberg (op. cit) identifies the figures as Flemish and so argues against a French origin for the game. 20 See the discussion on ‘Taming the Goose’ in the final chapter.

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so the principle of unicursality is not really violated, though there may be interference between players in games like this e.g. where tracks cross. The requirement that the game be wholly dependent on chance may also be relaxed, e.g. in the case of educational games where a correct answer may lead (for example) to an extra turn. In general, the fact that a race game has 63 spaces is a good indication that it is derived from the Game of the Goose, though other track lengths are often found. The indication may be converted to a certainty by identifying the favourable spaces as being of the Goose type, where the throw is ‘doubled’, i.e. the points on the dice are re-played. These spaces will normally be in two series, each with the interval of 9. However, some French games omit the first of these series. The next step in analysing the structure of these games is to look at the hazard spaces and their placement, and to see whether the rules attending them are of the traditional kind. Then, there is the question of how and to what extent the theme of the game is pointed up by the rules and by the iconography. Lastly, there may be text or images extraneous to the game that nevertheless have importance in understanding its message and any relationship to a parent game. Viewed in this way, the definition of a Goose variant becomes a matter of degree and – in its detail − something of crucial importance only to those scholars whose aim is to trace the history of the game through the analysis of rule variations. Indeed, in France, the generic term for all dice-based race games, whatever their theme or structure, would be ‘un jeu de l’oie’ – and the use of this term may be extended still further to encompass the hazards of real life itself. However, there are some more practical aspects, of importance (even today) to game designers and publishers, in countries where the Game of the Goose is or was popular. The first is that the Game of the Goose is an excellent game of its type, so that any game using its structure will have equally excellent playing qualities. The second is that if a game is identifiable by its public as a Goose variant it will both benefit from the reputation of that game and will be playable almost at once because the rules are known, at least in part. The third point is more subtle and will be exemplified many times in the discussion of examples in this book: that the interpretation of the classic hazards and favourable spaces according to a witty theme adds distinctive spice to the variant game. Perhaps a good analogy regarding the influence of Goose on other race games is to consider a jazz solo, where the notes played may bear no obvious relationship to the original melody, but the harmonic structure can be felt beneath the improvisation.

3.8. The earliest educational variants, invented in the 17th century In view of the importance to cultural history of the invention of educational variants, it is of some interest to determine which of them was the earliest, at least among the games still surviving. This was a question addressed by D’Allemagne, whose answer

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Figure 3.3: Detail of the Jeu du Monde of Pierre Duval, 1645 (Courtesey of David Rumsey).

unfortunately does not bear scrutiny. Indeed, several of the earliest games dated by D’Allemagne have been re-dated with the help of Thierry Depaulis, such that the following picture emerges, in which the earliest known game in each sub-genre is discussed. Geographic games – from 1645 The 1645 Jeu du Monde of Pierre Duval (1619–83) is a strong candidate for the earliest French educational game, though the chronological game described in the next section is another.21 Duval (or Du Val) was a map-maker, known for his educational atlases, so his early involvement with educational games is unsurprising.22 The influence of the Game of the Goose is at once apparent in the anticlockwise spiral, here made up of vignette maps of the different countries of the world, beginning with the Monde Polaire; next come the 14 countries of America, the 15 countries of Africa, the 15 countries of Asia, 21 The publication details engraved on the plate are: Paris chez l’auteur P. Du Val d’Abbeville Avec Priuillege du Roy 1645 Et se vend Rue St. Jacques a l’Esperance. The address is that of Mariette, the publisher. The dedication in the centre is to Monsieur le Comte de Vivon[n]e, Premier Gentilhome [sic] de la Chambre du Roy par son tres humble et tres obeissant serviteur Du Val. This is Gabriel de Rochechouart de Mortemart (1600–1675). 22 For a fuller treatment of Duval’s contribution to printed games, see the PhD thesis by Naomi Lebens. University of London, Courtauld Institute, 2016.

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and the 18 countries of Europe, ending with the winning space, France, at 63, thus initiating a tradition whereby French geographical games had a strong patriotic bias: Duval was Geographer in Ordinary to the King. Later there came his Jeu de France23 (1659)24 and the Jeu des Princes de l’Europe25 (1662), also with 63 space tracks, deliberately tying the game in with the Game of the Goose, even though the classical arrangement of hazards and fortunate spaces could not be preserved. Duval goes to considerable lengths in order to achieve a track length of 63 spaces in these games: in the Europe game, for example, the number of countries would be too few, so various provinces are shown separately, to make up the numbers. Presumably this was a marketing device, to indicate to the public that his games were related to an old friend. The relationship does not stop at the track length. What may be termed the general playing rules, engraved on the sheet, are wholly recognisable as those of the Game of the Goose. In the upper right corner, two dice are specified, and it is explained that each player is to use a distinctive marker. At the lower left, the rule to change places if another player is ‘hit’ is given, as is the reverse overthrows rule. However, detailed rules for hazards and favourable spaces are not given. Instead, in the lower right corner the author offers to give them to those who wish ‘a greater knowledge of the game, with historic remarks that he has made concerning it’. In fact, the detailed rules are given in La maison des jeux academiques, from which those set out below are taken.26 The rules indicate that a stake is to be agreed among the players, each of whom will place one stake in the centre of the game at the start. This will form the winner’s pool. Further stakes will be added to or taken from the pool during the course of the game, according to the particular rules below. In view of the importance of this game, and to show the extent of its derivation from the Game of the Goose, a complete list of the particular rules, with annotations by the present author, is given in the appendix to this chapter. The game is well constructed in that only 20 of the 63 spaces are ‘active’ in the sense of having a ‘particular’ rule specific to the space – the Game of the Goose, similarly well-constructed, has 14 goose spaces and 6 hazard spaces: games with too few ‘non-active’ spaces are fussy to play. The ‘particular’ rules are of considerable interest in giving a contemporary view of several of the countries of the World from a French perspective – and with French prejudices. They are also remarkably fresh and varied: all the typical Goose rules are found here but with a new twist, each cleverly related to its particular country. They are such as to stick in the mind and certainly confirm the intention of the game as educational, though good fun.

23 La maison des jeux academiques refers to this game as the Jeu des Villes de France. 24 Adrian Seville, ‘Le Jeu de France: Pierre Duval’s Map Game’. Newsletter of the Brussels International Map Collectors Circle, No. 21, January 2005, pp. 24–27. 25 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 11. 26 These are translated by the present author, with his explanations in square brackets.

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Duval’s educational aim in his games is confirmed by the text on the Princes of Europe game:27 He who would gain some profit in Geography regarding knowledge of Europe should take care to say the names of the places where he arrives and to read the names of the towns found there.

Duval’s later 63-space games have generically similar particular rules to those of the Jeu du Monde, but these are engraved on the game sheet rather than being supplied separately. No doubt experience showed that reference to a booklet slowed the game down. The legacy of Duval’s spiral track race games was long lasting. The track format for French geographical race games follows Duval’s lead well into the 19th century, in being a spiral composed of vignette maps, usually with a map in the centre acting as a key. A variation on this format is to provide a track composed of places, each space usually having both an illustration and descriptive text. An early example of this is the remarkable Jeu des nations principales, designed by Louis Richer, finely engraved by Nicolas Cochin and published by Antoine de Fer in 1662.28 The track consists of four sections corresponding to the four then-known continents of the world, each being marked by a descriptive space: – Space 1: America – The Americans in general are of little heart except for certain tribes; idolaters and savages for the most part, living only on fish and wild beasts. They go completely unclothed, painting their skin with the juice of certain roots. – Space 15: Africa – There are Africans both dark and light skinned and in consequence of the great extent of their country, there are many races to give them their character and it is necessary to deal with each of these in particular. – Space 24: Asia – The Asiatics are effeminate as they were formerly. However, there are some peoples who are robust and fat, uncivilized, like the Tartars. They have hardly any religion other than Mohammedanism, except for certain idolaters. – Space 30: Europe – Europe is the most brilliant and the most beautiful part of the World. Its peoples are skilled in Arms and Letters, richer than other nations and more civilized. Christianity is almost universal though it is divided into several sects.

Landing on a continent space means missing two turns. France is the winning space and the usual patriotic sentiments are expressed: 27 Author’s translation. 28 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, game 61. The full title is: Jeu des nations principales de la Terre universelle, ou leurs moeurs, leurs modes et leurs coutumes sont particulierement despeints, pour instruire e recréer tout ensemble les Curieux de l’histoire et de la Geographie. Recueilli des plusieurs Autheurs par Louis Richer/delinea.

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The French [space 43, showing Paris] are of advantageous size with beautiful heads and of good appearance; the women are charming both in body and in spirit, often changing their fashions one with another and magnificent in their festivals, faithful to their king, courteous to foreigners and very Catholic.

However, the account of the English is more balanced, and perhaps more accurate: The English [space 35, showing London] on the other hand are golden blond, well made, and their women are among the most beautiful; the nobles are learned and civil while the common people are impudent, overbearing and rough; they eat more flesh than bread, drink beer and wine, dress in the French fashion except for the merchants who wear tall hats; they are Protestant in religion.

At the beginning of the track are descriptions of the various native peoples of North America, e.g.: – Space 2: Canada [showing Quebec] – The Canadians are a medium-sized people with little thought for the future. Their women busy themselves at home while the men fish, and hunt beaver and bull moose, whose flesh feeds them and whose skin clothes them. They believe in, and consult often, their god Cudouagny.

There is a separate instruction to stay two turns at this space “to be entertained by the French.” The game is otherwise notable for its miniature hemisphere maps in the central space depicting an inaccurately large ‘Terre Austrelle’, and labelling the Antarctic region ‘incognue’, i.e., unknown. Geographical games on this second pattern appear well into the 19th century. French games do not generally follow the British invention of a numbered track wandering across the face of an actual map, though a few counter-examples appear at the end of that century. Historical and Chronological games – from c. 1645 The earliest historical game is the Jeu Chronologique published by Mariette and La Juge. D’Allemagne asserts that this game is the earliest educational game known and states that the game is ‘d. 1638’, meaning that date is printed on the sheet. However, neither the print in the BnF29 nor that in the present author’s collection is dated, though 1638 appears in the last space as the date of the birth of the son of Louis XIII: the son is there referred to as Louis XIV, which presumably dates the game as after 1643, the date of his accession. A detailed analysis of the bibliographical information 29 Bibliothèque nationale de France IFN-8404246.

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Figure 3.4: Detail of the Jeu Chronologique published by Mariette and La Juge, c. 1645.]

suggests that, though c. 1645 is the probable date of publication, it is not possible to say definitively whether this game, or Duval’s Jeu du Monde, is earlier.30 Most unusually, the Chronological game employs a spiral track that begins in the centre. Each century from the creation of the world onwards is represented by a particular space, with text giving details of the main events in that century and in some cases also giving instructions to move forward or back, or remain a number of turns, while paying or receiving a stake. There are however no spaces of the ‘goose’ type that double the throw. The most significant centuries are illustrated with vignettes. The history of the world is divided into three sections: the first begins with the 30 Thierry Depaulis, private communication, 2011.

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creation of Adam and finishes with the birth of Abraham; the second finishes with the birth of Christ; while the third consists of the numbered centuries, ending with the 17th. A peculiarity of the game is that stakes are placed at the end of all three sections, to be won by the player who first arrives there. The introduction says that the dating in the first two sections is not beyond question and that the author has followed that most in conformity with the Scriptures: details of the calculations are indicated. There are particular rules for certain of the centuries, the first of which is amusing: – 6th century after Adam: Nothing memorable happened in this century as far as is known. [Begin the game again; the same, for the 14th century after Adam].

Many of the rules require the player to advance or go back a specific number of centuries to mark a given period, for example: – Tower of Babel (18th century after Adam): to avoid the confusion of Babel and the domination of Nembrod [Nimrod] and his Assyrian successors, who ruled for 13 ­centuries, go back as many centuries.

Some rules require the player to stay a given number of turns, for example: – 21st, 22nd, 23rd and 24th centuries after Adam: stay there in servitude until the other players have played twice.

Others require payment or receipt of stakes, for example: – 7th century A.D.: contribute one stake to go to the war against Mahomet, which arose in this century.

Overall, the rules are much less witty and memorable than those of Duval’s games and indeed the Jeu Chronologique was much less influential. Later historical games include those published by Crépy in the first half of the 18th century, which in fact consist of two quite separate tracks, for two different games, one based on the succession of rulers, the other based on ‘remarkable men’. A set of chronological games by the same publisher was designed by Le Maitre: these appeared in the second half of the 18th century, and are based on a rectangular spiral of the centuries. Of these, the Histoire Universelle does, in some of its particular rules, show signs of having been derived from the Jeu Chronologique. By the end of the century, the scope of French historical games covered not only ‘universal’ (world) history and the history of France but also Roman and Greek history, besides games based on historical personages.

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Figure 3.5: Detail of the Jeu du Point au Point, c. 1670.

Games on Moral or Religious subjects – from before 1654 The earliest game listed by D’Allemagne under the heading Jeux édifiants is the Jeu du Point au Point.31 The Dijon imprint is that of Le Bossu. D’Allemagne dates this game to about 1640, which would make it a contender for the earliest educational game in any category. However, Thierry Depaulis notes32 that the game was invented by Father Jean Pierron (1631−1700), a Jesuit who was sent to Canada, and cannot be earlier than 1667, when Pierron arrived there.33 The circumstances are described in the Relation of 1670: He [Pierron] has baptized, in the last eight months, fifty-three persons, “nearly all of whom have gone to Heaven.” He describes his methods of work, – catechisms, sermons, and exhortations, reinforced with the paintings of heaven and hell. He has used “mildness and force, threats and prayers, labors and tears, to build up this new Church and convert these poor Savages.” He teaches the children to read and 31 Full title JEU DU POINT AU POINT POUR LA FUITE DES VICES ET POUR LA PRATIQUE DES VERTUS. See D’Allemagne, plate 13. 32 Private communication, 2014. 33 Following this re-dating, the Jeu des quatre fins de l’homme described on page 20 becomes the earliest of the Jeux édifiants.

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write, but soon finds that this work takes too much of his time. “God inspires him” with an idea which “produces great results among these peoples. It is a game, in order to catch our Savages by means of what they most love.” This game is composed of emblems, representing the sacraments, the virtues, the commandments, the principal sins, etc. This game is called “from Point to Point” – i.e., “from the point of birth to the point of Eternity.” Pierron intends to have this game engraved, with “directions for playing it given at the bottom of the card on which it will be printed.” The Iroquois learn it easily, and like it so well that the Father and his catechumens pass “the Easter Feast-days agreeably with this game, which is equally holy and profitable.” Pierron has “invented another Game, – a worldly one, – for destroying all the superstitions of our Savages, and giving them some excellent themes for conversation.”34

Pierron himself claims that: There is nothing easier than learning this game. It is composed of emblems which represent all that a Christian has to know. The seven Sacraments are all seen depicted there, the three Theological Virtues, all the Commandments of God and of the Church, together with the principal mortal sins; even the venial sins that are commonly committed are there expressed in their order, with marks of the horror that ought to be felt for them. Original sin, followed by all the ills that it has caused, appears there in a particular order. I have represented there the four ends of man, the fear of God, the Indulgences, and all the works of mercy. Grace is depicted there in a separate Cartouche, conscience in another; the freedom that we have to obtain salvation or destruction, the small number of the Elect, – in a Word, all that a Christian is obliged to know is found expressed there by emblems which portray each of these things. All is so natural there, and so well depicted, that the coarsest minds have no difficulty in rising to the knowledge of things spiritual, by means of the material Images of these, which they have before their eyes.35

The game invented and originally painted by Pierron was probably amended in the printed version. In his thesis on Pierron,36 Thibault Finet devotes a chapter to the game in which he quotes a letter written in September 1669 giving a vivid description 34 ‘Relation of what occurred most remarkable in the Missions of the Fathers of the Society of Jesus, in New France in the years 1669 and 1670. Sent to the Rev. Father Éstienne DECHAMPS, Provincial of the Province of France’. Paris: Sebastien Mabre-Cramoisy, Printer to the King, rue St. Jacques, at the Sign of the Storks. MDCLXX. By Royal License, pp. 12−13 [as summarized and translated in]: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, Vol. LIII R G Thwaites, editor. Cleveland: The Burrows Brothers Company, 1899. 35 Op. cit. 36 Thibault Finet, Jean Pierron (1631−1700): missionnaire, diplomate et peintre en Amérique, MA thesis, Laval University, ‎2012 pages 94−112. On line at https://papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/xmlui/handle/1866/9659 accessed 19 July 2016.

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of some of the scenes painted by Pierron, including ‘une vieille Hiroquoise qui se bouche les oreilles pour ne point écouter un Jésuite qui la veut instruire. Elle est environnée de Diables qui lui jettent du feu dans les oreilles et qui la tourmentent dans les autres parties de son corps’ [an old Iroqouis woman who is blocking her ears so as not to hear a Jesuit who is instructing her. She is surrounded by devils who pour fire into her ears and torment other parts of her body]. However, it is not absolutely clear that this refers to a scene in the game itself. Though of later date than previously supposed, the game remains of great interest as being the only 17th century game where the cultural history is so well and interestingly documented.37 The game in its printed version is a beautifully engraved spiral of 72 named spaces, all showing appropriate Christian emblems and almost all having a motto in Latin. It begins with Baptism, the point of entry to the Church: 1: Le Bapteme (fit nova). 2: La foy (in tenebris immota regit). 3: L’Esperance (nihil hac firmante timebo). 4: La Charité (uritur et urit). 5: La Confirmation (fortior ex oleo).

The central area of the game gives the particular rules, for example, on landing on a Mortal Sin, the player must return to the preceding Penitence space. The game was played for stakes: for example, landing on Larceny (space 38), the player must pay 2 for restitution. The final spaces concern death: 64: la Mort (secat aeque). 65: la bonne Mort (spirat ad huc). 66: la mauvaise Mort (tanto de lumine factor). 67: les jugemens de Dieu (cuique suum reddit). 68: le Purgatoire (reddar ut normae [...] primo). 69: la resurrection l’imortalité de l’ame (in novum mutor). 70: l’Eternité (in puncto totus gravitat). 71: Le Paradis (intus. haec sordes). 72: l’Enfer (lucimuius omni).

The first to land on space 71, Paradise, takes half the pool of stakes, the next half of the rest, and so on until only one player remains. A player landing on space 72, Hell, must pay 2 (one for the body and one for the soul). A player overshooting 72 cannot 37 For another reference to Pierron’s work with this game see: Jean-Paul Massicotte, Claude Lessard. Histoire du Sport de L’Antiquité au XIXe Siècle. Sillery, Canada: Presses de l’Université du Québec, 1984, p. 186.

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go back, for ‘in eternity there is no going back’, so such players are out of the game. Despite the overtly moral and Christian nature of the game, it was not universally approved by the Church. Indeed, it was explicitly condemned in 1686 by Curé Jean Baptiste Thiers (1636−1703) together with other games of chance, in the following terms: Les jeux qui dépendent du hazard & de l’adresse tout ensemble , sont ceux où l’on joue avec des cartes,des dez, ou quelqu’autre chose semblable , & dont le hazard à la vérité est fixé par l’adresse des joueurs , mais non pas en telle’ sorte qu’il n’y domine principalement. Tels sont les jeux de Triquetrac , du Point au point pour la fuite des vices & pour la pratique des vertus , de Cupidon ou du passetemps d’amour, de la chouette, du jardin militaire , de l’oie , des Blazons de l’Europe &c. [Games which depend on a combination of chance and skill are those which are played with cards, dice or something similar, and where the risk is determined by the skill of the players, but not such that skill dominates. Such are the games of backgammon, Point to point [...] etc.]. Bien des gens s’imaginent que ces sortes de jeux sont permis , par la raison que l’adresse y a beaucoup de part, plusieurs Théologiens cependant [...] estiment qu’ils sont défendus , parce qu’ils sont renfermez sous le mot Latin Alea , qui signifie toutes sortes de jeux de hazard. [Although people think that these kinds of games are allowed, since skill plays a large part, many Theologians consider that they are forbidden since they come under the Latin heading Alea, which signifies all sorts of games of chance. Il suffit en effet que le hazard domine & qu’il ait le plus de part dans un jeu, pour qu’il puisse estre appelle un jeu de hazard & estre mis au rang des jeux défendus [...] [In fact, it is enough that chance dominates in the game, for it to be called a game of chance and to be placed in the category of forbidden games [...]].38

It is noteworthy that Thiers evidently has no knowledge of the games he condemns. He says that in certain games involving chance, the element of chance is not dominant, and the skill of the players is relevant: he includes the games of Goose, Cupid and Point to Point in this category, though in reality they are all games of pure chance, with no choice of move. Given his condemnation of dice specifically, it is of some interest that, in the present author’s example of the Point to Point game, the first rule, which says that the game is played with “une boulette a douze faces ou 2 dez”, has been amended on the plate by crossing out the words “ou 2 dez”.39 38 Jean Baptiste Thiers, Traité des jeux et des divertissemens: qui peuvent être permis ou qui doivent être défendus aux Chrêtiens selon les regles de l’Eglise et le sentiment des peres. Paris: chez Antoine Dezallier, 1686. 39 There are a number of other amendments to the rules on the plate; all the amendments also figure in the example reproduced by D’Allemagne as plate 13.

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The re-dating of the Jeu du Point au Point means that another game is the first known under the Jeux édifiants heading. This is the Jeu des quatre fins de l’homme,40 by G. de Fourcroy, whose rules are first given in the 1654 edition of La maison des jeux academiques.41 This is much closer to the parent Game of the Goose than the game just described, in that there is a series of throw-doubling spaces, each marked with an anchor rather than a goose. The track is of 60 spaces, the winning space being Paradise. Hazard spaces include Death (space 8) with the instruction to stay while the others play twice; other marked spaces are Charon’s Boat (space 32); the Guardian angel (space 49); and Hell (space 59) where the player must begin the game afresh, as for the Death space in the Game of the Goose. This variant appears to be an adaptation of little interest in regard to its symbolism or numerology. Apart from the Jeux édifiants, D’Allemagne lists a number of games on the history of the Old Testament, the earliest (1710) being that by another Jesuit, P. Bernon. The Game of the Universe – from 1661 The sole example of a game on any of the pure sciences during the 17th and 18th centuries is the astonishing Le Jeu de la Sphère ou de l’Univers selon Tycho Brahe, designed by Etienne Vouillemont and published by Antoine de Fer in 1661.42 The game combines four kinds of knowledge systems: natural philosophy, based on the Ptolemaic sphere, including a three-layer model of the atmosphere; biblical knowledge; astrology, with planetary and zodiacal influences; and classical knowledge embodied in the names of the constellations. The game not only presents all four on an equal footing but also explores links between them, indicating some acceptance of an overall knowledge-system. Despite the title – and the date, well after Galileo’s death in 1642 − there is no evidence of the Tychonian scheme for planetary motion, or of any Copernican or Galilean influence. The printed game sheet bears in the centre a dedication to the Duc de Villemor43 signed E Vouillemont and dated 1661. In the lower right corner, he also claims authorship as follows: ‘Le tout gravé et mis au jour par Estienne Vouillemont, Graveur ordinaire du Roi, pour les Cartes Géographiques et Plans de Villes et autres Tailles douces’. [All engraved and published by Estienne Vouillemont, engraver in the service of the King for geographical maps and town plans and other copper engravings]. He is also noteworthy for having produced in 1659 Duval’s Jeu de France noted above. While the Jeu de France has the 63 spaces associated with the Game of the Goose, the Universe game ends at space 70 and has no connection with its numerology. However, both 40 41 42 43

BnF FRBNF33441347. Op. cit. pp. 274−276. D’Allemagne, plate 25. Pierre Séguier 1588−1672, Chancellor of France from 1635.

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Figure 3.6: Detail of Le Jeu de la Sphère ou de l’Univers, 1661.

games share with the Game of the Goose the typical inward spiral track and the basic rules, though they do not have a regular sequence of favourable spaces. The track begins with the four elements: Earth, Water, Air, and Fire. Then come the heavenly bodies: Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn in order of their periods of apparent rotation round the Earth, in a band labelled ‘PLANETTES’ [sic]. Next are the stars, first as the Firmament at space 12. Then follow 19 spaces featuring the Northern constellations; next, the 12 Zodiacal constellations; and finally, 24 spaces for the Southern constellations. Several spaces show two or even three constellations44. The last three spaces represent the primum mobile, the Crystalline Sphere and (the winning space) the Empyrean Sphere. The depiction of Air at space 3 is interesting: a three-layer model of the atmosphere is shown, labelled ‘the three regions of the air’. This was a standard model in the Natural Philosophy of the time:

44 The total of 69 constellations is to be compared with the 46 in the full edition of Tycho’s Star Atlas, which however did not include the four southernmost constellations of Ptolemy’s Almagest, namely Lupus, Ara, Corona Australis and Piscis Austrinus. All of Ptolemy’s constellations are included in the game, though Serpens is included only by implication, in the figure of Serpentarius (now Ophiuchus) at space 22. The additional constellations are some but not all of those attributed to Petrus Plancius. The Magellanic Cloud is also included. It is not known what source or sources Vouillemont used in compiling his list of constellations, many now obsolete.

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[The Aire] is deuided of the naturall Philosophers into three Regions, that is to say, the highest Region, the Middle Region, and the lowest Region, which highest Region being turned about by the fire, is thereby made the hotter, wherein all fierie impressions are bredde, as lightnings, fire drakes, blazing starres and such like. The middle Region is extreame cold by contra opposition by reason that it is placed in the midst betwixt two hotte Regions, and therefore in this Region are bred all cold watry impressions, as frost, snow, ice, haile, and such like. The lowest Region is hotte by the reflexe of the sunne, whose beames first striking the earth, doe rebound backe againe to that Region, wherein are bred cloudes, dewes, raynes, and such like moderate watry impressions.45

The game is ‘from the Earth to the Empyrean Heaven’, on reaching which the player wins. At the top right are the general laws for playing the game, which are entirely those of the Game of the Goose. The rules for particular spaces are in the remaining corners: in what follows, examples of these have been grouped according to the kind of knowledge involved. Rules involving Biblical knowledge: Space 2, Water: pay two stakes and go to Noah’s Ark, space 61, to save yourself from the flood. Space 44, the Whale: remain there swallowed while the others play three throws, in memory of the Prophet Jonah, who was there for three days and three nights. Rules involving astrological symbolism: Space 11, Saturn: experience the malignity and bad influence of this planet by paying the stake and returning to the start. [This parallels the rule in the Game of the Goose for the Death hazard]. Space 40, Sagittarius: experience the good effect of this Sign, taking a stake from the game and advancing to the Centaur (space 51). [Sagittarius is commonly represented as a centaur drawing a bow, as here]. Rules involving Classical Mythology: Space 21, Hercules: render homage to this great warrior by staying until the others have each played two turns. [This is similar to the rule for the Inn haz­ ard in the Game of the Goose]. Space 28, Andromeda: pay a stake and go back to her father Cepheus (space 15) to be delivered from the Sea Monster which is about to devour her; meanwhile the others play two throws.

45 Thomas Blundeville, M. Blundeuile his exercises.... London: John Windet, 1594, fol. 179 b.

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Rules involving Natural Philosophy: Space 8, the Sun: advance by four times the throw on your dice, in recognition of the four seasons that this star produces. Space 68, the Primum Mobile: not being able to keep up with such rapid motion, go back to the Peacock, space 65. [The rings on the peacock’s tail classically represent the stars of the Firmament]. Rules not involving a specific knowledge system: Space 59, the Turkey-Cock [Coq D’Inde]: pay, and wait to eat of it until another wanting his share comes to take your place. Space 64, the Southern Triangle: if you throw three points at the first throw, you will have the privilege of winning the Game at once, without doing the rest. The combination of knowledge systems evident in these rules is intriguing: Biblical knowledge, Astrology, Classical Mythology and Natural Philosophy all have equal place with common-sense desire to share in eating a turkey! There is a high degree of logical connection within the rules: the moves and penalties are not arbitrary but reflect the symbolic meaning of the space concerned. Mostly, each rule operates within one of these knowledge systems – but the rule at Space 68 regarding the Primum Mobile combines ideas from two systems. The idea of failure to keep up with the rapid motion of this sphere comes from the geocentric model in which the sphere is responsible for the 24-hour rotations apparent from a ‘stationary’ Earth. But the consequence of this failure is going back to the Peacock, which symbolically represents the stars of the Firmament, in Greek myth. The Ptolemaic sphere represented in the centre of the game shows: Earth, Air, Fire, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Firmament, the Crystalline Sphere;46 the Secundum Mobile, the Primum Mobile and finally the Empyrean Sphere ‘plein de gloire et de lumiere’; and so appears to be a standard medieval construct. However, in Vouillemont’s version, the Crystalline Sphere is given a period of 1717 years to correct for the ‘trepidation’47 of the precession of the ecliptic, whereas the Secundum Mobile is given a period of 3434 years to correct for the changing obliquity of the ecliptic. These unusual sophistications seem likely to have been copied from a sphere given in the 1653 edition of Boisseur’s Tresor des Cartes Geographiques.48 How far is the game ‘according to Tycho Brahe’? Tycho advocated a geo-heliocentric system in which the five then known planets orbit the sun, while the sun and the moon orbit the earth. This model while not requiring the massive Earth to rotate, dealt with some of the problems later emphasized by Galileo’s telescope, such as the

46 Representing the ‘waters above the firmament’ – see Genesis 1:6. 47 A halting motion, postulated by Copernicus on the back of faulty data and not in fact true. 48 Reproduced in Nick Kanas, Solar System Maps: From Antiquity to the Space Age. New York: Springer, 2013, p. 12.

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plain fact that Venus orbits the sun. However, the game is firmly geocentric – not surprising, for not until 1686 was the heliocentric system brought to popular attention in France by Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle’s Entretiens sur la pluralité des mondes. It may be that the famous name of Tycho was being used mainly as a marketing device, though his Star Atlas was no doubt used in compiling the list of constellations. However competent and innovative the Parisian map makers such as Vouillemont may have been, they were not specialist astronomers, cosmographers or indeed philosophers, so deep knowledge is not to be expected, especially in a product designed for education rather than scholarship. The Universe game is therefore perhaps best considered as the product of an educated man whose profession was map engraving. Nevertheless, the attitude of mind revealed in the game is intriguing. For example, the Biblical references are treated with no special reverence, though certainly without disrespect. The most overt sense of religion comes from the structuring of the game as leading ‘from the Earth to the Empyrean heaven’; with the underlying idea of progress of the soul that illuminates the parent Game of the Goose. Indeed, the presentation in the rules of Biblical knowledge, Astrology, Classical Mythology and Natural Philosophy, plus common-sense suggests that Vouillemont regarded all these strands as of importance in the understanding of the heavens, giving no particular prominence to any one strand. Instead, the logical connections between one space and another are highlighted in a way that piques the imagination and aids the memory in later recall. This feature of thematic spiral race games is the key to their continuing usefulness as educational tools. The Arts of War – from 1697 The earliest known games on the Arts of War are a pair of games issued by Jean Mariette c. 1697. They are Le Jeu de la Guerre and its companion piece, Le Jeu des Fortifications.49 The first deals with attack in war, the second with defence. Both were designed and drawn by Gilles de la Boissière, who is described on the sheet as an ingénieur ordinaire du roy [engineer in the service of the king]. It can be played in two ways: it can be cut up to make a pack of 52 cards; or the sheet can be used as a race game with dice. Each card shows some aspect of the art of war. Only the Jeu de la Guerre50 will be described here.51

49 The PhD thesis by Naomi Lebens, University of London, Courtauld Institute, 2016, has an important section on early French games on the Arts of War. 50 The full title is: LE JEU DE LA GUERRE où tout ce qui s’observe dans les marches et campements des armées, dans les batailles, combats, sièges et autres actions militaires est exactement représenté avec les définitions et les explications de chaque chose en particulier. 51 For the other (very similar) game, see: Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 12.

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Figure 3.7: Detail of Le Jeu de la Guerre, 1697.

The track deploys the 52 playing cards in a rectangular spiral, arranged in order of suits: hearts, diamonds, spades and clubs, and in ascending order of value within each suit. They have a suit and value marker in the upper left corner and are numbered from 1 – 52 in the upper right corner; the winning space at the centre is numbered 53, and shows Louis XIV receiving a Marshal’s baton, after the painting by Antoine Dieu (c. 1661−1727). Most of the rules are instructions to move forward or back, or stay a number of turns. There is no equivalent to the goose-doubling rule. However, certain of the rules show a derivation from the Game of the Goose, e.g.: Space 38: the Sentinel – keep watch until another takes your place. Other rules are specially adapted to the subject, e.g.: Space 36: Siege – cannot leave until a 5 is thrown, when, by doubling twice, go to space 51 (Surrender of the Fortified Place) and pay 4 stakes to exempt from Pillage.

There is an equivalent to the Death space; at space 16, showing Military Justice (a hanging) where the player must pay four stakes to obtain a pardon, then must begin again at space 1 – an unusual provision in the Death rule which normally just says to start again.

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Dual-purpose games of this kind – including versions to teach Heraldry discussed below − did not have a lasting legacy, though they were reprinted during the 18th century. They would have been tiresome to cut out and prepare as cards, though these would have had a clear educational use; while the dice game was distinctly inferior to the classic Game of the Goose. Of these compound games, Menestrier writes that they are too cluttered, in attempting to combine two kinds of game that are not related.52 Other games designed to teach the vocabulary of the Arts of War adopted a more conventional layout: for example, Crépy’s Les Travaux de Mars (1767) uses a 66-space spiral of scenes very like those of the Mariette game, with a central vignette showing a version of the same painting. The general rules are those of the Game of the Goose. Unusually, it offers two alternative sets of particular rules. Both sets are of the same type, the second being more elaborate; it is not clear what advantage this presentation was supposed to afford. By contrast, games on the French Navy were well designed, following the parent Game of the Goose very closely, and enjoyed a lasting legacy both in France and elsewhere. The earliest listed by D’Allemagne is the Jeu nouveau de la Marine published by Daumont and Crépy in about 1713. Later versions, by various publishers, follow the design closely. In this 63-space game, there is a single series of Goose-type spaces, numbered 9, 18, 27 etc, each depicting a sailing ship enjoying a following wind. The winning space shows Good Harbour. The hazard spaces are interpreted in a witty thematic way. For example, space 6 shows a Cape, where you double your points and go to space 12, the Open Sea (following the similar Bridge rule of the Game of the Goose) – but ‘doubling a Cape’ is a term of seafaring art, so the rule is very apt. Space 19, Taking on Water, requires a stay of two turns, as for the Inn. Not all the hazards are derived from the Game of the Goose: for example, the Contrary Wind at space 25 requires the player to go to space 7, Shelter. Likewise, encountering the Tempest at space 40 requires retreat to Space 30 for Repairs. The Corsair at space 51 invokes the Prison rule – stay until another takes your place, while the Death space is represented at 58 by Shipwreck. The game thus has all the playing advantages of the Game of the Goose, while adding freshness to that game by its witty adaptations. The appeal of the game, as an encouragement to boys to join the Navy, would no doubt have been further enhanced by the provision of much additional detail. All the non-active spaces are decorated with scenes and text explanations of naval terms of art, while the central oval is decorated with a fine engraving of a full-rigged ship, with letters referring to a table of principal features. In the upper corners are two compass roses giving the names of the winds in the Atlantic and in the Mediterranean respectively, while scenes of ships in those oceans are in the lower corners. Later editions show 52 Claude-François Ménestrier. Bibliothèque curieuse et instructive VI. Trevoux: Imprimerie S.A.S, 1704, vol. 2, p. 197.

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considerable variation in the added material but retain the essential features of the game. It is one of the best examples of how a fine thematic game can be derived from the parent game. Heraldry – from before 1662 An excellent account of French games to teach Heraldry, covering both card games and printed board games, is given by Palasi.53 His book not only lists the games in some detail but also gives valuable background on the heraldic colleges in which these games were used. The earliest game cited54 is Le jeu du Blason by Pierre Du Val, published by N de Bery; Palasi dates this as ‘before 1662’. It is a 40-space rectangular spiral. In a column to the left, there is an introduction to the art of blazonry, while the right column contains the laws of the game. The general laws are, as in other Du Val games, those of the Game of the Goose but some of the particular rules are interesting. At space 20, where there are the arms of the Grand échanson,55 a player must stay to sample his delicious wines until another comes to take his place [as in the Goose Well or Prison rules]. At space 31, the arms of the Surintendant 56 [des finances], showing the official keys, the player receives one stake from each player. More unusual, and indicating a clear educational purpose for the game, is the rule for a player arriving at space 8: he is required to give an account of all the terms of blazonry relating to the coats of arms he has encountered during the game and, if he acquits himself well, he receives a stake from each player; if not, he pays the same. Of different format is the game published by Jean Mariette in 1702 under the title Carte Methodique pour apprendre aisement le Blason en jouant soit avec les Cartes a tous les jeux ordinaries soit avec les Dez comme au jeu de l’Oye.57 It is of precisely the same format as the games on the Arts of War issued by the same publisher a few years earlier, as discussed above, having a track consisting of the 52 playing cards in a rectangular spiral, each showing some aspect of heraldry, with the final winning space numbered 53 showing the art of quartering. An interesting improvement is that the active spaces are distinguished by the representation of a palm: these are defined as ‘the places where one may not stop without advancing or going back, or paying to or taking from the pool’.

53 Philippe Palasi, Les jeux de cartes et les jeux de l’oie héraldiques aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, une pédagogie ludique en France sous l’ancien régime. Paris: Ed. Picard, 2000. 54 Palasi, figure 69 and pp. 136 and 143. 55 The Chief Butler was a high officer under the Ancien Régime. 56 The Superintendent of Finances was a high officer under the Ancien Régime. 57 British Museum 1896,0501.1305.

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The rules begin by stating that, to win, one must arrive exactly at space 53 and that ‘if there are still points to count when one arrives, they must be counted backwards as in the Game of the Goose, of which it is supposed those wishing to play will have knowledge’. This is clear confirmation of the universal diffusion in France of the Game of the Goose. Another link with the Game of the Goose is that, in contrast to the Arts of War games, favourable points-doubling spaces have been introduced: these are on the tens and on the aces. The game is thus also of interest as an example of how improvements are made to these games in the light of experience. Turning now to the individual cards, each numeral card depicts a different coat of arms for each of its pips. The coats of arms are roughly grouped by theme (e.g. animals, birds etc.) to assist learning. Each has a brief descriptive phrase above, while below is written the owner. They are shaded to provide colour (tincture) information, as is usual in heraldic publications. The court cards are illustrated and have explanations of various heraldic terms. For example, the three court cards of the heart suit at the upper left explain the nature of heraldic arms, how they are granted and who is entitled to bear them as marks of honour, contrasting these with the arms of merchants and workers, which are only for identification. There are particular rules, some of which look strongly towards the Game of the Goose. For example, the Queen of Spades acts as a Death space: here there are the ornaments of a widow and the player must pay three stakes and begin again.58 Similarly, the Ace of Diamonds shows three cooking pots, on the arms of Monbourcher de Bordage: here the player must stop two turns to dine, as in the Goose Inn rule, and pay 5 stakes. Other particular rules are devised specially to fit the theme. For example, the 2 and 3 of spades show the arms of Cadets: the player must change places with the least advanced of the players and pay one stake. The 4 of spades shows the arms ‘of women and girls’, and the player must stay until delivered by another. The 9 of spades shows arms that are ‘false’ (because they break the strict rules of blazonry, not because they are dishonourable): they are ‘arms to enquire’ and the player landing there must go to the 10 of hearts, where the armes d’enquerre of Jerusalem are represented, this being the best-known example of a coat that breaks the so-called rule of tinctures. This is a sophisticated and interesting game, from which much can be learnt even today.

3.9.

Satire and polemic

Games of propaganda and polemic based on the Game of the Goose have a long history, beginning with the French thematic games of the late 17th century and continuing into the 18th as described below. The 19th century will see the genre firmly 58 These ornaments are necklaces of knotted hair, worn by the widow but also represented symbolically around the arms of her late husband, which thus become her own. The explanation says that the usage began with Anne of Brittany, after the death of her first husband, Charles 8th of France.

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established in France, Italy and the Netherlands, with examples appearing in Germany and Britain during the 20th. These games are aimed squarely at an adult audience and often include elements, whether pictorial or verbal, intended specifically to appeal to the adult taste. The disjunction between the childish mode of play and the sophistication of the game’s approach raises the question as to whether some of these games were intended as conversation pieces rather than primarily for actual play, though in most cases the games are undeniably playable. In a few, though, the presentation of the game suggests that it is indeed a conversation piece. This section describes two particularly trenchant games, one being a satire on Civil Law procedures in France, the other an impassioned plea for Jansenism. They are remarkable for the level of passion and detailed insight that animates them. Both are 63-space games and illustrate well the extra ironic force that derives from comparing the active spaces on the board with the corresponding spaces in the classic Game of the Goose. L’Escole des Plaideurs Perhaps the earliest game in the genre is Crépy’s L’Escole des Plaideurs [College of Litigants], dating from about 1685.59 At first glance, it might appear to be a classic Game of the Goose, with its 63 spaces in a conventional spiral track, though in the corners sentences satirising the Law indicate that the approach is astringent: ‘The Procureur, like the Butcher, knows how to carve’. Closer examination shows that, quite unlike the Game of the Goose, there are no favourable spaces of any kind and indeed the player is required to pay a stake at every space, and in some cases to pay heavily. The preamble included on the game sheet makes clear that this is deliberate and that, though much money and plenty of jetons are required to play at this game, in real life it would be much worse for the litigant. The game traces the progress of a civil suit through the various stages of the complex French legal system. Interspersed with these stages are various accidents and unlooked-for disbursements (faux-frais) which add to the litigant’s troubles. Almost everything is ironically reversed, in comparison to a Game of the Goose: for example, though to throw first is generally an advantage, here the first player must go to space number 1 and pay four stakes: for stamped paper; for the Procureur, (the officer of the King who has prepared the application); for the Sergent, (an administrative officer of the Court); and for registration of the case. By space 14, the litigant is understandably in complaining mood: Plaideur en colere qui dit qu’il y mangera jusqu’a sa chemise. [Litigant in a rage, saying he has been eaten down to his shirt]. At space 18, there is a satirical vignette entitled Le plaideur et le procureur, depicting the litigant carrying 59 Waddesdon 2669.1.13

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a basket of game on his back, and further dead birds in his hand, to give as a present to speed the case along. By space 20, the litigant is borrowing at interest to fund his cause. At space 23, a further present is due to the clerks of the Procureur, and all this before judgment is pronounced at space 25, involving paying ten stakes [for the seven counselors, the clerk, the parchment, and the seal].The case then goes from bad to worse, with appeals, interventions and so forth until the litigant finds himself in prison for bankruptcy, where he stays until another arrives to take his place. In another ironic reversal compared with the Game of the Goose, prison is in fact a good spot to be in, since it suspends the constant regime of paying out at every space landed on. The same is true of the space marked vacances au palais [Palace of Justice closed for holidays], which has a similar rule. The incidental hazards are wittily presented: the auberge where the litigant must pay an ecu a day for lodging; the gargotte (‘greasy spoon’ establishment) where he eats cheaply for 5 sous. These indignities are contrasted with the fine house of the Procureur ‘built with the foolishness of litigants’ and, near the end, his wife and children who pray for ‘les obstinés’ – the stubborn litigants who refuse to give up. The final satirical twist is given at the winning space, showing a gaggle of beggars winding slowly to the workhouse (L’hospital), ruined though their cause has triumphed. The notes on the game sheet observe caustically: ‘and though the workhouse is the end of the game, I foresee that several players will not have the stomach to get there and they will be ruined beforehand; and those who do get near will lose all they have spent on the way and will take care of the rest to have something for a bribe in that place of misery. So that he who has seen all his colleagues ruined on the way will win all the stakes on the game, though he stayed on the holiday space or in prison, and will exit in glory, profiting from the loss of others’. The notes also set out the bold tongue-incheek claim: ‘While the litigants are waiting for one of their lawyers in an antechamber, so as not to lose patience, nor to counter boredom by speaking ill of the parties, they can amuse themselves by playing this game, whence they will learn the outcome of their causes better than from the mouth of the most famous adviser in Paris’.60 There seems to be no record of how this game was received, nor whether it was actually played, or was simply regarded as an amusing though pointed satire. However, more than a hundred years after its appearance, the rules and other text in the centre of the game were reproduced in full in the volume of the Encyclopédie méthodique dealing with family amusements.61 Apart from the satire, the game is of interest today in providing insights into the historical procedures of the Law under the ancien régime. For example, space 46 requires the payment of ‘épices’ to the judge in the case. Originally, these were boxes 60 Present author’s translation. 61 Dictionnaire des jeux familiers, ou des amusemens de société, faisant suite au Dictionnaire des jeux, annexé au tome III des Mathématiques. Paris: Henri Agasse, 1796, pp. 110−112.

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of fine dragées presented to the judge by the litigant in order to expedite the judgement. The judges came to regard these as a right, but under an ordinance of 1437, the practice was banned. It was eventually superseded by a system of monetary payments by the litigant.62 Although these have often been taken as examples of corrupt practice, contemporary accounts tell a different story: Les espices, à bien entendre, ne sont [pas] attribuées pour le salaire des Iuges, qui vacquent aux heures du Conseil dans le Palais ou tribunaux de justice, au jugement des procez par escrit ; [mais] seulement pour salarier le rapporteur du labeur qu’il a prins hors du palais, à voir et extraire les procez en sa maison.63 [The épices, be it well understood, are not attributable to the salaries of the judges, to recompense them for their time and counsel in the Palace of Justice or in the judicial tribunals, until the written judgement; but only to pay the reporting clerk for his work undertaken outside the Palace, to examine and write up the case in his house].

Nonetheless, the heavy payment demanded by the game, no fewer than 50 stakes, suggests that the épices were a considerable expense for litigants. Another aspect of the French legal system manifests itself at space 58: the requête civile [literally, ‘polite petition’]. This was a request to the court to reconsider its judgment on grounds of improper conduct, error or procedural failure. It was submitted to the same judges as had delivered the original decision, so it had to be framed in polite terms.64 The case was then considered afresh, much as in the English judicial review. Correspondingly, in the game the player must start again, and the positioning of this hazard on the classic death space number is no accident. The L’Escole des Plaideurs is a sophisticated and witty production, savaging the French legal system mercilessly but doing so with accuracy as to forms, procedures and titles of officers. It would repay detailed study by the legal historian. Le Jeu de la Constitution65 Le Jeu/De la Constitution/Sur l’air du branle de Mets (sic) is one of the most controversial games ever devised on the pattern of the Game of the Goose and perhaps may be regarded as the first polemical variant.66 It dates from about 1721 but is associated with a book that appeared a year or two later, the Essay du Nouveau Conte de ma Mère

62 63 64 65 66

Encyclopédie méthodique: Jurisprudence...; tome quatrième. Paris: chez Pancoucke, 1784, p. 315. Charles Loyseau. Cinq livres du droit des offices. Paris: Abel L’Angelier, 1610, p. 99. Peter E. Herzog and Martha Weser. Civil Procedure in France. New York: Springer, 2014, p. 477. Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 43. Girard and Quétel pp. 58 and 73.

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Figure 3.8: The miniature version of Le Jeu de la Constitution.

l’Oye ou Les Enluminures de la Constitution. This book contains a folding plate of the game (Figure 3.8), in smaller format and with some omission of text. It also contains 18 enluminures, in rhymed couplets, which explain the game in detail.67 The claimed author is given in the subtitle: ‘Poesies sur la Constitution Unigenitus, recuellies par le Chevalier de G... Officier du Regiment de Champagne’. The publisher is given as Philalete Belhumeur, Villefranche. These publication details are of course wholly fictitious, as is the claimed author, who in reality was the Abbé Louis de Bonnaire (1680−1752); the book was actually published in Amsterdam, the fullsheet game probably in Paris. De Bonnaire was a supporter of the Jansenist heresy [named for Cornelius Jansen 1585−1638]: this theology emphasised a particular reading of Augustine’s idea of efficacious grace which stressed that only a certain portion of humanity were predestined to be saved. Though the Jansenists were strongly Catholic, the Jesuits and 67 The analysis given below first appeared in a presentation by Phillippa Plock and Adrian Seville in Board Game Studies Colloquium XIII. Paris: April 2010.

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the papacy were suspicious of their beliefs, which seemed to limit free will and the ability to choose to do good or evil. Despite condemnation by Pope Innocent X in 1655, the movement gained strong support in the Church. The Jansenist position, as included in the one hundred and one propositions of Pasquier Quesnel68 in his Épitomé des Morales des Évangélistes of 1671, was finally condemned by Pope Clement XI’s Unigenitus bull of 1713, but even this condemnation did little to diminish the enthusiasm of adherents. Indeed, in 1717, four French Bishops attempted to appeal Unigenitus to a General Council, a move that received considerable support from other clergy and the parlements, though the majority of clergy stood by the Pope. Clement responded in the next year by excommunicating all those who had called for a General Council. Even so, it was not until 1728 that the death of Jansenism was marked by the submission to the Pope’s authority of Cardinal Noailles, Archbishop of Paris, who had originally approved Quesnel’s book and was reluctant to support Unigenitus, arguing that many of the 101 propositions were in fact orthodox. The point of the game and of De Bonnaire’s book is to challenge and mock the authority of the Church and in particular that of the Pope and of his bull. For example, the columns on either side are each headed by a cartoon depicting the Pope in council, all present being represented by geese wearing mitres. Below the left-hand cartoon, is the Latin phrase ‘Non ego cum Gruibus simul Anseribusque sedebo in Synodis – S. Greg. Nazianz Carm. 10’ [I shall not sit in Synod with cranes and geese]. This refers to a dictum of Gregory of Nazianzus (c329−390), Archbishop of Constantinople, who compared the rowdy Council of Constantinople (381 AD) to the loud cackling of a flock of geese. In the game, the favourable spaces show the Apostles ‘equal in number to that of the geese, which they replace’: there are thirteen, including St Paul, and they occupy the traditional spaces. The traditional hazards are likewise substituted or given special significance, and others are added. The usual entry arch appears as Noah’s Ark, at space 1, symbolising the Church as it is tossed about on the waters of Unigenitus. The ‘bridge of explanations’, at the expected space 6, shows bishops falling into the water, marking their error in taking the wrong sense of the 101 propositions: it leads to space 12, acceptance, where a young woman, blindfolded, is shown as accepting Unigenitus through ignorance. At space 15, there is a torn robe, symbolising schism of the Church. The labyrinth (here at space 16) symbolises error into which fall those who subscribe to the condemnation of the 101 propositions. The inn, at space 19, is here the cabaret, and represents the accommodement, [accommodation] or submission of the Jansenists to the bull. The Tower of Babel at space 24 represents the confusion of language into which the bull has fallen. At space 26 is the first appeal, of 1717, represented by a notice on the Vatican door. At space 33 we find the avertissemens or pronouncements of the Archbishop of Soissons [Jean-Joseph Languet de Gergy, 1677−1753], a notorious anti-Jansenist and vehement defender of Unigenitus. 68 Jansenist theologian, b1634 d1719.

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He has an oboe, a horn and a trumpet, the three instruments symbolising ‘his three avertissements [pronouncements] and their different tones’: a special rule refers to moving forward with the ‘small dice’ and with ‘the other’ when going back. Next is the prison at space 40, where the player must wait until a throw of 5, which multiplied by three will lead to Louis XV and deliverance. The well (space 49) symbolises the body of doctrine, in which the truth is hidden. At space 51 are the re-appealing Bishops, the second appeal being at space 53. At space 55 is the portrait of Louis XV – enluminere XV in the book makes clear that he was seen as a force for change and re-unifying the Church. The death space at 58 shows the skeleton of Pope Clement XI, sitting in an armchair wearing his papal tiara and raising his bony hand to bless an infant at his feet, which represents the Unigenitus bull. Cardinal Noailles appears at the penultimate space, 62, from which point ‘one may only go backward’. The explanatory text in the centre of the game claims that it presages the day that the constitution of the Church will no longer be nothing but ‘un Conte de ma Mère l’Oye’ – a Mother Goose tale, here used as a figure of speech for something unbelievable and ridiculous. The winning space at 63 shows that the desired result of the Jansenists is to be achieved by a General Council, in reference to that called for in 1717. The game was published as a full-size sheet in Amsterdam in the same year as the Paris version, thus beginning Holland’s experience of games intended to exert influence by their message, such as the Game of the Batavian Revolution and Alliance published in 1795 (see Chapter 10). De Bonnaire’s book was condemned at Arras in 1726. Although his anonymity as author seems to have been effective in protecting him, the publishers (father and son) were thrown into the Bastille. Even today, the game has the power to shock by the force of its imagery.

3.10. Widening the range in the 18th century It is at once apparent that the ‘curriculum’ defined by the subject range of the educational games invented in 17th century France is that of the noble ‘cadet’ class – the young men of the aristocracy. In the 18th century, the thematic range was to widen, reflecting an increasingly bourgeois society. The age range also widened, with games for young children and for fashionable adults. Education from an early age The 18th century saw the introduction of games designed for early education. D’Allemagne lists a game69 designed by Alex. Fleuriau to teach ‘children and old people 69 Not seen; and not recorded on Worldcat.

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to read, write and even amuse themselves’ while playing. A better-known example70, published by Crépy in 1773, is Les Epines changées en roses, invented by a Mlle. Duteil, who claimed to have used it to teach reading with success before offering it to the public. It is a 71-space game, each space showing a particular letter in upper and lower case, in both Italic and Roman fonts, together with a picture (mostly of an animal) showing its use. The game shows the influence of the Game of the Goose in that the main vowels (if known by the player) act as points-doubling spaces. Games for social accomplishments and interaction The 18th century also saw games designed for the fashionable salon. Perhaps the earliest – and certainly one of the most beautiful – of these games is Les Etrennes de la Jeunesse – Le Petit Jeu d’Amour [The Gifts of Youth – The Little Game of Love], published in Paris by Crépy in 1713.71 It is what we might call today a “party” game, with forfeits. The females of the party (‘Dames’, also called shepherdesses) play on the left side of the two circular tracks, while the males (‘Cavaliers’, or shepherds), in equal number, play on the right. The two circles “kiss” in the middle of the sheet, where the winning spaces are marked with a crowned heart. Initially, each shepherdess chooses her shepherd to sit on her left, in an order determined by throwing the dice. The rules say that the game is quite like the Game of the Goose though in truth it has its own rules. For example, the unfortunate shepherd who lands on “Inconstancy” (marked with a butterfly) must submit to being tied to his chair by his shepherdess, using her garter. But there are penalties for the ladies, too: at Jealousy, the jealous one must hide behind a curtain or half-open door, missing two turns. The game ends for the men (for example) when one of them reaches the crowned heart and would wait for a lady to reach her corresponding point. The winners, on their two hearts, share the pool and are ‘joined together’. This game depends on having much leisure and the right company! However, the rules say that two players, one of each sex, can compete to see who reaches the crowned heart first. They do not share the pool; a reflection on what happens when courtship is over? Another game by Crépy is the Nouveau Jeu de l’Himen, first published in 1725, one of a number of 18th century games concerned with love and marriage. It is a 90-space game, the aim being to arrive at Hymen’s palace. The text in the central panel makes large claims, contrasting the game to the many games whose subject is Love: these just provide a quarter of an hour’s amusement at a game of chance, while this game is designed to encourage serious reflection. Also, the title is carefully chosen, because ‘Love without Marriage is either unfruitful or illegitimate’. Some of the spaces are 70 D’Allemagne plate 7. 71 Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 13.

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Figure 3.9: Detail of the Jeu de la Conversation.

illustrated with classical figures from myth and the player is urged to consider their characters. Little thought seems to have been expended on the playing aspects of the game, though several of the spaces do have instructions to go to particular spaces, and for payments. There are no goose-like spaces though rules similar to those of the Game of the Goose for an immediate throw are given. By this date, many thematic games were becoming remote from the parent game in their rule structures. A third game by Crépy is the Jeu de la Conversation, published around 1767. It is a game almost certainly directed towards young women: though it bears no specific reference to its target market, the content makes clear that it was intended for those entering polite society. Each of its 87 spaces bears a short maxim or piece of advice about how to behave in the conversational circle. The mood of repressive politeness is typified by: ‘Youth listens, and says little’. The favourable goose-type spaces are marked with a butterfly, though their sentiments do little to brighten the atmosphere: ‘Say nothing unless you excel’. It is interesting to compare games of this kind with the Carte de Tendre conceived as a social game during the Winter of 1653−1654 by Madelaine de Scudery; a printed copy was later incorporated into the first volume of her novel, Clelie:72 It is a map showing an allegorical geography based entirely on the theme of Love, having three 72 Franz Reitinger, ‘Mapping Relationships: Allegory, Gender and the Cartographical Image in Eighteenth Century France and England’. Imago Mundi 51, 1999, pp. 106−130.

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alternative routes by which the suitor may succeed. Though a conversation piece, rather than a game in any formal sense, the usage parallels that of the games covered in this section, where social interaction and discussion is perhaps more important than winning. Fashion and the Theatre Other evidence of the widening of themes to encompass the interests of women in society is provided by the games published towards the end of the 18th century on subjects such as fashion, costumes and hair styles. An example dating from around 1780, notorious for its chequered publishing history, is Le nouveau jeu des modes françoises: it is a 63-space game, in which each space represents a particular kind of hat as worn by a fashionable lady, except that the series of spaces beginning 9, 18 etc, each show a lady in full-length costume, and act as point-doubling spaces. D’Allemagne73 correctly records the imprint as ‘London, printed for Robt. Sayer No. 53 Fleet Street & Jno. Smith No. 35 Cheapside’; but this imprint is entirely false: the game was printed by Jean-Baptiste Crépy using pirated images and was the subject of a successful court action against him.74 Crépy’s imprint does appear, however, on his 1783 game, Le Nouveau Jeu des Variétés amusantes, showing fashionably-dressed personages from comedies of the time. Keeping up with events A further development, which would continue into the 19th century, was the use of printed games to record recent events and celebrate new inventions. An example is Le Nouveau Jeu des Ballons Aërostatiques a l’Usage des Esprits Eléves, published by Crépy in 1784.75 Its circular track, numbered from 2 to 13, surrounds a circular image showing a balloon ascent. Instructions to pay to or take from the pool are found below each numbered space. The winning space is 13, with reverse overthrows as in the Game of the Goose. This game is quite playable, though the short track and use of double dice mean that most of the action takes place around the final space. The game sheet gives a concise history of the earliest ballooning, which developed at a remarkable speed in France, both hot air (Montgolfier) and hydrogen (Charles) balloons being employed. The central space shows: ‘The balloon leaving the Champ-deMars [Paris] for Gonesse, released by M. Montgolfier on 27 August 1783’. The launch 73 D’Allemagne, plate 43. 74 Geoffrey De Bellaigue. “Engravings and the French eighteenth-century Marqueteur”, The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 107, N° 746, May 1965, pp. 240−250. 75 Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 49. Strouhal, game 29.

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was witnessed by Benjamin Franklin, who sent an immediate account to Sir Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society in London.76

3.11. The usage of these games The games themselves – their themes, their format, their iconography – are the strongest evidence we have of how they were used, by whom, and in what circumstances. Taken as a whole, this body of evidence is compelling: the expensive large-format variant games initially made provision for the educational needs of young aristocrats, followed by a widening of themes and social focus. Yet, other evidence is scanty indeed. Some further evidence is contained on the game sheets themselves in the form of dedications, obviously extraneous to the game as such, but possibly indicative of the target market. For example, in their finely engraved copper plates, the Parisian publishers frequently included royal or ducal dedications. This may indeed attest to their having an aristocratic market in mind, though the ‘privilege’ system for regulating publication is also a factor. More compelling evidence comes from claims of authorship: some games were evidently designed and used by private tutors at an aristocrat’s home, as evidenced for example by the authorship of the geographical game L’Emulation Française: ‘Par M.Moithey Ing.-géog. du Roy et professeur des Mathématiques des MM les pages de LL AA SS M. Et Mme la Princess de Conty’.77 D’Allemagne gives further examples of this kind. These games were also used in the many colleges for the noble cadets, both in Paris and in the provinces. Palasi’s account of the usage of games in the colleges of heraldry has already been mentioned. The Arts of War games are naturally associated with the military colleges, as evident from their dedications. Thus, the Jeu de Fortifications (Mariette, 1697) is dedicated to L’Illustre Jeunesse élevée dans le College de Louis-leGrand, the great royal military college founded in 1563 as the Collège de Clermont but renamed in 1682 to recognize the patronage of Louis XIV. Although these games were no doubt used in unsupervised play, there are exceptions. The remarkable Ecole de Mars game published by Jaillot in 1719 has the sub-title, ‘pour apprendre facilement la fortification selon la method de M. De Vauban’ and is by Le Sr. Dela Suze, Gendarme de la Garde du Roy. The format is huge, 83 x 108 cm, made up by pasting together several large printed sheets, while the 87-space track alternates detailed diagrams of aspects of fortification with blocks of text explanatory of each. The centre depicts a splendid plan of an idealised Vauban fortress. There are no indications of hazards or 76 Albert Henry Smyth, editor, The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, Vol. IX, 1783–1788, Letter 1433. London: Macmillan, 1906, pp. 79–82. 77 Paris: Crépy, 1776.

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favourable chances, so the inference is that this was played as a simple spiral game, giving rise to a tutorial exchange as the students stood round the game with a teacher; an interpretation supported by the sheer size of the game sheet. Turning now to direct evidence of usage, an often-noted source is the obsessivelydetailed journal of the life of the young Louis XIII,78 kept by his physician, Jean Héroard.79 There are several entries relating to playing the jeu de l’oie. For example, in the month of April 1612, he notes, of the young king: Se remet au lict [at 4 pm], joue à l’oie. (17.04, p. 2011) S’amuse à jouer à l’oye. (18.04. p. 2012) S’amuse à jouer à l’oye, ne veult point encore dormer. (19.04, p. 2012) Joue à l’oye, Mrs de Vendome,80 le Grand Escuier81 et d’Espernon82 avecques. (26.04, p. 2015).

It is clear that on the 26th April at least he was playing with a group of young men rather than other children. The record continues in 1613: S’amuse à jouer au jeu de l’oie et à celuy de l’amour. (25.01, pp. 2089−90) S’amuse à jouer au jeu de l’oie. (31.01, p. 2091) faict ses affaires [=defecates]… en jouant au jeu de l’Oye, Mr le comte de Soissons et Mr d’Elbeuf avec luy. (30.06, p. 2125) Joue à l’oie. (9.12, p. 2165) Pendant qu’il estoit dessus [on his commode…], il jouoit à l’oye. (10.12, pp. 2165−6) se met à l’oie. (27.12, p. 2171)

Louis XIII enjoyed the game very much. He used to play it until 1628 (he was then 27), and probably later, but Héroard could no longer witness him playing it, because he died in 1628. Many other games are mentioned in the Journal.83 Another source is a letter (9 March 1672) from the Marquise de Sévigné,84 enjoining her daughter to play no other game. We have the painting by Chardin exhibited in 1745 showing well-dressed young people playing the jeu de l’oie. An amusing note 78 Louis XIII (1601−1643) ruled as King of France from 1610. 79 Journal de Jean Héroard, ed. Madeleine Foisil, 2 vols., Paris: Fayard, 1989. 80 César de Vendôme (1594−1661). 81 The Grand Ecuyer was a senior official of the Royal Court, at this date César-Auguste de Saint-Lary, Baron of Termes. 82 Probably Bernard d’Épernon (1592–1661). 83 T. Depaulis, ‘Héroard et les jeux “oisifs” du petit Louis XIII’, in Jeux, sports et divertissements au Moyen-Age et à l’Age classique (116e Congrès national des Sociétés savantes, Chambéry 1991, Histoire médiévale et Philologie), Paris: CTHS, 1993, p. 111−127. 84 Madame de Sévigné, Correspondance, ed. Roger Duchêne, 3 vols., Paris: Gallimard, 1973−1978 (Bibliothèque de la Pléiade), letter 252, vol. I, p. 450−451.

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by the French poet Arnault attests that Napoleon I, when near Udine in 1797 for conferences with Austria, preferred to play the jeu de l’oie after dinner, rather than a game of cards, because it was the only game where his opponents could not let him win.85 But these few sources are mere flashes in the darkness and cannot cast reliable light on the question of who played these games.86 Few contemporary historians have noticed the use of the Game of the Goose or its many variants. Ménestrier, at the start of a long account of the games themselves, contrasts the jeu de l’oie favourably with educational playing cards, which – though they are at first striking by their novelty and by their images – prove too demanding in use.87 He considers the variants of the jeu de l’oie to be more effective in education, because they are easier to play than card games. Franklin writing at the end of the 19th century comments wryly of the jeu de l’oie: “Ce qui prouve bien l’inexplicable vogue dont jouit ce jeu maussade, c’est le nombre prodigieux des imitations qui en furent faites. Il y en eut pour tous les âges, pour toutes les professions, pour tous les goûts.” [The proof of the inexplicable vogue for this dull game was to be found in the prodigious number of imitations. These were for all ages, all professions and all tastes].88 However, there is nothing in Franklin’s account to suggest that he was using contemporary sources in reaching such a conclusion: rather, he appears to be basing it on the games he lists, which he says he has found at the Bibliothèque nationale de France or in the [Paris] City Library. He claims that the game and its variants were replaced in the fashionable taste by the game of loto, (lotto) especially in the years that immediately preceded the French Revolution.89 However, the publishing of goose variants continued well beyond 1789, as will be explored in the next chapter.

85 A V Arnault, Souvenirs d’un sexagénaire, Paris: 1833, Vol III page 110. 86 A few other references are given by D’Allemagne, pp. 25−28. 87 Claude-François Ménestrier, Bibliothèque curieuse et instructive VI. Trevoux: Imprimerie S.A.S, 1704, vol. 2, pp. 194−195. 88 Alfred Franklin, La vie privée D’autrefois: arts et métiers, modes, moeurs, usages des parisiens du XIIe au XVIIIe siècle d’après des documents originaux ou inédits: XIX. ‘L’enfant, la layette, la nourrice, la vie de famille, les jouets et les jeux’, Serie I−II, Paris: Plon, Nourrit, 1896, p. 290. 89 Franklin, op. cit., p. 304.

4

6

Religion (4 n/a)

Literature (2 n/a)

Fine Arts 1

6

1

5

Fine Arts and Literature

1

11

3

9

3

22

133

Mythology

0

1

3

12c

16

Occult

e

1

Morality d

1

Law

7

Love and Marriage

Law, Morals, Religion, Mythology, Occult

4

Education and Pedagogy

3

1

Monkey

1b

General

Human Life

Similar and derived (not Owl or Jew)

Goose

Classic Goose and similar games

2

1

TOTALS 78 3

8

4

2

2

23

56

Appendix 3a D'ALLEMAGNE ICONOGRAPHIE UP TO 1899 Century 19th – numbers of main entries by place and date of publicationa 17th/18th PART CHAPTER SECTION Paris Provinces Lorraine Paris Provinces Lorraine

Appendix 3a Individual spaces of Duval’s Jeu du Monde

French games before the Revolution

77

Geography and

6

Travel

History

5

Voyages, Sites, Monuments

Cartographic

History of England

History of France

Ancient and General (2 n/a)

1 4

France Monuments of Paris

5 5

6

France

8

2

7

5

World

6

1

General

Personages (1 n/a)

3rd and 4th Republics

Empire

Restoration and 2nd

3

3

Revolution, Napoleon, Empire (1 n/a)f

6

General (1 n/a)

9

1

1

1

1

3

1

2

Appendix 3a D'ALLEMAGNE ICONOGRAPHIE UP TO 1899 Century 19th – numbers of main entries by place and date of publicationa 17th/18th PART CHAPTER SECTION Paris Provinces Lorraine Paris Provinces Lorraine

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Applied Sci-

ences

Pure Sciences

9

Navy

Heraldry, Army,

8

7

1 2 1 3

Lottery and Savings Banks

Means of Locomotion

Fashion and Costumes

Publicity and Propaganda

merce

1

1

3

5

Current Industry and Com-

Uniforms

Fortifications, Life

Strategy, Manoeuvres,

4

Agriculture, Industry, Trade , Commerce

Medicine and Hygiene

Navy (1 n/a)

Army

Heraldry

1

2

1

2

6

7

7

3

1

1

3

1

8

3

Appendix 3a D'ALLEMAGNE ICONOGRAPHIE UP TO 1899 Century a 19th – numbers of main entries by place and date of publication 17th/18th PART CHAPTER SECTION Paris Provinces Lorraine Paris Provinces Lorraine

French games before the Revolution

79

Sports

Spectacles and

Sports

Spectacles

1 3

4 1

a   Only the entries in capital letters are counted, ignoring those reprints that he lists within them as ‘same game’, though sometimes with a different publisher. Numbers of non-assignable entries (lacking place and/or date) are shown as n/a. b  The jeu de l’oye fait devant Monseig, le Dauphin is excluded: it is a print depicting a game where those in boats hack at geese strung up across a river (BnF). c   Includes Letourmy’s game of c. 1780 ‘dedicated to the Fair Sex’ though in fact the hazards are re-interpreted and it is not a classic game. d   Includes the Quatre Fins game by G de Fourcroy (BnF). e   Excludes the jeu de la laitiere which is a game of dexterity. f   Excludes the jeu imperial de l’aigle, stated to be an owl variant.

10

Appendix 3a D'ALLEMAGNE ICONOGRAPHIE UP TO 1899 Century 19th – numbers of main entries by place and date of publicationa 17th/18th PART CHAPTER SECTION Paris Provinces Lorraine Paris Provinces Lorraine

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81

Appendix 3b Particular rules for Duval’s Jeu du Monde Who goes to: – Virginia, no. 3, will advance to Great Britain, no. 20, where the ladies are much esteemed. – New Mexico, no. 5, will pay and dwell among the savages until someone else kindly delivers him and takes his place. [This is equivalent to the Well or Prison rule for Goose]. – Castille d’Or, no. 8, will pay to leave and avoid the brutal custom of his wedding day. [Castille d’Or was the name given by Spanish colonialists to certain Central American territories from the 16th century. The reference is to Garcia II, Count of Castile from the year 1010, who was treasonably killed on his wedding day]. – Peru, no. 10, will lose a stake to the game, from the rich silver mines of Potosi. [Potosi, now in Bolivia, was the major supplier of silver to the Spanish Empire]. – Barbary, no. 16, will pay a ransom before leaving. [The white slave trade flourished on the Barbary coast from the 15th century onwards]. – Egypt, no. 17, will stay as long as he likes to take his pleasures in complete freedom or may carry on his game, not wishing to live a life as licentious as the inhabitants. – Zaara [Sahara desert], no. 19, will remain wandering in the desert until another passes by [...] he will pay tribute, since the caravanners are accustomed to pay to the local sovereigns. – Guinea, no. 22, will not receive gold dust but the agreed stake from the game. – Malta, no. 30, will receive a contribution from the game to wage war against the Turk. – Araby [no. 33] will pay not to the Arabs but to the game. – Persia, no. 34, will go with the beautiful ladies of the country in the promenades of the town of Siras while the other players play two turns. [Compare the Goose rule of the Inn. The city of Siras was celebrated for its walkways and gardens]. – China, No. 36, will count the points on his dice twice, for the Chinese do not permit entry to their realm. [This is like a Goose-doubling rule]. – Moluccas, no. 45, will not bring back spices but the value of the game. – Spain, no. 46, will make a voyage to the East Indies and embark for Havana, no.6, and will pay for exit from the realm. [Compare the ‘go back’ rule of the Labyrinth in the Game of the Goose]. – Germany, no. 50, will stop to drink with the Germans while all the other players play twice; and will pay his bill. [The Germans were renowned as drinkers]. – Denmark, no. 51, will stay to pay the tax imposed on all who pass through the strait of the Sud [Sund]. – Sweden, no. 52, will be shipwrecked on its shoals and carried by the winds into the Polar Regions; and must begin his game again. [Compare the Death rule].

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– Muscovy, no. 55, will return to Poland, no. 53. Better that than staying in a country where the men bear witness of their love by beating their women. [The notorious folk saying, “when a husband beats, it means love”, is not evidenced by sources from the Muscovite period, though wife-beating did undoubtedly occur].90 – Transylvania, no. 59, will pay to the game rather than be taken to the Grand Turk in his Seraglio in Constantinople. – France, No. 63, will win the game and all [the stakes] to be found in the centre of the game.

90 Natalia Pushkareva, Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century. Armonk, NY: M E Sharpe, 1997, p. 102.

4. French games after the Revolution 4.1. The effects of regime change The development of printed games in France was strongly influenced by the regime changes that followed the Revolution: 1789 The Revolution begins with the storming of the Bastille. 1792 (September) Monarchy is abolished and the Republic is proclaimed. 1793 The National Convention seizes power; King Louis XVI is later executed. 1799 Napoleon Bonaparte overthrows the Directory, replacing it with the Consulate. 1804 Napoleon is declared Emperor by the Senate and is later crowned. 1814 First Restoration: Louis XVIII is briefly declared King. 1815 Defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo; Second Restoration of Louis XVIII. 1821 Death of Napoleon I. 1824 Death of Louis XVIII. 1830 July Revolution overthrows Charles X and the elder branch of the Bourbons; Louis-Philippe d’Orléans becomes King. 1848 February Revolution: Louis-Philippe abdicates. In December, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte becomes President of the Republic. 1852 Second Empire: Louis-Napoleon becomes Napoleon III. 1870 Third Republic.

The present chapter begins by analysing the games that trace the history of the Revolution itself, as it unfolds. They provide valuable contemporary sources, showing how the Revolution was viewed in its earliest years. A second theme to examine is how publishers adapted their games to the political exigencies of each new regime by changing the iconography and amending the text to suit. The new games also reflected changes in society in a wider sense. The increasing affluence and leisure of the bourgeoisie meant that there was a wider market for games, extending beyond the young aristocrats of the preceding century. There were new themes reflecting the activities of this market, notably theatres and other public spectacles. Towards the end of the 19th century, chromolithography developed as a cheap means of mass

A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462984974_ch04

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production, especially in the Alsace-Lorraine area. Thereafter, French games were widely diffused, both in France and within Continental Europe.

4.2. Chronicling the French Revolution A number of contemporary games exist, chronicling the Revolution. That shown in Figure 4.1 is entitled the Jeu de la Révolution Française.1 The publisher is not given but a line of text below the game image says: ‘A Paris rue S. Hyacinthe pres la Place S. Michel No. 38’: the Bibliothèque nationale de France attributes it to P. E. Lépine (engraver) and gives the date as between 1789 and 1791.2 A second version of this game exists, with no publisher information: it illustrates the same sequence of subjects along the track, but has differently-drawn versions of the images and some differently-phrased captions.3 A further game with the same title is that shown in Figure 4.2.4 Again, no publisher is given but a line of text states that the game may be found at ‘rue des Mathurins no. 18 et chez les Mds.[Marchands] de nouveautés de Paris et en Province chez les Libraries et Mds d’Estampes’, confirming that printed games of this kind were more widely distributed than just in the capital. In these games, every space is illustrated, so as to form a history (not perfectly chronological) of the earliest months of the Revolution. A significant difference between these two games is that in the game of Figure 4.2 the spaces at 60 and 62 show the attempted flight of the King and his arrest at Varennes, with his subsequent forced return to the Tuileries. The game illustrated in Figure 4.1 (where space 60 shows the uniform of Municipal Officers and 62 the Tax Office) therefore must date from before the summer of 1791. Both games begin with the Storming of the Bastille (14 July 1789) and end at winning space 63 with the National Assembly at the Palladium of Liberty. The favourable goose-type spaces celebrate the abolition of the various Parlements. These were medieval institutions, set up as courts of law that had the duty of recording all royal decrees and laws. They had resisted reform: for example, the Parlement of Paris wrote to Louis XVI in March 1776 resisting changes that would have made the nobility pay more tax. As bastions of reaction and privilege, all the Parlements were quickly 1 Rothschild National Trust Collection, Waddesdon 2669.2.10. Strouhal, game 49. 2 BnF FRBNF40247755. 3 BnF FRBNF40247756. The images in this game are crudely drawn and a number are reversed as compared to the game in Figure 4-1, suggesting that they were copied directly onto the plate. One of the reversals is the scene of Storming the Bastille at space 1: comparison with the painting of this scene by Jean-Baptiste Lallemand shows that the correct orientation is that shown in the game of Figure 4-1, so that the crudely-drawn game was evidently a copied version. 4 BnF FRBNF40256245.

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Figure 4.1: An early Jeu de la Révolution Française, 1789–1791 (Bibliothèque nationale de France).

Figure 4.2: Detail of a later Jeu de la Révolution Française, 1791, showing at space 60 the arrest of the King at Varennes.

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THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

abolished by the Revolution. They are marked in the game by satirical caricatures of geese dressed as lawyers, with bridles in their beaks. MacGregor misleadingly states that the Parlements: ‘had done so much to force the pace of reform’ and then has difficulty in explaining why, if these institutions were held in such good popular esteem, the lawyer-geese are described in the rules as oies bridées (literally, ‘bridled geese’ but colloquially signifying ‘nincompoops’).5 Both of these games are classic Games of the Goose in their arrangement, though the classic hazards are interpreted thematically. In the later game, for example, the Well at Space 31 becomes a handy way of disposing of unwanted people. Spaces such as the Inn at 19 and the Prison at 52 become real buildings in Paris, but with additional thematic significance. Likewise, the Châtelet of Paris, where civil law pleas were heard, appears on the Labyrinth space 42, implying that justice was hard to find there. At space 52 is the Prison de l’Abbaye, where traitors against the Nation were held. Space 58 shows the Death of Delaunay, Foulon, Berthier, etc. Bernard René Jourdan, marquis de Launay, was Governor of the Bastille and was lynched by the mob after it was stormed. Foulon was appointed Controller of Finances in 1789 and was generally hated. He attempted to escape from Paris but was captured and beheaded by the crowd, with his son-in-law Berthier. His head was paraded on a pike, his mouth stuffed with hay (as shown in the game in Figure 4.2), in allusion to his allegedly saying that, if hungry, the people should eat hay. However, despite the violent satire, the main impression comes from the iconography of the non-active spaces, which celebrate the astonishingly rapid and sweeping reforms achieved in the earliest years of the Revolution. These games are of particular value as sources for the historian, in that they provide a vivid contemporary picture of the Revolution before its later degeneration.

4.3. The ideals of the Revolution A more philosophical approach to the ideals of the Revolution is to be found in a game grandly entitled LES DÉLASSEMENS DU PÈRE GÉRARD ou la Poule de Henri IV mise au pot en 1792. This game6 was of sufficient importance to be published in the Dictionnaire des jeux.7 Neil MacGregor describes this game as being:

5 Neil MacGregor, ‘Il Faut Badiner’, Apollo; 105; 1977; pages 452−457. 6 Plate 14 of the Dictionnaire des jeux. Paris: chez Pancoucke, Hôtel de Thou, rue des Poitevins, 1792. Refs. Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 15; Girard/Quétel, pl. 46. 7 The Dictionnaire des jeux was a supplementary volume to Mathématiques, which was issued as volume III of Pancoucke’s Supplément (1776–1777) to the monumental Encyclopédie méthodique of Diderot and D’Alembert, published from 1751 to 1772.

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a little propaganda for the constitutional monarchy, which continues the myth of Good King Henry, in whose footsteps Louis XVI, now disabused, is about to follow [...] In a chain with 83 links, one for each of the newly created Départements, you start with a Rousseau-esque progression from Equality through Usurpation to Slavery. The geese are replaced by Henry IV’s ‘chicken in the pot’ but the emphasis is predominantly ideological. If you land on Nobility, you go back to square one, Equality; if on Clergy, you advance with anti-celibate zest to the Altar of Marriage, and so forth. Landing on Voltaire, Rousseau or Mirabeau of course brings rapid progress and extraordinary pains are taken to explain the doctrine, crucial for the new Constitution, of the Separation of Powers: so, if you land on Montesquieu, you can move to the Legislature, or to the Judiciary, or indeed to the Executive.8

Considering that Henry IV (1553–1610) ruled over France from 1589, it is perhaps surprising that his memory was thought to have traction 200 years later in the fierce modernity of the Revolution, the more so since he was unpopular during his reign. However, after his death, he became more popular, being remembered as a monarch who had concerns for the welfare of his subjects. Indeed, he is reported to have said: ‘If God keeps me, I will make sure that no peasant in my realm will lack the means to have a chicken in the pot on Sunday!’9 The propitious theme of Henry IV’s reign was used much later to promote the Bourbon Restoration.10

4.4. The Revolution’s new map of France A slightly later game celebrating the Revolution was based on the map designed by J N Mauborgne for the Revolutionary Council. Here, the track consists of vignette maps showing the 83 administrative départemens that replaced the ancient provinces after the Revolution. The original 1796 version (Figure 4.3) implemented the throw-doubling feature of the Game of the Goose when the player landed on a space marked with the republican Gallic Rooster. With the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in 1814, republican references were suppressed and, when a revised version appeared in 1816 with the number of départemens increased to 86, the royalist symbol of the fleur-de-lys replaced the Rooster. Then, after the July Revolution of 1830, the Gallic Rooster reappeared. In all versions, hazard spaces reminiscent of the Game of the Goose impede the progress: for example, a near-equivalent to the Death space is the Département du Gard, on space 77, where the traveller viewing the Roman remains 8 Neil MacGregor, “Il Faut Badiner,” Apollo 105 (1977), 456. 9 Elizabeth Webber and Mike Feinsilber, Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of Allusions (Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1999), 113. 10 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 43.

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Figure 4.3: Details of the Jeu Géographique de la République Française (Courtesy of the Library of Congress/­ author’s collection).

at Nismes (sic) falls in the amphitheatre, breaks his leg, and must return to space 1, Département du Nord, to be cured at the baths of Lille.

4.5. Adapting to the prevailing regime Similar evidence of the need for publishers to adapt and adjust to the prevailing regime is also found in other games of the post-Revolutionary period. A striking example appears in the Jeu du Voyageur en Europe illustrated in Figure 4.4. It is a thematic Goose-variant game on the buildings and monuments of impor­ tant cities of Europe, published by the Paris firm of Basset during the period of the Bourbon monarchy. The Goose spaces are indicated by religious buildings, while the hazards are cleverly linked to those of the classic Game of the Goose. For example, the classic Bridge space at 6 becomes Westminster Bridge, London, while the Death space at 58 shows the tomb of the Queen of Denmark in Stockholm. The winning space shows the Arc de Triomphe of the Champs Elysees. The real interest, however, comes on close comparison of the three examples. The original edition,11 published in 1813 during the time of Napoleon I, is full of imperial references. However, in the example 11 Bodleian Library, University of Oxford: John Johnson Collection: Games folder (30). 12 The book by A. R. Girard and C. Quétel, L’histoire de France racontée par le jeu de l’oie. Paris: Balland/Massin, 1982, gives a fuller account than is possible here.

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Figure 4.4: Centre panels of the Jeu du Voyageur showing alterations from the original (Courtesy of Waddesdon (National Trust) / author’s collection).

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THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

of this edition shown in Figure 4.4 (upper), all such references, including the reference to the Forum Bonaparte in Milan (space 53), have been crudely obliterated or amended in sepia ink. Above the final cartouche, the Imperial Eagle, symbol of Napoleon, has been half- concealed beneath an inked-in fleur-de-lys – but what a fleur-de-lys! This one has eagle’s wings and from its feet there emanate the red thunderbolts of Napoleon’s emblem. In the second example, Figure 4.4 (lower), a later edition published after the restoration of the Bourbon Monarchy, amendments to the plate have been undertaken to provide the necessary royal references, though the engraver has left tell-tale gaps in the text.

4.6. Recording and commenting on current events It is striking how publishers of printed board games mirrored the turbulent history of France in the 19th century.12 These games could be produced rapidly, in response to events, almost as a kind of reportage. For example, the unexpected appearance of Russian troops in Paris at the end of March 1814 was faithfully recorded in the Jeu des Cosaques13 published later that year by Genty and republished in Holland in 1815, with rules in French and Dutch. A similar concern with the actualité informed several games celebrating the achievements of Napoleon Bonaparte during his period of spectacular successes, as in the Jeu des Guerriers français favoris de la victoire published by Basset in about 1809, in which the favourable Goose-type spaces (in a single series rather than the classic double series) are denoted by his victories. Likewise, games celebrating his life began to appear after his death in 1821, e.g. the Jeu Historique de la vie de Napoléon14 published by the Parisian firm of Jean in that year. However, Napoleon’s fame was long-lasting: there followed the Jeu du Grand Homme15 published by the Widow Turgis in about 1835, with scenes from Napoleon’s life decorating the non-active spaces and his symbol of the Eagle of Jupiter serving to identify the Goose spaces. The sequence of games of this kind culminated in the magnificent large-format (57 x 77 cm.) Jeu Impérial, designed by L. Tanty and printed by the firm of Becquet. New games inspired by current events appeared throughout the 19th century. Thus, the July Revolution of 1830 was celebrated by the game of Les Barricades ou les trois journées de Juillet,16 published in that year by Noel of Paris. Similarly, the transition to the Third Republic in 1870 gave rise to the publication by the Paris firm of Vancortenberghen of the elaborate Jeu de l’oie parlementaire of G. Fournier, providing portraits of the principal politicians of the day, accompanied 13 14 15 16

D’Allemagne, plate 24. D’Allemagne, plate 23 shows a later edition, published by Langlumé in about 1835. Victoria and Albert Museum E.23273-1957 Noted by D’Allemagne (p. 215) as a game of 25 spaces representing scenes from the ‘Three Glorious Days’.

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Figure 4.5: The final spaces of the Jeu de l’oie parlementaire.

by satirical vignettes drawn by Belloguet. In this distinctive game, the ‘left’ is pitted against the ‘right’: each side plays upon its own game track of 50 spaces, the aim of the ‘left’ being to arrive at the final space, marked changement du cabinet before the ‘right’ reach their final space, marked Vote de confiance. Of this game, Alfred Barbou (alias Thomas Grimm) writes: The form of the game represents the legislative assembly in session, during the year 1870. In consequence, it takes the form of a semicircle divided into two parts, like the Chamber [...] At the centre is placed the platform supporting the traditional glass of sugar-water and below the platform, the seat of the President, with his little bell [... ] [The] rules summarise in a piquant manner the customs of our legislative debates.17

In fact, the rules, which are different for the two sides, are incomplete, or at least hard to interpret in playing terms, suggesting that this sheet was intended more for satirical amusement than to be played as a game.18 The same purpose was doubtless intended for the Jeu des Lois published in 1872 by the magazine Musée du Charivari, though its rules are perfectly clear and are indeed firmly based on the classic Game of the Goose.19 Its humorous and satirical scenes of the Third Republic are examples of a satirical thread that will continue into the 20th century, as discussed below in Chapter 16. 17 In Le Journal Illustré of 3 January 1892; translation by Adrian Seville. 18 Girard and Quétel (op. cit.) point out that, at the date of issue of the game, the Third Republic was not yet officially in operation, yet the game was already mocking parliamentary customs. 19 Musée national de l’Education. Exhibition catalogue: Jeu, jouet et politique, Musée du Jouet, Ville de Poissy, 1982.

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4.7. Educational games on traditional themes The French games of the 19th century saw the continuation and elaboration of the themes developed for young aristocrats in earlier centuries. Games on historical themes included those on France and her Kings, but now some of the iconography could be mildly satirical, as in the Tableau chronologique et drolatique des Rois de France.20 The firm of Basset produced educational games on Ancient History, both Roman and Greek. However, their Jeu Royal de la vie d’Henri IV, published in 1815 with the Second Restoration in mind should perhaps be classed as a game of propaganda.21 It is largely a classic Game of the Goose in which the favourable goose spaces depict members of the new royal house. The other spaces trace the life of Henri IV, from his birth in 1553 in space 1 to his assassination at space 61 and his final apotheosis (drawn after an allegory by Rubens) in the winning space at 63. The message is that Henri’s good name will in some way sanctify the Restoration. Games on geographic themes continued to appear, though most of the cartographic games were simply updates of the game of the departments considered in Section 4 above, with a track consisting of small vignette maps. Cartographic games with a track wandering across the face of the map itself, though common in England from the middle of the 18th century, did not appear in France until the end of the 19th, when the Grand Jeu du pigeon voyageur appeared,22 in which the individual numbering of the departments, beginning at Rouen and ending at Paris (space 87), indicated the course to be followed by the players. Games based on Jules Verne’s novel of 1872, Le Tour du monde en quatre-vingts jours, had a playing track consisting of vignettes of the places visited, but with a central map showing the path of the voyage. The first of these appeared in 1875 and was in fact a publicity sheet for the novel, put out by Verne’s publishers, Hetzel. By contrast, games on themes of voyages, and of tours of sites and monuments, appeared early in the 19th century. These were often of 63 spaces and closely based on the classic Game of the Goose, such as the Jeu des Monumens (sic) de Paris23 and the Jeu du Voyageur en Europe discussed in Section 5 above. One game on the latter theme speaks in its title of the ‘young’ travellers,24 a description frequently found in the English games emulating the Grand Tour.25 Games figuring the army began to show the human side rather than the technical aspects of the Arts of War that had dominated the genre in the 18th century. Notable in this context is the Jeu du Conscrit published by Pinot and Sagaire in Epinal about 20 Designed by T Lichy, at the Faïencerie de Gien, and published in Paris by Lemercier in 1872. 21 The propaganda message is further spelled out in Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 44. 22 A chromolithograph published by le Houc: Lille and Paris, about 1890. 23 Discussed in Chapter 18, Section 4. 24 Paris, chez Partout, 1819. 25 See Chapter 7 for discussion of educational games in Britain.

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Figure 4.6: Grand Jeu du pigeon voyageur.

1860.26 It is a variant of the classic Game of the Goose, though with only a single series of favourable spaces, on 9, 16, 27 etc. These spaces show the progression of the recruit by promotion through the ranks, first to sergeant, then sergeant-major, sub-lieutenant and so on to become Marshal of France at the winning space, showing Patrice de MacMahon (1808−1893).27 Later, Napoleon III invested him as Duke of Magenta. The corners of the game show scenes of the battles of Malakoff, Inkermann, Palestro and Solferino. The non-active spaces are decorated with scenes of army life, beginning with conscription,28 arrival at the regiment, drill, the first guard duty, and so on. The hazard spaces bear some resemblance to those of the Jeu des Guerriers français mentioned in Section 6 above: for example, both games have a military execution at 58 on the Death space, though the earlier game rather curiously specifies the Prison rule (wait until another player comes), while the Conscrit game has the traditional ‘start again’ 26 D’Allemagne plate 34. 27 MacMahon had secured the French victory at Magenta in 1859 and was promoted to Marshal of France in the field. See the biography by Prince Gabriel de Broglie, MacMahon. Paris: Perrin, 2000. 28 At this time, a limited form of conscription by lot was in operation in France, though exemptions were purchased by the middle and upper classes.

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Figure 4.7: Lower left quadrant of the Mauclair-Dacier game, Le Régiment.

rule. The sequence of games on life in the French army of the 19th century culminated in the splendid game, Le Régiment,29 produced by the Paris firm of Mauclair-Dacier30 at the end of the century. This was a large-format game in superb chromolithography, signed by its designer as Ludovic.31 The aim is to arrive at space number 68, Victory. Although the game deviates considerably from the Game of the Goose (there are no points-doubling spaces and a single die is used), the numerology of the Death space is employed: space 58 represents Death on the Field of Honour; but the player wins half the pool and takes no further part in the game. By contrast, space 64 represents the disgrace of loss of Military rank: the player pays to the pool and is excluded from the game. Although the publication of new games on heraldry had ceased with the Revolution, games on fortifications according to the principles of Vauban appeared as late as 1880.32 Likewise, the important Jeu de la Marine,33 first published early in the 18th century, continued to appear throughout the 19th with little variation. 29 Not listed by D’Allemagne. 30 The firm started as Dacier-Mauclair in 1887, becoming Mauclair-Dacier in 1893; in 1904 it became part of the group of publishers and manufacturers of toys and games, Les Jeux et Jouets Français, which used the mark JJF. 31 Possibly Ludovic Lévy. 32 The Jeu de Forteresse: listed by D’Allemagne, p. 221. 33 See the section on the Arts of War in Chapter 3.

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Interestingly, there was little attempt to provide educational games in the fields of science and technology, despite the strong showing of France in these areas. However, games on Natural History, on Flowers, and on Animals were produced in Paris, the earliest of these being by Jean (1810). Overall, the educational games of the 19th century reflect their predecessors with a degree of continuity but also with some innovation, notably in presentations that offer more human interest than their earlier models. There is, though, little in the way of technical innovation: with few exceptions, the mode of play remains close to the original models and is recognisably derived from the Game of the Goose, though – as customary for thematic variants – without exactly employing its rules.

4.8. Games on social, moral and spiritual themes Games on the subject of Love and Marriage continued to appear throughout the 19th century. However, some of the later examples depicted their subjects in a humorous or grotesque manner, as in the Jeu de l’Amour et de l’Hyménée designed by Nadar34 and Gédéon,35 published in Paris by Mme Vallète around 1865, indicating an adult audience requiring amusement, rather than the social education of younger people of the earlier games. The spiritual education of young people was a continuing theme. An interesting example is the game of the Chemin de la Croix ou Récréation Spirituelle, published in Paris and Toulouse by the Widow Turgis, c. 1830.36 This 63-space game follows exactly the classic model of the Game of the Goose, with somewhat strange thematic interpretations of the hazard spaces. For example, space 19 (classically, the Inn) shows a temple, while space 42 (classically, the Labyrinth) shows a church: it is not clear why these negative spaces should be associated with positive religious images. Perhaps strangest of all is that the classic Goose spaces, on 5, 9, 14, 18 etc., now contain images of the Stations of the Cross. Evidently, it was not thought inappropriate to associate the images in this way. The non-active spaces are decorated with religious symbols derived from the New Testament; in the corners, the Four Evangelists are depicted. Another spiritual game is the Récréation Spirituelle published by Basset c. 1830.37 This is a game of 107 spaces, with its own distinctive rules. The goal is to reach space 107, inscribed (in French) ‘Entrance to the Hall of the Heavenly Bridegroom’ – but this space can only be reached from ‘a position of solid virtue’: such positions are represented on spaces 101, 103 and 105, and it is necessary to progress from one to the 34 Gaspard-Félix Tournachon (1820–1910), was a French photographer, caricaturist, journalist, novelist, and balloonist, who used the pseudonym ‘Nadar’. 35 Gédéon Amédé Baril (1832–1906) was a caricaturist from Amiens. 36 D’Allemagne plate 15. 37 D’Allemagne plate 14.

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next by throwing 3, 6, 9 or 12 on the (double) dice. The spaces on the track contain instructions to advance, return, pay to the pool, take from the pool, stay one or two turns, or play one or two extra turns. Doubts and concerns on the way attract penalties and require backward moves. Such games are the functional descendants of earlier games produced explicitly for those entering religious foundations, such as Jollain’s Ecole de la Vérité pour les Nouveaux convertis (end of the 17th century; reissued by Crépy c. 1750) or the game designed by Hamel, former Curate of Mouy: Le Divertissment studieux des Religieuses Ursulines, published in Paris by Crépy at the end of the 17th century. These avowedly spiritual games are to be contrasted with those intended to teach the Bible, such as the game on the Book of Genesis first published by Basset c. 1810.38 As discussed below in Chapter 7, they find no counterpart in the games of Protestant England, which are firmly focussed on moral rather than spiritual ends.

4.9. Games on new themes The 19th century saw the invention of games on new themes, including those designed to appeal to the leisure interests of adults. Theatre interests were especially well represented. The first of these games, Le Nouveau Jeu des Variétés amusantes, showing characters from comedies in costumes of the period, was in fact published by Crépy in 1783 just before the Revolution. However, the main body of games of this genre appeared in the 19th century. Basset’s Le Nouveau jeu des Théatres de Melpomene, Momus et Thalie (c. 1810) is notable for its depictions of the principal actors of the time, in the costumes of their roles and with each theatre, play and actor being named.39 Apart from its interest to historians of the theatre, it is of considerable interest as a game because although it has the traditional 63 spaces, the arrangement of the favourable goose-type spaces is on every eighth space. They are chosen to mark the ‘disastrous effects’ of the game: for example, the first such space shows Charles XII of Sweden in The Battle of Pultava.40 At 48 is Cain in The Death of Abel, again a strange choice for a favourable space. By contrast, the traditional ‘death’ space at 58, with the requirement to begin the game again, shows the roles of Cadet Roussel and of Manon in Cadet Roussel Hector.41 Other hazard spaces of the traditional game are recognised by special rules. For example, at space 19, we find the role of Sophie in Le Petit Courrier:42 the instructions are to pay for the message and to stay for two 38 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 17. 39 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 18. 40 Poltava, 1709, in which battle he was decisively humbled by the forces of Peter the Great. 41 Cadet Roussel Hector ou La tragédie de Troyes en Champagne: a ‘parodie’ by Jean-Toussaint Merle and Théophile Dumersan. 42 Le Petit Courrier, ou commes les femmes se vengent: a comedy by Mrs. M. Bouilly and A. Moreau,

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Figure 4.8: Detail of Basset’s Le Grand Jeu des Danseurs de Corde, Sauteurs et Voltigeurs (Courtesy of Waddesdon (National Trust)).

turns. Because of the arrangement of the goose-type doubling spaces, a special rule is needed for the two possible combinations making up a first throw of 8, i.e. 6 and 2 – go to 26; 5 and 3 – go to 53. These destination spaces are just those expected in the traditional Game of the Goose – but no rule is given for the initial throw of double 4. Like a good many variant goose games, this version seems to have been constructed without much thought as to its practicability. The same publisher brought out, in 1812, the splendidly-titled Le Grand Jeu des Danseurs de Corde, Sauteurs et Voltigeurs.43 This 63-space game is one of the liveliest productions of the house of Basset, with images of clowns and of the feats of acrobats on every space, culminating in the splendid triple rope dance at the centre. The ‘goose’ spaces are represented by the grimacing figures of the ‘Paillasse’ family (i.e. clowns): there are two series, one being on the usual numbers 9,18,27 etc but the other is unusual, being on 4,14,23, 32,41,49, and 59. The reason for this unusual spacing is not evident from the rules. On space 14, we find ‘Jerome Cornichon Gilles Paillasse’, designated as ‘the father of them all’.44 The hazards are as follows: at space 6, a balancing horizontal figure takes the place of the bridge; there is no equivalent of the inn at space 19; space 31 shows Paillasse in a well; space 42, normally the labyrinth, 43 D’Allemagne, plate 47. 44 Watteau’s painting of Pierrot, c. 1718, in the Louvre is traditionally identified as Gilles.

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shows Paillasse trying to keep hold of the ladder to descend from his rope; the prison space at 52 shows an acrobat tied to his rope by one foot; while the death space at 58 shows the young Mezetin.45 He is shown hanging by his neck from his rope, very much alive but with a death’s head in evidence. Then, after Cinderella-fever had gripped all of Paris in 1810, the Widow Chérau brought out Le Jeu de la Petite Cendrillon.46 There were no less than four productions47 related to the story, running in different theatres, as shown in the corner decorations: Lower right – Cendrillon du Théâtre de l’Odéon; lower left – Les Six Pantoufles48, Théâtre de la Vaudeville; upper right – Cendrillon du Théâtre des Variétés;49 upper left – Cendrillon du Théâtre de Faideau. The instructions say that the game can be played with two dice or with two ‘tontons’,50 and that if this latter method is used, the game will be more lively if the players band together in pairs, sharing their winnings and losses, with the two tops being spun together, one by each of the players in the pair. This game, of 63 spaces, has fairies in place of geese. The hazard spaces, some of which have non-classical rules, are taken from the fairy tales of Perrault, e.g. Bluebeard (space 31, with the usual Well rule), Red Riding Hood (space 52 – return to space 42, Tom Thumb), the Ogress (space 58 – return to space 1, the Marquis de Carabas). The non-active spaces are decorated with scenes – both pleasant and painful – of the life of schoolchildren. Though, as mentioned earlier, the achievements of science in 19th-century France were not reflected in thematic games of the period, commerce and trade were well reflected, e.g. in Basset’s Jeu Universel de L’Industrie humaine of 1814.51 Reflecting commerce of a different kind was the Widow Chérau’s Jeu de Paris en Miniature (1803), a dice game which, though based on progression along a numbered rectangular spiral track, is not a Goose variant. It is in fact, as the central text makes clear, a lottery game, the track length of 90 being the number of balls in the French loto. A table in the centre specifies how many jetons are to be paid to or taken from the winner’s pool when a player draws certain specified numbers; the player landing on the final space takes the whole pool. The main interest in the game lies in its depiction of the en­­­seignes of the Parisian shopkeepers, one in each space: the publisher’s text claims 45 Spelled thus; Mezzetin was a stock figure from the Commedia dell’Arte, well known on the Paris stage as the one who always failed. The painting of him by Watteau is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. 46 D’Allemagne, plate 19. 47 For an account of the production history and development of Cendrillon, see: Noémie Courtès, Cendrillon mise en pièces ou la seconde immortalité de Perrault au xixe siècle, on line at http://feeries.revues.org/273 (accessed 28 August 2016). 48 Dupin, Dartois et Favart, Les six pantoufles ou Le rendez-vous des Cendrillons, folie-vaudeville en 1 acte et en prose. First presented at the Vaudeville theatre, Paris, on 29 December 1810. Paris: Martinet, 1810. 49 La petite Cendrillon, ou La chatte merveilleuse, comédie-folie en 1 acte, mêlée de vaudevilles de Desaugiers et Gentil. First presented at the Théâtre des Variétés, Paris, on 12 November 1810. Paris: Barba, 1810. 50 Small, numbered spinning tops, called ‘totums’ or ‘teetotums’ in English. 51 D’Allemagne plate 39.

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Figure 4.9: Detail of Le Jeu de Paris en Miniature, showing the signboards of shops in Paris.

that these depictions are faithful, that the architecture of the finest shops is represented, and that the exact addresses – street and number – are given; the nature of the activity of each shop is also stated. This game sheet thus forms a unique (and beautiful) contemporary record of the important shops of Paris.52 Games on the theme of new means of locomotion began to appear in the middle of the 19th century. The Jeu du Chemin de Fer,53 published by Gangel at Metz c. 1864, is of particular interest since a note on the game states that it was conceived by Ernest Henry, Chef du mouvement of the line from Nancy to Sarrebruck. It is a 63-space game, the favourable goose-type spaces being on 9, 18, 27 etc. The hazards are on the classic spaces and are cleverly adapted: thus, the Well at space 31 becomes a Derailment, the Labyrinth at space 42 is represented by a Turntable, while the Prison at space 52 becomes the Office of the railway Commissaire. The Death space at 58 shows a pair of horses mown down as they attempted to cross the track. The non-active spaces are decorated with drawings of railway equipment and personnel and are useful to transport historians because of their detail. 52 Might this have been an exercise in promotion in which shop-owners paid for the privilege of being featured, rather similar to Tallis’s Street Views of London from 1838 to 1840? 53 D’Allemagne plate 42.

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Figure 4.10:  The Jeu du Tramway, Mauclair-Dacier.

A significant innovation was the invention of twin-track games based on the horsedrawn Tramway. D’Allemagne dates the earliest of these as c. 1855. Thereafter, several editions are found in France, Germany, Italy and the Low Countries: these continue into the 20th century, with updating to electric propulsion instead of the original horses. In all these games, one track is followed by one team of players anticlockwise towards the centre (as in the classic Game of the Goose) while the other track, running clockwise away from the centre, is followed by the opposing team. The favourable goose-type spaces, where the throw is doubled, are indicated by horses’ heads, in two interwoven sequences. The hazards of the Game of the Goose have been adapted quite cleverly to the problems likely to occur on the tramway. Thus, whereas in the classic game the Death space (‘start again’) is at 58, here the equivalent rule applies to the Wrong Track space at 32 red and 31 blue, which shows two trams meeting head on. The Goose prison and well hazards have their counterparts in the Bridge and Passing-place spaces, the rule ‘wait until released by another’ being given added piquancy by requiring that the release must be made by a player from the team of the opposite colour, who then has to wait in turn. This waiting for the oncoming tram at a single-track bridge or a passing-place must have been all too familiar in real life. Finally, the delays of the Goose Inn and Labyrinth spaces have their counterparts in the Derailed and the Fresh Horses spaces. With these ingenious substitutions, the Tramway game is both realistic and playable and indeed must have been popular, judging by the number of new editions over the years.

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4.10. The use of lithography for printed game production in Paris The most important technical development in the production of printed games in France in the 19th century was the introduction of lithography, initially in monochrome but often coloured by hand either with a brush or au pochoir; but in the later decades of the century increasing use was made of chromolithography in the mass production of games.54 The introduction of lithography to France is attributed to Godefroy Engelmann (1788–1839) who, following training in lithography in Munich, opened a studio in Paris in 1816 and obtained a British patent for a high-quality chromolithographic process in 1837.55 D’Allemagne gives a brief account of the changes in methods of production of printed games, noting that by about the middle of the 19th century the traditional methods of fine printing by copper engraving had largely been displaced by lithography and allied techniques of surface printing such as zincography.56 The great names using the older process – Basset, Crépy, Chéreau, Jean and Genty to cite only the most conspicuous – had disappeared or had been absorbed in other enterprises. Of the names that replaced them, the most famous is that of Saussine. This firm was one of the major French manufacturers of games between its founding in 1860 and closure in the 1960s. Their games were often original (the founder, Léon Saussine, held several patents) and were always attractive, making good use of the new process of chromolithography. As well as catering for the French market, they aimed at an international clientele, indicated by the fact that their separate rule sheets were often printed in several languages. Coqueret was another firm producing a good number of attractive games, including a lithographed Jeu de l’oie as early as 1840. It was taken over in 1874 by [Charles] Watilliaux, a firm notable for the quality and inventiveness of their games. One of their ex-employees, Lucien Maucler, founded the company that would become Mauclair-Dacier, which produced a very wide range of games and apparatus for play. Looking ahead into the 20th century, Mauclair-Dacier would become the main partner in the association Les Jeux et Jouets Français, important in the first three decades, while Watilliaux would be taken over by Revenaz and Tabernat.

54 For the history of colour lithography in general, not restricted to games, see: Michael Twyman. A history of chromolithography: printed colour for all. London: British Library and Printing Historical Society, 2013. 55 E.C. Bigmore and C.W.H.Wyman. A Bibliography of Printing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014, pp. 199–201 (originally published 1880−1886). 56 pp. 52–54. D’Allemagne lists (p. 202) a Jeu de l’oie lithographed by the firm of Jean with an attributed date of 1806, but the prints by Jean in the BnF are all engravings, so this would be an unusual production for the firm, if it is indeed a lithograph. He also lists a lithographed Jeu de l’oie by the firm of A.M.Thomaron and dates it to c. 1820; however, Antoine-Marie Thomaron took over Rousseau’s firm only in 1868. Thomaron remained active in the production of games throughout the century, and indeed exhibited games and equipment for playing games at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, as catalogued in class 693.

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4.11. The growing importance of games manufacturers in the ­production of the jeu de l’oie Whereas in the 18th century, at least until abolition of the Guilds in 1791, there was a strict division between makers of game boards (the work of tabletiers such as Vaugeois) and the producers of printed sheets, including those for printed games, the 19th century saw firms such as Mauclair-Dacier embracing both kinds of trade. A great deal of useful and well-organized information about French games and their producers, from the latter half of the 19th century and in the earlier part of the 20th century, is to be found on the admirable web site of the games collector Alain Rabussier.57 For example, the 1898 catalogue of Mauclair-Dacier is presented in full, as is the 1903 catalogue of Watilliaux. These catalogues show the enormous diversity of games and associated apparatus offered for sale in France by major manufacturers. There was a large range in quality and price for different examples of the same game. Thus, the Mauclair-Dacier catalogue offers the following examples of the Jeu de l’oie, with prices in francs: Ordinary, two-fold card, small Ditto, large Fine, two-fold card, half-size Ditto, full size Morocco-covered, size 1 Ditto, corners bound in copper, size 1 Ditto, size 2 Ditto, size 3 Boxed, size 0 Boxed, size 1 Boxed, size 2 Boxed, size 3

2.75 3.75 5.00 6.75 8.75 11.50 16.00 20.00 16.00 32.00 45.00 64.00

The Watilliaux catalogue has a similar list, with the added choice of pions in wood or in lead (in the form of geese). The range of different race games offered by these large manufacturers was restricted and not particularly innovative. Thus – apart from the Jeu de l’oie itself – Watilliaux offered only the Steeplechase game (in a wide variety of sizes, with 4 or 6 jockeys; obstacles in lead were sold separately); the Tour de Monde à bicyclette; and the Voyage à Pekin. Mauclair-Dacier offered a small number of finely-lithographed games, including Le Regiment, noticed above. In general, though, the great variety of

57 http://www.jeuxanciensdecollection.com under the title COLLECTION DE JEUX ANCIENS − présentation de jeux de société anciens classés par types ou par éditeurs (accessed 5 September 2016).

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games based on the Jeu de l’oie that had been provided by the Parisian map and print sellers was not carried on by these manufacturers.

4.12.

The rise of the Imagerie Lorraine

The decline in the Parisian manufacture of printed game sheets was counterbalanced by a remarkable and lasting rise of the production of relatively cheap game sheets in the Lorraine area, specifically the fifteen or so factories in Épinal, Nancy, Metz, Pont-àMousson and Wissembourg, as illustrated by the statistics in Appendix 3a. These centres had concentrated on woodcut production, as had other provincial centres, but in the second half of the 19th century they converted to lithography as that process became industrially available. The location of these centres was in part driven by the availability of locally-manufactured paper. By far the most important factory was that of the Imagerie d’Épinal, which by the end of the century was producing printed images on an industrial scale, with huge print runs.58 It was founded in 1796 by Jean-Charles Pellerin (1756–1836), who was a marchand cartier-dominotier (producer of playing cards, decorated papers and popular prints, including game sheets); wishing to become an imagier, he learned the techniques of wood engraving for reproducing drawings and of colouring au pochoir. The range of popular prints, with their simple outlines and bold bright colours, was founded on a wide variety of religious subjects but many other popular themes were developed over time. The earliest Jeu de l’oie, as noted by D’Allemagne, appeared in 1820, being a woodcut copy of the same game produced by Basset in 1810, but lacking the verses in the corners. Further Pellerin editions of the Jeu de l’oie appeared throughout the century, with a frequency almost matched by the editions of the producers at Metz (Dembour, Gangel, Didier and Delhalt) and, on a smaller scale, the printing co-operative at Nancy (Jarville, Desfeullies, Ferry). These Lorraine producers were by no means restricted to the classic Game of the Goose. As the final column of Appendix 3a indicates, the number and range of thematic Goose-variants was considerable, if not as great as that of the Paris printmakers. They were – apart perhaps for games on military themes intended for boys − essentially games for children of both sexes. Indeed, one of the Pellerin games, the Jeu de la Laitière ou du Pot au Lait, although regularly listed as such a game, is in fact a jeu d’addresse in which the skill consists in pushing an assembled cut-out figure of a milkmaid around the spiral track without her losing any of her milk. As the century ended, the Pellerin factory was producing not only games for sale in France but also games with Dutch text for the Dutch market. 58 The web site https://www.imagesdepinal.com/content/7-un-peu-d-histoire (accessed 1 February 2019) claims that a print run of an advertisement for Singer sewing machines was no less than 500,000 sheets.

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Figure 4.11:  Ganzenbord printed by Pellerin for the Dutch market.

There are also several examples of Amsterdam printers using the blocks from the Lorraine factories and adding Dutch language text in the centre but often retaining the original French inscriptions along the track. An example is the Toovergodinnenspel59 published by the Erve Wijssmuller in Amsterdam but using the images of the Jeu des contes des fées originally published by the Imagerie de P. Didion in Metz c. 1860.60 Further international links emanating from the Lorraine are evident in the Fabbrica d’Immagini production of Italy, as will be discussed in Chapter 9.

4.13. The end of the century The 19th century saw many changes: the disappearance of the great Paris print houses, the growing importance of lithography, the mass production of the Imagerie Lorraine, and the increasing tendency for games of the Goose type to be thought of as games for children rather than for gambling or for diversion in fashionable society. All these factors influenced the market for printed games and the way its demands 59 Donatino Domini, Giochi a Stampa in Europa. Ravenna: Longo Editore, 1985, p. 80. 60 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 19.

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were met by producers. The game had to compete with other colourfully-printed games, especially the innumerable variants of Lotto.61 Nevertheless, at the end of the century the Jeu de l’oie remained a family favourite and even today in France many people remember playing it at home with their grandmothers. Its legacy will be explored in the second part of this book.

61 For a colourful illustrated overview of French printed games of all kinds in the 19th century, see Geneviève Pierrot and Françoise Mahy, L’imagerie des jeux de société au XIXe siècle. Caen: Editions GPFM, 2012.

5.

An overview of British games

5.1. The importance of London in the history of British printed games This short chapter provides an overview of the history of British games that occupies the next two chapters. It is complemented by an appendix that lists, following the research of John Spear, all known British printed board games up to about 1870. The history of British printed board games is essentially the history of games published in London, with no more than a handful of exceptions.1 There is no equivalent of the very significant provincial production that provided France with games cheaper than the up-market Paris games. Furthermore, the great majority of British games are British inventions: though the Game of the Goose and the Game of the Snake were imported early in the history, there is no evidence of systematic adaption of laterinvented games from Europe, though there are a few interesting exceptions. Those that are significant in the history of the development of British games are highlighted in this overview.

5.2. The three games of popular amusement in England from 1600 to 1800 England participated in the general pan-European diffusion of the Game of the Goose from Italy at the end of the sixteenth century. The first recorded introduction of the Game of the Goose to England was in 1597, when the game was registered at Stationers’ Hall. From then on, for some two hundred years, this game became a mainstay of popular amusement and gambling. The track was invariably based closely on the classic 63-space game. The only significant innovation made by the English publishers was in the incidental iconography used to decorate the game sheet, when distinctive portrait medallions were introduced to provide an element of topicality. By 1800, the popularity of the Game of the Goose had waned and though attempts were made thereafter to re-introduce it, particularly using visually-attractive tracks formed in the shape of a goose, it was largely ousted by other race games of English invention. 1 Indeed, were it not for an isolated Scottish imprint (James Lumsden & son, Glasgow), the term English games would cover all British games. A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462984974_ch05

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The second game of popular amusement during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was the Game of Cupid or of the Snake: this was essentially the same game as discussed in Chapter 3, Section 6, though stripped of the text explaining its numerological and symbolic significance. Given the popularity of the game in Holland, and the close trading links with England, it is likely that it arrived from there rather than from France. Like the Game of the Goose, it was always a 63-space game, varying only in its incidental iconography. A third game of popular amusement during this period was, however, an English invention: the Game of Courtship and Matrimony, which began to appear in the 1740s. It is clearly a Goose variant, with the characteristic throw-doubling spaces and several of the classic hazards, though the numerological relationships of the classic game are not preserved and the track length is in fact 64. Its rarity suggests that it never had the success of the other two games. These three games are further discussed in Chapter 6.

5.3. British educational games in the eighteenth century – a ­cartographic invention Despite the development of French educational games from the mid-seventeenth century onwards, there is no evidence of any cross-fertilization from France to England until the very end of the 18th century. That is not to deny that French printed games may have been imported, though even this is hard to document. The point is that French thematic games seem to have had no impact on the English production. It could, of course, be that English versions were produced but are now lost; however, in such cases, one would expect the titles to be recorded in the Term Catalogues or in advertisements, and none has been found. The earliest English educational games appear in the mid-eighteenth century. They are map-based games, offering maps of Europe and the Holy Land, intended to replicate the journeys of the Grand Tour. They are distinctive in that the numbered track wanders from city to city across the face of the map; in this regard, they are quite unlike the early French cartographic games, in which the track is a series of vignette maps, usually with a key map in the centre. They are an English invention, though interestingly the earliest examples are clearly based on the Game of the Goose: the capital cities act as throw-doubling spaces and there are hazards which replicate the playing effect of some of the classical hazards. However, the numerological relationships of the classic game are wholly absent. After the invention of the ‘Tour of Europe’ games, the eighteenth century saw similar cartographic tours of England and Wales, of Scotland, of Ireland and – at the turn of the century – complete voyages round the World.

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These cartographic games were often produced by the publishers of maps in general, so it is not surprising that many of them were presented in the same form as pocket folding maps, i.e. dissected, laid on linen and folded into a slip-case; though there is evidence that many were also available as unfolded game sheets laid on pasteboard. Indeed, the term ‘linen-backs’ is often used by game collectors for British printed games in general. The presentation of folded games in a slipcase made possible the development of rule booklets. This had two advantages for the publisher: it meant that the game sheet no longer had to be cluttered with a mass of unsightly text; and correspondingly the limit on the amount of instructional material was removed. Whether this was always an advantage for the player is open to question. In the British educational games of the 19th century, there was often a requirement that large chunks of text be read out from the booklet, sometimes on every spin. This meant that the game became more educationally worthy but dull to play – and so not necessarily more effective as an educational tool.

5.4. British Games at the turn of the 18th century – the beginnings of thematic diversity The years around the turn of the 18th century began the diversification of themes for English games. The first of these diversified games, The New Game of Human Life, was issued by Elizabeth Newbery and John Wallis in 1790. It shows clear evidence of French ‘inspiration’, i.e. appropriation by copying of a game published by Crépy in 1775.2 Arguably, it was this significant import that set off the diverse flowering of British moral and educational games associated with the Late Georgian and Victorian eras. The two chapters that follow the present one use the date of this importation as a very rough watershed, Chapter 6 being concerned with games up to the turn of the 18th century and Chapter 7 covering the 19th century. These chapters may thus be compared directly with the two chapters on French games, themselves demarcated by the date of the French Revolution. It is interesting that the total number of different games produced in the two countries up to 1900 is broadly comparable, each being in the order of 300. However, the distribution in time is very different: there is no contemporary equivalent in Britain to the variety of thematic games produced in France before the Revolution. Then, in the 19th century, the inventive spirit comes suddenly alive: the golden age of British printed board games in all their thematic diversity.

2

See Chapter 7 Section 2 for details.

110 

5.5.

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Literature and collections

The classic reference book for British printed games is Whitehouse: still useful, though outdated in its coverage, omitting perhaps a hundred games now known to exist.3 The first edition has colour plates, poorly reproduced in black-and-white in the second. The index is unreliable. However, some attempt is made to describe the essence of many games, going beyond a narrow bibliographic approach by looking at the significance of important playing spaces in relation to the theme of a game. Mention must also be made of the little catalogue compiled by Percy Muir of the exhibition Children’s Books of Yesterday held at 7 Albemarle Street, London in May 1946.4 Muir was ahead of his time in recognising the importance of printed games and a whole section of the exhibition was devoted to them. The catalogue lists them as: moral games (exhibits 934−942); animal games, including the Game of the the Goose (943−956); race games (957−961); and miscellaneous games (962−972). For detailed information on the publishers of printed board games, a most useful source is the excellent work by Laurence Worms and Ashley Baynton-Williams.5 Though it is limited to map engravers and lithographers, in fact this coverage is sufficient to include most of the important publishers of printed board games. Likewise, a surprising amount of information about printed board games and their publishers is included in the work by Linda Hannas on jigsaw puzzles, largely because the English publishers not infrequently offered their printed game sheets as dissected puzzles, as well as in conventional form.6 Of bibliographical studies, the most important is Jill Shefrin’s monumental work, covering in detail the output of printed pastimes and ephemeral material published by the two London houses of Darton, at Gracechurch Street and at Holborn Hill.7 This complements the check list of books covered in the earlier study by Lawrence Darton.8 The Dartons were undeniably the greatest of the producers of printed material for children over the long period from 1787 to 1876. The bibliographic information compiled by Jill Shefrin on this ephemeral material, including that on the printed board games, is exemplary in its thoroughness. The valuable introductory essays include a brief history of printed teaching aids and a longer explanation of technical and historical terms used in the descriptions. However, the book does not go into 3 Francis R. B. Whitehouse, Table Games of Georgian and Victorian Days. London: Peter Garnett, 1951. Second edition (revised) Royston, Hertfordshire: Priory Press, 1971. 4 Percy H. Muir, Children’s Books of Yesterday. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press for the National Book League, 1946. 5 Laurence Worms and Ashley Baynton-Williams. British Map Engravers: A Dictionary of Engravers, Lithographers and their Principal Employers to 1850. London: Rare Book Society, 2011. 6 Linda Hannas. The English Jigsaw Puzzle, 1760−1890. London: Wayland, 1972. 7 Jill Shefrin. The Dartons. Los Angeles: Cotsen Occasional Press, 2009. 8 Lawrence Darton. The Dartons: an Annotated Check List of Children’s Books Issued by Two Publishing Houses 1787−1876. London: The British Library, 2004.

An overview of British games

111

any detail on the significance of the playing spaces in board games and their rules in relation to their themes. Similarly, the check-list by Marjorie Moon of the output of John Harris and his son gives no detail of this kind.9 A number of large-format books reproduce a few British games so as to make them available for play: they are effective sources in that the full rules are given and the format assures legibility of the game sheet. Good examples are those by Brian Love10 and by R.C. Bell.11 By contrast, the recent book by Ellen Liman emphasises the artistic qualities of the games, with superbly-detailed illustrations, but generally does not give complete rules for play.12 Of UK museum collections of British printed games, that in the Victoria and Albert Museum’s Museum of Childhood at Bethnal Green, London, is the most useful, having legible downloadable images of some 30 games, with good descriptions.13 The Bodleian Library, Oxford, has similarly good images attached to its (incomplete) online catalogue, with zoomable images available through Digital Bodleian; rule books and other playing equipment are digitised, too – a commendable practice. The British Museum’s Charlotte Schreiber collection of printed board games is predominantly non-British, apart from a few examples. The British Library’s Department of Cartography is strong in map-based games but digital access is at present poor. In the USA, small numbers of British Games of the Georgian and Victorian periods are to be found in several libraries, notably the Pierpoint Morgan Library, New York; the Lilly Library, Bloomington, Indiana; the Centre for British Art at Yale; and the Special Collections Library of UCLA in Los Angeles. In Canada, the Osborne Collection at the Toronto Public Library has a significant holding. However, none of these individually has a sufficient collection to give a representative overview of British games. The strongest collection − whether private or public − is that formed by John Spear, a private collector in Tennessee, USA, who has made a special study of these games. Apart from the games in his collection, numbering over 180 different examples, he has identified and listed a further 160 or so games that are known to exist, bringing the total of extant games dating from before about 1870 to around 340. He has kindly given permission for his work to be used as the basis of the check list in the appendix to this chapter.

9 Marjorie Moon. John Harris’s Books for Youth 1801−1843. Cambridge: Marjorie Moon and A. J. B. Spilman in association with Grey Owls Press, 1976. A short supplement was published in 1983. 10 Brian Love. Play the Game. London: Michael Joseph, 1978. 11 R.C. Bell. The Board Game Book. London: Marshall Cavendish, 1979. 12 Ellen Liman. Georgian and Victorian Board Games: The Liman Collection. New York: Pointed Leaf Press, 2017. Referenced as ‘Liman’. 13 Many games from the V & A collection are illustrated in relatively small format in: Caroline Goodfellow. A Collector’s Guide to Games and Puzzles. London: Apple Press, 1991.

112 

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Appendix 5a Introduction to the check list of British games 1. Introduction The following list is based on the painstaking research of John Spear. It lists over 300 different board games played with dice or teetotum, all known to exist either in museums or in private collections. The list does not include card games, though a handful of games that are played by drawing numbered cards from a bag instead of with dice are included. Also not listed are games known only by their titles gleaned from advertising material or mentioned on other games; these cannot in any case be reliably identified as board games without scrutiny of an example. By no means all the items listed are single-track race games – in some cases, a note clarifies the type of game. Where slipcases, booklets or other materials are associated with a game, they present particular bibliographical challenges. Not least is the difficulty of being certain that the material now present with a particular example of a game did originally accompany it. For example, collectors or dealers may purchase a game lacking one or both of these elements, in the hope of later acquiring them separately. Thus, though slipcases and booklets are often dated even when the game sheet is not, relying on these to date the game sheet is perilous. Another problem is that not infrequently the form of the title given on the slipcase or in the booklet may differ significantly from that on the game sheet; and the same may be true for other bibliographical information, such as the publisher’s address. The only completely safe approach would be to regard the game sheet, the slipcase and the booklet as separate entities for bibliographical purposes, leaving it to the user of the bibliography to make the connections. A full bibliography along these lines would also have to list playing equipment and in some instances the special boxes in which particular games were presented. A simpler approach is taken in the following list: it concentrates on the game sheet itself, without attempting to cover completely all associated material. 2. Organisation of the list The publisher’s name is used as the basis for organising the list because the author/ designer of printed games is very seldom known. Games are listed alphabetically by publisher, then by title of the game, then in date order, if more than one edition is listed. The ‘Year’ entry gives the estimated date of the game, followed by an indication of the ‘Source’ of the date information: letter A if the year is printed on the game sheet, letter B if it is taken from slipcase or rule book, or letter C if it is estimated from other

An overview of British games

113

sources. When dating a game sheet by reference to more than one piece of associated material, the earliest date is used. In the notes, ‘slipcase’ is abbreviated SC, ‘rulebook’ as RB. The game title appears as on the game, though capitalisation has been simplified and a uniform Roman type face employed. Sub-titles of little interest may be omitted without any indication and long titles may be abbreviated The full address of the publisher is given, though again capitalisation has been simplified and a uniform Roman type face employed For single-track games, the entry gives the number of spaces, where known: this is often a useful guide to identification. Where information has been supplied editorially, it is included within square brackets.

Jumbo Walking in the Zoo/Jumbo the Children’s Friend

Race to the Gold Diggings of Australia − in wooden box [Reeves?]

Ships and Commerce or Merchants of the Mediterra­ [1 Gainford Place, Islington] nean [with 73 products cards in box − Standring?]

Ships at Sea or Ocean Route to India

Young Travellers Tour thro’ Europe [SC] (signed Bar­ foot) (Jarrold & Sons Rule book printers)

Beside the Broad Ocean

Barfoot, J

Barfoot, J

Barfoot, J

Barfoot, J

Barfoot, J

Barfoot, JW

9 Skinner Street, Snow Hill, Clerkenwell

Hunt the Ghost

Jack and the Bean Stalk

Little Pigs, Royal Game of

Little Red Riding Hood

Lord Dundreary’s Voyage to Brother Sam

Poles and Russians

Bennett, EC

Bennett, EC

Bennett, EC

Bennett, EC

Bennett, EC

Bennett, EC

9 Skinner Street, Snow Hill, Clerkenwell

9 Skinner Street, Snow Hill, Clerkenwell

9 Skinner Street, Snow Hill, Clerkenwell

9 Skinner Street, Snow Hill, Clerkenwell

9 Skinner Street, Snow Hill, Clerkenwell

n/a

Barry, David Thomas India, a traveling game of/Thomas Hatchard (36 cards)

[1 Gainford Place, Islington]

[1 Gainford Place, Islington]

[1 Gainford Place, Islington]

[1 Gainford Place, Islington]

[1 Gainford Place, Islington]

[1 Gainford Place, Islington] [1 Gainford Place, Islington]

Happy Sands, The

[1 Gainford Place, Islington]

[1 Gainford Place, Islington]

John Bull’s Visit to America

Derby Day, The

Barfoot, J

Barfoot, J

Costume Ball Given by Her Majesty

Barfoot, J

Full Address

Barfoot, J

Abbrev Title

Publisher

Compiled by John Spear

Appendix 5b Check list of British games

56

12

12

110

60

121

80

50

50

1860

1860

1860

1860

1860

1860

1858

1890

1856

1859

1859

1852

1860

1859

1865

1865

1850

Spaces Year

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

Source

114  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

21 35

Astronomical Recreation [SC] or A Peep at the Heav­ 115, Strand, London ens [RB] (2 sizes, with box)

7 Compton Street, Brunswick Square Published by John Betts, 115 Strand, London.

Asia Delineated

Chain Of Events in English History, A

Europe Delineated, Bett’s Geographical Pastime Europe (SC) [also as a puzzle]

Gathering of the Nations, The Royal Game of the (1851 [Cover]) (Barfoot) [Later sold by A. N. Myers]

Journey to Lindley Murray’s [Also done as a puzzle]

London: 115, Strand. Tour through England & Wales [2states: 1a- c.1850Betts on map only; 1b- c.1850-Betts on map&border; 2- c.1850-Betts on border only]

Tour through England & Wales [in book form]

Tour through Europe

Tour through Scotland [no sign whether Betts or Phillips]

Tour through the British Colonies & Foreign Posses­ sions

World on Mercator’s Projection, The [game]/Voyage Round the World [cover]

The World on Mercator’s Projection/Voyage Round the World

Betts, John

Betts, John

Betts, John

Betts, John

Betts, John

Betts, John

Betts, John

Betts, John

Betts, John

Betts, John

Betts, John

Betts, John/Phillips & Sons

London, 32 Fleet Street/Liverpool Phillip Son & Nephew

London: John Betts, 115, Strand.

115 Strand.

[115, Strand, London]

London: 115, Strand.

London: 115, Strand.

London: John Betts, 115 Strand.

London, John Betts, 115 Strand. Nearly op­ posite Exeter Hall.

[115, Strand, London]

London: John Betts, 115 Strand.

30

53

53

37

80

104

92

104

53

130

NA

Animal Accidents

Betts, John

13

Betts, John

9 Skinner Street, Snow Hill, Clerkenwell

Whittincton [sic] & His Cat

1870

1850

1850

1850

1850

1850

1850

1850

1851

1831

1840

1850

1850

1850

1860

Spaces Year

Bennett, EC

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

B

C

C

C

C

C

C

Source

An overview of British games

115

Tour through Europe [Also see by Phillips&Son − c.1870]

Life in London/The New Game of (15 Dec 1821)

Zodiac or A Peep at the Planets (Dec 1823) (1824 on game & slipcase)

History of England, Genealogical & Chronological Game of the; by Mrs. O’Sullivan [4+ editions]

British Geographical Amusement-Tour thro England & Wales (2 Feb 1795)

British Geographical Amusement-Tour thro England & Wales (2 Feb 1800) (2states: a- 1800; b- c.1800-no date)

Courtship and Matrimony, Bowles’s New Invented & Entertaining Game of/to be played with Dice, Cards, or an Index

European Geographical Amusement, Bowles/Grand Tour of Europe

Geographical Game of Europe/Grand Tour by Dr Nugent

Goose, Bowles’s Royal and Entertaining Game of the No. 69 in St Pauls Church Yard, London. [not on linen] (George III & Queen Charlotte medal­ lions)

Royal Pastime of Cupid or Entertaining Game of the, Printed for Bowles & Carver at their Map & Print Bowles’s Warehouse, No. 69 in St. Pauls Church Yard, London.

Betts, John/Phillips & Sons

Bielefeld, I&E/ Payne&Son

Bielefeld, I&E/ Payne&Son

Bowdery & Kerby

Bowles & Carver

Bowles & Carver

Bowles & Carver

Bowles & Carver

Bowles & Carver

Bowles & Carver

Bowles & Carver

[69 St. Paul’s Church Yard]

[69 St. Paul’s Church Yard]

1795

1800

63

1800

1795

63

102

1795

64

Printed for Bowles & Carver at their Map & Print Warehouse, No. 69 St. Paul’s Church Yard, London

1800

114

No. 69 St Pauls Ch:Yard

C

C

C

C

C

A

A

C

1816 1795

A

A

C

C

Source

1823

114

24

1821

1870

104 32

1870

104

Spaces Year

No. 69 St Pauls Ch:Yard

Printed for Bowdery and Kerby, Juvenile Library, No. 190, Oxford Street [RB]

Bielefeld-No.72 St Martins Lane & Payne-High Holborn & Cole-Basing Lane

Sold by Bielefeld-St Martins Lane & Payne-High Holborn & Cole-Basing Lane

London, 32 Fleet Street/Liverpool Phillip Son & Nephew

London: 32 Fleet Street [Rules]

Tour through England & Wales [in cardboard box with equipment, no publisher on game]

Betts, John/Phillips & Sons

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

116  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Printed for Carrington Bowles at his Map & Print Warehouse, No. 69 St. Paul’s Church Yard, London

Courtship and Matrimony, A New Invented and En­ tertaining Game of/Hymen’s Advice to the Ladies.

England & Wales/Bowles British Geographical Amusement (2 Feb 1780)

England&Wales/Bowles British Geographical Amuse­ [69 St. Paul’s Church Yard] ment (2 Feb 1791)

Bowles, Carrington

Bowles, Carrington

Bowles, Carrington

Goose, Royal and Most Pleasant Game of, The

Goose, Royal Game (Prtr=Whitaker & Sullivan) with & London without publisher name on game-not on linen

Bowles, John&Son

Carpenter, N

Carpenter, N

Middleton’s New Geographical Game/Tour through England & Wales [Same title as Harris 1829]

Published by N Carpenter, 11 Goswell Terrace, Goswell Road

63

63

63

Snake/Royal Pastime of Cupid or Entertaining Game No. 69 in St Pauls Church Yard, London. of the Snake [mounted on cardboard]

Bowles, Carrington

London: Printed for and sold by John Bowles and Son at the Black Horse in Cornhill.

77

Printed for Carrington Bowles Map & Print Sel­ Journey through Europe or The Play of Geography ler, No. 69 in St. Pauls Church Yard, London. (14 Sep 1759) Invented and Sold by the Proprietor, John Jefferys, at his house in Chapel Street, near the Broad Way, Westmr./Nicholas Brook’s ad in PA Packet on 31 Jul 1775

Bowles, Carrington

1850

1835

1755

1770

1759

1762

63

Goose/Royal and Entertaining Game of the/ Queen Charlotte

Bowles, Carrington

Printed for Carrington Bowles Map & Print Sel­ ler, No. 69 in St. Pauls Church Yard, London.

1791 1770

114

1780

1790

64

114

1795

76

Spaces Year

102

Europe/Bowles’s European Geographical Amuse­ ment/Grand Tour of/by Dr Nugent (1 Jan 1770) but 1789 listed in rules at #3

Bowles, Carrington

No. 69 in St Pauls Church Yard, London.

No. 69 St Pauls Ch:Yard

Printed for Bowles & Carver at their Map & Print Warehouse, No. 69 St. Paul’s Church Yard, London

World, Bowles Geographical Game of the World

Bowles & Carver

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

C

C

C

C

A

C

A

A

A

C

C

Source

An overview of British games

117

London: – Printed and Published by D. Car­ valho, 74, Chiswell-Street, Finsbury Square.

Pence Table, The New Game of the

Public Buildings, The New Game of

Combat with the Giant (1 Sep 1796)

Magic Ring (1 Nov 1796) [Move 2 extra spaces if land Jewry Street, Aldgate on Magic Ring #33]

Carvalho, D

Carvalho, D

Carvalho, D

Champante & Whitrow

Champante & Whitrow

Grammatical Game in Rhyme – by a Lady (Author – E. Rowse) [Rules by Darton & Harvey-3 Mar 1802]

London: – Printed and Published by D. Car­ valho, 74, Chiswell-Street, Finsbury Square.

Multiplication Table, The New Game of

Carvalho, D

Conder, Samuel

London: – Printed and Published by D. Car­ valho, 74, Chiswell-Street, Finsbury Square.

Moses, Most Remarkable Events in the Life of, and travels of the Children of Israel from Egypt to the Land of Canaan

Carvalho, D

Mythological Amusement (Author – E.Rowse) (1 Jun 1804) [(Rules by Darton & Harvey; also sold by J Harris]

1813

Life & Military Adventures of the Duke of Wellington [74, Chiswell Street, Finsbury Square] from 1787 to 1815 [74, Chiswell Street, Finsbury Square]

Europe – Pastime in Sport/Science in Earnest

Carvalho, D

Conder & Jones

1820

Emulation, The New Game of/or Road to Knowledge London: – Published by D. Carvalho, 74, Chiswell-Street, Finsbury Square.

London. Published for the Author. Saml. Con­ der, Cheapside. Jany. 22d.1802

London Published by Conder and Jones, Cheapside. June 1st. 1804

Printed for Champante and Whitrow, Jewry Street, Aldgate

74, Chiswell Street, Finsbury Square

88

51

50

1802

1804

1796

1796

1825

26 18

1826

1835

1820

1826

30

71

30

21

20

1828

38

Carvalho, D

London: – Printed and Published by D. Car­ valho, 74, Chiswell-Street, Finsbury Square.

Chronology, The New Game of/of King George IV’s [SC] (31 Dec 1828)

Carvalho, D

1833

17

Napoleon Buonaparte, The Eventful Career of [in Hull Published by N. Carpenter, 29 Goswell Terrace, Municipal Gallery] London.

Spaces Year

Carpenter, N

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

A

A

A

A

C

C

C

A

C

C

C

B

C

Source

118  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

35

London: Darton and Clark, Holborn Hill [SC]

London: William Darton, 58, Holborn Hill.

Virtue Rewarded and Vice Punished – T. Newton’s Game

Goldfields of Australia, New Game of (Barfoot de­ sign) Printed between 1851–62

Mansion of Bliss – T. Newton’s Game

Trip to India or the Juvenile Waghorn (Barfoot)

Asiatic Ostrich, The Majestic Game of (Possibly 2 Feb London; William Darton; 58, Holborn Hill 1822)

London: Wm. Darton, 58, Holborn Hill.

British Sovereigns, The/from William the Conqueror to Victoria the First – Peter Parley’s/Royal Victoria/ Kings & Queens

Basket of Fruit, Delicious Game of

Birds and Beasts, New and Elegant Game of

British and Foreign Animals

British and Foreign Birds/Wonders of Nature

Dolphin, Royal Game of the

Elephant & Castle, Noble Game of/Traveling in Asia (4 Mar 1822)

England, Game of

Golden Shield, The Game of the/European Traveller

Halliday’s Numerical Game (1860 ad)

Darton & Clark

Darton & Clark

Darton & Co

Darton & Co

Darton & Co

Darton, W

Darton, W

Darton, W

Darton, W

Darton, W

Darton, W

Darton, W

Darton, W

Darton, W

Darton, W

[58, Holborn Hill]

London: William Darton, 58, Holborn Hill.

[58, Holborn Hill]

London: William Darton: 58, Holborn Hill.

London, William Darton, 58, Holborn Hill

London; William Darton; 58, Holborn Hill

London; William Darton; 58, Holborn Hill

[58, Holborn Hill]

[58, Holborn Hill]

London: Darton & Co., Holborn Hill

London, Published by Darton & Clark. 58, Holborn Hill

20

[58, Holborn Hill]

Basket of Fruit, Delicious Game of the

Darton & Clark

20

25

20

25

37

19

20

20

20

34

25

33

1820

1822

1819

1822

1821

1820

1820

1821

1822

1822

1855

1855

1855

1840

1838

1845

1840

n/a Paths of Life (Author: George Dillwyn) (Prntr – R. Cartwright) [Similar to Darton&Harvey sheet of same name – 30 May 1794]

Cotterell, J H

40

1822

Arithmetical Chances/Imperial Game of [Probably by Arbemarle Street, Clerkenwell Edward Wallis]

Spaces Year

Const, JH

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

C

B

C

A

B

B

B

B

A

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

B

Source

An overview of British games

119

141 155

Survey of London by a Party of Tarry-At-Home Travel­ London, Wm. Darton, 58 Holborn Hill. lers [St Pauls pointing up or down]

Swan, Noble Game of the

Useful Knowledge/The Elegant and Instructive Game London: William Darton, 58, Holborn Hill. of

Walkers Tour through England & Wales [Geo IV died- London [SC] Space # 115]

British Sovereigns from William the Conqueror to William the Fourth, The

Published 9th. May 1834 by W. Darton & Son Walkers Geographical Pastime or Tour through the Eastern Hemisphere (with Western Hem. in box with equipment) (9 May 1834)

Darton, W

Darton, W

Darton, W

Darton, W

Darton, W & Son

Darton, W & Son

Walkers Geographical Pastime or Tour through the Western Hemisphere (& with Eastern in box with teetotums, pillars, & counters (9 May 1834) (Willm Darton & Voyage on sleeve but no date)

Mansion of Bliss – T. Newton’s Game − simple colour No. 58, Holborn Hill, London. (4 Jun 1810) T. Newton del et script.

Virtue Rewarded and Vice Punished − T. Newton’s Game [also undated/no name; a copy?]

Darton, W & Son

Darton, W & T

Darton, W & T

Published 9th May 1834 by W.Darton & Son; Holborn Hill, London.

London: Published by William Darton, 58, Holborn Hill.

London: Published by W. Darton, 58, Holborn Hill.

Mansion of Bliss − T. Newton’s Game [fancy pattern around game]

Darton, W

33

34

141

118

51

19

17

34

45

Learning in Sport/Game to Promote Improvement/ London: William Darton, 58, Holborn Hill. and Amuse a Friendly Party [sim. to J.Wallis Naturalist 1813]

1818

1810

1834

1834

1837

1830

1821

1821

1820

1822

1821

Spaces Year

Darton, W

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

C

A

A

A

C

C

B

B

C

B

B

Source

120  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Walkers Tour through England & Wales (2 Jan 1809)

Walkers Tour through Europe (1 May 1810) Rules W. Darton, Jr

La Fontaine in the game of Goose [English trans­ lation of French game] Produced by Demonville (Paris), mounted on linen and sold by Darton Jr. (20 Jan 1810)

Virtue Rewarded and Vice Punished, The New Game of/T. Newton’s Game

Published 9th May 1816 by W.Darton Junr. 58 Walkers Geographical Pastime or Tour Through The Eastern Hemisphere & Western Hemisphere Holborn Hill, London. (9 May 1816) (Willm Darton 1 Jan 1821 on sleeve) (155E/141W)/1811=Map Only-not game (1812 Adv.)

Walkers Geographical Tour through Scotland (9 Mar 1812)

Walkers Tour through France (6 Jun 1815)

Walkers Tour through Ireland (9 Mar 1812)

Crystal Palace Game – Voyage Round the World By Smith Evans; L’Enfant Lithographer

Journey, The/or Cross Roads to Conqueror’s Castle [copy of Spooner game] (1 Nov 1861)

Matrimony, Dean’s New Map Game of

Darton, W & T

Darton, W & T

Darton, W Jr

Darton, W Jr

Darton, W Jr

Darton, W Jr

Darton, W Jr

Darton, W Jr

Davis, Alfred & Co

Dean & Son

Dean & Son

[11 Ludgate Hill]

82

113

199

205

155

33

63

133

118

33

1861

1861

1854

1812

1815

1812

1816

1818

1810

1810

1809

1810

Spaces Year

London: Published by Dean & Son, Ludgate Hill LR

58, 59, & 60 Houndsditch

London. Published March 9th 1812 by Wm Darton Junr. 58 Holborn Hill

London. Published June 6th.1815 by Wm Dar­ ton Junr. 58 Holborn Hill

London. Published March 9th. 1812. by Wm. Darton Junr. 58 Holborn Hill.

London: Published by Wm. Darton; 58, Holborn Hill.

Sold by W. Darton Jnr.

Published for the Author May.1st.1810 by W&T Darton. Holborn Hill.

Published for the Author. January 2nd 1809 by W&T Darton. 58 Holborn Hill.

London. Published Jan.18 1810 by W&T Dar­ Virtue Rewarded and Vice Punished − T. Newton’s Game − simple colour/blank between circles (18 Jan ton, 58 Holborn Hill. 1810) th

Darton, W & T

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

C

A

C

A

A

A

A

B

A

A

A

A

Source

An overview of British games

121

Dean & Son, Lith. 31 Ludgate Hill [11 Ludgate Hill] Weymouth, F.C. Dean, St. Thomas Stt. Weymouth, F.C. Dean, St. Thomas Stt.

Siege of Sebastopol

Twelfth Night, Game of Characters [A riddle game]

France & Austria

Mill, Dean’s New Game of the

Swan Hopping, Game of

Sovereigns of England/A Chronological Game of the- Deighton Booksellers & Stationers, Worcester included cards (British Library) (5 Jun 1844)

Dean & Son

Dean & Son

Dean, F C

Dean, F C

Dean, F C

Deighton & Co

Europe, Geo-Chronology of (Book, Map & Discs)

Musical Game for Children, invented by L Drum­ mond (1808 on rules & slipcase)

Didier & Tebbett

Didier & Tebbett

Published for Didier & Tebbett at their reposito­ ry of instructive games for children & Juvenile Library of English, French, and Italian books, No. 75 St. James’s Street, London 1806

[75 St. James’s Street] 86

73

England, Historical Game of (Sleeve/Wood box) − Box & Discs Only (10 Mar 1804) Original 1791 by Dudley Adams from French version/Reissued by John Wallis 1811

Didier & Tebbett

Published for Didier & Tebbett 75 St. James’s St London

British Kings/Game of the (2 Jan 1809)

Didier & Tebbett

63 52

Royal Passtime of Cupid, or the new & most pleasant Printed and Sold by W.Dicey, at his PrintingOffice in Bow Church-Yard London. game of the snake

Dicey, W

70

110

61

37

at their Juvenile Repository, 75 St James’s Street

Great Blockade, The (Design by Barfoot?) (Pub by James? Or W. Childs in 1863?)

Dewhirst & Co

London

Weymouth, F.C. Dean, St. Thomas St.

Siege of Delhi [Seen at Percy Muir Exhibition of 1946] [31 Ludgate Hill]

Dean & Son

85

1861

Sham Fight, Dean & Sons New Game of the [Sheet of [11 Ludgate Hill] cut-out soldiers-play with dice as war game]

Dean & Son

1806

1805

1804

1809

1740

1863

1844

1840

1840

1840

1855

1855

1855

1850

[11 Ludgate Hill]

Road to Wealth or How to Know London (4 sections on cardboard) [Late?]

Dean & Son

1861

[11 Ludgate Hill]

Rifle Practice, Dean’s New Royal Game of (Sheet of cut-out soldiers-play with dice)

Dean & Son

Spaces Year

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

A

B

A

A

C

B

B

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

Source

122  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Punchinellography of England by Mr. Wauthuer, Geog. (1 Jan 1808)

Romans/Historical Game Chart, Map, & Discs

Tactics, British Game of

Royall Pass-Tyme of Cupid, or The New & Most Pleasant Game of the Snake

Snap Dragon or Uncle Seafare’s Jolly handful of Plumbs

Didier & Tebbett

Didier & Tebbett

Dunnett, J

Garrett, John

Goode, T

London, Published Novr 2, 1818 for the Author by Goulding, D’Almaine, Potter & Co, 20 Soho Sqr. no publisher or address on game or slipcase E. Wallis, No. 42 Skinner Street and J Harris & Son, St. Pauls Church Yard Published by E. Wallis, No. 42 Skinner Street and J Harris & Son, St. Pauls Church Yard, London. Published by E. Wallis, No. 42 Skinner Street and J Harris & Son, St. Pauls Church Yard, London.

Musical Characters, Goodban’s/Performances in General (2 Nov 1818)

Hieroglyphicks, The New and Entertaining Game of (1 Jan 1826) [pg 8 RB]

Historical Pastime or History of England – George IV (Rules 1824,1828,1831-after he died)

Historical Pastime or History of England – Victoria (also in hardcover edition)

Historical Pastime or History of England – William IV (also 1828 −2 years before he became king)

Sun of Brunswick, The/Exhibiting the Principal Events London: Published 1 May 1820 by John Harris, During the Reign of George The Good. (William IV) (1 St. Paul’s Church Yard and E. Wallis, Skinner Street [SC] May 1820)

Gouyn, H

Harris, J & Son & Wallis, E

Harris, J & Son & Wallis, E

Harris, J & Son & Wallis, E

Harris, J & Wallis, E

30 Aylesbury Street, Clerkenwell

Printed & Sold by John Garrett at his shop next ye Stayres of ye Royal Exchange in Cornhill.

[Dunnetts Toy Warehouse, Cheapside

Published at Didier’s & Tebbett’s Juvenile Library, N0. 75 St. James’s Street

Published by Didier&Tebbett, 75, St. James’s St

Full Address

Potter & Co

Goulding, D’Almaine,

Abbrev Title

Publisher

1824 1837

1831

1820

135

133

151

1826

1818

1859

133

35

147

19

1690

1826

1805

86

63

1808

54

Spaces Year

A

B

C

B

A

A

C

C

C

A

A

Source

An overview of British games

123

119

50

Published by J. Harris, St. Paul’s Church Yard.

Published Nov. 1 – 1809, by J. Harris, at the Ju­ venile Library, Corner of St. Paul’s Church Yard.

Middleton’s New Geographical Game/Tour through Eng. & Wales (1829) [same as 1820 map by W.Glidden]

Panorama of London or A Day’s Journey round the Metropolis (1 Nov 1809) J Wallis on slipcase

Road to the Temple of Honour & Fame (20 May 1811) Published May 20–1811, John Harris, Corner of (26 Dec 1810 on slipcase) St. Paul’s Church Yard.

Harris, John

Harris, John

Harris, John

41

150

Published Jan. 1 – 1810 by John Harris, Corner of St. Paul’s Church Yard

Jubilee, The/An Interesting Game (1 Jan 1810) Cele­ brating 25 Oct 1809

Harris, John

1811

1809

1829

1810

1809

116

Geographical Recreation/Voyage Round the Habit­ By John Harris, at the Juvenile Library, Corner able Globe [simple colour] (1 Oct 1809) [(V&A Variant of St. Paul’s Church Yard. = pictorial recreations]

Harris, John

Harris, John

London: Printed for J. Harris, Corner of St. Paul’s-Church-Yard.[RB]

1801

37

1804

Astronomy, New Game of/or the Young Student’s Guide to a View of the Heavens at Midnight at the Winter Solstice/By Alicia Catherine Mant

Harris, John

London. Printed for the Proprietors, and Publish­­ ed by J. Harris, Successor to Mrs. Newbery St. Paul’s Church Yard, and John Wallis, Ludgate Hill.

1803

158

66

Reward of Merit [coloured & uncoloured] invented by George Fox (10 Dec 1801)

Harris, J & Wallis, J

J. Harris, corner of St. Pauls Church Yard & J. Wallis, 16 Ludgate Street

1807

By John Harris, Successor to E. Newbery at the Emulation, New Game of/Amusement of Youth of both sexes/Abhorrence of Vice and love of Virtue (20 Original Juvenile Library, Corner of St. Paul’s Church Yard Dec 1804)

Historical Pastime or History of England – George III (Rules 1803, 1804, 1805, 1808, 1810, 1813) (1 Dec 1803) (Also as a puzzle)

Harris, J & Wallis, J

11

Spaces Year

1814

Jew, Game of the [spaces 3&9 reversed from White­ house & 12 replaced rules-Image of Jew different]

Harris, J & Wallis, E

Full Address

101

Abbrev Title

Publisher

A

A

A

A

A

A

B

A

A

C

Source

124  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Royal Geographical Amusement for Europe [Reprint of Sayer 1787 Game] (12 May 1794) [Counters 112–240]

Laurie & Whittle

London. Published 12th. May 1794 by Laurie & England and Wales, A New Royal Geographical Whittle, 53 Fleet Street Pastime/wherein the Distance of each town is Laid down from London in Measured Miles [no Sayers on map] (12 May 1794) [3 variants: a- L&W pasted on rules; b- L&W printed on rules; c- Printed for Robert Sayer]

Laurie & Whittle

Mansion of Happiness, New Moral & Entertaining Game of the [2 Sizes] (13 Oct 1800) (James Whittle 1 Oct 1800)

1794

169

Chance, The Game of/or the Harlequin takes all (12 May 1794)

Laurie & Whittle

Laurie & Whittle

1794

32

Published 12th. May, 1794 by Laurie & Whittle, 53 Fleet Street London.

Emblematic Recreation

Landry, M

[53 Fleet Street]

Published 13 Octr. 1800. by Robert Laurie & James Whittle, No. 53, Fleet Street, London.

103

67

67

111

Published according to the statute of the 7th, Tour thro’ England & Wales, Royal Geographical Pastime Exhibiting a Complete (1 Jan 1770) [2 states: of George III, by T. Jefferys at the corner of St. a- without Pr of Wales; b- with Pr of Wales] Martins Lane

Jefferys, Thomas

Published by M. Landry, Fancy Repository, Stockwell, Greenwich.

103

Published according to the statute of the 7th, of George III, by T. Jefferys at the corner of St. Martins Lane

Tour Round The World, Royal Geographical Pastime Exhibiting A Complete/ by Thomas Jefferys, Geo­ grapher to the King (1 Jan 1770) [2 states]

Jefferys, Thomas

1794

1800

1820

1770

1770

1768

1819

1814

103

Tour of Europe, The Royal Geographical Pastime or The Complete/by Thomas Jefferys, Geographer to the King (Wm Faden 2nd Ed. 11 Nov 1782)

Jefferys, Thomas

31

Published as the Act directs, Nov. 11th 1782, by Wm. Faden, Corner of St. Martins Lane, Charing Cross.

Steps, The Game of, or a Journey to the Temple of Honour (Jan 1819)

Izzard, James

Published May 20–1811, John Harris, Corner of St. Paul’s Church Yard.

Spaces Year

46

Swan of Elegance, The (20 Dec 1814)

Harris, John

Full Address

James Izzard, “The Juvenile Repository”, 46 Up­ per Brook Street, Grosvenor Square

Abbrev Title

Publisher

A

A

A

A

C

A

A

A

B

A

Source

An overview of British games

125

63 103

Published by R. H. Laurie, No. 53 Fleet Street, London.

Royal Pastime of Cupid or Entertaining Game of the Snake

Travellers through All Parts of Europe by Sea and by Published 1 Dec 1823 by Richd. H. Laurie, No. 53 Fleet Street, London. Land, Royal Geographical Amusement or The Safe and Expeditious/Young Learners of Geography by Dr. Journey (1 Dec 1823)

Knight, The

Cupid or Entertaining Game of the Snake, The Royal Pastime of

Goose, Royal and Entertaining Game of the

Mother Goose and the Golden Egg, Game of [adver­ tises The Racing Game and The Regatta]

Laurie, Rich’d Holmes

Lotzbeck, JL

Lumsden, J & Son

Lumsden, J & Son

Macdonald, R

London: published by R Macdonald, 30 Great Sutton Street, Clerkenwell, E C

Published and Sold Wholesale by James Lums­ den & Son Glasgow.

Published & Sold Wholesale by James Lumsden & Son Glasgow

J. L. Lotzbeck [Box]

33

63

63

94

67

Laurie, Rich’d Holmes

Published 1st Sep 1851 by Richd. Holmes Lau­ rie, No. 53, Fleet Street, London.

Mansion of Happiness, Laurie’s Instructive Moral & Entertaining Game of the (1 Sep 1851)

Laurie, Rich’d Holmes

63

Published Novr. 22nd. 1831, by Richd. Holmes Laurie, No. 53, Fleet Street, London.

Golden Goose, Laurie’s New and Entertaining Game of the (22 Nov 1831) (Reissued on 22 Nov 1848)

Laurie, Rich’d Holmes

1859

1810

1810

1860

1823

1850

1851

1831

1794

103

Travellers through All Parts of Europe by Sea and by Published 12th May 1794 by Laurie & Whittle, Land, Royal Geographical Amusement or The Safe No. 53 Fleet Street, London./Printed for Robert and Expeditious/Young Learners of Geography by Sayer and Co. Fleet-Street (on Rules). Dr. Journey (12 May 1794) [Robert Sayer on separate rules]

Laurie & Whittle

1794

63

Published 12th. May 1794 by Laurie & Whittle, No. 53 Fleet Street, London.

Royal Pastime of Cupid or Entertaining Game of the Snake (12 May 1794)

Laurie & Whittle

1800

Spaces Year 169

Royal Geographical Pastime for England and Wales, London: Published 12th. May 1794 by Laurie & Whittle, 53 Fleet Street. A New/wherein The Distance of each Town is Laid Down from London in Measured Miles [no Sayers on map] (12 May 1794) [two variants: a- L&W pasted on rules; b- L&W printed on rules]

Laurie & Whittle

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

C

C

C

C

A

C

A

A

A

A

C

Source

126  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

109

119

Pope Joan Board [staking layout for card game, with Published by J March, 12 Webber St. S Price 3d [London] ‘fish’ to cut out for stakes]

Published as the Act directs Jany. 1st. 1818 by J. Marshall. Juvenile Library 140 Fleet Street London Published May 1820 by M Middleton No. 26 St. James’s Square

Goose, March’s Royal Game of, price one penny

Rifles, The game of, or Sham Fight at Aldershot [cutout soldiers, war game with dice, no board]

Chronological Star of the World, The (109 squares – see description) (1 Jan 1818)

Tour Through England & Wales/Middleton’s New Geographical Game of a (May 1820) (Issued as a puzzle & game) Printer W. Glindon

Ascent of Mont Blanc, The New Game of the (2nd Edition) (Joseph, Myers on rules)

European Tourist/A New Game of Travel; or, A Jour­ ney through Europe.

Willy’s Walk to Grandma (11 Dec 1869) (2+ reprints)

March, James

March, James

Marshall, J

Middleton, M

Myers, A.N.& Co

Myers, A.N.& Co

Myers, A.N.& Co

London: Published at the Egyptian Hall, Picca­ dilly. The game may be had of Messers Joseph, Myers and Co., 144,Leadenhall Street, and at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly and Retail at all Bazaars, Fancy Repositories, &c. Joseph Myers & Co., 144 Leadenhall Street, London, E.C. London, Joseph Myers & Co., 144 Leadenhall Street

Myers, Joseph, & Co Ascent of Mont Blanc, The New Game of The [Creat­ ed after Albert Smith’s ascent]

Myers, Joseph, & Co Chapman’s Rule of the Road at Sea [huge size – 1 to 500]

Myers, Joseph, & Co European Tourist/Journey through Europe (1861)

A. N. Myers & Co. London

A. N. Myers & Co. London. 15, Berners Str: Oxford Str.

A. N. Myers & Co., 15, Berners Street, Oxford Street, London: W

J March, 12 Webber St., S [London]

Published by J March, 12 Webber St. S Price 1d [London]

100

1861

1860

1852

50

500

1869

1861

1861

1820

1818

1862

1860

1858

1858

79

100

50

N/A

N/A

25

104

March, James

James March, printer, 12 Webber Street, London S

Fox Hunt, The Comic, 1d [one penny]

Spaces Year

March, James

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

A

C

C

C

B

B

A

A

C

C

C

C

Source

An overview of British games

127

Regatta, The Royal (The Regatta A Game on cover) − No indication on game or cover but similar no space numbers on game cover design to Crowned Heads of Europe

Marshall’s Library, 50 Edgeware Road, London Marshall’s Library, 50 Edgeware Road, London

L’Orient or the Indian Travellers/A Geographical and Historical Game (Barfoot Design)

Royal Race Course (Spaces not numbered) (17 Nov 1843)

Columbia or the Land of the West (1492 to 1782) [also sold as puzzle] (Designed and drawn by JR Barfoot)

Four Seasons − A Game, The (c.1860? Ad) Barfoot

La Belle France

Regatta, The (no name on, game-spaces numbered)

Tar of All The Weathers or The British Colonies (Barfoot?)

Wellington’s Victories, A New Game of [with two cards]

Ogilvy, David

Ogilvy, David

Ogilvy, David

Ogilvy, E & MA

Ogilvy, E & MA

Ogilvy, E & MA

Ogilvy, E & MA

Ogilvy, E & MA

Ogilvy, E & MA

No name on game

Marshall’s Library, 50 Edgeware Road, London

33

39

81

13

48

36

No name on game

Marshall’s Library, 50 Edgeware Road, London

32

NA

36

London: Published by David Ogilvy, at his Repository for Rational Toys and Amusements [RB]

London Published by David Ogilvy at His Repos­itory for Rational Toys and Amusements

Published by D. Ogilvy, 17, Christ Church Road, NA Hampstead. [RB]

Great Centre, The/London & Its Surroundings (Half Crown Game)

Ogilvy, David

1845

1860

1860

1860

1860

1848

1843

1852

1846

1855

1844

40

London. Published by David Ogilvy at his Repos­itory for Rational Toys & Amusements

Crowned Heads or Contemporary Sovereigns (by Betts per ad) w/52 cards/L’Enfant Bros Lith. Printers, 12 Rathbone Place [Also a puzzle]

Ogilvy, David

1850

36

London: Published by David Ogilvy, at his Repository for Rational Toys and Amusements, 7 Southampton Row, Russell Square [RB]

Circle of English History, The/British Sovereigns/Bar­ foot/Madeley, Lith. 3, Wellington St. Strand [Played with 90 clue cards]

Ogilvy, David

1860

Spaces Year 300

Full Address Joseph Myers & Co., 144 Leadenhall Street, London, E.C.

Abbrev Title

Myers, Joseph, & Co Nautical Game for Young Landsmen, Captain Chap­ man’s (London to Calcutta) [A&N Myers over Joseph on box]

Publisher

C

C

C

C

C

C

B

C

C

C

C

C

C

Source

128  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

56 65

London: Published by J. Passmore., 18, Fleet Lane, Farringdon St.. Pubd. By J. Passmore, 18, Fleet Lane, Farring­ don St. London.

Bible Pastime/A Bible Game/The Joy of Little Folks Travels in the Old Testament (non-linen)

British Sovereigns, Royal Game of/Exhibiting the most remarkable events in each reign [RB]

Circle of Knowledge/A New Game The Wonders of Nature, Science, & Art

Comic Steeplechase, The/A New Game

European Travellers [Pictorial Geography?]

Historical Pastime/A New Game of the History of England [to Queen Victoria; corners blank, same Victoria image as E. Wallis’s & John Harris’s version]

Historical Pastime/A New Game of the History of England [to Q Victoria; pictures in corners & coat of arms, updated image of Victoria]

Jew, The New Game of the

Passmore, John

Passmore, John

Passmore, John

Passmore, John

Passmore, John

Passmore, John

Passmore, John

Published by J. Passmore, 18 Fleet Lane, Far­ ringdon St. London.

11

135

London: Published by J. Passmore., 18, Fleet Lane, Farringdon St..

1860

1847

1855 1842

135

1850

1850

1850

1900

London: Published by J. Passmore., 18, Fleet Lane, Farringdon St..

61

119

[18, Fleet Lane, Farringdon St.]

Pubd. By J. Passmore, 18, Fleet Lane, Farring­ don St. London.

London: S.W. Partridge & Co., Ltd., Pasternoster House, Old Bailey.

1660

Partridge, SW & Co

Invented at the Consistory in Rome and are printed and sould by John Overton over against St. Sepulchre’s Church: in London

63

Goose – Royall and most pleasant Game of ye – {St. Sepulchre’s Church)

1665

Overton, John

Sold at the Black Lyon in Exeter Exchange in the Strand London Where you may have Musick Prick’d.

63

Goose – Royall and most pleasant Game of ye – [Exeter Exchange label pasted over original]

1750

63

Overton, John

Invented at the Consistory in Rome and are printed and sold by H. Overton at Ye White Horse without Newgate where all sorts of Fine Prints and Maps are Sold and Framed at Reasonable Rate

Goose – Royall and most pleasant Game of the

Spaces Year

Overton, H

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

Source

An overview of British games

129

Printed and Published by J.A. Reeves, Dartford, Kent.

Wanderers in the Wilderness, Wallis’s New Game of

32 Fleet Street/Liverpool; 49 and 51 South Tour through England & Wales, Betts A (cardboard box) [2 states: a- c.1875-Phillip & Son on rules but not Castle Street [Rules] on border; b- c.1875-Phillip&Son on border]

[Dartford, Kent]

Universal History & Chronology (on game)/World & Its History (on cover)

Tour through Europe, Betts (Game)

Flying Dutchman/An Interesting Geographical Game – 1st & 3rd Edition

Goose – Royal and Most Pleasant Game of the

Overland Mail from England to India, The – By S. Strakes (9 sections)(5 Sep 1850)

Ride through London, A/New Panoramic Game [cover]

Russia & Turkey (on cardboard)

Mount of Knowledge (sold by Darton, Harris, & J Wallis)

Passmore, John

Passmore, John

Phillip, Son & Nephew

Phillip, Son & Nep­ hew

Reeves, J A

Reeves, J A

Reeves, J A

Reeves, J A

Reeves, J A

Richardson, W

Published and Sold by W. Richardson. Library: Greenwich.

Published by J.A. Reeves, Dartford, Kent, and may be had of all Booksellers and Toy Dealers

Printed and Published by J.A. Reeves, Dartford, Kent

Printed and Published by J.A. Reeves, Dartford, Kent

London, George Phillip & Son, 32, Fleet Street. Liverpool: Philip Son & Nephew

London: Published by J. Passmore., 18, Fleet Lane, Farringdon St..

60

55

50

82

63

75

104

91

84

117

Railway Game or Tour through England & Wales, Wal­ Published by J. Passmore, 18 Fleet Lane lis’s New [two variants: a- c. 1847–18 Borough road; b- c.1847-Great Guilford]

Passmore, John

[18, Fleet Lane, Farringdon St.]

151

Produce & Manufacturers of the Counties of England London: Published by J. Passmore., 18, Fleet Lane, Farringdon St.. & Wales, Wallis’s Picturesque Round Game of the

1810

1854

1855

1850

1850

1860

1875

1875

1850

1850

1850

1842

Spaces Year

Passmore, John

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

C

C

C

A

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

Source

130  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Mansion of, The (on game)/Sallis’s Tee-To-Tum Game W. Sallis, London. [game]/London: William Sallis The Mansion of Happiness − 2nd Edition (on cover) [cover] (on cardboard)

Sallis, William

67

100

Lion Hunt, The (on game) /Sallis’s New Tee-to-tum Game The Lion Hunt (on cover) (on cardboard) 2 paths (new ed)

Sallis, William

London: William Sallis [cover]

Geography, Topography, Produce Manufactures, & Natural History of Various Countries of the World, Picturesque Round Game of the/Picturesque Round Game of the World [cover] (linen)

Sallis, William

157

102

Geographical and Historical Travellers, The (on game) no publisher information on game +through England & Wales (on cover) (on linen) Also sheet only (T. Turner del.)

Sallis, William

London Wm. Sallis

102

Geographical and Historic Travelers, The (on game)/ London: William Sallis [cover] Sallis’s Geographical and Topographical Pastime Eng­ land & Wales 2nd edition (on cover) (cardboard)

Sallis, William

80

English History, Amusement in/Britons to Vic­ toria (cover adds: A Game exhibiting the most remarkable events from the time of the Britons) [Cover=Brown,Green, or dark Green](linen)

1860

1860

1840

1840

1850

1841

1805

Spaces Year

Sallis, William

no publisher information on game

Tour through the County of Somerset (See also John [5 Gough Square, Fleet Street] Wallis c.1810)

Rowe, R

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

C

C

C

C

C

C

A

Source

An overview of British games

131

1855

1775

53 34

50 78

63

Paul Herbert’s Visit to London/A Merry Round Game W. Sallis, London. for Fireside Travellers (linen)

Pyramid of History/Sallis’s New Tee-Totum Game The W. Sallis, London. [game]/London: William Sallis Pyramid of History by the Author of Why? What? And [cover] Because:(on cardboard) TH Jones Del Et Litho [5 Cross Key Square, Little Britain] W. Sallis, London. [game]/London: William Sallis [cover]

Reward of Industry

Why? What? & Because or The Road to The Temple of Knowledge/Sallis’s New Tee-Totum Game, Why? What? & Because [on cover]/3rd ed (cardboard) TH Jones Del & Litho

Modes Françoises, Nouveau Jeu des (New Game of French Fashion)

Goose, The Royal and Most Pleasant Game of the (Reissue of Bowles 1725 game)

Goose/Royal and Entertaining Game of the/ Queen Charlotte & George III

London. Published 1st. June, 1787 by Robt. Royal Geographical Pastime for England and Wales Sayer, No. 53, Fleet Street./London; Published wherein The Distance of Each Town is Laid Down by Robert Sayer, No.53, Fleet Street, [Rules] from London in Measured Miles (1 Jun 1787) (2 variants: a- 1787-Sayer on map; b- 1792-Sayer&Co on rules) (Always double unless space circled)

Sallis, William

Sallis, William

Sallis, William

Sallis, William

Sayer & Smith

Sayer, Robert

Sayer, Robert

Sayer, Robert

London, Printed for R. Sayer

London Printed for Robt. Sayer at the Golden Buck in Fleet Street.

London: Printed for Robt. Sayer, No. 53, Fleet Street and Jn. Smith, No. 35 Cheapside [false imprint; actually Paris: Crépy]

William Sallis, Cross Key Square, Little Britain.

1765 1787

169

1750

1855

1850

1845

1850

63

63

80

1852

Panorama of English History, The (Booklet form of Amusements in Eng History)

100

Sallis, William

William Sallis, Cross Key Square, Little Britain.

Overland Route to India, Sallis’s Dioramic Game of the/Sallis’s Tee-To-Tum Game Overland Route to India [cover] (on cardboard) 2nd Edition

Spaces Year

Sallis, William

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

A

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

Source

132  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Travellers through All Parts of Europe by Sea and by Land/Royal Geographical Amusement (10 Jan 1774)

Royal Passtime of Cupid, or Entertaining Game of the London Printed for Robt. Sayer, Map and Print­ Snake seller, at the Golden Buck near Sergeants Inn, Fleet Street.

Ancient History (4 Nov 1850)

Astronomy, Game of

Cottage of Content or Right Roads and Wrong Ways, Wm. Spooner 379. Strand, Novr. 1st. 1848. The (1 Nov 1848)

Country Fair or Rural Sports and Rural Rambles, The (1 Nov 1854)

Eccentric Excursion to the Chinese Empire, An [cover] London: Published by William Spooner 377 (1 Dec 1843) Strand Decr. 1st. 1843

Endless Amusement

English History, Spooner’s Game of 1 Nov 1847)

Fortunes of Peter Perilous, The

Fortunio & His 7 Gifted Servants (1 Dec 1846) Printed London: Published by W. Spooner, 377, Strand. by C. Moody 257 High Holborn Decr. 1st. 1846

Funnyshire Fox Chase, The/Printed by W Kohler 11 Denmark St Soho

Sayer, Robert

Sayer, Robert & Bennett J

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

London Published by William Spooner 377 Strand

[377 Strand]

London. Published Novr. 1847, by William Spooner, 379, Strand, Corner of Southampton St

[377 Strand]

London, Published by William Spooner, 379, Strand, 1st. Novr. 1854.

[377 Strand]

London, Published by William Spooner, 379, Strand, Novr 4th. 1850..

[53 Fleet Street]

London Printed for Robt. Sayer Map & Printsel­ ler at No. 53, in Fleet Street. As the Act Directs 1st. June 1787

Traveller through All Parts of Europe by Sea and by Land, Royal Geographical Amusement, or The Safe and Expeditious/Dr. Journey (1 Jun 1787)

Sayer, Robert

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

24

74

1839

1846

1837

1847

1845

1843

1854

1848

1845

1850

1780

63

83

1774

1787

103

103

Spaces Year

C

A

C

A

C

A

A

A

C

A

C

A

A

Source

An overview of British games

133

Merchants, The or, A Voyage of Commerce Round The World (5 Nov 1849)

Pirate and the Traders of the West Indies, The (1 Nov 1847)

Steeplechase, Spooner’s Illustrated Game of the (1 Dec 1852) Printed by L’Enfant (Charles Magnus used image)

Travellers of America

Travellers of Asia, The (1 Dec 1843) w/ rule book

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Harlequin’s Rambles Through Europe a Game (3 Nov London: Published by William Spooner, 379, 1851) Strand, Novr. 3rd 1851

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Hare & Tortoise: A New Game, The (5 Nov 1849) Printer: L’Enfant, London

Spooner, William

Journey, The or Cross Roads to Conqueror’s Castle (Original-Regent St & brown cover) hand painted with spinner-Later ed. (Strand [after 1837] green cover) lithographed w/teetotum

Great Exhibition/Illustrative game of the

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Great Exhibition of 1851, Comic Game of the

Spooner, William

1849

London: Published by William Spooner, 379 Strand Novr. 5th. 1849

London: Published by William Spooner, 377 Strand. December 1st. 1843.

75

1843

1845

1852

London: Published by William Spooner, 379, Strand, December 1st. 1852 [377 Strand]

1847

London: Published Novr. 1st. 1847 by William Spooner, 377, Strand 75

1834

61

1849

63

1851

1851

1851

42

76

1852

Spaces Year

London. By W. Spooner. 377 Strand.

London: Published by William Spooner 379 Strand Novr. 5th. 1849

London: Published by William Spooner, 379 Strand

London, Published by William Spooner 379 Strand [cover]

London, w. Spooner Strand August 16th. 1852 Geographical and Zoological Game of the World/ Spooner’s Map of the World showing the Distribu­ tion of the Principal Animals over the Globe (16 Aug 1852) (1849 on rule book) (non-game version issued in 1844)

Spooner, William

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

A

C

A

A

A

C

A

A

C

C

A

Source

134  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Travellers of Europe, The: with Improvements and Additions. (1 Dec 1852)

Travellers, The or A Tour through Europe (1 Dec 1842) London: Published by William Spooner, 377, Strand. Decr. 1st. 1842.

Voyage of Discovery, A or, The Five Navigators (1836) London: Published by William Spooner, 259 Printed by Lefevre Regent Street, Oxford Street 1836.

Wonders of the World, The/Architectural Works of the Ancients

Zoological Map of the World shewing the Geograph­ London: Published by William Spooner, 379, ical Distribution of Animals (5 Nov 1844) Strand 1849 [RB]

Little Dickey Birds, or The Wrong and the Right

Roarem Castle – A new game of forfeits

Arithmetical Pastime, An (See also same game by John Wallis) (15 Dec 1791)

Bulwark of Britannia or Neptune and England United, London. Published Dec 6, 1797, by Verner & A New Nautical Pastime The (6 Dec 1797) (Harris) Hood, Poultry.

Arithmetic/Wallis’ Game of (Name on rules only) (Passmore was printer)

Astronomy, Pleasures of/Science in Sport (coloured)

British Sovereigns, The Royal Game of/exhibiting The Printed for E. Wallis, 42, Skinner Street, Snow most remarkable events in the reign from Egbert to Hill. George III (to His Majesty on rule book) (4th Edition) Note: 6 years after George III died and after William IV crowned. (1826 [RB])

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Spooner, William

Standring & Co.

Standring & Co.

Taylor, C

Verner & Hood

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Published by Edward Wallis, 42, Skinner Street, Snow Hill, London.

Published by Edward Wallis, 42, Skinner Street, Snow Hill, London.

[10 Holborn]

Standring & Co., London

Standring & Co., London

London: William Spooner, 377, Strand

London: Published by William Spooner, 379, Strand, December 1st. 1852.

London: Published by William Spooner, 377, Strand

Travellers of England & Wales/Spooner’s Pictorial map of England &Wales (#2- start inside margin) (5 Nov 1844)

Spooner, William

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

53

35

100

63

100

32

33

119

50

104

1826

1818

1840

1797

1791

1860

1860

1844

1842

1836

1842

1852

1844

Spaces Year

B

C

C

A

A

B

B

A

C

A

A

A

A

Source

An overview of British games

135

55

Published by E. Wallis, 42 Skinner Street

British Sovereigns/Royal Game of- Egbert to William IV (Brunswick) [Cvr]

British Tourist, The Also a dissected puzzle

Caudle History, A Droll Game/Designed & Lithograph­ Pubd. By Edwd. Wallis, 42, Skinner St. London. ed by G.E.Madeley 3 Wellington St. Strand

Destruction of Jerusalem, The (date on rule book)

European Travellers [Also a dissected puzzle]

Everyman to His Station

Fortune’s Maze or Labyrinth of Love [SC]

Genius or Compendium of Inventions, Wallis’s New Game of

Goose, The Royal Game of (Printed by W. Lake, 40 Old Published by E. Wallis, London. Bailey)

Human Life, The Game of

Locomotive Game of Railroad Adventures, Wallis’s (Slipcase & hinged case versions) Also a dissected puzzle

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

67 49

London, Edward Wallis, 42, Skinner Street.

63

36

37

1845

1820

1840

1830

1825

1830 1830

33

1824

41 123

1845

1830

1834

1840

1820

34

65

London. Published by Edwd. Wallis, 42, Skinner Street.

Published by E. Wallis 42 Skinner Street Snow Hill, London.

London, Published by E. Wallis, 42, Skinner Street [SC]

Publiished by E. Wallis, No. 42,Skinner Street, London (and Islington[SC])

Pubd by E. Wallis, 42 Skinner Street

London. Published by E. Wallis, 42, Skinner Street, and 12, High Street, Islington

Published by E. Wallis, 42 Skinner Street, London.

56

British Sovereigns, Royal Game of- Egbert to Victoria Published by E. Wallis, 42 Skinner Street [Cvr]

Wallis, Edward

54

British Sovereigns, Royal Game of- Egbert to George [42 Skinner Street, Snow Hill] IV (to His Majesty on rule book)

Spaces Year

Wallis, Edward

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

B

C

C

C

C

C

Source

136  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Mother Goose and the Golden Egg, The New & Favor­ite Game of /Printed by FW Passmore

Natural Philosophy, Pleasures of/Science in Sport (or Published by Edward Wallis, 42 Skinner Street, 1805 Hannas) Snow Hill, London.

Naturalist, The (E Wallis on the rule book)

Parlour Travellers through Europe, The

Paul Pry, The New Game of (Printer D. Carvalho – only Published by E. Wallis, Skinner Street. [SC] name on game)

Polite Tourist exhibiting all the Objects of Curiosity in London. Published by E. Wallis, 42, Skinner the City of Paris, The Fashionable Game of Street, and 12, High Street, Islington

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

E. Wallis, Skinner St. London. Star Spangled Banner or Emigrants to the United States, Game of the (1837 or 1842?) Rule book print­ ed by F.W. Passmore, 18, York Terrace, Borough Road. Also a dissected puzzle

Wallis, Edward

London. Published by Edward Wallis, 42 Skin­ ner Street.

Scenes in London

Wallis, Edward

147

18

117

Railway Game or Tour through England&Wales (Vic­ toria) (Prtr-Wood&Chandler)

Wallis, Edward

London. Published by Edward Wallis, 42 Skin­ ner Street.

Produce & Manufactures of the Counties of England & Wales, Wallis’s Picturesque Round Game of the (3states: 1a- c.1827-F.W. Passmore; 1b- after 1847-J. Passmore; 2- after 1847-J.Passmore; 3- after 1847-J. Passmore-sea engraved) Also sold as a dissected puzzle

Wallis, Edward

1830

1825

1840

1827

1818

63 151

1825

1840

1814

1818

1833

1820

14

298

45

35

33

63

Spaces Year

London. Published by Edward Wallis, 42 Skin­ ner Street.

London. Published by E. Wallis, No. 42, Skinner Street, Snow Hill.

[42 Skinner Street, Snow Hill]

[42 Skinner Street, Snow Hill]

Published by E. Wallis, 42 Skinner Street, Snow Hill, London.

Monkey, The New Game of the (came in slipcase)/ Later reprinted and issued in a hard cover with title ‘Game of the Monkeys’

Wallis, Edward

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

C

Source

An overview of British games

137

Village Portraits (reprint 1818)

Voyage Round the World, Wallis’s New Game exhibit­ ing a (Possibly 25 Jan 1822)

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wonders of Nature, Wallis’s Elegant and Instructive Game exhibiting the Wonders of Nature in every quarter of the World (1 Nov 1818) (1824 RB)

Arithmetical Pastime

Musical Pastime, Wallis’s New

Wallis, J & E

Wallis, J & E

[42 Skinner Street, Snow Hill]

[42 Skinner Street, Snow Hill]

Published 1st. Novr. 1818 by E. Wallis, 42, Skin­ ner Street, Snow Hill, London.

Published by E. Wallis, No. 42 Skinner Street, Wonders of Art, Wallis’s Elegant and Instructive Game exhibiting the Wonders of Art in every quarter Snow Hill, London. of the World. (1820 RB)

Wallis, Edward

Wallis, Edward

Wanderers in the Wilderness, Wallis’s New Game of (S.America) (Slipcase&Bk form1844) Rule book printer: Passmore, Great Guildford. Also a dissected puzzle.

London, Edward Wallis, 42, Skinner Street.

Published by E. Wallis, 42, Skinner Street, and 12 High 120 Street, Islington.

London. Published by E. Wallis, 42 Skinner Street & Islington.

Wallis, Edward

Earlier editions sold as a puzzle

Later editions c. 1832 and c. 1835

Universal History & Chronology, Wallis’s New Game London: Published by Edward Wallis, 42, Skin­ of/3 editions (same image): a: Slipcase listing Wallis & ner Street Son; b: Hard Cover saying Locomotive Game; c: Hard Cover showing The World and Its History

Wallis, Edward

[42 Skinner Street, Snow Hill]

Tour through England and Wales (Printer Sedding & Turtle) (McIntyre sculp)

Wallis, Edward

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

C

26

26

85

1812

1815

1818

1820

1840

1813

36

1830

1845

1835

143

117

Spaces Year

C

C

A

C

C

C

C

C

Source

138  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

1807

1808

11

33

Published 30th. Novr. 1808 & Sold Wholesale by Jon. Wallis Senr. 13 Warwick Square and Retail by John Wallis Junr. 188 Strand, London.

Jew, New Game of the (27 May 1807) (Cover= 16 Jun Published May 27th. 1807. by J. Wallis. No. 13 Warwick Square, M Dunnet, No. 3 Cheapside, 1807) M.Dunnet also published and J. Wallis junr. No. 188 Strand, London.

Wallis, J & J, Junr.

1815

50

Who Wears The Crown

Wallis, J & E & J Jr.

1815

40

Panorama of Europe (1 Nov 1815) Edward Willis Rule Published Novr. 1st. 1815 by J&E. Wallis, 42, Book by T Davis & by J Pitman Skinner Street, London. And J. Wallis Junr. Marine Library, Sidmouth., Devon.

Wallis, J & E & J Jr.

1817

63

Heathen Mythology, New Game of (12 May 1817?) (Spin again on Deities)

Wallis, J & E & J Jr.

1790

1791

84

52

Published according to Act of Parliament July 14, 1790, by John Wallis, No. 16 Ludgate Street, and E. Newbery, the Corner of St. Paul’s Church Yard. Published Novr. 30th. 1791 by E. Newbery, the corner of St. Paul’s Church Yard and John Wallis No. 16,Ludgate Street, London.

Mother Goose & the Golden Egg, The New & Enter­ taining Game of (also 1833 slipcase) (30 Nov 1808) (Rules Prntr E Sorrell 1808/Prntr Vigurs c.1814/ Prtr J Pitman for E Wallis c.1820)

Human Life, The New Game of (also uncut sheet(4s) & mounted on board(5s)) (Box of totum & markers (6.5s)) (14 Jul 1790) (Slipcase has 29 July 1790) [De­ sign copied from Crépy, Paris]

Sovereigns of England, The Royal Geneological Pas­ time of the/Egbert to George III (6x2&4x3 slipcases) (30 Nov 1791) (3 variants: a- 1791-no prntr; b- after 1800-Bryer6x2; c-after1800-Bryer4x3) (Move 2 extra spaces on ‘good’ monarch)

Wallis, J & J, Junr.

Wallis, J & Newbery, E

Wallis, J & Newbery, E

Published by J&E. Wallis, 42, Skinner Street, London. And J. Wallis Junr. Marine Library, Sidmouth.

Published by J&E. Wallis, 42, Skinner Street, London. And J. Wallis Junr. Marine Library, Sidmouth.

Published by J&E. Wallis, 42, Skinner Street, London. And J. Wallis Junr. Marine Library, Sidmouth.

1817

Spaces Year 53

British Sovereigns exhibiting the most remarkable events in each Reign from Egbert to George III, Royal Game of/(Egbert, The First King to His Present Majesty on rule book) (3rd Ed-1820)

Wallis, J & E & J Jr.

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

A

A

A

A

C

A

A

B

Source

An overview of British games

139

1804

1811

1805

35

53 45

35

Published December 17th. 1804, by the Proprietor, John Wallis, No. 16, Ludgate Street, London [13 Warwick Square] Published Jany. 1st. 1811 by John Wallis at his Repository, No. 13 Warwick Square, London.

Astronomy, Science in Sport or the Pleasures of (uncoloured) (17 Dec 1804- Rule Book dated 1805) (Coloured Edition Rule Book 1814 Wallis & Son)

British Sovereigns/Royal Game of- Egbert to George III (to His Majesty on rule book)

Mirror of Truth exhibiting a variety of Biographical Anecdotes and Moral Essays,The/(1 Jan 1811) (2nd Edition (1815) rules by J&E Wallis & J Wallis)

Natural Philosophy, Science in Sport or the Pleasures Published December 17th. 1805, by the Pro­ prietor, John Wallis, No. 13, Warwick Square, of/(also by E Wallis (17 Dec 1805) Also a jigsaw London;

Naturalist, The (15 Mar 1813)

Tour of Europe, Wallis’s (Prntr = Sorrell, Biggs,no name) (24 Nov 1794) (Tour through 20 Mar 1802 [SC]) rules on game

Tour of Europe, Wallis’s/(13 Mar 1811) [Rules and Slipcase by Edward Wallis. No rules on game but separate rule book]

Wallis, John

Wallis, John

Wallis, John

Wallis, John

Wallis, John

Wallis, John

Wallis, John

Wallis, John

1794

1811

102

102

92

London. Published Novr. 24th. 1794 by John Wallis at his Map Warehouse No. 16 Ludgate Street. London. Published March 13th. 1811. by John Wallis at his Map Warehouse No. 13Warwick Square.

Tour through Asia, Wallis’s (30 Nov 1802) [Rules Print­ London Published Novr. 30, 1802 by John Wal­ ed by J. Crowder & E. Hemsted, Warwick Square] lis, No. 16, Ludgate Street

1802

1813

1811

45

Published March 15, 1813 by John Wallis No. 42 Skinner Street, Snow Hill, London.

1798

100

Arithmetical Pastime, An (19 Apr 1798 [SC]) Appears Published April 19th. 1798 by John Wallis, No. copied from earlier German game (1812 on Osborne 16, Ludgate Street, London. [SC] copy) (Rule Printer: T. Gillet, Salisbury-Square, FleetStreet.

Wallis, John

1792

100

London: by J. Wallis, No. 16 Ludgate Street &-E. Newbery, corner of St. Paul’s Church Yard

Tour through Scotland, A New Geographical Game Exhibiting a Complete (1 Jan 1792)

Wallis, J & Newbery, E

Spaces Year

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

A

A

A

A

A

A

C

A

B

A

Source

140  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Tour through Scotland, A New Geographical Game [1811 & 1792 Hannas]

Tour through United Kingdom of England, Scotland, Published 1 July 1811 by John Wallis, No. 42, Skinner Street, Snow Hill, London. and Ireland, Wallis’s (1 Jul 1811) E. Wallis on rule book.

Wallis, John

Wallis, John

London. Published Jany. 20th. 1796. by John Voyage Round The World, Wallis’s Complete/Geo­ Wallis at his Map Warehouse No. 16 Ludgate graphic Pastime (20 Jan 1796) (3 rule variants) a1796-no prtr; b- 1802-Crowder&Hemstead-4x4; c- 27 Street. Feb 1802 on slipcase-Crowder&Hemstead-3x4) (1802 variants show 27 Feb 1802 on slipcase) (S. Cooke, sculp, 47 Fetter Lane)

Christmas Tree/The New Game of The [not on linen]

Adventures in Lord Pudding/Journey through Swit­ zerland (Printed in Germany)

no publisher information on game Battles by Sea & Land (most material events of the reign of George III − 1760 to 1820) Also showing the price of a quartern loaf, the Lord Mayors, and the National Debt.

Wallis, John

Yates & Co

zunknown

zunknown

n/a

Yates & Co. Nottingham & London

Universal History & Chronology, Wallis’s New Game of /to GPR [Wallis & Son on case] (20 May 1814)

Wallis, John

Published May 20, 1814 by John Wallis, 42 Skin­ ner Street, Snow Hill, London.

[16 Ludgate Street]

Published 24th. December 1794, by John Wallis Tour through England & Wales, Wallis’s (12 Dec 1794) (11+ variants) (a- 1794-no 1795 date at space at his Map Warehouse, No. 16, Ludgate Street; 105; b- c.1795-no printer; c- before 1802-J.Wallis; d- 1802=Crowder; e- c.1802-Crowder&Hempstead; fc.1802-Sorrell; g- c.1809-SORRELL; h- c.1809-Swan; ic.1816-Pittman; j- c.1820-Davis(E Wallis on slipcase); k- c.1820-Vigurs

Wallis, John

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

62

64 1820

1869

1796

100

63

1814

1811

1801

1794

116

190

117

Spaces Year

C

C

A

A

A

A

C

A

Source

An overview of British games

141

78

Elopement/Game of, or a Trip to Gretna Green [needs NA book of instruction]

Goose, The New Royal Game of (Published & sold by NA all toy dealers) [Reeves?]

Goose, The Royal Game of

London Sights or All Round St Pauls [Appeared on handkerchief at Christies

Riflemen Skirmishing, Game of [Possibly EC Bennett]

Tour of Doctor Syntax in Search for the Picturesque, The [in a box of cards with images & words]

Trade & Barter/The Round Game of

Twelfth Night, Game of or Holydays and Customs (7 Dec 1820) [A riddle game]

Wars of the Roses, The [Probably by FC Dean]

Zodiac/New & Original Game of, or Astronomical Wheel of Fortune

zunknown

zunknown

zunknown

zunknown

zunknown

zunknown

zunknown

zunknown

zunknown

zunknown

NA

NA

London: Published Decr. 7th. 1820

NA

45

56

50

46

NA

NA

63

no publisher information on game

63

61

Duck Hunting [similar to Swanhopping game; pos­ sibly FC Dean]

64

zunknown

NA

Courtship and Matrimony

Deer Stalking, Game of [possibly EC Bennett]

NA

zunknown

no publisher information on game or cover

Coursing or Hare and Hounds, The New Game of [cover]

zunknown

24

1861

1820

1840

1830

1860

1850

1848

1820

1840

1860

1750

1860

1825

Spaces Year

zunknown

NA

Christmas Circles or amusement for the new year [played with 24 cards matching the images on the board]

zunknown

Full Address

Abbrev Title

Publisher

C

A

C

C

C

C

C

C

A

C

C

C

C

C

Source

142  THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

6. British games of the 17th and 18th centuries 6.1.

The Game of the Goose

An entry in the Stationers’ Hall Register, London, shows that John Wolfe registered the Game of the Goose on 16 June 1597.

Figure 6.1: Entry in the Stationers’ Hall Register for the Game of the Goose (Stationers’ Company, London).

The entry reads: ‘John Wolfe: Entred for his Copie vnder master Hartwelles and bothe the wardens hands the new and most pleasant game of the goose’.1 Much is known about Wolfe: he was apprenticed to train as a printer in London, became a master printer in Florence but returned to England to become a high official of the Stationers’ Company and, in 1593, Printer to the City of London.2 However, the registered example of the game itself is lost. The version shown in Figure 6.2 bearing John Overton’s imprint is the earliest English Game of the Goose known to survive.3 The imprint reads: ‘Invented at the Consistory in Rome4 and printed and sould by John Overton over at St. Sepulchre’s Church: in London’. John Overton (1640–1714) was active at his St. Sepulchre address from 1665 to 1707. This game is listed in the Term Catalogues for 1690 (Trinity Term) under the title: ‘The most pleasant game of the Goose; invented at the Consistory of Rome: neatly engraven on a large Copper Plate [...] [and] is sold by J. Overton at the White Horse, against S. Sepulchre’s Church’.5 In the Morgan Library’s example, Overton’s imprint is concealed by a later label: ‘Sold at the Black Lyon in Exeter Exchange 1 This transcription is from E. Arber, A Transcript of the Registers of the Company of Stationers of London 1554–1660. London: Stationers’ Company, 1875–1894. 2 C.C. Huffman. Elizabethan Impressions: John Wolfe and His Press. New York: AMS Press, 1988. 3 This example (now in the Morgan Library) was dated as c. 1660 in the Sotheby’s catalogue of the sale of the Linda Hannas collection in 1984 (lot 1219). 4 See Chapter 2 Section 9 for a note on this assertion. 5 A Catalogue of Books Continued. London: Printed and Published in Trinity Term, 1690. Plates, Maps, etc. number 3. A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462984974_ch06

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Figure 6.2: THE ROYALL & MOST PLEASANT GAME OF Ye GOOSE. London: John Overton, c. 1690 (courtesy of the Morgan Library).

in the Strand London. Where you may have Musick prick’d’.6 Laurence Worms notes that the musical instrument-maker, printer and publisher, Henry Waylett (fl. 1743– 1772) was certainly ‘At the Black Lyon in Exeter Change’ in 1744. Given the reference 6

Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 23.

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to music, it appears likely that the later label is indeed that of Waylett. It is not known whether this Morgan example is an original print by John Overton or, less likely, a re-strike.7 It is a classic Game of the Goose, with all the usual rules and features, except that the rule for the Maze at space 42 requires the player to ‘return back’ to space 29, rather than to space 39 as in the classic Italian game, or to space 30 as in the classic French game. It is not clear whether these variations arise from mistakes in copying from an Italian original, or whether there was rule variety in Italy for which we do not have evidence today. However, the instruction ‘return to space 29’ is a clear ‘DNA marker’ of an English classic game, appearing in all the versions discussed in this section and indeed on the 19th century versions discussed in the following chapter. Certain of the iconographic elements of the John Overton game are taken directly from Italian examples of the game: the jester figure at the start and the figures drinking in comfort sitting on a barrel at the finish are closely similar to those in the game by Lucchino Gargano dated 1598 (Figure 2.2 of Chapter 2), though the Overton example is by no means a direct copy. It is possible that this form of the game, with its distinctive ‘tavern’ iconography and Italianate decoration, was modelled on that registered by Wolfe, which was presumably derived from an Italian original. However, the John Overton game has a feature not known in surviving Italian examples: the portrait medallions at the upper left and right corners. These are highly distinctive. On the left, a simply-dressed man with cropped hair is making an obscene gesture with his fist.8 He also appears to be putting out his tongue at the gentleman in the right-hand medallion, who has long hair and wears a lace-trimmed collar and a broad-brimmed hat. The gentleman holds his hand to his face, as if recovering from a blow. Could this be a reference to the victory of Parliamentarians over Royalists? If so, it would be anachronistic in the Restoration period, suggesting that the Overton game was copied from a game of the Parliamentary period, 1649−1660. This suggestion is taken further in the discussion of early Flemish games (Chapter 10). Portrait medallions remained a feature of British Games of the Goose well into the 19th century.9 However, they were updated by publishers to provide topicality in what would otherwise have been essentially the same game re-drawn. The version of the game published by Henry Overton (Figure 6.3) has medallions of a menacing rustic figure on the left, with a bearded, long-haired man on the right, wearing a smart hat and a lace-trimmed shirt: poor man against 7 Laurence Worms, e-mail communication to author, September 2010. 8 This gesture is known in Italy as mano (in) fica (‘fig-hand’, for the resemblance to female genitalia), and was in common use in past centuries. 9 They also were a feature of Dutch Games of the Goose – see Chapter 10. 10 The imprint reads: ‘Invented at the Consistory in Rome and are printed and sold by H. OVERTON at Ye White Horse without Newgate where all sorts of fine prints and maps are sold at reasonable rates’. Henry Overton was a son of John Overton and was at the White Horse address from 1707 to 1749 (Worms and Baynton-Williams).

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Figure 6.3: Portrait medallions in the Game of the Goose.

rich?10 Another version with portrait medallions has, on the left ‘JONATHAN WILD Thief Taker General of Great Britain’. Though Wild’s impressive title was self-granted, he was well regarded and indeed was consulted in 1720 by the Privy Council on how to deal with crime in London. Only later was it discovered that Wild himself was largely responsible for organizing much of the criminal underworld. On the right of the game sheet is ‘JACK SHEPHERD Drawn from the Life’, in heavy handcuffs. Jack Shepherd – by tradition, the model for Tom Idle in William Hogarth’s Industry and Idleness series – was a notorious house burglar.

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He was, through Wild’s efforts, arrested, convicted and hanged in 1724. Wild’s true criminal nature was revealed soon after and he was hanged in 1725. This version is discussed by R.C. Bell11 who proposes that it was originally engraved after Shepherd’s arrest and before Wild’s fall from grace, though the example he discusses has the later imprint: ‘LONDON Printed for and sold by John Bowles and Son at the Black Horse in Cornhill’.12 The same medallions also appear in the version (Figure 6.3) published with the imprint: ‘LONDON Printed for Robt. Sayer at the Golden Buck in Fleet Street’.13 This imprint was in use by Robert Sayer between 1748 and 1766.14 All of these games are very similar in format and style, as Figures 6.2 and 6.3 confirm. However, closer scrutiny reveals some significant differences. An interesting departure from the rules of the classic Game of the Goose is found in the Wild/Shepherd versions: the geese normally on spaces 5 and 9 are altogether missing. There is thus no need for a rule governing the initial throw of nine, yet the pairs of dice that signify this rule in the classic game are still pictured − but for a different purpose. They appear at space 9 (showing 5,4) and at space 11 (showing 6,3); and attention is called to them in the rules as showing how to move one’s token. It is surprising that such elucidation should have been thought necessary, given the fact that the classic game was well known. The true explanation may be that the publishers wished to vary their game so as to be able to claim it as a new design.15 A different pair of portrait medallions appears in a version published with the imprint: ‘Printed for Carington Bowles, Map and Printseller, No. 69 in St. Paul’s Church Yard, LONDON’.16 Here, the left medallion is labelled ‘King George the IIIrd’, while the right one is labelled ‘Queen Charlotte’. Carington Bowles was at this address from 1763 to 1793.17 Charlotte was Queen of Great Britain and Ireland from her marriage in 1761. It therefore appears likely that this undated game was published c. 1763. This game also has the unusual arrangement of dice spaces found in the Wild/Shepherd versions.

11 R.C. Bell. Board and Table Games from Many Civilizations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960, pp. 14−16. 12 John Bowles was at this address from 1730 to 1766. From about 1753 to 1762 he worked in partnership with his son, Carrington Bowles, using the imprint ‘John Bowles and Son’. The example illustrated by R.C. Bell comes from this period. 13 Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 24. 14 Worms and Baynton-Williams note that Sayer collaborated with John Bowles and Carrington Bowles in publishing several prints and maps. 15 A strange hangover from the classic version is that a pair of dice appears on the classic dice space 26. However, they show five and four, not the six three to be expected. The other classic dice space, 53, is blank. 16 Ciompi-Seville 927 17 Worms and Baynton Williams.

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This game sheet advertises other games by the publisher.18 A note just below the track entry decoration says: ‘Where may be had Bowles’s Royal Pastime of Cupid or entertaining Game of the Snake’, while text below the game itself records as newly published by Bowles the following games, to be discussed later in this chapter: – British Geographical Amusement, or Game of Geography in a most complete & elegant Tour thro’ England and Wales, with the adjoining parts of Scotland and Ireland. – European Geographical Amusement or Game of Geography designed from the Grand Tour of Europe by Dr. Nugent. – New Invented and Entertaining Game of Courtship and Matrimony to be played not only with Dice as the Goose and the Snake, but with Cards or an Index.

Returning to the Goose games, some interesting developments are to be found in the incidental iconography. Thus the entry space (lower left corner) of the John Overton game shows a jester wearing a pig’s head, while in the Henry Overton game this is replaced by a clown carrying a sphere on his head: possibly Fortune carrying the world. The corresponding space in the Wild/Shepherd games repeats the jester figure but with added text: Fortune’s the Changling Deity of Fools Against ill luck all cunning foresight fails, Whether were wise or no it nought avails.

However, the George/Charlotte game has a cheeky boy jingling a purse and saying: ‘Ha! Ha! Hah! I think/I’ve got all the chink’.19 The track-end decorations can also be compared. As previously noted, the John Overton game has drinking figures with a barrel, and this decoration is repeated in the Wild/Shepherd version. However, the Henry Overton version has two figures seated at a table, with a barrel head visible to the right. In the George/Charlotte version, two drinking figures are shown in close-up, with jug and goblets: one of them points across the other, towards the end space. One may infer that these games were often used in taverns for gambling. Likewise, all four games show two rows or a single row of coins in the end space at 63. However, the George/Charlotte game adds the words: On what small Accidents depends our Fate, While Chance not Prudence makes us Fortunate. 18 Some caution is needed in that the game is undated: possibly the advertising text was added after the main engraving of c. 1763. 19 Slang for ‘money’.

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A final comparison concerns the lower right corner decoration. The John Overton game has a bearded man playing a lute, a woman and a dog; this decoration is repeated in the Wild/Shepherd game. The Henry Overton game has two musicians. By contrast, the George/Charlotte game shows a well-dressed mixed company, of three men and three women, sitting at a table to pay the Game of the Goose: no liquor is in sight. It appears then, that playing the Game of the Goose in respectable mixed company was not unknown.20

Figure 6.4: Lower right corner decoration of the George III/ Queen Charlotte Game of the Goose published by Carington Bowles, c. 1763.

6.2.

Who played the Game of the Goose?

Apart from the iconographic evidence outlined above, there is very little to show who played the Game of the Goose in England during the 17th and 18th centuries. Goldsmith, in his poem, The Deserted Village, written in 1770, refers to a humble tavern,

20 However, a later edition with generally similar iconography (c. 1820) by James Lumsden & Son of Glasgow re-draws this scene to show only men, in a tavern with drink on the table – see Chapter 7.

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where a Game of the Goose hung on the wall, together with a print of the Twelve Good Rules of Behaviour:21 The pictures placed for ornament and use, The twelve good rules, the Royal Game of Goose.

Consistent with this, one of Laurie’s Satirical Quartos, Knavish Pat, published in 1804, shows the Game of the Goose on a tavern wall, as background to its racist depiction of an Irishman.22 The game illustrated has a track made up of concentric rings, rather than a spiral: it is not known whether this is artist’s licence or a true depiction of a lost edition. But the game was evidently not confined to the lower classes: in 1758, at the other end of the social spectrum, the Duchess of Norfolk planted a Game of Goose in hornbeam at Worksop, as noted by Horace Walpole.23

Figure 6.5: Detail of a satirical quarto by Laurie and Whittle, dated 1804 (© The Trustees of the British Museum).

21 These rules have nothing to do with the Game of the Goose, though Goldsmith’s reference has often led to confusion. 22 British Museum number1861,0518.1046 23 The letters of Horace Walpole, Earl of Orford. London: R. Bentley, 1840, Vol. 3, p. 395.

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TO THE HON. H. S. CONWAY Arlington Street, Sept. 19, 1758 I am glad I am not in favour enough to be consulted by my Lord Duchess on the Gothic farm; she would have given me so many fine and unintelligible reasons why it should not be as it should be, that I should have lost a little of my patience. You don’t tell me if the goose-board in hornbeam is quite finished; and have you forgot that I actually was in t’other goose-board, the conjuring room?24

Hedge designs were often created on grand estates, though most were laid out as mazes or labyrinths. However, the game was not always regarded as being in the highest cultural sphere. Adam Fitz-Adam, writing in 1776, observes: Yet many there are, and men of taste too, as the phrase goes, who, through a shameful neglect of their minds, have little or no relish of the fine arts: and I doubt whether, in our most splendid assemblies, the Royal Game of Goose would not have as many eyes fixed upon it as the lately-published curiosity of the ruins of Palmyra.25

Joseph Strutt, writing at the end of the 18th century, was also dismissive of the game, which he describes in detail:26 The Game Of Goose−And Of The Snake.−In addition to the pastimes mentioned in the preceding pages, I shall produce two or three more; and they are such as require no skill in the performance, but depend entirely upon chance for the determination of the contest. We have a childish diversion usually introduced at Christmas time, called the Game of Goose. This game may be played by two persons; but it will readily admit of many more; it originated, I believe, in Germany, and is well calculated to make children ready at reckoning the produce of two given numbers. The table for playing at goose is usually an impression from a copper-plate pasted upon a cartoon about the size of a sheet almanack, and divided into sixty-two small compartments arranged in a spiral form, with a large open space in the midst marked with the number sixty-three; the lesser compartments have singly an appropriate number from one to sixty-two inclusive, beginning at the outmost extremity of the spiral lines. At the commencement of the play, every one of the competitors puts a stake 24 This reference to a ‘conjuring room’ is obscure. 25 Adam Fitz-Adam. The World. Edinburgh: at the Appollo Press by The Martins, 1776, Vol. 2, pp. 59−60. The reference is to Robert Wood’s influential The Ruins of Palmyra, otherwise Tedmor, in the Desart. London: 1753 (no publisher). 26 Joseph Strutt. The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England: From the Earliest Period, Including the Rural and Domestic Recreations, May Games, Mummeries, Pageants, Processions and Pompous Spectacles. London: Methuen & Company, 1801, pp. 265−266.

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into the space at No. 63. There are also different forfeitures in the course of the game that are added, and the whole belongs to the winner. At No. 5 is a bridge which claims a forfeit at passing; at 19, an alehouse where a forfeit is exacted and to stop two throws; at 30, a fountain where you pay for washing; at 42, a labyrinth which carries you back to 23; at 52, the prison where you must rest until relieved by another casting the same throw; at 58, the grave whence you begin the game again; and at 61, the goblet where you pay for tasting. The game is played with two dice, and every player throws in his turn as he sits at the table: he must have a counter or some other small mark which he can distinguish from the marks of his antagonists, and according to the amount of the two numbers thrown upon the dice he places his mark; that is to say, if he throws a four and a five, which amount to nine, he places his mark at nine upon the table, moving it the next throw as many numbers forward as the dice permit him, and so on until the game be completed, namely, when the number sixty-three is made exactly; all above it the player reckons back, and then throws again in his turn. If the second thrower at the beginning of the game casts the same number as the first, he takes up his piece, and the first player is obliged to begin the game again. If the same thing happens in the middle of the game, the first player goes back to the place the last came from. It is called the game of the goose, because at every fourth and fifth compartment in succession a goose is depicted, and if the cast thrown by the player, falls upon a goose, he moves forward double the number of his throw. We have also the Game of Snake, and the more modern Game of Matrimony, with others of the like kind; formed upon the same plan as that of the goose, but none of them, according to my opinion, are the least improved by the variations.

Evidently, Strutt saw only the benefit of giving experience in adding the throw on the two dice, ignoring completely the social benefit of playing with others, such as learning to win and to lose graciously.27 A point of interest is that Strutt describes a version of the game with a goblet at space 62. As discussed in Chapter 8, this is above all a feature of German Games of the Goose, which might well explain why Strutt claims a German origin for the game; no English versions with this feature have survived. Strutt evidently sees no anomaly in describing the game as a childish diversion, despite the presence of ‘tavern’ iconography; it is a salutary warning against assuming that iconography is uniquely determinative of the playing audience.

27 Adrian Seville. The Sociable Game of the Goose. Proceedings of the Board Game Studies Colloquium XI. Lisbon: Associaçaõ Ludus, pages 19−26.

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153

The Game of Cupid or of the Snake

The second game of amusement in England during the 17th and 18th centuries was the Game of Cupid or of the Snake.28 The earliest extant version seems to be that bearing the imprint: ‘Printed and sould by John Garrett at his Shop next ye Stayres of ye Royal Exchange in Cornhill’.29 The title is The Royall Pass-Tyme of Cupid or the New and Most Pleasant Game of the Snake. The Term Catalogue for 1690 (November) has: ‘The Royal pastime of Cupid, or The new and most pleasant game of the Snake. Printed on a Royal sheet of Paper. Price, black and white, 6d.; coloured, 1s. [...] sold by J. Garret, next the Stairs of the Royal Exchange in Cornhill’.

Figure 6.6: The Royall Pass-Tyme of Cupid, or The new and most pleasant Game of the Snake, published by John Garrett, c. 1690 (Houghton Library).

28 This is to be distinguished from the board game noticed in Chapter 2 Section 10, as described by Randall Holme (1627−1700) in chapter XVI of Book III of The Academy of Armory, most of which was published in 1688 but part, containing the relevant chapter, was published only later by the Roxburghe Club in 1905. The Game of the Snake he describes is played on a decorated 63-space track representing a snake, but apparently without differentiation between spaces in the play. Immediately following is an accurate description of the Game of the Goose, with complete rules. 29 Whitehouse, plate 27. An example was sold in the Sotheby’s sale of the Linda Hannas collection in July 1984, as lot 1221. Harvard University Library has Narcissus Luttrell’s copy, priced & dated in his hand: ‘6d. 1690’. No. B73 of the Marquess of Bute broadsides.

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A very similar edition was issued by Willam Dicey in the first half of the 18th century and is in the John Johnson collection at the Bodleian Library, Oxford, which offers an excellent zoomable image of the game. The game is of 63 spaces with rules as follows, taken from the John Garrett version: 1. Haveing a pare of dice, it must be first agreed upon, what to play for, which is to be layd downe, & then you must throw − who shall play first. 2. He that throws first of all Seven, must take notice what he hath throwne, for if it be 1 & 6, he goes forward to 16, if it be 2 & 5, to 25, if it be 4 and 3, he goeth to 43. 3. He that throws upon cupid must not rest there, but goe as many forward as he hath throwne. 4. He that throws upon 5 where the bridge is, must pay passage: that is, lay downe as much as he stake at ye first, and so he must goe forward to rest on ye chayre at 12 till all the rest have played once about. 5. He that throws upon 18, must pay beveridge to Cupid, & stay with him till ye rest have played twice about or some body releace him. 6. He that throws upon 30 must wash him self so long in ye fountayne till he be displaced by some other in whose place he must goe back agin. 7. He that throws upon 38 must feast with Cupid, paying his share that is as much as he stakt downe at first, & must remayne there till his Companions have played once about. 8. He that throws in ye labyrinth which is 46, must goe back to 23, & then play agin in his turne. 9. He that comes in ye wood upon 54, is catcht in ye net, till he be delivered by sum other, in whose place he must goe back, paying his ransome. 10. He that throws 59, where ye coffin stands, must give way to ye corps, pay for ye grave, & begin ye game again in his turne. 11. If some person throws where any body else stands, then the first must give way to ye last going back into ye others place, paying his fine. 12. He that comes first into the delightfull garden of Cupid, where 63 is he hath wun ye game: & is to begin ye new game againe, but if in case he throws above ye number of 63, then he must goe so far back ward, as he hath exceeded ye number.

Comparison with Section 6 of Chapter 3 will show that these rules are essentially identical to those of the French Cupidon game. However, the English versions lack the explanation of the symbolism and numerology to be found on the French game sheet. In that regard, they are like the Dutch versions. In fact the Garrett version is a close copy of the earlier game (c. 1625−1640) by Claes Janz Visscher of Amsterdam (described in Chapter 10), having the same central decoration of a peasant man and woman dancing in an enclosed garden, accompanied by a winged Cupid playing an instrument. A further significant point of correspondence is that both these games bear the legend: ‘All’s

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well that ends well’ (in Dutch: Is ‘t eynde wel is ‘t alles goet). The implication is that the English version is an import from Holland. Judging by the number of new editions, this game remained popular in England even into the 19th century.

6.4.

The game of Courtship and Matrimony

Courtship and Matrimony is the third game of amusement to be covered in this chapter. The first mention of it seems to be in an advertisement in the London Evening Post: 1747 April 30th − May 2nd. (issue 3041): This Day is publish’d, Price 1s. COURTSHIP and MATRIMONY, a new invented entertaining GAME; to be play’d at not only with Dice as the Snake and Goose, but also with Cards or an Index. To which is added, HYMEN’S Advice to the LADIES: A new Song, set to Musick. The whole interspers’d with other Songs, properly and humourously adapted by Way of Mottoes. Neatly engraven upon a Folio Copper Plate, 24 Inches by 19, and printed upon Royal Paper. Invented by the Society of ANATOMISTS.30 Publish’d in the Year 1747, according to Act of Parliament, and sold by H. Roberts, Engraver and Printseller, facing Great Turnstile, Holborn, and to be had at all Print and Pamphlet Shops in Town and Country.

This description entirely fits a game in the author’s collection, though that example has no publisher’s imprint: it may therefore be by Roberts or be a pirated copy.31 The game is closely based on Goose, though its track ends at space 64, marked ‘Marriage and Game’, rather than at space 63. The track is formed by two concentric circles, linked at space 32, which is gloriously labelled ‘Mutual Passion – When w[i]th Mutual inclination two fond Hearts in one Unite’.32 The goose-like throw-doubling spaces are those that are inscribed but have no reference to any particular rule. These spaces are inscribed with mottoes and quotations from popular ballads of the day, e.g., space 5: A Wounded Heart. By Cupid’s Self I have been told, He never wounds a Heart.33 With further examples of this kind, two series of favourable ‘goose’ spaces are formed, as in the classic game. As expected, there are special rules for an initial throw of 9, both symbolizing advancement in life, as well as on the board. For example, the throw of 6, 3 leads to space 25 (£10,000 – O what pleasures will abound/When I’ve got ten thousand 30 It has not been possible to trace this ‘society’ – probably a joke. 31 Illustrated in: Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 25. 32 The quotation is from a poem by Timothy Truepenny, On the Beautiful Kitty, printed in the 11 May 1739 issue of The Universal Spy; or, The London Weekly Magazine, beginning: ‘Farewell loose flames/and City dames/ for now with Joy I quit ye/A keener Dart/has pierced my Heart/Shot from the Eyes of Kitty’. 33 From a song quoted in The Lark, a collection of celebrated English and Scottish songs published in 1742. The song continues; ‘[...] so deep as when he tips with Gold/The fatal piercing Dart’.

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pound).34 There are also ‘baulks’ (hazard spaces); for example, space 28 (A Rival – Some Rival more Dear/I fear has been here/tumpaty, tumpaty, tump) – go back to space 7 and lose a turn.35 The prison space is particularly interesting: space 55 (The Fleet – But Kind S[i]r As you’re a Stranger/Down your Garnish you must lay). The Fleet Prison in London was a debtor’s prison and the rule is basically the standard prison rule: wait until released by another. However: ‘If one of ye other Sex comes in, it is a Fleet Marriage & you win the Game and divide the Pool’.36 The final baulk corresponds to the death space at 61 (A Breaking Off – Oh What Pain it is to Part): pay one and begin the game again.37 The reference in the subtitle to playing this game ‘not only with dice but also with cards or an index’ needs explanation. The use of two dice is straightforward, except that there is a rule that doublets are not played: the player remains without moving. The ‘cards’ are just a pack from which all above the sixes have been removed. Drawing two cards simulates the throw of two normal dice; drawing a pair simulates doublets and the player does not move. The ‘index’ is a spinning arrow placed centrally on the game, laid horizontally on a table. When spun, its resting point indicates a number on the index ring, which is cleverly divided to simulate the chances on double dice, an impressive achievement, considering the generally low level of understanding of chance in the mid-eighteenth century. The inventor of the game is not known, though a notice of a now-lost version published by Bladon as a ‘new game’ in 1754 attributes it to ‘a country clergyman’.38 Another edition of the game was published by Carington Bowles sometime between 1763 and 1793. By this date, Fleet marriages were no longer legal, so that space 55 now refers to a marriage at Gretna Green.39 A third edition was published by Bowles and Carver c. 1800.40 This is the same as the Carington Bowles game except that it lacks the music in the centre. The rarity of examples of all editions suggests that this game was less successful than the Game of the Goose or indeed the Game of the Snake. However, as noted above, Strutt was aware of it. 34 The ballad reference is to Henry Fielding’s popular song from Lewis Theobald’s Perseus and Andromeda (1730). 35 The ballad reference is to Young Roger Came Tapping at Dolly’s Window, found in The Vocal Miscellany: A Collection of Above Four Hundred Celebrated Songs (1738), though this has ‘Crumpaty’ etc. (instead of ‘tumpaty’). 36 A Fleet marriage was one that took place in that prison in London, which claimed to be outside the jurisdiction of the Church. Disgraced or pretending clergymen often conducted them, for a fee. Such marriages were in fact legal in Britain until the Marriage Act of 1753. 37 The ballad reference is, of course, to Polly and MacHeath’s duet from Act I of John Gay’s Beggar’s Opera (1728). 38 The London Magazine and Monthly Chronologer, Vol. XXIII, 1754, p. 88. 39 Gretna Green is a village in the south of Scotland, famous for runaway weddings: the provisions of the Marriage Act did not apply in Scotland, so ‘irregular marriages’ were still possible. It was the first village in Scotland, following the coaching route from London to Edinburgh established in the 1770s. 40 Bowles and Carver were in partnership at no. 69 St Paul’s Churchyard from 1793 to 1832 (British Museum term details). An example of this game from the Linda Hannas collection was sold at Sotheby’s in 1984 (lot 1223) and is now in the library of Cornell University.

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Figure 6.7: Courtship and Matrimony. Bowles and Carver, c. 1800.

6.5.

Channels of distribution

Many of the games so far discussed indicate that copies of the game may be purchased from the publisher’s establishment in London. Yet, although the London publishers were important sources, there was a wider distribution network for prints. For example, an advertisement for prints by William Hogarth notes the following print shops, in addition to the engraver’s own workshop: [sold at] the principal Print-Shops, viz. Mr.Hennekin’s, the Corner of Hemming’s Row; Mr.Regnier’s, in Great Newport-street; Mr.Bolle’s, in St.Paul’s Church-yard; Mr.Gautier, in the Piazza in Covent-Garden; Mr.Overton’s, at the Golden Buck in Fleet-street; at Mr.King’s, at the Globe by Stock’s Market; at the Corner of Pall-Mall; at Wm. Hogarth’s, the Engraver thereof, at the Golden Ball in Little Newport-street, and no where else.41 41 Daily Courant, 24 February 1724; in ‘The art world in Britain 1660 to 1735’, at http://artworld.york.ac.uk; accessed 2 January 2017.

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Indeed, in 1723, Hennekin himself had advertised several games, including the Game of the Goose and of the Snake, in the context of a long and diverse list of prints and fancy goods: At the Great Print and Toy Shop, The Corner of Hemming’s Row in St. Martin’s-Lane, are just arrived the most diverting and comical Collection of Dwarfs, in several Books finely Engrav’d. A new Academy of Horses Books of Iron-works by the famous Tijou, and others of Paris: Several new Metzotinto Prints and Battles, 3 and 4 foot over: Battles of Alexander, Poussins; Landskips, and Sacraments. The Fountains of Versailles; Galleries of Caracci, Luxemburgh, Girardon, Psyche, and others. The several Turkish Dresses; Statues of Versailes, Perreer, Verdier, and others. Twenty six Landskips of P.P.Rubens: Compleat Setts of Barrain’s Ornaments, 8 Pieces. The History of Achilles, by Rubens. The Orders of the Church of Rome, each Habit in its proper Colours, 60 in Number, painted in Miniature on Vellum. Heads and Prints of Vandyke and Rubens. With all sorts of new Prints proper for Dining Rooms, Parlors, Stair Cases or Closets: The Cries of London and Paris, large and small Maps, from 1 Foot to 8 and 10 Foot, for Halls, &c. with all sorts of old Prints. A new Winter’s Play, call’d Jeu de la Choette, alias Eulen Spiegele, finely engrave, with a Description in French how to play it with 3 Dice. Price 1s. Game of the Snake and Goose in English or French. At the said Shop is sold all sorts of Flanders Lace and Edgings, the lowest Price being put on each Piece, and no less Quantity than a Piece. Sold by the Importer Michael Hennekin at his Shop aforesaid.42

This advertisement shows clearly that there was trade in games imported from France and possibly also from Germany, judging by the reference to the Eulenspiegel game.43 Nor was the sale of games restricted to London. A catalogue of ‘Books for 1797’ was issued by John Binns of Leeds, described as bookseller, printer, stationer, print-seller & music-seller.44 It lists the following games items: 163. Game of Goose, Game of Snake, Game of Chance, 6d each. 210. Game of Chance, or Harlequin takes all, engraved on 1 sheet, 6d.45 211. Royal Game of Snake, engraved on 1 sheet, 6d.

On the title page, Binns claims that his catalogues may be seen at most booksellers. 42 Daily Journal, 15 October 1723; in ‘The art world in Britain 1660 to 1735’, at http://artworld.york.ac.uk; accessed 2 January 2017. 43 ‘Game of the Owl’: a pay-or-take gambling game with a winner’s pool, based on the folk tales of Till Eu­ lenspiegel. 44 Download available from Google books; accessed June 2018. 45 A pay-or-take pool game of Dutch origin.

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159

Cartographic games.

The first English geographical games were those emulating the Grand Tour by means of a ‘journey’ across a map of Europe. Thomas Nugent’s book detailing the Tour had been published in 1749 and no doubt acted as a stimulus: in fact certain of the published games refer explicitly to this work.46 The earliest known English geographical game is called A Journey through Europe, or the Play of Geography.47 The imprint of the example reproduced in Whitehouse reads: A Journey through Europe or The Play of Geography. Invented and sold by the Proprietor, John Jefferys, at his house in Chapel Street, near the Broad Way, Westmr. Writing Master, Accompt, Geographer, etc. Printed for Carrington Bowles, Map & Printseller, N° 69 in St. Paul’s Church Yard, London. Price 8s. Published as the Act directs, September 14th, 1759.

However, according to Worms and Baynton-Williams, Carington Bowles was at that address only from 1763 to 1793, so that the example must be a reprint of the 1759 game. It is clearly based on the Game of the Goose in that it makes use of the rule that a player landing on a favourable space moves past it to the extent of his or her throw. Here, though, the favourable spaces are the ‘royal residences’, i.e. capital cities of Europe, including Dublin by virtue of the residence of the Lord Lieutenant. The track is displayed as a succession of cities on the surface of a map of Europe – a new innovation, as compared with the French games, where the track was composed of a series of vignette maps – beginning at York in England and returning to London after a journey through the various countries of Europe, but extended to include a visit to the Holy Land, thus emulating the journey to be undertaken during the ‘Grand Tour’. Whitehouse describes the game thus: The earliest dated game known. An engraving of a map of Europe size 27 in X 20 1/2 in cut into 16 sections and mounted on to brown canvas. The countries are hand-tinted with pale washes of water colour. The game is contained in a slip case without outer label. The rules, four in number, are printed from type on a separate piece of paper and pasted over a portion of Asia on the right-hand side of the game. It is stated that ‘The Journey through Europe is to be played in all respects the same as the game of Goose’. The Explanation, in engraved lettering over the Atlantic Ocean, instructs the players what to do on arrival at each of the numbered places. N°1 is York, and ‘He who rests at N°77, London, wins ye play, shall have the honour of kissing Ye King of Great Britain’s hand and shall be knighted and receive 46 Mr. Nugent, The Grand Tour. London: printed for S. Birt, D.Browne, A. Millar and G. Hawkins, 1749. 47 Whitehouse, pp. 6−7 and plate 1.

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ye compliments of all ye company in regard to his new Dignity’, whilst ‘He who rests on any N° where a King lives shall have ye priviledge to reckon his Spin twice over’. At most of the towns the players are instructed to go on or go back, e.g. ‘He who rests at 28 at Hanover shall by order of Ye King of Great Britain who is Elector, be conducted to N°54 at Gibraltar to visit his countrymen who keep garison there’. ‘He who rests at 48 at Rome for kissing ye Pope’s Toe shall be banished for his folly to N° 4 in the cold island of Iceland and miss three turns’.

As expected, some of the spaces correspond to the sights to be expected on the Grand Tour: Venice (the Rialto bridge), Geneva (to fish in the lake, where there are very large trout); Sicily (the famous burning Mount Etna), etc. But many of the spaces are revelatory of overseas trade, reflecting Britain’s status as a trading nation: Archangel (space 12) – the traveller must stay 2 turns to load his ship with Russian commodities for England. Elsewhere, there are deal boards from Norway, Printers Black from Frankfort, Smyrna raisins, Cyprus wine, Malaga fruit, red Port, and Lisbon sugar to mull it with Seville oranges. Another underlying theme is the contest for maritime power. At Revel (now Tallin, capital of Estonia, space 9), the traveller must stay to watch the building of Russian ships for the Black Sea, likewise at Brest or Toulon to see the French men of war being constructed. And: ‘He who rests on No. 51, Port Mahon, which did belong to the English but since taken by the French shall stay a prisoner there until he redeems himself by missing four turns’.48 The hazards of the classic game are cleverly adapted, though numerological correspondence is not maintained. The ‘prison’ space becomes Sallee (space 59), where the traveller is taken by the ‘Sallee Rovers’ and must stay until ‘some other light upon the same place and stay in his stead’.49 The equivalent of the ‘death’ space is No. 73, Land’s End, when the traveller ‘shall split against the Scilly Rocks and be cast away and must spin again and begin again at No.1, York’. Care has been taken to set this space not far from the winning space, London, No. 77, similar to the placing of ‘death’ in the classic game. Worms and Baynton-Williams describe Jefferys as ‘teacher of mathematics, writing master, accountant and publisher’, noting that he published three different maps of England and Wales in the years from 1744 to 1759. He was known as a Quaker, which may explain the strength of anti-Catholic sentiment, though such was no means uncommon in Hanoverian England. Similar games based on maps of Europe were soon produced by other map-makers. The second cartographic game published in England was The Royal Geographical Pastime or the Tour of Europe, published by Thomas Jefferys, London, 1768.50 It uses 48 This refers to the capital of the island of Minorca. Minorca was a British possession under the Treaty of Utrecht from 1713 until was lost to the French in 1756. After their defeat in the Seven Years’ War, France returned the island to the British in 1763. 49 Salé is a city in north-western Morocco. It was a well-known haven for pirates as an independent republic before being incorporated into Alaouite Morocco. 50 Thomas Jefferys was Geographer to the King; there is no known connection with John Jefferys.

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a similar track to that of the John Jefferys game, also having goose-doubling rules on capital cities.51 In this respect these Tour of Europe games are unlike other English educational games, including the later geographic games and indeed some other Tour of Europe games, which have little formal connection with Goose, except for the use of a numbered track and having moves determined wholly by chance, whether by dice or teetotum. For example, Walker’s Geographical Game exhibiting a Tour through Europe has no doubling rule for the capital cities encountered.52 The geographic games produced in England in the later years of the 18th century and the first years of the 19th were all cartographic, with numbered tracks set out on a map. They were produced by several different publishers, as detailed in the check list (Appendix 5a), notably Carrington Bowles, Bowles & Carver, the Dartons, Robert Sayer, Laurie & Whittle, and John Wallis. To the original concept of a game emulating the Grand Tour of Europe were soon added ‘tours’ of England and Wales, of Asia, of Scotland, and of America. There was even a tour through the County of Somerset, though the extreme rarity of this game suggests its appeal was too circumscribed for it to succeed.53 The first game to circumnavigate the Globe was John Wallis’s Complete Voyage Round the World.54 This consisted of two circular maps, showing Eastern and Western hemispheres, the maps being dated 1796. Pasted below the map was an instruction sheet, of which there were several editions, the first saying: ‘Printed for John Wallis/ At his Map Warehouse, Ludgate-Street, London, 1796’.55 Some later editions of the instruction sheet bore the date 1802; however, the map was not updated, so that Tasmania was still not shown as an island, though Flinders and Bass had proved that it was, in 1798–99. The game makes much of Captain Cook’s recent exploratory voyages, including his death at Owhyee (i.e. Hawaii, space 94) in 1779 and the ‘ne plus ultra’ (space 97, meaning ‘no further’) marking the southernmost limit of his exploration. However, long-past grievances are not forgotten. The Moluccas (Maluku) Islands (space 50) are remembered for the ‘horrid barbarities exercised by the Dutch on the English, in Amboyna’, in reference to the judicial execution in 1623 on Ambon Island of 20 Englishmen by agents of the Dutch East India Company, on accusations of treason: the English alleged that confessions were extracted by an early form of water torture. This game very consciously speaks of the extension of England’s power and influence in the eighteenth century by the establishment of coastal settlements: Sierra Leone, the Cape of Good Hope, and Hudson’s Bay are all noted. 51 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 30. 52 W. and T. Darton London: Holborn Hill, 1810. 53 London: printed for Robert Rowe, Gough Square, Fleet Street; and Champante and Whitrow, Jewry Street, Aldgate, 1803. See: Emma Dawn and Adrian Webb, Somerset Mapped. Wellington, Somerset: Halsgrove, 2016, pp. 146−147. The game sheet was later published by John Wallis as a dissected map c. 1812 – Library of Congress https://lccn.loc.gov/85695465 54 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 31. 55 An example is in John Spear’s collection.

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Wallis was one of the major publishers of children’s games and puzzles, as well as other printed items such as stationery, maps and music. The game sheet of the Complete Voyage Round the World makes it known that other games56 may be had on the same plan: ‘all 6s. [six shillings] each for the Pocket, on Cloth & Case, or upon a Pasteboard, with Box, Totum & Counters’. This was a considerable price, given that an average labourer’s daily wage in England in 1800 was about one third of that sum, and shows that these finely engraved games were aimed at an affluent market, as compared with the sixpenny games of the Goose and Snake referred to above. This game by Wallis, like its 18th century predecessors, had rules printed on the game sheet. In the early years of the 19th century, the practice of putting rules and instructional material into a separate booklet grew to be usual in educational games, and the cartographic games followed this trend. An extreme example is Walker’s Geographical Tour of Scotland, published in 1812 by William Darton Junior. In this, the rule book extends to 69 closely-set pages of text, describing in detail the places to be visited along the 205-space track, which begins at Edinburgh and terminates at John O’Groats house: that must have seemed a long distance off when playing the game! Although there is no formal requirement in the rules that the relevant text be read out at each spin, it is still necessary to leaf through the booklet to find the special instructions which attach to a small number of the places visited: for example, Nairn (space 131), at which the House of Calder was to be visited in order to see the bed where, according to tradition, Duncan was murdered by Macbeth. The excitement of reaching such a grisly place might well have been offset by the requirement to miss three turns. Another aspect of providing a rule booklet is that it allows space for the expression of opinions as well as facts. For example, the booklet of Walker’s New Geographical Game exhibiting a Tour through Europe, published by W. and T. Darton in 1810, describes Lisbon and adds: ‘the religion of the Portuguese is catholic; they are bigots and somewhat superstitious’. However, opinions are not confined to the rule book: the same game, on the game sheet itself, bears a ringing dismissal of the intellectual development of all Africa: ‘In Africa the human mind is degraded below its natural state [...] The inhabitants of Africa are deprived at present of all arts and sciences [...]’. We shall have further occasion to notice the strong opinions of the Dartons, who were a Quaker family, in the next chapter. From the standpoint of game design, these cartographic games had gone backwards during their development. Whereas John Jefferys’ game would have been fun to play, with its doubling of the throw at the residence of a King, and with its witty hazard spaces drawing on the Game of the Goose, the same can hardly be said of the Tour of Scotland. Nevertheless, despite their relative lack of sophistication as games 56 Namely: A Tour through England, A Tour through Europe, A Tour through Scotland, and The Genealogy of the Kings of England.

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Figure 6.8: Walker’s Geographical Tour of Scotland, published by William Darton Junior in 1812.

to be played, the cartographic games begin to reveal how these games can function as culturally significant objects through the treatment of their themes. Thus, the John Jefferys game goes beyond the mere description of the Grand Tour to give a picture of Hanoverian England, firmly anti-Catholic, actively engaged in overseas trade, and conscious of the balance of maritime power, while the Voyage Round the World applauds the extension of Empire and feats of exploration.

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In pursuing the development of cartographic games, we have gone well beyond the watershed of 1790 which nominally demarcates this chapter. In the next chapter, we shall see how geographic games of different character were developed in the 19th century, together with many others on different themes.

6.7.

The games people played

It is difficult to determine how important simple race games were as a form of recreation in England during the early years of printed board games. Francis Willughby’s Book of Games, dating from the 1660s, makes no mention of them, but his manuscript was unfinished at the time of his early death in 1672 and may not be a reliable indicator. More positive is the evidence of Henry Peacham’s pamphlet, The Worth of a Penny, in which, writing in 1641/1642 of ‘recreations within doors’, he lists ‘chess, tables, cards, dice, billiards, gioco d’oco [sic], and the like.’157 This is of interest not only in showing that the Game of the Goose was considered important enough to be listed with games of chess and tables [backgammon etc.] but also in confirming, by his use of a version of the Italian name, that the game was indeed imported into England from Italy. The next chapter will demonstrate the undeniable importance of printed race games in 19th century England.

57 Quoted in Edward Arber, An English Garner, vol VI. London: E. Arber, 1883, p.283. Thanks go to Malcolm Watkins for drawing this reference to my attention.

7. British games of the 19th century 7.1. The Golden Age of British Board Games This chapter traces the development of British games in the 19th century in all their thematic diversity. These games were aimed at an increasingly affluent market and standards of production were high. Engraving of superb quality could be achieved and when from about 1830 lithography began to replace engraving, games manufacturers were quick to embrace the new technique, again often with superb results.1 Hand colouring of both kinds of print could be of equally high quality, though it was always expensive, and sometimes a less-detailed version of the colouring was offered at a lower price. As the market developed, so new means of presentation became appropriate. Instead of the generic ‘pillars’ to act as tokens for a multitude of race games, there might be specially-designed die-cast figures to reinforce the theme; attractively-printed ‘money’ might be provided to reckon the score, rather than common counters; and the whole game with all its apparatus might typically be fitted into a good quality mahogany box, with sliding lid bearing a colourful label. Invention was in the air, so that games with new themes proliferated, often driven by an appreciation of what games could offer by way of educational diversion. The London manufacturers were in hot competition – the Wallis family, the Dartons and William Spooner being the most prominent − and this no doubt drove both thematic innovation and new presentational ideas. The golden age of British board games had arrived. Among the many games from this period, those selected for mention below are chosen primarily because they represent significant innovation in their genre: there is no attempt at full coverage. Classification of the games according to genre is not an exact science – some games could well fit in more than one category.

1 Many of the games discussed in this chapter are well reproduced in Ellen Liman’s book, Georgian and Victorian Board Games: The Liman Collection. New York: Pointed Leaf Press, 2017.

A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462984974_ch07

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7.2. Games of Moral Improvement The British ‘moral’ games constitute a distinct genre, popular during the Late Georgian period. Their sub-titles often refer to ‘Virtue’ or ‘Vice’.2 They are, however, games concerned with moral behaviour rather than being spiritually religious. Indeed, where religion is mentioned, it is often only to disparage the Roman Catholic persuasion. There is no equivalent in Protestant England to the French spiritual games described in Chapter 4, Section 8. The moral messages of a game are often clearly influenced by the persuasion of the game publisher, especially in the case of the Dartons, who were a family of Quakers. The selection of games discussed below includes some of the most beautiful game sheets in any genre, those produced by the Dartons being at the same time the finest and the most fantastical. However, the popularity of these ‘moral’ games, as judged by the dates of publication of new games, did not persist far into the Victorian era. The New Game of Human Life Of the non-geographical games, probably the first and arguably the most influential of British printed games was The New Game of Human Life, published by John Wallis and Elizabeth Newbery.3 This game of 84 spaces is one of the best known of English Georgian board games.4 Much less well known is that it derives from a French game, Le nouveau jeu de la vie humaine which pre-dates it by 15 years (see Figure 7.1). The English version is a close copy of the French original, reproducing the design and detailed layout, though all the images have been redrawn. This is indeed a game of human life: the track follows the various stages of life, showing the qualities and kinds of temperament, leading to different career outcomes. The game is a variant of the Game of the Goose, but the favourable doubling spaces are spaced by 12 in a single series to give the seven ages of man, beginning with The Infant, then: Youth (12), Man-hood (24), Prime of Life (36), Middle Age (48), Old Age (60), and Decrepitude (72). There is a special rule for the initial throw of double 6 (corresponding to the Goose rule for the initial throw of 9), pointing out that to double the throw forward 2 For example, John Harris’s New Game of Emulation claims to be: ‘designed for the Amusement of Youth of both Sexes and calculated to inspire their Minds with an abhorrence of Vice and a Love of Virtue’. 3 The full imprint reads: Published according to Act of Parliament July 14, 1790 by John Wallis, No. 16 Ludgate Street and by E Newbery, the corner of St. Paul’s Churchyard. Elizabeth Newbery (1747−1821) was a leading publisher of juvenile material, including dissected maps. John Wallis (1745?−1818) was a London publisher, bookseller, print seller and music seller, who also produced games and dissected maps. He was the father of John Wallis (1779?−1830), who was in the same business but moved from London to Sidmouth in about 1809; and of Edward Wallis, with whom he was in partnership from about 1813. See Worms and Baynton Williams for further details. 4 Liman pp. 26, 34.

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Figure 7.1: Le nouveau jeu de la vie humaine published in Paris by Crépy in 1775 compared with Wallis and ­Newbery’s version of 1790 (Waddesdon (National Trust) / author’s collection).

to the end would ‘not be reasonable’ and that the thrower must be content to move only to the Historian at space 39. The hazards do not correspond to those in the classic Game of the Goose but have their own rationale. Among these are: The Studious Boy at space 7 goes on to become the Orator at space 42; the Complaisant Man at space 26 must stay until another takes his place; the Prodigal at space 30 must pay and go back to space 6, the Careless

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Boy; the Married Man at space 34 receives two stakes as ‘Wife’s portion’ and goes on to space 56, the Good Father; the Romance Writer at space 40 must pay for time wasted and go back to space 5, the Mischievous Boy. For some unknown reason, the death penalty is reserved (in both French and English versions) for the Dramatist at space 44, who must pay ‘to the Masters of his Art’ and start the game again. By contrast, the Tragic Author at space 45 goes on to become the Immortal Man, and wins the game by succeeding him. The Immortal Man of the French version is Voltaire, leaning on a stick in characteristic pose; he died at the age of 84, corresponding to the length of the track. When the game was copied for Wallis and Newbery in 1790, several of the characters were changed to represent well-known Englishmen such as Alexander Pope (the Poet, space 41), Captain Cook (shown with a globe as the Geographer at space 47), William Pitt (the Patriot, space 55), the Prince Regent (at space 57, in a crude caricature to represent the Ambitious Man), and Isaac Newton (the Immortal Man at space 84), maybe since it was thought that an atheist was unsuitable for a British audience.5 Newton, like Voltaire, died at the age of 84. Elizabeth Newbery may well have suggested the note in the upper left corner of the game sheet, on ‘The Utility and Moral Tendency of this Game’: If parents who take upon themselves the pleasing task of instructing their children [...] will cause them to stop at each character and request their attention to a few moral and judicious observations explanatory of each character as they proceed and contrast the happiness of a virtuous and well spent life with the fatal consequences of vicious and immoral pursuits, this game may be rendered the most useful and amusing of any that has hitherto been offered to the public.

In the same moral vein, she may also have contributed the note at the bottom of the sheet: ‘It is necessary to inform the Purchaser the Totum must be marked with the Figures 1 2 3 4 5 6 & to avoid introducing a Dice Box into private Families, each player must spin twice, which will answer the same purpose’. But a more cynical reason for supplying an unmarked teetotum was to avoid the punitive duty on dice, which for double dice would have amounted to 20 shillings − more than twice the cost of the game.6 Thus began the tradition of the British moral or educational game, whereby the fast and furious fun of a dice-based race game was sacrificed to the tedium of moral reinforcement at every spin of the teetotum. However, the Game of Human Life was, as Whitehouse remarks, ‘one of the outstanding examples of all the old games: the quality of the engraving and delicacy of the hand-colouring, apart from the design of 5 6

Linda Hannas, The English Jigsaw Puzzle. London: Wayland, 1972, pp. 32 and 115. See the section on substitutes for dice in Chapter 5.

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the game, explain the demand for such copies as come to light’.7 Whitehouse gives a comparative table of prices realised for games at an auction in Paris in 1829, at which this game realised one of the highest prices of any: 1250 francs, equivalent to over £10 then, and about £500 now. The Mansion of Happiness game The Game of Human Life was followed by a considerable number of games of moral improvement. The earliest of these was The Mansion of Happiness, published by Laurie and Whittle in 1800.8 It was also the most significant in terms of the international history of board games, in that it was the model for a close variant of the same name which proved – nearly half a century later – to be the prototype for non-geographical games in the USA, as discussed in Chapter 12. The inventor is given as ‘George Fox, W. M., author of The Cottagers and various Poetical Pieces’.9 The game is dedicated to the Duchess of York (Princess Frederica Charlotte of Prussia [1767–1820]) and the Mansion of Happiness itself is a representation of Oatlands Park, the residence to which she retired after her marriage to the duke failed. Unlike the previous game, this is to be played with ‘a Box and a Pair of Dice’, and money stakes are involved: ‘Each person who plays should be furnished with a dozen of counters, the value of which is to be agreed upon and when the amusement is over for the night, each person to be accountable for the same; those who want more must buy of [from] a winner’. Although there are no throw-doubling spaces, there is a series of spaces that advance the player by six ‘towards the Mansion of Happiness’: these are the virtues of Piety, Honesty, Sobriety, Gratitude, Prudence, Truth, Chastity, Sincerity, Humility, Industry, Charity, Humanity and Generosity. By contrast, anyone landing on the vices of Audacity, Cruelty, Immodesty or Ingratitude ‘must return to his former situation and not even think of happiness, much less partake of it’. Poverty, the Whipping Post, Bridewell, the Stocks, Newgate and Ruin are to be considered as blanks when reckoning a throw, ‘for it would be cruel to punish a person for merely passing such a place; therefore, until one is guilty of a crime, he cannot be fined or sent to either’.

7 Whitehouse, p. 46. 8 Laurie and Whittle’s New Moral and Entertaining Game of the Mansion of Happiness. London: Robert Laurie and James Whittle, No. 53, Fleet Street, 13 October 1800. Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 69. Liman, 17,26,48. 9 ‘W.M’. probably stands for ‘Worshipful Master’ of a Masonic Lodge. Fox also invented another moral game, The Reward of Merit, published by John Harris and John Wallis in 1801. Liman pp. 23, 26, 50.

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The hazards at the start are perhaps inspired by the Game of the Goose: the bridge becomes the Water (space 6: pay one for being ferried over and go to space 10), while the inn at space 9 requires you to ‘pay one for refreshment’ and advance to space 12. The various ‘crimes’ for which one may be punished include: Getting into a Passion: go to the Water and have a Ducking. Whoever gets into Idleness must come to Poverty. Whoever gets into the Road to Folly must return to Prudence. Whoever becomes a Liar, Swearer and Sabbath-breaker must go to the Whipping-post. Whoever becomes a Cheat must be sent to Bridewell for one month, pay a fine of one and when at liberty must begin the game again. Whoever becomes a Robber must be sent to Newgate for three months, pay a fine of two and when at liberty must begin the game again. Each ‘month’ of the penalty means missing a turn.

Bridewell (space 30) and Newgate (space 50) were both prisons in the City of London, the former being for petty criminals, while the latter housed more serious felons. Curiously, despite the high moral tone, whoever arrives at the Summit of Dissipation has a choice: go to Ruin or pay a fine of three. Overthrowing the winning space of the Mansion of Happiness requires a fresh start: this must have been a frustrating game to play. Interestingly, when the game was reissued by Laurie in 1851, a new figure was introduced at space 60, which became the Seat of Expectation; on overthrowing for the first time, the player was sent back to this space, but a second overthrow meant a fresh start. In that edition, the dedication was removed, as was the reference to Oatlands. Further moral games There was evidently a good market for moral games in the first decades of the 19th century, judging by the number of different titles produced, involving all the main publishers of games. John Harris continued his involvement with the genre by offering The Game of Emulation (1804), the Road to the Temple of Honour and Fame (1811),10 and the Swan of Elegance (1815), while Edward Wallis offered Every Man to his Station (c. 1825).11 W. & T. Darton’s Mansion of Bliss appeared first in 1810, and several later editions were published.12 This game was invented by T. Newton, as was William Darton’s Virtue Rewarded and Vice Punished, which appeared in 1818. Probably the 10 Liman pp. 17, 40, 42, 180. 11 Liman pp. 17, 26, 28. 12 Liman pp. 21, 22, 44−45.

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Figure 7.2: The Basket of Fruit published by William Darton in 1822.

most beautiful of the moral games was William Darton’s Novel and Elegant Game of the Basket of Fruit, or Moral and Intellectual Dessert (1822). The accompanying booklet is entitled: ‘A key to the game of the Fruit Basket, containing a literary treat for a party of juveniles, and running over with choice subjects for their entertainment and diversion in various familiar scenes connected with Old England’. The scenes are indeed ‘various’: no unifying thematic principle can be discerned. The comparatively short track runs as follows: 1. Penitentiary, 2. Trial by Jury, 3. Domicilary Visit to the Indigent, 4. Students at the Royal Academy, 5. Exhibition at the Royal Academy, 6. An Infirmary, 7. An Alms House, 8. A Lecture on Chemistry, 9. A Blue-coat Boy, 10. A National School, 11. Confirmation, 12. A Bazaar, 13. Greenwich Pensioners, 14. Female Benevolent Society, 15. School for the Blind, 16. Chelsea Pensioners, 17. Matrimony, 18. Harvest Home, 19. A Bible Society, 20. Glory inciting an Oxonian and a Cantab student to Emulation, Learning and the Arts.

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The booklet runs to 36 pages of explanation, including six ‘notes’ which are to be read out when they are encountered. As to be expected from a Darton game, the descriptions of the various scenes include expressions of Quaker beliefs and philosophies. In the description of a National School, there is explicit reference to: ‘Mr. Joseph Lancaster, one of the Society of Friends (usually called Quakers) and the Rev. Dr. Bell [who] have been the chief instruments in this plan of education’. The description of a Female Benevolent Society procession shows the Quakers’ dislike of ostentation: ‘[...] we are tempted to think that these good ladies would look to more advantage seated in conversation for the good of the society than thus parading the streets with painted flags. However, we can pardon this display when we consider the nature of the laudable undertaking which gave rise to it’. It is interesting to compare this game, and its strange assortment of subjects, with the highly organised Game of Human Life, with its logical arrangement of favourable spaces and inter-related hazards. Perhaps the absence of any constraint from the Game of the Goose encouraged English game designers to indulge their fancies, as here, where the only organising principle is to provide subjects considered suitable for moralising. Similar comments could be made about another beautiful Darton game: The Noble Game of the Swan – containing amusement and instruction for all ages and sizes, though if anything the choice of subjects is even more strange, verging on the bizarre. What can possibly connect a key-stone, a post-horse, a museum, a merchant, a woolpack, a jockey and an abbey, to name just the starting spaces? True, there is opportunity for moralising: The feeling heart is pained in witnessing the fatigue of the Post-horse, which may once have been the flower of his species and the pride of his owner [...] What a pity we cannot influence the conduct of all our fellow-creatures, and induce them to treat this fine and affectionate animal with general humanity!

Yet, further along the track, we encounter subjects which are harder to moralise about, though the game’s author makes a valiant effort in regard to the Sackbut: All wind instruments are injurious to the health of the player and should be practised with discretion by young people.

Not all the British moral games were quite as po-faced as these Darton examples.13 John Harris’s Swan of Elegance,14 though titled as a ‘moral’ game in the rule booklet, is 13 The Survey of London game, described below, is a further example of William Darton’s emphasis on moral values in board games. 14 Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 33.

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decidedly witty. The 31 circular spaces, drawn on a tasselled scarf that envelops a magnificent swan, each contain an image of either a good child or of a bad child, linked to a sharply-written verse in the booklet. A personal favourite is that describing space 23: Gluttonous Helen – Here’s Helen near choking with eating mince pies,/What a shame, she so greedy should be;/She must go back to Charles a lesson to learn,/ And deposit in bank counters three.

By contrast, ‘Frugal Charles’ is depicted on space 9, cutting a very meagre slice from a large iced cake.

7.3. Historical Games Historical games were produced up to the start of the Victorian era, when many publishers updated their previously-published editions. One of the difficulties of the genre is that, although the game track is essentially a chronology of events or personages, the nature of the board game is that the spaces are visited in an order that is anything but chronological. This probably mattered less for superficial games, designed to show off and make memorable some wittily described scenes; but it made for difficult learning if, as with many of the British historical games, an attempt at systematic teaching via a detailed booklet was to be made. Innovations in the method of play were few, though variations in the track shape gave an impression of novelty. However, from the earliest examples, there was often an attempt to draw the young player into learning, by requiring some input going beyond the reading aloud of text: for example, the giving of dates correctly might allow an extra move. The selection of games discussed below is intended to illustrate these features. The Royal Genealogical Pastime of the Sovereigns of England Unlike the games in the previous section, the British games designed to teach history have no obvious precursor. The earliest seems to be The Royal Genealogical Pastime of the Sovereigns of England, issued by Elizabeth Newbery and John Wallis in 1791. However, this is very much sui generis as far as its design is concerned: although it is in fact a unicursal game, it is presented to look somewhat like a genealogical tree. The numbered track consists of shields, each with the dates of accession and death of a particular monarch, beginning with Egbert in A.D. 872. Interestingly, the game requires some active participation from the players: ‘As an encouragement to the player for the attention he may pay to the useful Science of Genealogy, he will be entitled to move one number forward when he can tell without looking

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Figure 7.3: Detail of the Royal Genealogical Pastime, published by Newbery and Wallis in 1791.

into the description of the game what King immediately preceded and followed that number on which chance may have thrown his pyramid; and if he can tell the date in which such King was born began his reign and how long he reigned he shall be allowed to move one number more forward’. This is a departure from games derived from the Game of the Goose, in which the progress is entirely determined by the throw of dice or the spin of the teetotum, and no input from the player is possible. Consistent with Elizabeth Newbery’s educational aims, the game sheet contains a statement of the ‘Utility of the Game: This being a scientific Game in which the Amusement and Instruction of the Parties are equally considered, we hope the Young Player will not think much of exercising his memory to acquire a perfect knowledge of it. Most games are calculated only to promote little Arts and Cunning; but this, while it will undoubtedly amuse, will not a little contribute to make the Players acquainted with the Genealogy of their own Kings’. The game would also acquaint them with the un-nuanced historical prejudices of its author. Several Monarchs are ruthlessly categorised as ‘good’ (e.g. Elizabeth – move on two) or ‘bad’ (e.g. Richard III – a bad prince, put down two counters),15 while Henry VIII requires the player to go back to No. 1 ‘as the treatment of his queens was so unjustifiable’.

15 i.e. miss two turns, one counter to be taken up as each turn is missed.

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Historical Pastime and similar spiral-track games More usual was the inward spiral track used by John Harris and John Wallis in their Historical Pastime or a New Game of the History of England from the Conquest to the Accession of George the Third that appeared in 1803.16 The track consists of numbered circles depicting, or with text recording, some notable event or personage from English history, beginning with the Battle of Hastings. This game would go through several editions, as monarch succeeded monarch and new circles recorded these events.17 There was also some limited updating of the earlier circles, for example to take into account the ending of the war with America and subsequent recognition of independence.18 Games using similar spiral tracks include The Jubilee, published by John Harris in 1810 to celebrate 50 years of the reign of George III. The track consists of 150 circles representing events in that period. John Wallis’s Universal History & Chronology was published in 1814, and has 137 circles in its track, beginning with the Creation of the World.19 All these games, like their predecessor, came with a booklet giving detailed explanations of the events. Track variations The above games employed near-circular tracks on a sheet of approximately square format. By contrast, The Royal Game of British Sovereigns employed a spiral track very similar to that used by the New Game of Human Life, within a printed rectangular frame.20 It was first published c. 1814 by John Wallis, Edward Wallis and John Wallis junior. The game exhibits ‘the most remarkable events in each reign from Egbert to George III’. A feature of printed board games was that publishers were able to bring them up to date by modifications to the plate: this game appeared in several editions, the most significant updating being to record, at space 53, the surrender of Napoleon Bonaparte to Capt. Maitland on board HMS Bellerephon, on 15th July 1815. The edition published in the reign of Queen Victoria added three extra spaces for George IV

16 John Harris (1756−1846) was a bookseller, publisher and toyman. He was Elizabeth Newbery’s manager but bought her business in 1801. 17 Later editions were published jointly by John Harris & Son with Edward Wallis. The game was also reissued in 1847 by John Passmore (1818−1877) with splendid illustrations of battles in the four corners. 18 Barbara Gribling, ‘Child Consumers of British History in Wallis’ Historical Pastime Games, 1803−c.1840’ in Rachel Bryant Davies and Barbara Gribling, eds., Childhood Encounters with History in British Culture. Manchester: Manchester University Press (forthcoming). 19 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 32. Strouhal, game 47. 20 Whitehouse, plate B. Liman, p. 96.

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(‘Plans for London improvements’), Wililam IV (‘Abolition of slavery’) and Victoria (‘May her reign be long and happy’). Even later into the 19th century, there was still little innovation in methods of playing the historical games but some attempt at novelty was made in the way of track variations. William Sallis’s Pyramid of History, published about 1850 was a lithograph by T. H. Jones, in which the 34 illustrations that make up the track are laid out in the form of a triangle, flanked by fanciful scenes of ‘The Past’ and ‘The Present’ (showing part of London).21 More prosaically, another William Sallis design, Amusement in British History, published early in Victoria’s reign, had a simple rectangular arrangement of portraits of English kings and queens in five rows of eight, each having a scene from their reign below the portrait.22 In William Spooner’s Game of English History, published in 1847, the size, and hence the attractiveness, of the illustrations of historical events was increased by simplifying the track to a sequence of plain circles, numbered only with significant dates, which snaked between relatively few illustrations.23 These were lithographed by L’Enfant24 and their brilliant colours made a most attractive-looking game, from the invasion of Julius Caesar to the battles of Culloden, Trafalgar, Sobraon25 and Waterloo. However, this game was also noteworthy for its less happy playing mechanism. There was only a single token, controlled by a teetotum spun in turn by the players. Its faces were either marked M (for ‘move’) or were blank (when the token stayed in place). On spinning an M, a player moved the token one space forward along the track and read out the description corresponding to the date from the accompanying booklet. On spinning a blank, the player had to name the event just described, or pay a counter to the winner’s pool. After the date of 1066, the player making the move had to name the reign in which the event occurred or pay one to the pool. The winner was the player making the move to the final space. This playing mechanism had the didactic advantage that historical events were presented in date order, without omissions. However, this was at the expense of playing enjoyment. With only one token on the board, no player could gain positional advantage and the level of excitement must have been slight.

21 Whitehouse, figure 12. Strouhal, game 48. 22 Not in Whitehouse. V & A Museum of Childhood museum number E.1782&A-1954. 23 Whitehouse, plate C. 24 John Anthony L’Enfant (?1825−1880) was a lithographer and printer in London who (inter alia) produced games for both William Spooner and David Ogilvy – see Worms and Baynton-Williams. 25 the decisive battle of the First Anglo-Sikh War, in 1846.

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7.4. Geographical games based on maps In contrast to the historical games discussed above, many of the geographical games of the 19th century were highly innovative. As discussed in Chapter 6, the traditional 18th century format was a game sheet showing a map bearing a numbered track with explanatory text in close-printed columns on the game sheet. Though this format did continue into the 19th century, the new games were generally more attractive. The map might now be covered with small detailed illustrations of places or scenes and the advent of lithography meant that great finesse could be achieved. Some genuine innovations in mode of play were introduced, notably by William Spooner, whose games used a spinner directing how the player should move in two dimensions, rather than along a fixed track. Though his games were not entirely successful from a player’s perspective, they were imaginative and interesting. Other publishers developed new methods of replacing the dice required for a game of chance, notably by providing printed cards to be drawn from a bag: these could easily be tailored to the requirements of the particular game. Wallis’s Picturesque Round Game of the Produce and Manufactures of the Counties of England26 A notable innovation in cartographic games was published by Edward Wallis around 1830. It made use of the relatively new technique of lithography to provide a map of the counties of England in which an exquisitely-detailed pictorial representation of each county was included within its correct outline. Hand-colouring was used to outline the boundaries and some counties were tinted. The rule book named a chief feature of each county (e.g. the county town or a main river) and the track was implicit in the numbering of these features. The rule book provided an account of each, with directions that applied to landing on particular counties. Instead of using a teetotum to determine each move, a card was to be drawn from a reticule. There were 12 cards in all: those numbered one to nine (meaning: move forward that number of spaces), one blank (meaning: stay in place) and two crosses (meaning: draw until you draw a number, then go back that number of spaces). The rules are interesting in that some require the reader to provide information. For example: ‘No. 5 Dunmow (Essex) − here is a curious custom about a flitch of bacon; if you can relate it, draw again; otherwise stay where you are’. There is a similar invitation at Coventry, to relate the story of Peeping Tom. This is a game designed for fun, rather than as an educational grind, though some knowledge of English geography would have been imparted. 26 Liman p. 118.

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The Star-spangled Banner and Wanderers in the Wilderness Edward Wallis also used lithography to good effect in two cartographic games of the Americas. The Game of the Star-spangled Banner, or Emigrants to the United States, first published about 1830, consists of a map of the Eastern half of the USA, in which small perspective drawings of various places and features form the numbered track.27 The companion game of Wanderers in the Wilderness, published some ten years later, offers a similar map of the entire South American continent.28 These are attractive games, with hand colouring of high quality. They also have interesting and often humorous rule books. In the former game, the track begins with ‘the Great Sea-Serpent – much excitement was created in 1817 by accounts of this monster [...]’ and ends at New York, space 170. The drawings are not to scale, so that the Rattlesnake ‘at all times and under all circumstances highly malignant and dangerous’ at space 50 appears as big as the nearby public buildings of Raleigh, North Carolina. Washington (space 44) is described thus: The seat of general government … The city is planned on a most magnificent scale but at present consists principally of a few inferior houses, with the Post-Office, Bank and a splendid Capitol or House of Representatives; this is built of marble and contains the National Library, as well as a Rotunda and offices for public business. Go on to No. 73.

The game is played by drawing cards just as in the game described in 4(a) above. However, there is an interesting rule, that: ‘as each State has its own independent government and cannot be controlled from Washington … whoever arrives at one of these [state capital] spaces has the privilege of drawing again immediately’. These spaces therefore act somewhat like goose spaces of the earlier Grand Tour of Europe games but with an extra turn rather than throw-doubling. L’Orient; or the Indian Travellers This game was published by David Ogilvy in about 1846.29 It is a high-quality production: the game sheet is beautifully lithographed and hand-coloured, showing a map of the Eastern Hemisphere, above which are vignettes of six English Sovereigns from 27 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 63. Liman, pp. 16, 144. 28 Liman pp. 124, 128. Strouhal, game 19. 29 The imprint of the game sheet reads, ‘London: published by David Ogilvy at his Repository for Rational Toys and Amusements’. Worms and Baynton-Williams give the address as 7 Southampton Row: they describe Ogilvy (1802−1883) as ‘publisher, bookseller and probably lithographer’.

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George I to Victoria.30 On the remaining three sides of the map are vignettes, 36 in all, showing a chronology of historical scenes related to the history of India from an English viewpoint, the last being dated 1846. There is also a rule booklet handsomely bound in red cloth, contrasting sharply with the crudely-produced booklets of many games. It is accompanied by a number of card sheets, as explained below. L’Orient is in fact two games in one. The first is not a game of movement at all but essentially a form of educational lotto. Each player has a card bearing the name of one of the six English Sovereigns. The players in turn draw from a reticule or a bag containing cards, cut from a sheet, which describe the events pictured in the series of vignettes which surround the central map. The player must then say in which reign the event occurred and, if right, may place the card on the corresponding vignette, there being six events in each reign. This continues until all six events in the reign of any one of the Sovereigns have been completed, when the player representing that Sovereign wins the game. The second game is a geographical game of movement, played on the central map. Three players compete to be first to get from London to Calcutta,31 each by a different colour-coded route: overland via Marseilles (red); overland via Trieste (yellow); and by sea, round the Cape of Good Hope (blue). A teetotum controls the play, having red, blue and yellow faces,32 plus one marked P (pay a counter to the pool) and another marked T (take one counter from the pool). Players who spin their own colour advance two stages, while if an opponent’s colour turns up, that opponent advances one stage along the route. The stages along the route are noted on route cards; they are not differentiated in the rules, so that there are no hazards or favourable points. It is noted in the rules that ‘persons residing in India may make the starting point Calcutta instead of London’. William Spooner’s innovative cartographical games A genuine innovation, rather than a modification of earlier cartographic games, was William Spooner’s The Travellers, or a Tour through Europe, published in 1842.33 Here, the map is a delicately coloured lithograph of Europe, each country being filled in with perspective views, with labels such as ‘Perils of the Whale Factory’. Instead of proceeding along a defined track, lines of latitude and longitude are shown and the game is to be played on the intersections of these lines. Movement of each player’s marker is determined by the spin of a four-sided teetotum bearing the letters N E S W for the points of the compass, to give the direction in which the marker is to be 30 Liman p. 142. Strouhal, game 22. 31 Calcutta, now Kolkata, was a colonial city developed by the British East India Company and then by the British Empire. It was the capital of the British Indian Empire until 1911 when the capital was relocated to Delhi. 32 Probably two of each colour to make eight faces in all – the teetotum has not been seen.

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moved, as far as the next intersection. Each player begins from a different starting point and is required to journey to a specified capital city, e.g. the player who starts from Jerusalem must reach Vienna, while from Cairo the aim is to reach St Petersburg, etc. A city is reached by reaching either adjacent point on the same line as the letter denoting that city. Some moves require a player to pay or take from the pool – a player who loses all his initial 20 counters (‘his expenses for the journey’) must leave the game. A traveller who reaches any capital city (marked by three daggers on the map) must announce the name of the country of which it is capital, or pay a fine of two counters. The first player to reach his or her specified city wins the pool. Like the Game of the Goose, it is a game of pure chance, with no skill and no choice of moves. However, unlike that game, it is a two dimensional random walk, rather than a one-dimensional progress. A serious drawback of the game is that the player is just as likely to move away from the destination as towards it. Chance will ensure that a destination is eventually reached but the process is frustrating. In later games on the same principle, Spooner modified the teetotum to allow a small element of choice: some of its faces were marked with two different directional letters, and the player could choose which to follow. Spooner also introduced an element of capture: in his The Pirate and the Traders of the West Indies, published in 1847, the four ‘Traders’ moved according to the directional teetotum but the ‘Pirate’ whose aim was to capture them before they reached their destinations, moved in one of the directions allowed to the last player.34 Games such as this, including other Spooner games using a directional teetotum, lie outside the scope of the present book but it is interesting to see these developments emerging from the earlier cartographic games. The European Tourist By contrast, the innovation to be found in The European Tourist published by A.N. Myers in about 1870 is largely presentational.35 The game sheet is a chromolithograph, dissected and laid onto linen in 2 × 4 panels, folding into a green leathercloth box with red leather label, The box also contains playing equipment and the extensive rule book by the fictitious ‘Roderick Roveabout’. The game offers a unicursal track of 100 spaces, laid out in partly-boustrophedon fashion across a map of Europe, with vignettes along the way, from Tromsoe back up to North Cape.36 33 William Matthias Spooner (1795−1882) was a London print seller and bookseller who produced maps and printed board games, mostly map-based. 34 The game is reproduced legibly with rules in: Ernst Strouhal. Die Welt im Spiel. Vienna: Braendtstatter, 2015, game 18. 35 London: A[braham] N[athan] Myers & Co., 15, Berners Street, Oxford Street. A. N. Myers (1804–1882) was an importer of fancy goods, and a wholesaler, toymaker and toyseller. He operated at the Berners Street address from 1865 to 1882. 36 Whitehouse, p. 43. Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 40.

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The ‘journey through Europe’ represented by this game is altogether more sophisticated than its Grand Tour predecessors from 100 years before. It is handsomely boxed, the box containing not only the game sheet and teetotum but also ‘passports’ with destinations to be filled in by the ‘travellers’ and printed ‘money’. It also contained eight distinctive die-cast tokens representing: an Englishman, a German travelling journeyman, a French naval officer, a Russian, a Turk, a Dutch sailor, an Italian, and a Swede. Each player chooses his own figure; in a show of patriotism, the Englishman has to pay double stakes and fines into the pool, receiving a double share if he wins. The German workman plays for half stakes, similarly. The detail of the mode of play is not clearly apparent from the rules, and it is doubtful whether anyone succeeded in following them as they stand. Indeed, the whole pleasure of the game (to a modern observer) lies in the bizarre rule book. It begins soberly enough: ‘It is desirable that all games, in which young persons take a part, should [...] combine the double object of amusement and instruction […]’ Yet it is doubtful whether Victorian parents would have approved (at space 31, Barcelona/Toulouse) of the traveller who ‘enjoys himself over a flask of Bordeaux wine’ and then ‘exceeded his proper allowance’, or (at space 44, Ofen and Pesth) of becoming so excited by partaking of tokay that he ‘gives vent to his feelings by shaking hands with his neighbours on both sides’. Myers’s worldly approach to board games for youth is a distance away from the sober rectitude of John Harris or the Dartons.

7.5. Non-cartographic games of Geography In addition to the cartographic games discussed above, there were other geographic games, where the track consisted of scenes of the areas to be ‘visited’.37 Freed from the constraint of a map, these could be arranged in very various track shapes. For example, the track John Harris’s Geographical Recreation or a Voyage round the Habitable Globe (1809) is configured as a set of concentric rings, bearing ninety vignettes in small circles. The whole arrangement is divided into four quadrants, each representing one of the four continents, and the track completes its journey in each before moving on to the next quadrant. The overall visual effect is much like the same publisher’s Historical Pastime, though that uses a spiral track.

37 A separate sub-genre was that of games showing scenes in London: these are described in Section 6 ­below.

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The Noble Game of the Elephant and Castle A much more adventurous production was William Darton’s game, The Noble Game of the Elephant and Castle or Travelling in Asia, published in 1822.38 The accompanying booklet boasts that during the game ‘the Sagacious Animal introduces us to various and instructive scenes’. It also sets out, by way of preliminary to be read out by the player who spins highest and so starts the game, ‘The Caution; or, a Friendly Hint’. This homily, set in doggerel verse, has as an objective: ‘[...] to put all on their guard/Against certain tricks I have seen’, the mischief being that ‘even those whom I love/If they like not the number they spin / Will the Counter or Tee-totum move/In hope by such cheating to win’. The remainder of the verse includes a condemnation of the gambler, who ‘plays but to cheat and to gain/but we to be better and wise’.39 The game itself is perfectly simple: there are only 24 playing spaces, of which a few have a direction in the rules to stop one or more turns, but the rules booklet has 84 pages packed with information covering Asian customs, events and persons of note. The game sheet is spectacular, a hand coloured engraving of very high quality in which the scenes forming the track are laid out on the body and howdah of a huge elephant. The descriptions in the booklet are written in a lively and interesting manner but include the kind of admonitions familiar from Darton’s more-overtly moral games. Thus at space 6, Chinese making Tea, we read that: ‘The Chinese are constantly making tea [...] the most moderate take it at least thrice-a-day, others ten times or more’, so that: ‘We cannot help suspecting that our Chinese friends have not many useful pursuits or they would not gossip away so much time over a luxury’. Though there are many similar instances in the rule book of assumed British superiority to native peoples of Asia, the description of scene 10, Battle between the British and the Indians, shows that Darton’s pacifist beliefs come first: ‘When we come to inquire who were the aggressors in this war, we shall find the blame is ours’. Edward Wallis’s Wonders of Nature in each Quarter of the World40 Whitehouse considers this to be one of Edward Wallis’s most beautiful productions. Published in 1818, the rectangular game sheet depicts the ‘wonders’ in 26 small panels, two of which are singled out in Figure 7.4. They are selected to show the quality of engraving and hand colouring that was being offered at this stage of development of London-published games. A similar game, The Wonders of Art, depicting man-made wonders, appeared some two years later. 38 Liman pp. 72, 74, 182. Strouhal, game 24. 39 This homily also appears in the rule books of certain other Darton games. 40 Liman pp. 17, 172, 174.

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Figure 7.4: Details of Wonders of Nature – Natural rock bridges in Virginia (left) and Icononzo, Colombia (right).

7.6. Instruction in science and mathematics By comparison with the post-Revolution educational games of France, where there was little attempt to provide games in the fields of science and technology, the subject coverage of the British instructional games in the 19th century was wider. To the earliest games teaching Arithmetic (see below) and Grammar (Samuel Conder’s Grammatical Game in Rhyme, published in 1802) were soon added games on Astronomy and Natural Science. Edward Wallis’s Locomotive Game of Railroad Adventures and his Game of Genius41 ensured that new inventions were not forgotten. An interesting development was the publication of a series of educational games by David Carvalho, in smaller format than that used by the leading publishers, and using woodcut or metal-cut rather than copper engraving: these were aimed at the cheaper end of the market. Arithmetical Pastime The dismal game entitled An Arithmetical Pastime – intended to Infuse the rudiments of Arithmetic under the idea of Amusement was published by John Wallis in 1798. As explained in Chapter 8, Section 13, it is an adaptation of an even more dismal German game and so is of interest as being one of the few examples of a game modelled directly on a game from Continental Europe. 41 Liman 17,23,24,162,164.

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The spiral track is of 100 numbered circles; some of these have pictures and the player landing on one must consult the list of instructions in verse, most of which require the player to stay one or more turns. These verses are of a kind intended to give moral instruction, rather than arithmetic. Even in English translation, they have a distinctly Germanic directness. For example, at space 35, showing a pig wallowing in mud: Wash the swine and make them clean, To the mud again they’ll jog. So some children have I seen, Ever dirty, like a hog. Since with pigs you choose to share Stop two turns and wallow there.

The arithmetic instruction is contained not only in various tables of numeration, weights and measures but also in the method of using the two teetotums, each having ten sides, which must be numbered from zero to nine. To teach arithmetic, only one of them is used, with the direction that at each spin the number obtained must be added to the number where the player’s token rests, so giving the number to move to. Whether in practice any child did this in preference to just counting forward must be open to question. For subtraction, both teetotums are used, the token to be moved forward by the difference of the two numbers. For multiplication, take the product of the two numbers but move by only the last figure (e.g. 9 and 5 gives 45, so move 5 spaces). For division, divide the larger number by the smaller, noting how many times it is wholly contained in it; to this, add the remainder.42 The result is the number of spaces to move (e.g. for a spin of 9 and 5: 5 is contained once in 9, with remainder 4, so move 5 spaces). Science in Sport or The Pleasures of Astronomy43 This game, published by John Wallis in 1804, and later by Edward Wallis c. 1818, is of interest not only for its subject matter but also for the involvement of a woman scientist, Mrs. Margaret Bryan, who ran a school for girls in Blackheath, near London.44 The playing sheet states that she ‘revised and approved’ the game, which has a track 42 The difficulty arising from division by zero seems not to have been thought of. 43 Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 50. Liman pp. 152, 154. 44 Author of A Compendious System of Astronomy... Also trigonometrical & celestial problems, with a key to the Ephemeris, etc. London: Printed for the author, 1797; and Lectures on Natural Philosophy... With an appendix: containing... astronomical and geographical problems, etc. London: George Kearsley and James Carpenter, 1806.

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of 35 spaces, laid out around a finely-engraved image of the old Greenwich Observatory, Flamsteed House, together with portrait medallions of Ptolemy, Tycho Brahe, Galileo and Sir Isaac Newton. A rule book of 12 pages gives more than a hint of her direct (and much appreciated) teaching methods: Space 6: The County Gaol – This is the place for those who attend more to the motions of Billiard Balls, more than to the motions of the Planets. However hard you think your case,/Stay here till someone takes your place.

A year later (1805), John Wallis brought out a companion piece, entitled Science in Sport or The Pleasures of Natural Philosophy. The medallions featured Boyle, Descartes, Franklin and Bacon. The games of David Carvalho David Carvalho (1801?−1854) was a London bookseller and publisher, at the cheaper end of the market. He was at 74 Chiswell Street, Finsbury between about 1825 and 1832, from which address he published several educational printed games.45 For example, his game for teaching multiplication is a progress along a numbered track.46 Each space asks a different question in multiplication: if the answer is not known, the player must pay to the pool. Certain spaces are illustrated and have additional instructions which apply if the correct answer is not known. Most of the illustrations are apt – for example, space 16 asks, ‘How many is three times seven?’ and depicts seven birds on the ground, seven trees, and seven birds flying. However, not all illustrations are so appropriate and some of these appear to have been taken from another of Carvalho’s publications, The Infant’s Own Book (1835). The game sheet advertises other printed board games by Carvalho: The Pence Table and The Game of Public Buildings. Both are priced at 2s.6d. or, with box and teetotum etc, 3s.6d. – about half the price of a printed game from one of the upmarket London manufacturers.

7.7. The attractions of London This distinct genre of games encompasses games that represent a tour of London’s sights, pleasures and attractions. The vogue for tourism was being fed by such publications as the Ambulator, which appeared in many editions throughout the Late 45 Laurence Worms. Private communication to the author, 2016. 46 The new Game of the Multiplication Table. See: Liman, pp. 156−157.

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Figure 7.5: Detail of The Panorama of London, showing Bartholomew Fair, compared with the illustration in the Microcosm of London (author’s collection / Wikimedia commons).

Georgian period.47 The two games discussed below were produced in the first decades of the 19th century. To them might be added, as a game based on an attraction of London, the New and Favorite Game of Mother Goose and the Golden Egg, telling the fantastical story of the pantomime by Thomas Dibdin, first performed at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden in 1806 and starring the incomparable Joseph Grimaldi.48 The Panorama of London, or a Day’s Journey round the Metropolis.49 John Harris’s game, published in 1809, is not innovative.50 It has a simple spiral track; yet it presents spectacular views of London attractions. Not all of these are public shows and entertainments – there are a good many public buildings in the list – but the overall picture is of a London vibrant with activity and interesting things to do. The illustrations are meticulously done. For example, space 47 shows Bartholomew Fair, where the rule booklet says you must pay one to the pool ‘for seeing the humours of Mr. Punch’. The illustration may be compared with that in Ackerman’s Microcosm of London,51 which it resembles closely, though the main booth is labelled ‘Sanders’

47 Ambulator; or the Stranger’s Companion in a Tour round London, Within the Circuit of Twenty-five Miles: Describing Whatever is remarkable, either for Elegance, Grandeur, Use, or Curiosity; and Comprehending Catalogues of the Pictures in the best Collections: To which is prefixed, A Concise Description of London, Westminster, & Southwalk, Shewing their Antiquity, Remarkable Buildings, Extent, etc. etc. etc. With the Addition of an entire New Map, coloured, of the Country within the Circuit described; And a Table of Watermen’s Fares: Of Use not only to Strangers, but to the Inhabitants of the Metropolis. London: Printed for J. Bew, in Pater-Noster-Row, 1787 (the third edition). 48 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 35. Another edition of the game is by R. Macdonald (British Library, Grimaldi papers, DEX 315). This has the publisher’s London post-code (E.C.) so must be between 1858 and 1860, when Macdonald ceased trading. 49 Liman pp. 22, 126. 50 London: J. Harris, at the Juvenile Library, Corner of St. Paul’s Church Yard, 1809. 51 W. H. Pyne and William Combe, with coloured plates by A. C. Pugin and T. Rowlandson. London: R. Ackermann, [1808−1810].

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instead of ‘Richardson’.52 Such attention to detail means that these games are useful to cultural historians for their images. The games are also useful in giving hints as to how the various attractions were regarded at the time. For example, of the Monument, Harris says: ‘If you have not been to the Tower, go back to No. 2, and see that first’ – and there is no doubt, from these games, that the Tower of London was the main attraction of London, housing not only the Armory and the Crown Jewels but also the Wild Animals. Harris is not above adding his own ‘attraction’ to the list. Space 41 illustrates Harris’ Shop, at ‘the Corner of St Paul’s Churchyard: where you may stop one turn and receive a counter from each player to purchase a NEW GAME, or an instructive book, as your fancy may direct’ – a kind of self-promotion familiar from other Harris publications.53 There is thus not much doubt that this game was aimed at young people. Also, the game booklet concludes with a list of 15 other games, mostly overtly educational (History and Geography) or moral, or with references to ‘Youth’ in their descriptions. The list gives the prices of these games: for those comparable in mechanism to that of the Panorama of London (i.e. coloured game sheet with teetotum and counters in a box) prices of 6 shillings and of 7 shillings and sixpence are quoted. These are considerable prices, given that an average labourer’s daily wage in England in 1800 was about one third of these amounts. The target audience for such games was the affluent middle and upper classes. The question of whether the Panorama of London game was aimed specifically at a London audience is more difficult to answer. Matthew Grenby addresses a similar question in regard to the Gigantick Histories of Thomas Boreman:54 It might be thought, for instance, that when Boreman offered to tell The Histories of the Two Famous Giants and Other Curiosities in Guildhall in 1740, and soon after tendered books about the Tower of London, St. Paul’s Cathedral and Westminster Abbey, that he was depending on interest from London readers who would already be familiar with these landmarks. [But] Boreman might equally well have been attempting to appeal to armchair tourists in the provinces.

Grenby concludes, from analysis of subscription lists, that London was central to the early trade in children’s books – and the same is probably true for these printed board games.

52 Robert Chambers, in The Book of Days, Volume 2, London: W. & R. Chambers, 1872, p. 652, refers to Sanders’ booth being active in 1808. 53 See Matthew Grenby. The Child Reader 1700−1840. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011, p.155. 54 Grenby, op. cit., p.61.

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A Survey of London, by a Party of Tarry-at-home Travellers: a new game to amuse and instruct a Company of Friends.55 Of the games giving a virtual tour of London, William Darton’s Survey of London, undated on the game sheet but dated 1820 on the rule booklet, is the most elaborate.56 The game sheet is beautifully engraved and hand-coloured, the track being arranged in two concentric rings around the central winning space, numbered 17 and depicting St. Paul’s Cathedral. Each of the spaces contains an illustration of an important building in London. Some of these are of interest because they are of their time: for example, Space 8 depicts Somerset House and the Royal Academy before embankment of the Thames. However, the main interest from the cultural history standpoint is in the booklet, dated 1820, which runs to 40 pages and gives detailed descriptions of some of the important exhibitions in London of the period. These descriptions reflect strongly the moral point of view of the publisher. The booklet leaves no room for doubt that this game was aimed at a juvenile audience: William Darton’s description57 of the Mint (scarcely a public show, for he says that it is a very difficult matter to gain admittance as a visitor) includes the following homily on riches: A sight of such riches may excite wonder; but it should be remembered that wealth has its cares, and it is not the possession of money which can procure real content the miser is the most wretched of all beings. Nor would I advise my young friends to treasure up the new shilling given as a new-year’s gift: every shilling is worth twelve pence, and even such a trifling sum as this might relieve as many individuals. Surely the delight of giving even a scanty meal to so many destitute and starving creatures, must far exceed the knowledge of the shining coin being safe in the locked drawer or Christmas-box.

Though Charity is certainly a virtue encouraged in more than one of the ‘moral’ English race games in the Georgian era, it is unusual to see such a clear call to action. Darton’s description, in the Survey of London booklet, of East India House and Museum is worth reproducing because of its attitude to certain aspects of collecting: We are now arrived at a building belonging to a company of rich individuals, whose extensive concerns in the East Indies are the means of bringing to this country many luxuries and curiosities [...] Here is a curious museum, displaying all the

55 London: William Darton, 58 Holborn Hill, 1820. 56 Liman pp. 16, 22, 124, 181. 57 No author is given for the booklet; it is likely that the publisher wrote it, given the forcibly expressed sentiments.

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curiosities of the East, as well as specimens of Eastern literature: the library of the late Tippoo Sultan forms a material part of the latter. Here is also his armour, a golden lion’s head which stood at the foot of his throne, his canopy, and various trophies taken by General Harris at Seringapatam, where the tyrant was conquered [...] Much as the traveller may be entertained by this curious collection, we must all know they could have been spared – as we might have spared the thousands of eastern natives who have suffered from our false ambition and unjust claims on their property and landed possessions.

The opposition to colonial exploitation is expressed with unusual moral strength for the time.58 However, William Darton junior was by no means opposed to museums and collections in general, as his description of Somerset House shows: A part of this building is appropriated to the Royal Academy of Arts, instituted and patronized by our late Sovereign; and, no doubt, many of our young travellers have shared the delight this annual exhibition affords. Historical, Portrait, and miniature painters and sculptors, all unite their talents and labour to adorn this scene of the arts. Here may be seen the most striking periods of history represented on canvas; views of the most beautiful description; likenesses of the most distinguished characters; with finely-turned busts and models in marble stone &c. &c. The trifling admission of one shilling enables the admirer of the arts, though humble in station, to share the national treat with the first nobleman in the kingdom.

Darton’s enthusiasm for the education of youth and those of ‘humble station’ shines through.

7.8. Games of Amusement derived from the Game of the Goose This account of the British games of the 19th century concludes with those designated by Whitehouse as ‘Games of Amusement’, i.e. those games without a distinct moral or educational flavour. His account begins with discussion of the Game of the Goose and of the Game of the Snake, considered in our previous chapter. Here we consider some later variations on the Game of the Goose. Whitehouse also notes several multi-path games by William Spooner that are played with a directional teetotum, rather than being unicursal track games on the model of the Game of the Goose. Examples are: The Journey, or Cross Roads to Conqueror’s Castle;59 58 Another games maker to condemn colonial exploitation (and slavery) was John Betts, also a Quaker: see A Tour through the British Colonies and Foreign Possessions. Adrian Seville: Grolier game 45. Strouhal, game 23. 59 Liman p. 82

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the Funnyshire Fox Chase; and the exquisitely-lithographed Fortunio and his Seven Gifted Servants.60 Games in the shape of a Goose Attempts to make the Game of the Goose more visually appealing to young players than the traditional English version were made by forming a track of small circles within the overall outline shape of a goose. Such was Richard Holmes Laurie’s New and Entertaining Game of the Golden Goose, published in 1831,61 though an earlier edition c. 1800 is said to have existed, published by Laurie and Whittle. Edward Wallis published a similar game62 c. 1840 and further examples of a like kind, but with variant rules, were published in the mid 1800s. Those which, like the Laurie version, follow classic rules have the rule ‘return to 29’ for the maze space at 42, showing that they derive from English originals.63 The New Game of the Monkey This 63-space game, published by Edward Wallis between about 1818 and 1847, looks at first to be a standard Goose game with monkeys instead of geese, but in fact has several differences.64 Instead of the usual doubling of the throw, there are individual rules for monkey spaces. For example: Space 5: Space 9: Space 14: Space 59:

Dancing Monkeys – must pay one for learning to Dance. The Soldier – may march to No. 13. Courtship – may go to the Inn No. 19. The Dandy – must pay two for his folly.

However, the hazard spaces are recognizably allied to those in Goose, e.g., Space 6: Space 19: Space 31: Space 58:

60 61 62 63 64

The Bridge – must pay one for Toll. The Inn – must stop a turn & Drink. The Well – must stop there till some one comes [...] and helps him out. The Gamester – must begin again.

Liman pp. 22, 58, 60, 62. Liman pp. 14, 15, 68. Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, game 26. See Chapter 6, Section 1, for a discussion of this ‘DNA marker’ of English games. Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, game 37.

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Figure 7.6: The New Game of the Monkey.

The corner decorations are lively. The lower left shows a judge being bemused by a red herring, while on the floor is a brief tied with tape and a book entitled ‘Black …’ presumably for Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Laws of England. The lower right shows two monkeys whipping a dog tied by a cord to a saucepan. Upper right, a monkey admires itself in a looking-glass, while on the upper left a monkey, seemingly

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fastened by the paw to a staple in the ground, is menaced by another – possibly an anti-slavery image? The ‘lady monkey’ being courted at space 14 is wearing a saucepan as a hat, possibly a reference to Hogarth’s print The Industrious ‘Prentice Lord Mayor of London, where the saucepan cap of the Swordbearer in the coach is noticed. Tenniel’s illustration of Tweedledum’s saucepan helmet in Through the Looking-Glass is, of course, much later. The monkey at space 23 looks like Red Riding Hood, while the one at space 18 is wearing a bellows as a hat. The rules say that the game is played with a teetotum, and in fact a six-sided example is shown at space 26 and another at space 53 – the numbers of dice spaces of the classic Game of the Goose. Of course, the need for such spaces in the classic game is conditioned by the need to deal with the initial throw of nine. Here, no such mechanism is needed and the teetotum spaces are a redundant throwback. This version of the game may have been inspired by the German Affenspiele discussed below in Chapter 8, though no direct connection is evident. William Spooner’s The Hare and the Tortoise William Spooner’s innovative cartographical games have been noted above. His game of The Hare and the Tortoise,65 published in 1859 in a beautiful colour lithograph by L’Enfant,66 breaks new ground by dividing the track of the game between a splendid picture of the tortoise and an even more splendid picture of the hare. The track starts at the hare’s rear left foot, winds about between its back legs until space 8 is reached – but space 9 is found on the tortoise – after which the track reverts to the hare for a bit before heading off again. Some of the spaces depict a small image of a hare, where the player must miss a turn and pay two counters to the pool. Others, showing a tortoise, act as goose spaces, while many of the spaces on the tortoise itself reward the player with three counters. Finally, there are hazard spaces, such as: Space 25: The Brook – take 4 to refresh and go to space 32. Space 31: The Snake – pay 3 and wait till someone releases you. Space 38: The Death – pay 8 and begin the game again.

The hazards are clearly reminiscent of the Game of the Goose, with which this game shares the characteristic track length of 63 spaces. The player needs to be alert in finding where to move: any player ‘who carries his mark to a wrong number must pay 2 to the pool’. 65 Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, game 39. Liman pp. 15, 77. 66 John Anthony L’Enfant (1825?–1880) was a lithographer working in Marylebone, London.

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7.9. The end of the 19th century During the second half of the 19th century, British games manufacturers offered a wide variety of printed games for the upper end of the market, some with elaborate equipment in sumptuous boxes, others providing high quality colour lithographs. New games of amusement were added to the Game of the Goose and the Game of the Snake and the simple unicursal race game, played with a teetotum in place of dice, was being supplanted by games of more complex movement. The direct influence of the Game of the Goose on British game design had all but gone.

8.

Distinctive features of German Goose Games

8.1. Variation in German race games as a distinctive feature This chapter is concerned with the history of German single-track race games of the ‘rolland-move’ type, up to the end of the 19th century. The Game of the Goose (Gänsespiel) is the main prototype, giving rise to derivative and variant games, more or less closely allied to the original. These are all properly categorised as Laufspiele, (Race Games, literally ‘Running’ games) though they are often referred to loosely as ‘Goose Games’. Over time, beginning in the late 16th century, these German race games have developed in a distinctive way, compared with those of other European countries: in particular, the German games show very significant variations in track length and rules, even in those when the goose is used to mark the fortunate spaces. This is in complete contrast to (say) the remarkable lack of variation of their French equivalents, the Jeux de l’oie, whose stability continues to this day.1 The main focus of this chapter is a discussion of the distinctive features, based mainly on a detailed analysis of the rules, so giving some insight into how the various classes of game have interacted during their historical development These various classes of game include two that are particularly associated with Germany: the Affenspiel, where the goose is replaced as favourable symbol by the monkey, and the class typified by the Post- und Reisespiel, where the track represents a real or an imagined journey, as opposed to a purely symbolic journey through life, as in the Game of the Goose. Although the origin of both classes can be traced through analysis of the rules to the parent Game of the Goose, the popularity of the Monkey games in Germany, as judged by the number of different published examples, was almost comparable to that of the Game of the Goose, whereas the popularity of Journey games far exceeded it.

8.2. The lack of sources and the need for an image database of German games There is not yet an authoritative publication devoted solely to German race games comparable to the work by D’Allemagne for the French games based on the jeu de l’oie. Instead, work on the German games is scattered through the literature. An excellent review of the early history of German games is given by Manfred Zollinger in his 1

See Chapter 3.

A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10 5117/9789462984974 ch08

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paper on the rules of two hitherto unknown Goose games.2 The articles supporting the relevant catalogues of the German museums, as listed in the appendix to this chapter, in particular that of Theodor Kohlmann, are also useful.3 A good overview is given by Heiner Vogel.4 In view of the lack of a comprehensive work on these games, the present author decided to compile his own database of 83 of these games, covering the period to 1900. It was decided at an early stage that this should be an image database, rather than one formed by collating the written descriptions of games in museum and library catalogues. Such descriptions, unless written by games specialists, are seldom precise enough to permit positive identification of the class of game involved. Details of the sources used in construction of the image database are given in the appendix to this chapter. The appendix also gives the letter codes used throughout this chapter to identify where images of individual games may be found.

8.3.

Classification of German Race Games

Before any analysis can take place, it is necessary to establish a basis for classification of the games. The classification of German Race Games made by Kohlmann [1978], has been adopted but with the addition of a specific class to include educational games, as follows: Goose games – Gänsespiele – having geese as the symbol of good fortune Monkey games – Affenspiele – having monkeys as the symbol of good fortune Journey Games, e.g. Post- und Reisespiele Racetrack games, e.g. Wettrennspiele Educational games Other non-educational race games.

A useful sub-division can be made on the basis of whether or not the game has a series of throw-doubling spaces (as in the first two classes), indicating a derivation from the Game of the Goose. Kohlmann introduces further classes of games but these do not relate to the single-track race games under discussion here.

2 Manfred Zollinger, ‘Zwei unbekannte Regeln des Gaensespiels’. Board Games Studies 6, 2003, pp. 61−84. 3 T. Kohlmann, Wer spielt mit? – Gesellschaftspiele auf Bilderbogen [exhibition catalogue]. Berlin: Museum für Deutsche Volkskunde, 1978. 4 H. Vogel, Bilderbogen und Würfelspiel. Leipzig: Edition Leipzig, 1981.

Distinctive features of German Goose Games

8.4.

197

The term Bilderbogen

Kohlmann uses the term Gesellschaftsspiele auf Bilderbogen to embrace all the games under his consideration: ‘board games in the form of picture sheets’. ‘Popular prints’ is the usual English equivalent for Bilderbogen, though the alternative term ‘broadsides’ is also sometimes used in reference to sheets printed on one side only in a format normally larger than used for book production, though this term would include text-only productions as well as picture sheets. Another term in use is ‘catchpenny prints’, in reference to the cheap price for which these prints were sold, often by itinerant chapmen; the Dutch term ‘centsprenten’ has a similar force. ‘Imagerie populaire’ is the nearest French term. However, these terms cannot properly be applied to all the German printed games. In England, popular prints containing images were indeed cheaply produced and sold, the medium for the images frequently being woodcut and the production crude. In France, printed board games were differentiated by their place of production: the provincial publishers used the traditional woodcut method at least up to the end of the 18th century, whereas the up-market Paris publishers of maps and fine art prints used large-format copper plates.5 In contrast, the earlier German games of the period under discussion were mostly produced by engraving or etching on copper, a method which is normally associated with a high quality of print production. Indeed, some of the games are very finely engraved, some being carefully hand coloured (as opposed to rough stencil colouring) and some being presented in carefully-made sleeves: all aspects that indicate a high selling price, not characteristic of a ‘popular print’. By the mid-19th century, there was an export trade in these games, based mainly on the games produced in Nuremberg, as evidenced by the multi-language versions of the rules. What is however true of the German games in general is that the paper format was that normally associated with the ‘broadside’, a vertical (portrait) format of roughly 350 x 300 mm being typical; larger horizontal formats were much less prevalent. In France, on the other hand, the copper plate games were normally significantly larger, perhaps 450 x 600 mm, and of horizontal (landscape) format, with larger formats by no means unknown. Kohlmann discusses carefully the distinction between Bilderbogen and the ‘graphischer Spieltafel’, (i.e. the game board as Graphic Art), commenting that the distinction is more easily made when the printed sheet is of large format: several of the small format games are too refined in their presentation to be classifiable as Bilderbogen. However, as the use of lithography developed from the first quarter of the 19th century, Germany began to produce printed board games very cheaply, as did other countries, and these can indeed be termed ‘popular prints’, especially those from Neuruppin. 5

See Chapter 3.

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8.5.

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Production techniques, publishers and places of origin

The most frequent production technique for the games in the database up to the end of the 18th century is printing from copper plates, whether etched (18 games) or engraved (8 games).6 Woodcut is used for only five games, one of which has a copper engraving for the central decorative element. The later games largely use lithography, whether in monochrome (35 games, most of which are coloured by the printer, sometimes by pochoir and stencil, sometimes by hand) or, towards the end of the 19th century, employing the new technique of colour lithography (8 games). The change from copper plate to lithography is not sharp, but from about 1825 lithography begins to take over. For the older games, Nuremberg (24 games) is by far the most important publishing place, just as Neuruppin (24 games) is for the later games. Other places contributing more than one game are: Berlin (7), Halle (3), Dresden, Lepizig, Magdeburg and Regensburg (2 each). The distribution of publishers reflects the importance of Nuremberg and of Neuruppin. The main Nuremberg publishers are G N Renner7 (6 games), Friedrich Campe8 (4), Johann Raab9 (4) and J G Klinger (2).10 In Neuruppin, the publishers are Oehmigke & Riemschneider11 (15 games) and Gustav Kühn (9).12 The Berlin publishers Winckelmann und Söhne13 contribute 3 games and the Magdeburg publishers Robrahn & Co (active 1830 to about 1850) contribute 2 games, as does Andreas Geyer of Regensburg. No less than 30 different publishers contribute a single game each, while the publishers of 6 games are unknown. It is clear that many publishers undertook the production of printed race games as a side-line.

8.6.

Rule variation in German race games having the Goose as symbol

The ‘classic’ Game of the Goose as typically found in France and Italy has the following characteristic features: Use of double dice on an anticlockwise spiral track; Track length of 63 spaces; 6 These numbers, and similar statistics in this section, are taken from the image database in the appendix. 7 Active 1826−1837 and as G N Renner & Co to 1868. 8 Active between about 1813 and 1837. 9 Active from about 1780. 10 Born 1764, died about 1809, when his widow took over until 1831, when Johann Paul Dreykorn took over the business; after 1852, Carl Abel joined the firm and it became Abel-Klinger. 11 Active from 1831 onwards. 12 Born 1794 died 1868. His father started the business at the end of the 18th century and Gustav followed him from 1822. 13 Active from the early 19th century.

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Goose spaces double the throw in the direction of travel; Geese are positioned 9 spaces apart in each of two series; Special rules are provided to deal with the initial throw of 9 by requiring moves to designated ‘dice’ spaces, so avoiding an immediate win; Traditional hazards are on fixed spaces – bridge, inn, well, labyrinth, prison, death;

Games with these features are found throughout Europe and are termed ‘classic’ Goose games, even though they may differ in minor particulars. By contrast, German games having the Goose as symbol of good fortune may exhibit one or more of the following non-classic features: The track length may differ from 63; A single die may be used for shorter tracks; The track may run clockwise; The effect of the goose spaces may depend on the direction in which the image faces; The rules for the initial throw may be strange; There is often an extra ‘drink!’ hazard towards the end of the track.

Gänsespiele of the 16th/17th century Although it does not employ the goose as symbol of good fortune, a game carved on stone by Michael Holzbecher for the Archduke Karl in 1589 is significant. This, Das khurtzweillige Fortuna-Spill as noted in Chapter 2, is in fact a classic Game of the Goose except for the replacement of the geese by symbols of the goddess Fortune.14 Almost contemporary is an Goose game from Augsburg dated to 1610–1615, made of ebony inlaid with finely-engraved silver.15 At space 61, a drinking goblet is shown, indicating presumably that the unfortunate player who landed there, and who thus had almost reached the winning space, had instead to buy drinks for the company; it is also possible that the player had to stay and drink until released by another player, as in the Well and Prison rules. A somewhat later game, in painted wood, dating to the first half of the 17th century is now in the German National Museum, Nuremberg.16 It is a classic goose game: interestingly, all of the geese face backwards along the anticlockwise track, showing that in this early game at least the direction of the goose images was not relevant to play, though it became so later, as discussed below. It does not have a ‘drink’ hazard. 14 The Entertaining Game of Fortune, now in the Landesmuseum Johanneum in Graz. [GNMN fig. 31]. 15 Kunstgewerbe Museum, Berlin, illustrated in: Detlef Hoffmann et al. Volkstümlisches Spektakulum. Munich: Callwey, 1980, p. 192. 16 [GNMN fig. 32].

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Figure 8.1: Detail of 17th century German Game of the Goose, incorporating an animal alphabet.

Another 17th-century Game of the Goose (Figure 8.1) is remarkable for a different aspect.17 Though the woodcut track is entirely of the classic format as regards the active spaces, the non-active spaces are decorated with an animal alphabet, indicating that the game was intended for children as well as for adults, a further indication of this being the absence of a drink space as found in several other Goose games of the period. This is confirmed by the rules in the centre, which (in translation) begin: ‘This game has three uses: firstly, children can be taught to read: others, to count up properly: third, old and young can spend time with the goose game’. It represents an early use of pictures for teaching, comparable indeed with the use in early editions of the Orbis Pictus of Comenius (originally published in Latin and German in 1658, in Nuremberg) as well as being a significantly early example of use by young children of a printed board game. At this period in France, printed board games with an educational flavour were designed for the ‘cadet’ class of young aristocrats, well beyond the early reading stage. These early German games show none of the ‘non-classic’ features listed above, apart from the appearance of the ‘drink’ hazard in some but not in all. However, a game by Martin Fritz published in Köln about the middle of the 17th century is based on the clockwise spiral.18 This game also has unusual rules for the initial throw, even 17 An example is in the Bavarian National Museum [BNMM 372]; the Museum dates it to the middle of the 17th century. The MET Museum, New York, has an example but dates it to late 17th- early 18th century [48.174.46]. 18 [GNMN 68].

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though the ‘dice’ spaces are conventionally placed: that at 26 is reached not only by the throw of 6,3 (as in the classic game) but also by the throw of 2,3; while that on 53 is reached not only by the throw of 5,4 but also by the throw of 1,3. Whereas the classic rule for initial throws is intended to prevent an immediate win by hopping from goose to goose on multiples of 9, there is no comparable justification for the additional pathways. They do, though, add to the excitement by increasing the chance of a quick win. The Gänsespiel in the anonymous volume of prints, Das Zeit kurtzende Lust- und Spiel-Hauss,19 of c. 1690 likewise has the clockwise track and the ‘drink’ hazard on space 61, whereas the Gänsespiel of c. 1687 by A Schmidt has an anticlockwise track but the same ‘drink’ hazard.20 We may conclude that, though they initially conformed to the classic type, by the end of the 17th century, German Gänsespiele were beginning to vary from it, and that the ‘drink’ hazard had become common. It should be noted that this hazard in unknown in French and English Games of the Goose and is hardly known in Italian examples. Gänsespiele of the 18th & 19th century By the next century, variability was on the increase. For example, a 63 space Gänse­ spiel published by Johann Trautner in Nuremberg in 1788 [BNMN 373] has an immediate win for an initial throw totalling 9 while a throw of 3 and 2 leads to space 26, but 5 and 1 leads to space 53. Presumably these rules were to add still further excitement to the game, by allowing an immediate win on 9 but keeping the traditional ‘dice’ spaces as functioning entities. A Gänsespiel by Trummer of Nuremberg c. 182021 varies even more: the track is of only 60 cells; the effect of geese depends on the direction they face; there is arbitrary placement of geese and hazards; and illogical treatment of the initial throw. Another of similar date, by G N Renner of Nuremberg (Figure 8.2), has an even shorter track of only 30 spaces and is played with a single die.22 Again, the effect of the geese is directional. Even where the classic 63-space track was retained, there was often considerable variation. For example, a ‘Neues verbessertes Gänse-Spiel’ [New Improved Goose Game] published by F Campe of Nuremberg around 1830 has a standard rule for the initial throw, but the geese are directional and, though many of the hazards are traditional, a deer replaces the usual bridge on space 6.23 We may conclude that, by the 19 Eberhard Welper (ed.) [attrib.]. Das Zeit-kurtzende Lust- und Spiel-Hauss, in welchen der curiose Künstler in etlichen Zimmern allerhand rare Künste und Spiele vorstellet [...] Frankfurt: Künstburg, (s. d.). [Bibliographic details from the BnF but per contra see Manfred Zollinger: Bibliographie der Spielbücher, 1996, no. 173]. [GNMN 9]. 20 [BCR 8]. 21 [giochidelloca 1636]. 22 [giochidelloca 1357, BNMM 37, MDVB 1]. 23 Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 4.

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Figure 8.2: 30-space games by G. N. Renner of Nuremberg, c. 1830: (a) Gänsespiel (b) Affenspiel.

mid-19th century, what Manfred Zollinger has called the ‘flexible corset’ of the classic Goose game had ceased to have much relevance for the German Gänsespiele.

8.7. German Affenspiele Race games having monkeys as the symbol of fortune in place of the geese developed in Germany during the second half of the 18th century. The early years of that century had seen the appearance in France of the singerie as a distinct genre in art, where the image of the playful monkey had instant appeal; whereas in previous centuries the monkey was seen as an allegory representing the foolishness of mankind.24 The Affenspiele were evidently derived directly from the Game of the Goose, as is demonstrated by the existence of pairs of games of closely similar format and design, as in Figure 8.2.25 Johann Raab offered a suite of three games with Geese, with Monkeys, and with Hunting Dogs.26 All have printed rules that make the goose-directional rule explicit. Later, though, the Affenspiel became a genre in its own right, independent of the Gänsespiel, as, for example, a version with 100 spaces,27 published by Gustav Kühn, Neuruppin, c. 1905 24 L. Cutler, The Monkey in Art. Published on line 2012. http://www.artandarchitecture.org.uk/insight/cutler_monkey.html − accessed September 2014. 25 See, for example, the images of an Affenspiel published by Johann Peter Wolfs Erben from 1780 and of a Gänsespiel published by Johann Trautner of 1788, in the Nuremberg catalogue [GNMN 69 and 70]. 26 British Museum numbers 1893,0331.83; 1893,0331.81 and 1893,0331.84 respectively. 27 [MDVB 21].

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The Affenspiel seems to have been a German re-invention.28 As noted in Chapter 2 Section 11, a unique example of a much earlier Italian monkey game published by Alittenio Gatti in 1588, is in the British Museum. However, this remarkable 63-space game does not appear to have had any direct descendants. The earliest French example cited by D’Allemagne29 is by Gangel of Metz and dates from the mid-19th century, while the only known English example, Edward Wallis’s New Game of the Monkey (Chapter 7, Figure 7.6), is dateable, by the publisher’s address, as being between 1812 and 1847. Both are 63-space games, demonstrating their derivation from the Game of the Goose.

8.8.

Journey Games

Games representing a journey became popular in Germany during the late 18th century. It should be noted that not all games with the word ‘Reise’ (journey) in their title are in fact race games: for example, the Stationen Spiel auf der Reise dieses Lebens in Bildern [Game of Stations from the Journey of Life in pictures] published by Trautner in the early 18th century is a two-dice put-and-take game of the kind characterised by Thierry Depaulis as ‘loteries du salon’.30 However, this is very much an exception. During the 19th century, the journey games developed in many guises and indeed their popularity in Germany grew to exceed that of the Game of the Goose. Post- und Reisespiele The earliest of these ‘journey’ games is the Post- und Reisespiel (Post and Journey Game) which represented a journey taken by stage coach or on horseback. A late 18th-century example is shown in Figure 8.3. Although the rules are not preserved with the British Museum copy of the game, they are outlined in the Oeconomische Encyclopädie, which states that this game is one of the oldest of its kind and can serve as a model for others.31 It is played with double dice and tokens to identify each player: suggestions are to use a decorated wood token or a small wooden figure, or a chess piece, or something similar. Initially, each player pays 12 counters to the pool. The suggested counters are small coins (pfennige, groschen) or nuts, etc., indicating that this was essentially a family game, rather than meant for serious gambling. 28 See also the Danish example dated 1787, the Abespil published by J R Thiele, as discussed in Chapter 12. 29 D’Allemagne p. 205. 30 [BM 1893,0331.78] See: Thierry Depaulis, Jeux de hazard sur papier: Les ‘Loteries’ de salon, Le Vieux Papier, 1987. 31 J. G. Krünitz, Oeconomische Encyclopädie. Berlin: Pauli, 1833, p. 720. Accessed September 2014 at http:// www.kruenitz1.uni-trier.de/.

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Figure 8.3: Post– und Reisespiel. Publisher unknown, 1790 (© the Trustees of the British Museum).

The rectangular track has 83 spaces, starting with a gate, and the winning space (a walled city) must be reached exactly: unlike in the Game of the Goose, overthrows are not counted in reverse. There are a number of inns, on spaces 4, 6 etc, where the rule is that the player must pay 4 counters to the pool. There are also a number of spaces showing a courier on horseback: at space 8, 16, 28, etc. These double the throw forward, just as in the Game of the Goose. There are also numerous finger-posts, pointing backwards. These are either single or double, meaning the player must move back one or two spaces respectively. Then there are particular hazards, not all of which are fully detailed in the summary rules. For example, landing on a mountain means paying 3 counters; landing on the ferry (space 51) means paying 8 counters but then moving on a further 17 spaces. Anyone landing on the boundary pillar (space 43) receives 12 counters from the pool, while landing on the church means paying 3 tokens into “God’s box”. An initial throw of 1,2 on the double dice lets the player move at once to space 40, marked by the appropriate dice. The similarities with the Game of the Goose are quite striking, particularly the Goose-doubling rule for the courier spaces and the provision of a dice space for a particular initial throw. This strongly suggests that the Post- und Reisespiel was

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derived from its older counterpart. However, as the game developed, greater variety was introduced. The games in this class have the following characteristics: The track length varies from game to game; The spiral is usually rectangular; There are special playing spaces, characterised by images typical of a journey of the time, e.g. gates, inns, post houses, churches, ferries, couriers and guides − but these are not the same in every game; The goose-doubling rule may be absent, though there may be another linked series of favourable spaces.

For example, consider the Neues Post- und Reise Spiel by F. Campe of Nuremberg, dating from about 1820.32 This does not have a Goose-doubling rule: instead, there is a Station on every tenth space, the rule being that if a player lands on one, he or she advances to the next Station. However, this characteristic of a series of spaces with a consistent rule for each is not shared by all these games: for example, the Kleine Post- und Reisespiel dated to 179033 has no such series: instead, each space has its own distinctive instruction. These games, though they may well initially have been inspired by the Game of the Goose, form a genre largely independent of Goose rules, except in the broadest sense of being a unicursal race game. Some of the hazards introduced are original and ingenious: for example, the game published by Campe discussed above has a water hazard at space 53 which acts as a barrier. If the player lands on this space without having first visited the ‘boat’ at space 51, he or she loses the game. If instead the player overthrows space 53, without having first visited the boat space, then the overthrown points must be counted backwards: this must be repeated until the player succeeds in visiting the boat space, after which he or she can proceed without being affected by the water hazard. It seems likely that these games were developed to provide greater interest and novelty than the traditional Game of the Goose, with the added possibility of making them closer to contemporary reality. Journey Games derived from the Post- und Reisespiel The quest for novelty resulted in numerous variations based on the Post- und Reise­ spiel. The means of transport was continually updated: the Express Coach of the 18th century was replaced in the 19th by the Railway and Steamship, the Neuestes 32 Author’s collection, available at giochidelloca.it. 33 [HV 38] The central space shows the marketplace at Halle.

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Eisenbahn − Dampfschiff Post- und Reisespiel published by Carl Hoffman in Stuttgart.34 Likewise, the traditional destination of a German city might be replaced with something farther afield. The Neues Seereisen Spiel [New Sea Journey game] published by G. N Renner in about 1820 ends at ‘The Desired Land’,35 visiting such exotic places as Patagonia on the way. More attainable in reality was the German Frisian Island destination shown in the same publisher’s Norderneyer Game, or Journey to the Seaside, while pursuit of the exotic was encouraged in Die Reise nach den Pyramiden [Journey to the Pyramids], both published around 1840.36 The journey to America was featured in a Die Reise nach Amerika published by Gustav Kühn in 1870, while those popular cartoon figures Schultz and Muller of the satirical weekly Kladderadatsch embarked on a journey to Africa in a game published in January 1880.37 Journey Games derived from the Game of the Goose There are also German journey games that, unlike those described above, are clearly based on Goose games. They have the characteristic goose-doubling rule and a conventional non-rectangular spiral, though they do not share the numerology. Games based on the story of Robison Crusoe are a case in point, where the goose-doubling spaces show the hero, Robinson38 Crusoe. An example is the beautiful Robinson-Spiel by Scholtz of Mainz (Figure 8.4): this has rules printed in German, French, Italian and Dutch, showing the growing internationalisation of Germany’s printed output during the 19th century.

8.9.

Racetrack games

Games in this Class seek to emulate a racetrack of some kind. An early example is a horse-racing game dating from 1837 with a track of only 58 spaces. 39 On fourteen of the spaces, racehorses are represented and on these there is a ‘no stopping’ rule, the player moving ahead one space. This game could readily be derived from the German ‘Journey’ games, with adaptation of the track shape and modification of the hazards. The same is true of Das englische Pferderennen, [The English Horse-race] another early 19th-century example, published by G N Renner of Nuremberg, where 34 35 36 37 38 39

Author’s collection, available at giochidelloca.it. [BM 1893,0331.140]. [BNMM 383] and [BNMM 384]. [MDVB 30] and [MDVB 34]. Srouhal, game 17. [MDVB 35].

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Figure 8.4: the Robinson Game. Mainz: Scholtz, c. 1850.

the circular track terminates in a short finishing straight, with a total of 48 spaces.40 These games are distinctively German in style. However, horse racing games of a different and more international style are also found in Germany, as for example the late 19th-century game in the Spielzeugmuseum, Nuremberg.41 This has an oval track of 100 spaces, mostly undifferentiated, which can be used with fences and other steeplechase hazards or in their absence can be used for a ‘flat’ race, which is ‘less interesting but soon over’. Very similar games of this kind are known in 19th-century England and France, those of continental origin sometimes referring to ‘English’ in their titles, suggesting that this form of this game may indeed be of English origin, as Lhôte suggests.42 In the later part of the 19th century, the range of themes of the race event was widened to include bicycle racing 40 [BM 1893,0331.85]. 41 Inventory number 1985.655. 42 Jean-Marie Lhôte, Histoire des jeux de société, Paris, Flammarion, 1994, p. 614.

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and later motor-car racing. However, all these games constitute a recognisable genre, not related to Games of the Goose or indeed to Post and Journey games.

8.10.

Educational race games

The large-format educational games which were invented in pre-Revolution France during the mid-17th century, based on the subjects of the curriculum of aristocratic youth, are not typical of Germany during the corresponding period. That is not to say that examples are never found, though on analysis some of these may turn out to be German-language adaptations of French models. A case in point is Das Kriegs-Spiel,43 published in Amsterdam by Peter Schencken (1660 − 1718/19), shortly after the original Jeu de la Guerre (Chapter 3, Figure 3.7) invented by the French engineer Gilles de la Boissière was published in Paris by Jean Mariette in 1697; the companion game on defensive fortification was similarly published both in Paris and in Amsterdam.44 Another example is the Chronologische Spiel Tafel published by Andreas Geyer in Regensburg in 1719, which is explicit in saying that it is translated from the French into German: that game gives the events of ‘universal’ history.45 However, in the following year the same publisher brought out a similar game to teach the history of the Roman/German Emperors, something not directly taken from the French.46 A Neu Erfundenes Europaeische-Geographisches Gaense Spiel [a new invented European Geographic Goose Game] was published by Johann Philipp Andreae in 1722, the final space representing Nuremberg. This game, briefly described by Kiefhaber in 1797, appears not to have survived, but may be a significant forerunner of the ‘post and journey’ games.47 The copper engraving Das menschliche Leben brought out by the map-publisher Simon Schropp & Co. of Berlin in 1790 is particularly interesting, since it is a version of the New Game of Human Life published by Wallis and Newbery in London in the same year. As explained in Chapter 7, Section 2, this game derives from the Jeu de la Vie Humaine published by Crépy in Paris in 1775. All these games have an 84-space track representing the seven ages of man, with goose-doubling rules on the ‘age’ spaces. Schropp’s images, re-drawn in reverse as if copied direct onto the plate, derive from the English re-working rather than the French original, as is consistent with the date of publication. 43 The Game of War [BM 1896,0501.1337]. 44 [BM 1896,0501.1338]. 45 Chronological Game Board [GNMN 77]. 46 [GMNM 78]. 47 J. K. S. Kiefhaber, Monathliche historisch-litterarisch-artistische Anzeigen zur ältern und neuern Geschichte Nürnbergs. Nuremberg: Schneider, 1797, p. 153−154.

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Kohlmann also mentions a number of 19th-century German educational games, for by this time a few German publishers were beginning to emulate their counterparts in France and England by offering such material. He notes that an advertisement in the Vossicher Zeitung for 19 December 1816 offers a game depicting Napoleon Bonaparte’s life from Moscow to St. Helena, costing 20 groschen coloured, 10 groschen in black and white. Other publishers advertised through this publication. However, the scale of the activity was not such as to rival that of France, where the many variants of the jeu de l’oie had been adopted with enthusiasm by the fashionable bourgeoisie, or even that of England, where an earnestness for education through play was driving sales of games by such renowned publishers as the Dartons.

8.11.

Other non-educational Race Games

This class encompasses games with a wide range of themes and a wide variety of rules. An important early game is the Deutsches Ritterspiel [Game of the German Knights].48 The version shown in Figure 8.5 was published in Leipzig by Joh[ann] Gott[lob] Schladebach (1762−1833), with a booklet dated September 1791 setting out its complex rules. The track is a rectangular spiral of 62 spaces, enclosing a further track of 24 spaces, of which half represent a death’s head. Along the main track are various active spaces suitable to a fantasy journey of a young man becoming a knight, such as wizards good and bad, with correspondingly favourable or unfavourable effect, enchanted castles and the like. Space 60, showing an unhorsed knight, is similar in action to the Death space in the Game of the Goose. Space 61, however, is of happier consequence: it shows the sword-stroke which makes the young man a knight. He stays here until he throws doublets, whereupon he becomes a knight and advances to space 62, where he waits, without throwing, until another knight arrives. They then proceed to the joust, represented by the second track. Landing on a death’s head means that the player has been overcome, and must quit the field. The winning space shows a knight victorious. One might think that playing this game is an essentially male occupation. That thought is dispelled by a special section in the rules, explaining that when ladies participate, they must give a kiss to the victorious knight.49 Also, if a male player lands on either the enchanted tower or the enchanted town, he may nominate one of the female company to represent the damsel confined there, who rewards the one who frees her with a kiss. The booklet concludes with the wish that all should enjoy playing the game in good company. It is unusual to find such explicit 48 The British Museum has two versions of the game, both lacking the rule books: BM 1893,0331.137 (published by Aldo Paterno) and BM 1893,0331.103 (publisher unknown). 49 The rules (in the present author’s collection) for the version of the game by Aldo Paterno also contain instructions for when ladies play.

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Figure 8.5: The Deutsches Ritterspiel by Johann Gottlob Schladebach. Leipzig, 1791.

confirmation that a game is suitable for mixed company, rather than for gambling or drinking. Some other German thematic games derive more clearly from the classical Gameof the Goose: an example is the 63-space game based on the opera Der Frei­ schütz, published in Augsburg by Martin Engelbrecht in 1825.50 Others adopt the 50 [BNMM 376].

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goose-directional rule, for example, the 30-space Military Game by J G Klinger, Nuremberg.51 However, by the end of the 19th century, German race games are most notable for their variety, rather than for their traceable descent from earlier forms.

8.12.

The Carrington-Bolton Collection of Printed Board Games

The conclusion from the study of these games is that by the end of the 19th-century, German race games were highly variable, having largely abandoned their classic models. It is possible to test this conclusion by examining a collection of contemporary printed board games made in about 1890 by J. Carrington Bolton. This collection, listed and discussed by Culin, is now at the Penn Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, though it is not currently displayed.52 Of these games, the following 29 are of German origin, not including games from Alsace and those of unknown production: 8 2 17 2

Goose games Monkey games Journey games Other Race games

When the track length of these games is examined, it is striking that only one has the classical track length of 63. The popularity of Journey games relative to Goose games is also evident. By contrast, of the 37 French games in the collection, no fewer than 31 (84% of the total) have the classical track length of 63. There are 27 Italian games in the collection: here, the comparison is complicated by the fact that in the late 19th century the traditional 63 space Game of the Goose was extended to 90 spaces, though the option remained of finishing the game at 63.53 Reckoning these extended games with the 63-space versions gives a total of 20 games (74% of the total of Italian games). These differences between countries in the proportions of games with classical track length are highly significant statistically and – to the extent that the Carrington-Bolton collection can be regarded as representative of printed games of its time − help to confirm the conclusion that Germany had abandoned the classical model to a much greater extent than had these other countries. 51 Militärisches Würfelspiel [giochidelloca 1360]. 52 S. Culin, Chess and Playing Cards. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania, 1895, pp. 843−848. Culin’s listing of all 144 games, without images but giving their main characteristics, may be retrieved at http://www. giochidelloca.it/storia/culin.pdf accessed September 2014. 53 See Chapter 9, Section 5 for these games.

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8.13.

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Insights into German Life and Culture

From the earliest period, the Game of the Goose has been associated in Germany with aristocracy, as in the game carved in limestone for the Archduke Karl in 1598.54 There is ample evidence of other high-quality boards, for example, the expensively-inlaid Augsburg board. Also, the engraving in Das Zeit kurtzende Lust- und Spiel-Hauss of c. 1690 shows in its central decoration a refined company of men and women, in a grand house with a large formal garden visible outside. However, there is likewise evidence of much humbler productions, such as the painted wooden game in the Nuremberg National Museum suggesting that in the 17th century at least the game was not limited to a particular social class. In later centuries, the ready availability of printed forms of the game seems to have overtaken the elaborately-produced board. The preponderance of printing from copper plates, rather than from the cheaper woodblock, suggests that even then a superior market was being addressed, until the advent of lithography and the true bilderbogen. Frequently the games were aimed at an adult market, the wide occurrence of the ‘drink’ hazard being a strong clue. An interesting confirmation of the Germans’ reputation as drinkers comes from a French game of 1662, Le Jeu des nations principales,55 which says, of the ‘Allemans’ (space 40): ‘They are large, and fat because of the beer [...] they are 3 or 4 hours at table [...]’ However, the existence of the remarkable animal alphabet game (Figure 8.1) shows that, even in the 17th century, dice games were not universally associated with a drinking culture, and that their potential for use in education was appreciated at an early date. A further insight into the German character is given by looking at the themes of games, other than Goose and Monkey variants: there are military games; hunting in various forms appears several times, as does the farmyard and the land generally – there is even a game (Figure 8.7 below) devoted solely to the cultivation of potatoes. However, the majority of German thematic games involve a journey of some sort. It is tempting to associate the development of these games in the 19th century with Germany’s growing colonial ambitions, especially in Africa. By contrast, games dealing with the religious themes found often in French games, or having the didactic moral tone which underpins many English games, are rarely found: an exception is the Reise in die Ewigkeit, a 100-space game in which ‘virtue’ spaces move the player on and ‘sin’ spaces move the player back.56 This chapter concludes by analysing a number of thematic games, which – by their iconography or by their rules − give insights into particular aspects of German culture and character. 54 See Section 6a above for details of the early games mentioned in this section. 55 See the section on Geographic Games in Chapter 3. 56 Münster: Ludwig August Brinckmann, early 20th century. Ciompi/Seville 0892.

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Figure 8.6a: Der Jahrmarkt – central scene of the fair.

Example (a) Der Jahrmarkt. Berlin: Winckelmann und Söhne, early 19th century. This game, whose title is perhaps best translated as the Big Fair, consists of 67 spaces, arranged in a rectangular spiral, with an attractive central scene (Figure 8.6a) of the fair, attended by well-dressed families. It is finely printed and coloured by hand with precision. 28 of the track spaces are illustrated with attractions or personages concerned with the fair. The other spaces contain text, beginning with: space 1 – the post wagon; space 2 – the town hall and so on. The rules are detailed in an accompanying booklet within a slipcase into which the game sheet folds. They are particular to the game and every space has its own rule, so it must have been troublesome to play. From the standpoint of cultural history, the most immediately interesting aspect is the series of illustrations of the fair’s attractions (Figure 8.6b). These can usefully be compared with the attractions of, say, the St. Bartholomew Fair in London. The nature of most of these entertainments will be obvious from the illustrations in Figure 8.6b. ‘Hanswurst’ was a popular figure of German impromptu comedy; by the 19th century the character had been merged with the French/Italian Harlequin, as depicted here. On the carousel, one of the youths on horseback has a sword with which he is tilting for a prize suspended from a beam. There are also notable personages. At space 42, we have the Schoolmaster, who ‘today takes the opportunity to drink a glass of wine at space 56 – pay 6 marks’. At space 6, we have the Police Officer: the first to land there has the responsibility of watching for ‘thieves’, i.e. anyone landing on the several spaces marked ‘thief’. The Officer must then call out: “Halt! Spitzbube!” [Stop! Rogue!] and must convey the player’s token to the prison at space 7. In the author’s example of the game, the spaces 6 and 7 have been crossed out in

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Figure 8.6b: Entertainments depicted in the individual spaces of Der Jahrmarkt. Row 1: camel; musicians; peepshow; circus rider. Row 2: jumping jack; dancing bear; juggler; acrobats. Row 3: performing dogs; hurdy-gurdy man; performing monkeys; conjurer. Row 4: Hanswurst; puppet show; carousel; dancing; Row 5: harp player; flag waving.

ink, perhaps because they were thought unsuitable for children, or because the rule proved too complicated in play, or too repetitious. Space 8, the Innkeeper, has also been crossed out. It has a similar rule, that the first to land there becomes the

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innkeeper. When a player lands in one of the several spaces marked ‘inn’, he or she must call out, ‘Mr Innkeeper!’ and the Innkeeper must answer, ‘At your service!’ Various payments are specified. This game gives a vivid impression of the variety and colour of the Fair, which is seen as a time of relaxation from the normal constraints of respectable middle-class German life. Example (b): Das Kartoffel-Spiel [The Potato Game], n.p. late 19th century. This is a complete contrast to the previous game. It is a simple uncoloured lithograph, with title and rules in both French and German, indicating Alsace production. The

Figure 8 7: Scenes from Das Kartoffel-Spiel [The Potato Game]

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rules are likewise of the simplest, being instructions to pay or take from the pool, and to advance or go back along the short circular track of 25 spaces. The only instruction related to the iconography is that, at space 19, unloading the cart is taking so long that the player must wait until joined by another, who then takes his or her place, [i.e. follow the Goose well/prison rule]. Nonetheless, the illustrations of the various processes in growing, harvesting and eating potatoes are nicely drawn, giving clear pictures of the equipment used at each stage and the distinctions between women’s and men’s work. The central winning space, showing the family sitting down to a meal, suggests by their clasped hands that they (except for the young child in a high chair) are giving thanks for their food. Example (c): Die Anfangsgründe der Rechenkunst: ein Spiel für die Jugend.57 In the late 18th century, a distinctive educational game, Die Anfangsgründe der Rechen­ kunst: ein Spiel für die Jugend [The Rudiments of Arithmetic: a game for the young], provides an insight into German attitudes to learning. The rules for the German version of this game were provided in a separate 16-page booklet not present with the British Museum example.58 There is however an English version published by John Wallis in London in 1798, with rules on the sheet.59 The rules for some of the individual hazards are in the form of verses, which bear every sign of having been translated rather stiffly and literally from the German. For example, space 9 shows a plum-cake, with the instruction: Was all your business done today, In time and well, not spoilt by play? Then take your plum-cake and a spin, If not, stay here a turn and grin.60

This is a particularly interesting instruction, in that the real world (the work that the child actually did) is intruding upon the imaginary world of play. Contrast this with Huizinga’s observation: ‘Play is something outside ordinary life [...] with its own proper boundaries of time and space, according to fixed rules [...]’61 In the German version (only) there are images of a booklet on certain spaces lettered in alphabetical order A to Z and beyond using other symbols: these are thought to refer to corresponding sections of the rule booklet which were to be read out by the player. It seems likely 57 British Museum 1876,0510.649 The Museum dates it as early 18th century but see the footnote below. 58 The game and booklet are listed, with the publication date of 1795, in J. C. S. Kiefhaber, Monathliche historisch-litterarisch-artistische Anzeigen zur ältern und neuern Geschichte Nürnbergs. Schneider, 1796, p. 153. 59 See Chapter 7, Section 6. 60 Here, ‘grin’ means, ‘pull a face’, as evident from a version with rules in Portuguese, brought to the author’s attention by J-N da Silva. 61 Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Element in Culture. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1949, p. 13. For a recent discussion of modern games that cross the boundary, see: Katie Salen & Eric Zimmer-

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Figure 8.8: Detail of Die Anfangsgründe der Rechenkunst. Nuremberg: Georg Dein, 1795 (© the Trustees of the British Museum). Note the plum-cake at space 9.

that this game was intended to be played under tutorial supervision. There is a real seriousness of purpose about this version of the game. Another German version of the game, published in Leipzig about the same time, is described by Gutsmuths, who says it is ‘to be preferred both to the well-known Gänsespiel and to more modern games such as the Post- und Reisespiel, the Ritterspiel and others’.62

8.14.

The inventiveness of German games

The broad features of the history of German race games may be summarised as follows. The earliest Games of the Goose follow the ‘classic’ model, as found in the earliest Italian and French examples, except that a ‘drink’ hazard on space 61 is often 62 J.C.F. Gutsmuths, Spiele zur Übung und Erholung des Körpers und Geistes: für die Jugend, ihre Erzieher und

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THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

found, something almost entirely specific to German games. However, significant differences from this model begin to appear from about 1650. These include variations in the track length and in the detailed rules. The variations are such that by about 1850 the classic model is largely forgotten, though games having geese as the favourable spaces continue to the end of the 19th century and beyond. German games having the Monkey as favourable symbol appear to be a German introduction deriving from Goose games in the 18th century, pre-dating French and English versions; although a single late-16th century Italian example exists, it is not thought to have been a model for the German games. These games are examples of a general enthusiasm for showing monkeys in human guise, performing amusing activities. As such, the invention is mainly graphic, offering new possibilities of humorous depiction, rather than necessarily involving changes to the rules or structure of the parent game. By contrast, the Post and Journey games show significant inventiveness in regard to rules and structure, though the earliest game discussed here, a late 18th century example which may indeed be a prototype, is recognisably derived from Goose games. With few exceptions, the games that followed discarded any specific links with the Game of the Goose, though they kept the overall structure of a unicursal race game. They embodied imagery that made them both more up-to-date and closer to reality than that game, with its symbolism of human life, could ever be. As these new games developed, the means of transport represented was updated and journeys and their destination became more exotic, representing the new possibilities of world exploration and travel that the 19th century began to offer. These new games appealed to a wide market and their popularity came to exceed that of the parent game. Inventiveness was also shown in the many variant games that were developed in Germany on different themes, contributing to a rich and diverse mix. Most of these represented genuinely new ideas, not taken from those of other countries. However, up-market educational games appear to be an exception to this. Such games are relatively rare in Germany and, of those that are known, several are clearly identifiable as deriving from French sources, with greater or lesser adaptation. German race games form a complex field of study. Given the ephemeral nature of printed paper sheets, the habitual absence of dating and the frequent absence of other printing and publishing information, it would be unrealistic to claim that the conclusions on the history of the games are in any sense definitive. They do however indicate that the development of these games was distinctive to Germany, showing particular inventiveness and variation. This distinctiveness can be seen both in the choice of themes and in the treatment of those themes in particular games. The games thus provide an interesting window on German life and character.

Distinctive features of German Goose Games

Appendix 8 1.

219

The image database of German games

Sources for the database The following sources were used in the image database of German games: Author’s collection, available at http://www.giochidelloca.it References to games on the web site are specified using the game code number. [BNMM] Bavarian National Museum, Munich, in Georg Himmelheber, Spiele. Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1972. Museum catalogue; references are to the catalogue number. [BCR] Biblioteca Classense Ravenna, in Donatino Domini, Giochi a Stampa in Europa. Ravenna: Longo Editore, 1985. Library catalogue; references are to the catalogue number. [BM] British Museum: the Charlotte Schreiber collection of board games, accessed via http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_ database.aspx References are to the Museum registration number. [GNMN] German National Museum, Nuremberg, in Leonie von Wilckens ed. Spiel, Spiele, Kinderspiel, exhibition catalogue. Nuremberg: 1986. References are to the catalogue number or (where specified) to the figure number. [MDVB] Museum für Deutsche Volkskunde, Berlin, in Theodor Kohlmann, Wer spielt mit? – Gesellschaftspiele auf Bilderbogen, exhibition catalogue. Berlin: 1978. References are to the catalogue number or (where specified) to the figure number. [HV] Heiner Vogel, Bilderbogen und Würfelspiel. Leipzig: Edition Leipzig, 1981. References are to the figure number.

From these, a database, numbering 83 different printed games was constructed. It enables for each class of game a breakdown of the different production techniques and the places and publishers involved. Not included in the database, but referred to in the main chapter, are a number of the oldest games, on wood panel or carved in stone. There is no claim that this database contains all relevant German games. However, it is thought to be sufficiently representative that broad conclusions can safely be drawn from it. An indication of this is that 10 of the relevant games found in the above sources are duplicated. 2.

Analysis of the database of German games.

Statistics obtained from the database are shown in the charts. Chart (a) shows the numbers of games of different classes, analysed by time periods. Chart (b) shows

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THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

40 35

30 25

1850-1900

20

1800-1849

15

1700-1799

10

1600-1699

5 0

A

G

GD

J

R

V

Chart (a) Numbers of games of different types classified by time periods A Affenspiel R G Gaensespiel V GD other goose-doubling games X J journey games

X

racetrack games various games educational games

40 35 30

25

1850-1900

20

1800-1849

15

1700-1799

10

1600-1699

5 0

wood

copper

lith

col lith

unknown

Chart (b) Numbers of games with different printing processes classified by time periods

40 35 30

other

25

clock rect

20

clock

15

anti rect

10

anti

5

0

A

G

GD

J

R

V

Chart (c) Numbers of games of different types classified by track geometry

X

Distinctive features of German Goose Games

221

the numbers of games with different printing processes (woodcut, copper engraving, lithograph, colour lithograph) analysed by time periods. Chart (c) shows the numbers of games of different classes, analysed by track geometry, according to whether the track follows a curving spiral, a rectangular spiral, or is of other geometry; and, if a spiral, whether it is clockwise or anticlockwise from beginning to end of track.

9.

Italian games to the end of the 19th century

9.1.

Italian games – adoption and adaptation

It may seem strange that this chapter on Italian games based on the Game of the Goose has not appeared earlier in this book, given that the earliest known printed games are of Italian origin, as mentioned in Chapter 2. However, by comparison with the games of France, Britain and Germany already discussed, Italian games saw relatively little in the way of innovation up to the end of the 19th ­century.1 The classic 63-space Game of the Goose was interpreted quite strictly in Italy, almost without variation in the rules. However, in the 19th century, a specifically Italian modification of the classic game appeared whereby the track of the Game of the Goose was extended to 90 spaces, though the earlier examples have a note in the rules explaining that by agreement the game can still terminate at 63. The number 90 was chosen because of its link with the Italian Lottery, being the number of balls from which drawings are made and so considered lucky in itself. Educational games were largely, though not exclusively, adapted from French models. A notable exception is the geographic game by the French historian Casimir Freschot (1640?–1720), described below. Notable also is the work of Giuseppe Maria Mitelli (Bologna, 1634–1718), whose engravings included many stampe populari: of these, several dozen were games, mostly of the pay-or-take lottery kind, but including a handful of variants of the Game of the Goose. These were distinctly games for adults, with a satirical cast. The unification of Italy was recognised by the publication in 1861 of a patriotic variant of the Game of the Goose, celebrating the events and personages of that momentous time. Explicitly aimed at family entertainment and instruction were the games appearing at the end of the 19th century that displayed a world tour, based on the itineraries developed in France for private tourists. 1 During his stays at Calamosco in the Villa Monsignori, the painter Agostino Carracci (1557−1602) ‘invented’ games like biribissi, pelachiù, oche, ‘disegnate con sì spiritose fìgurette, e di acquerelle di colori miniate non solo, ma que’ nuovi giuochi, che a simiglianza de’ sudetti, e più giudiciosì ancora’ [not just drawn with lively figures and bright colours but new games, similar to those mentioned, but better thought out]. (C.C. Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice: vite de’ pittori bolognesi, Bologna: per l’Erede di Domenico Barbieri, 1678, Parte Terza [Lodov., Agost. et Annib. Carracci], p. 468). Sadly, no trace of these tantalising inventions remains.

A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462984974_ch09

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9.2.

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Sources and collections

The most useful overview of the printed board games of Italy is the book by Mascheroni and Tinti.2 This sets the games in the context of games from other countries, principally France. The large format allows rules and other material printed on the game to be read easily and the accompanying essays are useful. Otherwise, most of the published material on Italian games is contained in a variety of catalogues produced to accompany specific exhibitions: many of these are listed on the giochidelloca website, on the bibliografia page, which also gives an informal indication as to their importance and relevance to study of the Game of the Goose. That website is also rich in Italian games, with almost 100 different examples of spiral race games pre-1900, so that something of an overview may be obtained by analysis of games listed there.3 The major institutional collection of Italian games, contained within the enormous Achille Bertarelli collection of popular prints and ephemera at the Castello Sforzesco in Milan, numbering over 300,000 items and covering a wide range of topics and forms, is now beginning to be accessible by digital means, through the Milan Grafiche in Comune website.4 An exhibition catalogue of a few of the games also exists, with a useful introduction by Alberto Milano.5 A number of the earlier games in the collection are reproduced by Negri and Vercelloni.6 A further introduction to the printed games in the collection is to be found in the excellent catalogue by Alberto Milano, which brings together the fruits of his research on games printed in Milan: as will be seen in the discussion below, Milan became the most significant centre for printed games in Italy, so this work is especially valuable.7 An interesting collection of printed games is held in the Istituzione Biblioteca Classense in Ravenna. However, this is a Europe-wide collection, with some emphasis on games from the Netherlands, rather than from Italy.8

2 Silvia Mascheroni and Bianca Tinti. Il Gioco dell’Oca. Milan: Bompiani, 1981. 3 www.giochidelloca.it. 4 http://graficheincomune.comune.milano.it. 5 Alberto Milano. Fabbrica di immagini, gioco e litografia nei fogli della Raccolta Bertarelli. [Catalogue of an exhibition in the Spazio Baj-Palazzo Dugnani, Milan] Milan: Vangelista Editori Snc., 1993. 6 Ilio Negri & Virgilio Vercelloni. I giochi di dadi, d’azzardo e di passatempo di gentiluomini e dei pirati. Milan: Lerici, 1958. 7 Alberto Milano. Giochi da Salotto, Giochi da Osteria nella vita milanese dal Cinquecento all’Ottocento. [Catalogue of an exhibition at the Palazzo Morando, Milan]. Milan: Edizioni Gabriele Mazzotta, 2012. 8 Donatino Domini. Giochi a Stampa in Europa. Ravenna: Longo Editore,1985. The descriptive notes are restricted to rather basic observations.

ITALIAN GAMES TO THE END OF THE 19 TH CENTURY

9.3.

225

The classic Gioco dell’Oca of 63 spaces

The term gioco dell’oca and its earlier form, giuoco dell’oca, should in principle refer to the classic game with goose iconography. However, in Italy, just as in France, the term is more widely applied to a host of similar race games. The present section deals only with games with goose iconography, beginning with consideration of a few of the earliest examples, then proceeding to an overview of this sub-genre, using data from the giochidelloca website. The game by Lucchino Gargano of Rome, dated 1598, has already been mentioned as the earliest dated Gioco dell’oca.9 The decorative iconography at the end of the track, representing two men drinking while sitting on a barrel, suggests that this was a version intended for a tavern setting. The same iconography occurs in a very similar print in the Bertarelli collection, probably dating from the early 17th century.10 In both these versions, the rules are inscribed in a centre panel, under the heading: DECHIARATI0NI PRINCIPALI CAPO PER CAPO [main rules, point by point]. The game by Carlo Coriolani of Venice is well known.11 It dates from about 1640. The rules are briefly noted in footnotes to the relevant spaces, leaving the centre panel free for a finely-drawn image of a elaborately-dressed (and presumably aristocratic) family enjoying a meal of cooked goose, while in the background, as through a large window, is a scene of geese being hunted: whatever the symbolic meaning of the goose may be, here it evidently represented having a good meal in well-to-do company. Alberto Milano has traced the distinctive decorative iconography in the corners of this game to the series of Gobbi [dwarves] drawn by Jacques Callot (1592−1635), published in 1622.

Figure 9.1: Left – The Fat Dwarf, etching by Jaques Callot (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York); Right – Detail of the Gioco di Loca by Carlo Coriolani (The Morgan Library & Museum, New York; gift of Miss Julia P. Wightman, 1991).

9 See Chapter 2, Figure 2−2. 10 Negri & Vercelloni, op. cit., plate Hbc. 11 Adrian Seville. Grolier catalogue, Game 1.

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THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Alberto Milano believes that all surviving examples of this game are 18th-century re-strikes by Remondini of Bassano from the original woodblock of Coriolani.12 He notes that the catalogue issued by Remondini in the last decade of the 18th century lists the gioco dell’oca (with two other printed games) in the category ‘libri alla risma’ [‘books from the stack’], i.e. in bulk, offered at an economical price. Versions were available coloured by stencil or, more expensively, by brush. Another 17th-century game is in the British Museum.13 It has the title Il Piacevole Gioco dell’Oca (the Agreeable Game of the Goose). The central decoration is again that of a family enjoying a splendid meal, while the corner decorations are allegorical representations of the four seasons. The rules are not given on the sheet. The spiral track could well be older than the decorations, judging by the antique calligraphy of the numbers. A striking example is the figure ‘2’, which is written as rotated 90 degrees to appear as if on its side. No printer or publisher is given, though the initials G S appear below the central panel, flanking a woodcut decoration of an antique mask. The woodblock of this game remained in use over the centuries, as is shown by the 19th-century example in Figure 9.2, with the imprint ‘Tipografia Tomassini’.14 Here, the printer has framed the block within a decorative border and has supplied the rules in type below. All these examples are in vertical format, using an anti-clockwise track, and indeed this is overwhelmingly the most common form of the classic game in Italy, as judged from the 47 examples currently (February 2017) on the giochidelloca website, though a handful of examples in horizontal format do appear there. The Italian games also adhere almost rigidly to the classic arrangement of hazards: unlike the German games, where a ‘drink’ hazard is often present near the end of the track, such a hazard is found only by exception in the Italian examples. Roughly half of the classic 63-space games on the giochidelloca website give no information as to publisher or place of publication. This is indicative of a significant trade in stampe populari as opposed to the trade in fine prints at the upper end of the market. Where places of publication are given or can be deduced, the major provincial cities figure largely, with Milan being dominant (12 examples), followed by Turin, Rome and Bologna (each with 2 examples); the remaining places of production, each contributing a single example, are scattered widely over mainland Italy. Alberto Milano gives an excellent account of the history of printed games from Milan.15 Consistent with the emphasis on popular prints, woodcut is the preferred medium at least up to the 19th century. 12 Alberto Milano, Giochi da Salotto, op. cit., pp. 15, 46−47. 13 Registration number 1893,0331.44. 14 The printing establishment of Giovanni Tomassini was active in Foligno in the 19th century until it was absorbed into that of Francesco Salvati in 1891. See http://www.folignoact.com/storia/24-la-stampa accessed 26 February 2017. 15 Alberto Milano, Giochi da Salotto, op. cit.

ITALIAN GAMES TO THE END OF THE 19 TH CENTURY

227

Figure 9.2: Game printed by Tomassini of Foligno in the 19th century from a 17th-century woodblock, with addition of a stereotype ornamental border and with rules newly printed beneath.

228 

9.4.

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

The allegorical game of Valerio Spada

A particularly interesting and beautiful example of the classic gioco dell’oca is that shown in Figure 9.3, published by Valerio Spada (b. 1613 d. 1688) in Florence about 1650.16 The finely-engraved centre panel depicts various games connected with the goose. To the lower left, an elegantly-dressed family plays the Game of the Goose. Above, youths are trying are trying to climb a pole to win the goose at its top, while others, blindfolded and carrying swords, are trying to win a living goose tied on a horizontally-stretched rope by cutting its neck.17 The scene is observed by a knight riding an oversized goose. Above this fantastical depiction is a poem, in sonnet form, setting out the enigmatic description of the game represented by the main track: DA una Porta partir’ più pellegrini, Per arriuare a vn luogo desiato, Spinti dall’ossa, ch’ han negli occhi il fato, A andar di trotto, como i Vetturini. Non andauan’ insieme ma vicini, E nell’vrtarsi si toglieano il lato. E chi vn augel trouaua, era forzato Il paßo a raddoppiar per quei confini. Un a vn mal’ paßo cadde, e gli dispiacque, Vn altro ebbe dal vin gran nocumento, E un altro aßai maggior l’ebbe dall’acque. Un per la uia smarrißi vn restò dentro Vn carcer chiuso, vn senza vita giacque, E vn sol di tanti giunse a saluamento. [From a gate there leave several pilgrims/wishing to reach their desired goal,/driven by bones that have fate in their eyes,/travelling fast, like coachmen./They travel not in a group but close together/and with cries stumble against each other./Those who encounter a bird are obliged/to redouble their steps along the track./One falls by a false step and is displeased,/ another comes to great harm by wine/and another even more by coming to waters. One misses the way, one must stay/within a closed prison cell, one loses all life/and one only of them all reaches safety].18

16 Phillippa Plock and Adrian Seville. ‘The Rothschild Collection of Printed Board Games at Waddesdon Manor’. Paris: Le Vieux Papier, April 2012, pp. 433−444. 17 This barbarous diversion continued to be practised in Italy well into the 20th centiry. See David I. Kertzer, Comrades and Christians: religion and political struggle in communist Italy. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland, 1990, pages 132 and 152. 18 Translation by Adrian Seville.

ITALIAN GAMES TO THE END OF THE 19 TH CENTURY

229

Figure 9.3: Allegorical game by Valerio Spada, with a poem in which the players are represented as pilgrims on the way to their final goal (Rothschild National Trust Collection, Waddesdon (National Trust) acc no 2669.1.20. Photo: Waddesdon Image Library, Mike Fear).

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THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

The allusions to the advantages and hazards in the Game of the Goose are plain enough. Thierry Depaulis has noticed19 that the sonnet is taken from La Sfinge: Enimmi, a collection of enigmatic riddles in verse form by Antonio Malatesti, published between 1640 and 1643.20 Phillippa Plock observes:21 The representation in the central area of a Goose game in progress recalls paintings by Caravaggio and his followers, such as Bartolomeo Manfredi, in which scenes of game playing occur. Whereas in Northern Europe, such scenes often were intended as warnings against the danger of game playing, in 16th-century Italy, games were part of the culture of the Court and aristocratic games were often depicted in allegories of love. The Spada game was clearly intended for such a milieu [...] and the men and women he depicts recall the soudards and courtesans of Caravaggio and Manfredi. Perhaps the game, with its theme of Christian pilgrimage, was thought a more suitable recreation than the gambling games so popular in Florence at the time. Indeed, on this interpretation, the Game of the Goose could be regarded as a moral diversion [...], though the comical sight of the Christian knight mounted upon a large goose at the start of the game must have reduced the chances of the engraving being taken as a wholly serious moral imperative!

The engraving was probably meant as a conversation piece, though the game is eminently playable on the sheet (462 x 330mm). Whatever the interpretation, the existence of such a superb engraving clearly shows that the gioco dell’oca was of interest to an aristocratic audience as well as to that served by the popular prints.

9.5.

The extension of the Gioco dell’Oca to 90 spaces

One of the first fruits of the unification of Italy in the 1860s was the establishment of the Italian State Lottery, by the law of 27 September 1863, which prohibited all private lotteries in favour of that of the State.22 The lottery involved the drawing of balls from a total of 90, this being the number established by the long-standing practice in Genoa.23 As a result, the number 90 had become regarded as lucky in its own right, and this was no doubt the inspiration for extending the Gioco dell’Oca to that track length. Among the earliest examples of games with the 90-space track 19 Private communication, 2010. 20 The Carabba edition of 1900 is accessible at www.archive.org, where the key to riddle number 86 is given at page 155: ‘Il Giuoco dell’Oca’. 21 Phillippa Plock and Adrian Seville. Op. cit. 22 Annali della giurisprudenza italiana. Florence: Luigi Niccolai, 1874, p. 207. 23 Adrian Seville. ‘The Italian Roots of the Lottery’. History Today, Vol. 49, March 1999.

ITALIAN GAMES TO THE END OF THE 19 TH CENTURY

231

Figure 9.4: Gioco dell’Oca of 90 spaces. Milan: Lebrun and Boldetti, 1872 (© The Trustees of the British Museum).

length are those by Cesare Battioli, published in Milan in the first quarter of the 19th century. A later example is that shown in Figure 9.4, published by the Milanese firm of Lebrun and Boldetti in 1872. The double series of goose spaces is continued but two extra hazards are introduced: the Fountain at 71 and the Tower at 82, which function like the Well and Prison spaces. By prior agreement, the game can terminate at space 63, as in the classic game. In Italy, 90-space versions with goose iconography continued to be produced well into the 20th century and the format was also used for thematic variants.

9.6.

The Geographic Game of Casimir Freschot

A splendid early example of a genuinely innovative Italian education game is Casimiro Freschot’s game of world geography titled Geografia ridotta a giuoco per istruttione della giovane nobiltà veneziana, [Geography reduced to a game for the instruction of the noble youth of Venice] published in Venice by Giovanni Pare about 1665.24 24 Charta Geographica, vol.1 [also numbered as Charta 88], April 1972, p. 76, with which a facsimile of the game was issued.

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THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

The track consists of a rectangular spiral of 153 small maps with a fine prospect of Venice at the centre; around it, in the corners, are four larger continental maps. Each small map, measuring approximately 52x52 mm, is surrounded by a brief description of its subject: for example, Abyssinia, at space 1, is described as ‘Christian but with various errors in the Faith’. The subjects of the small maps include both states and provinces: these are arranged alphabetically along the track. Freschot dedicated the game to the Venetian Senator Nicolò Michiel and three of the Senator’s five children whom he had educated for two years, signing himself as ‘Don Casimiro Freschot dell’ O.D.S.B’. [of the Order of Saint Benedict].

9.7.

The Splendour of the Neapolitan Nobility

The grandly-titled game, Lo Splendore della Nobilta Napoletana [The splendour of the Neapolitan Nobility], was published in Naples in 1678. The game sheet shows a spiral track of 183 numbered spaces, each illustrating the coat of arms of a noble Neapolitan family. The game sheet folds out from a companion booklet, which contains the rules and summarises the heraldic information necessary to play the game.25 Players landing on a space must correctly describe the arms, identify the various heraldic colours, and explain the emblematic significance. Mistakes hinder progress, while certain spaces act as a bonus.

9.8.

The games of Mitelli

Giuseppe Maria Mitelli (1634?–1718) was an Italian etcher, painter and sculptor, son of the well-known painter Agostino Mitelli. The younger Mitelli enjoyed a prolific career for over 60 years in Bologna, producing etchings within a great variety of themes from grand epic scenes to popular subjects, the latter including printed boards for games of chance using dice.26 Of these, the great majority were pay-ortake games modelled on the Game of the Owl [Pela il Chiu, Jeu de la Chouette] and therefore outside the scope of the present book. However, a few were games of movement along a track [giochi da percorso] but not conforming to the classic Game of the Goose formula.27 They are not dated individually but belong to the period 1687−1712. 25 The title page gives: Lo Splendore della Nobiltà Napoletana ascritta ne’Cinque Seggi; GIUOCO D’ARME esposto a somiglianza di quello intitolato ‘LE CHEMIN DE L’HONNEUR’ da D. CARLO TORELLI dedicato all’altezza serenissima DI GIO. LUIGI Principe di Analth. In Napoli appresso Antonio Bulifon 1678. All’insegna della Sirena. Con licenza de’ superiori. E privilegio. 26 A convenient summary of Mitelli’s output is given in: Francesco Sorce (editor), Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani − Volume 75, 2011. See also: Achille Bertarelli, Le Incisioni di GM Mitelli incisore, catalogo critico, Milan: Arti Grafiche di Bergamo, 1940. 27 Good quality reproductions of the games described here have been published in Sandro Angelini. I 33 Giochi di Mitelli. Bergamo: Grafica Gutenberg, 1976.

ITALIAN GAMES TO THE END OF THE 19 TH CENTURY

233

The Gioco di tutte le monete di Bologna [Game of all the coins of Bologna] has a boustrophedon track of 40 spaces with numerous similarities to the Game of the Goose, including a death space and a prison space, both with the usual rules. Images of the various kinds of coins are distributed along the track, with the instruction to take one stake from the pool. They are interspersed with hazard spaces, including droll images of human figures, with the instruction to pay one stake. More closely similar to the Game of the Goose is the amusing and informative Gioco di tutte le osterie, che sono in Bologna con le sue insegne e sue strade [Game of all the inns in Bologna, with their signs and streets]. The inn signs are displayed on a numbered track of 58 spaces, each giving the street address and the speciality of the house, ranging from ‘good mortadella’ to ‘good wine’. The winning space shows the Golden Lion, where ‘everything is good’. A handful of inns are distinguished by a star, and the player takes one quattrino28 from the pool. Apart from the inns, there are a few hazards, including the net (depicted like a tennis net) at space 44, where the rule is ‘start again’. As with many of Mitelli’s designs, this game sheet is an important source on contemporary Bolognese popular culture. A third game of movement is the Gioco novo di contento [New game of contentment], a 43-space game promising [long] life at the winning space, in contrast to death [start again] at space 35. The track is populated by figures personifying various human qualities and attributes – health, poverty, and vigilance being examples. Certain of these are enclosed within arches, with instructions to pay or take from the pool. Spaces 16 to 20 are designated as the Jewish ghetto, beginning with Usury and ending with Interest, both requiring payment of one stake.29 The anti-Semitic figures depicted in the intervening spaces are named MESIER PVCVLENT,30 BADANAI31 and MESIR VILVPO.32 This highly unpleasant example clearly demonstrates the intensity that could be built into these apparently innocuous games. In listing games of movement by Mitelli, mention should also be made of his Gioco del Blasone, a game of square format with a track length of 40 spaces; however, no playing indications are given on the sheet and the detailed mode of play is not known. Not strictly by Mitelli, but certainly in his style, and quite possibly of his design, is Il dilettevol giuoco del pellegrinaggio d’amore [the Pleasant Game of 28 A copper coin weighing about 2 grams, apparently the standard stake. 29 The Jewish Ghetto in Bologna was established in 1556, then eliminated in 1569, and re-established in 1586 before being done away with in 1593, when Clement VIII expelled 900 Jews. For the next two centuries, Jews were not allowed to live officially in Bologna. See: Nicholas Terpstra. Religious Refugees in the Early Modern World: An Alternative History of the Reformation. Cambridge: CUP, 2015, p. 90. Mitelli’s reference to the ghetto would therefore seem to be figurative rather than literal. 30 A medical term for a kind of unpleasant flux. 31 Badanai in Italian means ‘the sound of men chatting’ but the word derives from the Hebrew badonay (in the Lord) found in the Jewish liturgy (see David L, Gold, Studies in Etymology and Etiology, Alicante: Universidad de Alicante, 2009, p. 387). In the context of the game, it is a slighting reference to the Jews liturgical chanting. 32 A Bolognese form of vil(l)uppo (intrigue): Claudio Ferrari. Vocabolario bolognese co’ sinonimi italiani e franzesi. Bologna: Nobili, 1820.

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Figure 9.5: The Jewish Ghetto section of Mitelli’s Gioco novo di contento.

Figure 9.6: Detail of Il dilettevol giuoco del pellegrinaggio d’amore – F. M. Francia, after G. M. Mitelli.

the Pilgrimage of Love].33 The print is signed by the Bolognese printmaker F[rancesco] M[aria] Francia (1657−1735). The game is a close variant of the classic Game of the Goose, having a 63-space track with the image of a pilgrim, recognisable by his 33 British Museum number 1852,0612.450.+ Strouhal, game 60.

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staff, on the goose spaces, with the normal rule of doubling the points thrown. Other spaces show allegorical figures, acting as hazards, though not according to the classic scheme. Jealousy, for example, leads to a fight (Rissa, space 38). The equivalent of the ‘death’ space is tempo perso [lost time] at space 56, showing a man pouring water through a sieve, as a symbol of futility. The winning space affords entry to the walled Garden of Love, representing the achievement of desire. Similarly attributed to Francia in the style of Mitelli is the Giuoco del Gambero [Game of the Prawn].34 This is of some interest in that the prawns act as baulks, with the instruction to return as many points as are thrown. The expression ‘far come il gambero’ in popular Italian usage means ‘to go backwards’, so the symbol is appropriate.

9.9.

The Unification of Italy

An important phase of the unification of Italy was marked by the publication on 25 February 1861 of a patriotic version of the Gioco dell’oca on a sheet inserted in the satirical journal La Cicala Politica, Milan. L´Italia del Secolo Decimonono ossia il Nuovissimo Giuoco dell´Oca [Italy in the 19th century, or the newest Game of the Goose] is rich in allegory, in representations of events and places, and in portraits of both major and minor figures in the political history of Italy. The ‘celebrated Italians’ thus portrayed act as goose spaces, doubling the points thrown: here are the writers Vittorio Alfieri, Giovanni Berchet, Giuseppe Giusti, Giacomo Leopardi, Vincenzo Gioberti and Ugo Foscolo; generals Napoleon Bonaparte and Guglielmo Pepe; Nationalist brothers Attilio and Emilio Bandiera, whose martyrdom in 1844 gave a profound moral boost to subsequent uprisings; and the important figures of Vittorio Emmanuele II and Count Cavour. Where, though, is Manzini? Spaces on the track are separated by allegorical and other significant images – for example, the Papal Slipper between spaces 52 and 53, lettered ‘concordato’ [agreement]. The prison space is represented by the Castle of Spielberg (in Brno) where many of the Carbonari (revolutionaries) were incarcerated as political prisoners of the Austro-Hungarian regime. On space 49 is Diplomacy, taking the function of the death space – ‘start again’, and the same rule applies to space 15, showing the ‘holy alliance’ of the regime in an unfavourable light. In the centre, at the winning space, stand Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel, saluting a flag with the slogan: ‘Italia degli italiani’ – Italy for the Italians.

34 British Museum number 1852,0612.488.

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Figure 9.7: Central detail of the patriotic game of the Italian Revolution, L´Italia del Secolo Decimonono.

9.10.

Educational games in 19th-century Italy

Although Italy never produced the variety of educational games on different themes that was seen in France, the French productions undoubtedly were in circulation and some were explicitly adapted for the Italian market. For example, the firm of Remondini & Sons, of Bassano, well known for its fine reproductions of artistic subjects, published in 1813 a Giuoco nuovissimo per dilettevole istruzione della gioventù atto a far ritenere le grandi epoche della storia romana dalla fondazione di Roma fino a Costantino. Già pubblicato in francese dal celebre Sig. le Maître ed ora in nuova e facile forma recato in Italiano [Newest game for the pleasant instruction of youth [...] Already published in French by the celebrated Sr. le Maître and now in a new and easy form done into Italian]. This game, covering Roman History from the foundation of Rome to Constantine, is a re-formatted version of the game published by Crépy in 1773.

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In other cases, the borrowing from French models was not explicit but the games were nevertheless inspired by French originals. An example is the Nuovo Gioco d’Istoria universale of P. Gaet. Caprara, published in Florence in 1809.35 This is a copper engraving of 40+18 spaces, representing the centuries from the creation of the world to the birth of Christ, and then to the beginning of the 19th century. In each century-space, the main event is given, following closely those of the similarly-titled game by le Maître published by Crépy in 1745. However, in the Italian version, appropriate images are provided for each space. Also, above the rules printed in the centre of the game, reference is made to a separate libretto, in which further details of the historical events can be found. The beautiful Guioco del Tesoro della Famiglie, presented as the ‘annual gift’ for 1876 by the publisher Edoardo Sonzogno of Milan is perhaps best characterised as a ‘moral’ game rather than strictly educational.36 It shows the adventures of a young girl of affluent family going about her daily life. Though the rules are lost, spaces showing activities such as learning the piano or giving alms to a beggar were no doubt favourable, while others, depicting scenes such as pulling the cat’s tail would not have been. This game, too, is a re-working of a French original.37 Though Italy was later responsible for many popular ‘world tour’ games (see below) on the principle of the Jeu de l’Oie − lively productions, seldom based on maps, but with attractive coloured views of the places visited − the same principles were not used in the development of earlier games for the teaching of geography. Indeed, Mascheroni and Tinti comment on the boring nature of some of these games, including the very dull typographic production of the early 19th century, the Prima tavola del giuoco geografico, o viaggio di tutto il globo [The first geographical game, or voyage round the entire globe]: The information was always of the same kind: the world was divided into four sections. The principal cities were specified. There were notes on economic resources but these were concerned only with gold, diamonds, commerce in porcelain, and silk.38

The play was particularly tedious since it required repeated reference to a detailed rulebook, specifying the move or payment to be made, unlike the Giro del Mondo, where the simple rules were apparent on the game sheet. 35 The imprint is given in the lower right corner as: In Firenze presso l’Editore con Approv.e Gaetano Giarré Maestro di scritto disegnò e incise 1809. 36 Mascheroni & Tinti, op. cit., plate XL. 37 ‘Grand Jeu de la Poupée modele’. Paris: Journal des Petites Filles, 1866. 38 Op. cit., p78, present author’s translation.

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The Giro del Mondo

The earliest of the lively Giro del Mondo games appears to be that published by Achille Bertarelli in Milan, just before the end of the 19th century.39 It has an 80-space track, in the centre of which is pictured a steamship with three sail-masts. It is an ingenious adaptation of the Gioco dell’oca. Text in the upper left corner explains that in offering the game, the object is family entertainment and instruction, and the noble purpose of enrichment of the mind. The sequence of cities and places across the globe is said to be modelled on that of the tours organised by the Société des Voyages d’Etudes Autour du Monde.40 Instead of the Goose spaces, a series of dangerous beasts are depicted (crocodile, lion, etc.) from which the player must at once fly (by the usual doubling of the points). The initial throw of nine takes the player to a space showing an aerostatic balloon and thence either to Calcutta (space 26) or to San Francisco in

Figure 9.8: Detail of the Giro del Mondo game by Achille Bertarelli – the corner text sets out the high aspirations of the publisher.

39 Strouhal, game 20. 40 For an account of the SVEAM, a Paris-based travel agency which arranged world tours from the late 19th century onwards, see: Lionel Gauthier, ‘Les premiers tours du monde à forfait. L’exemple de la Société des Voyages d’Etudes Autour du Monde (1878)’, Annales de Géographie, 2012, no.686, pp. 347−366.

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California (space 53), according to the throw being 6,3 or 5,4 – thus re-interpreting the dice spaces of the classic game. A beneficial space is number 15, the Suez Canal, which conveys the player direct to Aden (space 20). Among the various hazards are: Quarantine (space 21, miss a turn); the Questurini of the King of Siam (space 31, with a variant of the ‘prison’ rule); Chinese pirates (space 42 – go back to Sydney to escape); and − most fatal of all – the Redskins at space 56, where the traveller is eaten alive and takes no further part in the game.

9.12.

Italian games at the end of the 19th century

At the end of the 19th century, Italy was well supplied with inexpensive colour prints of games, especially from the Milan printing houses. Judging by the number of editions, the Game of the Goose was the most popular, whether in 63- or 90-space form. The ‘Giro del Mondo’ was a competitor, also appearing in several editions by different publishers, as was the Italian version of the Tramway game. These games of entertainment were much more significant in terms of volume of production than any games intended primarily for education. The contrast with England and France in that regard is noticeable.

10. Dutch and Flemish Games 10.1.

International connections

The earliest evidence for the Game of the Goose [known as the Ganzenbord in modern Dutch, also Ganzenspel and Ganzenbordspel] and other printed board games in the Low Countries begins to appear in the first half of the 17th century. The relationship of these earliest games to those in England is of special interest. The close political, cultural and trading links between England and Holland meant that printed images were often crossing the channel, Dutch prints on subjects such as the Armada being an example. But the importance of Holland, and especially Amsterdam, as a centre of the international book and print production and trade meant that links across continental Europe were equally significant. There are versions of the classic Game of the Goose produced in Antwerp and London whose iconography is essentially identical, raising the question of whether one was copied from the other, or whether a common ancestor was involved. These vertical-format versions of the Game of the Goose include interesting portrait medallions as decoration. The iconographic content of the medallions, initially identical as between Antwerp and London, diverges in later similar games produced in London and the Low Countries. Similarly interesting correspondences between versions of the Game of the Snake in England and Holland are also apparent. The first sections of the present chapter will concentrate on these international dimensions. The popularity of the Game of the Goose and its derivatives in the Low Countries was, and still is, of the highest order. Some of the thematic variations, such as the historical games, paralleled those pioneered in France, and indeed the wide variety of themes found in Dutch games reflects an impressive international eclecticism. But other games, appearing in the 18th century, introduced distinctive national themes. This continued into the 19th century, when – for example − games concerned with technological advances appeared, having no parallel in other parts of Europe, as well as games for children with distinctive themes and modes of play. This continual updating of the game with specific themes is arguably the reason for the lasting popularity of the game in the Low Countries, as will be explored further in Part II of this book. There can be no doubt that, by the end of the 19th century, the Netherlands was being supplied with an incomparable richness and variety of printed board games, to suit all ages and tastes, and ranging from the cheapest centsprenten (penny prints) to the finest copper engravings, with delicate hand colour. Firms such as Vlieger of Amsterdam were supplying cheap chromolithogaphed games to their retail distributors by the roll, while high quality games imported from France or Germany were A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462984974_ch10

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also in good circulation, as judged by the considerable numbers of such examples to be found in museum collections in the Netherlands.

10.2.  Sources The main source of scholarly information about printed board games in the Low Countries is the comprehensive book by the Buijnsters.1 This lists all such games found in museums and libraries in the Netherlands, irrespective of country of origin. Its coverage is wider than the scope of the present book, in that it includes not only printed games of all kinds, not just those based on the Game of the Goose, but also various other paper toys. Considerable information is given about printers, publishers and dealers in the trade. Many of the games are illustrated, some in colour, and the museums and libraries holding examples of them are identified. An online source of comparable utility is the excellent not-for-profit website developed by Rob van Linden under the title HONGS [Historisch overzicht nederlandse gezelschapsspellen].2 It is aimed at supporting and promoting research and information on the history of Dutch-Flemish games. The games are illustrated and well organised within a searchable data base, with various overviews giving background information about the publishers and printers. The site also includes some of the foreign precursors that served as an example for the first Dutch issues. The catalogue covers: From 1624 to 1900: mainly Speelprenten (printed games with pictures); From 1900 to 2005: a selection of games, with an emphasis on Dutch or Flemish publishers, but some foreign publishers who make Dutch translations are also represented Since 2005, not all the games that come out are included, because of the growing pace of publications. However, new releases of a number of classic games are recorded, including the Game of the Goose. There is a focus on games that have a Dutch or Flemish subject, e.g. to promote Dutch-language companies or institutions.

The history of printed board games also forms a small section within the more general field of centsprenten (penny prints), on which there is a large literature in Dutch.3 An important museum source here is the Atlas van Stolk museum, well catalogued 1 P J Buijnsters and L Buijnsters-Smets. Papertoys – Speelprenten en papieren speelgoed in Nederland (1640−1920). Zwolle: Waanders, 2005 (in Dutch). 2 Historical overview of Dutch family games. http://hongs.nl/index.asp accessed April 2017 but not now on line because of copyright difficulties. 3 See especially Maurits de Meyer, De volks- en kinderprent in de Nederlanden van de 15e tot de 20e eeuw. Antwerpen/Amsterdam: Standaard-Boekhandel, 1962.

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online.4 The collection, housed in Rotterdam, has almost 250,000 printed images on Dutch history. The Rijksmuseum also has an important collection of printed board games, with excellent images lately available online for free download via the Rijksstudio project.5 A useful book on Flemish games, with information not readily available elsewhere, is that by Van Bost.6

10.3. Earliest references to the Game of the Goose The earliest known reference to the Game of the Goose in the Netherlands is a moralising epigram by Hugo de Groot (1583−1645) dating to 1602−1603.7 Another early reference appears in the foreword to a book of poems by Jan Jansz. Starter, entitled Steeck-boecxken, ofte ‘t vermaek der jeugdelijcker herten, first published in 1624. It claims that the young reader being addressed will like the book better than other diversions, such as cards, the draughtboard or the Goose-board. Clearly, the Game of the Goose was well-known in early-17th-century Holland.

10.4. The Game of the Goose The Goose Game of Claes Jansz. Visscher The earliest surviving Dutch example of the Game of the Goose is by Claes Jansz. Visscher (1586/7−1652).8 The date is estimated as c. 1640 by the Buijnsters,9 though an earlier approximate date of 1624 has also been given.10 The game (Figure 10.1) has several features of interest. It is printed from a finely-engraved or etched copper plate, clearly aimed at a sophisticated market, as confirmed by the dress of the corner figures and the central scene showing a company enjoying a concert of music. This is worlds away from a ‘popular print’. There is a strong similarity in this decorative iconography to German 4 http://www.atlasvanstolk.nl/ accessed April 2018. 5 https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/ accessed April 2018. 6 Frans Van Bost. Het Ganzenbord in Vlaanderen, Ghent: KBOV, 1990. 7 Hugo de Groot (1583−1645), Instrumentum domesticum, in Poemata, Leyden, 1617 [1616], Epigram no. 28: ‘Ludus anseris Ieu des Oyes | Sorte quidem varia, metam tamen imus ad unam, | Votaque mors rumpit: quis putet esse iocum? [The Game of the Goose. Our fates are various but we all have one goal; yet death confounds our wishes: who thinks this is a game?]. Cited by Marjolein Leesberg, ‘El Juego Real de Cupido: a Spanish board game published in Antwerp, c. 1620’. Delineavit et Sculpsit, no. 39 (2015), pp. 29 and 31. 8 Visscher was a member of a highly important family of Amsterdam engravers, printers and publishers. 9 Op. cit, p. 15. 10 G D J Schotel. Het Maatschappelijk Leven Onzer Vaderen In De Zeventiende Eeuw. Haarlem: A C Kruseman, 1868/9, p. 88.

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Figure 10.1: Het Nieuw En Vermaeckelyck Ghanse-Spel En De Verklaringhe Hoemen Speelen Sal [The new and pleasant Game of the Goose and the explanation of how to play it] (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam).

games aimed at a refined market, for example Das Zeit kurtzende Lust- und SpielHauss, of c. 1690, mentioned in Chapter 8, Section 6. The similarities do not end there: the track runs clockwise in both games; and both, though otherwise entirely of classic form, have a very similar ‘drink’ hazard on space 61, where two men share an enormous drinking horn. Interestingly, the ‘drink’ hazard is not mentioned in the rules of the Visscher game, suggesting that while the design may have been inspired by a German model (Germany being the only country in which the ‘drink’ hazard is found at all regularly), the rules were maintained in classic form for the Dutch audience. The Goose Game of Jan Christoffel Jegher and games of similar vertical format The Goose Game designed by Jan Christoffel Jegher no longer exists as an original impression, but a game using the signed woodblock was issued with updated text in

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1748 by the Wed. Jacobus van Egmont & Zoon.11 Jegher(s) was a Flemish printmaker who was born in 1618 in Antwerp and died there in 1666.12 The Game of the Goose that bears his signature ‘Jan Jeghers. fec.’ near the lower right corner is essentially identical to that of John Overton of London (see Chapter 6), except of course for the text:

Figure 10.2: Game with block signed by Jegher as reprinted by Egmont in 1748 (Nederlands Openlucht Museum, Arnhem) to be compared with John Overton’s London version.

11 Buijnsters op. cit., pp. 90−91; they also refer to another version by the Wed. Verdussen, 1713−1717, using a Jeghers block. 12 Data base of the RKD [Rijksbureau voor Kunsthistorische Documentatie], The Hague, accessed April 2017.

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The proportions are not exactly the same,13 and the Jegher game sheet is from a woodcut, whereas Overton’s is a copper engraving. Nevertheless, the correspondences are so striking (far greater than those between the Overton game and the Italian game of Lucchino Gargano, seen in Figure 2.2 of Chapter 2) that certainly one of these game sheets was copied from the other, or from an earlier common model. It should be noted, though, that the rules are not identical: the rule for the maze (space 42) in the Dutch example requires the player to go back to space 39 [given in words, ‘negen-en dertig’], whereas the Overton example has the English rule: go back to space 29.14 Given that Jegher died in 1666 (with a likely date for the original print c. 1650) and that the earliest possible date for the Overton game imprint is 1665/66, with a more likely date of 1690 (see Chapter 6 for a discussion of this dating), it seems highly probable that the Jegher woodblock pre-dates the plate used by Overton. The Jegher block has the portrait medallions tentatively identified in the Overton game as Parliamentarian overcoming Royalist, suggesting that it was copied from an unknown English model, dating from the Parliamentary period, 1649−1660, from which Overton may also have derived his medallions. Games of Goose with Portrait Medallions There is nothing in the history of the Low Countries that would lead naturally to these ‘Parliamentary’ images figuring on a game and of course they have no playing significance whatsoever. Nevertheless, they were copied, presumably unthinkingly, in new editions based on the Flemish vertical format. The Buijnsters, in their comprehensive listing of Goose games, give images of versions published in Doredrecht by Walpot in the late 18th century, and the tradition continued into the mid-19th century, as the following example by Wijsmuller of Amsterdam shows (Figure 10.3). Other Netherlands publishers, while retaining portrait medallions, updated their content, as in the game published by Scholten & Gormans of Amsterdam between 1825 and 1833, where the medallions show a young man and a young woman, both fashionably dressed.15 Portrait medallions are later abandoned, as in the vertical-format Goose games by Brepols of Turnhout, in their many editions from the late 19th century onwards.

13 Overton game 51x36.5 cm., Egmont 52x41 cm. 14 Dutch Games of the Goose consistently require moving back from the maze to space 39, though this is often expressed as ‘go back three spaces’. Perhaps rules expressed in words rather than as numerals are less subject to copying error. 15 Atlas van Stolk number 5757.

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Figure 10.3: Detail of the Game of the Goose by Wijsmuller, showing ‘English Parliamentary’ medallions persisting into the middle of the 19th century.

The ‘Taming of the Goose’ The development of the horizontal-format Games of the Goose in the Low Countries is of interest because, though the games remain classic in form up to and beyond the end of the 19th century, the incidental decoration demonstrates clearly a shift in the market for these games. The present author has called this the ‘taming of the Goose’, since the shift is away from games designed for the tavern, and adult amusement and gambling, towards family entertainment, culminating at the start of the 20th century to a clear identification of the game as one intended for children to play for amusement. The ‘tavern’ iconography is particularly clear in Het nieuw en vermaekelyk Gansen-Spel. [the New and Entertaining Game of the Goose] published in Ghent by Charles de Goesin-Disbecq c. 1795,16 but with incidental iconography found in an earlier Flemish Goose game of about 1690, published in Brugge [Bruges] by Jacobus Beernaerts (1683−1706).17 In the centre, two men are playing at some form of backgammon, watched by a woman. They are being robbed by boys or young men, one of whom surreptitiously empties a hip flask into a cup while the other prepares to cut a gamester’s purse. In the top right corner, three men are playing the Game of the Goose on a barrel head. To their left, a man approaches a four-poster bed, suggesting that the tavern is also a brothel. In the first half of the 19th century, though, we have a version of the classic game published by Johannes Noman, of Zalt-Bommel, whose title includes the telling phrase: ‘Kinder Ganze Spel voor de Nederlandsche Jeugd’. [Children’s Goose Game for 16 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 3; Buinsters, op. cit., p. 94. 17 Van Bost, op. cit. p. 14.

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Figure 10.4: A Children’s Game of the Goose for the Youth of the Netherlands.

the youth of the Netherlands (Figure 10.4)]. And towards the end of that century, a version by Vlieger of Amsterdam shows the game being played en famille.18 Still later, but early in the 20th century, are versions by Daan Hoeksema which illustrate the game being played by groups of children of mixed ages: the Goose has been tamed!

10.5. The Game of the Snake or Royal Pastime of Cupid The definitive Dutch version of the Game of the Snake is that of Claes Jansz. Visscher (1587–1652) published c. 1620−1640.19 The track is of 63 spaces, laid out on the body of a crowned serpent, just as in the French version of the game, or in the Spanish-language version published in Antwerp by Pieter de Jode.20 The arrangement and iconography of Visscher’s active spaces are 18 Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 5. 19 Buijnsters op. cit. pp. 18−19 dates the game as c. 1640 whereas the Rijksmuseum gives c. 1625. 20 See Chapter 3, Section 6.

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Figure 10.5: Game of the Snake, or Royal Pastime of Cupid. Amsterdam: Claes Jansz. Visscher, c. 1625 or c. 1640 (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam).

essentially the same as in those games, the throw-doubling spaces being likewise indicated by the figure of Cupid, and the hazard spaces having similar images with identical playing functions. However, though the playing rules given on the Visscher sheet in Dutch are the same as in the French and Spanish versions, the Visscher game omits all reference to the numerology and symbolism. It seems likely therefore that Visscher’s is not the original version of the game. Further differences between Visscher’s and these other versions occur in the decorative iconography. In Visscher’s game, the non-active spaces are undecorated, omitting the remarkable ‘running landscape’ of the French version, presumably because in the early modern period the open landscape had lost its significance as a place of danger from which refuge in the hortus conclusus was to be sought. Also, the image of the Garden of Cupid at the centre of the French version is substituted by an image of a peasant couple dancing in an enclosed garden, with Cupid providing musical accompaniment. In the rules, this is referred to as den boertigen Hoff van Cupido, with the implication of something farcical or ludicrous, as seen by the upper-class market aimed at by Visscher.21 21 Marjolein Leesberg, ‘El Juego Real de Cupido: a Spanish board game published in Antwerp, c. 1620’. Delineavit et Sculpsit, no. 39 (2015), p. 39.

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Visscher’s game was copied and reissued several times until the middle of the 19th century with the peasant dance at the centre. Visscher’s game is probably the source for the English versions, discussed in Chapter 6, Section 3. Further discussion of the Game of Cupid is contained in the chapter on Spanish and Portuguese games.

10.6.

Educational games on traditional themes

Games on History Games on the history of Holland appeared from the middle of the 18th century, the version published at The Hague by Langeweh and van Balen in 1738 being perhaps the earliest.22 Their game has a spiral track, in which each space represents an historical event, beginning with the accession of Philip II as ruler of the Spanish Netherlands in 1555, and ending in 1738, the jubilee year of the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). Detailed descriptions of the events are contained in a separate rule book. The game was reprinted and updated well into the 19th century, by various publishers. These games are as ‘worthy but dull’ as any of the English rule-book historical games. But the Dutch production was enlivened by games of sharper focus, concentrating on particular events in history. Of these, the Doggersbank-spel [Game of the Dogger Bank] first published at ‘s Hage by Vanmeulen, falls outside the scope of this book, being a dice-based pay-or-take pool game.23 It relates to a particular episode in the Fourth Anglo-Dutch war of 1780−1784 when on the 5th of August 1781 a naval battle was fought off the Dogger Bank in the North Sea, whose inconclusive outcome the Dutch celebrated as a victory. However, another well-focussed game is indeed a game of movement along a track: the Bataafsch Revolutie en Alliantie Spel [Game of the Batavian Revolution and Alliance], which was published in 1795 ‘by the most patriotic book dealers’ of Amsterdam.24 The reference is to the transfer of power in the city of Amsterdam on 18 January 1795 to a Revolutionary Committee of the new Batavian Republic (the name by which the Netherlands became known from 1795 to 1806, as a French vassal state). The same day the stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, William V, Prince of Orange, fled the country. The game is essentially political, such that landing on any space connected with the House of Orange requires payment to the pool. Games of this kind will be further discussed in the chapter on Satire, Propaganda and Polemic, in part II of this book. 22 Buijnsters op. cit. p.146. 23 Buijnsters op. cit. p. 147−149. 24 Buijnsters op. cit. p.150.

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Somewhat later is the Historisch Spel van Waterloo [Historic Game of Waterloo] published by H. Moolenijzer in 1816/1817.25 This is a finely-produced game sheet, using the medium of aquatint, a long way distant from a ‘popular print’. The game sheet is accompanied by an explanatory booklet, whose introduction pulls no punches: ‘the Waterloo game is intended to replace the Goose Game, from which children never learnt anything, and to fix in the memory of the Youth of the Netherlands the brave deeds of the people since 1812’. The central illustration forming the final space shows the betrothal of the Prince of Orange to Anna Pavlovna – they were married in St Petersburg in 1816. The Battle of Waterloo (1812, in which Dutch troops fought with the English against Napoleon) is depicted at space 68. The Low Countries also benefited from the French production of printed board games on historical themes, either directly or through the medium of reprints. For example, the Jeu de cosaques published by Genty of Paris in 1814, and recording the unexpected arrival of Russian troops there, was almost immediately (1815) re-published by Weygand at The Hague, with rules in French and Flemish. Another example, but this time based on an Alsace production, is the Fransche Koningen Spel [Game of the French Kings], a 63-space Goose variant published before 1868 by Wijsmuller of Amsterdam, retaining the chromolithographed track of the original version published by Gangel and Didion at Metz in 1865, but with rules in Dutch in the central oval.26 Likewise, the 63-space game of the Dreyfus affair published in Sceaux, Paris, by E. Charaire in 1898, was soon republished by Brepols.27 Arts of War The French influence was also apparent in games on the Arts of War. The two games published by Mariette In Paris at the end of the 17th century28 were republished by Peter Schenken in Amsterdam around 1700 with German text, as Das Festung Baues Spiel (on fortification) and Das Kriegs-spiel (on the methods of attack). Most of the games entitled Belegeringspel are games of movement and capture similar to Fox and Geese. However, a version designed as a game of movement along a track of 56 spaces appeared, with unknown publisher, around 1860. Towards the end of the 19th century, the development of cheap chromolithography meant that game sheets could be presented as give-away material by commercial firms. The Netherlands Biscuit Factory of Amsterdam gave a large-format game sheet entitled Oorlogs- Spel, showing a lively scene of war, on which a track of 85 numbered circles was scattered, with particular detailed rules. A similar format was used for 25 26 27 28

Buijnsters op. cit. p.151. Buijnsters op. cit. p.153. Buijnsters op. cit. p.154. see Chapter 3, Section 8(e).

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the Nederlandsch Indisch Oorlogsspel presented with Warendorf’s Illustrated Family Calendar for 1903, which showed scenes from the Netherlands-Indies war. Geographical games The earliest geographical game in Holland noted by the Buijnsters was published in Amsterdam by J. Covens et Fils in 1798 under the French title Le Jeu de Geographie, ou l’art de Voyager Commodement & sans le moindre danger par toutes les Parties de L’Europe.29 It is described as consisting of a map of Europe, on which is laid out a numbered track, and is thus similar to the ‘Grand Tour’ games that had appeared in England earlier in the century. Geographical games of Dutch origin are found from the early 1800s. Of particular interest is the Vaderlandsch Reisspel voor de Nederlandsche jeugd, [Game of the Journey through the Fatherland, for Dutch Youth], published by Mortier and Zoon of Amsterdam and dated 1819.30 It consists of a map of the Netherlands surrounded by a numbered track of places and is to be played as a race game in the normal manner. Inspection of the map shows that it includes the territories of Belgium and Luxemburg. When the new Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed in 1815, the Austrian Netherlands (now Belgium) was added, while Luxemburg was a crown Dominion of the Dutch King. In 1830, Belgium was again separated, but between 1815 and 1830 Dutch children had to learn the geography of all three territories, representing their newly-extended ‘fatherland’. On a much more local level is Een Reis door Friesland, a straightforward 63-space Goose variant designed by Piebe Krediet and published by Krediet en Zoon in 1880, offering a tour of the north-western Dutch province of Friesland, where the goal is the chief city of Leeuwarden. A B C games The Dutch production is notable for numerous games designed to teach the alphabet.31 By no means all of these are progressive race games as typified by the game of the Goose. For example, the earliest noted, published by Arend Bakker, op ‘t Water bij den Dam, between 1778 and 1795, has a track consisting of the letters of the alphabet on which stakes are placed according to letter cards drawn from a bag, with the letter z scooping the stakes on the board, including those 29 Buijnsters op. cit. p. 137. 30 Adrian Seville, ‘The geographical Jeux de l’Oie of Europe’, in Formatting Europe – Mapping a Continent. BELGEO 2008, 3−4, January 2009, pp. 427−442. 31 Buijnsters op. cit. pp. 139−143.

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accumulated in the ‘beehive’. Such mechanisms clearly derive from that used in the Game of the Owl, while certain other ABC games use a pay-or-take mechanism based on two or three dice. All these are therefore outside the scope of this book. However, a number of ABC games are games of movement along a track, including that shown in Figure 10.6, designed by the Tollenaar bothers [Antonie (1805−1875) and Dirk (1808−1858), wood engravers] and published in Amsterdam by Kemper & Meyer c. 1840. Here, the vowels (apart from A and Y) act like Goose spaces to double the throw. The initial throw is used to assign particular roles to the players: the one who throws highest becomes Captain of the steamboat and receives payment from anyone who lands on the corresponding space. Other roles are Steersman of the ferry, Tollmaster of the Bridge, and Keeper of the inn, each with similar rules. This role-play would surely have captured the imagination of children. Another child-directed rule is that the player landing on the waffle stall (space 46) may eat as many warm waffles as he or she pleases but must pay for this snack into the pool.

Figure 10.6: ABC game designed by the Tollenaar brothers, c. 1840 (Collection G. S. Adkins, New York).

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Journey games The Dutch production shows a very full range of journey games, ranging from the Post and Journey games of the German type, through to train and tram games. A distinctive sub-type was the Diligence-spel, the diligence being a French type of large stagecoach, used for long journeys. The game published by Moolenijzer in Amsterdam c. 1837 is typical, with a track laid out in horizontal rows, showing the journey.32 Below the track, instructions to pay specified amounts at the various stages of the journey are given, with the winner taking the pool on reaching the final space, at 66. Versions of the tramway game appeared from about the time the tramway was adopted in the Netherlands (1864 between The Hague and Delft) and followed the usual generic twin-track pattern seen in the French games (Chapter 4, Section 9). Some of the games emulating travel by rail were likewise of a generic kind, but not all. For example, one railway game, published in Leeuwarden by J. Swarts between 1839 and 1842 (and perhaps the earliest Dutch game on this theme) portrayed a particular journey, from Harlingen to Groningen, along a 127-space track.33 The first railway in the Netherlands was in fact that between Amsterdam and Haarlem, opened in 1839, so the topicality of railways was quickly being exploited by games manufacturers. Another game based on a real railway line celebrated the achievements of the Nederlandsche Rijnspoorweg-Maatschappij (NRS).34 The company built a line from Amsterdam to Utrecht, opening in 1843, then Arnhem, and finally in 1856 on to Germany. The game is a chromolithograph published in Amsterdam by D. Allart, c. 1874 (Figure 10.7). The game shares its track length of 63 spaces with that of the Game of the Goose but the detailed rules (not seen) evidently differ. The Dutch ‘journey’ games are particularly rich in themes drawn from other nations. Verne’s Round the World in 80 Days appears in 1876 in an edition by A. Van Hoogstraten en Zoon,35 using the same graphics as the German edition of 1875, while the journeying of Robinson is a popular theme from about 1829, when J. Zender of Doordrecht produced an edition.36 This eclecticism is further displayed in many other examples of games produced in the Netherlands on models found elsewhere in continental Europe.

32 33 34 35 36

Buijnsters op. cit. pp. 264−265. Buijnsters op. cit. p. 267. Buijnsters op. cit. p. 268, illustrated in colour p. 192. Buijnsters op. cit. p. 269. Buijnsters op. cit. p. 274.

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Figure 10.7: Game based on the Rhine Railway from Amsterdam to Germany.

10.7.

Games on unusual themes

Invention and technology One of the distinguishing features of 19th century Dutch games is the extent to which new technology and invention were embraced in the subject range – in sharp contrast to the offerings in France, where only the railway and the tramway had much currency as themes based on technological advance. Nowhere is this love of invention better shown than in the splendid chromolithograph printed by Amand: Het Spel der Uitvindingen (The Game of Invention. Amsterdam: Gebrs Koster, [1894]).37 The numbered track follows a complex path to the winning space, at 66, which shows the young Thomas Edison surrounded by a blaze of his incandescent lamps and a pantheon of other inventors. The rules are given in French as well as in Dutch. They make clear that it is an educational game, and anyone falling on to an invention space must pay two counters and must read the dates of birth and death. But if these are known by heart, the player pays only one counter. The crediting of Laurens Jansz. Koster (c. 1370–c. 1440) with the invention of book 37 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 52.

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printing from movable type, rather than Gutenberg, is a well-known prejudice of the Dutch, so it is not surprising to find this event celebrated in the game. Indeed, Koster is of sufficient importance to have his own group of thematic games, within the field of book printing. The first of these was published in Amsterdam by Moolenijzer in 1823, to mark the large festival devoted to Koster in Haarlem.38 It is, however, a variant of the Game of the Owl rather than a progressive race game. Other technological themes include: P. A. de Jong’s Gaz-Licht Spel, (Gas-light game; Arnhem c. 1845);39 G. Stooter’s Brandweer-Spel (Fire-Brigade game; Amsterdam, c. 1875);40 and the Stoomwagenspel (Steam Carriage game, a race game of the Goose-board type) by J. Zender of Doordrecht, c. 1820.41 Steam was also celebrated in many different versions of the Stoomboot-Spel (Steamboat Game), a sub-genre distinctly different from the Goose game, in which payment to the pot and placement on the 60-space game sheet is determined by the throw of two dice and twelve numbered ‘steamboat’ cards. Versions by several publishers appeared during the first half of the 19th century.42 Distinctive themes in games for children The popularity of St. Nicholas in the Netherlands was reflected in a variant of the Goose game, the Sint Nicolaas-Spel, invented by B.C. Albeck and published by G. Theod. Bom of Amsterdam c. 1858.43 The Saint is depicted in the centre, sitting at a table full of presents, as the excited children peer in round the door. The favourable Goose-type spaces, in the classic arrangement of two series, are marked with boots and shoes containing the gifts traditional in Holland for the season of the Saint’s day, in December. The initial throw of 9 is treated interestingly. If the thrower is male, he goes to his lover, the young lady on space 25, or the old lady on space 51, according as the throw was 6,3 or 5,4; while for a female, young and old lovers are similarly provided, at spaces 26 and 53. Other games with the same title but of the pay-or-take pool type also exist. Games of the ‘forfeits’ type are popular with children, though a danger of combining such actions with the playing of a race game is that the game is apt to be slowed down unacceptably. An ingenious way of avoiding this trap was found by the inventor (P. Louwerse) of the Dutch game Schoolmeester en Collectant (Schoolmaster and Collector for Charity) dating from about 1875, and published by Joh. Ykema at ‘s 38 39 40 41 42 43

Buijnsters op. cit. pp. 244−245. Buijnsters op. cit. p. 250. Buijnsters op. cit. p. 246. Buijnsters op. cit. p. 273. Buijnsters op. cit. pp. 271−273. The version by Moolenijzer is illustrated at p. 193. Buijnsters op. cit. p. 277 and colour plate p. 195.

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Gravenhage.44 Here, in addition to usual penalties such as paying to the pool, landing on certain spaces requires the player to ‘sit with puffed cheeks’ or ‘with an agonised face’, or cry ‘ooh, ouch!’ according to the scene depicted in the unfolding story.45 The joys of the fun-fair were not forgotten: the game of the Carousel (Mallemolenspel), published by S. Warendorf Jr. c. 1910, was a bright chromolithograph where the 37-space track was indicated by numbered illustrations of children on the carousel, rather than by the conventional spiral. The winner’s pool accumulated at space 7, consistent with the game of the Owl. By the end of the 19th century, a great variety of printed games for children was available in the Netherlands. By no means all of these were race games of the Goose type: pay-or-take pool games similar to the Game of the Owl were also highly popular, of which the Game of Harlequin is perhaps the best known, appearing in very many editions throughout the century. The range of themes – of which only a few are mentioned here – was unparalleled and the use of chromolithography made these games both attractive and inexpensive. Other distinctive themes A remarkable feature of the Dutch production of printed games was the extent to which the byways of life were explored thematically. For example, not only the familiar themes of the circus or the theatre found expression in games but also the relatively minor displays of the ‘Panopticum’. There were two kinds: the anatomical ‘cabinet of curiosities’ and the waxworks, of the kind pioneered by Madame Tussaud. Both types of show were available in Amsterdam in the late 19th century but that recognised by the Koster Brothers’ game c. 1885−1890 was of the second type, concentrating on the Royal Family.46 Unusual, too, is the degree of internationalism shown in the choice of themes. Thus, while the Great Exhibition held at the Crystal Palace in London in 1851 was naturally recognised by the production of related games in England, it is more surprising to find a game of the Tentoonstelling van Londen [‘Exhibition in London’; not a Goose game] published by the Wed. de Lange and van Ek at Haarlem in that year.47 Later variants were published to coincide with the Dutch National Industrial Exhibition of 1861 and the International Colonial World Exhibition of 1883, the latter (by the Koster brothers) being a Goose-type game with an unusual spiral track starting in the centre.

44 Buijnsters op. cit. p. 275. 45 Adrian Seville, ‘The sociable game of the Goose’, Board Games Studies Colloquium XI, Lisbon, 2008. 46 Buijnsters op. cit. p. 259.

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More significantly, the Dutch were arguably the first to recognise the possibilities of games in the advertising of products, a prominent example being Van Houten’s Cacao Spel, published in Weesp in 1889 and beautifully lithographed in colour by Amand of Amsterdam.48 This game will be discussed further in the chapter on advertising, in Part II of this book.

10.8.

The rich variety of games at the end of the 19th century

There can be little doubt that, by the end of the 19th century, the Netherlands had the richest variety of printed board games anywhere in Europe. An important factor must have been the wide availability of language skills, necessary to understand or translate the often complex rules, with French being the language of the social elite, and German being also accessible.49 Thus, while printed games in England showed only the occasional influence from foreign imports, the Netherlands games include many adapted from the French, or circulating in original form, while German games are also much in evidence. Furthermore, the Dutch printers were cheap and good, adopting the new technologies of chromolithography with enthusiasm and skill. An additional factor was no doubt the entrepreneurial cast of mind, which meant that even niche activities were quickly identified as having commercial possibilities when adapted as a game. This thread continues strongly into the 20th century, when the Dutch tendency to advertise almost any product by creating a game around it is a thing of wonder, as will be demonstrated in Part II of this book. That so many of the games this created are based on the Game of the Goose at least to some degree attests the continuing popularity of that game, attributable to its being very widely played and enjoyed in childhood. Here the contrast with England is extreme; there, the game had virtually died out, whereas in the Netherlands the ‘taming of the goose’ ensured that attractive versions of the classic game continued to be available and widely diffused throughout the century.50

47 Buijnsters op. cit. p. 281. 48 Buijnsters op. cit. p. 252. 49 For a discussion of languages in the Netherlands in the 19th century, see Wim Vandenbussche et. al., ‘Language policy and language practice in official administrations in 19th century Flanders’. In Linguistics in the 21st century. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Press, 2006. 50 See Chapter 18 for discussion of the ‘taming of the goose’ in an international context.

11. Games in Spain, Portugal and Latin America 11.1.

Overview

The Game of the Goose (Juego de la Oca) came to Spain towards the end of the 16th century, as a royal gift to Philip II, giving rise to the variant game of the Filosofia cortesana invented by Alonso de Barros.1 It is not known whether the game that came to the Spanish Court was of the classic form, though the fact that the de Barros game is of 63 spaces arranged as an anticlockwise spiral in vertical format strongly suggests that it was, although the placement of hazards does not conform to the classic model. Also, only some but not all of the earliest surviving Spanish games dating from the 17th century that show the image of the goose on the favourable spaces are of the classic form. However, the classic game survives to the present day as a game for children that can be bought in Spanish toyshops, often printed in bold colours on a wooden board of square format, frequently having a version of Ludo for six players printed on the other side. The ‘reverse overthrow’ rule is usually replaced by the rule that, beyond space 60, a single die is used. This greatly diminishes the excitement of the game since there is no possibility of reaching the death space and being required to start again. Spain does not seem to have shared in the transformation to thematic variants that occurred so remarkably in France from the middle of the 17th century, nor in the introduction of ‘monkey’ games and ‘journey’ games that became so popular in Germany from the end of the 18th century onwards. In Portugal, a distinctive form of the game is the Jogo da Gloria, which employs an anticlockwise spiral track of 90 spaces, with the favourable spaces on 9, 18, 27 etc. The track length suggests that this is based on the Italian variants from the second half of the 19th century and indeed the earliest examples appear to date from that period. The Portuguese firm Majora, established in 1939, continues to supply modern versions of these games. Both Spain and Portugal are significant in the spread of games of the Goose type to the countries of Latin America, where they continue to be played.

11.2.

Sources

The author’s collection has few examples of Spanish games and none of Portuguese, so that the present chapter is largely based on other sources. Of secondary sources, the most valuable for the games historian is the short paper by Joan Amades.2 1 2

See Chapter 2, Section 4. “El juego de la oca”, separate publication taken from Bibliofilia Vol. III. Valencia: Editorial Castalia, 1950 (p. 19).

A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019

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It gives legible reproductions of six significant Spanish games, from the 17th to the 19th century, with useful discussion, though some of the suggested interpretations are distinctly speculative. Additionally, there are two modern texts. Juego de la Oca, published by the Fundacion Joaquin Diaz in 2005, provides four essays: on the supposed connection of the game with the ancient labyrinth; on the libros de suertes (fortune telling books); on the goose game as an allegory of human life; and on four religious games from the middle of the 20th century, of which only one is Spanish. The essays are followed by observations about the Game of the Goose and by illustrations of 37 games from various countries. Several of these are not race games and, of the 21 Spanish games, the majority are 20th century 63 space games of square format, with the goose symbol. By contrast, El Tablero de la Oca, by María José Martínez Vázquez de Parga is more concerned with the symbolism and iconography.3 After an introductory gallery of paintings in Spanish museums showing various games being played, the text begins by discussing the definition and classification of games in general and their social relevance. Next comes the relationship between Art and games of chance, leading into the symbolism of the Goose game and a brief history of its origins and evolution. The scope is international, rather than Spanish, though the book concludes by illustrating games of the Goose type in Spanish collections; several of these are from other countries.

11.3.

The Auca – not a race game

Before embarking on a discussion of the development of Spanish Games of the Goose, it may be well to deal with a common misconception. The sheets known as auques (singular auca, a Catalonian word meaning ‘goose’) are sometimes confused with games of the Goose type. They are a genre of popular print mainly associated with Catalonia. An auca consists of an array of small cartoons, with a unifying theme. Initially, the sheets were used for a gambling game, prohibited in the 17th and 18th centuries, with the sheet serving as a staking layout, while the players drew lots corresponding to the various images.4 These sheets, though they may indeed have consecutively-numbered spaces, are not race games of any kind. Early examples contain the figure of a goose, giving the genre its name. In the th 19 century, the genre became a recognised art form, often telling a story as in the modern strip cartoon, but more formal in layout. The most important auca artists

3 4

Madrid: 451 Editores, 2008. Thierry Depaulis, Jeux de hazard sur papier: Les ‘Loteries’ de salon, Le Vieux Papier, 1987.

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of that time were Josep Piferrer and Ignasi Estivill from Barcelona, and Agustí Laborda and Ildefons Mompié from Valencia.

11.4.

The earliest Spanish Games of the Goose

Amades gives as the earliest Spanish Game of the Goose known to him a 17th-century Catalan example in the Municipal Museum of Barcelona.5 It is a rather crude woodcut (Figure 11.1a), with a rectangular spiral track of 141 numbered spaces plus the final un-numbered arch of the winning space. The geese are on two sequences of spaces, numbered 5,14,23 etc to 131 and 9,18,27 etc to 126. No rules are given, so that it is not possible to interpret the hazard spaces definitively, though some of the traditional hazards are recognisable: the well, at 82; a stylised labyrinth at 98; and a death’s head at 138. There are however further hazards, such as a barrel at 51, a decanter and glass at 64 and a wine jar and glass at 127, suggesting that this was a drinking game. Dice spaces appear at 52 (for the 6,3 throw of nine) and at 133 (for the 5,4 throw). The final five spaces before the winning arch all have images and appear below a stylised garden with four trees. Amades notes that the ladder at space 119 leads to a space [140] that he interprets as Hell ‘next to Purgatory [space 141 showing rudimentary human faces] which in turn is next to the sky [presumably the blank arch] which leads to the garden’. He notes the figure hanging from a gibbet at space 135 and connects this with the path to Hell. A more plausible interpretation is to consider the final spaces as providing a

Figure 11.1a: Centre detail of the earliest-known Spanish Game of the Goose (Amades Fig.1 − Image courtesy of the Arxiu Històric de la Ciutat de Barcelona).

5

Amades op. cit. figure 1.

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connected narrative: prison [space 137], death, burning of a heretic, Hell, Purgatory, then Heaven as symbolised by the Paradise Garden. A fascinating comparison is possible with another 17th-century game (Figure 11.1b), also noted by Amades, of which he remarks that the central space is decorated with dancing figures that have nothing to do with the game: he speculates that the reward of the winner might be to dance with the girls or ladies of the party, though he gives no evidence for this.

Figure 11.1b: Centre detail of a 17th-century Mallorcan Game of the Goose printed from the original woodblock held at the Impresa Guasp, Palma de Mallorca.

The final spaces correspond to those of the earlier game, except that spaces 127 and 128 reverse the order of the images. By contrast, a second 17th-century woodblock conserved at the Impresa Guasp is in fact a classic Game of the Goose (Figure 11.2) in all respects save one: the prison space at 52 shows a barrel, indicating that this too was a drinking game. The centre space shows coins, indicating gambling, and also a walled garden. This is a clear representation of the Garden of Eden, as indicated by the four-fold division symbolising the mystic four rivers; the Tree of Life occupies one quarter.6 Amades shows in his figure 3 another 63-space Game of the Goose, this being a Catalan woodcut by Michael Homs of Gerona dating from the end of the 17th century: the block is conserved at the Imprenta Carreres. This is an absolutely classic game as far as the arrangement and iconography of the active spaces are concerned; the rules are given in letterpress in the centre, under the heading ‘DECLARATION’ and include the rule that from space 60 a single die is to be used. The incidental iconography is 6 Compare, for example, the representation in the World Map by Hanns Rüsst, Augsburg: c. 1480 reproduced as plate 11b in Allesandro Scafi, Mapping Paradise. London: The British Library, 2006.

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Figure 11.2a: Late 17th-century Mallorcan Game of the Goose printed from the original woodblock (Amades Fig.2 − Image courtesy of the Arxiu Històric de la Ciutat de Barcelona).

Figure 11.2b: The original woodblock, in the collection of the Impresa Guasp, Palma de Mallorca (Image courtesy of La Cartuja de Valldemossa).

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interesting: the winning space shows a portal internally studded with threatening spikes. The corner decorations include one showing a hooded figure with a sword in one hand fending off a large dog using a staff held in the other. Stylised birds, a dog evidently crawling through a barrel, and a drummer complete the remaining corners. This decorative scheme is essentially the same as that found in an 18th-century French woodcut jeu de l’oie by Leblond, rue de la Bonneterie, Avignon, though in this version the second dog appears to be wearing a cloth round his middle. The iconography of the active spaces does not correspond exactly with that of the Spanish version: for example, the bridge at space 6 has three piers instead of two, so these are not exact copies. The French print also gives rules, which include the usual reverse overthrow provision.

11.5.

18th and 19th-century Spanish Games of the Goose

Amades notes that the first known example from Valencia is much later than the early Catalan examples. It dates from the middle of the 18th century and is an engraving by Laborde, Montpie and Villalba [Amades figure 4]. It is a classic Game of the Goose; the rules, engraved in the centre, specify the use of a single die from space 60 onwards. The decorative scheme is much more refined than in the earlier woodcuts, including sprays of flowers and a goose holding a flower in its beak. The plate is very similar that used at the beginning of the 19th century by Casa Piferrer in Barcelona with the addition of their Plaza del Angel imprint at the foot, with minor differences in detail indicating that it was re-drawn.7 The games noted so far have had no decoration of the non-active spaces in the track itself. The earliest exception is noted by Amades as a mid-19th-century print by Juan B(autista) Vidal of Reus [Amades figure 5].8 The track decorations show figures undertaking a remarkably-wide range of human activities: fishing, hunting with the rifle, walking in the countryside, a soldier marching with his rifle, playing cards and playing dice, harvesting, juggling and acrobatics, girls playing games (skipping, shuttlecock), a knight in armour, tending the vines, bird scaring, kneeling in church, etc. The rules are given in letterpress in the centre; interestingly, although there is a decanter and glass at space 10, the rules do not refer to it: perhaps it was allowed as a ‘drink’ hazard only by agreement among the players. A dog’s head at space 11 is similarly not explained. However, the general decorative scheme indeed suggests a 7 The Piferrer publishing house was established by Joan Piferrer in Barcelona on the Plaza del Angel in the early 18th century and continued by members of his family until 1868. See F. Xavier Burgos and Manuel Pega, Imprenta y negocio del libro en la Barcelona del siglo XVIII. La casa Piferrer. Barcelona: Autonomous University of Barcelona, 1987. Available at http://www.raco.cat/index.php/Manuscrits/article/viewFile/23132/92378 accessed November 2017. 8 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 7.

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Figure 11.3: The earliest example from Valencia, about the middle of the 18th century (Amades Fig.4 − Image courtesy of the Arxiu Històric de la Ciutat de Barcelona).

publication intended for young people: in one corner of the sheet, a boy and a girl are shown playing the Game of the Goose. In the second half of the 19th century, lithographed games coloured by stencil became highly popular. Amades gives a fold-out plate reproducing a game by the Barcelona firm of F. Paluzie, bearing the publisher’s catalogue number 923.9 It is a classic Game of the Goose of horizontal format, decorated along the track with a 9 The publishing house Paluzie was founded in Barcelona in 1857 by Esteban Paluzie Cantalozella, and sold by his heirs around 1926 to the Elzeviriana Press, which kept the name of `Estampería Paluzíe’ until the 1940s.

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similar but not identical range of human activities as noted above and, in the lower left corner, two Commedia del’ Arte figures playing the game. The rules in the centre make specific reference to reverse overthrows, and no mention of using a single die. However, the rule on landing at a goose appears to be that the player continues casting the dice until a space other than a goose is reached, rather than the normal ‘take your points again’ rule.10 This game, of horizontal format, is very much in the style of lithographed French games of the period, including a central decoration of a goose swimming in a garden, though it is not an exact copy of a French original. Paluzie’s games in horizontal formats of different sizes, always with bright colours, and with newly-drawn figures decorating the track, continued well into the 20th century. A competitor was Olivier Pinot, of Epinal, France, who produced a Spanish-language version of his jeu de l’oie, which was sold through the print shop of P.Vidal in Barcelona. Amades says, however, that this did not reach the level of popularity of the Paluzie games.

11.6.

The place of the Juego de la Oca in Spanish culture

It is evident that in the 17th and 18th centuries, the jeugo de la oca was a gambling game, played for money. The association with drinking indicates that it was played informally, in taverns, rather than for more serious gambling in the setting of a gaming house. As a dice game, it would have fallen under the general prohibition stipulated by the Spanish gambling laws, which prescribed severe penalties. The Spanish Civil code of 1805 stated: Dice (dados) may not be made nor sold in the kingdom; and no one may play at them, under pain of transportation for five years; a fine of two hundred ducats if the delinquent is an hidalgo; and, if a plebeian, of one hundred stripes, five years’ condemnation to the gallies [sic], and a fine or forfeiture of thirty thousand maravedis.11

A note makes clear that additionally the houses in which games of dice are played were declared forfeited. A few pages later, we find [p. 277]: Gaming ( juego). He who plays at dice or cards in public, or he who has a gaming table in his house, incurs the penalties set forth, unless something to eat immediately is played for. Artificers or workmen (oftciales), and day labourers ( jornaleros), are prohibited from playing on work days. 10 This seems to be a clarification of the rule in the older games on hitting a goose: ‘vuela hasta no dar en otra’, literally: ‘fly until you do not hit another’. 11 Ignacio Jordán de Assó y del Río, Miguel de Manuel y Rodríguez. Institutes of the Civil Law of Spain [1805]. Translated by Lewis F C Johnston. London: A. Strahan, 1825, p. 270.

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However, these Draconian penalties seem to have been little enforced. Indeed, a paradoxical disconnection between official prohibition and turning a blind eye covers the whole period under discussion. Santo-Tomás sets out this as follows: By the time of Philip III, himself an inveterate player, playing cards had become one of the main concerns of the Alcaldes de Casa y Corte, given that the gambling house was as familiar to the madrileño as the brothel or the church [...] Philip IV inherited [his] ‘practical enjoyment of the aleatory’ when he became king in 1621 and was forced to reprint in his 1641 Recopilación the same laws prohibiting gambling prescribed by his grandfather Philip II. At the same time, the Crown was collecting an estimated 50,000 ducats annually in levies from licenses to widows and war veterans to manage gambling dens.12

At some stage in the middle of the 19th century, the juego de la oca shed its adult overtones of gambling and drinking and became an entertainment for children. This transition, the ‘taming of the goose’, occurred much earlier in other countries – as early as around 1800 in the case of the Netherlands (see Chapter 10, Section 4). Indeed, in France, arguably because of the development of educational variants in the middle of the 17th century, the game was not strongly associated with undesirable adult pursuits. It appears likely that the importation of printed game sheets from France contributed strongly to the transition in Spain.13 Importation from France may also account for the introduction of boards of square format, where the printed game sheet was pasted onto a wooden board for increased durability. Such formats are common in the late 19th century production of Alsace Lorraine. As noted above, games sold in Spanish toyshops in the 20th century and today are predominantly of this kind, though the board is generally printed direct on the wood. However, Spanish printed game sheets of square format do also exist. The place of the game in Spanish culture is thus limited. There is not the fascination with thematic variants that we see in the Netherlands to the present day, nor the richness that they contributed in their variety when mirroring French culture. Nevertheless, the survival of the game in the toyshop is a matter of no doubt and indicates that the classic game has an enduring presence.

12 Enrique García Santo-Tomás. ‘Outside Bets: Disciplining Gamblers in Early Modern Spain’, Hispanic Review, Vol. 77, No. 1, (Winter, 2009), pp. 147−164. 13 The Museo del Traje in Madrid includes the following in its catalogue note on the Paluzie game mentioned above: ‘As with practically all toys, this came to Spain from Europe, through France. Its origin is in the plates with rows of soldiers that appear in Catalonia at the end of the XVIII century. But it is not until the mid-nineteenth century that they become an entertainment and children’s toy, reaching a great development in the first half of the twentieth century’. [present author’s translation].

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Figure 11.4: A 20th-century Portuguese Jogo da Gloria (collection of J. N. da Silva).

11.7.

The Portuguese Jogo da Gloria

The Jogo da Gloria [Game of Glory] is a distinct Portuguese variant of the extended 90-space Game of the Goose. References to the game appear from the late 19th century. For example, a humorous study of ‘madness and manias’ in Portugal refers to a poor young man who makes money by betting on the so-called Jogo da Gloria and send the profits to his parents.14 Chromolithographs survive from this period, either as cheap sheets or pasted to folding boards. A later example is shown in Figure 11.4. The positive spaces, where the player advances by 9, correspond to one of the traditional two series of the Goose game, being on 9, 18, 27 etc. They are marked by the image of a white bird in flight. A special rule applying only to a first throw of nine avoids an immediate win. The first spaces of the other series of the traditional game on 5, 14, 23 etc are marked by images of travel: bridge, electric tram, steam train, steamship, and riding stables; at each of these a fine of one or two stakes is paid. The remaining spaces of this series are hazards: a crab at space 50 (go back according to the points thrown), the well at 59 (wait for another player as substitute), death at 68 (withdraw from the game), Hell at 77 (begin again from space 1), and Purgatory at space 86 (wait for another player to take one’s place). 14 Júlio César Machado. Da loucura e das manias em Portugal: estudos humoristicos. Lisbon: A.M. Pereira, 8

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The central space, labelled Glory, is decorated with a winged cherub. The circular track is wreathed with laurel and flanked by two imposing women, one bearing a flaming torch, the other a drawn sword. In other versions, these figures are sometimes winged angels. All these touches confirm that the game is intended as an allegory of human life, with the bird representing the dove of the Holy Spirit, and Heavenly Glory the goal. The versions published by Majora from the 1930s retain most of these features. Although the track length of 90 suggests derivation from the extended Italian Game of the Goose, the specifically religious aspects are distinct. The existence of Hell and Purgatory spaces present on the earliest Spanish games (but absent on the extended Italian tracks of the 19th century) may point to a source for these elements.

11.8.

Games for a future King of Portugal

From the 16th to the early 19th century, Brazil was a colony and a part of the Portuguese Empire. Evidence of this link is found in a group of three thematic variants of the Game of the Goose dedicated to the Serenissimo Princepe [Principe] do Brazil, a title reserved for the heir apparent of the King of Portugal. All are re-engravings of French games, with text in Portuguese. They bear the Parisian imprint of Guillaume Danet (1670?−1732). Danet married the daughter of the Paris map-publisher, Nicolas de Fer, in 1695.15 On de Fer’s death in 1720, he inherited half the stock and carried on the trade from De Fer’s premises at the Sphere Royale; Danet’s publishing business was carried on by his widow until 1746.16 These games thus date between 1720 and probably Danet’s death in 1732, during which period the Principe was the future José I of Portugal, born 1714, died 1777; he became king in 1750. The games therefore are likely to relate to his early formation as a prince. Their titles are the Jogo da Esfera ou do Universo [The Game of The Sphere or of the Universe], first published by Vouillemont in 1661 and re-issued by Antoine de Fer in 1671;17 the Novo Jogo da Marinha [New game of the Navy] designed by Claude Roussel and first issued about 1719;18 and O Descanco ealivio dos Discipulos de Marte ou Novo Jogo Militar [the leisure diversion of the Disciples of Mars; or new Military Game] first published in 1718 by Roussel and Crépy. The first of these has been brought up to date in appearance by providing extra decoration and a track shape of the kind usually found in French games of the early 18th century. However, no attempt has been made to update the astronomical science, so that the young Prince is being taught on the basis of a strictly geocentric universe. The second game is largely unaltered but a concession has been made to Portuguese sensibilities by re-ordering the parade of national flags in the centre space to make that of Portugal come before those of France and Spain. 15 Examples of these games are in the Biblioteca Publica de Evora, Evora, Portugal. Thanks are due to J.N. da Silva for calling them to attention. 16 BnF catalogue note. 17 See Chapter 3 Section 8(d).

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11.9.

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Games of Mexico

In the field of popular prints, Mexico is associated above all with the name of José Guadalupe Posada (1852−1913). Much of his work was political: its impact was sharpened by his frequent use of skulls, cadavers and bones for compelling visual effect. However, he also designed games based on those of the Goose. Three of these are reproduced in a recent book about his work.19 One is a classic 63-space game, with reverse overthrows. It bears the imprint of A[ntonio] Vanegas Arroyo (1852−1917), the celebrated Mexican publisher who printed many of Posada’s designs in his print works founded in 1880. The iconography is cheerful, with track decorations in every non-active space: most are figural, including many dancers, musicians and street vendors, providing a vivid account of popular culture in Mexico at the end of the 10th century. A second game is Los Charros Contrabandistas [the cowboy smugglers] a three-dice game with a track of 64 spaces, formed in a clever design by the intertwining of the lasso ropes between two cowboys. It has its own rules, though a recognisable connection to the Game of the Goose is that landing on the image of a cowboy doubles the throw. The third game reproduced in the book is the Juego Corrida de Toros, a 32 space game celebrating the bullfight. The classic 63-space Game of the Goose is still current in Mexico. A 1983 example by the firm of Pierrot is typical – a bright colour print laminated on card, with cheerful pictures.20 The traditional goose-doubling spaces show a flying duck (pato), rather than a goose. Another game is an amusing variant, on the theme of Mexican professional wrestlers. This uses the classic placing of hazards and favourable spaces, but on each of the latter is an image of Volador, showing a wrestler making a flying leap. The word Volador indeed does mean ‘flying’ but was also the ring name of Ramón Ibarra Banda (born May 24, 1956) from 1990 until 1997, when he adopted the ring name of Super Parka. His son, Ramón Ibarra Rivera (born January 26, 1981), has taken over his father’s name, as Volador Jr.

11.10. Education for Brazil J. N. da Silva notes that there exists a Portuguese version of the game for teaching the rudiments of arithmetic, the British version of which, issued by Wallis in 1798, is described in Chapter 7, Section 6. It seems likely that the British version was the model, rather than the German original discussed in Chapter 8, Section 13, which has images of books in certain spaces, not found in the Portuguese version. Da Silva says 19 Augustin Sanchez Gonzalez. José Guadalupe Posada, Fantasías, calaveras y vida cotidiana. Madrid: Turpin, 2014. 20 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 9.

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that this was one of a number of educational games produced in Portugal in the early 19th century for use in the Brazilian colony.21

11.11.

From the spiritual to the secular

In the Jogo da Gloria we find strong confirmation that the spiral game was regarded as an allegory of progress of the human soul towards heavenly glory. Likewise, the earliest Spanish games, with explicit representations of Hell and Purgatory, or a clearly coded visual reference to the Paradise garden at their centre, leave no doubt as to the religious overtones of the game. However, the current versions of the game are undoubtedly secular in their iconography, so that the links with religion no longer form part of the legacy. Yet the modern Mexican games show that the protean nature of the game has not been lost, as the imagination turns a flying duck into a flying wrestler.

21 Private communication, 2017.

12. Countries where the Game of the Goose was less in evidence This chapter brings together some notes on countries where the Game of the Goose was known but where its influence appears to have been of only minor significance. These countries have not been fully researched and more investigation is certainly warranted. Nevertheless, these brief notes may serve to illustrate that the spread of the Game of the Goose was not strictly limited by the boundaries of the countries treated in previous chapters.

12.1.

The Game of the Goose in Scandinavia

The Game of the Goose was certainly known in Scandinavian countries. An interesting reference is contained in an 18th century account of travels written by William Richardson: 1 The City of Copenhagen is irregularly and too closely built… The palace is a heavy inelegant building: and the gardens of Rosenberg exhibit nothing but narrow lanes between high hedges, and dull canals.2 I do assure you, and the fact may be of service to those who gaze on the outside of a palace with admiration, that in a room in the mansion of the Danish Princes, where we were told, the King and his Ministers held councils of state, we beheld – the Royal Game of the Goose.

This will no doubt have been an elaborate goose board, rather than a simple printed sheet. Nevertheless, Richardson evidently did not hold the game in high regard. The oldest surviving printed game of the Goose type from Denmark appears to be the Abespil [Game of the Monkey] published by J. R. Thiele, dated 1787 on the sheet (Figure 12.1). It is a classic Game of the Goose, except that the geese are replaced by satirical figures of monkeys in human guise. 1 Anecdotes of the Russian Empire: In a Series of Letters, Written, a Few Years Ago, from St. Petersburg. London: printed for W. Strachan and T. Cadell, 1784, p. 477. 2 Rosenborg Castle was built by Christian IV in the early 17th century. 3 O.H.Delbanco [editor], Copenhagen: printed for O.H. Delbanco, Thielen Bogtrukkerei, 1875, p. 190.

A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462984974_ch12

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Figure 12.1: Abespil [Monkey Game] dated 1787. Risbenhavn [i.e. Copenhagen]: J. R. Thiele.

Evidently a range of printed games was available in 19th-century Denmark. The Nordisk boghandlertidende [Nordic Bookseller Gazette], Volume 9 3 lists the stock of the bookdealer F. Chr. Pio, of Copenhagen. There are several entries which are race games of the Goose type, including: Abe-spil [Monkey Game: board, rules and two dice, 18 kroner]. Det nye Abespil [The New Monkey Game: beautiful board with box, 60 kroner].

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Det nye Gaasespil [The New Goose Game: board, rules and two dice, 15 kroner]. Det nye Robinsonspil [The New Robinson Game: beautiful board with box, 60 kroner]. Gaasespillet [Goose Game, beautiful board with box, 60 kroner]. Jagtspillet [Hunt game, board, rules and three dice, 18 kroner]. Post-og Reisespil [Post- and Journey Game: beautiful board with box, 60 kroner]. Robinsonspil [Robinson Game: board, rules and one die, 12 kroner]. Reisen til Amerika [Journey to America: beautiful board with box, 60 kroner].

It is interesting that most of the games are offered in basic and deluxe boxed versions. It is of course not clear from the Danish titles whether these might not have been imported from Germany, as the assembly of titles may indicate. In support of this, the Carrington Bolton collection (see Chapter 8, Section 12) lists only one game with a Danish title (a Gaasespil) and notes that it is of German manufacture.4 Georg Garde has made a study of the Game of the Goose, which includes images of several from Scandinavian countries.5 These include several Scandinavian versions of German games: Det nyaste Gås-spelet (a lithograph of a classic 63-space Game of the Goose by Oehmigke and Riemschneider of Neu-Ruppin, c. 1900), Reisen omkring Verden [Journey round the World] with a double-circle track of 41 spaces, by Gustav Kuhn, Neu-Ruppin, and a similar 49-space Journey round the Earth by the same publisher. Kuhn also produced Resan till Amerika [the Trip to America] in the Swedish language.6 This small sample would appear to confirm that the German publishers of Bilderbogen were the main suppliers of the Scandinavian game market, but that often they were enterprising enough to provide their games in translation.

12.2.

Switzerland

Rather curiously, Switzerland does not seem to figure significantly in the production of printed games before 1900, though games emulating a journey through Switzerland are known. For example, Abenteuer auf einer Reise durch die Schweiz: Ein Würfel- und Pfänderspiel was published in Bern around 1880 by Rudolph Jenni’s Buchhandlung (H. Köhler).7 It is a spiral game of square format, with a track of 60 spaces leading to a view from Bern. Other journeys through Switzerland mountain landscape can be found in the collection of the Italian National Museum of the Mountains: some of these have a Swiss imprint though more are from Germany.8 4 S. Culin, Chess and Playing Cards. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania, 1895, pp. 843. 5 ‘Gåsespillet − Variationer over et åfhundredgammelt tema i den populaere grafik’, in: Convivium 1978. Copenhagen: Lademann, 1978, pp. 30−55. 6 The German version of this game is graphically identical: compare Donatino Domini, Giochi a Stampa in Europa, Ravenna, Longo Editore, 1985, plate 64. 7 Adventures on a journey through Switzerland: a dice and pawn game. 8 Aldo Aurisio and Ulrich Schädler, Le Montagne per Gioco. Turin: Museo Nazionale della Montagna, 2006. A second volume was published in 2008.

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Ulrich Schädler, Director of the Swiss Museum of Games, notes that it was only in the 20th century that the Lausanne firm of SPES [an abbreviation of Säuberlin and Pfeiffer Editions Suisses] began to produce ‘Swiss games for the Swiss’. An early example is Le 66, a game of 66 spaces, on the history of Switzerland. The original firm was founded at Vevey by Albert Säuberlin and Georges Pfeiffer in 1896, concentrating on book publishing and printing chocolate wrappers. SPES was created in 1917 and continued in being until the 1960s.

12.3.

Austria

Ernst Strouhal notes that the Game of the Goose never became as popular in Austria as it did in many other countries of Europe: ‘journey’ games are however in evidence.9 Nevertheless, Vienna is the place of origin of one remarkable game, clearly based on the Game of the Goose: the Neustes Wiener Thurmkraxler Spiel [Newest Viennese Tower-climber game]. Strouhal describes it thus: 10 [The Game] displays a spectacular climb to the tower of St. Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna. The path of the Tower Climber leads over the roof of the Cathedral (spaces 12, 14); with a risky jump (17) he reaches the South Tower and climbs past several windows (20, 28) to the top of the tower, where a flag is planted (38) and one can enjoy the view (41). The tour does not go undetected: spectators look upwards (space 25), while at space 48 the fire brigade spreads a jump sheet as a precaution, and on field 53 the police intervene [and the player must begin again] [...] The direct reference point for the game was the ascent of St. Stephen’s Cathedral by Joseph Pircher on 18 August 1886. After a two-and-a half hour climb, the 37-yearold ‘tower repairer and house painter’ from the [Austrian state of] Styria planted a black-and-yellow flag on the cross above the eagle, celebrating the Birthday of Emperor Franz Joseph I (see Neue Freie Presse, 18 August 1886). Pircher received a gift of 100 guilders from Count Karl Albert Bombelles, on behalf of Crown Prince Rudolf. All the details of the action (the arrest, the jump sheet, the amazed crowd, the gift at the end, etc.) are displayed in the game.

Although the game sheet bears the name of J.Langenau, a Viennese publishing company, it was printed in Germany, by Gustav Kühn of Neu-Ruppin, a firm well known for the production of Bilderbogen.11 9 Ernst Strouhal, Manfred Zollinger, Brigitte Felderer (ed.): Spiele der Stadt. Vienna and New York: Springer Verlag, 2012, p. 376. 10 Ernst Strouhal, Die Welt im Spiel. Vienna: Brandstätter, 2016, p. 8. 11 See Chapter 8.

Countries where the Game of the Goose was less in evidence

12.4.

277

The Game of the Goose in Russia

[I am indebted to Alexey Lobashev for kindly providing me with the basis for this note]. I.E. Zabelin in his book The Domestic Lifestyle of the Russian Tsars in the 16th and 17th Centuries printed in Moscow in 1862, and a number of other authors with or without references to the archives of the Armour Chamber, write that on 14 November 1699 the icon painter Kirill Ulanov painted a games board for the Tsarevich Alexey Petrovich, the son of Peter the Great, who was nine years old at that time. On one side was the Гусиная игра (Gusinaya Igra) [The Goose Game] and Saki [another board game] was on the other. This would appear to be the earliest mention of the Game of the Goose in the Russian literature. Later, this game started to be called Игра в гусёк (Igra v Gusyok) or Гусёк (Gusyok) [the diminutive form of ‘Goose’] or Игра в гуськи (Igra v Gus’ki’) [the plural of Gusyok]. It should also be taken into account that sometimes similar games were called by the same name. For instance, in the book by N.Ya.Simonovich-Efimova Igra Gusyok published in Moscow in 1909 the rules are given for a game invented by the author illustrating the story of a boy who went to pick up mushrooms in the forest. Also, the name Igra v Gus’ki could be used for denoting the board game Fox and Geese. The Game of the Goose was published a number of times in the 19th century. As the book by N.Ya.Simonovich-Efimova makes clear: ‘This interesting and simple game, accessible for children from the age of six, has been nearly forgotten recently [in 1909]. This may be attributed only to the fact that no proper gus’ki [goose boards] are on sale. Remembering how much carried away we were with this game with my sisters in childhood, when not only did we play Gusyok but made it ourselves drawing or pasting various newspaper illustrations, I wanted to revive this old game and, at the same time, make it more accessible for young children [...]. The children may then present one of the sheets that they have made to anyone from the village where this game is popular’. The earliest printed board game in Russia appears to be a postal or journey game, translated from the German, with an interpretation published in Moscow in 1792.12 The 20-page rule book is furnished with a fold-out plate of the game, which shows a rectangular spiral of 83 numbered spaces, all labelled in Russian text but not illustrated. Goose games from before the Revolution, whether as painted wooden boards or as printed sheets, have not appeared in exhibitions or in recent books, so that the earliest reproduced example is from 1913, having a 36-space spiral track and variant rules. However, the existence of printed examples in the late 19th century is evidenced by illustrations of the decorative lids of boxed versions. A number of Russian race games 12 Краткое истолкование почтовой или путешественной игры [A brief interpretation of the postal or travel game] Moscow: Семена Камисарова, 1792. Available as an e-book on Google books.

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were shown in an exhibition prepared by the Russian State Museum in 1999, of which the catalogue is available in English.13 It appears that, after the Revolution, the Game of the Goose was regarded as something to be forgotten or even as politically incorrect, so that it has had no significant legacy in modern Russian table games.

12.5.

An example of the Goose Game from Poland

An isolated example of an early printed version of the Game of the Goose is held in the Biblioteka Kórnicka under the title Gra włoska ucieszna Gąską zwana [An Italian game called the Goose Game].14 It is a woodcut of vertical format with classic iconography and would indeed appear to have been copied from an Italian original, judging by the track iconography. The spiral of the track runs clockwise, suggesting that it was copied direct onto the block. The date is given as 1721.

12.6.

The boundaries for the spread of the Game of the Goose

The examples discussed briefly above serve to indicate how the influence of the Game of the Goose diminishes with increasing geographical and cultural distance from its Western European origins. That is not to say that the remoter countries, where the classic Game of the Goose is not in evidence, lack printed board games of the race type, played with dice. It is simply that in these games no clear traces of descent from the Game of the Goose have been identified, as far as the present author knows. Close study of the games of, say, the Balkan countries would be interesting, to see if such traces exist and, if not, to determine whether any other ancestral forms can be found. There is also the possibility that printing centres outside the main countries discussed in this book may have provided games for circulation in those countries. A known example is the Deutches Ritterspiel engraved by P Franza in Prague, with German text, probably in the early years of the 19th century.

13 Yevgenia Petrova. Play and passion in Russian fine art. Saint Petersburg: Palace Editions, 1999. 14 Shelf mark C VIII 1546.

13. The Board Game links between Europe and the USA The subject of the printed board games of the USA merits a book in itself.1 This short chapter deals only with the transfers of games from Europe that helped to shape the development of board games in America from the first half of the 19th century onwards.

13.1. Imports from England The earliest commercial board games to circulate in the USA were imported from England. John Spear2 notes an advertisement in the Pennsyvania Packet as early as 1775: 31 July: Nicholas Brook, in Second-street [...] continues to dispose of the following curious collection of goods. Elegant cutteau de chases [hunting knives] [...] a very elegant pardepee [pard’épée] to hang a sword to [...] a variety of music of the most approved tunes [...] cards of history and geography, with or without morocco cases [...] London-made silver shoe and knee buckles [...] steel cock gaffs [spurs for fighting cocks] [...] dice and boxes; a journey through Europe, or the play of geography, invented by Jefferies for the instructive entertainment of young gentlemen and ladies [...].

The ‘curious collection’ would appear to be a ship-load of very various goods, probably from London. The game advertised is that invented by Jefferys in 1759, described in Chapter 6, Section 6. Peter Benes has studied the evidence furnished by American newspaper advertisements in the period 1790 to 1830 and has kindly shared his research with the present author.3 The first advertisement for ‘totum’ games that he notes is the following:4 1 See, for example, Bruce Whitehill, Games: American Boxed Games and Their Makers, 1822−1992. Radnor, PA: Wallace-Homestead Book Co, 1992; and the article by the same author, ‘American Games – a Historical Perspective’, Board Game Studies 2, 1999, pp. 116−141. 2 Private communication, 2018. 3 Peter Benes, English ‘Totum Games’ Played in New England, New York City, and Philadelphia, 1790 through 1830. Dublin Seminar for New England Folklife. Deerfield, Mass.: Historic Deerfield, 2017. 4 Many of the advertisements quoted here can be retrieved from the Readex data base of America’s Historic Newspapers, accessed via the British Library, or from the Library of Congress Chronicling America web site. A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462984974_ch13

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New York: Daily Gazette, 7th August 1792 − Thomas Barrow, No. 16 Smith Street, NY City. Game of human life, moral and entertaining [...].

The game5 is listed among art supplies, hieroglyphic bibles, spelling cards, spectacle cases, and paper hangings; Barrow was also a print seller. In the National Intelligencer and Washington Advertiser for 7 December 1804, Edgar Patterson’s Stationary and Fancy Store, George Town, offered: Geographical and genealogical pastimes and arithmetical games with totums.

Boston advertisements appeared at a similar date, the earliest being from Jane Salter, who with her husband Richard kept a toy store in Boston: Boston: Columbian Centinel, 2nd November 1805 − Jane Salter, has received from the Mary a fresh assortment of Toys, Dolls, drest and undrest Wax Dolls, with moving eyes, dissected Maps of the World, Europe, &c. Bowle’s Game of the World,6 and Europe.

A wide range of imported games7 was offered in New York, by a variety of merchants, including booksellers: New York: Spectator, 15th November 1806 – JUST RECEIVED in the Science from London and the Frances from Glasgow [...]. A new geographical game, exhibiting a voyage round the world, with ivory te-totum, and counters for playing with. [...] Geographical games of Scotland, England, and Wales, and Europe on the same plan. An Arithmetical Pastime to teach arithmetic under the idea of amusement with te-totum and counters8 […] J & T. Ronalds, No 188 Pearl Street. New York: Evening Post, 31st December 1810 – NEW-YEAR’S GIFTS Thomas A. Ronalds, bookseller and Stationer, 188 Pearl Street, has lately received from London, a large collection of new publications for the amusement and instruction of young persons: Geographical Cards, Juvenile Libraries, Puzzles, Dissected Maps Pastimes &ct viz: [...] Juvenile Pastimes, played with Totum and Counters viz Game of the Jew, Pastora, Magic Ring, Bulwark of Britannia, Reward of Merit, Game of Human Life, Elegant Amusements, Geographical Games of Europe, England, and the world.

5 The New Game of Human Life, published by Wallis and Newberry in 1790. 6 Probably Bowles’ Geographical Game of the World, an edition of which was published by Bowles and ­Carver in 1795. 7 Publishers of these games can be identified from the check list of British games at the end of Chapter 5. 8 Arithmetical Pastime was published by John Wallis in 1798 – see Chapter 7 Section 6.

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New York: Daily Advertiser, 21st December 1819 – CHRISTMAS & NEW YEAR PRE­ SENTS. A.T. Goodrich & Co. No. 124 Broadway opposite the City Hotel have a great variety of articles suitable for Christmas and New Years presents viz: The new game of Emulation, for the instruction and amusement of youth. The Road to the Temple of Honour and Fame, a new game. Historical Pastime, or a new game of the history of England; the Jubilee, a new and interesting game; Geographical Recreation, an instructive game; the Swan of Elegance, a new game; the Panorama of London, an amusing game; the new game of Human Life, the new, moral & entertaining game of the Reward of Merit.

The range available in New York was comparable to that offered in London and stress was laid on ‘new’ games, especially at Christmas and New Year, when these advertisements mostly appeared. The Boston range became similarly wide: Boston: Daily Advertiser, 22nd December 1821. CHRISTMAS AND NEW YEARS PRESENTS. MUNROE AND FRANCIS, No 4 Cornhill. Historical, Geographical, and Instructive Games, on Cloth, Being elegant Painted Plates, formed to double up in a case, with box of Tetotums, viz. Mirror of Truth, a new moral game; Panorama of Europe, exhibiting views of all the principal cities; Wonders of Nature, or Views of the most remarkable natural phenomena; Tour through the United Kingdom; Voyage round the World, a pastime; Fashionable game of the Jew; The British Sovereigns, &c &c &c (for parties of young persons, of both sexes, the above Pastimes will be found to be most interesting sources of amusement.) Boston: Independent Chronicle and Boston Patriot, 1st November 1823 − FASHIONABLE GAMES. DEVIL AND STICKS, RACQUETS A CORNET OR CORONILLAS. Two cases of the above just received and for sale at the (Music Saloon, No 36, Market Street) CORNER OF FRANKLIN AVENUE Where may be had also a variety of other GAMES, amusing and instructive, viz: − Panorama of Europe, Wonders of Art and Nature, British Sovereigns, Geographical Games with teetotum [...].

A comparable diversity, encompassing games by all the major London publishers, was offered in Philadelphia, the third main centre after Boston and New York.9 A notable absentee in all this diversity was the Game of the Goose: certainly available at the time in London, though not by any stretch of the advertiser’s imagination could it be called ‘new’.

9

See for example Ash & Mason’s advertisement in the Philadelphia National Gazette of 2 January 1825.

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13.2. Thomas Jefferson and his family Correspondence in 1798 between Thomas Jefferson – soon to become President of the United States − and his daughter, Martha Jefferson Randolph (1772–1836), confirms that the Game of the Goose was available in the USA at that time, though not perhaps well known.10 He writes to her from Philadelphia: All your commissions shall be executed, including the Game of the Goose, if we can find out what it is, for there is some difficulty in that.

Evidently, the difficulty was resolved, for in a subsequent letter he writes: The children, I am afraid, will have forgotten me. However, my memory may perhaps be hung on the Game of the Goose which I am to carry them.

His granddaughter Virginia Trist recalled that Jefferson liked to play games with his grandchildren beside the fire at Monticello.11

13.3. The Cartographic games of F & R Lockwood It may be that the ready availability of this high-quality imported material discouraged the production of games locally, even though there was clearly a market for them. The earliest board games printed in the USA are now generally thought to be the cartographic games published by F and R Lockwood of New York in 1822 (though see below for another contender). The first is the Travellers Tour of the United States, and is marked: ‘Entered according to Act of Congress the 12th of July 1822’. It consists of a map of the Eastern states, going only as far west as the western boundary of Arkensaw Territory (Figure 13.1). The rules are set out beneath the map and the game is introduced thus: ‘This pleasing and instructive game is performed with a Teetotum and Travellers. All the principal towns and cities are visited and the population of each made known’. A Teetotum numbered from one to eight is specified. The track consists of numbered circles joined by lines, wandering across the face of the map. It begins at Washington City and ends at New Orleans (the winning space, number 139). The rules list the places corresponding to the circles, in numerical order, most having also a brief description and – for towns − the size of their population. There are no playing instructions to differentiate the spaces. The places are not named on the map and here lies the interest of the game. The preamble to the rules explains: ‘Before a knowledge is obtained of the relative situation of the 10 Sarah N Randolph. The Domestic Life of Thomas Jefferson. Scituate, MA: Digital Scanning Inc., 2001, p. 249. 11 Jerry Holmes. Thomas Jefferson: A Chronology of His Thoughts. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002, p. 252.

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Figure 13.1:  Lockwood’s The Travellers’ Tour through the United States. New York: 1822 (Image courtesy of Daniel Crouch Rare Books).

places named in this game, reference may be had to the descriptions accompanying the Map; but as progress is made they must (all parties consenting) name the place without referring to the guide; and to those who are willing to go a step further, they may make it conditional that the population of each place be given. In these cases where reference to the guide is not permitted, the person not able to go on must lose his turn, and wait for it to come round again’. The descriptions of the places are for the most part rather dry, though there are exceptions. For example: ‘The citizens of Charleston (space 86) are distinguished for polished manners and unaffected hospitality’, while at Wilkesbarre (space 55) ‘ A dreadful massacre was committed in this place during the Revolutionary War by the Indians, which is the subject of the wellknown poem of Thomas Campbell, “Gertrude of Wyoming”’. Later in the same year, the Lockwoods also published a similar game, The Travellers’ Tour through Europe. Though no particular precursor can be identified for these Lockwood games, they are sufficiently similar to the English cartographic Grand Tour games, for example in their using similar vocabulary of ‘teetotum’ and ‘travellers’, and in the nature of the cartographic track, that a generic English model can be ascribed.

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Indeed, in 1819 the Lockwood firm (then trading as L & F Lockwood, 154 Broadway, NYC) had advertised ‘Wallis’ new geographical game, designed to convey in an easy and familiar manner a general acquaintance with the map of the world’.12 It is presumably the Lockwood games that were advertised in Boston at the end of 1822 by Leonard C. Bowles as ‘New and Instructive Games Just Received [...] performed with a Teetotum and Travellers in which all the principal cities of the United States and Europe are visited and their relative situations made known’.13 Shortly afterwards, Cushing and Appleton advertised ‘The Travellers Tour through the United States, the Mansion of Happiness, Mother Goose and her Golden Egg, the Monkey, Game of Drafts on sheets [...]’ demonstrating that English and US games were circulating together.14

13.4. Edward Parker’s game, The Geographical Pastime or Complete Tour of Europe Recently John Spear has drawn attention to another contender for the earliest American printed board game.15 The Geographical Pastime or Complete Tour of Europe was, like the Lockwood game, published in 1822, as evidenced both on the game sheet and on the rule book. However, since no calendar date is given, it is not possible to determine the precedence. It was produced by Edward Parker, of 178 Market Street, Philadelphia: he was a publisher and bookseller primarily recognized for issuing some of the earliest American medical textbooks. The only known surviving example of the game is in the Atwater Kent Museum, Philadelphia. The game itself is unremarkable, played on a wandering track of 138 numbered cities, beginning at Dover, and ending at London. By comparison with the corresponding Lockwood game, the descriptions of individual cities in the Parker game are more detailed and extensive. The decoration in the upper left corner is of a man hiking toward an erupting volcano: John Spear notes that the artist was Thomas Birch, a well known marine, landscape, portrait and miniature painter of the period, who, with his father, William Russell Birch (also a well known artist) immigrated to Philadelphia from London in 1794.

12 New York Evening Post, 17 December 1819. The game in question is presumably Wallis’s Complete Voyage Round the World, possibly in the new edition published by Edward Wallis at about that date. 13 Boston American Federalist and Columbian Centinel, 21 December 1822. 14 Salem Gazette, 18 February 1823. 15 John Spear, ‘Potential New Earliest American Board Game’, AGPC [Association of Game & Puzzle Collectors, now AGPI, Association for Games and Puzzles International] Quarterly magazine, Volume 15 Number 2, 2013, pp. 34−35.

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Figure 13.2:  Edward Parker’s Geographical Pastime, 1822 (Courtesy of the Philadelphia History Museum at the Atwater Kent, The Historical Society of Pennsylvania Collection, photo by John Spear).

13.5. The Game of the Goose in the USA Although early examples of the Game of the Goose did appear in the USA, there is no evidence that the game ever took hold, and the game is today not known there. The earliest example appears to be that published in 1851 by J P Beach at Perkins and Son Litho. Establishment, 128 Fulton Street (upstairs), New York City. An example is held at the Strong Museum of Play (Figure 13.3). The model for this game was undoubtedly one of the English ‘goose-shaped’ games, of which the earliest was Laurie’s New and Entertaining Game of the Golden Goose, first issued in 1831 and reissued in 1848. The games are essentially identical except for the image reversal occasioned by copying direct on to the lithographic stone. Beach re-issued his version of the game in 1855 as The American Game of “Goose”. A more definitely American version of the Game of the Goose is that designed by Mary D. Carroll of Rhode-Island.16 It is a hand coloured-lithograph by Knowles, Anthony & Co. of Providence RI, manufactured by Charles Ackerman (also of Providence), 1855. 16

Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 6.

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Figure 13.3:  The Jolly Game of ‘Goose’. New York City: J. P. Beach, 1851 (The Strong Museum).

The game has a printed footnote to say that the copyright was: ‘Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1855, by Mary D. Carroll in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Rhode Island’. Little is known about her: she is recorded at Providence RI in the 1860 census as aged 42, living with her family. Knowles, Anthony and Co. are well known as the publishers of the Providence Journal. The game itself is interesting in that, though it is in most respects a classic Goose game, the geese usually on spaces 5 and 9 are absent, which in turn means that there is no need for the dice spaces on 26 and 53 to prevent an immediate win on the initial throw of 9; and indeed these spaces are left blank. This absence of geese on spaces 5 and 9 is a feature of several English goose games of the 18th century and later, and suggests that Mary D. Carroll used an English game as her source. Confirmation of this is given by the rule for the maze space at 42: ‘must return to 29’. This ‘DNA marker’ is found only on English games, as opposed to French or Italian.17

17 See Chapter 6, Section 1.

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Figure 13.4: Detail of the American Game of the Goose by Mary D. Carroll, showing the charming rural end decoration.

The decoration of the end space (Figure 13.4) is particularly charming, showing an American rural idyll, with bees buzzing around the hive, while the animals stand peacefully by. However, Carroll’s game, like that of Beach, did not stimulate any general interest in the Game of the Goose in the United States.

13.6. The Mansion of Happiness By contrast, the English game of the Mansion of Happiness was very influential in the USA, being (until the Lockwood games were discovered) generally regarded as the earliest commercial board game published there. Indeed, it has often been regarded as an American invention, rather than an adaptation of an English game. The English game is described in Chapter 7 Section 2 and was published by Laurie & Whittle in 1800. The first American edition was published in 1843 by W. & S. B. Ives, in Salem, Mass. This game was reissued several times by Ives and subsequently by Parker Brothers in 1894, when they included on the game board the claim, ‘The first board game ever published in America’. Though the claim proved to be unjustified, the game remains an important landmark in the history of U.S. printed board games. The Ives firm is credited with being the first major manufacturer of games in the country and indeed dominated the manufacture of games in the USA until 1850, when John McLoughlin started selling hand-coloured card games through his book publishing business.

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The game is structurally identical to the English original, though there are differences in detail. The lists of virtues and vices are the same and have the same rules. One important difference is that the game is not played for stakes; there is no reference to fines in any of the penalties. Another is that the specifically English references to the London prisons of Bridewell and Newgate are replaced by the House of Correction (space 30) and the Prison (space 50). Other revisions have removed anomalies in the English game, e.g., those arriving at the Summit of Dissipation must go to Ruin, without the option of a fine, and the Seat of Expectation rule is adopted from the later English editions.

13.7. Enthusiasm for the new It is possible that the almost complete absence of the Game of the Goose in the USA may be traced to the fact that it does not figure in the early advertisements of English games listed in Section 1 above. That in turn may be attributed to the emphasis on ‘new games’ in these advertisements, for the Game of the Goose was, if noticed at all in England in the early years of the 19th century, an old favourite and certainly not a game in fashion. On the other hand, the theme of ‘morality’ that the English games introduced to America, most notably in the Mansion of Happiness, proved to be a strong and lasting influence. Indeed when, in 1860, Milton Bradley, a lithographer, made vast improvements in the printing process, allowing for the mass-production of colour images, his first game, The Checkered Game of Life, was another on a moral theme, though with a different playing mechanism, designed as a path that took the player from Infancy to Happy Old Age. Playthings magazine later described it as ‘the first game with a purpose (that) taught a lesson of success through integrity and right living’, though many earlier games had shared that purpose.

Part II The Legacy of the Game of the Goose in the Modern Era

14. The International Background at the end of the 19th century 14.1. The Legacy of the Game of the Goose as a concept The second part of this book is devoted to exploring the ‘legacy’ of the Game of the Goose in the modern era, that is to say, in the 20th century and beyond. The term ‘legacy’ needs some explanation. As used here, it goes beyond saying that examples of the Game of the Goose continued to be produced in some European countries after the 19th century, though that is obviously true. However, the term is not so wide as to encompass all spiral race games. For example, as discussed below, it would not be correct to claim that all such games developed in the USA have as their source the Game of the Goose: the seminal influences on early race games in that country are quite evidently different. Nor could one reasonably claim that British race games in the 20th century were influenced by Goose games, even though the occasional Game of the Goose did appear. However, in some countries of Continental Europe there is a clear case for saying that game designers in the 20th century continued to be influenced by the Game of the Goose. That influence was felt in three main areas: games for amusement and for the education of young children; games of propaganda and polemic, aimed at an adult audience; and games of advertising and promotion of goods and services. Each of these areas has its own chapter in what follows. Excluded from this list are games intended for adult gambling, where the Game of the Goose does not have a continuing legacy. Nor are Goose-variants today used for the instruction of older children or young adults, whose ideas of a worthwhile game do not encompass one with no skill or choice of move. Nevertheless, even with these restrictions, the legacy of the Game of the Goose in modern times is considerable As a preliminary to exploring that legacy, it is useful to bring together some observations on the state of the game in various countries towards the end of the 19th century.

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14.2. The Classic Game of the Goose in Europe at the end of the 19th century The historical analysis in Part I shows that, despite the movement of printed games from one country to another, the mix of games that were in circulation at the end of the 19th century differed considerably between nations. In Britain, the Game of the Goose was essentially regarded as something from a bygone era. In France, though, the classic 63-space game continued to be produced, both in Paris, where D’Allemagne notes three new editions in the last two decades of the century, and – even more evidently – in the provinces, where he records at least six. In Germany, the popularity of the Affenspiel had not waned, nor had the various developments of the ‘journey’ games derived from the Post-und Reisespiel, updated for modern systems of transportation and for journeys across frontiers worldwide, whereas the Game of the Goose was significantly less popular and had shed all vestiges of its classic 63-space constraints. By contrast, for the Netherlands, the Buijnsters note over a dozen new editions of the classic game in the last two decades of the century. In Italy a handful of new editions in the traditional vertical format were appearing, while the 90-space variant, often in horizontal format, was increasing in popularity. The Game of the Goose was by no means dead.

14.3. Thematic variants at the end of the 19th century Correspondingly, the production of thematic variants traceable in any way to the classic game had essentially disappeared in Britain by the last decades of the 19th century. In France, though, the Goose-game format continued to be recognisable in a number of thematic games, notably those of a satirical or political character. In the Netherlands, the development of thematic games devoted to advertising and promotion provided a significant impetus, as will be discussed in Chapter 17 below, though the popularity of non-race games of the pay-or-take variety, similar to the Game of the Owl in mechanism, was a competing force.

14.4. The internationalisation of production In general, the fact that printed board games of the types under discussion are based on complex rules, sometimes supplemented with lengthy booklets of explanation, means that they are language-specific in terms of their market. However, this limitation does not of course extend to the graphic elements. Thus the end of the 19th ­century saw active marketing of games across frontiers, where the rules could be supplied simply as text sheets in the appropriate language or, less simply, the rules

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Figure 14.1: Jagdspiel of German origin but with rules in German, English, Dutch and French.

could be printed, often in the central oval of the track, in a form to suit the market, but using the same block for the track itself. For the British market, the German producers were by far the most active in international competition. Nuremberg was renowned in Britain as a centre for the production of toys and this reputation was readily extended to printed games of high quality, matched by the Berlin imports. Jos. Scholz of Mainz also produced printed game sheets from the 1860s onwards, lithographed in high quality, with rules in German, French, Italian and Dutch.1 However, catchpenny prints were also subject to international competition: for example, a simple Jagdspiel [Hunting game, see Figure 14.1] in the present author’s collection, with no given publisher, has its rules in four languages. 1

See for example his Eisenbahn-spiel: Buijnsters, Papertoys, p. 70.

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A more specific attack on the British market in the late 19th century came from the German firm of J. W. Spear and Sons. The history of the company has been well documented.2 From the 1880s, Jacob Wolf Spear (who was born in 1832 and died in 1893 when he hanged himself after being suspected of setting fire to his own factory) had been manufacturing toys and games in Bavaria, at Fürth, mainly for the British market. His family set up a new factory in Nuremberg and production started in 1899. In 1932, production was moved to a factory in England, at Enfield, owing to the rise of the Nazis in Germany – the Spears were Jewish – and this continued until Mattel acquired the firm in 1994. Spear’s games were of good quality, using chromolithography in the early years to give boards of bright appearance. However, the adaptation of games to the British market was at first not perfect: a Game of the Goose – Improved Edition dating from about 1900, though attractively produced with ceramic geese as tokens, has quirky rules, e.g. for space 33, ‘This goose has a quiet swim round after counters and picks up one from each player and two out of the pool: other players please pay up at once – no trust given’. There is something very un-English about this game!3 Within continental Europe, a main centre for production of games destined for international markets was the Imagerie Lorraine, in particular the Pellerin factory – see Chapter 4, Section 12 – where not only games in French were sent abroad but also versions in other languages. Likewise, the games produced in Milan had wider circulation than just in Italy. Thus, designers of games in the 20th century could choose from a wide range of sources and iconographies in developing their new ideas. This, then, was the background against which the Game of the Goose moved into the modern era.

2 3

Helmut Schwarz and Marion Faber, Games We Play. Nuremberg: W. Tümmels, 1997. Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 28.

15. Amusement and Education 15.1. The Game of the Goose as amusement By the beginning of the 20th century, the Game of the Goose was seen in most of the countries of Europe as a childish pursuit. In England it was almost forgotten, though the game was available: for example, the London department store, Gamage’s, offered in its Christmas Bazaar catalogue of 1913 a luxurious boxed Game of Goose by JWS [J. W. Spear & Söhne of Bavaria], described as ‘a decided novelty in games played with realistic Model Geese’ at the high price of 5s. 11d., while less elaborate versions of the board were available at 4 1/2d. and 9d. Of later attempts to revive the game, the most notable was the beautiful boxed version designed by the artist Barbara Sampson for James Galt and Company, using the classic rules of an English example of c. 1725.1 However, although judging by its frequent appearance currently on EBay this was evidently popular, it was a one-off production. In France, versions of the classic 63-space game continued to appear, especially during the first half of the century. Many of these were simply produced games, often in square format, with cartoon-like figures of geese, calculated to appeal to children and obviously for amusement rather than for gambling. However, France also saw more elaborate productions, such as Madeleine Luka’s Le Jeu de Paris, published by La Parisienne in 1942.2 This large-format coloured lithograph on a four-panel folding board deserves to be classified as a livre d’artiste. The geese were replaced by images of a Métro train, while the hazard spaces were interpreted as Parisian monuments, including the Père Lachaise Cemetery on the death space. In Italy, firms such as Marca Stella continued to produce games of traditional format with the goose as favourable symbol, either in 63- or 90-space versions, while in Spain toyshops sold games of the simple square format found in France. In the Low Countries, the strong and continuing interest in the game also resulted in new editions but here there was more imagination, notably in the graphic work of Daan Hoeksma (Figure 15.1). This lent variety to the simple race games for children as new versions were developed, with clever graphics and appropriate rules of various descriptions. These adaptations were often coupled with advertising themes, as discussed in Chapter 17 below. 1 2

Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 29. Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 22.

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Figure 15.1: Game of the Goose by Daan Hoeksema, early 20th century (Former Collection Fred Horn, now in the Vlaams Spellenarchief, Brugge, Belgium).

15.2. Games with a message The fashion for teaching core subjects through race games did not last into the 20th century. Games that could be classed as educational tended also to be games with a message. In some cases, this was a religious message. For example, in the 1930s, the Imprimerie Franciscaine in Vanves published a game showing the experiences of a missionary as he travels to the flourishing Mission at the end of the track.3 The hazards are clearly designed to appeal to children: at space 47 is a living tiger, which eats the missionary and the player has to start again, whereas at the next space the tiger is killed and the player has an extra throw. But other spaces reinforce the Roman Catholic theme: Saints and guardian angels advance the player, while at various other points a set number of Ave Marias are to be said. In this game, the religious message is overt, though other more subtle messages of colonial attitudes are implicit in the (generally sympathetic) iconography.

3 4 5

Strouhal, game 27. Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 54. Giochidelloca 1849.

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In the Italian game, Il Dirigibile ‘Norge’ alla scoperta del Polo Nord, published in 1926 by Marca Stella in Milan, the message is also concealed.4 The track shows the voyage of the Italian-built airship Norge from its base in Oslo, first to Rome then on to the first verified overflight of the North Pole, until its landing in Alaska. The game celebrates one of Italy’s air achievements under Mussolini. It is a Goose-game variant, though the favourable spaces are denoted by a picture on every sixth space of the pilot’s little dog, Titina, which he carried on the flight. The appeal to children is obvious. Some of the more overtly promotional games designed for children could perhaps be regarded as educational rather than as advertising. An example is one issued by the Netherlands Stichting Voorlichting Brood [Bread Education Foundation] in the early years of the present century.5 It is a spiral race game, with favourable throw-doubling spaces coloured yellow. Other spaces have particular instructions to be followed. The flavour may be got from space 42: ‘You’ve had all your lunchtime sandwiches. They were delicious and you are so full of energy that you jump forward five spaces’. The winning centre space has the hard-to-translate phrase: ‘Brood – daar zit wat in!’ [Bread – there’s something in it!]. Another use for the game is to promote an educational activity. An example is that issued in 2012 by the Moulin du Liveau in the valley of Clisson – a working paper mill run as a museum with pedagogical intent. The game, Le Chemin du Papier, that they issued for publicity purposes in 2012 is a pure Game of the Goose, with throw-doubling spaces on multiples of nine.6 The non-active spaces are decorated with emblems relevant to printing and paper-making, but the hazards are the traditional ones. Even more recently, in 2013 the Milanese firm of Tourbillon (Cornaredo) issued a game for children with a different ‘mission’ – ‘Save the planet!’7 It is a 63-space game with simple cartoon-like graphics. The instructions for the active spaces are printed in each, often with a relevant illustration in a non-active space. For example, space 58 says:’ you have forgotten to shut off the tap. Go to space 48 [where a bucket is illustrated] to look for a bucket’. There are no regularly-placed favourable spaces but several spaces advance the player – for example, inventing an electric car (‘Bravo!’) gets another throw. One of these favourable spaces escapes from the normal ‘roll and move’ ritual by advising that the first player to touch with a finger one of the many fruits illustrated on the board may move on two spaces. One wonders whether the players’ tokens will remain on the board!

6 7

Giochidelloca 2483. Missione – Planeta da Salvare, Giochidelloca 2235.

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15.3. Why is the Game of the Goose such a good game? When assessing these variant games, it is worth remembering that the original game remains a highly playable diversion. Indeed, in Colonial Williamsburg, a major visitor centre in Virginia, reproductions of John Overton’s game sheet from the 17th ­century are regularly played and enjoyed, and are sold as one element of a range of educational aids. Even the Members of the august Grolier Club of New York enjoyed ­playing the Game of the Goose for an hour or so before a special dinner in 2016. It is of interest to see what features of the game contribute to the enjoyment.8 One important feature is that the track is structured: a track with no differentiation of the spaces makes for a boring race game. Although the progress of each token along such a track is random, according to the throw, collectively the tokens advance at a steady rate: on average, the group advances each round by the average throw. As they progress, the group spreads out in a predictable manner, so that after some experience the player can see what is happening. The hazards and favourable spaces complicate this so that after a few rounds the position cannot be predicted easily.9 A second feature is that the track structure increases the chance of a very quick win (the initial throw of nine) and increases the chances of a long-drawn-out game (the death space in conjunction with the reverse overthrow rule). This leads to increased excitement in both cases. A third feature is that the game usually takes a reasonable time to play: with four players, the usual number of rounds needed until there is a win is about 15. With three players, the various traps extend this to about 31 rounds, whereas with two there is the possibility of a draw if both fall into different traps (well and prison). Neto and da Silva have recently taken these statistical ideas further in a paper comparing the ‘drama’ of various race games with no choice of move, including the Game of the Goose.10 They explore such questions as how often the lead changes hands, showing that the classic game strikes a good compromise between the leader usually winning (resulting in boredom at the end of the game) and there being little advantage in leading (so the intermediate stages of the game lose relevance). Another recent study carries the exact stochastic analysis as far as six players. 11

8 Adrian Seville. “Statistical Features of Enjoyable Race Games”, Board Games in Academia VI, Barcelona, 2002. Unpublished but online at http://www.giochidelloca.it/storia/racegames.pdf. 9 This is not unlike what John Cage has called ‘indeterminacy’: there is a clear rule-based structure and there is statistical regularity but the operation of chance is sufficient to conceal the structure. See for example: Helen Luckett and Lauren A. Wright, ‘Companion to Cage’ in Every Day is a Good Day – the Visual Art of John Cage. London: Hayward Publishing, 2010, p. 58. 10 J. P. Neto & J.N. Silva, ‘Measuring Drama in Goose-like Games’, Board Game Studies Journal, Vol. 10, issue 10 (2016) published online by De Gruyter at https://doi.org/10.1515/bgs-2016-0005. 11 Jan Friso Groote, Freek Wiedijk and Hans Zantema, ‘A Probabilistic Analysis of the Game of the Goose’, SIAM Review, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 2016, Vol. 58, No. 1, pp. 143–155.

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This is a game invented in the middle ages: so how could such a technically competent game have been invented? No doubt the inventor(s) tested and improved it in development – yet, if the constraints of numerology are taken into account, as set out in Chapter 2, there would seem to be little flexibility. Reconciling this dilemma is perhaps not too difficult. The track length of 63 determined by the Grand Climacteric is fixed but the choice of double rather than single dice is not, and leads to a fast-paced game. The doubling on the Goose spaces also increases the pace but not much, in comparison, though it greatly increases the interest. The hazards involving loss of a throw or going back a few spaces likewise have little effect on the game. By contrast, the traps (well, prison) do have a considerable effect, as does the death space, combined with the reverse overthrow rule. So, detailed consideration of the rules for these spaces could provide the flexibility to fine-tune the game. Whatever the process, the development work was very well done. The psychology of the game is further considered in Chapter 18, Section 8.

15.4. The legacy of the classic game Perhaps the most significant legacy of the classic Game of the Goose is that, if its subtleties are properly understood, it provides lessons that present-day designers of games would do well to heed. There is no particular magic in the iconography of the game that persists today – indeed, there are versions for the amusement of children which use the image of the goose but have abandoned the classic structure and are not very good to play. The power of the classic game remains, as it always has done, that it can act as a successful template in games designed to convey a message or an idea.

16. Propaganda, Polemic and Satire 16.1. The nineteenth century background The nineteenth century had seen publication of many games of political significance. Mention has already been made, in Chapter 4, of the games associated with the Revolution, of the Jeu Royal de la vie d’Henri IV, published in 1815 to aid the re-establishment of the monarchy, and of the Jeu de l’oie parlementaire and the Jeu des Lois, both being satirical games appearing in the second half of the century. There was thus in France a considerable tradition of games which, though they might appear innocuous because of their similarity to the familiar Jeu de l’oie, in fact had messages to impart beyond the simple structure of the game. The same might be said of the Italian game mentioned in Chapter 9, L´Italia del Secolo Decimonono ossia il Nuovissimo Giuoco dell´Oca, which – though it is more celebratory than satirical – contains numerous coded messages. The Netherlands carried into the century not only Dutch editions of the Jansenist Uni­genitus game1 described in Chapter 4 above but also various dice games of the Owl type, of which Pietro Aratino Secundo’s Gedenkblad of 1786 is perhaps the forerunner: in words and pictures it agitates against William V, his Orange party, and ‘ill-­ intentioned England’.2 The stage was thus set for the considerable flowering of games of propaganda and influence that appeared across Europe in the 20th century.

16.2. Politics and prejudices at the turn of the century In France, the years at the turn of the 19th century were animated by an intense political debate, triggered by the Dreyfus affair. This was reflected by the publication of the following highly-charged games. The Jeu de l’Affaire Dreyfus et de la Vérité (1898) The Dreyfus Affair and the Truth was a game published in 1898 by the French journal L’Aurore, highlighting the injustices of the Dreyfus Affair. Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a young French artillery officer of Alsatian and Jewish descent, had been sentenced 1 2

Under the title Het Spel van de Constitutie. Papertoys op. cit. pp. 160−161.

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in 1894 to life imprisonment for allegedly communicating French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris. Proof of his innocence was discovered, the real traitor being a Major Ferdinand Esterhazy, but this was suppressed by the military authorities, so that it was not until 1906 that the judgment was overturned and the blame fixed on Esterhazy. Dreyfus’s trial occasioned a nationwide debate on anti-Semitism. French political opinion was divided, with the Church against Dreyfus, whereas the republicans, radicals, intellectuals and socialists were on his side. The game was a variant of the classic Game of the Goose, with 63 spaces and with the figure of ‘Truth’ replacing the geese. Spaces 24 and 21 were caricatures of the President of the Court that had tried Dreyfus, and of the Procurator General. Space 52 shows the military prison of Cherche-Midi in Paris, where Dreyfus was confined in 1894. The death space, number 58, shows the death of the ‘veiled lady’, a personage invented by Esterhazy, who – he falsely claimed – had given him a photograph of a document ‘proving’ Dreyfus’s guilt.3 The Jeu du Casserole (1904) This remarkable game evokes the ‘affaire des fiches’ [the record-card affair]. It was published, with designs by Bruno, by the Librairie anti-Semite in Paris. The French War Minister, General Louis André, was a virulent anti-cleric, determined to refuse promotion in the military to those officers with religious tendencies. With the help of The Grand Orient of France, the principal organization of Freemasonry in France, he compiled a vast card index to record officers according to their religious and republican tendencies. However, the deputy secretary of the organization, by the name of Bidegain, sold a quantity of the files for 40,000 francs to the Nationalist deputy Gabriel Syveton. The names of the members were disclosed to the parliament and to the press. The scandal was enormous, and led to Syveton’s death. The journey shown in the game is that of Masonic initiation, ending at the highest level of the hierarchy: the 33rd. In the slang of the time, a ‘casserole’ is a whistle-blower: when the Freemasons marched at the feasts of Joan of Arc at Orleans, the outraged citizens tied cooking pots to their windows. It is interesting that this game was published by an anti-Semitic organisation in 1904, just after the appearance of the (forged) Protocols of the Meetings of the Learned Elders of Zion, a text fabricated by Anti-Semitic elements in Russia. This document purported to be the minutes of a late 19th-century meeting in Basel, at which Jewish leaders were alleged to have discussed their goal of global Jewish hegemony. The Protocols asserted that the Jews had infiltrated Freemasonry and were using the fraternity to further their aims. Adherents of the Judeo-Masonic conspiracy took this to 3

G. Whyte. The Dreyfus Affair: A Chronological History. New York: Springer, 2005, pp. 117−118.

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extremes and claimed that the leaders of Freemasonry and the leaders of the Jewish plot were one and the same. Le jeu du Lapin de la Grande Thérèse This highly amusing game was drawn by Fernand Fau4 and published in 1903 or soon after by the Paris firm of Vignerot and Demoulin. The track pictures the unfolding of one of the great scams of all time.5 Thérèse Humbert, a peasant girl from the Languedoc, had married the son of the mayor of Toulouse. After her marriage, she began to tell a remarkable tale: that in 1879 she had helped a wealthy American who had been taken ill on a train and he had promised to reward her with a rich inheritance. The story was backed up by a letter of 1881, stating that the American had died: his fortune was contained in a safe that was to be unlocked only when Thérèse’s sister was old enough to marry one of his nephews. On the supposed security of this, she managed to borrow large sums of money, so that she and her husband enjoyed a rich and fashionable social life in Paris for almost 20 years. Eventually, her creditors became uneasy and in 1902 obtained a court order that the safe should be unlocked: it was found to contain nothing of value. She escaped to Spain but was apprehended and brought to trial in France, when she and her husband each were sentenced to five years’ hard labour. Her two brothers, who had posed as the American’s nephews, were also convicted of fraud. The game misses none of these events. Fau’s cartoons6 are enhanced by allusive couplets and in fact the whole game is full of inner meaning and double entendres. The instructions begin satirically by saying that the game is to be played with two dice, without pips. The rabbits, which appear on every ninth space, act as Goose spaces: they are not explained on the sheet but, in French slang of the period, when a person got the worst of a bargain he was said ‘to have bought the rabbit’, a phrase derived from an old story about a man selling a cat to a foreigner for a rabbit.7 Here, though, the rabbit changes colour alarmingly: at space 32 it has turned yellow, through dreaming of gold, and it multiplies prolifically. The death space at 58 shows the rabbit caught under a judge’s toque, in reference to Thérèse’s conviction by the court. The final space, at 63, shows variously-coloured rabbits dancing round a statue 4 Fernand Fau (1858−1919) was a widely-published French illustrator. 5 Benjamin F Martin, The Hypocrisy of Justice in the Belle Epoque. Baton Rouge and London: Louisiana State University Press, 1984, pp. 79−150. 6 See Chapter 18 Section 4 for a discussion of the cartoon idiom in these games. 7 Albert Barrère, Argot and Slang: A New French and English Dictionary of the Cant Words, Quaint Expressions, Slang Terms and Flash Phrases Used in the High and Low Life of Old and New Paris. London: Whittaker & Company, 1889, p. 222. There was (and is) also the phrase ‘poser le lapin’, meaning to bilk, especially a ­prostitute.

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Figure 16.1: Detail of Le jeu du Lapin de la Grande Thérèse.

of the Golden Calf, labelled ‘Panama’ in reference to an earlier corruption scandal, when in 1892 members of the French Government took bribes to conceal the financial troubles of the Panama Canal Company. The point of this game is to satirise the gullibility and veniality of those who lost money in the scam: it gives a perfect sense of how the culpable figures in authority were regarded at the time. Pank-A-Squith In England, there was also political turmoil, centred on the campaign to give women the vote. The game of Pank-a-Squith is a rare example of a British political board game of the race type.8 Brian Love describes it thus:

8 The game was first advertised in Votes for Women on the 22 October 1909. The publisher was the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), the leading militant organisation campaigning for Women’s suffrage in the United Kingdom. It was the first group whose members were known as ‘suffragettes’.

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Figure 16.2: Detail of Pank-a-Squith.

Pank-a-Squith derives its name from two of the chief political opponents of Edwardian England, the suffragette leader Emmeline Pankhurst (1858−1928) and Herbert Asquith, Prime Minister from 1908 to 1916. The board is green and purple, the colours of the Suffragette movement, and the spiral track illustrates the difficulties encountered by Mrs. Pankhurst and her supporters in their militant campaign to establish the vote for women. It is possible to date the game to 1909 by references made in the illustrated panels. [Space] 25 refers to the demonstration by Women’s Social and Political Union members outside the Houses of Parliament on 29 June that year; and the comment in [space] 43 [refers] to the introduction of forced feeding for hunger strikers during the third quarter of that year. … Pank-aSquith was imported into the United Kingdom from Germany. The manufacturer is not known.9

9 Brian Love. Great Board Games. London: Ebury Press & Michael Joseph, 1979, p. 56. Love gives no authority for the German manufacture but some examples of the board are stamped ‘Made in Germany’ on the reverse. Indirect support for a foreign manufacture is given by the fact that space 20 shows the Prime Minister’s residence as ‘Dowing Street’ [for Downing Street].

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Perhaps because of the German connection, the game’s detailed rules owe a considerable debt to the Game of the Goose, despite the shorter track: the objective is to get exactly to space 50, showing the Houses of Parliament. Reverse overthrows are played, though only one die is used. Space 32 (Holloway Prison, where many suffragettes were sent) acts as a death space (start again). Other active spaces involve forward or backward moves, or missing a turn. There is however no sequence of favourable spaces, as in the Game of the Goose, though an extra turn is provided at space 25, which celebrates ‘the brave deputation’ of June 29th, when Mrs Pankhurst led a group of eight women to Parliament to present a petition to Mr. Asquith. When Asquith declined to receive the delegation, Mrs. Pankhurst struck a police inspector. Outside Parliament, hundreds of suffragettes confronted police officers and began smashing windows. Afterwards, 107 women and eight men were arrested.10

16.3. Games of the First World War Perrot and Mahy give a useful illustrated list of French games associated with the Great War.11 Of these, the following are variants of the jeu de l’oie published during the war: Jusq’au bout (63 spaces. Paris: H Bouquet, 1914) Jeu de la victoire (55 spaces. Paris: J. L., 1914) Jeu du pas de l’oie – renouvelé des Boches (63 spaces. Designer: Guy Arnoux. Paris: Librairie Lutetia, 1914) Les canards du camp (63 spaces. C Brunlet, 1915) Jeu de la tranchée (36 spaces. In La Baionnette, 16 August, 1917)

Not all these games are polemical: for example, the first gives largely accurate representations of the enemy, though the corners contain some anti-German quotations. The Jeu du pas de l’oie By contrast, the Jeu du pas de l’oie [Game of the Goose-step] is highly polemical in its negative depictions of the Germans. They are indeed shown ‘goose-stepping’ on 10 Sophia A van Wingerden. The Women’s Suffrage Movement in Britain, 1866−1928. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999, p. 88. 11 Geneviève Perrot and François Mahy, Pour mémoire, les jeux illustrés liés a la Grande Guerre. Caen: Editions GPFM, 2013.

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Figure 16.3: Detail of the Jeu du pas de l’oie – renouvelé des Boches.

spaces 9, 18, 27 etc., which double the throw. The intention is not only to ridicule the enemy – for example, at space 12, German soldiers are shown to be so stupidly obedient to discipline that they will march off the broken end of a bridge – but also to portray the enemy as bestial and uncivilised. An excellent analysis by the CRDP Academy of Amiens12 classifies the hatred of the enemy shown in this game under three headings: Political antagonism, in which the German Imperial regime is blamed for the war and threatens the values ​​of democracy and civilization, Social antagonism, in which Prussian militarism and the aristocratic caste are seen as responsible for the formation of a servile German society, Ethno-cultural antagonism, in which German Culture is considered grotesque and primitive, with a distinct l y racist view of the German as an animal, heavy and coarse, with voracious appetite.

This is a savage game, with no restraint to its scorn and fury.

12 http://crdp.ac-amiens.fr/historial/expo2003_1/exposition_fiche_jeu_du_pas_de_loie.htm accessed 27 October 2015.

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Chambrelent’s Jeu de la victoire Much more subtle is the Jeu de la victoire published in 1919 by the French firm of Chambrelent.13 In this, the favourable spaces doubling the throw represent Allied victories. However, the account given by the game is far from historically accurate. For example, the first of the twelve ‘victories’ is given as that of Mulhouse: the city was indeed ‘liberated’ by the French, on 7 August 1914 – but, two days later, the Germans were back in force and had re-occupied it. The sequence of ‘victories’ gives the false impression of a steady and systematic progression towards the ultimate Allied victory. The non-active spaces set out what purports to be a chronology of the Great War. However, there are several points where the timeline has been distorted to suit popular perceptions. For example, space 32, simply labelled ‘a crime’, shows the sinking of a passenger liner, presumably the Lusitania, while the next space portrays President Woodrow Wilson and is labelled ‘intervention of America’, by implication linking these events both causally and chronologically. In fact, these events were separated by many months. The hazard spaces are also slanted towards a French view of events. For example, the equivalent of the ‘death’ space (here at space 59), requiring the player to start again, is marked ‘Peace without victory – what would have happened’. It depicts the resurgence of the German Eagle and the figure of France trampled below its advance. This abhorrence of a negotiated Peace was a significant aspect of France’s attitude to the war, in contrast (say) to that of America, which even as late as the early months of 1918 was advocating a settlement. The relatively optimistic view-in-hindsight of the Great War enshrined in this game is to be contrasted with the sardonic Jeu de la tranchée of 1917, in which the positive Goose-type spaces show the pinard, the wine ration issued to the poilus, those long-suffering foot-soldiers. There is not much else that is positive in this game. Het Nieuwe Oorlogsspel In Germany and the Netherlands, games of the Great War period tended to be games of position, capture, or annexation rather than simple race games. However, in 1918, Berthaud of The Hague published, with rules in three languages, a race game of the Goose type entitled Le Nouveau Jeu de la Guerre − Het Nieuwe Oorlogsspel − The New War Game, which celebrated at the winning space, number 66, the ‘Triumphant Return’ of the Belgian Army to Brussels. Interestingly, instead of the death space, at 13 For a fuller analysis of this game see: Adrian Seville. ‘Das veraenderliche Antlitz des Feindes’ in: Ernst Strouhal (editor), Agon et Ares: der Krieg und die Spiele. Frankfurt/New York: Campus Verlag, 2016, pp. 105−124.

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number 57 is a large question-mark, captioned as ‘The German Colonies’. The player who lands there is out of the game: in 1918, the fate of those territories was as yet undecided. In Britain, a race game showing promotion in the Army, From the Ranks to Field Marshal, was produced in 1914. However, this was more of recruiting aid than a polemic. As to be expected in a British game of the period, there are no specific traces of the Game of the Goose in its rules.

16.4. The Mussolini era (1922−1943) Il Giro dell’Africa Orientale In Italy, the Mussolini era saw the publication of several games designed to convey an image of Italy’s importance as a world power, particularly as a colonial power in Africa.14 The Tour of East Afica which appeared between 1926 and 1936 was published by Marca Stella: it is a 48-space game, with several rules adapted from the Game of the Goose, though there are no throw-doubling spaces. The track shows the journey of an Italian Boy Scout, wearing a pith helmet, through the Suez Canal and then visiting the Italian regional capitals in Ethiopia, with the government buildings proudly flying the Italian flag, until he returns to Naples, by air from Mogadiscio [Mogadishu]. There are many illustrations of native people of the various tribes. Most of these are representational rather than slanted by colonial attitudes but the space labelled ‘omaggio di notabili’ [homage of the notable men] leaves no doubt that the Italians are in charge: they are shown in uniform on heir horse receiving tribute from kneeling tribesmen in ethnic dress. Interesting hazards include a native mounted horseman, armed with rifle and shield, labelled ‘Cavaliere Galla’: the player landing here is excluded from the game. The Galla people were distinct from the Somalis and the hazard implies that they were particularly resistant to Italian rule. La Conquista dell’Abissinia (1936) Another game from the same era is The Conquest of Abyssinia, whose unicursal track of 68 spaces is laid out on a schematic map of Abyssinia/Ethiopia, ending at Addis Abeba, the capital. It celebrates the invasion of Ethiopia by Italian forces, beginning in October 1935 in a war ending in May 1936 with victory claimed by Italy. The game was authorised by the Departmento Ministero Corporazioni 1936−XIV, was designed 14 Franco Milanese: ‘Percorsi di propaganda. Giochi dell’oca e politica nelle tavole italiane del XX secolo’, in Charta, IV, no. 19, November-December 1995.

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Figure 16.4:  La Conquista dell’Abissinia game, promoting baby food by a game showing the Italian invasion of Ethiopia.

by the Officine Istituto Italiano d’Arti Grafiche in Bergamo and is dated 13 June 1936. It was therefore a production of the Italian State. However, it was used as an advertising sheet by several Italian firms, who added images of their products and issued the sheet as a promotional gift. One of these versions given away by the Genoese

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Fabbrica Prodotti Chimici Tecnici of A.Sutter promoted polishes and cleaning products. Another promoted the baby food (Farina Lattea ‘Erba’) of the Milanese firm of Carlo Erba, which might be thought to sit badly with a representation of a war in which Italy used mustard gas against the population. Incidental illustrations of racial stereotypes add to the controversial nature of this game (Figure 16.4). The game was issued with eight tokens, representing the eight armed forces on the Italian side: Camicie Nere; Fanteria; Alpini; Carri Armati; Aviazione; Genio; Ascari; and Dubat. Each player chooses one of these and ‘follows its fate’. Unusually for a race game, some of the rules have different effects on different tokens: for example, at space 3 (the river), a turn is lost by all except Aviazione, [the Air Arm] which gets an extra throw. At space 45, a red cross indicates the hospital: the player must go back to the start. Din-Don, ovvero Tutte le Strade conducono a Roma (1933) This game [Ding-Dong, or rather All Roads lead to Rome] is of interest not because it has any links with the Game of Goose but because it reinforces the point that Italy in the 1930s was reflecting through its printed board games a strong colonial policy. Published by the Milanese firm of Carroccio S.A. in 1933, it is a dice-based drinking game, in which the object is to reach Rome, at the centre, from one of the peripheral cities. The game is played with a single six-sided die, two faces being favourable (marked ‘din’, allowing use of a free exit), two unfavourable (‘don’, leading to exits with penalty obstacles), and two blank. The interest lies in the fact that cities of farflung Italian domains such as Asmara [capital of Eritrea] or Pola [Pula, the largest city of Istria in Croatia] are made to appear no further from Rome than, for example, Reggio Calabria.

16.5. Belgian colonial attitudes It is instructive to compare Italian colonial attitudes with those of Belgium. During the great depression of the 1930s, the Belgian colony of Congo in Africa needed funds for its development. In order to provide this funding, the government set up the Colonial Lottery in 1934. From the outset, the revenue was mainly reserved for the colony, but a large number of Belgian associations with social or charitable aims could also rely on its support. To promote the lottery, in 1934 a game was issued of the Goose type (Figure 16.5). The classic points-doubling spaces are denoted by elephants. The dice spaces on 26 and 53 show the winning of prizes in the lottery, which are specified in the rules as 100,000 francs and 250,000 francs respectively. The death space is replaced by a

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Figure 16.5: Detail of the Belgian Loterie Coloniale game.

scene, on space 57, of a man in Western dress refusing to buy a ticket for the lottery. By contrast with the Italian Giro dall’Africa Orientale, in which the colonial powers are shown receiving tribute, here they are represented by an overweight figure of fun, suffering in the heat, while the native Africans are depicted with respect, going about their daily life.

16.6. Saving energy in wartime Germany The Jagd auf Kohlenklau [Hunt for the Coal Thief] was a spiral race game of propaganda commissioned by the German government to encourage people to save energy for the war effort. It was printed by Leptien-Schiffers for Werbeagentur (Advertising Agency) Arbeitsgemeinschaft Hohnhausen in Stuttgart, Germany, in 1943−1944, with a print run of 5 million. On the [black] squares are [examples of] saving energy; on the red squares we see ‘Kohlenklau’ and examples of wasting energy. The game was distributed free as part of a large campaign promoting energy saving.15 The illustrated spaces are described in the rules: for example, space 34 shows how to use cooking heat to warm water for washing. The rules are unremarkable, being instructions to move forward or back, miss a turn etc: the winning space shows the defeat of 15 Description by Gejus van Diggele – see British Museum number 2004,1231.15.

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Figure 16.6: Detail of the Jagd auf Kohlenklau.

Kohlenklau. Although this game has no specific traces of the Game of the Goose, the spiral track layout immediately suggests that game. The image of Kohlenklau became very popular and was used widely both by civilians and the armed forces as a cheerful symbol.

16.7. Post-war Italian politics: Elections are not a game! Le Elezioni non sono un Gioco [Elections are not a game] was the title of a race game published by the Christian Democrat Party of Italy c. 1953−1957.16 It consists of a 92-space numbered track, superimposed on a rough map of Italy, including Sicily and Corsica. It was distributed by the party in order to encourage people to vote. The equivalent of the death space is at 90: ‘not voting deserves a good kicking − go back to the start’. At space 91, you do vote but you ‘vote badly’. But at space 92, you vote and by not choosing Communism you ‘vote well’. You win the game and Italy wins, too. The Communists were a real force in post-war Italy. Outlawed during Mussolini’s Fascist regime, the party had played a major part in the Italian resistance movement and became the strongest party of the Italian left. At space 42, you are persuaded that ‘when Baffone comes [‘Big Whiskers’: Stalin was called this by the Italian anti-Communists] it will be no more work and a bonanza for everyone: you need to go to hospital to recover and stay two turns’. At space 80, you are advised: ‘Six million foreign tourists have come to Italy, none among them a Russian. Are they perhaps prisoners?’ At space 84: ‘Know that the Communists promise Heaven and Earth [Mari e Monti, 16 Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 47.

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literally the seas and the mountains] but then it is all work and prisons’. On the positive side, space 60 (the Vatican) moves you on, as do other spaces celebrating the building of railways, roads and new ships in the last four years of Christian Democrat government. Although the Communists did not win power, the Christian Democrats failed to get an overall majority in the 1953 elections, ending a period of eight years of post-war stability.

16.8. Politics in the Netherlands On Saturday, 18 January 2003, the Dutch morning newspaper, de Volkskrant, published an attachment showing an interesting variation on the Game of the Goose. Its theme was the elections to the Lower House, which ultimately led to the second cabinet of Jan Peter Balkenende, Jr., a Dutch politician of the Christian Democratic Party, who served as Prime Minister of the Netherlands from 2002 until 2010. Most of the 88-spaces of the spiral track show quotations from the prospectuses of different political parties, the fun of the game being to guess which party is involved. Of the other spaces, those marked ‘bonus’ advance the player while those marked ‘malus’ impede. The centre oval shows an amusing figure of a goose pondering over the throw of a die. Another political game, Van hun Brussel naar ons Nederland [From their Brussels to our Netherlands], was published as an attachment in the Netherlands newspaper De Telegraaf of August 27, 2012 in the context of the 2012 elections. Its theme was the programme of the Partij voor de Vrijheid [Party for Freedom] put forward by the Dutch politician, Geert Wilders. The winning space, at number 72, envisaged that the Netherlands would leave the European Union: ‘We regain our independence, our own currency, our own immigration policy – Boss in our own Country!’

16.9. The legacy The legacy of the Game of the Goose in this genre is two-fold. First, the popularity and general diffusion of the parent game in Continental Europe encourages the use of the game format. Second, the particular features of the Game of the Goose may be easily adapted to any theme, giving it additional point and force. Indeed, games in this genre seem to show particular felicity in their thematic treatment of the classic spaces, possibly because a strong commitment to an idea is implicit in forming a piece that is polemic or to be used as propaganda. Here, the idea is the main purpose, the game is secondary.

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In some examples of this genre, the relationship to the classic game is strong, with favourable and unfavourable spaces corresponding closely. In other cases, the relationship is more generic: the spiral track is merely loosely similar to that of a Game of the Goose. The main use in modern times is as political propaganda, perhaps because the game format is thought to induce positive feelings in an audience suspicious of political outpourings generally. Race games of polemic or propaganda are of course known outside Europe. A fine example is the White House Skiddoo, in which the numbered track is made up of ‘snowshoes’ wandering over the playing surface.17 The game was produced at the time of the 1956 Eisenhower–Stevenson presidential campaign, and was ‘specially rigged so a Republican can’t win’, though that did not affect the outcome of the election. However, neither in track layout nor in detailed rules does this game show any resemblance to the Game of the Goose. The legacy is indeed peculiar to Continental Europe.

17 Adrian Seville. Grolier Catalogue, Game 48.

17. Advertising and Promotion 17.1. The Game of Goose as a template for games of advertising and ­promotion The printed board game is well suited to advertising, provided that the production process is capable of achieving bright, attractive colours and that it is cheap, so that the game can be offered free, or for a nominal price. In the final decades of the 19th century, the techniques of chromolithography had developed sufficiently for these provisos to be met, so that the 1880s saw the introduction in France and the Netherlands of games designed specifically to promote commercial products.1 Among these games, the Game of the Goose had a particularly significant influence on design. This simple race game was well known and well trusted in the family environment through its association with educational games. Moreover, its protean structure was easily adaptable to product-specific variations that largely retained the excellent playing qualities of the original.

17.2. Early advertising games in the Netherlands Van Houten’s Tramway Game The simplest way of creating a game to advertise a product is to take an existing game and just to print the name of the product or a corresponding slogan on the game sheet. This seems to have been the process in the case of the Tramway game published by Vlieger of Amsterdam about 1885.2 The game itself is a standard version of the two-track Tramway game described in Chapter 4, Section 9. The only way in which the Vlieger game distinguishes itself from other, non-promotional, editions is that the tramcar bears an advertising slogan (above the normal direction indicator): ‘Van Houten’s Cacao – beste goedkoopste in gebruik’ [Van Houten’s drinking chocolate – best and cheapest in use].

1 Adrian Seville, ‘From Dolls to Drinking Chocolate – three early advertising games’, The Ephemerist, Winter 2011, pp. 3−9. 2 Buijnsters, op. cit, p. 266. Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 55. Strouhal, game 11. A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462984974_ch17

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Figure 17.1: Game advertising Van Houten’s drinking chocolate, in which the favourable spaces show the firm’s characteristic tins (Atlas van Stolk, Rotterdam).

The Van Houten’s Cacao Spel In 1889, the firm of van Houten brought out the game shown in Figure 17.1, closely based on the classic Game of Goose; a version in French was also produced.3 Like 3

Buijnsters, op. cit. p. 252.

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its original, it was a simple 63-space race game played with two dice, in which the favourable spaces on numbers 5, 14, 23 etc and 9, 18, 27 etc denoted by a goose in the original game were instead denoted by characteristic images of the Van Houten Cacao tin. As a further promotional device, the ordinary spaces (those without special playing significance) spelled out the same advertising slogan as in the Tramway game, while in the French version this became Cacao Van Houten − meilleur que tous les chocolats [Van Houten Cacao – better than all other drinking chocolates]. The game thus became an effective way of advertising, associating the product with the favourable spaces, but leaving the structure of the traditional Game of the Goose unchanged. The promotional message was cleverly reinforced by customising the traditional hazard spaces: the bridge at space 6 was that of Weesp, the site of the Van Houten factory to the present day, and views of the town ‘with and without Van Houten’ were shown in the lower corners of the sheet; the inn at 19 became a cafe; the well at 31 became one of Van Houten’s advertising trams; the prison at 52 was specified as ‘for counterfeiters’; while the death space at 58 showed a coffee pot, where you must begin the game again ‘for your recklessness’ in choosing this competing beverage. The Van Houten Company is today a major international brand, now selling its wares on the internet. It was founded by Coenraad Johannes van Houten (1801−1887) who invented the process of treatment of cocoa mass with alkaline salts to remove the bitter taste and improve the solubility in water. The Company advertised internationally, including frequent advertisements in the Illustrated London News, The Sphere, and other British journals of the early 20th century. Those advertisements were designed for a sophisticated adult audience, including men, drinking chocolate not being regarded as a beverage mainly for children, as would appear from the central decoration of the game sheet. By contrast, the game sheet was evidently targeted at the family audience.

17.3. Early advertising games in France In considering the birth of advertising race games, it is necessary to distinguish between games being offered as flyers by the proprietors of journals and newspapers; and games representing the usual class of advertisements, paid for by the vendor of a product. Examples of the former sort include a number of variant goose-based games published in connection with the Paris Exposition of 1867, which were distributed with the journals Paris-Magazine, Le Figaro, and La Vie Parisienne.4

4

D’Allemagne, op. cit., p225

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An early example of the second sort is also associated with a major exhibition, the Exposition Universelle Française held in Paris from 6th May to 31st October 1889, though the object promoted is a particular product rather than the exhibition itself. The Grand Jeu du Bébé Jumeau [Game of the Baby Jumeau Doll] is altogether more complex than the Van Houten game of the same date.5 The most striking feature of the exhibition was the newly-built Eiffel Tower and correspondingly the unicursal track of 63 spaces is set out on a large image of the Tower, starting at first gallery level and proceeding in a complex way up to the winning space at the top. The exhibition took place at a time of strong pro-American feeling in Paris, as indicated by the two flags at the top of the sheet. This explains why the New York Statue of Liberty appears in the background: its interior framework was also engineered by Eiffel; and a bronze replica of the statue was installed in Paris on 4 July 1889 near the Grenelle Bridge on the Île des Cygnes. The game sheet, lithographed in colour by the Amsterdam and Paris firm of Amand, is of large format (654 x 442 mm) and bears the statement in French: ‘We hope that you will put this game onto cardboard and that you will keep it as a souvenir of the Exposition Universelle Française’. The Jumeau dolls were of bisque, wonderfully dressed in the elaborate fashions of the period, but were very expensive and were suffering in competition with cheap imported German dolls. This struggle against German competition is reflected quite unashamedly in the game: the favourable spaces, on the traditional Goose numbers, are denoted by images of the Jumeau dolls. Furthermore, the favourable dice spaces at 26 and 53, which are reached on throwing 9 initially, both represent Franco-American unity. The unfavourable (hazard) spaces are also treated thematically. Most dramatic of these is the death space, on 58, where there is a broken German doll; the prison space, at 52, incarcerates another one, weeping piteously; and it is again a German doll who finds herself in the well, at 31, waiting to be rescued, while yet another is found on the bridge space at number 6, where she must pay for passage. However, at the labyrinth, space 42, it is a Jumeau doll who loses her path and must return to space 30, where she rejoins the ‘French way’. Curiously, given the negative imagery of the other hazard spaces, the space at 19 (normally the inn) is represented by the Jumeau factory. Overall, though, this game is conspicuous for its unconcealed attempt to influence the player towards the French product, while damning the German rival with ‘knocking copy’. It is difficult to say to what extent the advertising in this game was targeted at children: the choice of the Bébé variety rather than the Fashion dolls suggests that children were the ultimate destination for the product. However, the high price of the dolls meant that they were not pocket-money purchases, so targeting the family (in a game-playing context) may well have been deliberate policy. Though the firm

5

Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 56.

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is no more, the Jumeau dolls are much prized today by collectors and prices in five figures of US dollars are realised for the rarer kinds. A variant of the Jumeau game was issued by the Amsterdam firm of J Vlieger in the same year, to promote Blooker’s Cacao. The only changes to the graphics are that a French flag flying from the Tower itself bears an inscription extolling Blooker’s Cacao, as does the flag on the left. However, the Dutch instructions are innocent of all reference to the Jumeau firm. Instead of the description of the Jumeau factory, there are details of the Eiffel Tower, including the information that the game board reproduces the Tower at 1/536 scale. Perhaps this version of the game is unique in the field of promotional advertising in having images of an advertised product totally different from that being promoted! The firm of Blooker was founded in 1814. Like Van Houten, it still exists today and has a web site giving details of its history.

17.4. How the Game of the Goose has influenced the design of ­advertising games The Game of the Goose lends itself admirably to adaptation for the purposes of advertising. The four main methods by which creative design solutions have been achieved in this genre of games are as follows: use of a ‘story line’; iconographic variation; rule variation; and adaptation of the track.6 Even when the game departs considerably from the classic original, traces of the Goose may still be found. These ideas are illustrated by a selection of games chosen to show the diversity of approaches, spanning several countries of the world. Such a selection must inevitably omit literally hundreds of games. The story line The term ‘story line’ is used here to characterise games where the player is invited – in the imagination – to participate in an unfolding story, from the start to the winning space. In the original Game of Goose, the underlying imagery was that of a game of human life, though this is not made explicit and is not generally apparent to modern players. However, many of the variations of the game throughout the centuries do indeed tell an explicit story – for example, the progress of a new recruit to high rank in the army, or the course of history, or a geographical tour. Likewise, many of the advertising games have a clearly stated story line.

6 Adrian Seville, The Game of Goose in Advertising. Presentation to Board Games Studies, Colloquium IX Oxford, April 2005. Published on the giochidelloca website.

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Figure 17.2:  French game c. 1920 advertising the ‘Lune’ brand of patent medicine against worms.

A good example of this is the Jeu de Lune advertising a patent medicine against worms (Figure 17.2). Here the story told by the game track is healthy development of the child from birth (evidently in a cabbage patch!) to young adulthood. The winning space shows ‘a large and strong boy of 15 years of age, thanks to Vermifuge Lune’. The kinds of story that can be told are many and various. For example, in the Jeu de L’Huile de Table des Chartreux [Game of Chartreux Table Oil] published in Belgium probably in the 1930s, the process of production and distribution is shown along the 63-space track beginning with the peanut at space 1. Another game from this period is Le Jeu du Lion Noir − Frottinette et Frottinet, promoting cleaning materials: the track consists of several short sequences showing the benefits of using the Lion Noir products and the hazards of using others. In the above examples, the story line is closely associated with the product. In others, it is chosen to add lustre, but is essentially independent. Thus, in the Ganzenspel van ons Wonderschoon Belgie [Goose game of our Beautiful Belgium], Nestlé products are promoted by association with the attractive geographical tour of the country. The 1934 Italian game La Corsa al Polo, [the Journey to the Pole] advertising the ‘Lana Polo’ brand of wool is an intermediate case: a journey to the North Pole is depicted along the track, picking up the meaning of the brand name and, by association, the idea of keeping warm with wool.

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Of course, the possibility of illustrating a vivid story line is not confined to variants of the Game of the Goose: it can be realised in almost any race game. However, if the variant keeps the classic arrangement of hazards and favourable spaces, in whatever form, these will be quickly recognised by the players, so that the depiction of the story line in the non-active spaces will not become too distracting. By contrast, some race games, not related to the Game of the Goose, attempt to reinforce the story line by requiring the player to read a fragment of the story from a booklet when landing on each particular space, leading to confusion since the fragments are approached in random order. In the Goose variants, the story line is an independent and properlyordered pleasure. Iconographic variation The second main method of adapting the Game of the Goose to the requirements of advertising is that of iconographic variation. By this is meant substitution of the iconography of the active spaces, whether favourable or unfavourable, by images related to the product or its competitors. A clear example is the Game of the Jumeau Dolls, considered above, in which the favourable Goose spaces have an image of the product, while the hazard spaces are associated negatively with its competitors. Examples of the first kind of substitution occur frequently, as in Les Jeux de La Phosphatine Falieres, a French game from the early years of the 20th century advertising a patent supplementary food, where a child holding a tin of product appears on each of the classic goose spaces and the winning space shows children enjoying their Phosphatine soup. This game – beautifully drawn by Benjamin Rabier (1864−1939), creator of the famous image La vache qui rit − is very close to the classic game in most respects. A somewhat later game, Le jeu de l’ALSA, more modified than the Phosphatine game but retaining many features of the classic Game of the Goose, advertises ALSA raising agent for making cakes etc. Here, not only are the geese are replaced by images of packs of ALSA raising agent but also the death hazard is replaced by a shopping bag that does not contain such a pack – go back to the start! However, not all iconographic variations are directly thematic. For example, the death space may be replaced by an image more suitable for a juvenile audience: it becomes a scythe in the Phosphatine game, for example, while in a game advertising Choclat Menier it shows a knockout in a boxing ring. And, occasionally, variations seem contrary to any reasonable promotion of the product: the Jeu de L’Huile de Table de Chartreux, has, in the death space, the seal of guarantee of the oil, with the instruction: go back to space 1 (the peanut).

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Rule variation Though the classic rules of the Game of the Goose are sometimes found unmodified (e.g. in the Ganzenspel van ons Wonderschoon Belgie mentioned above) more often advertising games derived from it exhibit considerable rule variation. Variations of the doubling rule affecting the goose-type spaces are rare. A good thematic example is found in the Jeu de l’Alsa, where the rule on landing on such a space, here denoted by a packet of cake-raising agent, becomes ‘go on to the next cake’. Rule variations affecting the hazards are more common, since these can be readily combined with iconographic variation to reinforce the product. The death space rule may be adapted to require going back to a specified space, not the start. For example, in the Jeu de Lune, the rule for the death space 58, showing oxyures [pin-worms], becomes ‘go back to space 5’, showing a bottle of the vermifuge medicine. In this game, the other worm-related hazards give rise to the same penalty. Spaces giving rise to missed turns are often treated thematically, for example in the Jeu du Lion Noir, space 4 ‘bad shoe polish’ – has the rule ‘advance to space 7, (cracked shoes), and lose two turns. The same antipathy to a competing product can be found in the ALSA game, where the prison rule is used to highlight the danger: space 51 depicts a packet of ‘levure X’ and the player must wait to be released by another. Adaptation of the track Quite often, the track of advertising games is shortened from the classic 63 spaces. This is not a thematic adaptation but is intended to accommodate the game to a small sheet of paper − a design consideration saving production costs: important where the game is to be given away free. For example, the track of the Lion Noir game is restricted to 49 spaces; per contra, although the Jeu de Lune provides the full 63 spaces on a sheet of comparable size, the playing spaces are uncomfortably small. For games that do not retain the traditional 63 spaces, the arrangement of favourable spaces and hazards is arbitrary. Economies of space mean that usually the conventional spiral or a rectangular spiral form is used. Just occasionally, the track shape becomes a thematic design element. An example is found in the 63-space game offered by the Nantes shoe firm of Perrouin, where the track is spaciously designed in the form of a capital letter P; the story line tells of the adventures of Le père Ouin-Ouin, a figure in local folklore, while the bizarre death space shows an unfortunate who – being unable to get the Perrouin brand of shoes – has cut off his feet and must start again.

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Race games distant from the classic game Race games in countries influenced by the classic Game of the Goose frequently show traces of it, even when their detailed playing rules are distant from the original. At this level, the traces are generic. Typically, the kinds of hazard encountered are similar in effect. Also, there will be favourable spaces, not necessarily in a regular sequence. And the general playing ‘feel’ of the game may be similar in such aspects as the balance between favourable and unfavourable spaces, the balance between active and non-active spaces, the average number of rounds to a result, and the variance of that number. All these similarities are engendered by the designer’s wish to achieve an enjoyable game. An example is the Steckenpferde-rennen [Hobby-horse Race], published by the Dresden firm of Bergmann & Co, in about 1900, to advertise their ‘Hobby-horse’ brand of complexion soap.7 The spiral track consists of 100 spaces, the winning space at the centre showing a package of the advertised soap. Along the way, instead of geese, hobby-horses act favourably: going up the stick is like ascending the ladders of a Snakes and Ladders game. Advancement is also provided by landing on spaces showing young ladies washing with the prescribed soap. However, towards the end, at space 98, a lady of uncertain years is shown recoiling from her image in a mirror – she has used the wrong soap! The player so unfortunate as to land there is out of the game, whereas the player landing on the figure of Struwwelpeter (a byword for untidiness), at space 66, is less unfortunate and only needs to go back 30 spaces.

17.5. Advertising games aimed at children Mention has been made above of the adaptation of the iconography of the death space so as not to upset children. However, there is a significant sub-genre of advertising games specifically targeting children. Dutch games advertising biscuits were often played with biscuits as stakes. A 1930s example is the Nutrix KabouterSpel, a two-colour chromolithographed game of 63 spaces, though with individual rules rather than those borrowed from the classic game. It depicts a fairyland journey, with various imaginative delights and perils.8 Each player begins with ten Nutrix biscuits of the kind called Kruidnoten (a spicy biscuit traditionally associated with the early December Sinterklaas holiday in the Netherlands) and puts two of these in the pot. All the different kinds of biscuits made by the Nutrix firm are illustrated and named. At space 8, the Menagerie lion biscuit is worked into 7 Adrian Seville, ‘Children’s Books as Board Games − a different way of “reading” the story’. Gazette of the Grolier Club, New York, number 65, 2016, pp. 36−53. 8 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 58.

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the rules: ‘Put two biscuits in the pot for the Lion and stop one turn to see the wild animals’. At various points, the player is directed to eat a biscuit from the pot. But, at space 44, which shows a gnome busily eating through a large box of biscuits, the penalty is to have to eat two of one’s own supply – and begin the game again. The central space says: Als Nutrix binnen komt juicht heel het huisgezin. [When Nutrix comes, the whole family cheers]. Whoever gets there first may have all the Nutrix biscuits. The connection between Dutch children, Goose games and biscuits runs deep. Special biscuits in the form of a goose shape fitting into another biscuit in the form of a ring were sometimes used as tokens.9 German advertising games for children often use the popular ‘journey’ format, rather than taking their pattern from the Goose or Monkey game. An example, from between the wars, is a game advertising Wildhagen’s bonbons, which features a 46-space journey round the Bodensee. The perils of the journey are met by appropriately-flavoured bonbons. At space 3, it is raining, so the clever young traveller buys ‘Echte Eukalyptus-Menthol-Bonbons Marke Awuco’ [Genuine Eucalyptus-Menthol sweets, trade mark ‘Awuco’] which protect him from a chill, so he can calmly proceed to space 6. But at space 9, ‘strong heat’, he has forgotten to bring with him ‘Wildhagen’s Refreshing Bonbons’ and must miss a turn, to rest. At number 16, he fares better, having bought ‘Wildhagen’s Alpen Vollmilch Bonbons’ [full-milk Alpine bonbons] which allow him to walk on without a mid-day rest. At space 27, disaster strikes. He has lost the way and has strayed into a field of barley, where a country policeman warns him, telling him of the great usefulness of barley, especially in the form of the malt content for the popular ‘Wildhagen’s Malzbonbons’: he must as a penalty go back to space 22. Then, at space 33, unbearable heat drives him back to space 28, to buy Wildhagen’s peppermint drops: thus refreshed, he can count double on his next throw. The winner at space 46 has a fitting reward: his parents buy him some Wildhagen’s bonbons. Despite the format, a long way from the Goose game, the rewards and penalties are recognisable at a generic level.

17.6. The diversity of goods and services advertised The Netherlands The Netherlands, with its still-active tradition of advertising by means of printed games, shows an astonishing diversity in goods and services promoted by this means. Food and drink items include: bread, baby food, chicory as substitute for coffee, chocolate, coffee, gin and beer, jam, snacks and sweets, tea. Household items include: books, cameras, footwear, furnishings, glue, hardware, soap, washing conditioner. 9

Fred Horn, private communication, 2015.

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Figure 17.3: The Gas Game, 1926, produced for the Amsterdam Gas Supply Company (Former Collection Fred Horn, now in the Vlaams Spellenarchief, Brugge, Belgium).

Services include: banking, gas supply, insurance, management, recruitment, steam cleaning of clothes, water supply. Local entities include: animal parks, department stores, local transport, supermarkets, tourism., waste and recycling. Industries include: poultry processing, salt production, radio and television, print journalism. Institutions and pressure groups include: the Catholic Workers Guild; and the ‘Voice of Renting’, shading into the games of propaganda and polemic that are the subject of the previous chapter. These lists of advertising subjects, which are by no means exhaustive and give only a flavour of the range, are compiled from a representative sample of games from the collection of Fred Horn, now held at the Vlaams Spellen­ archief [Flemish Games Archive] in Bruges. A noteworthy feature is that roughly half of these race games pay homage to the Game of the Goose in an easily-recognisable way, in that their track length is 63 spaces. Another is that, though intended to be given away as ephemeral paper sheets, quite often considerable care has gone into their graphic design. Figure 17.3 shows Het Gasspel [The Gas Game], produced in 1926 by an anonymous designer for the Amsterdam gas supply company, promoting the concept of the ideal home, cleanly

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Figure 17.4: Detail of Jan van Woerkom’s Hipspel, c. 1925 (Former Collection Fred Horn, now in the Vlaams Spellenarchief, Brugge, Belgium).

heated by gas. It is based on the classic 63-space Game of the Goose: the death space at 58 shows the outdated coal hole, where the player gets so dirty he must start the game again. A game of similar date, with amusing graphics of the highest quality, was designed by Daan Hoeksema (1879−1935), the distinguished Dutch cartoonist, for the Jan van Woerkom jam and fruit preserving company in Altena, Oosterhout. Though not formally modelled on a Goose game, it includes a comparable ‘start again’ hazard, shown in Figure 17.4, where a pear is refused entry because it does not have the required passport. France No other country can compete with the Netherlands in terms of the diversity and sheer quantity of advertising games, or in the continuing appearance of new games with a relationship to the classic Game of the Goose. France, though, produced a diversity of advertising games, many related to the classic game, up to the Second World War. D’Allemagne gives an incomplete list because, as he puts it, of the profusion and variety of such games in fantasy, form and rules.10 He groups them under 10 D’Allemagne, op. cit. p. 227.

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the headings of Hygiene, Medicine and Pharmacy; Food; Clothing and Finery; Cars; Newspapers, Radio and Cinema; and Household goods. Several of the games listed have been mentioned above; only one dates from as late as the 1940s. A sub-genre not mentioned by D’Allemagne is the series of games of which a typical example is the Jeu de l’oie commercial de Reims.11 These were produced in the 1930s by the publicity firm of Marcel Lamy in Nancy for a multitude of French cities and a number of cities in French-speaking Belgium. The format was always the same: a game sheet in bright colours folded into a booklet giving details of the 63 merchants or providers of services who had paid to participate. There was usually a lead sponsor, often a coal merchant, who offered a prize to those who bought from him. Other merchants ‘judiciously selected among the best’ (according to the publishers of the game) simply took a space on the track of the game, illustrating their offering, together with a small notice appearing in the booklet giving details. In the Reims game, for example, space 7, an advertisement for machine tools shows two workers, one working by hand banging his head in frustration, the other smoking while the machine does the work. The booklet entry invites you ‘to consider the advantages of the machine tool’. Apart from the 63-space track, little homage is paid to the classic Goose game, so that space 58, normally the death space, has no special playing significance. Whether it was cheaper to advertise on this space rather than on other spaces because of the negative association is not known. The giochidelloca website lists over 60 publicity games from France, of which a handful date from after the Second World War. The CCA [Consumers Association of Alsace] produced a 35-space game in 1987, advertising local products and museums and places of interest: the Castle of Haut-Koenigsbourg on space 21 has the classic prison rule. In 1985, the Champagne producers Heidsieck produced a 63-space game [Le Grand Jeu du Bicentenaire] modelled on the Game of the Goose to celebrate their 200 years, though it can be argued that the use of this model was a conscious move back in time rather than a modern legacy. The death space shows Phylloxera. Italy On the evidence of the giochidelloca web site, a steady flow of advertising games in Italy throughout the 20th century has continued to respect the traditions of the Game of the Goose. Even when the link is not obvious through spiral track shape, other indications may sometimes be found. For example, a game published by Agnesi to promote their range of pasta celebrates the famous Classicissima cycle race over 291 km from Milan to San Remo. It has a track laid out on a bird’s-eye-view map; but the track is of 63 spaces and the hazards are cleverly adapted: at space 58, the rider is 11 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, Game 59.

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seen by the race officials to be getting a push, and must start again – in contrast to the previous occasion for a push, space 21, where the infringement was not spotted and the rider moved serenely on to space 24. A race game advertising the Ebe distillery, Vicenza, has an unusual line of print recording that it was authorised for distribution by the Questura of Vicenza in November 1950. The game sheet also indicates that it will be given free to anyone sending three labels from the products of the distillery. Such indications are rare on advertising games. The game itself consists of 54 spaces and has a combination of its own particular rules and those reminiscent of the classic Game of the Goose. Moving into the 21st century, a spin-off game Gioca con Skatenini [Play with the Skatenini] offered in 2007 a spiral track of 31 spaces featuring the set of toys marketed by Ferrero, a multinational company, to promote their lines of sweets and chocolate products. Though the game owes little to the Game of Goose in its rules, its presentation and general ‘feel’ is strongly similar.

17.7. The advertising legacy The legacy of the Game of the Goose is clearly evident in the continuing production of advertising and promotional games in Continental Europe. These often bear a close relationship to the classic form, particularly in the Netherlands. The motivation for the production of these game sheets is questionable. Anecdotal evidence suggests that they are rarely played. However, the association with the trusted game, played over the years in the family with young children, no doubt is intended to bring a warm feeling to surround the particular product or service advertised.

Conclusion 

18. Printed Board Games as Sources for Cultural History 18.1. The contribution of the printed board game to studies of material culture Comparatively recently – and especially within the last few decades − the study of modern cultural history has been broadened to take explicit account of the information that can be derived from material objects, rather than solely from the written record. However, a general question arises in any investigation based on such objects: Why should we bother to investigate the material in search of the meaning of the cultural? Historical and other investigators of human behaviour have long argued that words, rather than things, are better resources for understanding the past and present. Can any particular claims be made for material culture as a distinctive type of empirical data?1

The present chapter addresses this question: what can we learn that is distinctive from the study of printed board games about the cultures in which they were made? At the most obvious level, the survival of identifiable games provides evidence of their existence at particular times and places. Where they survive in numbers and variety, and commercial production is their source, we may infer that a market for them existed. A further level of inference is needed to conclude that they were actually played – but such inference can be a step too far in the case of game sheets whose primary purpose is as a conversation piece. With that caveat, the study of surviving board games can contribute usefully to our understanding of the culture of leisure in various places at various times. This is particularly so, since the written record of ‘who played what, and when’ is scant, or non-existent, at least until the 19th century. Though the study of the games themselves cannot answer questions about the extent of their actual use, it can provide other insights. The rich iconography found in many games provides a visual record not only of objects but also of people and their costumes, activities, concerns and pleasures. The thematic treatment found in 1 Thomas J. Schlereth, ‘Material Culture Research and Historical Explanation’, The Public Historian, Vol. 7, No. 4 (Autumn, 1985), pp. 21−36. A. Seville, The Cultural Legacy of the Royal Game of the Goose: 400 years of Printed Board Games, Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462984974_ch18

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many games can be astonishingly detailed. Often, these games are also very specific as to the circumstances of their time and place, so they form useful contemporary witnesses. Of course, the printed word, whether appearing as text on the game sheet or in a separate booklet, is crucial to the interpretation, so that the game as material culture shades into the written record. Nevertheless, these texts have not generally been used as primary sources by historians and new things are to be found. The printed board game also shades into other genres of iconographic material. Most obviously, these games are prints and can be studied as such, though here their contribution to knowledge of printing history is hardly unique, and most are not in the class of the ‘fine art’ print. But they also relate to genres such as the ‘popular print’ and the cartoon, where they extend the oeuvres of some well-known artists. In general, though, these prints have been somewhat neglected by art historians.2 Arguably, the most distinctive contribution that the printed board game can make to cultural history is an ability to convey the ‘feel’ of an era, or the compelling force of some belief, through a unique combination of engaging iconography and clever interpretation of rules, especially when this combination relates effectively to the parent Game of the Goose. Many individual examples have already been discussed. This chapter, although some further examples are touched on, is intended to move the discussion away from the particular into a more general illustration of the relationship between this material and the broader sweep of cultural history.

18.2. The problem of survival An obvious limitation is that, because of the frail nature of broadsheet games printed on paper, those that survive constitute only a fraction of the total production. Also, many of the thematic games are ephemeral and will be lost unless picked up by an unlikely contemporary collector or left by accident undisturbed in some attic room. In theory, the systems of print registration operated in some countries at some periods should produce records (though not the originals); however, these are far from complete. Efforts have been made in relation to early printed books to reconstruct or at least estimate what may have been lost.3 The statistical methods involved look at the number of surviving examples of each particular edition and attempt to estimate, using these numbers for all known editions, the number of editions that have not survived.4 2 A welcome exception is the PhD thesis by Naomi Lebens referred to in Chapter 3. 3 Flavia Bruni and Andrew Pettegree eds. Lost Books: Reconstructing the Print World of Pre-Industrial Europe. Library of the Written Word 46 / The Handpress World 34. Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2016. 4 Jonathan Green, Frank McIntyre and Paul Needham, ‘The Shape of Incunable Survival and Statistical Estimation of Lost Editions’, The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America, Vol. 105, No. 2 (June 2011), pp. 141−175.

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Even for incunables, where the data for this exercise is largely available from the ISTC and other such catalogues, the statistical problems are difficult and assumptions that amount to gross over-simplifications have to be made. The indication is that loss rates of early printed books may be very considerable, though evidence from early advertisement lists suggests that the losses are somewhat over-estimated by the statistical methods used. A highly perceptive analysis of the problem of survival and loss of prints is given by Antony Griffiths.5 He surmises that as many as three quarters of the plates and blocks produced between 1550 and 1820 have left no surviving impressions. He comments that functional prints, of which printed games form a sub-category, are particularly likely not to have survived, since unlike fine art prints they would have had no contemporary collectors and might well have been used to destruction. The loss rate for printed board games is indeed a particularly difficult subject: there is no database comparable to the ISTC for these games and the numbers of printed board games are so small, in relation to the total numbers of prints of all kinds, that statistical estimates would not be reliable, even if the data were available. For example, in the 1614 stock list of Andrea and Michelangelo Vaccari of Rome, only the following entries are of printed games:6 Schacchiero con la sua dichiaratione [chess board with rules] Il giuoco del pela Chiu [the Game of Pluck the Owl] Il gioco dell’Ocha [the Game of the Goose] Il gioco del Gambero [the Game of the Prawn],

whereas the total number of different prints is of the order of one thousand, listed individually or as groups, on 770 lines of text. A further difficulty is that in general the edition sizes for printed games are unknown.7 One clue may be that most games printed from copper plates were engraved rather than completely etched, though engraved games were often enhanced by etching to some degree. Engraved plates can be used to make several hundred impressions without significant loss of quality, while etched plates are much less durable (see Figure 18.1) Engraving was intrinsically more expensive than etching, so it is reasonable to infer that the aim was to produce editions of some hundreds at least, if demand was there. Woodblocks, though, are inherently durable, unless damaged (for example, by splitting in the press, or by woodworm – a common hazard), and it is not possible to 5 Antony Griffiths, The Print before Photography. London: British Museum Press, 2016, pp. 195−213. 6 Francesco Ehrle, Roma prima di Sisto V. Rome: Danesi, 1908, p. 62. 7 For an illuminating discussion on the printing capacity of engraved or etched copper plates, and of woodblocks, see Antony Griffiths, op. cit., pp. 50−61.

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Figure 18.1: Detail of the Nouveau jeu historique et chronologique des rois de France, as revised by Crépy in 1775 following the death of Louis XV in 1774. The etched portraits of earlier monarchs have worn considerably, while the engraved text and decorations remain relatively fresh. The original plate was used c. 1745 in an issue by Louise Le Clair, successor to Claude Roussell (c. 1665−1725/1735), who may well have made it.

estimate an upper limit for editions in that medium. Indeed, woodblocks were often passed on for re-use from one printer to another, sometimes over centuries. Another difficulty is that the survival of prints is not likely to be uniform. For example, those bought by aristocratic families may be likely to have a higher survival rate than the ‘popular prints’ circulating among the less well-off. However, caution is necessary in using this term: Michael Bury observes that moralising prints, such as The World Turned Upside Down, are often so described, whereas it is known that the Prior of the Innocenti in Florence acquired an impression of the Arboro della Pazzia [the Tree of Folly] in 1569, along with a quantity of mainly devotional prints: he concludes that these so-called popular prints evidently appealed to the same people as bought more erudite material.8 The term is more usefully applied to prints produced in cheap formats, notably the woodblock prints of games produced in the provinces of 17th- and 18th-century France, the German Bilderbogen produced in Neu-Ruppin, or the 19th-century Lorraine production in factories such as Pellerin. Such prints, bought cheaply and therefore perhaps not highly prized, may be expected individually to

8

Michael Bury, The Print in Italy: 1550−1620. London: British Museum Press, 2001, p. 152.

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have low survival rates, though in the steam-press era the numbers printed may be high enough to counterbalance this. Given these difficulties in estimating survival rates, there can be no single answer to the question of how reliable are board games, as collected in museums and in private hands, in reflecting the culture of particular places and periods. John Spear’s researches, as listed in the appendix to Chapter 5, indicate that in respect of British printed board games up to about 1870, some 283 out of 360 are known to exist, the remainder being known only through advertisements or other references to them, for example by being listed on other games by the same publisher. That suggests a loss rate of about 20%, though this is of course an under-estimate, since not all advertisements are known. However, these games were largely produced for an affluent market in a relatively recent period. Loss rates for other groups of games are likely to be substantially higher. Caution is particularly necessary regarding negative inferences. For example, it was thought that the output of the rue Montorgueil in Paris was confined to devotional prints, themselves very rare. Only lately, and by chance, did the discovery of three printed board games with the imprint of the Veuve Petit indicate that the production was wider in scope than previously thought.9

18.3. The question of bias If the printed board games of a particular time and place are to be used as investigative tools to probe the particular culture, the question arises as to whether they form an unbiased record, or whether the circumstances of their production might lead to a distorted viewpoint. A first answer to this question is to note that the production of printed games, at least up to the last years of the 19th century when free advertising game sheets began to be introduced, is a commercial undertaking by a publisher with a particular market in prospect. Up to that point, the production of game sheets, especially in colour, was an expensive undertaking, and the sale price of a game reflected this. In England, in the first half of the 19th century, a golden age for game production, the price of a single game with playing equipment would represent a considerable portion of a skilled worker’s weekly wage. Such games, then, were aimed at a middle class whose increasing affluence rendered such luxuries as a printed game affordable and whose interests in education and moral improvement for children rendered it a justifiable purchase. The games produced naturally reflected those interests rather than those of a wider range of society, who may or may not have shared them. Similarly, in 17th-century France, the large-format copper engravings of the Paris map- and print-sellers were destined for the sons of the high-ranking rich: their themes were largely attuned to the formation of an aristocratic cadet in 9

See Chapter 3, Section 6.

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the traditional curriculum. However, once allowance has been made for the sectoral nature of the market addressed, the games themselves are likely to reflect the needs and aspirations of the sector with some fidelity. Note, though, that this is some distance from saying that the games will be faithful to historical facts: for example Chambrelents’ Jeu de la Victoire, gives an account of the Great War according to what a Frenchman might wish to believe.10 Though printed games most often reflect a market into which they are to be sold, those that are given away free or sold cheaply by way of promotion are in a different class. Here, the interests of the commissioning agency are likely to be paramount. These interests can be political, as in the case of games intended to influence elections, or polemical, as in the case of games intended to influence hearts and minds. They can also be commercial, as in the case of advertising games promoting products or services. Although games in this class do reflect their cultures, they do so in a different way. Mostly the bias they introduce is obvious and often would have been obvious when they were first produced: an election game produced by the Italian Christian Democratic Party was never going to give the Communists an unbiased hearing, while a game promoting a patent medicine was always likely to overstate its efficacy. These biases indeed form part of the cultural record. In some cases, though, the bias can be less overt. The ‘moral’ games produced in 19th-century England afford many examples where a point of view not universally held in the culture of the time is expressed though the mechanism of the game. This is easiest to see when the game has a detailed instruction book, in which the point of view may be given free rein. Examples are frequent in the games produced in England by Quaker firms, such as the Dartons or John Betts: here, the attitudes prevalent in much of society get short shrift, as war, colonial exploitation and slavery are abhorred, and the need for charitable giving is emphasized. However, implicit views are often also involved in the playing instructions. Indeed, one might argue that the instructions for the parent Game of the Goose are intended to reflect the moral values of renouncing earthly concerns in favour of spiritual advancement. When that game is transformed into a thematic variant, the implicit values will of course change. For example, in the Jeu de la Marine, where the French Navy affords the theme, the values of good seamanship are being quietly inculcated at the same time as the terminology of the sea is gently introduced. In this respect, printed race games of the type considered in this book differ very sharply from ‘mind’ games such as chess, which are neutral as to values, or indeed from race games with an undifferentiated track.

10 See Chapter 14, Section 3.

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18.4. Printed board games in support of other historical sources A major way in which printed board games can support other historical sources is through their depiction of particular scenes or events for which other contemporary illustrations are hard to find. An example, not of the highest graphical quality but of considerable interest, is found in Edward Wallis’s Scenes in London, published about 1820, where space 14 shows the Cosmorama Exhibition.11 This was a refined version of the peep show, in which the public could view well-painted scenes of distant lands and exotic subjects through optical devices that magnified the picture. Seven convex viewing lenses were mounted on each of two opposite walls, one devoted to Europe, the other to Africa and Asia. A dark frame was interposed between the lens and its object, a specially-commissioned oil painting of a natural scene. The first exhibition with this title opened in 1820 in St. James’s Street but moved to Regent Street in 1823.12 A similarly-rare depiction of a public attraction is to be found in the same publisher’s Wonders of Art, also published around 1820, where space 11 shows the Musical Lady, an attraction in the exhibition of automata by Henri Maillardet that continued at Spring Gardens, London from about 1798 to 1817.13 The image may be compared with the advertisement:14 Again lately removed to Mr Wigley’s Great Rooms at Spring Gardens, Maillardet’s Wonderful Mechanical Exhibition: The MUSICAL LADY. This wonderful automaton whose combination of excellence renders adequate description impossible is seated at an organised pianoforte and plays with the most accurate precision sixteen airs. Every note proceeds from the pressure of the fingers on the keys. The feet assist in playing several notes while the animated and surprising motion of the eyes aided by the most elegant gesture produce the actual appearance of respiration.

Similarly useful depictions – precisely drawn and up to date − are found in the games showing monuments and the like. Basset’s various editions of the Jeu des monumens de Paris, the first of which appeared in 1810 under the imperial rule of Napoleon I, faithfully indicate the results of regime change, both through their decoration and through the individual images of buildings and monuments. Technological change is also well represented by the detailed images found in printed games. The Jeu du Chemin de Fer, published by Gangel at Metz c. 1864, has already been mentioned as a game conceived by a professional railway engineer, hence the reliability of its depictions.15 Another reliable game is the Jeu des manchons 11 Adrian Seville, Grolier Catalogue, game 36. 12 Richard Daniel Altick. The Shows of London. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978). p. 211. 13 Altick, p. 350. 14 Bell’s Monthly Compendium of Advertisements for June 1807. 15 Chapter 4, Section 9.

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Figure 18.2: Detail from Scenes in London showing the Cosmorama Exhibition; (b) detail from Wonders of Art, showing Maillardet’s Musical Lady.

Figure 18.3:  End spaces of two different editions of Basset’s Jeu des monumens de Paris, (a) in decorated with an imperial crown surmounted by an eagle (b) decorated with the Gallic rooster and the tricolour; the quadriga has been removed from the Arc de Triomphe.

‘La Couronne’, published by the Roberts Company in Paris around 1900 to promote their brand of gas mantles: it is a good introduction to the development, marketing and use of what is now a forgotten technology.16 The detailed representation of objects mentioned above has particular relevance for those interested in social history. For example, there are many games intended for children that are decorated with images of domestic objects. A particularly rich set of images occurs on a game sheet, probably from the 1920s, promoting the Olga drug and photo store in Stuttgart. Although this is not of great interest as a game, the 16 Adrian Seville, Grolier catalogue, game 57.

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Figure 18.4:  Game promoting the Olga pharmacy, Stuttgart.

contents of the store are pictured and labelled most effectively. The large stock of medicinal wine is remarkable. Many other advertising games are of interest because they depict in detail a range of products, for example the Dutch games advertising biscuits.17 Printed board games are capable of providing historians with highly specific knowledge about ideas, as well as about objects. Leaving aside the printed booklet, there are still many examples where hard-to-find information is embodied in the game. One such is Mariette’s Carte Methodique of 1702, already discussed in Chapter 3, Section 8, where the concepts of heraldry are carefully set out, though the connotation of the 4 of spades showing the arms ‘of women and girls’, where the player must stay until delivered by another, may not find approval in our age of equality of the sexes. Another example discussed in that section is the Jeu de la Sphère ou de l’Univers selon Tycho Brahe, in which not only details of the constellations as known in 1662 are shown but also a specific idea is communicated: that the motion of the primum mobile is the most rapid of all in the universe, as then conceived. At the other end of a spectrum beginning with the faithful depictions just considered lie those board games that make use of the cartoon idiom.18 Indeed, the ribbon-like format of successive images found in most games strongly suggests the 17 E.g. the Nutrix Biscuits game described in Chapter 17 Section 5. 18 See D’Allemagne, op. cit., p. 56 for further French cartoonists.

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bande dessinée. Of artists producing games in this idiom, Guy Arnoux (1886−1951) is perhaps the most important: his savage Jeu du pas de l’oie has been noted in Chapter 16 Section 3. Arnoux shows a perfect understanding of the active spaces of the jeu de l’oie on which it is based, so that his cartoon images derive extra force from the association with the parent game. He also produced the Jeu du soldat Français (Paris: Devambez, 1917) a dice game-of-seven ‘to be played preferably on a drumhead’ and indeed the central space shows soldiers doing just that. Gus Bofa (1883–1968) was another French illustrator, whose low-life depictions spanned several art forms, including book illustration, comics, poster-art and visual biography. During the Great War, he drew satirical images of the front for the magazine La Baïonnette: his drawings show the brutality of war and its effects on soldiers. His Jeu de la Tranchée appeared there on 16 August 1917 and is uniformly bleak in its message, the only positives coming from pinards of wine, whether red or white. Here, though, the rules of the Jeu de l’oie are themselves satirised: ‘who lands on space 31 – le voltigeur [the ‘skirmish rifleman’, free to roam the battlefield]– must push his dice three times round the board with his foot, as children do at merelles,19 and will then be free to leave, if he thinks this is a stupid game’. Numerous other examples could be given of the use of the cartoon idiom, including many on military themes: the satirical newspaper Le Canard enchainé presented one such in its issue of 10 May 1961, where the ‘winner’ is buried with military honours. By contrast, the work of the important Dutch artist Daniël ‘Daan’ Hoeksema (1879−1835) was aimed at a family market. These printed games shade into other genres, while retaining their own distinctive characteristics. Although the cartoon format obviously does not provide realistic depiction, it has great power in conveying an intangible aspect of history: the popular mood, especially when all the instruments of a game – active iconography, decorative scheme, descriptive text and rules – combine to give a vivid impression. This is especially the domain of the satirical and polemical games, treated in Chapter 16. A good example described there is Le jeu du Lapin de la Grande Thérèse. The great financial scandal which it chronicles was the talk of France, especially in 1903 when Thérèse Humbert and her accomplices were brought to trial. Apart from the reports in newspapers, the trial received strong coverage in other media. The satirical weekly, L’Assiette au beurre, devoted its whole issue of 15 August 1930 to l’Affaire Humbert, though its rather laboured cartoons compare unfavourably with the much sharper treatment found in the game, where, for example, on the ‘death’ space, the judge’s toque is shown as having trapped the rabbit that represents the scam. Some games are almost like newspapers, in conveying the happenings of the moment. The games after the French Revolution have already been noticed in this regard (Chapter 4, Sections 2 and 6). In the modern era, board games have been used 19 The game of Hopscotch is meant.

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to record the news, as in the issue of Paris Match of 9−16 January 1954, where an old Pellerin jeu de l’oie was adapted to become Le Jeu de l’oie de l’actualité by decorating the non-goose spaces with photographs of the news events of 1953. The hazard spaces were mischievously adapted, e.g. for space 42, ‘who comes to the labyrinth of the Burgess − Maclean affair will disappear like them, pay 2, and return to space 30 to console Princess Margaret for the departure of Captain Townsend’. The implied link between Princess Margaret and Russian spies seems gratuitous, though she was later spied on by Soviet agents. Another area where printed board games can offer useful insights is that of the history of education.20 The market for printed educational games was strong in France, from the mid-17th century, and in Britain from the turn of the 18th century, so it is reasonable to infer that they were used, though there is little evidence of how widely they were employed and still less to demonstrate how effective they were. There is, however, evidence that, in Britain, their use in education was criticised, so they were not simply regarded as vehicles of amusement.21 Some educational games undoubtedly promised too much: de Margueron’s Jeu d’oie musical, published in Paris about 1907, states that no musical knowledge is required to play, it being absolutely based on the Game of the Goose, and makes the bold claim that, after playing it, the player will understand – without effort – the principal signs used in music, their meaning and value, and the use of the sol-fa system.22 Yet it must be admitted that the amusing graphics and clever adaptation of Goose rules do mean that much information will stick in the mind of the player: the use of the death space, at 58, for the da capo sign is unforgettable. Also of interest to historians of education is the small sub-genre of games that illustrate life at school or college. The Jeu des Ecoliers published by Jean in Paris in about 1812 traces the path of the student from entry to the final distribution of prizes.23 Each of the favourable spaces depicts an allegory of some subject of the curriculum: Reading and Writing; Latin and Greek; History and Poetry; Geography and Mathematics; Drawing and Geometry; Astronomy; Logic; Rhetoric; and Philosophy. Although the corner decorations suggest a happy environment, where scholars are at play, the hazard spaces reveal a harsh regime of increasingly severe punishments such as the military colleges employed (Figure 18.5).24

20 Adrian Seville, ‘Childhood through the Eye of the Goose’, Newsletter of the Children’s Books History Society, 2017. 21 Jill Shefrin, The Dartons, op. cit., pp. 20−21. 22 Adrian Seville, Grolier catalogue, Game 21. 23 Strouhal, game 14. 24 While at the Royal Military School of Brienne, the young Napoleon, ‘for some fault, [was] condemned to wear a serge coat, and to dine on his knees at the door of the refectory. This public disgrace so stung the ardent and aspiring spirit of the young student, that he was seized with violent retching and hysterics’. George Moir Bussey, Life of Napoleon, Paris: J Thomas, 1840, p. 8.

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Figure 18.5:  Hazard spaces showing punishments in the Jeu des Ecoliers.

Printed board games operate across a wide range of themes, such that a full list of ways in which they may be of interest to historians would span almost the whole of cultural history. The examples mentioned above show not only the variety of themes but also the variety of levels at which the games can communicate, presenting the particular object, the specific idea or even the national mood at a given time.

18.5. International cultural differences An important feature of the present book is that games from many countries are explored. As is evident, there are major differences in the thematic range of games available in the various countries at any given period in history. The intention of this section is not to repeat the detailed treatment given in earlier chapters but to call attention to some of the more dramatic differences. How far these reflect differences in the national character may be a matter for speculation but the differences themselves are real enough. Among these differences, the thematic range of German race games is particularly distinctive, as is the flexibility of design when applied to the Game of the Goose, where such features as the classical track length of 63 soon lose their influence. Instead, there is great variability and the classic game goes out of favour, perhaps because the variations are neither logical nor an improvement on the original. The popularity of games with monkeys as favourable symbols is to be noted, perhaps because these depictions give opportunity for humorous reflections on the human

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condition. But the overwhelming feature of German race games is the popularity of those that represent a journey of some kind. The contrast with French and Italian games is marked: in those countries, the classic Game of the Goose holds sway for four centuries or so, only varying in Italy when extension of the track to 90 spaces has a vogue. In England, though the classic game remains invariant from its introduction in 1596, by 1800 it is effectively dead, probably because the infusion of novelty seen in France arising from thematic variants did not happen in England. This isolation of England from the 17th- and 18th-century French game developments remains a mystery: surely there would have been a market in England for games on the Navy, for historical chronologies and so on? A few cartographic games did appear from the middle of the 18th century, though these followed no French model. Not until the end of the 18th century did a pirated French import arguably trigger the great flowering of English board games, which then took place largely independent of the classic rules of the Game of the Goose. Between them, France and England provided the great bulk of thematic games: numbers of different games produced in each country up to 1900 are roughly equal, at around 300 apiece, despite the later start in England. Their richness and diversity are astonishing, as is the aesthetic beauty of many of the game sheets. Holland, though, was a different case. Its strong trade links with England and with the countries of Continental Europe ensured that, apart from games originating in Holland, the widest variety of games were available to its citizens throughout the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, some indeed being re-issues of imported games adapted to the Dutch language. It may be that this diversity has contributed to the continuing popularity of Goose-related race games in the Netherlands in modern times. Around this group of countries where the Game of the Goose was significant at some period, there lie several countries within Europe where the game is or was known but never attained much importance. It would be interesting to study further the reasons for this, whether commercial or cultural. Of the USA, the importation of many games from England in the early 19th century is well attested through advertisements. They reflect the demand for new things in this new country, rather than the old-fashioned Game of the Goose – and it may be no accident that the main game to succeed in the USA was a moral game.

18.6.

The ‘Taming of the Goose’

An area of cultural history where international comparisons are particularly interesting is in the transition of the Game of the Goose from a gambling and drinking game in the Early Modern period to its present incarnation as a game for children’s play. Here, the decorative iconography can be helpful as an indicator of the intended market at any given period. In the Netherlands, this transition begins about 1800 and

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Figure 18.6: Detail of Neues verbessertes Gänse-Spiel. Nürnberg: Fr[iedrich] Nap[oleon] Campe (active 1813–37).

is well documented by following the iconography (see Chapter 10, Section 4). Much earlier, in Germany, we have a Game of the Goose of the mid-17th century with an animal alphabet as decoration, clearly indicating use by children learning to read under adult supervision, whose text states that the game may be enjoyed by young and old together.25 This use by young and old is confirmed by the iconography of a version from the early 19th century, showing in one corner the game being played by a family, with the youngest child looking on, while in the opposite corner a group of three adults is playing (Figure 18.6). In England, as discussed in Chapter 6 Section 2, the question of who played the game in the 17th and 18th centuries is difficult to settle: on the basis of the iconography, a drinking or gambling game is indicated, but it may be that the goose board came out for family use at Christmas time. In France, it is doubtful whether such a transition ever occurred, since from an early stage goose variants were associated with learning in high-status families and the basic game was frequently labelled ‘as played by princes and great lords’. In Spain, however, the game was banned, at least formally, on moral and religious grounds and the association with gambling and drinking seems to have been particularly strong, so that not until the second half of the 19th century was it admitted as a diversion for children.26 It is interesting to compare these various time frames with those obtained from a different area of material culture: the children’s book.27 Here a distinction has to be made between books such as primers intended for sharply-focussed learning and those with more pleasurable intent, such as the little works by Thomas Boreman (from about 1730) and John Newbery (from about 1744).28 These appeared more than 25 See Chapter 8, Section 6(a). 26 See Chapter 11, Section 6. 27 For a discussion of the history of teaching aids in England in the context of children’s literature, see: Jill Shefrin, The Dartons. Los Angeles: Cotsen Occasional Press, 2009, pp. 7−22. 28 Brian Alderson and Felix de Marez Oyens, Be Merry and Wise: Origins of Children’s Book Publishing in Britain 1650−1850. London: British Library, 2006.

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half a century before the introduction of board games for children around 1800. In France, though, the fairy stories of Baroness d’Aulnoy and Charles Perrault were circulating from the late 17th century, by which time education and amusement were firmly linked, as they were in Germany. By contrast, Dutch children’s literature begins to flower in the last quarter of the 18th century, shortly before versions of the Game of the Goose become identified as diversions for children. An interesting reflection of the link between genres is that children’s books are often ‘re-told’ as board games, beginning early in the 19th century.29 The complexity of these time frames illustrates the fact that taking any one aspect of the material culture to serve as a mirror of cultural history on its own is not without dangers. The study of printed board games gives useful insights but requires to be supplemented with other studies, including of course the written record.

18.7. History of leisure The 2,500 different games viewable on the giochidelloca web site encompass a huge range of themes and a wide geographical spread. What is not indicated is how significant these games were in occupying the leisure time of adults and children in the countries of Europe over the centuries. The commerce in game sheets was very considerable: parcels of thousands of game sheets were being transported across France by merchants as early as the late 18th century.30 With fully mechanised printing, runs of single editions in the tens of thousands could be accommodated easily and there is evidence of huge runs to support national propaganda campaigns: 5 million in the case of the German Kohlenklau game produced in the Second World War.31 The campaign was undoubtedly successful in popularising the image of the ‘coal thief’, as witness its appearing as decoration on many a Panzer tank.32 Yet there is little to tie these millions of game sheets into statistics of hours spent (or mis-spent) playing them. Indeed, was it even important that the coal thief was presented in the form of a game or would a well-drawn caricature have been just as effective in another format? And did the campaign save energy in the long run? Similar questions could be asked about the political game that appeared ahead of the 2012 elections in a major Dutch newspaper, De Telegraaf, with a circulation of the order of 400,000.33 It did

29 Adrian Seville, ‘Children’s Books as Board Games: A Different Way of “Reading” the Story’, Gazette of the Grolier Club of New York, 2015. 30 Girard and Quétel, op. cit., p. 17−18. 31 Chapter 16, Section 6. 32 For an example, see the Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-197–1235–04, accessible at www.bundesarchiv.de (accessed October 2018). 33 See Chapter 16, Section 8.

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not succeed in getting its protagonist, Geert Wilders, his desired election result – but how was it received? Was it played, was it discussed – or just ignored? Questions of this kind are not answered in the usual texts on the history of leisure. For example, Peter Borsay’s wide-ranging work largely ignores printed board games.34 Even Huizinga’s ground-breaking study of play in culture has little to say on their importance: A great many board-games have been known since the earliest times, some even in primitive society, which attached great importance to them largely on account of their chanceful character. Whether they are games of chance or skill they all contain an element of seriousness. The merry play-mood has little scope here, particularly where chance is at a minimum as in chess, draughts, backgammon, halma, etc.35

It is evident that Huizinga has not considered in any depth the printed board games discussed in the present book. However, Huizinga’s approach does suggest that it could be fruitful to consider explicitly what ‘mood’ the various printed games are intended to support or induce. As we have seen, not all of these games contain ‘an element of seriousness’. Indeed, some are excellent vehicles to convey the ‘merry play mood’. Others, though, have a purpose that is anything but playful. For example, the polemical games discussed in Section 2 of Chapter 16, such as the game of the Dreyfus case, are intended to stir up a mood of resentment as a step towards achieving political change. It is not clear that such games should be included in a history of leisure: they fit more appropriately into the category of political broadsides. In all probability, the games of high satire found their use more as conversation pieces, rather than for actual play. Similarly, highly didactic games, well exemplified by some of the English games of the early 19th century, are intended to induce a mood in which learning takes place and should perhaps on that account be excluded from the leisure category. Another question is what mood are the modern advertising games of the Netherlands intended to induce in their adult audience. It is likely that few are actually played in leisure time but the pleasant feeling induced by seeing a new theme in the familiar guise of a game may – it is presumably hoped – induce a mood of receptiveness towards the goods or services being promoted. What is clear is that the normal definitions of ‘play’ and ‘leisure’ are challenged by a proper consideration of printed board games in all their thematic variety.

34 E.g. Peter Borsay, A History of Leisure: The British Experience Since 1500. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 35 Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens: a study of the play-element in culture. [Translated by R. F. C. Hull.] London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1949, p. 198.

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18.8 The psychological impact As indicated above, the question of how these games fit into the history of leisure is largely undetermined. But the introduction into the discussion of the term ‘mood’ is a reminder that the psychological impact of these games is also poorly understood, both in terms of their impact during actual play and in terms of their after-effects. For example, how far were the educational games that were marketed in 19th-century England effective in achieving their educational objectives? One can see that the answer might well depend on the nature of the theme. Thus, race games to teach history suffer the difficulty that they present events in a non-chronological sequence and may therefore confuse rather than illuminate, whereas geographical games are not subject to the same problem. Games that present a literary story are perhaps an intermediate case, but it is noteworthy that games representing an adult novel are few: D’Allemagne lists only Les Mystères de Paris and Le Juif Errant in his ‘literature’ category, both games published by Gangel in the mid-19th century.36 However, in the modern era, games representing children’s stories are many. Perhaps here the fact that the episodes are accessed non-sequentially does not matter: the story is well known and loved from the outset and the pleasure comes from re-visiting it scene by separate scene. In turn, that suggests that the historical games – undeniably popular, as judged from their many editions and varied themes – may need to be judged not as primary tools for the teaching of history but as reinforcements for enriching a chronological framework already learned. The question of sequence also arises in connection with ‘journey’ games. It seems to matter little, in terms of enjoyment, if the stages of the journey are encountered out-of-order. Perhaps this is because the whole journey is set out before the player on the game sheet so that the setbacks are seen in context – and setbacks are something often encountered on a real-life journey, as opposed to setbacks on a chronological journey in time. However, in his excellent book of journey games, Ernst Strouhal sub-divides the genre into four categories: through the city; in foreign countries; over mountain and valley; and the journey through life.37 The last of these categories includes a number of games on historical themes, showing that categorisation of games by theme is not a rigid affair. Then, there is the question of the nature of the amusement derived from a game. In some games discussed in this book, such as those where gambling is the essential element, the amusement arises from the excitement of uncertainty and winning is the whole point. By contrast, other games are designed to induce laughter, especially by their iconography – one thinks of the cartoon style of Daan Hoeksema in this context.38 36 He also lists Verne’s Le tour du monde en 80 jours but this is essentially a ‘journey’ game. 37 Ernst Strouhal, Die Welt im Spiel. Vienna: Brandstätter, 2016. 38 E.g. Figure 4 of Chapter 17.

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The effectiveness of a game as amusement is of course not just a matter of its iconography. Game design in the technical sense is also crucial. As an exemplar of race games without choice of move – the main subject of this book – the Game of the Goose has many features in its design that contribute to making it enjoyable.39 But from the standpoint of cultural history, one may ask why its popularity has been so universal and long lasting. After all, the pace of modern life is very different from that of the late medieval period and that of the centuries immediately following the game’s first appearance. Yet there seems to be some universality in human psychology that applies to games of this kind. For example, when there are four players, statistical analysis shows that in Snakes and Ladders, another dice-based race game without choice of move, the expected number of playing rounds before a win is very similar to that obtaining in the Game of the Goose.40 Moreover, the variability of this number is almost the same in both – and both games have features which increase the excitement by very occasionally allowing an almost immediate win, or occasionally result in a long-drawn-out finish. Yet these games have totally different lines of descent and the explanation of their playing similarities must lie in their being empirically tailored to meet human desires. The playing mechanism is also a consideration. The fall of dice is unrivalled as a means of generating the random numbers required for these games. It is both quick and certain – there is none of the ambiguity of deciding which sector a spinning arrow has selected or the tedium of waiting for a teetotum to come to rest. ‘Improvements’ such as drawing cards from a bag are fussy by comparison. Also, with dice, the player has the illusion of being able to affect the result by the manner of shaking the dice cup or the manner of the throw – though the many and varied ways of cheating at dice should not be forgotten and the notorious reputation of dice-playing has had negative consequences for the Game of the Goose in some cultures, especially those of Spain.41 The psychological impact of these games is therefore a many-layered and culturally-dependent question.

18.9. Conclusion The aim of this chapter has been to challenge historians to use the study of printed board games in the wider field of cultural history. Close study of these games can illuminate and enrich the histories of play, of gambling, of entertainment, of childhood, 39 See the discussion in Chapter 15, Section 3. 40 Adrian Seville. “Statistical Features of Enjoyable Race Games”, Board Games in Academia VI, Barcelona, 2002. Unpublished but online at http://www.giochidelloca.it/storia/racegames.pdf. 41 On the methods of cheating at dice, see for example: Thomas Dekker, The belman of London. London: Nathaniel Butter, 1608. Reprinted in The Guls Hornbook and the Belman of London. London: J M Dent, 1904, pp. 112−116.

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and of education. The book itself has the underlying aim of demonstrating that the games deserve detailed attention at a number of levels. Though some of the games are trivial and can be dismissed at a glance, others require serious research before they are fully understood in the terms of their historical and cultural environment, and can begin to yield new insights into their period or to add depth to other kinds of evidence. It is therefore important to distinguish between different classes of game rather than attempt to sum up ‘race games’ as a single category.

Glossary of technical terms active space board boat space boule royale boustrophedon bridge space cartographic game cast classic Game of the Goose climacteric counter

death space dice box

a space which results in some further action when the player’s token lands there, in contrast to an inactive space the game sheet on which play takes place, whether or not made of board a space equivalent to the prison space but denoted by a boat, as found in some early Venetian games a special near-spherical die with (usually) 12 numbered faces, often used instead of double dice though not equiv­alent in action of a track, like the writing of alternate lines in opposite directions, one line from left to right and the next from right to left. space 6 in the classic Game of the Goose, showing a bridge, with the rule, ‘advance to space 12’ a game in which the tokens move along a track set out on a map an older term for the throw of dice the prototype form of the Game of the Goose, with a 63-space track, two interspersed series of Goose-spaces and a fixed arrangement of hazard spaces in numerology, one of the crises in human life which were supposed to occur in every seventh year – see also grand climacteric in medieval times, a small disc used to facilitate reckon­ ing of accounts but now applied to small discs generally. In race games, counters may be used (1) to indicate how many turns remain to be missed by a player subject to a penalty (2) as tokens if differentiated e.g. as to colour (3) to represent stakes space 58 in the classic Game of the Goose, showing an image associated with death, with the rule, ‘start again’ a container held in the player’s hand in which the die is, or dice are, shaken preparatory to the throw

354 

dice spaces

die (common)

die (special) directional goose spaces

dissected double dice

draw

drink space

game sheet goose space

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

two spaces on the track in the classic Game of the Goose, to one of which the player’s token is directed on making an initial throw of nine, differentiating between the throws of 6,3 and 5,4. These spaces are numbered 26 and 53 respectively, each being marked by the image of a pair of dice showing the particular throw a small cube of solid material such as bone, wood, ivory or hard plastic, with its faces bearing from one to six spots, thrown to generate random numbers by counting the spots on the exposed upper face a variant of the common die in which the faces are mark­ed specially or the number of faces is not six in some German games, it is significant whether a goose (or equivalent symbol) faces forward or backwards along the track. If forward, the normal rule applies (see ‘goose space’); if backward, a special rule applies, usually: ‘go back to where the throw was made’ of a game sheet cut into rectangular pieces and laid on linen cloth so that it can be folded into a slipcase indicating that two dice are thrown together at each turn. In the Game of the Goose and similar race games, the points are totalled and the player moves his or her token accordingly [whereas in backgammon, for example, the two points are played separately]. to select at random an object (such as a card or small ball) bearing a number or instruction e.g. from a bag in which such cards are mixed or (in the case of cards) from a shuffled pile a special hazard space near the end of the track, found particularly in German Games of the Goose, bearing an image associated with drinking, with a special rule, perhaps: ‘ buy drinks all round’. the field of play a particular kind of active space, denoted by a goose in the classic Game of the Goose but by another symbol in thematic variants, where the points of the throw are played again, in effect doubling the throw

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

grand climacteric hazard space hit inactive space inn space jeton journey game labyrinth space land Laufspiele linen-back man move monkey game overthrow parallel-track

355

the number 63, formerly thought to be the number of years at which the greatest crisis in a human life occurs a particular kind of active space where a penalty stake is paid to the pool and other instructions are to be followed a throw as a result of which a player’s token is directed to a space already occupied by another’s token. a space where the player’s token remains on landing and no action is taken space 19 in the classic Game of the Goose, showing an inn, with the rule, ‘miss one [or more] turns’ a French term for a counter representing a stake a game in which the track represents a journey of some kind, whether real or imaginary, the German Post- und Reisespiel being the prototype space 42 in the classic Game of the Goose, showing a labyrinth or maze, with the rule, ‘go back to a specified space’ for a token to arrive at a space as a result of a throw or its equivalent A German term for race games describing a game dissected and laid onto a linen sheet; used loosely to describe any game of the Georgian and Victorian periods a loose term for a token, strictly appropriate only to games in which the token has the form of a human figure the action of moving a token or tokens as the rules specify following a throw a game like the German Affenspiel in which the favour­ able spaces are denoted by monkeys instead of geese a throw which would carry the token beyond the winning space (see reverse overthrow rule) of a game in which the tokens of different players move on separate tracks, but not necessarily geometrically parallel to each other

356 

piece

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

a general term for an object (e.g. a token) that is moved on the board by the player according to the rules pillar an obsolete English term for a token pochoir au pochoir is a French term for colouring by stencil and dabber points the number of spots shown by the die on its upper face after coming to rest, or the sum of such points if double dice are used; or the number indicated by a spinner or a teetotum on coming to rest. pool the accumulated stakes, often placed in the centre of the board, to be taken by the winner or sometimes to be shared between the winner and a runner-up in specified shares prison space space 52 in the classic Game of the Goose, showing a prison, with the rule, ‘stay until another takes your place’ pyramid an obsolete English word for a token shaped like a pyramid rectangular spiral of a track formed of straight sections so joined as to approximate a spiral reverse overthrow rule a rule whereby the excess points of an overthrow are reckoned backwards from the winning space round a complete sequence of turns by successive players, after which the right to throw has returned to the first player. ruling number a favourable number in a game e.g. nine in the Classic Game of the Goose, seven in the Game of Cupid slipcase a flat rectangular pouch into which a game sheet is folded for storage space the regions, usually numbered, into which the track is divided, and within which a token may land spin a turn in which a spinner or a teetotum is used instead of dice spinner an arrow that turns freely in a horizontal plane above a disc divided into segments, one of which the point of the arrow will indicate when it comes to rest. The segments are normally numbered to emulate the random result of a dice throw.

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

square stake

tavern space teetotum

throw token

tonton totum track traveller turn unicursal well space winning space

357

a loose term for a space, which may or not be of square shape a sum of money agreed between the players before commencing the game, to be paid into or taken from the pool whenever the rules so specify. When children play, objects such as sweets, nuts or biscuits may be used. Or the game may be played using counters of no monetary value as stakes another term for the inn space a small spinning top with flat edges that are usually numbered to emulate the random effect of dice but may instead have particular symbols set out in the game rules – the result of the spin is the number or symbol displayed on the turned-up edge the result of throwing the die or dice from the dice box onto the table and counting the points; an equivalent action, such as a spin a marker, recognisably different for each player, to indicate progress along the track. For the early printed games in France, a distinctive piece of money was suggested. the French equivalent of a teetotum an older word for a teetotum the predetermined route taken by the token as it moves on the board an obsolete English term for a token, often associated with cartographic games the occasion in a round at which a player makes a throw or equivalent action, such as a spin or drawing a card at random. single-track space 31 in the classic Game of the Goose, showing an image of a well and with the rule, remain until another takes your place the space to be reached by a token (or in some games surpassed) in order to win the game, usually the final space of the track but sometimes the area immediately beyond it.

Figures Except where noted, all photographs are the copyright of the author and are from games in his collection. Chapter 2 Early history and meaning Figure 2.1: The earliest known board for the Game of the Goose [courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; photograph © Adrian Seville] Figure 2.2: An early Italian Game of the Goose printed by Lucchino Gargano in Rome, dated 1598 [© Trustees of the British Museum] Figure 2.3: Italian Game of the Monkey, by Alittenio Gatti, dated 1588 [© Trustees of the British Museum] Figure 2.4: The Filosofia cortesana game, invented by Alonso de Barros of Spain, printed in Naples in 1588 [© Trustees of the British Museum] Chapter 3 French games before the Revolution Figure 3.1: The earliest surviving French jeu de l’oie. Lyon: par les héritiers de Benoist Rigaud, c. 1598 [Herzog-August Library, Wolfenbüttel] Figure 3.2: Detail of the Jeu royal de Cupidon showing the Cupid’s garden at the winning space Figure 3.3: Detail of the Jeu du Monde of Pierre Duval, 1645 [courtesy of David Rumsey] Figure 3.4: Detail of the Jeu Chronologique published by Mariette and La Juge c. 1645 Figure 3.5: Detail of the Jeu du Point au Point, c. 1670 Figure 3.6: Detail of Le Jeu de la Sphère ou de l’Univers, 1661 Figure 3.7: Detail of Le Jeu de la Guerre, 1697 Figure 3.8: The miniature version of Le Jeu de la Constitution Figure 3.9: Detail of the Jeu de la Conversation Chapter 4 French games after the Revolution Figure 4.1: An early Jeu de la Révolution Française, 1789-1791 [Bibliothèque nationale de France] Figure 4.2: Detail of a later Jeu de la Révolution Française, 1791, showing at space 60 the arrest of the King at Varennes Figure 4.3: Details of the Jeu Géographique de la République Française [courtesy of the Library of Congress /author’s collection)]

360 

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Figure 4.4: centre panels of the Jeu du Voyageur showing alterations from the original [courtesy of Waddesdon (National Trust)/ author’s collection] Figure 4.5: The final spaces of the Jeu de l’oie parlementaire Figure 4.6: The Grand Jeu du pigeon voyageur Figure 4.7: Lower left quadrant of the Mauclair-Dacier game, Le Régiment Figure 4.8: Detail of Basset’s Le Grand Jeu des Danseurs de Corde, Sauteurs et Voltigeurs [courtesy of Waddesdon (National Trust)] Figure 4.9: Detail of Le Jeu de Paris en Miniature, showing the signboards of shops in Paris Figure 4.10: The Jeu du Tramway, Mauclair-Dacier Figure 4.11: Ganzenbord printed by Pellerin for the Dutch market Chapter 6 British games of the 17th and 18th centuries Figure 6.1: Entry in the Stationers’ Hall Register for the Game of the Goose [Stationers’ Company, London] Figure 6.2: THE ROYALL & MOST PLEASANT GAME OF Ye GOOSE. London: John Overton, c.1690 [courtesy of the Morgan Library] Figure 6.3: Portrait medallions in the Game of the Goose Figure 6.4: Lower right corner decoration of the George III/ Queen Charlotte Game of the Goose published by Carington Bowles, c. 1763 Figure 6.5: Detail of a satirical quarto by Laurie and Whittle, dated 1804 [© Trustees of the British Museum] Figure 6.6: The Royal Passtime of Cupid, or The new and most pleasant Game of the Snake, published by John Garrett c. 1690 [Houghton Library] Figure 6.7: Courtship and Matrimony. Bowles and Carver c. 1800 Figure 6.8: Walker’s Geographical Tour of Scotland, published by William Darton Junior in 1812 Chapter 7 British games of the 19th century Figure 7.1: Le nouveau jeu de la vie humaine published in Paris by Crépy in 1775 compared with Wallis and Newbery’s version of 1790 [Waddesdon (National Trust)/ author’s collection] Figure 7.2: The Basket of Fruit published by William Darton in 1822 Figure 7.3: detail of the Royal Genealogical Pastime, published by Wallis and Newbery in 1791 Figure 7.4: details of Wonders of Nature

FIGURES

Figure 7.5: Figure 7.6:

361

Detail of The Panorama of London, showing Bartholomew Fair, compared with the illustration in the Microcosm of London [author’s collection/Wikimedia commons] The New Game of the Monkey

Chapter 8 Distinctive Features of German Goose Games Figure 8.1: Detail of 17th century German Game of the Goose, incorporating an animal alphabet Figure 8.2: 30-space games by G N Renner of Nuremberg, c. 1830: (a) Gänsespiel (b) Affenspiel Figure 8.3: Post– und Reisespiel. Publisher unknown, 1790 [© Trustees of the British Museum] Figure 8.4: The Robinson Game. Mainz: Scholtz c. 1850 Figure 8.5: The Deutsches Ritterspiel by Johann Gottlob Schladebach. Leipzig: 1791 Figure 8.6(a): Der Jahrmarkt – central scene of the fair Figure 8.6(b): Entertainments depicted in the individual spaces of Der Jahrmarkt Figure 8.7: Scenes from Das Kartoffel-Spiel [the Potato Game] Figure 8.8: Detail of Die Anfangsgründe der Rechenkunst [© Trustees of the British Museum] Appendix 8a – Chart: Analysis of the database of German games Chapter 9 Italian Games to the end of the 19th century Figure 9.1: Left – The Fat Dwarf, etching by Jaques Callot (1616) [courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York]; right – detail of the gioco di loca by Carlo Coriolani [courtesy of the Morgan Library] Figure 9.2: Game printed by Tomassini of Foligno in the 19th century from a 17th-century woodblock Figure 9.3: Allegorical game by Valerio Spada [courtesy of Waddesdon (National Trust)] Figure 9.4: Gioco dell’Oca of 90 spaces. Milan: Lebrun and Boldetti, 1872 [© Trustees of the British Museum] Figure 9.5: The Jewish Ghetto section of Mitelli’s Gioco novo di contento Figure 9.6: Detail of Il dilettevol giuoco del pellegrinaggio d’amore – F M Francia, after G M Mitelli Figure 9.7: Central detail of the patriotic game of the Italian Revolution, L´Italia del Secolo Decimonono Figure 9.8: Detail of the Giro del Mondo game by Achille Bertarelli

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THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Chapter 10 Dutch and Flemish Games Figure 10.1: Het Nieuw En Vermaeckelyck Ghanse-Spel, by Visscher [courtesy of the Rijksmuseum] Figure 10.2: Game with block signed by Jegher, as reprinted by Egmont [courtesy of the Nederlands Openlucht Museum, Arnhem] Figure 10.3: Detail of the Game of the Goose by Wijsmuller, showing ‘English Parliamentary’ medallions Figure 10.4: Children’s Game of the Goose for the Youth of the Netherlands Figure 10.5: Game of the Snake, or Royal Pastime of Cupid. Amsterdam: Claes Janz. Visscher, c. 1640 [courtesy of the Rijksmuseum] Figure 10.6: ABC game designed by the Tollenaar brothers, c. 1840 [courtesy of G S Adkins] Figure 10.7: Game based on the Rhine Railway from Amsterdam to Germany Chapter 11 Games in Spain, Portugal and Latin America Figure 11.1(a): Centre detail of the earliest-known Spanish Game of the Goose [Arxiu Històric de la Ciutat de Barcelona] Figure 11.1(b): Centre detail of a 17th-century Mallorcan Game of the Goose printed from the original woodblock Figure 11.2(a): Late 17th-century Mallorcan Game of the Goose printed from the original woodblock [Arxiu Històric de la Ciutat de Barcelona] Figure 11.2(b): The original woodblock, in the collection of the Impresa Guasp, Palma de Mallorca [courtesy of La Cartuja de Valldemossa] Figure 11.3: The earliest example from Valencia, about the middle of the 18th century [Arxiu Històric de la Ciutat de Barcelona] Figure 11.4: Portuguese Jogo da Gloria, c. 1900 [courtesy of J N da Silva] Chapter 12 Countries where the Game of the Goose was less in evidence. Figure 12.1: Monkey Game dated 1787. Risbenhavn [i.e. Copenhagen]: J.R.Thiele Chapter 13 Links with the USA Figure 13.1: Lockwood’s The Travellers’ Tour through the United States. New York: 1822 [courtesy of Daniel Crouch Rare Books] Figure 13.2: Edward Parker’s Geographical Pastime, 1822 [courtesy of the Philadelphia History Museum at the Atwater Kent] Figure 13.3: The Jolly Game of “Goose”. New York City: J.P. Beach, 1851 [The Strong Museum] Figure 13.4: Detail of the American Game of the Goose by Mary D. Carroll, showing the charming rural end decoration

FIGURES

363

Chapter 14 The International Background at the end of the 19th century Figure 14.1: Jagdspiel of German origin but with rules in German, English, French and Dutch Chapter 15 Amusement and Education Figure 15.1: Game of the Goose by Daan Hoeksema, early 20th century [Vlaams Spellenarchief, Brugge] Chapter 16 Propaganda, Polemic and Satire Figure 16.1: Detail of Le jeu du Lapin de la Grande Thérèse Figure 16.2: Detail of Pank-a-Squith Figure 16.3: Detail of the Jeu du pas de l’oie – renouvelé des Boches Figure 16.4: La Conquista dell’Abissinia game, promoting baby food Figure 16.5: Detail of the Belgian Loterie Coloniale game Figure 16.6: Detail of the Jagd auf Kohlenklau Chapter 17 Advertising and promotion Figure 17.1: Game advertising Van Houten’s drinking chocolate [Atlas Van Stolk, Rotterdam] Figure 17.2: French game c. 1920 advertising the ‘Lune’ brand of patent medicine Figure 17.3: The Gas Game, 1926, produced for the Amsterdam Gas Supply Company [Vlaams Spellenarchief, Brugge] Figure 17.4: Detail of Jan van Woerkom’s Hipspel, c. 1925 [Vlaams Spellenarchief, Brugge] Chapter 18 Printed board games as sources for Cultural History Figure 18.1: Detail of the Nouveau jeu historique et chronologique des rois de France, as revised by Crépy in 1775 following the death of Louis XV in 1774 Figure 18.2: Detail from Scenes in London showing the Cosmorama Exhibition / detail from Wonders of Art, showing Maillardet’s Musical Lady Figure 18.3: End spaces of different editions of Basset’s Jeu des monumens de Paris Figure 18.4: Game promoting the Olga pharmacy, Stuttgart Figure 18.5: Hazard spaces showing punishments in the Jeu des Ecoliers Figure 18.6: Detail of Neues verbessertes Gänse-Spiel

Literature quoted with abbreviated titles A full bibliography is available on the giochidelloca web site. Buijnsters: P. J. Buijnsters and Leontine Buijnsters-Smets. Papertoys. Zwolle, Netherlands: Waanders, 2005 (in Dutch). Giochidelloca: the web site of Luigi Ciompi and Adrian Seville, giochidelloca.it D’Allemagne: H. R. D’Allemagne. Le noble jeu de l’oie. Paris: Librairie Gründ, 1950. Girard and Quétel: A. R. Girard and C. Quétel. L’histoire de France racontée par le jeu de l’oie. Paris: Balland/ Massin, 1982. Grolier Catalogue – see Seville. Liman: Ellen Liman. Georgian and Victorian Board Games: The Liman Collection. New York: Pointed Leaf Press, 2017. Mascheroni and Tinti: S. Mascheroni and B. Tinti. Il gioco dell’oca. Milan: Bompiani, 1981. Mar[t]inière, Jean Pinson de la [attr.] La maison des jeux académiques.Third edition. Paris: Estienne Loison, 1665. Palasi: Philippe Palasi, Les jeux de cartes et les jeux de l’oie héraldiques aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, une pédagogie ludique en France sous l’ancien régime. Paris: Ed. Picard, 2000. Préaud: Maxime Préaud, Pierre Casselle, Marianne Grivel and Corinne Le Bitouzé, Dictionnaire des éditeurs d’estampes à Paris sous l’ ancien régime. ‎Paris: Promodis – Editions du Cercle de la Librairie, 1987. Seville: Adrian Seville. The Royal Game of the Goose – Four Hundred Years of Printed Board Games. New York: The Grolier Club, 2016. [Catalogue of an Exhibition at the Grolier Club, February 23 to May 14, 2016]. Strouhal: Ernst Strouhal, Die Welt im Spiel. Vienna: Brandstätter, 2016. Whitehouse: F. R. B. Whitehouse. Table Games of Georgian and Victorian Days. London: Peter Garnett, 1951. Second edition (revised) – Royston, Hertfordshire: Priory Press, 1971. Worms & Baynton-Williams: Laurence Worms and Ashley Baynton-Williams. British Map Engravers: A Dictionary of Engravers, Lithographers and Their Principal Employers to 1850. London: Rare Book Society, 2011.

Index of Games INDEX OF GAMES: classified by country of publication and by theme This index lists only specific games mentioned in the text - games treated generically are in the main index. The order is by keyword in the title. Square brackets enclose information to help differentiate games of the same or similar title The index is a finding aid and the classifications should not be taken as definitive. Many games could be assigned to more than one thematic category. The assignment to countries is also difficult because of historic boundary changes. For British games advertised by title in the USA, see Chapter 13, Section 1. Britain goose, monkey, hunting, barone Golden Goose, New and Entertaining Game of the [London: Laurie] 190, 285 Goose, Game of the – Improved Edition [Bavaria: Spear] - see Germany Goose, Game of [advertised by Binns of Leeds] 158 Goose, Game of [Bavaria: Spear] - see Germany Goose, Game of the [advertised in London by Hennekin] 158 Goose, Game of the [London: Carington Bowles] 147–148 Goose, Game of the [London: H Overton] 145–146 Goose, Game of the [London: John Overton, reproduced at Colonial Williamsburg, USA] 298 Goose, Game of the [London: John Overton] 19, 143–145, 246 Goose, Game of the [London: registered by John Wolfe] 143 Goose, Game of the [London: Robert Sayer] 146–147 Goose, The Royal Game of [by Barbara Sampson, Cheadle: Galt] 295 Goose, The Royal Game of [London: Wallis] 190 Hare and the Tortoise, The [London: Spooner] 192 Monkey, The new Game of the [London: Wallis] 190–192, 203 courtship, matrimony, society, education Courtship and Matrimony [advertised by Bladon] 156 Courtship and Matrimony [advertised by Bowles] 148 Courtship and Matrimony [advertised by H Roberts] 155 Courtship and Matrimony [Grolier catalogue Game 25, n.p.] 155–156 Courtship and Matrimony [London: Bowles and Carver] 156–157 Cupid, Royal Pastime of [advertised by Bowles] 148 Cupid, The Royall Passtime of [London: Dicey. Also indexed under Snake] 154 Cupid, The Royall Pass-Tyme of [London: John Garrett. Also indexed under Snake] 153–154 Fortunio and his Seven Gifted Servants [London: Spooner] 190 Mother Goose and the Golden Egg, the New and Favorite Game of [London: Harris; also Macdonald] 186

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Snake, Game of the [undifferentiated track] 31, 153 fn28 Snake, Game of the[advertised by Hennekin] 158 Snake, Royal Game of [advertised by Binns of Leeds] 158 Snake, The new and most pleasant game of the [London: Dicey. Also indexed under Cupid] 154 Snake, The new and most pleasant game of the [London: Garrett. Also indexed under Cupid] 153–154 geography, journeys, transport British Geographical Amusement [advertised by Bowles] 148 Elephant and Castle, The Noble Game of the, or Travelling in Asia [London: Darton] 182 European Geographical Amusement [advertised by Bowles] 148 European Tourist, The [London: Myers] 180–181 Funnyshire Fox Chase, The [London: Spooner] 190 Geographical Game of the World, Bowles’s [London: Bowles and Carver] 280 fn6 Geographical Recreation or a Voyage round the Habitable Globe [London: Harris] 181 Journey through Europe [by John Jefferys, London: Carington Bowles] 159–160, 279 Journey, The, or Cross Roads to Conqueror’s Castle [London: Spooner] 189 L’Orient; or the Indian Travellers [London: Ogilvy] 178–179 Locomotive Game of Railroad Adventures [London: Wallis] 183 Panorama of London [London: Harris] 186–187 Pirate and the Traders of the West Indies, The [London: Spooner] 178 Produce and Manufactures of the Counties of England, Picturesque ...[London: Wallis] 177 Public Buildings, The Game of [advertised by Carvalho] 185 Royal Geographical Pastime or the Tour of Europe [see Tour of Europe] Scenes in London [London: Wallis] 339–340 Star-spangled Banner, The Game of the, or Emigrants to the United States [London: Wallis] 178 Survey of London [London: Darton] 172 fn13, 188–189 Tour of Europe [Royal Geographical Pastime, London: Thomas Jefferys] 160 Tour of Scotland, Walker’s Geographical [London: Darton] 162–163 Tour through England [advertised by Wallis] 162 fn56 Tour through Europe [advertised by Wallis] 160 Tour through Europe [Walker’s Geographical Game, London: Darton] 160–161 Tour through Scotland [advertised by Wallis] 162 fn56 Tour through the County of Somerset [[London: Robert Rowe; Champante and Whitrow] 161 Travellers, The, or a Tour through Europe [London: Spooner] 179–180 Voyage round the World, Complete [London: Wallis] 161–162 Wanderers in the Wilderness [London: Wallis] 178 Wonders of Nature [London: Wallis] 182–183 history British History, Amusement in [London: Sallis] 176 British Sovereigns, The Royal Game of [London: Wallis] 175 English History, Game of [Spooner] 176 Genealogical Pastime of the Sovereigns of England, The Royal [London: Newbery and Wallis] 173–174

Index of Games

369

Genealogy of the Kings of England [advertised by Wallis] 162 fn56 Historical Pastime [London: Passmore] 175 fn17 Historical Pastime [...] to the Accession of George the Third [London: Harris and Wallis] 175 Jubilee, The [London: Harris] 175 Pyramid of History [London: Sallis] 176 Universal History & Chronology [London: Wallis] 175 morals, religion Basket of Fruit, Novel and Elegant Game of the [London: Darton] 171–172 Every Man to his Station [London: Wallis] 170 Human Life, The New Game of [London: Newbery & Wallis] 109, 166–168, 172, 208, 280 Mansion of Bliss, The [London: Darton] 170 Mansion of Happiness, New Moral and Entertaining Game of the [London: Laurie & Whittle] 15, 169–170, 287 Reward of Merit, The [London: Wallis and Harris] 170 Road to the Temple of Honour and Fame [London: Harris] 170 Swan of Elegance, The [London: Harris] 170, 172–173 Swan, The Noble Game of the [London: Darton] 172 Virtue Rewarded and Vice Punished [London: Darton] 170 propaganda, polemic, satire, current affairs Pank-a-Squith [Manchester: Women’s Social and Political Union] 304–306 science, invention, mathematics Arithmetical Pastime [London: Wallis] 183–184, 216, 280 Game of Genius [London: Wallis] 183 Multiplication Table, The new Game of the [London: Carvalho] 185–186 Pence Table, The [advertised by Carvalho] 185 Science in Sport or The Pleasures of Astronomy [London: Wallis] 184–185 Science in Sport or The Pleasures of Natural Philosophy [London: Wallis] 185 Wonders of Art [London: Wallis] 182, 339–340 war, armed forces, heraldry Ranks to Field Marshal, From the [Britain: n.p.] 309 non-race games Grammatical Game in Rhyme [London: Conder] 183 Harlequin takes all, Game of Chance [advertised by Binns of Leeds] 158 France goose, monkey, hunting, barone Ganzenbord [in Dutch,Épinal: Pellerin] 103–104 Oca, Juego de la [in Spanish, Epinal: Pinot] 266 Oie, Jeu de l’ [Paris: Coqueret] 101 Oie, Jeux de l’ [Épinal: Pellerin] 103 Oie, Jeux de l’ [listed in catalogue of Mauclair Dacier] 102 Oie, Jeux de l’ [listed in catalogue of Watilliaux] 102 Oye, Jeu de l’ [Paris: Daumont] 40 Oye, Ordre et regle du jeu de l’ [Troyes: Sainton] 40

370 

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

advertising, promotion ALSA, Le jeu de l’ [France: ALSA levure] 323–324 Bébé Jumeau, Grand Jeu du [Paris: lith. Amand] 320–321, 323 Bicentenaire, Le Grand Jeu du [France: Heidsieck] 329 CCA, Jeu de l’Oie [Alsace: Consumers Association of Alsace] 329 Commercial de Reims, jeu de l’oie [Nancy, Marcel Lamy] 329 Lion Noir - Frottinette et Frottinet, Le Jeu de [France: Lion Noir] 322, 324 Lune, Jeu de [France: Vermifuge Lune] 322, 324 Manchons a la Couronne [Paris: Roberts] 339–340 Oie, Jeu de l’, [France: Choclat-Menier] 323 Pere Ouin, Jeu du [France: Chaussures Perrouin] 324 Phosphatine Falieres, Les Jeux de la [France: Phosphatine Falieres] 323 courtship, matrimony, society, education Amour et de l’Hyménée, Jeu de l’ [by Nadar and Gédéon, Paris: Mme Vallète] 95 Cendrillon, Le Jeu de la Petite [Paris: Chérau] 98 Conversation, Jeu de la [Paris: Crépy] 72 Cupidon, Le Ieu Royal de [Paris: Veuve Petit] 41–43, 154 Danseurs de Corde, Sauteurs et Voltigeurs, Le Grand Jeu des [Paris: Basset] 97–98 Ecoliers, Jeu des [Paris: Jean] 343–344 Epines changées en roses, Les [by Mlle. Duteil, Paris: Crépy] 71 Etrennes de la Jeunesse, Les [Paris: Crépy] 71 Himen, Nouveau Jeu de l’ [Paris: Crépy] 71–72 Juif Errant, Le [Metz: Gangel] 349 Modes françoises, Le nouveau jeu des [Paris: Crépy; but with false London imprint] 73 Musical, Jeu de l’oie [Paris: de Margueron] 343 Mystères de Paris, Les [Metz: Gangel] 349 Théatres de Melpomene Momus et Thalie, Le Nouveau jeu des [Paris: Basset] 96–97 Variétés amusantes, Le Nouveau Jeu des [Paris: Crépy] 73, 96 geography, journeys, transport Chemin de Fer, Jeu du [Metz: Gangel] 99, 339 Emulation Française, L’ [by M.Moithey, Paris: Crépy] 74 Géographique de la République Française, Jeu [Paris: Basset] 87–88 Monde, Jeu du [by Pierre Du Val, Paris: Mariette] 46–48 Monumens de Paris, Jeu des [Paris, Basset] 92, 339 Nations principales, Jeu des [by Louis Richer, Paris: de Fer] 48–49, 212 Paris, Le jeu de Paris [by Madeleine Luka, Paris: La Parisienne] 295 Pigeon voyageur, Grand Jeu du [Lille and Paris: Le Houc] 92–93 Tour de Monde à bicyclette [listed in catalogue of Watilliaux] 102 Tour du monde en quatre-vingts jours, Le [Paris: Hetzel] 92 Tramway, Jeu du [Paris: Mauclair Dacier] 100 Voyage à Pekin [listed in catalogue of Watilliaux] 102 Voyageur en Europe, Jeu du [Paris: Basset] 88–90

Index of Games

371

history Barricades ou les trois journées de Juillet, Les [Paris: Noel] 90 Chronologique, Jeu [Paris: Mariette & Le Juge] 49–51 Cosaques, Jeu des [Paris: Genty] 90 Grand Homme, Jeu du [Paris: Turgis] 90 Guerriers français favoris de la victoire, Jeu des [Paris: Basset] 90 Henri IV, Jeu Royal de la vie d’ [Paris: Basset] 92, 301 Histoire Romaine, L’ [by Le Maitre, Paris: Crépy] 236 Histoire Universelle [by Le Maitre, Paris: Crépy] 51 Impérial, Jeu [by L Tanty, Paris: Becquet] 90 Napoléon, Jeu Historique de la vie de [Paris: Jean] 90 Révolution Française, Jeu de la [Paris: rue des Mathurins] 84–86 Révolution Française, Jeu de la [Paris: rue S. Hyacinthe] 84–86 Rois de France, Nouveau jeu historique et chronologique des [Paris: Crépy] 336 Rois de France, Tableau chronologique et drolatique des [by T Lichy, Paris: Lemercier] 92 morals, religion Ancien Testament, Jeu historique de l’ [by Bernon] 56 Chemin de la Croix ou Récréation Spirituelle [Paris and Toulouse: Turgis] 95 Ecole de la Vérité pour les Nouveaux convertis [Paris: Jollain] 95 Génese, Grand Jeu de la [Paris: Basset] 96 Missionaire, Le Voyage du [Vanves: Imprimerie Franciscaine] 296 Point au Point, Jeu du [Dijon: Le Bossu] 52–55 Poupée modele, Grand Jeu de la [Paris: Journal des Petites Filles] 237 Quatre fins de l’homme, Jeu des [Paris: de Fourcroy] 56 Récréation Spirituelle[Paris: Basset] 95 Religieuses Ursulines, Le Divertissment studieux des [by Hamel, Paris: Crépy] 96 Tesoro della Famiglie, Guioco del [Milan: Edoardo Sonzogno] 237 Vie humaine, Le Nouveau jeu de la [Paris: Crépy] 109, 166–168, 208 Virtus et des Vices, Jeu des [advertised by Daumont] 41 propaganda polemic, satire, current affairs Actualité, Le Jeu de l’oie de l’ [Paris: Paris Match] 343 Casserole, Jeu du [Paris: Librairie anti-Semite] 302–303 Constitution sur l’air du branle de Mets, Le Jeu de la [by de Bonnaire] 67–70, 301 Dreyfus, L’Affaire [Paris: L’Aurore] 301–302, 348 Henri IV, La Poule de [Plate 14 of the Dictionnaire des jeux] 86–87 Lapin de la Grande Thérèse, Le Jeu du [by Fernand Fau, Paris: Vignerot et Demoulin] 303–304, 342 Lois, Jeu des [Paris: Musée du Charivari] 91, 301 Parlementaire, Jeu de l’oie [by G Fournier, Paris: Vancortenberghen] 90–91, 301 Pas de l’oie, Jeu du – renouvelé des Boches [by Guy Arnoux. Paris: Librairie Lutetia] 306–307, 342 Plaideurs, L’Escole des [Paris: Crépy] 65–67

372 

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

science, invention, mathematics Ballons Aërostatiques, Le Nouveau Jeu des [Paris: Crépy] 73–74 Esfera ou do Universo, Jogo da [Paris: Danet] 269 Industrie humaine, Jeu Universel de L’ [Paris: Basset] 98 Papier, Le Chemin du [Clisson: Moulin de Liveau] 297 Sphère ou de l’Univers selon Tycho Brahe, Le Jeu de la [by Vouillemont, Paris: de Fer] 56–60, 341 war, armed forces, heraldry Blason, Carte Methodique pour apprendre aisement le [Paris: Mariette] 63–64, 341 Blason, Le jeu du [by Pierre Du Val, Paris: de Bery] 63 Blazon, Jeu du [advertised by Daumont] 41 Conscrit, Jeu du [Epinal: Pinot Sagaire] 92–93 Fortifications Le Jeu des [Paris: Mariette] 60, 74 Fortifications, Jeu des [advertised by Daumont] 41 Guerre, Jeu de la[advertised by Daumont] 41 Guerre, Le Jeu de la [Paris: Mariette] 60–62, 208 Jusq’au bout [Paris: H Bouquet] 306 Les canards du camp [Paris: C Brunlet] 306 Marine, Jeu nouveau de la [Paris: Daumont &Crépy] 62–63 Marinha, Novo Jogo da [Paris: Danet] 269 Mars, Ecole de [Paris: Jaillot] 74–75 Marte, O Descanco ealivio dos Discipulos de [Paris: Danet] 269 Martiale, Le Jeu de l’oie [Paris: Le Canard enchainé] 342 Régiment, Le [Paris: Mauclair Dacier] 94 Tranchée, Jeu de la [by Gus Bofa, Paris: La Baionnette] 306, 308, 342 Travaux de Mars, Les [Paris: Crépy] 62 Victoire, Jeu de la [Paris: Chambrelent] 308, 338 Victoire, Jeu de la [Paris: J.L.] 338 non-race games Choette [Chouette, advertised in London by Hennekin] 158 Laitière ou du Pot au Lait, Jeu de la [Épinal: Pellerin] 103 Paris en Miniature, Jeu de [Paris: Chérau] 98–99 Soldat Français, Jeu du [by Guy Arnoux, Paris: Devambez] 342 Tendre, Carte de [by Madelaine de Scudery] 72 Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Scandinavia goose, monkey, hunting, barone Abe-spil [advertised in Copenhagen] 274 Abespil [Copenhagen: Thiele] 203 fn28, 273–274 Affenspiel [Neuruppin: Kühn] 202 Affenspiel [Nuremberg: Erben] 202 fn25 Affenspiel [Nuremberg: Raab] 202 Affenspiel [Nuremberg: Renner] 202 Fortuna-Spill, Das khurtzweillige [Austria: Holzbecher] 26, 199 Gaasespil [advertised in Copenhagen] 275

Index of Games

373

Gänsespiel [Augsburg] 199 Gänsespiel [in: Das Zeit kurtzende Lust- und Spiel-Hauss] 201, 212, 244 Gänsespiel [Nuremberg: Raab] 202 Gänsespiel [Nuremberg: Renner] 202 Gänsespiel [Nuremberg: Trautner] 201, 202 fn25 Gänsespiel [Nuremberg: Trummer] 201 Gänsespiel [painted wood] 199 Gänsespiel [Schmidt] 201 Gänsespiel [with animal alphabet] 200, 346 Gänse-Spiel, Neues verbessertes [Nuremberg: Campe] 201, 346 Gås-spelet, Det nyaste [Neu-Ruppin: Oehmigke and Riemschneider] 275 Goose, Game of the – Improved Edition [Bavaria: Spear] 294 Goose, Game of [Bavaria: Spear] 295 Jagd-Spiel [Nuremberg: Raab] 202 Jagdspiel [rules in four languages, Germany: n.p.] 293 Jagtspillet [advertised in Copenhagen] 275 Singes, Jeu des [Metz: Gangel] 203 advertising, promotion Steckenpferde-rennen [Dresden: Bergmann] 325 Wildhagen Bonbons rund an den Bodensee [Germany: Wildhagen] 326 courtship, matrimony, society, education Der Freischütz [Augsburg: Martin Engelbrecht] 210 Drogistenspiel, Das lustige [Stuttgart: Olga pharmacy] 340–341 Jahrmarkt, Der [Berlin: Winckelmann und Söhne] 213–215 Wiener Thurmkraxler Spiel, Neustes [Vienna: Langenau; printed by Kuhn in Neu-Ruppin] 276 geography, journeys, transport Amerika, Die Reise nach [Neu Ruppin: Kühn] 206 Eisenbahn - Dampfschiff Post- und Reisespiel, Neuestes [Stuttgart: Hoffmann] 206 Eisenbahn-spiel [Mainz: Scholz] 293 fn1 Europaeische-Geographisches Gaense Spiel, Neu Erfundenes [Andreae] 208 Norderneyer Spiel [Nuremberg: Renner] 206 Pferderennen [100 spaces] 207 Pferderennen, Das englische [Nuremberg: Renner] 206 Post- und Reise Spiel, Neues [Nuremberg: Campe] 205 Post– und Reisespiel [83 spaces leading to a walled city] 203–204 Post- und Reisespiel, Kleine [Halle: n.p.] 205 Post-og Reisespil [advertised in Copenhagen] 275 Pyramiden, Die Reise nach den 206 Reise durch die Schweiz, Abenteuer auf einer [Bern: Köhler] 275 Reisen omkring Verden [Neu-Ruppin: Kuhn] 275 Reisen til Amerika [advertised in Copenhagen] 275 Resan till Amerika [Neu-Ruppin: Kuhn] 275 Robinson-Spiel [Mainz: Scholtz] 206–207

374 

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Robinsonspil [advertised in Copenhagen] 275 Schultz und Muller Wettreise durch Afrika [Neu Ruppin: Oehmigke & Riemschneider] 206 Seereisen Spiel, Neues [Nuremberg: Renner] 206 history Chronologische Spiel Tafel [Regensburg: Geyer] 208 Napoleon Bonaparte, life of [advertised in Vossicher Zeitung] 209 morals, religion Ewigkeit, Reise in die [Münster: Ludwig August Brinckmann] 212 Menschliche Leben, Das [Berlin: Schropp] 208 Stationen Spiel auf der Reise dieses Lebens in Bildern [Nuremberg: Trautner] 203 propaganda polemic, satire, current affairs Kohlenklau, Jagd auf [Stuttgart: Werbeagentur Arbeitsgemeinschaft Hohnhausen]  312–313, 347 science, invention, mathematics Anfangsgründe der Rechenkunst, Die [Nuremberg: Georg Dein] 216–217 Kartoffel-Spiel, Das 215–216 war, armed forces, heraldry Kriegs-Spiel, Das [Amsterdam: Schencken] 208 Militärisches Würfelspiel [Nuremberg: Klinger] 211 fn51 Ritterspiel, Deutsches [Leipzig: Schladebach] 209–210 Ritterspiel, Deutsches [Prague: Franza] 278 Ritterspiel, Deutsches [Vienna: Paterno] 209 non-race games Eulen Spiegele [Eulenspiel, advertised in London by Hennekin] 158 Italy goose, monkey, hunting, barone Loca, Gioco di [Venice: Carlo Coriolani] 225–226 Allegorical game of the Goose [Florence: Valerio Spada] 228–230 Barone, Nuovo et Piaccevole Gioco detto il 35–36 Birba, Il Bellissimo Giuoco della [North italy: n.p.] 36 fn30 Gambero, Giuoco del [Bologna: Francia] 235 Gambero, Il gioco del [advertised by Vaccari] 335 Loca, Il novo gioco de 32 Oca, Gioco dell’ [90 spaces, Milan: Battioli] 231 Oca, Gioco dell’ [90 spaces, Milan: Lebrun and Boldetti] 231 Oca, Gioco dell’ [Bertarelli collection] 225 Oca, Il Piacevole Gioco dell’ [initialled G S] 32 Oca, Il Piacevole Gioco dell’ [initialled G S, reprinted Foligno: Tomassini] 226–227 Ocha, Il gioco dell’ [advertised by Vaccari] 335 Ocha, Il nuovo e piacevole gioco dell’ [Lucchino Gargano] 25–26, 225 Personaggi, Il Giuoco dei [Bassano: Remondini] 36 fn30 Scimia, Il novo bello et piacevole gioco della [Italy: Gatti] 33, 203

Index of Games

advertising, promotion Classicissima, La [Italy: Pasta Agnesi] 329–330 Corsa al Polo, La [Italy: Lana Polo] 322 Ebe [Vicenza: Distilleria Ebe] 330 Skatenini, Gioca con [Italy: Ferrero] 330 courtship, matrimony, society, education Missione – Planeta da Salvare [Cornaredo: Tourbillon] 297 Osterie che sono in Bolgna, Gioco di tutte le [by Mitelli, Bologna] 233 Pellegrinaggio d’amore, Il dilettevol giuoco del [Bologna: Francia] 233–234 geography, journeys, transport Africa Orientale, Il Giro dell’ [Milan: Marca Stella] 309 Dirigibile ‘Norge’ alla scoperta del Polo Nord, Il [Milan: Marca Stella] 297 Geografia ridotta a giuoco [by Casimiro Freschot, Venice: Giovanni Pare] 231–232 Geografico, Prima tavola del giuoco [cited by Mascheroni and Tinti] 237 Giro del Mondo [Milan: Achille Bertarelli] 238–239 history Istoria universale, Nuovo Gioco d’ [Florence: Caprara] 237 Italia del Secolo Decimonono [Milan: La Cicala Politica] 235–236, 301 Monete di Bologna, Gioco di tutte le [by Mitelli, Bologna] 233 Storia Romana [Bassano: Remondini] 236 morals, religion Contento, Gioco novo di [by Mitelli, Bologna] 233 Filosofia cortesana [by de Barros, Naples: Cartaro] 27, 33–34, 259 propaganda polemic, satire, current affairs Elezioni non sono un Gioco [Milano: SIGEP] 313–314 war, armed forces, heraldry Abissinia, La Conquista dell’ [Bergamo: Officine Istituto Italiano d’Arti Grafiche] 309–311 Nobilta Napoletana, Lo Splendore della [Naples: Antonio Bulifon] 232 non-race games Din-Don, ovvero Tutte le Strade conducono a Roma [Milan: Carroccio] 311 Giardin d’amore, Il novo et piacevol gioco del [Italy: de Paoli] 35, 43 fn16 Pela Chiu, Il giuoco del [advertised by Vaccari] 335 Schacchiero con la sua dichiaratione [advertised by Vaccari] 335 Netherlands, Belgium goose, monkey, hunting, barone Gansen Spel [Amsterdam: Scholten & Gormans] 246 Gansen Spel [Brugge: Jacobus Beernaerts] 247 Gansen-Spel [Ghent: Charles de Goesin- Disbecq] 247 Ganzen Bord [by Daan Hoeksema [Amsterdam: Koster] 295–296 Ganzen Spel [Amsterdam: Wijsmuller] 247 Ganzen Spel [Turnhout: Brepols] 246 Ganzenspel [Amsterdam: Vlieger] 248

375

376 

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Ghansespel [Amsterdam: Jan Christoffel Jegher] 244–246 Ghansespel [Amsterdam: Wed. Jacobus van Egmont & Zoon] 245 Ghanse-Spel, Het Nieuw En Vermaeckelyck [Amsterdam: Visscher] 243–244 Kinder Ganze Spel voor de Nederlandsche Jeugd [Zalt-Bommel: Johannes Noman] 247–248 advertising, promotion Belgie, Ganzenspel van ons Wonderschoon [Belgium: Nestlé] 322, 324 Gas-spel, Het [Amsterdam: Amsterdamsche Gasfabrieken] 327–328 Groot Eiffel Toren Spel [Blooker’s Cacao. Amsterdam: Vlieger] 321 Huile de Table des Chartreux, Jeu de L’ [Belgium: Chartreux table oils] 322–323 Jan van Woerkoms Hipspel [Netherlands: Jan van Woerkom] 328 Nutrix KabouterSpel [Netherlands: Nutrix] 325–326 Tramway Spel [Van Houten’s cacao, [Amsterdam: Vlieger] 317 Van Houten’s Cacao Spel [Weesp, Van Houten] 258, 318–319 courtship, matrimony, society, education ABC spel [Amsterdam: Bakker] 252 ABC spel, Nederlandsch [by the Tollenaar brothers. Amsterdam: Kemper & Meyer] 253 Brood Spel [Netherlands: Stichting Voorlichting Brood] 297 Cupido, El Juego Real de [Antwerp: de Jode] 43, 248 Mallemolenspel [Netherlands: Warendorf] 257 Sint Nicolaas-Spel [by Albeck, Amsterdam: G. Theod. Bom] 256 Slange Spel, Het Nieuw, [or] Koninclycke Tytkorting van Cupido [Amsterdam, Visscher] 248–250 Slange Spel, Het Nieuw, anders genaemt Koninclycke Tytkorting van Cupido [Amsterdam, Visscher] 43 Toovergodinnenspel [Amsterdam:Wijssmuller] 104 geography, journeys, transport Diligence-spel [Amsterdam: Moolenijzer] 254 Friesland, Een Reis door [Krediet en Zoon] 252 Geographie, Le Jeu de, ou l’art de Voyager[en] les Parties de L’Europe [Amsterdam: Covens] 252 Loterie Coloniale [Belgium: Loterie Coloniale] 311–312 Nederlandsche Rijnspoorweg Gezelschapsspel [Amsterdam: Allart] 254–255 Robinson Crusoe Spel [Doordrecht: Zender] 254 Spoorwegspel van Harlingen naar Groningen [Leeuwarden: Swarts] 254 Stoomboot-Spel [Amsterdam: Moolenijzer] 256 Stoomwagenspel [Doordrecht: Zender] 256 Vaderlandsch Reisspel voor de Nederlandsche jeugd [Amsterdam: Mortier en Zoon] 252 Vernes reis om dewereld in tachtig dagen [den Haag: Van Hoogstraten en Zoon] 254 history Cosaques, Jeu des [‘s Gravenhage: Weygand] 251 Fransche Koningen Spel [Amsterdam: Wijsmuller] 251 Historie van Holland [‘s Gravenhage: Langeweh and van Balen] 250 Waterloo, Historisch Spel van [Amsterdam: Moolenijzer] 251 morals, religion Schoolmeester en Collectant [by Louwerse, ‘s Gravenhage: Ykema] 256–257

Index of Games

propaganda polemic, satire, current affairs Bataafsch Revolutie en Alliantie Spel [Amsterdam: ‘the most patriotic bookdealers’] 70, 250 Brussel naar ons Nederland, Van hun [Amsterdam: De Telegraaf] 314, 317 Constitutie, Het spel van de [Netherlands: n.p.] 301 Dreyfus, L’Affaire [reprint of French original, Turnhout: Brepols] 251 Politiek ganzenborden met de Volkskrant [Netherlands: De Volkskrant] 314 science, invention, mathematics Brandweer-Spel [Amsterdam: Stooter] 256 Gaz-Licht Spel [Arnhem: de Jong] 256 Laurens Koster Spel [Amsterdam: Moolenijzer] 256 Panopticum Spel [Amsterdam: Koster] 257 Tentoonstelling van Londen [Haarlem: Wed. de Lange en van Ek] 257 Tentoonstellings Spel [Amsterdam: Koster] 257 Uitvindingen, Het Spel der [Amsterdam: Gebrs. Koster] 255–256 war, armed forces, heraldry Belegeringspel [56 spaces, n.p.] 251 Festung Baues Spiel, Das [Amsterdam: Schencken] 251 Het Nieuwe Oorlogsspel [‘s Gravenage: Berthaud] 308–309 Kriegs-Spiel, Das [Amsterdam: Schencken] 251 Nederlandsch Indisch Oorlogsspel [Natherlands: Warendorf] 252 Oorlogs- Spel [Amsterdam: Nederlandsche Biscuits Fabriek] 251 Non-race games Doggersbank-spel [‘s Gravenhage: Vanmeulen] 250 Gedenkblad [by Pietro Aratino Secundo, Leiden: Noothoven van Goor] 301 Spain, Portugal, Latin America goose, monkey, hunting, barone Gloria, Jogo da 268–269 Oca, Juego de la [Amades fig. 1] 261–262 Oca, Juego de la [Amades fig. 2, Palma de Mallorca, Impresa Guasp] 262–263 Oca, Juego de la [Amades fig. 3, Gerona: Homs] 262, 264 Oca, Juego de la [Amades fig. 4, Valencia: Laborde, Montpie and Villalba] 264–265 Oca, Juego de la [Amades fig. 5, Reus: Vidal] 264–265 Oca, Juego de la [Barcelona: Paluzie] 265–266 Oca, Juego de la [Barcelona: Pifferer] 264 Oca, Juego de la [by Posada, Mexico: Arroyo] 270 Oca, Juego de la [Epinal: Pinot] - see France Oca, Juego de la [Mexico: Pierrot] 270 Oca, Juego de la [Palma de Mallorca, Impresa Guasp] 263 Oca, Juego de la [showing the wrestler Volador, Mexico: n.p.] 270 courtship, matrimony, society, education Charros Contrabandistas Los [by Posada, Mexico: Arroyo] 270 Corrida de Toros, Juego [by Posada, Mexico: Arroyo] 270

377

378 

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

morals, religion Filosofia cortesana - see under Italy science, invention, mathematics Esfera ou do Universo, Jogo da [Paris: Danet] - see France war, armed forces, heraldry Marinha, Novo Jogo da [Paris: Danet] - see France Marte, O Descanco ealivio dos Discipulos de [Paris: Danet] - see France other countries goose, monkey, hunting, barone Gąską zwana, Gra włoska ucieszna [Poland: n.p.] 278 Goose, Game of the [oldest surviving board] 24 Goose, Game of the [by Mary D Carroll, Providence, RI: Knowles, Anthony] 285–287 Goose, Game of the [early board from North India] 24 Goose, The American Game of [New York: Beach] 285 Goose, The Jolly Game of [New York: Beach] 285–286 Mehen 31 geography, journeys, transport Geographical Pastime or Complete Tour of Europe [Philadelphia: Parker] 284–285 Postal or travel game [Moscow: Семена Камисарова] 277 Travellers Tour of the United States / through Europe [New York: Lockwood] 282–284 morals, religion Mansion of Happiness [Salem, Mass.: Ives]]  287–288 propaganda polemic, satire, current affairs White House Skiddoo [Washington DC: Democratic Women’s Day Committee] 315 non-race games Chess and Backgammon board [Indian] 24 fn8

Index of Subjects Designers and Publishers each have their own sections For details of specific games, see the Index of Games Advertisements for games Games advertised by Gamage’s, London, 1913 295 Games advertised in Copenhagen, 19th century  274–275 John Harris promotes his shop on a game track 187 Leeds, Yorkshire: John Binns, 1797 158 London games advertised in the USA 279–281 London, 18th century: Michael Hennekin 157–158 Advertising and promotion using games Diversity of goods and services advertised 326–330 France, late 19th century 319–321 Game of the Goose as a template 317 Games targeting children 325–326 Netherlands, late 19th century 258, 317–319 Affenspiele see Monkey games Amusement, games of Britain, 17th and 18th centuries 107–108 Britain, 19th century 189–192 Russian children making Goose game sheets 277 Taming of the Goose 14–15, 247, 258, 267, 345–347 Anti-Semitic games Fiches, affaire des, France, early 20th century 302–303 Jew, Game of the 35 Mitelli’s games 233–234 Austrian games Goose game never popular 276 Barletta, Gabriele da Christmas games disapproved in a sermon 23 Dice, large and small, to overcome imperfections of sight 23 Bernard, of Clairvaux Crowned serpent interpreted (see Cupid) 43 Bibliography, information Problems in the bibliography of printed board games 18–19 Boards, oldest surviving for the Goose game Game boards from North India 24–25 Brahe, Tycho Model of the universe and constellations 56–59 Bridoye, oie bridée (‘bridled goose’) Representing a lawyer of the Parlemens as a nincompoop 86 see also Rabelais British Games 17th and 18th centuries 143–164 19th century 165–194 Overview and check list 107–142 Cabala - alternatively Kabbala(h) or Qabala(h) see Medici Court - Philosophical background of the Callot, Jacques Decorative figures on early Italian games 35, 225

Carrington-Bolton Collection Late 19th-century games 211 Cartographic games see Geographical games Cartoonists Auca (Spain) 260–261 France, 20th century 303–304, 341–342 Hoeksma, Daan - Amsterdam, 20th century 295–296, 328, 349 Kohlenklau - Saving energy in WWII Germany 312–313 Chronological games see Historical games Clement XI, Pope Satirised in the Jeu de la Constitution Unigenitus 69 Climacteric see Numerology Comenius, John Amos Orbis Pictus 200 Cook, Captain James Voyages and death 161, 168 Culture - cultural history Bias in the corpus of surviving games 337–338 Board games supporting other historical sources 339–344 German character expressed in board games 212–217 History of Education, France 37, 44, 343–344 History of Leisure 347–348 History of Play: Huizinga 348 International cultural differences 15, 344–345 Material culture evidenced in printed board games 333–337 Psychological impact of the Game of the Goose  349–350 Cupid, game of (see also Snake) Britain 108, 153–155 Crowned serpent in the Game of Cupid interpreted 43 France 41–44 Netherlands 43–44 see also Numerology Current affairs and politics as game themes France, 18th century 73 France, 19th century 90–92 Review of events in 1952, Paris Match 343 see also Propaganda, polemic and satire de Scudéry, Madeleine Carte de Tendre 72–73 Designers noted in the text Barros, Alonso de - Spain, 16th century: Filosofia Cortesana 27, 35, 259 de Bonnaire, Abbé Louis – see under Jansenism de la Boissière, Gilles: Engineer, France, 17th century 60

380

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Duval (also Du Val), Pierre – France, 17th century  46–48, 63 Fox, George - Britain, 19th century 169 Freschot, Casimiro - Geographic game for Venetian Youth, 17th century 231–232 Holzbecher, Michael: Game carved in stone for Karl, Archduke of Austria 26 Jefferys, John - Britain, 17th century: first cartographic game 159–160 Le Maitre, Sr. - France, 18th century 51, 236 Mitelli, Giuseppe Maria - Italy, 19th and 18th centuries 223, 232–235 Pierron, Jean (Jesuit) - France, 17th century: converting the Iroquois 52–55 Posada, José Guadalupe - Mexico, 19th century 270 Richer, Louis - France, 17th century 48 Sampson, Barbara - Britain, 20th century 295 Saussine, Léon: patentee, France, 19th and 20th century 101 Vouillemont, Etienne - France, 17th century: Jeu de la Sphère 56 see also Index of Games for designers of specific games Dice As an effective playing mechanism 350 Compound dice/card games found wanting 62 Double dice making a lively game 13 Double dice simulated accurately by a spinner 156 High duty on dice in Britain 168 Prohibition of dice games including Goose 23, 266–267 Replaced by cards drawn, Britain, 19th century 177 Teetotum in preference to dice-box 168 Distribution Britain, before the 19th century 157–158 Colporteurs -Europe 14 France, 18th century 347 Dreyfus affair see Propaganda, polemic and satire Dutch and Flemish games Amusement, games of 243–250 Educational games 250–255 Unusual themes 255–258 Education Duval’s educational aims 46–48 Elizabeth Newbery’s educational aims 168, 174 History of Education, France 37, 44, 343–344 Education from an early age Children’s books 346–347 France, 18th century 70–71 Germany -animal alphabet, 17th century 200 Netherlands - ABC games 252–253 Netherlands - distinctive themes 256–257 Educational games Britain, 18th century 108–109 Britain, 19th century 183–185 Compound dice/card games found wanting 62 France, 17th century - for the cadet class 45–64, 70 France, 18th century - widening the range 71–73 France, 19th century - traditional themes 92–95 Games with a ‘message’ in the 20th century 296–297

Germany 208–209 Italy 236–237 Netherlands 250–252, 256–257 Portuguese games for education in Brazil 270–271 see also specific educational themes Este, Borso d’ Gives his Jester money to play at Goose game 24 Prohibits dice games in Emilia Romagna, 1463 23 Fiches, L’affaire des see Propaganda, polemic and satire Ficino, Marsilio see Medici Court French games After the Revolution 83–106 Before the Revolution 37–82 D’Allemagne’s listing of games by themes 38, 77–80 French games adapted for a future King of Portugal 269 Gambling Britain, 17th and 18th century 107, 145, 149–150 Condemned by Darton 182 Goose game not for gambling in 20th century 291 Iconography as indicator of game use? 152, 345–346 Italy, late 15th century 23–24 Post– und Reisespiele: small stakes suggested 203 Spain - prohibition of dice games 266–267 Versus educational themes in the Game of the Goose 14, 44 see also Iconography, tavern Games, early printed, other than Goose Barone game 35 Filosofia Cortesana game invented by Barros, Alonso de 33–35 Monkey (Scimia) game, Italy 33 Owl and other pay-or-take dice games 35 Gender, distinction - special rules Courtship and Matrimony game 108, 155–157 Les Etrennes de la Jeunesse, France, 18th century 71 Netherlands - Sint Nicolaas game 256 Ritterspiel, Deutsches 209–219 Geographic games Britain, 18th century - cartographic games based on the Grand Tour 108–109, 159–165 Britain, 19th century - attractions of London 185–189 Britain, 19th century - cartographic games 177–181 Britain, 19th century - non-cartographic games 181–183 Earliest games published in USA 282–285 France - the Revolution 87–88 France, 17th century 46–49 Italy, 17th century - Freschot 231–232 Italy - the Giro del Mondo 238–239 Netherlands 252 German race games Classification 196 Database 196, 219–221 Variation as a distinctive feature 195 see also specific classes of game Goldsmith, Oliver Reference to Goose game in The Deserted Village 149–150

381

INDEX OF SUBJEC TS

Gonzalillo [Gonzalo de Liagno], jester to Philip II Curses the inventor of the Game of the Goose 27 Goose, Game of the Advertising themes - ways of adapting the game 321–325 Development and spread - chronology of key events 20–21 Reviving the Game of the Goose, Britain, 20th century 295 Spain - 17th century games with religious iconography 261–264 Thematic variants in Europe, end 19th century 292 Tracing lines of descent 16–17 Variants defined 44–45 Goose, Game of the - classic Allegorical game of Valerio Spada 228–230 Britain 107, 143–149 Consistory in Rome - invention of Goose game? 31 Development, possible stages in 31–32, 299 Earliest references - Italy 23–24 Earliest references - Netherlands 243–246 Europe, 19th and 20th century 292, 295–296 France, before and after the Revolution 39–41, 64, 103 Geese as positive symbols, possibly pelicans? 14, 30–31 Good playing qualities - reasons for 298 Italy 225–228, 230–231 Labyrinth - distinctive rule in French games 39 Mehen as generic forerunner 31 Netherlands 243–248 Numerology 30 Poland- game from an Italian model 278 Portrait medallions – Britain and Netherlands  145–146, 246–247 Rules and mode of play 13, 21–22 Santiago da Compostela: Pilgrim’s Way an unlikely model 32 Scandinavian games 273–275 Spain 259, 264–266 Statistical modelling 298 USA 282, 285–287 Grand Tour see Geographic games, Britain 18th century Henri IV, King of France Symbol giving credence to the Bourbon restoration 92 Symbolising the ideals of the French Revolution 86–87 Heraldry French games 63–64 Italy - the splendour of the Neapolitan nobility 232 Historical games Britain, 19th century 173–176 France, 17th century 49–52 France - the Revolution 84–88 Netherlands 250–251 Hortus conclusus Enclosed garden, in the Cupid game 42 Howard, Mary, Duchess of Norfolk Plants a Goose game in hornbeam, Worksop, 1758 151 Humbert affair see Propaganda, polemic and satire

Iconography As indicator of game use? 152, 345–346 Tavern iconography 145, 149–150, 152, 225, 247, 345–346 Tracing lines of descent 16, 44, 145, 246 Imprints, false Le nouveau jeu des modes françoises 73 Jeu de la Constitution Unigenitus 68 International diffusion of the Goose game Earliest dated Game of the Goose: Italy, 1598 25 Earliest French Game of the Goose, Lyon, 1598 25 Game for Karl, Archduke of Austria by Michael Holzbecher 26 John Wolfe registers Goose game: London, 1597 27, 143 International links Imports to London, 18th century 157 Publication across national borders in Europe  103–104, 241–242, 267, 294 see also USA Jansenism Jeu de la Constitution Unigenitus designed by de Bonnaire 67–70 Jefferson, Thomas Family games including Goose 282 Journey games Britain 162–164 France 92 Germany, including Post– und Reisespiele 203–206 Netherlands 254–255 Postal game, earliest printed game in Russia, 1792 277 Psychological impact of 349 Switzerland 275 Karl, Archduke of Austria - game by Michael Holzbecher Drinking songs on the Fortuna game 26 Legacy of the Goose game Definition of legacy 291 In advertising and promotion 330 In amusement and education 299 In propaganda, polemic and satire 314–315 Leisure, history of see culture - cultural history Literature on games, sources and collections Britain 110–111 France 37–38 Germany 195–196 Italy 224 Netherlands 242–243 Overview 17–18 Spain 259–260 Livres d’artiste Game of Paris by Madeine Luka, 1942 295 London Its importance for publishing of games in Britain 107 London’s attractions used as themes for games 185–189 Lottery Loteries du salon 35, 203, 260 Louis XIII, King of France Played the jeu de l’oie as Dauphin 14, 75

382

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

Marriage Courtship, Love and Matrimony games 71, 95, 108, 155–157 Medici Court, Philosophical background of Cabala (alternatively Kabbala(h) or Qabala(h)) 28 Ficino’ s astrological interpretation of climacterics 28–29 Medici, Francesco de’ Sends the Game of the Goose to Philip II of Spain 27 Mexican games Games designed by Posada and 20th century designs 270 Monkey Games Singerie 33, 190–192, 202, 218, 273–274 Montorgeuil, rue, Paris Three previously unknown games by the widow of Charles Petit 41 Moral, spiritual and religious games Britain, 1790 - New Game of Human Life 109 Britain, 19th century: moral not spiritual games  166–173 France 52–56, 95–96 Germany – such games rarely found 212 Spain - 17th century games with religious iconography 261–264 The Mansion of Happiness in Britain and in the USA 169–170, 287 Muir, Percy Recognising the importance of printed games 110 Napoleon I, Emperor of France Favourite game the jeu de l’oie 14 His successes and his life 90, 209, 343 fn24 Netherlandish games See Dutch and Flemish games Norfolk, Duchess of see Howard Numerology Climacteric numbers 28–29 Dante – the number nine in the Vita Nuova 29 Ficino’ s interpretation of climacterics through astrology 28–29 Nine as the ruling number of the Game of the Goose 29 Seven as the ruling number of the Game of Cupid 42 Track length of the Game of the Goose 28 Owl and other pay-or-take dice games Imports to London, 18th century 157–158 Late 16th century and 17th century 35, 41 fn12, 232 Netherlands, 19th century 253, 257, 292, 301 Parlements Abolished in the French Revolution 85–86 Philip II, King of Spain Receives the Game of the Goose from Francesco de’Medici 27 Polish games Classic Goose game from an Italian model 278 Politics and regime change - effect on games Elections 313–315 France, post-Revolution 88–90

Goose game politically incorrect after Russian revolution 278 Italy – Mussolini era 297, 309–311 Italy - unification 235–236 Netherlands - Batavian Revolution 250 Netherlands - extended boundaries, 19th century 252 Portuguese games French games adapted for a future King of Portugal 269 Jogo da Gloria 267–269 Portuguese games for education in Brazil 270–271 Printing and publishing Britain - high quality games, 19th century 165 Britain - importance of London for game publishing 107 Chromolithography 83, 101, 241, 251, 257–258, 294, 317 France - early lithography 101 France - manufacturers of games 102 France - Imagerie Lorraine 103–104, 294 France - Marchands-éditeurs 39 France - Paris and provinces contrasted 39–41 France – rue Montorgeuil: three previously-unknown games 41 French games republished in the Netherlands 251 German publishers of bilderbogen for Scandinavia 275 Germany - bilderbogen 197, 212, 336 Germany - techniques and places of publication 198 Internationalisation of production, end 19th century 292–294 Italy - Milan exports, end 19th century 294 Netherlands - centsprenten 242–243 Production methods over time 15 Publisher - use of the term in Early Modern period 19 Spain - techniques 263–265 Propaganda, polemic and satire as themes for games 19th-century background 301 Affaire des fiches, France, early 20th century 302–303 Anti-German feeling in France, 1914 306–308 Belgian colonial attitudes - the Colonial Lottery  311–312 Dreyfus affair, early 20th century 301–302 France - an ‘improved’ chronology of WWI 308 France, 17th century 64–70 Humbert affair 303–304 Kohlenklau - Saving energy in WWII Germany  312–313 Mussolini era 297, 309–311 Suffragette movement, Britain, early 20th century 304–306 Publishers noted in the text Basset - Paris marchands-éditeurs publishing many games 39 Betts, John - London, 19th century 189 fn58 Bowles, John and Carrington - London, 18th century 147, 156 fn40, 159 Brepols - Turnhout, 19th and 20th century 246 Carvalho, David - London, 19th century 185 Chéreau - Paris 101 Coqueret -Paris 101 Crépy - Paris marchands-éditeurs publishing many games 39

383

INDEX OF SUBJEC TS

Danet, Guillaume - Paris, 17th and 18th centuries 269 Dartons, the - London(see also Quakers) 109, 172, 182, 188–189 Daumont - Paris 39–40 De Fer family - Paris 19, 269 Gargano, Lucchino – earliest dated Game of the Goose 225 Garrett, John - London, 17th century 153 Harris, John - London, 19th century 186–187 Ives – Salem, Mass., 19th century 287 Jean - Paris 101 Jefferys, Thomas - London, 18th century 160 Jegher, Jan Christoffel - Antwerp, 17th century 244–246 Jeux et Jouets Français - Paris, 20th century 101 Knowles Anthony & Co - Providence R I, 19th century 286 L’Enfant, John Anthony - London, 19th century, lithographer 176 fn24 Letourmy, Jean-Baptiste - imagier, Orléans 39 Lockwood - New York, early 19th century, cartographic games 282–284 Marcel Lamy, Nancy - 20th century 329 Mariette - Paris 46 fn21 Mauclair-Dacier - Paris manufacturers of games, 19th century 95, 101–102 Milton Bradley - Springfield Mass., 19th and 20th century 288 Myers, Anthony Nathan - London, 19th century  180 fn35 Newbery, Elizabeth - London 18th century 109, 166–168, 173–174 Ogilvy, David - London, 19th century 178 fn29 Overton, Henry - London, 18th century 145 Overton, John - London, 17th century 143–145, 245–246, 298 Paluzie - Barcelona, 19th and 20th centuries 265 Parker, Edward - New York, early 19th century, cartographic games 284–285 Pellerin - Imagerie d’Épinal, 19th and 20th centuies 103, 294, 336 Petit, Charles - Paris, rue Montorgeuil, early 17th century 41 Piferrer - Barcelona, 18th and 19th centuries 264 Remondini - Bassano 36 fn30, 226, 236 Sainton - Troyes, marchard cartier 40 Saussine - Paris, 19th and 20th centuries 101 Sayer, Robert - London, 18th century 73, 147 Scholz - Mainz, 19th century 293 Sevestre-Le Blond, Jean-Baptiste - imagier, Orléans 39 Spear - Bavaria, 19th century and Enfield, 20th century 294 ‘SPES’ - Lausanne, 20th century 276 Spooner, William - London, 19th century 179–180, 189–190, 192 Thomaron - Paris, 19th century 101 fn56 Visscher, Claes Janz - Amsterdam, 17th century 243 Vlieger - Amsterdam, 19th and 20th centuries 241 Wallis family - London, 18th and 19th centuries  161–162, 165– 166 Watilliaux - Paris manufacturers of games, 19th century 101–102

Waylett, Henry - London, 18th century, music 144 Wolfe, John - London: registers the Game of the Goose, 1597 27, 143 see also Index of Games for publishers of specific games Quakers - their morality expressed in games Anti-Catholic feelings in Britain 160, 162 Britain, 19th century 188–189 Colonial oppression and slavery condemned by John Betts 189 fn58 Morality of the Dartons 162, 171–173, 182 Rabelais, François - third book of Pantagruel Bridoye (Bridlegoose), Judge – his use of large and small dice 23 Racetrack games France 102 Germany 206–208 Religious games see Moral, spiritual and religious games Revolution, French Chronicled in games 84–86 France re-mapped 87–88 Ideals of the Revolution 86–87 Revolution, Russian Goose game became politically incorrect 277–278 Royal gift of the Game of the Goose see Medici, Francesco de’ Rules Duval’s Jeu du Monde - particular rules 81–82 Germany - rule variation as a characteristic feature 198–202 In games of advertising and promotion 324 Maison des jeux academiques, Le – rules for French games 41 Reverse overthrows 30 and passim Tracing lines of descent 16 see also Goose, Game of the - classic Russian games Game board for the son of Peter the Great, 1699 277 Goose game politically incorrect after Russian revolution 278 Postal game, earliest printed game in Russia, 1792 277 Scandinavian games Games advertised in Copenhagen, 19th century  274–275 German publishers of bilderbogen for Scandinavia 275 Royal Goose board noted in Copenhagen 273 Schreiber, Lady Charlotte British collector, late 19th century, 18 Science, invention and mathematics as game themes Britain, 19th century 184–185 France, 17th century 56 Netherlands 255–256 Snake, Game of the (undifferentiated track) 17th century, English 31 Snake, Game of the (see also Game of Cupid) Netherlands 248–250 Society - interaction and diversions as game themes

384

THE CULTUR AL LEGAC Y OF THE ROYAL GAME OF THE GOOSE

France, 18th century 71–73 France, 19th century - commerce and trade 98–100 France, 19th century - leisure interests of adults 96–98 Netherlands - distinctive themes 257 Spear, John Check list of British games 111–142 Strutt, Joseph Dismisses the Goose game as a childish diversion 151–152 Suffragette movement see Propaganda, polemic and satire Swiss games Journey games - tour of Switzerland, late 19th century 275 ‘SPES’ active in 20th-century Switzerland 276 Taming of the Goose see Amusement, games of Thiers, Jean Baptiste Condemns games of chance, France 17th century 55 Tourism Exotic lands ‘visited’, Germany, 19th century 205–206

Italy - the Giro del Mondo 238–239 London’s attractions 185–189 Switzerland 275 Track variations Britain, 19th century 176 In games for advertising 324 USA games Classic Game of the Goose uncommon  285–287 Earliest games published in USA 282–285 Games imported from England 279–281 The Mansion of Happiness game 287–288 Usage of games Britain, 17th and 18th century 149–152, 164, 346 France, 17th and 18th century 74–76 Germany 212, 346–347 War, armed forces, heraldry Games of WWI 306–309 Netherlands, 19th century 251–252 France, 17th century 60–64