The Cucuteni-Tripolye Culture: A Study in Technology and the Origins of Complex Society 9780860542797, 9781407337258

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The Cucuteni-Tripolye Culture A Study in Technology and the Origins of Complex Society

Linda Ellis

BAR International Series 217 1984

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. -S217,1984 :'T he Cucuteni-Tripolye Culture'

©

Linda Ellis,1984

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542797 paperback ISBN 9781407337258 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542797 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T his m onograph i s d edicated t o t he

1 00th a nniversary

o f t he d iscovery o f t he s ite o f O UGUTENI i n 1 884.

1 11

T able o f C ontents

Acknowledgments S ources o f

v i

I llustrations

v iii

N ote o n T ransliteration/Translation o f P lacenames C HAPTER I --Introduction:

T echnology a nd

S ociety

1

C HAPTER I I--Origin a nd D evelopment o f t he L ate N eolithicC halcolithic C ultures N orthwest o f t he B lack S ea

9

I I.A .

I ntroduction

9

I I.B.

T he P re-Cucuteni p eriod

9

I I.B.1. I.B.2. I

P re-Cucuteni/Tripolye A c hronology S ettlement l ocation a nd b uilding c onstruction

I.B.3. I I.B.4. I

E conomy C ultural o rigins a nd

2 0 2 6

T he C ucuteni s equence I.C,1. H istory o f r esearch o n p ainted wares I I.C.2. I

C ucuteni c eramic t ypology

3 2

T ripolye c eramic t ypology

4 1

I .C.4. I

C onclusion o n c eramic t ypology

4 2

I.C.5. I

A bsolute d ating

4 8

I.C.6. I

S ettlement

4 8

I.C.7. I

E conomy

I.C.8. I

C ulture c ontact

l ocation a nd b uilding c onstruction

5 4 a nd t echnological

c hange

8 1

T he g eology o f r aw m aterials u sed

i n c eramic

manufacture

8 1

II.A .1. I

G eological h istory a nd c lay f ormation

8 1

II.A .2. I II .A .3. I

I ron o xides C alcium/magnesium c arbonates

8 3 8 3

II.A .4. I

M anganese o xides

8 4

F orming p rocesses

9 2

II .B.1. C lay p reparation I II .B.2. V essel f ormation I II .B.3. I

9 2 15 1

D ecoration

19 1

Firing p rocesses II.C.1. U se o f k ilns I II.C.2. I II.D. I C HAPTER

1 30 1 30

A tmosphere c ontrol a nd

f iring t emperatures

C onclusion

I V--Conclusion:

I V.A . I V.B.

5 4 6 2

C HAPTER I II--The Manufacturing P rocess

II.B. I

3 0 3 0

I.C.3. I

N otes t o C hapter I I

II.A . I

2 0

i nteraction s phere o f

P re-Cucuteni I.C. I

90

1 57 1 59

T he R ole o f T echnology i n S ocio-Economic

E volution

1 71

I ntroduction P alaeodemography a nd s ocio-economic e volution

1 71

i v

1 72

I V.B.1. I V.B.2.

L ocation a nd i ncrease i n s ettlements S ettlement s ize a nd p lanning

S izes o f d wellings nd t he p ath t o C onclusion: " Chiefdoms" a c omplex s ociety n s ocio-economic P yrotechnology a nd i ts r ole i e volution t echnology a nd f ood asses: F eeding t he m I V.C .1. s torage ndeavour t o p ragmatism : I V.C.2. F rom a rtistic e eeds a nd c onstraints o n s ocio-economic n I V.B.3. I V.B.4.

I V. C .

p roduction I V.C .3. I V.D B IBLIOGRAPHY

rganisation o f l abour i n E nergy a nd t he o m anufacturing

C onclusion

1 83 1 85 1 89 1 97 2 00 2 00

2 05 2 07 2 08 2 11

A cknowledgements

T he a uthor w ould l ike t o t hank t he f ollowing p ersons, i nstitutions, a nd f oundations w hose h elp a nd g enerous s upport m ade p ossible t he s uccessful c ompletion o f t his p roject. A g enerous p re-doctoral g rant f rom t he I nternational R esearch a nd E xchanges B oard ( IREX), N ew Y ork, p ermitted e xtensive f ieldwork i n R omania f or t he y ear 1 981-1982 a nd d uring J uly-August 1 983. T he A nthropology D epartment a t H arvard U niversity s upported t ravel f or f ieldwork i n E astern E urope d uring t he s ummers o f 1 979 a nd 1 983. T he a uthor a lso r eceived a J ens A ubrey W estengaard g rant f rom H arvard U niversity f or t he f ieldwork s easons i n 1 979 a nd 1 983. G rants f rom t he A nthropology D epartment a t H arvard University a nd R adcliffe C ollege c ontributed t owards t he c osts o f t he a rchaeometric s tudies i n c hapter I II o f t his w ork . M any i ndividuals

i n R omania c ontributed h eavily i n t erms o f t heir

t ime a nd e nergy a nd i n t erms o f m aking r esearch m aterials a vailable. T he g enerosity o f t he N ational C ouncil f or S cience a nd T echnology ( Bucharest) a nd t he A cademy o f S ocial a nd P olitical S ciences ( Bucharest), w ho w ere t he a uthor's h ost o rganisations, i s h ereby a cknowledged. T he a uthor a lso a ppreciated t he i mmense e nergy a nd e fforts o f D r. E ugen C om a o f t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology ( Bucharest), w ho w as t he p rincipal a dvisor a nd l iaison i n R omania. D r. t efan C ucos, D irector, a nd M r. D an M onah, b oth o f t he N ea r a4 C ounty M useum C omplex, m ade a vailable t o m e o n n umerous o ccasions t he r ichest c ollections o f t he C ucuteni c ulture i n R omania. I n a ddition, t he a uthor w as a ble t o participate a t t he e xcavations o f T ell P oduri ( Bacgu C ounty)--the o nly t ell k nown f or t he C ucuteni c ulture--with t he p ermission o f M r. D an M onah, t he p rincipal i nvestigator. C eramic s amples f rom s everal s ites, i ncluding T ell P oduri, w ere b rought t o t he United S tates f or p etrographic a nd c hemical a nalyses w ith t he g enerous p ermission o f t he C ouncil f or C ulture a nd S ocialist E ducation o f t he g overnment o f t he S ocialist R epublic o f R omania. T he a uthor w ould a lso l ike t o t hank t he f ollowing i ndividuals i n R omania w ho c ontributed t heir t ime, e ffort,

a nd r esearch m aterials:

I nstitute o f A rchaeology, B ucharest: D r. E ugen C om a, D r. M arin arciumaru, D r. P etre R oman, D r. A nn D odd-Opri;escu N ational Museum o f H istory, B ucharest: a nd M r. " A. D . D r. M rs.

M r. D ragomir P opovici

G eorghe N iculescu X enopol" I nstitute o f H istory a nd A rchaeology,

M ircea P etrescu-Dibbov 4a, M r. A nton N 4u, C ornelia-Magda M antu, a nd D r.

v i

S ilviu S anie

I a0 .:

A lexander

I .

C uza U niversity,

I aei:

D r.

A ttila L aszlo a nd

Botoeani D istrict M useum, B otoeani:

M r.

P aul

D r. Marin D inu

M r.

O ctavian

o van,

a nd M r.

S uceava District Museum, M r.

Emil Emandi;

S uceava:

O ctav M onoranu, D irector;

a nd M r. Mircea I gnat

G ala4i District M useum o f History, B räila D istrict M useum, B rgila: C ovasna D istrict M useum, Director;

a durschi,

A ristotel C fIemaru

a nd Mr.

G ala4i:

D r.

D r.

I on D ragomir

N icolae H ar4uche

S fintu G heorghe:

Z oltan S zekely,

Z solt S zekely

B rukenthal Museum,

S ibiu:

D r.

I uliu P aul

B raeov District Museum, B raeov:

M r. F lorea C ostea

Museum o f History o f T ransilvania, Museum o f A rchaeology, O lteni a:

C luj-Napoca: D r. M r. D one

N icolae V lassa

e rbänescu

Museum o f National History a nd A rchaeology,

C onstan;a:

M r. Puiu H aeotti Museum o f O ltenia,

C raiova:

Mr. M arin N ica

C oncerning t he a rchaeometric a nalyses

i n c hapter

I II,

t he a uthor

wishes t o a cknowledge H arold T hompson o f t he G eology D epartment, H arvard University, c eramics.

f or m aking e xcellent p etrographic t hin s ections T he

s canning e lectron microscopy was

f rom t he

c onducted with t he

p ermission o f F rank Molea a nd with t he k ind a ssistance o f J oseph B ell ( re-firing o f s amples) R esearch L aboratory

a nd Maurice D umais

( SEM o peration)

( Gordan McKay L aboratories)

o f t he M aterials

a t H arvard U niversity.

X -ray d iffractometry was c onducted a t t he C enter f or A rchaeological R esearch a nd D evelopment

( Peabody M useum)

a uthor i s e ntirely r esponsible f or t he

vii

a t H arvard University.

T he

i nterpretations o f t he d ata.

S ources o f I llustrations

A bbreviation: E SSSR

M asson, V . M . M oskva.

a nd M erpert, N .

J A .

( 1982) E neolit S SSR.

C omplete r eferences w ill b e f ound i n t he b ibliography. F ig. F ig.

3 4

E SSSR E SSSR

F ig. F ig. F ig.

5 7 8

u pper, n os. 1 -6: P assek 1 935; S chmidt 1 932 E SSSR

F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig.

9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3

S chmidt E SSSR S chmidt S chmidt S chmidt

F ig. F ig. F ig.

1 4 1 5 1 6

S chmidt 1 932 P assek 1 949 E SSSR

F ig. F ig.

1 7 1 8

E SSSR u pper t wo d esigns: V .

l ower:

E SSSR

1 932 1 932 1 932 1 932

D umitrescu 1 941-44;

F ig.

1 9

d esigns: S chmidt 1 932 V . D umitrescu 1 941-44

F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig.

2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4

t op: V . D umitrescu 1 941-44; V . D umitrescu 1 941-44 S chmidt 1 932 S chmidt 1 932 M atasä 1 963

F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig.

2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8

V . D umitrescu 1 941-44 V . D umitrescu 1 941-44 E SSSR E SSSR

F ig. F ig.

2 9 3 0

E SSSR E SSSR

F ig.

3 1

E SSSR

F ig. F ig.

3 9 4 0

c ' 1 972; m iddle a nd u pper: M arkevi \ R ieth 1 960

F ig.

4 7

Rye 1 981

F ig. F ig.

4 8 4 9

N ica 1 978 N ica 1 978

F ig.

5 0

N ica a nd N i;a 1 979

F ig.

5 1

C o r nea 1 976b

F ig.

5 2

C om a 1 976b

F ig. F ig.

5 3 5 4

P etkov 1 964 C o r nea 1 976b

F ig. F ig.

5 5 5 6

V . V .

D umitrescu e t a l. D umitrescu e t a l.

1 954 1 954

v iii

a ll o thers:

l ower t hree

S chmidt

1 932

l ower: M arkeviC1 1 981

F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig.

5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3

F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig. F ig.

6 7 6 8 6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6

C or nea 1 976b u pper: B ibikov 1 949; l ower: M arkeviCi 1 981 M arkevi 1 981 M ov U 1 971 M arkeviC 1 981 M arkeviv c 1 981 P hotograph: a uthor; w ith p ermission o f D r. s tefan C ucoe, D irector o f t he N eam4 C ounty M useum C omplex E SSSR E SSSR M arkeviC ' 1 981 , I maglij, e t a l. 1 973b Sakin 1 973 hgkin 1 973 P assek 1 935 P assek 1 935 P assek 1 935 u pper: P assek 1 935; l ower: S chmidt 1 932

i x

N ote o n T ransliteration/Translation o f P lacenames

Whenever p ossible t he o riginal s pelling o f n ames i s p reserved. When a p articular p lacename o ccurs i n s everal d ifferent l anguages d ue t o c ommon i nternational b orders ( e.g., D anube R iver, B lack S ea, e tc.), t he E nglish v ersion i s u sed. F or n ames d eriving f rom t he C yrillic a lphabet, t he I PA s ystem o f t ransliteration i s u sed. O ne e xception i s t he c ulture a nd e ponymous s ite n ame o f " Tripolye" w hose s pelling h as b ecome s tandard 3 0 y ears.

i n t he E nglish a rchaeological

l iterature f or t he p ast

A s f or R omanian n ames, a s pecial s ituation e xists, s ince t he R omanian a lphabet d oes c ontain s ome u nfamiliar l etters p roduced b y t he 4 . c edilla a nd o ther a ccent marks, n amely: ( =ts), e ( =sh), 1 /a ( =gutteral i ), a nd ä (short Tu r y) . S ome n on-Romanian a rchaeologists h ave u ndertaken, o n a n i nconsistent b asis, t o t ransform R omanian n ames, e .g. G umeln 4a t o " Gumelnitsa" o r e ven " Gumelnitza", w hich i s n ot o nly e rroneous b ut a lso c auses c onfusion w hen r eading m aps o r u sing t he o riginal l iterature. T he N ational G eographic S ociety ( Washington, D .C.) h as m aintained o riginal s pellings o f R omanian p lacenames a nd t here i s n o r eason w hy t he a rchaeological l iterature s hould n ot d o l ikewise. M any C ucuteni-Tripolye s ites a re l ocated o n t erritories w hich h istorically h ave b elonged t o R omania a nd P oland b ut w hich s ubsequently h ave b ecome p art o f t he U SSR f ollowing World W ar I I. T hese R omanian a nd P olish n ames w ere t ransformed i nto R ussian a nd Ukrainian, r espectively, a nd s imple t ransliteration a lone d oes n ot r eveal t he o riginal s pelling w hich m ay h inder n ame r ecognition i n t he l iterature a nd o n m aps. T he i mportant s ite o f S chipenitz i s a n e xceptional b ut c lassic e xample. L ocated i n t he p rovince o f B ucovina n ear t he f ormer R omanian-Polish b order, i t h as r eceived f ive d ifferent s pellings: ( Ukrainian),

i peni;i . ( Romanian), S zypenice ( Polish), 4pentsi npentsy ( Russian), a nd S chipenitz ( German). T his s ite

w as e xcavated b y O leh K andyba, a nd s ince t he r eport w as p ublished by h im i n G erman i n 1 937, t he n eutral G erman s pelling will b e u sed h ere. O therwise, i t was d eemed m ost a ppropriate t o g ive t he c urrent R ussian o r Ukrainian t ransliteration f irst a nd t he o lder R omanian o r P olish s pelling i n p arantheses, e .g. K oste ny ( Costeeti), K arbuna ( Cärbuna). A lthough t his i s a c umbersome s ystem, i t w ill a llow t he r eader t o b e a ble t o l ocate a ny s ite o r p lacename i n a ny l anguage, written b oth b efore a nd a fter W orld War I I.

C HAPTER I I ntroduction:

T echnology a nd S ociety

T he i nterrelatedness o f t echnology a nd h uman s ociety i s s uccinctly s ummarised i n t he p rovocative c omment o ffered b y L eslie W hite: ocial o rganization o f a p eople i s n ot o nly d ependent ..the s u pon t heir t echnology b ut i s d etermined t o a g reat e xtent... b y i t... . ( White 1 959:19) I n White's v iew,

t he h uman b eing h as b asic n eeds,

i .e.

s ubsistence,

s helter, d efense, e tc., a nd a s s uch h e m ust h arness e nergy, b e i t h is o wn o r f rom t he e nvironment, a nd p ut t his e nergy t o w ork i n o rder t o s atisfy t hese n eeds. E nergy i s d efined s imply a s " the a bility t o d o w ork" b e i t w ork d one i nternally b y t he h uman o rganism i tself o r e xternally b y t he e nvironment. B ut t he e xploitation o f e nergy r equires t he m eans a nd a pparatus f or s o d oing--the f undamental p rinciple o f t echnology--and W hite e xtends " the u se o f t he t erm t ools t o c over a ll t he m aterial m eans w ith which e nergy i s h arnessed, t ransformed, a nd e xpended" ( White 1 959:40). White h as t aken t he a bsolutist p osition, a s e xemplified b y t he i ntroductory q uotation, t hat i f t he e xistence o f H omo s apiens a s a s pecies i s d ependent u pon f ood, p rotection f rom t he e lements, d efense f rom e nemies, a nd i f t echnology i s t he m eans b y w hich t hese l ife-sustaining a nd l ife-perpetuating p rocesses m ay b e s ecured, t hen t he s ocial o rganisation o f a p eople m ust t herefore b e d ependent u pon t heir t echnology. A nd f urthermore, " a s ocial s ystem m ight w ell b e d efined a s t he w ay i n w hich a s ociety m akes u se o f i ts p articular t echnology i n t he v arious l ife-sustaining p rocesses" ( White 1 959:19). F inally, t he e volution o f s ocial s ystems h as b een e xplained a s " when t he a mount o f e nergy h arnessed b y m an p er c apita p er y ear i s i ncreased; o r a s t he e fficiency o f t he t echnological m eans o f p utting t his e nergy t o w ork i s i ncreased; s imultaneously i ncreased ( White 1 943).

o r,

a s b oth f actors a re

L eslie W hite was n ot t he o nly e xponent o f t he r ole o f e nergy a nd t echnology i n h uman d evelopment--G.

C .

M acCurdy h ad s tated t hat:

T he d egree o f c ivilization o f a ny e poch, p eople, o r g roup o f p eoples i s m easured b y a bility t o u tilize e nergy f or h uman a dvancement o r n eeds. E nergy i s o f t wo k inds, i nternal a nd e xternal o r f ree. I nternal e nergy i s t hat o f t he h uman b ody o r m achine,

a nd i ts b asis

i s f ood.

E xternal e nergy i s t hat

o utside t he h uman b ody a nd i ts b asis i s f uel. M an h as b een a ble t o t ap t he g reat s torehouse o f e xternal e nergy. T hrough h is i nternal e nergy a nd t hat a cquired f rom e xternal s ources, h e h as b een a ble t o o vercome t he o pposing e nergy o f h is n atural e nvironment. o pposing f orces 1 933:134-135).

T he d ifferences b etween t hese t wo

i s t he g auge o f c ivilization .

1

( MacCurdy

H owever, W hite w as t he f irst t o e xpand o n t he t heme o f e nergy a nd t echnology i n s ocial e volution a nd t o g ive u s a c lear p icture o f t he i nfluence a nd p ower t hat t echnology w ields i n h uman e xistence. A lthough t he g reat r evolution i n f ood-getting t echnology,

o r

a griculture, p rovided White w ith h is m ain s ource o f i nspiration, i t i s V . G . C hilde's c omment o n t he c raft i ndustries w hich i s p articularly i nteresting f or a nthropological a rchaeologists w ho m ust r econstruct t he e volution o f s ocial s ystems u sing n on-biological m aterial f inds: T he s hip a nd t he t ools e mployed i n i ts p roduction s ymbolise a w hole e conomic a nd s ocial s ystem ; t he c anoe .. a lso i mplies a n e conomy, a s ocial o rganization . .. T he b ronze a xe w hich r eplaces ( a s tone a xe) i s n ot o nly a s uperior i mplement, i t a lso p resupposes a m ore c omplex e conomic a nd s ocial s tructure ( Childe

1 951:13-14).

T wo i mportant c oncepts d erive f rom t his q uotation: F irst, C hilde g ave t he d iscipline o f a rchaeology t he h ope t hat m ore c ould b e d one w ith e xcavated m aterials t han m erely c ataloging i nanimate o bjects i nto e ven m ore l ifeless t ypologies a nd t hat t here w as t he p ossibility o f a ctually b eing a ble t o s ay s omething a bout t he s ocial e nvironment t hat s timulated t he p roduction o f t hese o bjects. S econdly, C hilde f orges a l ink b etween t echnological e volution a nd s ocial e volution--the t hird, o r s ocial, d imension t o C hristian T homsen's t hree-age s ystem w hich w as b ased s olely o n t echnology a nd t ime. R egarding t he a bove t heoretical p roblems a re r eadily v isible:

f rameworks,

a t

l east t wo m ajor

I s t he i nfluence o f t echnology o n s ociety

a lways a s o ne-sided a s t hese h ypotheses w ould h ave u s b elieve? S econdly, c onsidering t hat White a nd C hilde w ere o perating u nder t he u nilinear s chemes o f " band-tribe-chiefdom-state" a nd " stone-bronzei ron", r espectively, i s t he e volution o f t echnology a r eliable i ndex o f s ocial e volution, o r e ven m ore f undamental, i s t he e volution o f t echnology a lways u nilinear? C oncerning t he f irst q uestion, c riticised f or h is

e ven t hough W hite h as b een

" technocratic" o r

" technocentric" v iew o f c ulture,

h e h imself was q uick t o p oint o ut t hat: T echnologies e xist a nd

f unction w ithin s ocial s ystems a nd a re

c onsequently c onditioned b y t hem . A s ocial s ystem m ay s timulate t he t echnology i t e mbraces, e ncourage f ull a nd f ree e xercise o f i ts f unctions, a nd p romote i ts g rowth a nd d evelopment. O r i t m ay r estrict f ree t echnological e xercise a nd e xpression a nd i mpose c urbs u pon i ts g rowth.

( White 1 959:

2 7) M . S ahlins h as a lso i ssued a w arning a gainst c orrelating i ncreases i n t he e fficiency o f t echnological o perations w ith p rogressive c ultural d evelopment: T echnological i nnovation c an r aise e fficiency, i .e., i ncrease t he a mount o f e nergy c aptured p er u nit o f h uman e nergy e xpended, y et s till n ot

s timulate t he p rogressive d evelopment o f a c ulture.

Whether o r n ot,

o r t o what e xtent,

2

a g ain i n p roductive

e fficiency i s a ctually e mployed i n t he b uild-up a nd m aintenance o f h igher o rganization d epends o n l ocal s elective c ircumstances. A n i ncrease i n e fficiency m ay n ot b e d irected t oward a ny a dvance w hatsoever i f t he e xisting a daptation c annot a ccommodate i t o r t he s elective p ressures r emain i nsufficient t o i nduce i t. A p eople m ay a dopt a t echnological i nnovation t hat t heoretically m ight d ouble o utput, b ut i nstead, t hey o nly w ork h alf a s l ong ( twice a s e fficiently)

a s t hey u sed t o.

( Sahlins 1 960)

R ather t han m easuring s pecific i nstances o f t echnological p rogress a nd a ny e ffect t hey m ight h ave o n a s ociety, S ahlins, i n h is a ttempts a t g eneralising, p refers t hat t he i dea o f p rogress " is t he t otal t ransf ormation o f e nergy i nvolved i n t he c reation a nd p erpetuation o f a c ultural o rganization ." H e s uggests a u sable m ethod o f q uantifying t he t hermodynamic a chievements o f d ifferent c ultures b y c alculating p opulation s ize m ultiplied b y a verage m anpower, i n e nergy u nits, o ver o ne y ear p lus a ny n on-human m echanical e nergy. A lthough a dmittedly t here i s a l ack o f r eady e stimations o f c ultural p rogress i n e nergy t erms, a nd a t t he moment i t a ppears d ifficult t o q uantify c ultural e volution,

a q ualitative s olution i s s uggested b y S ahlins:

A s i n l ife, t hermodynamic a chievement h as i ts o rganizational c ounterpart, h igher l evels o f i ntegration . C ultures t hat t ransform m ore e nergy h ave m ore p arts a nd s ybsystems, m ore s pecialization o f p arts, a nd m ore e ffective m eans o f i ntegration o f t he w hole. O rganizational s ymptoms o f g eneral p rogress i nclude t he p roliferation o f m aterial e lements, g eometric i ncrease i n t he d ivision o f l abor, m ultiplication o f s ocial g roups a nd s ubgroups, a nd t he e mergence o f s pecial m eans o f i ntegration: c hieftainship a nd t he s tate

..

. ( Sahlins

..

s uch a s

1 960)

C oncerning t he s econd q uestion p osed a bove, w hile t he g rand t rio o f e nergy-technology-society h as r eceived r ecognition f or q uite s ome t ime, t he e xact n ature o f t echnological e volution h as n ot b een d issected a t a ll i n t he a rchaeological l iterature, n or h as t he r eliability o f t echnological d ata b een a ssessed a s a n i ndex o f s ocial e volution. V . G . C hilde, a mong m any o ther, e xperienced e ndless d ifficulties i n a ttempting t o f it u nilinear t echno-economic s chemes t o t he a rchaeological d ata ( Childe 1 944). A nd w hen C hristian T homsen 's t echnological t hree-age s ystem w as s ubdivided,

t he r esulting t ypology

w as v alid o nly f or a r estricted a rchaeological r egion. I t w as d ifficult t o a cknowledge t hat T homsen's t echnological a ges w ere e ntirely a rbitrary a nd t herefore C hilde r ejected t he w ord " phase" a nd c ontinued t o s ubdivide t he m etal a ges i nto " modes" w hich w ould c lassify s ocieties n ot o nly o n t he b asis o f c hronology b ut a lso o n h ow v arious m etals a nd a lloys w ere b eing u tilised, i .e. f or o rnamention, w eapons, o r t ools i n a griculture, e tc.

( Childe 1 944). T he m ajor p roblem h ere

l ies

i n t he p rehistorian's c oncept o f t ech-

n ology a s a u nilinear p henomenon, a nd a s ubsequent s tate o f c onfusion a rises w hen t his p articular s cheme d oes n ot f it t he a rchaeological d ata f rom o ther r egions.

T he s tone-bronze-iron p rogression i s am isleading

c oncept i n t he s tudy o f b oth c ultural a nd t echnological d evelopment. I ron a nd b ronze/copper p yrotechnologies d o n ot j ust s imply d erive o ut o f e ach o ther, n or o ut o f s tone-working. S ubtractive t echnology i s v ery

3

d ifferent t o p yrotechnology a nd

f errous m etallurgy i s n ot a s imple

d erivation f rom n on-ferrous m etallurgy--these t echnologies d eserve t o b e t reated a s m ultilinear p henomena o r a t l east a s h aving m ultiple t echn ological o rigins. T echnology i s a c ultural, e cological, a nd e conomic s tudy u nto i tself--it s hould n ot b e u sed a s a n e lement o f t ime b ut a n e ntity t o b e s tudied t hrou _gh t ime c ultural d ata.

i n c onjunction w ith o ther s ocio-

I f l inking f undamentally d ifferent t echnologies i n a s ingle l ine p rogression w hich w as t hen u sed a s a d ating m ethod h as b rought p roblems, t he l ack o f c orrelation b etween t echnological e volution a nd s ocial e volution h as c aused m uch u nnecessary b ewilderment a mong p rehistorians. U nfortunately, L eslie W hite's c omment 2 5 y ears a go h as b een o verlooked: I f s ocial

i nstitutions a re s haped b y t he o peration o f t echnologies,

t hen s ocial c hange w ill t end t o f ollow t echnological c hange. B ut t he i nstitutional r esponse t o t echnological c hange m ay n ot b e i mmediate. I nstitutions c ome t o h ave a n i nertia o f t heir o wn . .. T hus a d islocation b etween i nstitution a nd t echnology m ay a rise; t he l ag b etween i nstitutional c hange a nd c ultural c hange i s n otorious. ( White 1 959:21) I t h as b een a ccepted g enerally t hat

s ocial e volution

( i.e.

b and -

t ribe-chiefdom-state) p arallels t echnological e volution ( i.e. s tone b ronze-iron). B ut i t h as a lso b een d iscovered t hat a nomalies o f s upposedly p recocious t echnology d o e xist w ithin t he c ontext o f l ess d eveloped c ommunities. T here a re t wo r easons w hy t his l ack o f c orrelation h as a risen: F irst, a s s tated e arlier, t echnology h as b een t reated a s " time" a nd n ot a s t echnology. S econdly, w hen n ew t echniques o f p rocessing n atural m aterials a re i ntroduced i nto t he c raft r epert oire, i nventions f oster e ven m ore i deas a nd t echnological d evelopment a ppears t o m ake a l ogarithmic c urve; w hereas s ociety i s u sually s low t o a ccept n ew i deas.

I n t his c ontext,

C .

R enfrew

( 1978a)

h as p ublished

a v ery u seful d istinction b etween " invention" o r d iscovery a nd " innovation" o r a cceptance o f t hat d iscovery b y s ociety, w herein m ay l ie s ome u nknown b ut d efinite t ime f actor. A nd u sing w hat W hite h as s tated, a n a dditional t ime f actor m ay b e d ue t o t he f act t hat s ociety m ay e ncourage o r m ay r estrict f ull t echnological e xpression ( White 1 959:27). I f d evelopments

i n t echnology w ill u ltimately h ave c onsiderable

i nfluence o n t he o rganisation o f h uman s ocieties, t hen r esearch o n t his p henomenon w ould b e m ost f ruitfully d irected o n s ocieties u ndergoing a p eriod o f t echnological t ransition . I t w ould b e d uring s uch a t rans ition p eriod, when w e c ould f ollow n ew t echnological i nnovations a s t hey o ccur a nd a t t he s ame t ime b e a ware o f a ny c hanges o r m odificat ions

i n s ocial o rganisation.

O ne o f t he m ost

i ntriguing a nd

l east

u nderstood o f t he m ajor s ocial t ransitions w hich h ave o ccurred i n h uman h istory i s t hat o f t he i nitial f ormation o f r anked s ociety a nd t he f actors w hich b rought

i t a bout.

I n o rder t o s tudy a t ransition i n t echnology a nd t he s ubsequent s ocial c hanges w hich, i f t hey d o o ccur, w ould b e c onsiderably d elayed ( as s uggested b y L eslie W hite), a s ubstantial t ime d epth i s n eeded t he k ind o f t ime d epth o ffered b y t he a rchaeological r ecord. B ut without

l iving i nformants, w ould w e b e a ble t o d etect t ransformations

4

i n, f or i nstance, t he p yrotechnological i ndustries i n t erms o f e nergy i nput ( i.e. r esource e xploitation, f uel c onsumption, l abour a llocation a nd d iversification) a nd p roduct o utput ( i.e. p roduct s tandardisation, m ass p roduction m ethods); a nd w hat a re t he c onsequences f or c raft s pecialisation, t he n umber o f i ndividuals i nvolved i n t echnological o perations, t heir r espective t asks, a nd t he e ventual e stablishment o f c entres f or p roduct m anufacturing? B ut m ore i mportantly, w ould w e b e a ble t o d etect t he a cceleration o f m anufacturing a nd i ts e ffect i n t he l arger s phere o f s ocio-economic d evelopment a nd t he c reation o f r anked s ociety? Within t his c ontext, t hat

a t ime, a p lace,

a nd a p eople h ave b een f ound

c an h elp u s c larify m any o f t he a bove-listed q uestions:

T he

C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture i s o ffered h ere a s a n e xample f or t he u nderstanding o f a dvancements i n t echnology a nd s ocio-economic o rganisation d uring a p eriod w hen w e c an d ocument t he v ery b eginnings o f a " chiefdom" o r r anked s ociety . T his c ulture a nd t he p articular c ircumstances s urrounding i t a re n ot g uidelines b y which o ther s ocieties i n a ll t ime p eriods m ay b e j udged, b ut t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture d oes o ffer v ery u seful d ata o n a t ransformation i n h uman s ocial e volution a nd t he r ole t echnological d evelopment a ssumes f orth a n e arly f orm o f r anked s ocial o rganisation .

i n b ringing

T his c ulture o ccupied t he t erritory o f p resent-day e astern R omania, t he M oldavian S SR, a nd t he U krainian S SR ( map 1 ) a nd d ates t o a pproximately 4 500-3000 B .C., c alibrated, o r 3 800-2300 b .c., u ncalibrated d ating ( cf. c hapter I I). T he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture e volves s omewhat b efore a nd d uring o ne o f t he m ajor t echnological t ransition p eriods: b etween t he N eolithic a nd t he B ronze A ge. I t w as d uring t his p eriod o n t he B alkan P eninsula t hat c opper a nd i ts c arbonate o res w ere b eing p rocessed f or t he p roduction o f u tilitarian o bjects f or t he f irst t ime i n t his r egion; b ut c opper n ever r eplaced s tone t ools, h ence t he u se o f t he t erm " Chalcolithic" o r c opper-stone a ge. N ot o nly t he p rocessing o f m etals,

b ut

c eramic p roduction--the

p yrotechnological f oundation o f m etallurgy--was a lso u ndergoing t ransf ormation a t t his t ime. T he c lassical t richrome ( red-black-white) w are o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture i ndicates t echnological a dvancement a nd c ompetence c ompetitive w ith a ny o ther p re-Bronze A ge s ociety i n t he O ld World. T he t echnological s kill i s m ade m anifest i n e very s tep o f t he m anufacturing p rocess: T he h igh d egree o f c lay r efinement, t he m anipulation o f c lays w ithout t he a ssistance o f t emper, t he d evelopment o f a n e arly f orm o f t he p otter's w heel, t he c hoice o f r aw m aterials f or s pecific c olours u nder c arefully c ontrolled a tmosgheric c onditions, t he u se o f h igh f iring t emperatures t hat r eached 1 000 C , t he c onstruction o f e laborate u p-draught k ilns, a s w ell a s t he a ttainment o f a c ompletely r educing a tmosphere

( in t he w estern p rovince o f t his c ulture)

c ompletely o xidising a tmosphere

( cf.

a nd a

c hapter I II f or d iscussion a nd

r eferences). O ne o f t he i ntriguing a spects o f t he t echnology i s t he o ccurrence o f t he a forementioned k ilns w hich a re f ound

i n a ll p hases o f t his

c ulture. T hirteen s ites a re k nown t o h ave h ad u p-draught k ilns--their f irst o ccurrence i n t emperate E urope--and m any m ore s ites h ave s impler v ersions o f k ilns.

A t

s ome s ettlements r emains o f u p t o 1 8 c ontem-

p oraneous k ilns a re f ound

( cf.

c hapter I II).

5

A lso n oteworthy a re t he

b o u n d a r i e s : C e n t r a l E a s t e r .

-a t

E

. . ..

4.

0

IS

.. .

04

0

.4

6

t wo-storey s tructures w hich h ave b een d iscovered; s ome s erve a s d wellings, b ut o thers t urn o ut t o b e c eramic w orkshops o n t he l ower l evel, w ith a n u pper

l oft f or d rying p ottery

( cf.

c hapter

I II).

A ll o f t he f oregoing e vidence--together w ith s uggested r evisions i n t he c lassification o f c eramic s tyles, w hich p ossibly s uggest p roducts f rom r egional workshops ( cf. c hapter I I)--indicate t hat t he m anufact uring o f c eramics h ad e volved i nto a n o rganised, l abour-efficient i ndustry a nd t hat w e c an i dentify i n t he a rchaeological r ecord s ettlements which h ave b ecome c eramic p roduction c entres. C oncerning s ocio-economic e volution d uring t he C halcolithic, t he a rchaeological d ata o n s ettlement p atterns a nd p opulation g rowth f or t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture i s v ery r ich b ut, u nfortunately, h as y et ugh e xcavation a nd a nalysis. T he t ypical t o b e c onfronted b y t hoi.o C ucuteni-Tripolye v illage c onsisted o f 2 0-50 d wellings a nd w as l ocated o n n aturally p rotected a reas a nd i n a ddition h ad m an-made d itch/rampart f ortification. H owever, t his f airly c onsistent p attern i s d isturbed b y s ix, a nd p ossibly m ore, h ighly u nusual s ettlements t hat d ate o nly d uring t he l atest p hase o f t his c ulture. T hese s ettlements c onsist o f 1 50, 2 00, 5 00 t o o ver 1 500 b uildings, a nd s ettlement s ize r anges u p t o 4 00 h a, a s r evealed b y g eophysical a nd a erial r econaissance. T hese g reat n umbers o f s tructures a re a rranged i nto t ightly c oncentric r ings o r e llipses, i ndicating c ontemporaneity a nd p reconceived p lanning ( cf.

c hapter I V f or d iscussion a nd r eferences). C learly,

a f undamental s ocio-economic c hange h as m anifest i tself

i n t hese l arge, a gglomerated s ettlements. T his i s o f c ourse a s low, e volutionary p rocess b eginning a t a bout 4 500 B .C. ( 3800 b .c.) a nd t erminating a t a bout 3 000 B .C. ( 2300 b .c.). T his r eorganisation o f C ucuteni-Tripolye s ociety a nd s ettlements u ndoubtedly h as m ultiple c auses, n ot t he l east i mportant o f w hich i s t he r ise o f v arious i ndustries a nd p roduction c entres. A lready a t e arly s ites f or t his c ulture, w e f ind m ajor c eramic m anufacturing c entres, w hile t he s ettlements w ere s till u nder 5 0 d wellings. T hese e arly m anufacturing c entres h ad b egun a t rend i n t he p roduction o f f ine-grained a nd d ense, h igh q uality c eramics w hich w ere f ired i n a h igh t emperature a nd w ell o xidising a tmosphere. M oreover, t he t rends i n v essel f orm a nd s ize a s w ell a s t he a rchaeological c ontext o f t hese v essels i ndicate t hat C ucuteni-Tripolye p ainted c eramics p layed a m ajor r ole i n t he f ood s torage c apability o f t his p rehistoric p opulation. T hus i nnovations i n p yrotechnology a nd t he a doption o f m ass p roduction m ethods ( such a s t he u se o f r otary m otion, r eduction o f s urface d ecoration, a nd t he u se o f u p-draught k ilns) a llowed a m ore s table f ood s upply a nd t herefore a ssisted t he m aintenance o f a h igher p opulation d ensity a nd a t t he s ame t ime r equired a s ocial h ierarchy f or t he o rganisation o f t echnological o perations a nd t he d istribution o f t he f inished p roducts ( cf. c hapter T V f or d iscussion). T he q uality o f t he c eramic p roduction a lso s urpassed a ll c ontemp orary m aterials i n t emperate E urope, t hus y ielding a t echnological s urprise i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. H owever, a s s tated e arlier, i f we a llow f or t he c onservativeness o f s ocial i nstitutions, i f w e c onsider t he v ery e arly m anifestation o f r egional a rtistic a nd t echn ological c entres, a nd i f we d ocument a d eveloping c ontrol o ver t he m anufacturing m ethods a nd t he r ecognition o f t he b enefits, a nd

7

s ubsequent e xploitation o f, t echnological i nnovations, t hen t he a gglomerated s ettlements o ccurring a t housand y ears l ater s hould a lso b e n o s urprise. W hat w e s ee h ere a re t he n atural e volutionary p rogressions o f t echnology a nd s ociety, a s p redicted b y L . W hite, e ach w ith i ts u nique c ourse a nd r ate o f g rowth.

8

C HAPTER I l O rigin a nd D evelopment o f t he L ate N eolithic-Chalcolithic C ultures N orthwest o f t he B lack S ea

I I.A .

I ntroduction

T he d iscovery o f t he s ite o f C ucuteni i n n orthern M oldavia 1 00 y ears a go c an b e s aid t o b e t he e ffective s tarting p oint o f r esearch o n t he s ubsequently n amed " Cucuteni c ulture" i n R omania ( 1). S everal r esearchers h ave c onducted c ampaigns d uring t he p ast 1 00 y ears a t C ucuteni, t he t wo m ost n otable o f w hich a re t he G erman a rchaeologist H ubert S chmidt who b egan s ystematic e xcavations i n 1 909 a nd w ho p ublished h is d ata a nd e stablished t he r elative c hronology i n h is m onograph o f 1 932, a nd m ost r ecently t he R omanian a rchaeologist M . P etrescu-DImbov 4a w ho h ad o pened u nexcavated a reas o f t he s ite i n t he 1 960s. T he r ecognition o f a n a rchaeological a ssemblage a ntecedent t o a nd c onnected w ith t he g enesis o f t he C ucuteni c ulture, a nd n amed t he " Pre-Cucuteni c ulture", w as f irst c learly d escribed b y R adu Vulpe i n 1 937 f rom h is e xcavations a t I zvoare. T he s ite o f T ripolye, n ear K iev, w as f irst e xcavated b y V . K hvojko i n 1 899, a nd e ver s ince t he R ussian a nd U krainian s cholars h ave b een w orking o n t his s ame ( "Tripolye") c ulture w hose r elative c hronology w as e stablished a nd r efined b y T . P assek i n 1 935 a nd 1 949. T his c hapter w ill p rovide t he c hronological a nd c ultural b ackg round n ecessary i n o rder t o e laborate o n o ther i ssues i n f uture c hapters. S ince s o m any t ypological p roblems e xist, a nd w ith s o m any i mplications f or t he a nalysis o f p yrotechnology, i t w as t hought b est t o p resent t he c eramic t ypology h ere i n s implest f orm f or t he p urposes o f d iscussing r elative c hronology a nd t o a nalyse t he t ypological s ystems i n m ore d etail i n f ootnotes a ppended t o t his c hapter.

I I.B.

T he P re-Cucuteni p eriod

T he s ettlement a rea d uring t he P re-Cucuteni p eriod i ncluded s outheastern T ransilvania, M oldova, a nd p art o f t he D nestr a nd S outhern B ug R iver v alleys d uring t he L ate N eolithic

( maps 2 -4;

f ig.

1 ).

T his p eriod h as b een s ubdivided i nto t hree p hases, d esignated a s P re-Cucuteni I , P re-Cucuteni I I, a nd P re-Cucuteni I II. T he l atter p hase h as b een t ermed " Tripolye A " i n t he U krainian c hronology, s ince t his

i s t he o nly p hase o f t his e arly p eriod t hat h as b een f ound

i n t he

U SSR. T hese s ubdivisions a re b ased p rimarily o n o bservations o f t he c eramic i nventory t hrough t ime. D uring a ll t hree p hases, t hree t ypes o f ware, r anging f rom a f inely d ecorated t o a c oarse u tilitarian w are, h ave b een i dentified. T he f orms o f P re-Cucuteni c eramics i nclude c ups, v ases w ith t all c ylindrical n ecks, b iconical v ases a nd c ups, b owls w ith f laring o r e verted r ims, p edestalled v ases, l ids, l adels, a nd s trainers

9

A GE

E BA

C entral

M untenia

M oldova

T rans i lvania S W

S OUTHEAST R OMANIA

N ORTHEAST R OMANIA

C ENTRAL ROMANIA

S E C ERNAVODA I II

H OROD 4TEA-FOLTE gI

C OTOFENI

2 0

BODROGKERESZTUR

T ype

" Monteoru"

C ERNAVODA

B 3

I

B 2 B i S ALCUTA

P R E C U T E N I A -Bl

" C u c t e n i C "

A -B2

=

a A4= Type

0 r z 4

" Fedeleeeni"

A -B A 3

T ype " StoicaniA ldeni"

( 2. 4

A l-A2

II I

A I II T ransitional UT

BOIAN-GUMELNITA

V idra . 1 BOIAN/LINEAR POTTERY

"

G iuleeti

B olintineanu

Fig.

1 R elative c ultures R omania.

c hronology o f Late N eolithic a nd o f

c entral,

n ortheastern,

C halcolithic

a nd s outheastern

S W R omania j Oltenia)

S E R omania

B lack S ea

( Muntenia)

,(Dobrogea)

CE R N A V O D A

II I

C OTOFENI C ERNAVODA I

T ransitional B oianG umelni‘a •

M angalia C eamurlig

< 4

V idra

•

d e J os

G iuleeti < G olov 4a x B olintineanu

F ig.

2 R elative chronology o f L ate N eolithic a nd C halcolithic c ultures o f s outhwestern, s outheastern, a nd c oastal R omania.

1 1

4 1,4

V I E

4 1 . I '

1 2

H i s t o r i c a l P r o v i n c e s a n d i l e s i t a i s R a n g e s i n R e s a t i a

( colanders). D uring P re-Cucuteni I I, p yriform v ases w ith t all n ecks a nd p edestalled b owls a ppear ( fig. 3 ). S urface d ecoration d uring t he f irst p hase i ncludes c hanneling ( i.e., s mooth, s hallow f urrows)--placed h orizontally o r s ometimes o bliquely--in c ombination w ith i ncising. I ncised m otifs c onsist o f p airs o f p arallel h orizontal l ines i n b etween w hich a re e ither a s eries o f v ertical l ines ( resembling a " ladder") o r a s eries o f n otches o r f ine p oints. E xcising, w hich l eaves t he i ntended d esign i n r elief, i s p revalent a lso, a nd c ommon m otifs i nclude s eries o f t riangles ( "wolf's t eeth"), a lternating e xcised s quares w ith s quares i n r elief ( "chessboard"), r homboids, a nd e xcised o r r eserved b ands i n a ngular o r s piralic d esigns. D uring P re-Cucuteni I I, t here i s ap redilection f or s piralic a nd g eometric d esigns i n m ore c omplicated a nd v aried p atterns, a nd c hanneling i s n ot o nly p laced h orizontally, b ut a lso o bliquely a nd i n c ircular f ashion. T he p airs o f p arallel h orizontal l ines f illed w ith v ertical l ines, n otches o r p oints d uring P re-Cucuteni I a re t ransformed i nto l inear s eries o f t iny r ectangular i mpressions m ade b y av ery f ine t ool, p robably o f b one; t hese i mpressions a t f irst f orm a s imple r ow a nd d evelop i nto m ultiple r ows o f s piralic a nd a ngular d esigns a nd s ometimes p airs o f r ows a re c onnected b y v ertical i ncised l ines f orming " ladders". T he e xcised d ecoration d isappears d uring t he l ast p hase o f P reC ucuteni. C hanneling i s p reserved i n a n o blique, c ircular o r h orizontal m anner, a s w ell a s s eries o f c hannels i n c oncentric c ircles p laced a round p rojections f rom t he s urface o f t he v essel ( fig. 5 ). T he a forementioned s eries o f r ectangular i mpressions c ontinue. I ncising i s u sed i n ag rowing c omplexity o f s piralic p atterns; a mong i ncised m otifs a re c ircles w ith t angents t o t hose c ircles, a nd P re-Cucuteni I II c eramics h ad a p redilection f or r eserved m otifs f ormed b y i ncising--a t echnique e xploited b y t he s ucceeding C ucuteni-Tripolye p eriods a nd s ubsequently r endered i n p ainting ( Marinescu-Bilcu 1 974). O nly f ive s ites h ave b een i dentified a s b elonging t o t he f irst p hase a nd a re l ocated b etween t he O lt a nd S iret R ivers ( map 3 ). P reC ucuteni I w as d efined o n t he b asis o f f inds f rom a s ingle s ite, T raianD ealul V iei, b y H . D umitrescu a nd c onsequently w as a ssumed t o h ave e xisted o n a l arger, r egional b asis. I n a ddition, t he m aterials a t T raian-Dealul V iei w ere e ven t hought e rroneously t o h ave f ormed a s eparate c ulture, c alled " Zäne§ti"--a t erm w hich s till l ingers i n t he l iterature a s a s ynonym f or P re-Cucuteni I ( Com a 1 974b). T he s ubsequent P re-Cucuteni I I a nd P re-Cucuteni I II p hases w ere d efined o n t he b asis o f f inds f rom t he s ites o f L arga J ijia a nd I zvoare, r espectively; b ut o n ar egional b asis t hese p hases r est o n f irmer a rchaeological f oundations t han P re-Cucuteni I ( Vulpe 1 957). M oreover, a s e xcavations a t T ell P oduri h ave s hown, t hese l atter t wo p hases o f P re-Cucuteni w ere r elatively l engthy i n d uration a nd e ven m erit s ubdivision, c reating a dditionally a L ate P re-Cucuteni I I, C lassical P re-Cucuteni I II, a nd L ate P re-Cucuteni I II ( Monah, e t a l. 1 983).

1 3

F ig.

3

P re-Cucuteni ( all p hases) a nd T ripolye A v essel s hapes f rom R omania a nd t he U SSR.

1 4

F ig. 4 P re-Cucuteni ( all p hases) a nd T ripolye A v essel d ecoration f rom R omania a nd t he U SSR .

1 5

F ig. 5 I ncised/excised c eramics f rom K rasnostavka ( nos. 1 -4; n atural s ize) a nd J Ablonovka ( nos. 5 a nd 6 ; 1 /5 n atural s ize) a nd L enkovtsy ( lower).

1 6

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I.B.1. I

P re-Cucuteni/Tripolye A c hronology

F ig.

1p laces t he P re-Cucuteni p eriod i n i ts r elative

c hronological c ontext w ith n eighbouring c ultures. A s t o a bsolute c hronology, u nfortunately v ery f ew r adiocarbon d ates e xist f or N eolithic c ultures i n R omania a nd t he S oviet U nion ( table 1 ). F or t he l ate p hase ( "Notenkopf") o f t he L inear P ottery c ulture i n R omania, w hich p recedes P re-Cucuteni ( vide i nfra), t wo d ates a re a vailable: 4 220 b .c. a nd 4 295 b .c. ( table 1 ). F or P re-Cucuteni I II i n R omania, a d ate o f 3 580 b .c. h as b een o btained f rom T irpeeti a nd f or T ripolye A ( =PreC ucuteni I II) i n t he U SSR, a t N ovye-Ruse ny I ( Ruseetii N oi), 3 615 b .c.

I.B.2. I

S ettlement

l ocation a nd b uilding c onstruction

T he c hoice o f s ettlement l ocation w as r ather e rratic t hroughout t he P re-Cucuteni p eriod. O ne c onstant f eature i s t he l ocation o f s ites o n r iver t erraces; h owever, t here w as n o p redilection a s t o t he a dvantages o ffered b y p ositions t hat w ere h igher i n e levation, a nd P re-Cucuteni v illages m ay b e f ound o n l ow, m iddle a nd h igh t erraces, a s w ell a s i n v alleys, d epressions, 1 974).

a nd r iver i slands

( Marinescu-Bticu

M uch h as b een s aid a bout t he f ortification o f s ites

i n t his e arly

p eriod. While t he w ord " fortification" m ay h ave a pplicability t o l ater C ucuteni-Tripolye s ites, d uring t he P re-Cucuteni p eriod w e m ust r estrict o urselves t o t he w ord " trench" a nd a ssume a m ore m odest f unction f or t hese f eatures. T hese t renches, e nclosing t he a rea o f s ettlement, m easure 1 .4-1.9 m i n d epth, 9 8-300 m i n l ength, a nd 1 .2-5 m i n w idth ( Marinescu-Bticu 1 974). N o r emains o f a ny c onstruction ( such a s aw all o r f ence) h ave b een f ound i n t hese t renches, a nd t he c ontents i nclude u sual d ebris o f s tones, b ones, s herds, t ools, e tc. D uring P re-Cucuteni I a nd I I, s urface d wellings w ere b uilt w ithout a p latform w ere r ectangular i n s hape a nd m easured 3 x 5 m ; s ometimes a n e xtra r oom w as a dded w hich m easured 3 x 2 m ( MarinescuB ilcu 1 974). L arge b eams w ere s ecurely l aid o n t he g round, f orming t he b ase o f e ach w all. P oles, 1 0-15 c m t hick, w ere i nserted v ertically i nto t he b eams a bout

1m a part.

T hese p oles, w hen w attle-and-daub w as

a pplied, f ormed t he w alls o f t he h ouse a nd s upported a t hatched, g abled r oof ( Marinescu-B hcu 1 981). T owards t he P re-Cucuteni I II p hase, t he p reparation o f p latforms b efore a ctual h ouse c onstruction b ecame m ore p revalent; l arge l ogs w ere p laced o n l evelled g round p erpendicular t o t he l ong a xis o f t he h ouse. A l ayer o f c lay 1 5-25 c m t hick, w ith a c haff, s and o r g ravel a dmixture, c overed t he l og p latform . P rior t o c onstruction o f t he w alls, t he p latforms w ere s ometimes i ntentionally f ired.

W alls a nd r oof w ere c onstructed a s d escribed a bove

( Marinescu-

B licu 1 981).

I.B.3. I

E conomy

P re-Cucuteni s ettlements r eveal a m ixed e conomy with b oth w ild a nd d omestic s pecies o f a nimals a s w ell a s a v ariety o f d omestic g rains. T able 2 s ummarises t he p ublished d ata o n a nimal b ones f rom e ight P reC ucuteni I II ( =Tripolye A ) s ites a nd o ne P re-Cucuteni I s ite ( data

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m odified f rom N ecrasov a nd H aimovici 1 962; N ecrasov a nd t irbu 1 981; a nd T salkin 1 970). C attle ( Bos t aurus) c learly p redominates t he d omestic s pecies, e xcept a t S olonZeny ( Solonceni) a nd L uka-Vrublevetskaja w here p ig e xceeds t he n umber o f c attle. T he t wo R omanian s ites--Ttrpes4ti a nd T raian-Dealul V iei--as w ell a s K arbuna (arbuna) h ave a m uch h igher p ercentage o f d omestic v s. w ild s pecies; S abatinovka, S olon &ny, L uka-Vrublevetskaja, a nd L enkovtsy h ave a pproximately e qual p ercentages o f d omestic a nd w ild a nimals; w hile G olerkany a nd B ernovo-Luka h ave a n a lmost 2 :1 r atio o f w ild v s. d omestic s pecies. A s f or t he e xploitation o f w ild a nimals, r ed d eer ( Cervus e laphus) c learly p redominates a t a lmost e very s ite. A mong t he d omestic p lant s pecies d uring t his p eriod, e inkorn ( Triticum m onococcum ) h as b een f ound a t t he P re-Cucuteni I II s ites o f T raian-Dealul F intttilor a nd Terpeeti . A t T ripolye A s ites b etween t he P rut a nd t he D nestr R ivers ( i.e. S oviet M oldavia), a v ariety o f d omestic c ereals h ave b een i dentified: e inkorn ( T. m onococcum ), e mmer ( T. d icoccum ), s pelt w heat ( T. s pelta), c lub w heat ( T. c ompactum ), a s w ell a s b arley ( Hordeum v u1gare), c ultivated o at ( Avena s ativa), m illet ( Panicum m iliaceum ), a nd p eas ( Pisum s ativum ) ( Co r nea 1 981).

I I.B.4.

C ultural o rigins a nd i nteraction s phere o f P re-Cucuteni

I t i s c urrently t he c onsensus o f o pinion t hat t he P re-Cucuteni p eriod e volved f rom t he a malgamation o f t wo p rinciple e lements: t he l atest p hase ( "Notenkopf") o f t he L inear P ottery c ulture a nd t he m iddle p hase ( "Giuleeti") o f t he B oian c ulture ( cf. m ap 4 a nd f ig. 1 ). T hese i dentifications o f o rigins a re b ased m ainly o n t he t racing o f d ecorative e lements o n P re-Cucuteni c eramics t o a nalogues o n t he c eramics o f t he t wo a forementioned c ultures. I n i dentifying a l inkage b etween t he e arliest o ccurrence o f P reC ucuteni a nd t he l atest p hase o f t he L inear P ottery c ulture, a p ersistent p roblem h as a lways b een p resent: i .e., h orizontal s tratigraphy . U ntil v ery r ecently, n o s ite w as f ound t hat c omprised a L inear P ottery l evel b elow t hat o f P re-Cucuteni I , t hus p reventing t he d elineation o f a ny i nterrelationships t hat m ight e xist b etween t he t wo c ultures. W ith t he d iscovery, e xcavation a nd p ublication o f T irpeeti, w hich h as r evealed o ne L inear P ottery h ouse a nd n ine p its w ith L inear P ottery c eramic m aterial t ogether w ith o ccupation l evels o f P re-Cucuteni I I a nd I II, s ome c onfirmation o f t he g enesis o f P re-Cucuteni i s n ow i n s ight ( Marinescu-Bticu 1 981). A s t o i dentifying c ommon e lements o f c eramic d ecoration, t here i s a c onnection b etween P re-Cucuteni a nd L inear P ottery b ased o n t he o verall s piralic n ature o f P re-Cucuteni c eramic d ecoration, t he o ccurrence o f w ide b ands f illed w ith p oints, a s w ell a s s eries o f p oints, a s w ell a s s eries o f p oints p laced l iberally o r t ransversal o n ab and o f i ncised l ines, a nd t he u se o f s chematised a nthropomorphic f igures. I n a ddition, M arinescu-Bticu ( 1974) h as m entioned t hat t he i dea o f u sing t renches t o s urround P re-Cucuteni s ettlements d erived f rom t he L inear P ottery c ulture a nd n ot f rom t he n eighboring B oian c ulture w hich d id n ot e mploy t renches u ntil i ts l atest ( "Vidra") p hase. A lthough m ost s cholars a re o f t he o pinion t hat t he L inear P ottery

2 6

c ulture d id c ontribute t o t he f ormation o f P re-Cucuteni, p roblems t o b e c onsidered.

F irst,

t here a re s ome

t he s mall n umber o f s ites with P re-

C ucuteni I m aterial ( five) d oes n ot o verwhelmingly j ustify t he d esign ation o f a s pecific P re-Cucuteni I p hase a s a u nit o f t ime, w hich w as, a s s tated e arlier, d efined o n t he b asis o f f inds f rom a s ingle s ite a nd, i n t he f uture, m ay b e d etermined t o b e a s ynchronic v ariation. W ith t he e xistence o f a s eparate " Pre-Cucuteni 1 " p hase a s a c hronological s tage p ut i nto q uestion, t he t ime g ap b etween L inear P ottery a nd P re-Cucuteni I I i s u nsure ( especially s ince o nly a s ingle L inear P ottery p it d welling h as b een f ound i n c onnection w ith a P re-Cucuteni I I s ettlement a t T trpegti)--a s ituation a ccentuated b y h orizontal s tratigraphy. A nd, f inally, t he t echnique u sed i n d ecorating L inear P ottery a nd P reC ucuteni v essels i s q uite d ifferent: T he f ormer u sed t he i ncising t echnique e xclusively; t o b e s ure P re-Cucuteni p ottery d oes e xhibit i ncising, b ut m uch o f t he d ecoration o f P re-Cucuteni I a nd I I a lso c onsists o f e xcising--a h allmark o f t he B oian c ulture. T he

i nfluence o f t he B oian c ulture

( "Giulepti" p hase)

i n t he

f ormation o f P re-Cucuteni a ppears m ore p rominent i n t erms o f d ecorative m otifs, t echnique o f e xecution, a nd t he v ariety o f v essel s hapes. I ndividual d ecorative m otifs w hich w ere i nherited f rom t he B oian c ulture a re t he g eometric s eries o f t riangles ( "wolf's t eeth"), r homboids, a nd " chessboard" d esigns. T he r endition o f a ll o f t hese m otifs u sing e xcision i n t he P re-Cucuteni a nd B oian c ultures w as a lready n oted a bove. I n a ddition, t he i nventory o f v essel s hapes i n P re-Cucuteni c eramics i s s ignificantly m ore v aried t han i n t he p receding L inear P ottery c ulture, a gain p ossibly r eflecting B oian i nfluence, e specially i n r eference t o d eep c ups, b owls, a nd l ids with k nobs ( figs. 3 a nd 4 ). F inally, P re-Cucuteni v ase p rofiles a ppear w ith n arrower a nd m ore a ngular s houlders t han s een i n L inear P ottery ( Marinescu-Bilcu 1 974:85). A lso, i t i s s uggested h ere t hat t he c hanneling d ecoration w hich o ccurs i n a ll P re-Cucuteni p hases w as a lso d erived f rom t he B olan c ulture w here t he t echnique i s s o p revalent a nd v ery f inely e xecuted ( cf. C om a 1 974c). T he m ost

c urrent

C ucuteni c ulture

c onsensus o n t he a rea o f f ormation o f t he P re-

i s s outheastern T ransilvania a nd s outhwestern a nd

c entral w estern M oldova ( Com a 1 974b; M arinescu-Bilcu 1 974). I n s outhe astern T ransilvania e specially, t he L inear P ottery c ulture, B oian c ulture, a nd t he P re-Cucuteni I p hase a re a ll f ound ( Marinescu-Bilcu 1 974:127). M arinescu-Bilcu ( 1974) i s c orrect i n s tating t hat t he a ctual p ath o f p enetration o f t he B oian c ulture i nto M oldova i s n ot y et k nown; b ut t he r ole o f t his c ulture i n t he g enesis o f P re-Cucuteni c annot b e d isputed, a nd C om a ( 1974b) d raws a t entative c onnection b etween n ortheastern M untenia a nd w estern M oldova. B ut j udging b y t he d istribution o f B oian s ites ( cf. C om a 1 974c:fig. 1 0) a nd t he p resence o f a ll t hree c ultures i n T ransilvania, t he c omments o f H . D umitrescu ( 1957) t hat t he P re-Cucuteni c ulture a ppears t o h ave a rrived i n M oldova f rom t he w est

( i.e.

T ransilvania)

a lmost

f ully f ormed d o h ave

c onsiderable m erit. U ntil m ore s ites a re d iscovered a nd e xcavated i n s outhern M oldova t hat s how m ore p enetration o f t he B oian c ulture i nto t his r egion o r t he a ppearance o f m ore t ransitional B oian-Pre-Cucuteni f orms, a nd u ntil a bsolute d ating m ethods a re u sed t o c larify t he r elationships b etween t he t hree c ultures b oth i n T ransilvania a nd M oldova,

t he e vidence s trongly s uggests t hat P re-Cucuteni g enesis

2 7

i n

o ccurred i n s outheastern T ransilvania f rom t he c ontributions o f t he B oian a nd L inear P ottery c ultures, w ith s ubsequent g radual p opulation m ovement a cross t he C arpathians a nd f arther t o t he n ortheast. T he m ajor p roblem i nvolved i n t his p articular a ssignment o f o rigins i s t he p aucity o f m aterial w ith w hich t o w ork: N ot a ll c ounties h ave b een e qually s urveyed a nd d ocumented a rchaeologically, e specially f or t he b eginning o f t he P re-Cucuteni p eriod, s uch t hat a ny c ultural d erivation, o r p eriodisation, w ill h ave t o r emain f lexible. C eramics, e ither w hole v essels o r s herds, o f t he P re-Cucuteni p eriod h ave b een f ound i n o ther c ontexts t o t he w est, s outheast, a nd s outh, g iving s ome i ndication o f c ontact w ith o ther c ultures ( map 6 ). T o t he s outheast, i n D obrogea, t he P re-Cucuteni t ribes h ad c ontact w ith t he H amangia c ulture ( map 4 ; f ig. 2 ). I n 1 972, S . M arinescu-Bticu p ublished a g roup o f P re-Cucuteni I II b iconical v ases, f ooted v ases, a nd v essel s upports; t his p ottery w as d iscovered i n v ery g ood c ondition f rom s ome u nknown s ite(s) i n D obrogea, p robably a t t he t urn o f t he c entury, a nd f ormed p art o f t he G . S olacolu c ollection u ntil 1 948. T his p ottery i s i ndisputably P re-Cucuteni a nd h as g ood a nalogies w ith t he P reC ucuteni I II s ite o f T raian-Dealul F intthilor. T his c ollection t ogether w ith o ther P re-Cucuteni f inds a t M angalia, L imanu, a nd o ther H amangia s ites i n D obrogea i ndicate c ontact b etween t he t wo c ultures ( MarinescuB flcu 1 972). L ikewise, t here a re c ontacts b etween P re-Cucuteni I II, t he B oian c ulture a nd t he e arly p eriod o f t he G umeln 4a c ulture d irectly t o t he s outh. I n t he c ontext o f t he l ast p hase ( "Vidra") o f t he B oian c ulture a nd t he t ransitional p hase b etween t he B olan a nd G umeln 4a c ultures ( cf. f ig. 1 ), s everal P re-Cucuteni I I a nd I II s herds h ave b een f ound a t T angfiu ( Berciu 1 961; M arinescu-Blicu 1 976). A t t he s ite o f V idra, a P re-Cucuteni I II v essel s upport a ppeared a t t his e arly G umeln 4a s ettlement ( Rosetti 1 934:fig. 2 5). A b iconical v ase w ith a t all, c ylindrical n eck a nd d ecoation t ypical o f P re-Cucuteni I II w as r eported a t Mägurele ( Roman 1 963:f 1 g. 2 /2). I n t he o pposite d irection, c eramics a nd s herds o f t he G umelni;a t ype w ith " barbotine" d ecoration ( i .e. v ery r ough, v ertical f urrows) h ave b een f ound i n t he P re-Cucuteni I II l evels a t T fl .peeti a nd T raian-Dealul etntihilor ( Marinescu-Bilcu 1 974:84 a nd f ig.

6 9/6).

F inally, i n c entral T ransilvania, P re-Cucuteni I I s herds w ith t he " wolf's t eeth" a nd " chessboard" d esigns h ave b een f ound o n t he s ites o f P oiana f h P isc, O cna S ibiului, M ihal4, D aia R omana, a nd o thers--all b elonging t o t he T urdae c ulture ( cf. f ig. 1 ). P re-Cucuteni I a nd I I m aterials h ave a lso b een f ound i n t he c ontext o f t he P etreeti c ulture a t L umea N oua a nd t he e ponymous s ite o f P etregti. T hese e arly c ontacts t o t he w est w ith t he P etreeti c ulture a re p articularly s ignificant, s ince i t i s t he t richrome p ottery o f t his c ulture t hat i s t hought t o h ave b een t he g reatest i nfluence o n t he o rigin o f p re-fire p ainting i n t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture ( Paul 1 981; V . D umitrescu 1 963a).

2 8

1/ / / 1 / / / / / . . . . . / / / / / / / / d / . . . . . • / / / / / / / / / / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . / / / / / /. 1. 0 / / 1 / / / d / l / / / / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . / / / / /, . . . . . // / / / / / . . . . . . . . . . . . . / / / / / / / / / / / / / .. . . . . . . . . / / / / / . . . . . / /, I / / / / / / / / / . . . . . / / / / / / / 1.0 / / / / / / / / / / / / /. d /.0 / / . . . . . . / / d / / . . . . . . . . . . . . . / 1 / / . . . . /// / / ... . . /// // / // / / /1 // ... . . . .. . . . . .. . / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / 1 / / / 1 / . . . . . / / / / / / / / / / d,

/ e/#,,, / //// , / ,,/,/,/ . ........ . ....

•

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4 0 1 i.

•

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•

C u m e l , d H n g i a n i a a n a i n a

/ / / / / / / / / / / . . . . . 1/ / / .. . . . / / / / AJ Il l / l d . 0 /.0 . . . . . . 1/ 1 . . . . . // W I .. . . . // / /. • /. . 0/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /.0 / . . . . . / ... . . .. . . . /1 / / / / / , ' , / .. . . . . . . . // /. / / / /.0 / 1 / / /.0.0 1 / / / .. . . . 1 1 . . . . . . . . . / .. . .. /// / /// / / / / / /// /// / // / / / 0 / / . . . . . . . . . / / / / / /. // / // / / / / / / / / // // / / • // / / / / . . . . . / / / / / / / // / / / . . . . . /1 / / / / / / / / / / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , / , / /. ‚/‚ / /F / / / , , , , ,, . . . . . . // / . . . . . . . . / / / / / 1.0 1# /1 / / / / / / / / / 1 / / . . . . . I / I .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . / // / // / / 1/ / // 1 // / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / .. . . . // / // / // / / // . . . . . / / 1 / / / / / / / / / / / .. . . . . . . . . // 1/ // / / // // / / / // . .. .. /1 / // / / / 1 / // // / // / / / / // MI/ // / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / . . . . . . . . . . . // / / / / .. . . . // 1 / // / . . . . . / / / / / / / . . . . . // 1, / , ‚ I/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / // / / / / I I, / / / / / / / / / / / d /. / / / / / / / / / / / / / 1.0 / 1 / / . 1/ , / / / / / / / / / / / / 1 / / / / / / / /, • / / / / / / /.0 / / / / / / / / / / / 1 / / / / / / / / / / / / 1 / / / / / / / 1 /. • / .1.0 / 1.1 / / / / / I / • / / / // / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / 1 / / , ‚ / / / / / / / / / /, F/ / / / I / / •/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / 1 / 1 / / / / / / / , .. . . . . . . . . . / / I 'd ./ / / // ... . . / 1 / / / / / / / / / / . . . . . . . . . . /O. , / // / / / / / . . . . . / / / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . // I / 1 M .. . . . . . . . . // / / / ./ / / / / / / d / I.0.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . / / •• F, • .. . . . . / /

2 9

I.C. I

T he C ucuteni s equence

F ollowing t he P re-Cucuteni/Tripolye A p eriod, t he C ucuteniT ripolye c ulture u nderwent t remendous a real a nd p opulation e xpansion: A t f irst, o ccupation w as l imited t o f ormer P re-Cucuteni I II t erritory, t hereafter l ater m aterials a re f ound e asterly t owards t he D nepr R iver a nd i n t he f inal p hases a re f ound e ven f arther e ast b eyond t he D nepr, n orthwards i nto P odolia, a nd s outhwards n ear t he B lack S ea, c overing a n a rea a pproximately 2 80,000 s q.

I.C.1. I

( cf. e xist

k m .

( maps

7 -10).

H istory o f r esearch o n p ainted w ares

D ue t o t he h istory o f a rchaeological r esearch o n t his c ulture s ection I I .A .), t wo i ndependently c reated r elative c hronologies f or C ucuteni-Tripolye

( fig.

6 ).

W hile, u nderstandably,

t he

R omanians u se t he " Cucuteni" s equence a nd t he S oviet s cholars u se t he " Tripolye" s equence, i n w estern l iterature t here h as b een t he i ncons istent u se o f o ne,

t he o ther,

o r e ven b oth t erminologies.

I n a ddition,

e xcavations p rior t o W orld W ar I i n T ransilvania w ere m ade b y H ungarian a rchaeologists w ho n amed t his c ulture " Erösd" ( or " Ariued" i n R omanian) a fter t he e ponymous s ite ( map 7 ). T his n ame--Erösd/Ariued--will s till b e e ncountered i n t he l iterature b ut n ow i s c onsidered s ynonymous w ith t he p eriod " Cucuteni A " a nd f orms t he w esternmost b ranch o f t he C ucuteniT ripolye c ulture.

T his

i s a n u nfortunate a nd c onfusing s ituation w hich

h as n ot b een r emedied e ven a fter m any y ears o f r esearch a nd w hich m ust b e c onfronted i n o rder t o d iscuss a ll r elevent m aterials. I n t his w ork, t here i s a s light b ias i n f avor o f t he u se o f t he " Cucuteni" s equence t erminology f or t hree r easons: 1 ) T his c ulture f irst e volved a nd d eveloped i n s outheastern T ransilvania a nd e astern R omania; 2 ) t he l ongest c hronological s equence o ccurs b etween t he E astern C arpathians a nd t he P rut R iver ( i.e. M oldova); a nd, 3 ) t he C ucuteni c eramic t ypology w as t he m ost c learly d efined r elative c hronology a nd w as b ased o n s ystematic, m ulti-level e xcavations ( cf. S chmidt 1 911; H owever, d ue t o t he v oluminous l iterature o n e ither s ide, s olution n ow i s t he c umbersome u se o f b oth t erminologies.

1 932). t he o nly

T he p eriodisation o f t he R omanian m aterials b egins w ith t he p reviously d iscussed P re-Cucuteni p eriod w hich i s d efined o n t he b asis o f i ncised/excised w ares. T he a ppearance o f p ainted c eramics m arks t he b eginning o f t he " Cucuteni" s equence. F or t he p urpose o f e stablishing a r elative c hronology, t his s equence h as b een s ubdivided b y H . S chmidt, a nd s upported b y g eneral c onsensus, i nto t hree p eriods: C ucuteni A , C ucuteni A B, a nd C ucuteni B . T hese s ubdivisions a re b ased o n t hree c riteria: t he k inds o f p aints t hat a re u sed, t he r epertoire o f m otifs, a nd h ow d ecorative p atterns a re p laced o n t he v essel. I n t he p rocess o f c reating t he r elative c hronology, H ubert S chmidt h ad e vidently f elt t hat t he c eramic m aterial n eeded f urther c lassific ation b eyond t he " Cucuteni A , A B, B " s cheme.

S ince t he a rtistic s tyle

h ad c hanged s o d ramatically a fter t he C ucuteni A p eriod, S chmidt h ad d ecided t o c reate a s eparate t ypology f or t he C ucuteni A B a nd B c eramics, w hich w as b ased o n a rtistic s tyle. T he p ottery w as f ound t o c luster i nto s ix g roups, o r " styles", w hich w ere d esignated b y t he G reek l etters: D L , , , o r , E . a nd ç s o a s n ot t o c ause c onfusion w ith t he c hronological c lassification. S chmidt's s ix s tyles w ere t he r esult o f

3 0

P redominant C UCUTENI

H orodisteaFoltesti

TRIPOLYE

C eramic T ype

( Gorodsk-Usatovo) T ripolye C I I/ ''II

C ucuteni B

T ripolye C I h/ I

C ucuteni A B

T ripolye B I I

C orded Ware

Monochrome Ware

,

T richrome Ware C ucuteni A

T ripolye B I

P re-Cucuteni I II

T ripolye A I ncised/ E xcised Ware

P re-Cucuteni I I P re-Cucuteni I

Fig.

6 S chematic

s ynchronization

o f p arallel R omanian

a nd U krainian c eramic s equences. a fter S chmidt T ripolye

1 932 a nd V .

C ucuteni s equence

D umitrescu

s equence a fter P assek 1 949.

3 1

1 963a;

a n i ncredibly m eticulous s tudy b ut l ater w ere r efined e ven f urther b y V . D umitrescu ( 1941-1944). M oreover, e very p ublication s ince 1 932 o n C ucuteni A B a nd B s ites i n R omania h as u sed S chmidt's s ix s tyles i n o rder t o c ategorise t he m aterials ( figs. 1 8-24). T he s traightforward r elative c hronology a nd t he " style" t ypology p roposed b y S chmidt w ould c ause, i nadvertently, i nnumerable p roblems n ot o nly i n c lassifying c eramic m aterials b ut a lso i n u nderstanding t echn ological d evelopment. P art o f t he p roblem i nvolves t he l ater s ubd ivision o f t he A B a nd B p eriods i nto A B1, A B2, B i, B 2, a nd B 3 b y V . D umitrescu; a nd s ubsequently t he s ix s tyles w ere a ssigned c hronological v alues i n o rder t o s upport t he s ubdivisions ( V. D umitrescu 1 963b). H owever, i n t rying t o d ivide t he s ix s tyles a mong t he v arious n umbered p hases, t here i s s o m uch o verlapping a s t o r ender t he t ask m eaningless. T he s ituation i s e ven m ore c omplicated b y f urther s ubd ivision o f t he s tyles t hemselves b y S chmidt ( 1932), V . D umitrescu ( 1941-1944), a nd N4u ( 1980) i nto a pproximately 2 0 n umbered " sub-styles". A nd w hen d iscussing t hese 2 0 s ubdivisions, i t i s q uite c ommon f or a s m any a s f our s tyles t o o ccur o n t he s ame v essel, t hus f urther d estroying a ny r emaining c hronological v alue ( figs. 2 5 a nd 2 6). H owever, t he d ivision o f t he C ucuteni p ainted w ares i nto p eriods A , A B, a nd B i s av iable c hronological s cheme a nd w orks w ell o n aw ides pread b asis, s ince t he p ainting t echnique a nd o verall d ecoration d o c hange r adically a nd a re r eadily d iscernible. M oreover, S chmidt's o riginal s cheme h as b een p roven s tratigraphically a nd h as b een u sed e ffectively f or o ver 5 0 y ears. P roblems o nly b egin t o a rise w hen o ne s ubdivides t hese p eriods, s ince t here i s a c rucial p oint t hat h as b een o verlooked: r egional v ariation ( section I I .C .4).

I I.C .2.

C ucuteni c eramic t ypology

I n t he f irst ( "A") p eriod, t here i s ab rief a ppearance o f b ichrome ( white o n r ed) w are a fter w hich t richrome w are w ith w hite, r ed, a nd b lack m ineral-based p aints c learly p redominates ( 2). T he d ecoration u sually c onsists o f a s ingle, r epetitive g eometric o r c urvilinear m otif t hat c overs m ost, i f n ot a ll, o f t he e xterior s urface, a s w ell a s m any t imes t he i nterior o f t he v essel ( figs. 1 1-13) ( 3). T richrome p ainting c ontinues i nto C ucuteni A B a nd a n ew b ichrome w are ( black o n w hite, a nd v ice v ersa) m akes i ts a ppearance. B ut t he d efining c haracteristic o f t his m iddle p eriod a re t he r adical c hanges i n w hich s pace i s u sed o n t he v essel s urface a nd t he p roliferation o f g eometric a nd c urvilinear m otifs: I nstead o f a u niform p attern c overing t he e ntire s urface, s pace i s d ivided h orizontally i nto a s m any a s f our p anels o r f riezes, e ach w ith i ts o wn d esign, a nd p laced a ccording t o t he c ontours o f t he v essel ( figs. 1 8-22) ( 4). T he l ast ( "B") p eriod a gain i nvolves r adical c hanges: M ore o f t he s urface r emains u npainted t han i n p revious p eriods, m any t imes l imited t o j ust a s ingle n arrow f rieze n ear t he r im o r s houlder o f t he v essel ( figs. 2 2-24 a nd 2 7-29). W hat d ecoration e xists i s p ainted m any t imes o nly i n m onochrome b lack ; a lthough t here d evelops a n ew b ichrome s tyle ( red a nd b lack) a t t his t ime. G eometric a nd c urvilinear d esigns c ontinue, b ut t he m ost i nteresting a dditions a re t he m any z oamorphic a nd

3 2

r • •

4 . 4

0

C O

3 3

C u c t e n i A v e s e l

e

f i r

. f 1

5 1

Fig.

8

O ucuteni A /Tripolye B I v essel t he U SSR.

3 4

s hapes f rom R omania a nd

. 0

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3 7

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• •. •

3 8 1 / 6 n a t u r a l

3 9 t n a t u r a l s i z e ) .

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l ' a

••

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0 0 • r 4 ; 1• 4

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a nthropomorphic m otifs

( figs.

2 7-30)

I n h is 1 932 m onograph, H .

( 5).

S chmidt a lso d esignates a " Cucuteni C "

w are w hich, t echnologically s peaking, w as t he c omplete a ntithesis o f t he C ucuteni A , A B, a nd B c eramics. T his p oorly f ired, p oorly o xidised o r e ven r educed p ottery c ontained l arge a mounts o f c rushed s hell t emper a nd w as d ecorated b y c omb i ncising a nd c ord i mpressing ( Ellis 1 980). T his " Type C ", a s i t i s n ow c alled, f irst a ppears o n C ucuteni s ites v ery l ate i n t he " A" p eriod a nd c ontinues t hroughout t he s equence. T he q uantity o f T ype C c eramics i s n oteworthy: T he l argest c oncentrations ( relative t o t he p ainted w are) a re o n s ites a t t he e asternmost a nd s outhernmost p eripheries o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture a nd t hence T ype C b ecomes g radational i n q uantity w hen m oving t owards t he w est u ntil i t b ecomes r are o r e ven n onexistent a s o ne a pproaches t he E astern C arpathians. S ince t he 1 950s, E ast a nd W est E uropean a nd American s cholars a re f airly c onsistent i n t heir o pinions t hat t his T ype C r epresents a n i ntrusive e lement

i nto B alkan s ettlements b y s low m ovements o f

p opulations f rom t he S outh R ussian s teppe z one ( cf. G imbutas 1 973). T . P assek ( 1949) h as e xpressed t he o pinion t hat t his c orded w are r epresents t he u tilitarian c eramics f or t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture. T here a re s everal p roblems w ith t his t heory. F irst, T . P assek d id n ot c ite S chmidt's 1 932 s ite r eport i n h er m onograph o f 1 949. S econdly, t he l ack o f T ype C w are o n m any R omanian s ites p recludes t heir u se a s k itchen w are; a nd, f inally, a n u npainted w are, o f t he s ame s uperior t echnology a s t he p ainted c eramics, a lso e xists o n C ucuteni s ites a nd p resumably c ould s erve f or u tilitarian p urposes. A lso o f n ote i s t he f act t hat w ood c ould h ave b een u sed t o m anufacture c ulinary c ontainers t hus p reventing o ver-use o f c eramic v essel i n m ore m undane u ses.

I.C.3. I

T ripolye c eramic t ypology

R ather t han d ividing t he m aterials i nto t wo d ifferent g roups ( i.e. " Pre-Cucuteni" a nd " Cucuteni"), which w as a n a ccident o f d iscovery ( see s ection I I.A .), t he T ripolye s equence e ncompasses a ll w ares: /''-T ripolye A --incised w are; T ripolye B --trichrome w are; T ripolye C monochrome ( black) w are ( 6). T he m iddle ( "B") p eriod h as b een f urther s ubdivided b y P assek i nto B I ( trichrome w are) a nd B I I ( trichrome w are p lus t he f irst a ppearance o f m onochrome w are). I n t he f inal p eriod, t here h as b een s ome a ttempt t o t ake i nto c onsideration r egional v ariation:

T ripolye C d esignates n orthern s ites o f t he D nepr a nd u pper

S outhern B ug R ivers w here t richrome w are p redominates o ver m onochrome, a nd T ripolye ' 7 f/ r efers t o s outhern s ites o f t he D nestr a nd l ower S outhern B ug R ivers w here m onochrome w are p redominates

( 7).

T he T ripolye C /1( p eriod h as b een f urther s ubdivided b y P assek I d iachronically a s f ollows: T ripolye C I /1( I a nd T ripolye C I. T he l atter v ariants, C I I a nd 1 I I, h ave b een t he o bject o f c ontroversy. D uring t he f inal p hase, t he " Type C " w are ( vide s upra) d eriving f rom t he S outh Russian s teppes f orms a lmost t he e ntire c eramic i nventory a t t hese s ites with t he s urviving m onochrome w are c omprising b arely 1 07 v, i ndicating t hat t he l atest " Cucuteni-Tripolye" s ites w ere i nhabited b y s teppe p opulations w hose o ccupancy f ormed t he b ridge b etween t he C halcolithic a nd B ronze A ge ( V. D umitrescu 1 963b). T his h as p rompted s cholars s uch a V . D umitrescu t o q uestion s eriously w hether w e s hould c onsider P assek's " C I I/1( I I" p hase a s a ctually b elonging t o t he

4 1

C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture. I n t he R omanian r elative c hronology, I T ripolye C I i s d esignated a s " Horodietea-Folteeti", a nd b y s ome S oviet s cholars a s " Gorodsk-Usatovo" i n o rder t o s ignify a d ifferent p opulation, t ogether w ith t heir b ronze w eapons, a nd t he b eginning o f t he B ronze A ge. A lthough t he T ripolye s equence a ppears, o n t he s urface, a l ess c umbersome t erminology t o u se t han t hat o f t he C ucuteni s equence, i t i s d eceptively s imple. T he c hronological s equence f or p ainted w are i n t he M oldavian S SR a nd t he U kraine i s n ot a s r eadily d iscernible f rom c eramic i nventories a s w as C ucuteni A , A B, a nd B w hich w as d etermined f rom m ulti-level s ites. T wo r easons e xist f or t his l ack o f c larity: T hroughout t he e xistence o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture, t he s plintering o f s ettlements a nd e xpansion o f p opulations w as a c ontinuous p rocess s uch t hat o ne h as t o c ontend w ith g reat d istances a nd a massive a rea o f s ettlement w hich h as n ot b een e qually s urveyed. S econdly, o lder t raditions i n c eramic m anufacturing d o n ot g ive w ay t o n ew d evelopments, r esulting i n a s m any a s t hree t ypes o f p ottery ( i.e. i ncised, t richrome a nd m onochrome) o ccurring o n a s ingle s ettlement a nd e ven i n a s ingle d welling ( e.g. V ladimirovka a nd K olomij rAna I I). S oviet s cholars h ave b een m ore c onservative w ith t heir r elative c hronology s uch t hat, d espite s uggestions i n r evising t he p eriods, v ery f ew c hanges h ave a ctually b een m ade s ince T . P assek's p eriodisation o f 1 949 ( cf. M ov L 1 972; e rnyg 1 981). H owever, r egional v ariation h as a lways b een r ecognised a s a n i mportant f actor. C eramic " types" h ave t herefore b een d efined a nd a re b ased o n t he i nventory f rom c lusters o f s ites i n a s pecific r egion . T he r esult o f t his w ork o n r egional v ariation h as p roduced f ive m onographs o n T ripolye C I / Y Ia nd C I I/ 1 ( I I (Cucuteni B a nd H orodietea-Folteeti, r espectively): t he m iddle D nepr r egion ( Kruts 1 977), t he n orthern B lack S ea ( ZbenoviZ 1 974), t he n orthern M oldavian S SR ( Markev il 1 981), t he V ykhvatintsy b urial g round ( Derga nv 1 978), a nd a s tatistical s tudy o n a ll t ypes o f a rtifacts f or L ate T ripolye i n g eneral ( DergaCev 1 980). A lthough t his r esearch h as o rganised t he m aterials i n a c oherent m anner, v ery l arge g eographical g aps s till e xist; a nd t he e arly a nd m iddle p eriods ( Tripolye A , B I , B I I) h ave n ot r eceived t he s ame a ttention a s h as t he l atest p eriod s o t hat f or s ite r eports o f c omplete e xcavations w e h ave o nly j ournal a rticles, o ne m onograph f or a T ripolye A s ite ( Bibikov 1 953), a nd f or T ripolye B --T. P assek's t wo a nthologies o f h er e xcavations w hich c over a ll p eriods ( Passek 1 949; 1 961). I n a ddition, t he w orks o f K ruts, Z benovi a nd D erga &v a ll c oncentrate o n t he C I I/1( I I p hase w hich i s t he b eginning o f t he E arly B ronze A ge a nd t herefore a re o f p eripheral i nterest h ere ( fig. 3 1).

I.C.4. I

C onclusion o n c eramic t ypology

T he s ystems o f r elative c hronology a nd c eramic t ypology h ave b een s crutinised i n d etail a nd i t i s s uggested h ere t hat b oth t he o riginal C ucuteni a nd T ripolye r elative c hronologies b e p reserved--but w ithout a ny f urther d iachronic s ubdivisions. T he m ain s ource o f p roblems i s t he u nderlying a ssumption, m ade b y m ost a rchaeologists, t hat e ach n ew c eramic t ype, o r c eramic a ssemblage, m ust r epresent a n ew p eriod i n t he e volution o f ap articular c ulture w ithout u nderstanding t he e volution o f t echnology.

4 2

M ap 7 E p on ymou s S i t es

4 3

P r e-Cmcu teN i I ,I P r e Cucu ten i I I

M ap

8

P r e-Cucu ten i

T r ipo l ye A t e r r i to ry

4 4

M ap 9 C u cu t en i Aa n d A B /T r ipp lye BIa n d BI It e r r i to r y

4 5

C vca tee i

• • • •• ' ^-

H e red i! tia F e l tet ti

/

•

•

. --

. I

-, -/ / / I I

N \

N

,

1

M ap 1 0 C u cu te n i Ba n d H o r o d i e t e a -F o l t et i / T r ipo lye CIa n d CI It e r r i to r y

4 6

A s w as d iscussed i n n ote ( 3), e ntire p hases a re c ompletely l acking a long s ome m ajor r iver s ystems. O ne c hronological p hase w as d efined b efore i t w as e ven f ound ( "Cucuteni A l") a nd n ever w as f ound; a p hase h as e ven b een s uggested a s a c hallenge f or f uture s cholars, " Cucuteni A 5" ( V.

D umitrescu 1 963a).

I nstead, p articular t ypes o f c eramic a ssemblages

s hould b e r eferred t o s imply a s C ucuteni A , A B, a nd B , o r T ripolye A , B , a nd C , t ogether w ith s ome d esignation, p referably g eographic i ndicating t o w hich c eramic a ssemblage r eference i s b eing m ade. N evertheless, o ut o f t he d iscussion o n s ynchronic v ariation ( 3) ( 4), s everal i ssues s hould b e d iscussed c oncerning t he n ature o f c eramic p roduction a nd t he a doption a nd d iffusion o f i deas. F rom t he i nformation o n c eramic t ypology p resented h ere, p opulation m ovement a nd i nformation f low c an b e f ollowed d uring t he P re-Cucuteni/ T ripolye A , C ucuteni A /Tripolye B I , a nd C ucuteni B /Tripolye C I p eriods. T he e xpansion o f L ate N eolithic p opu lations i nto n ew a gricultural t erritories e ast o f t he C arpathians c an b e i dentified b y t he e stablishm ent o f s ettlements with P re-Cucuteni I II ( =Tripolye A ) p ottery. H owever, o nce s ettlement o f a c ore t erritory ( southeastern T ransilvania t o t he Prut R iver) w as e ffected, t he s ucceeding p eriod, C ucuteni A ( =Tripolye B I ), c ould b e c haracterised m ore b y am ovement o r d iffusion o f t echnological i deas, i n a d own-the-line f ashion, i nitiated b y c ulture c ontact b etween t he P re-Cucuteni a nd Petre ti c ultures i n t he T ransilvanian b asin a nd t hence c ontinuing e astwards. A lthough d uring C ucuteni A ( =Tripolye B I ), s ettlements w ere m oved t o m ore p rotected l ocations ( vide i nfra) a nd n ew l ands w ere b eing e xploited a long t he Dnestr a nd S outhern B ug R ivers. H owever, t he e laborate s tyles o f C ucuteni A B p ottery were n ot a dopted m uch b eyond t he P rut R iver, b ut d uring t he s ucceeding C ucuteni B ( =Tripolye C I ) p eriod t he i dea a nd s implicity o f t he m onochrome s tyles w ere a ccepted i nto t he t echnological r epertoire o ver t he e ntire t erritory a s f ar a s t he D nepr. C onsidering t he r elative u niformity o f m onochrome p ottery, w ith a llowances f or r egional v ariations, i t i s s uggested h ere t hat t he s pread o f i deas t hrough i nter-settlement c ommunication w as q uite r apid. T ogether w ith r apid c ommunication a nd f low o f i deas i s t he c oncomitant r egionalism . T his d iversity i n c eramic d ecoration i s a pparent f rom t he e arliest a ppearance o f p ainted w are ( e.g. s outheast T ransilvania, s ub-Carpathians, S iret-Prut i nterfluve). I n c onnection w ith t his p henomenon i s t he a ppearance o f c lusters o f p ottery k ilns a t C ucuteni-Tripolye s ettlements ( chapter I II). T hese k ilns, a s m any a s 1 8 a t a s ingle s ite, s uggest, a t t he v ery l east, t hat c raft s pecialisat ion e xisted a t t hese s ettlements a nd t hat t hey m ay a lso h ave s erved t he s urrounding r egion a s w ell, t hus e nhancing s ynchronic a nd g eographic v ariation i n c eramic d ecoration. A nother i ssue t hat h as b een r aised i n o pen d iscussion i s t he q uestion, why d id t he a rt s tyle c hange s o r adically t wice d uring t he p ainted w are s equence? I t i s t ime c onsuming t o p aint a c urvilinear o r g eometric d esign u niformly o ver a t hree-dimensional s urface b oth o utside a nd i nside t he v essel. T he t ask o f e xecuting a d esign i s m ade e asier i f s pace o n t he v essel s urface i s p artitioned a nd i s e ven e asier i f s pace i s d ivided a ccording t o t he c ontours o f v essel s hape.

H ence, w e

s ee t he

r ise i n t he C ucuteni A B p eriod o f a d ramatic c hange i n v essel d ecoration. N ot o nly w as t he p lanning o f a d esign l ess t ime-consuming, b ut

4 7

e laboration o f t he e xisting r epertoire o f m otifs c ould n ow b e a ccomplished a nd H . S chmidt's s tyle c lassification w as a n a ttempt t o f ollow t his e xponential r ise i n a rtistic e ndeavour. H owever, t hese s tyles d id n ot s urvive a nd, a s w e h ave s een, w ere f airly l imited i n t heir a rea o f d istribution t o t he r egion b etween t he E astern C arpathians a nd t he P rut R iver. A lthough d esign p lanning w as m ade l ess c umbersome, t oo m uch t ime a nd e nergy w as b eing p laced i nto t he e laboration o f t he i ndividual m otifs. T herefore, i t i s s uggested h ere t hat t he r eduction o f s urface e mbellishment w as o ne o f a n umber o f m ass p roduction m ethods u sed b y C ucuteni-Tripolye p otters t o s horten t he t ime i nvolved i n m aking l arge q uantities o f c eramics. T he E i - a nd t ; s tyles s how a d rastic r eduction a nd g radual d isappearance o f t he u se o f r ed a nd w hite p aints a nd a n i ncrease i n t he a mount o f v essel s urface t hat i s l eft u npainted a s w ell a s a r apid d egeneration i n t he r endition o f s piralic o rnament ation--and i t i s t his t radition o f r endering m otifs i n " shorthand" b y u sing b lack a nd e xploiting t he v arious s hades o f r ed o n t he c lay s urface w hich i s w idely a dopted a cross C ucuteni-Tripolye t erritory ( figs. 2 7-31).

1 1 .C.5.

A bsolute d ating

M ore d ates a re a vailable f or t he a bsolute c hronology o f t he p ainted w are s equence t han t here e xist

f or t he e arliest P re-Cucuteni I II/

T ripolye A p eriod ( table 1 ). T he C ucuteni A /Tripolye B I p eriod h as e ight r adiocarbon d ates w hich r ange 3 675-3150 b .c., C ucuteni B /Tripolye C Ih as t wo d ates: 3 000 b .c. a nd 2 920 b .c., a nd f or t he t ransitional I p eriod t o t he E arly B ronze A ge ( i.e. T ripolye C I) f our d ates a re a vailable b etween 2 840 a nd 2 390 b .c. A f inal n ote o f c aution o n t he c hronology i s n eeded:

I n a ttempting

t o s ynchronise t he t wo r elative c hronologies, a nd 1 7 1 a ssigning a bsolute d ates, n ot a ll C ucuteni p hases a re e xactly e quivalent t o t he T ripolye p hases i n t ime. F igure 6 g ives o nly a pproximate g uidelines. P opulation g rowth a nd e xpansion h ave n ot y et b een t aken i nto c onsideration ( maps 7 -10 s how t he i ncrease i n a rea o f o ccupation t hrough t ime). C hanges i n t he c eramic t radition d o n ot o ccur u niformly: I nnovations i n s urface d ecoration a ppear t o h ave b een m ade f irst i n t he w estern a reas a nd g radually " moved" e astwards a long w ith t he p opulations w ho d eveloped t hese t raditions. T he e ffect o n t he r elative c hronologies c an b e e xemplified b y t he f ollowing: T ripolye A i n t he Ukraine ( equivalent i n s tyle w ith P re-Cucuteni I II) i s a ctually s ynchronous i n t ime w ith e arly C ucuteni A i n R omania. L ikewise, T ripolye B I p olychrome w are ( equivalent i n s tyle w ith C ucuteni A ) d oes n ot r each t he U kraine u ntil t he C ucuteni A B p eriod i n R omania.

1 1 .C.6.

S ettlement

l ocation a nd b uilding c onstruction

T he e rratic c hoice o f s ettlement

l ocation d uring t he e arly p eriod

( Pre-Cucuteni/Tripolye A ) c hanged t o a m ore c onsistent s election o f n aturally f ortified l ocations d uring t he p ainted p ottery s equence. T he p reponderance o f s ites a long m ajor r iver s ystems ( e.g. S iret, P rut, D nestr, S outhern B ug, D nepr) r einforces t his s upposition . I n g eneral, s ettlements a re l ocated o n h igh r iver t erraces, o n e dges o f r iver 60 0 c anyons, o n s lopes o f v alleys w hich a re s ometimes q uite s teep ( 30 0 -

4 8

g radient), o n n atural " acropolis" f ormations, l imited a ccessibility ( Markevi 1 981:70-72). E ven t hough s ettlements w ere l ocated i nhabitants e vidently s till f elt t he n eed

a nd o ther p ositions w ith

i n r elative s ecurity,

t he

t o c ut o ff a ny p otential

a ccess t o t he s ite b y d efence c onstructions. T hese d efences c onsisted o f a V -shaped d itch 2 -4 m d eep a nd 3 -6 m w ide f ollowed b y a r ampart o r e arthen e mbankment a pproximately 1 m i n p reserved h eight a nd a s m uch a s 6m i n w idth. T he s ettlements o f C ucuteni a nd K oste ty I V ( Coste ti) m ay s erve a s t wo e xamples o f f ortified s ites: K oste ny I V i n t he M oldavian S SR c omprised 2 5 d wellings l ocated o n a s teep s lope o f a c liff a nd h ad a f ortifications s ystem o f t hree p arallel d itches a nd a ccomp anying r amparts ( Markevil 1 981:72). T he e ponymous s ite o f C ucuteniC et 4uia ( from : ' cetate' o r f ortress) w as l ocated o n a n a cropolis; a lthough t he s ettlement e dge h ad s uffered s ome e rosion t hrough t ime, i t w as c learly d etermined t hat a t l east t wo d itch/rampart c onstructions e xisted, i n w hich t he w alls a nd e dges o f t he d itches a nd t he r amparts h ad b een r einforced b y s tone s labs a nd s tone p acking ( Schmidt 1 911; 1 932:Beilage 2 ). D wellings w ere c onstructed o n c arefully p repared p latforms i n t he s ame t radition a s i n P re-Cucuteni I II/Tripolye A . D uring t he C ucuteni B ( =Tripolye C I ) p eriod, t here i s a p redilection t owards t he c onstruction o f 2 -4 f amily l onghouses

( fig.

1 5).

T he c onstruction o f t wo-storey b uildings a lso b egan d uring t he L ate T ripolye p eriod i n t he M oldavian a nd U krainian S SRs. Among t he s everal c lay m odels o f T ripolye h ouses w hich h ave b een f ound i s a m odel o f a t wo-storey d welling f ound a t N ovye R use ny ( Ruse tii N oi) ( Markevi 1 981:fig. 4 6/1) a nd a m odel f rom R assokhovatka ( reproduced h ere, f ig. 1 6). B esides t hese h ouse m odels, t here i s e vidence f rom n umerous s ites ( e.g. P etreny, M ajdanets'ke, V arvarovka V III, V arvarovka X V, B rynzeny I II)

( fig.

1 7).

B ased o n b oth a rchaeological e vidence a nd e thnographic a nalogy, M arkeviC ( 1981:83) d etails t he c onstruction o f t wo-storey b uildings a s f ollows: T he f oundation a nd w alls w ere p repared a s d escribed i n s ection I I .B.2. T he w alls, h owever, w hen p lastered w ith a c lay a nd c haff a dm ixture r eached a t hickness o f 3 0 c m . S plit b eams, p laced c urved s ide u p, w ere t hen p ositioned c rosswise o n t he l ongitudinal w alls o ver w hich w as s pread a 5 -12 c m l ayer o f c lay w ith c haff. A s econd 1 -2 c m l ayer o f c lay w as u sed a s f acing. T he w alls o f t he s econd s torey w ere t hen c onstructed b ut w ere c onsiderably s horter. T he d ouble-gabled r oof w as t hen b uilt a s p reviously m entioned

( section

T he p roof o f t he e xistence o f t wo-storey b uildings h as b een 1981:81). F rom e xcavations, t hese c arefully o utlined b y M arkeviCi ( c ollapsed b uildings a ppear a s " double" f loors w ith t he t hinner, c ollapsed r oof o n t op.

H owever,

t he q uestion a rises,

h ow d oes o ne

d istinguish a c ollapsed t wo-storey b uilding f rom a h ouse

f oundation t hat

h as b een u sed a s econd t ime b y h aving a n ew p latform p repared o n t op o f t he p revious o ne? F irst o f a ll, w hen a h ouse f oundation h as t o b e r eused, t he o ld s urface i s s moothed d own c onsiderably, i .e. l oose c lay i s r emoved; a ny r aised p latforms a nd c lay o vens a re d estroyed; a nd he f irst f loor o f a t wod ebris i s r emoved. H owever, o n w hat w ould be t s torey c onstruction, n one o f t he a bove p reparations w ere m ade a nd h uge

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C lay m odel o f a t wo-storey d welling f ound a t R assokhovatka.

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1 7 R econstructions o f t wo-storey d wellings e xcavated a t R akovets ( upper) a nd L enkovtsy ( lower).

5 3

a ccumulations o f c lay f rom p latforms a nd o vens a re s till p resent. S econdly, a fter f ire, h ouse c ollapse, o r o ther r eason f or d esertion, a ll u sable o bjects w ould b e r emoved f or f urther u se, e specially i f an ew f oundation w as g oing t o b e b uilt o n t he o ld o ne. H owever, i n t hese t wos torey s tructures, o n t he f irst f loor c an b e f ound w hole v essels, g rinding s tones, l oom w eights, s tone t ools, e tc., a lthough t hey w ere s till q uite u seful. T hirdly, t he f loor o f t he s econd l evel w as a lmost a lways c onstructed d ifferently t han t he f irst f loor: F or i nstance, a t t he s ite o f B rynzeny I II ( Brünzeni), i n d wellings n o. 2 4 a nd 2 5 t he s econd-storey f loor h ad a " trap d oor"--a c learly d emarcated r ecess ( presumably o riginally o f w ood) i n t he u pper f loor f or a ccess p urposes. T his t ype o f c onstruction h as n ever b een f ound i n r emains o f s ingle s torey b uildings. A nd f inally, t he s econd-storey f loor u sually r eveals s ome r emains o f m ortise-and-tenon c onstruction i n t he f orm o f l arge c lay v b ricks w ith c lear s ockets ( Markevi c 1 981). T he o ccurrence, l ocation, s ize, a nd f unction o f t hese t wo-storey b uildings, h owever, v ary c onsiderably a nd w ill r eceive a dditional d iscussion i n t he f ollowing c hapters.

I .C.7. I

E conomy

D uring C ucuteni A /Tripolye B I a nd C ucuteni B /Tripolye C I , a t l east t wo k inds o f w heat, T riticum c ompactum a nd T . v ulgare, h ave b een i dentified a t t he R omanian s ites o f B odegti, H ä l aggegti a nd V alea L upului ( Com a 1 981). R ye ( Secale c ereale) w as f ound a t C arasa-Micläugeni d ating t o t he C ucuteni A B p eriod ( Com a 1 981). T able 4 s ummarises t he r esults o f a rchaeobotanical a nalyses f or s ix s ites i n S oviet M oldavia f or t he l atest p eriods o f C ucuteni-Tripolye. F or t his t ime p eriod, f our s pecies o f w heat, a s w ell a s b arley a nd m illet h ave b een i dentified a s t he d omestic g rain c rops, a long w ith p eas, g rapes, a pricots, a nd p lums ( JAnugev a 1 976; M arkev C 1 981:136). T he f aunal d ata f rom C ucuteni A a nd A B ( =Tripolye B ) s ites i ndicate a c ontinuing r eliance o n c attle a mong t he d omestic s pecies, e xcept a t K halep'e a nd P olivanov J Ar w here s heep/goat a nd p ig, r espectively, p redominate. A t a ll s ites, e xcept B erezovskaja, w ild s pecies a re s ubordinate t o d omesticants, a nd r ed d eer c ontinues t o b e t he f avored a nimal o f t he h unt. T hese g eneral c onclusions a re a lso v alid f or t he l ast p hase o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture, e xcept t hat i ncreasing n umbers o f h orse c an b e d etected. E quus p rzewalski a nd E . c aballus h ave b een c ombined i n t he t ables, s ince t he a uthors f rom w hom t he d ata w ere t aken l isted t hem t ogether o r s eparately o r w ere u nsure a s t o t he w ild v s. d omestic s tatus. I n f act, m any o f t he i ndividuals l isted u nder l ate C ucuteni-Tripolye h ave b een i dentified a s d omesticated ( tables 3 a a nd 3 b).

I I .C .8.

C ulture c ontact a nd t echnological c hange

A lthough t he c ontinuity b etween t he e arly P re-Cucuteni/Tripolye A p eriod a nd t he s ucceeding C ucuteni A /Tripolye B I p eriod h as b een e stablished b y t he e xcavation o f m ulti-level s ites a nd h as b een a ccepted f or 5 0 y ears, t his c ontinuity d oes n ot e xplain t he s udden c hanges i n c eramic m anufacturing t hat o ccurred b etween t hese t wo p eriods. W herefrom

5 4

d id t he

i dea o f p re-fire p ainting d erive?

D uring a ll p hases o f P re-Cucuteni, i ncising a nd e xcising w ere t he s tandard t echniques o f s urface d ecoration . T he u se o f w hite i ncrust ation t o f ill s paces p roduced • b y e xcising, a s w ell a s t he a pplication o f r ed o chre--both p ost-firing d ecorative t echniques--is d ocumented d uring P re-Cucuteni I I ( Marinescu-BIlcu 1 974:67-68), b ut t he u se o f a c lay-water b ased s lip a pplied b efore f iring i s n ot a ttested u ntil P reC ucuteni I II ( Marinescu-Bticu 1 974:75, 7 7). F or i nstance, d uring t he 1 961 a nd

1 962 e xcavations a t T irpe ti, P re-Cucuteni s herds w ere f ound

w ith a r ed s lip o n t he e xterior a nd w ith a t hick, m atte w hite s lip o n t he i nterior s urface ( V. D umitrescu 1 963a:61, n ote 3 ). T his a ppearance o f a s lip d uring P re-Cucuteni I II p roves a t l east t hat s ome e lements o f t he p ainted w are t radition s tarted t o a ppear. N evertheless, n ot o nly a re t here d ifferences i n t echnology b ut a lso d ifferences i n t he w ay i n w hich t hese p ost-fire p aints a re e mployed: T he r ed o chre i s n ever u sed f or d ecorative m otifs b ut f or p ainting r emaining s paces b etween i ncised m otifs,

a s o pposed t o t he

l ater

d epiction o f m otifs b y b ands o f r ed s lip. T here i s a lso a s ignificant d eparture f rom t he u se o f w hite i ncrustation t o f ill i n i ncised l ines d uring P re-Cucuteni t o t he p ainting o f m otifs i n aw hite, p re-fire s lip o n t he l ater t richrome w are. T he o rigins o f p re-fire, t richrome p ainting h ave b een t raced t o e arly c ontacts b etween P re-Cucuteni a nd c ultures w ho w ere f amiliar w ith p ainting t o t he s outh a nd w est. C ontemporaneous with t he P re-Cucuteni I II p hase i n e astern R omania a nd s ituated t o t he s outh, d eveloped t he G umelni4a c ulture ( map 5 ; f ig. 1 ). T he n ortheastern p art o f t he G umelni;a c ulture a rea f ormed a c ontact z one w ith t he s outhernmost e lements o f P re-Cucuteni I II a nd e arly C ucuteni A , w hich g ave r ise t o a n a malgamation k nown a s " StoicaniA ldeni". N inety s ites a re n ow k nown f or t his m ixed g roup, l ocated i n s outheastern R omania, s outhern S oviet M oldavia, a nd t he s outhwestern c orner o f t he U kraine

( Dragomir 1 979).

T he p otters o f t he G umelni4a c ulture a pplied g raphite f or d ecoration b efore f iring--a t echnique i nherited f rom t heir B oian l _ on o f a p re-fire w hite c ulture p redecessors. H owever, t he a pplicat s lip, a lthough i nfrequent, w as d eveloped b y G umelni4a p otters a nd w as o ften f ound o n S toicani-Aldeni c eramics a nd c ould h ave c ontributed t o t he a ppearance o f w hite s lip p ainting o n C ucuteni-Tripolye c eramics-a ll t he m ore s o s ince t he b eginning o f G umelni;a i s c ontemporaneous w ith P re-Cucuteni I II

( V.

D umitrescu 1 963a:62).

I n t his c ontact z one, o ne o f t he m ore i nteresting f eatures i s t he a ppearance o f b ichrome ( white o n r ed) w are. A s m entioned e arlier, b ichrome w are d oes m ake a b rief a ppearance d uring t he C ucuteni A p eriod b ut h as n ot b een i dentified i n a ll p arts o f t he C ucuteni t erritory r ather o nly i n a z one r elatively s outhwest w here P re-Cucuteni I II h ad c ontact w ith t he G umelni;a c ulture

( Dragomir 1 979; D umitrescu 1 963a).

D etermining t he o rigins o f t echnological i deas t ask:

i s n ot a n e asy

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t he w hite

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p arallel l ines; i n t his c ase t he w hite p aint h as o nly a s econdary r ole t o f ill i n t he s pace b etween p airs o f i ncised l ines. B ut s piralic b ands, f ormed b y i ncised p arallel l ines, a re c haracteristic o f b oth e arly G umelni;a d esigns, a s w ell a s P re-Cucuteni I II d ecoration. T he i ncised b order d emarcating t he m argins o f t hese w hite b ands c ould b e t he p oint o f d eparture f or t he u se o f b lack p aint a s m argins o f w ide b ands i n w hite o r r ed w hich i s c haracteristic o f t he l ater t ric hrome w ares o f C ucuteni-Tripolye ( V. D umitrescu 1 963a:64). M ore c onclusive e vidence f or t he o rigins o f t richrome p ainting l ies t o t he w est o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture a rea, s pecifically c entral T ransilvania. T he P etregti c ulture i s l ocated imediately t o t he w est o f t he T ransilvanian z one o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture ( map 5 ) a nd d ates b efore t he C ucuteni A p eriod ( fig. 1 ). T he d evelopment o f t he P etregti c eramic t radition i s a utochthonous, w ith r oots i n t he p receeding T urdag c ulture a nd d eveloped i n t he r egion o f t he c entral M ureg R iver ( Paul 1 981). T his r egion h as a l ong t radition o f c eramic d ecoration b y m eans o f p ainting b efore f iring. I t i s w ell e stablished t hat i n t he M iddle-Late N eolithic T urdag c ulture v ases w ere p ainted w ith w ide, r ed a nd b lack b ands, r epresenting a d irect c ontinuity f rom t he E arly N eolithic C rigS tar evo c ulture ( V. D umitrescu 1 963a:64-65). T he C halcolithic P etresti c eramics a re m onochrome ( red), b ichrome ( red a nd w hite) a nd t richrome ( red, w hite,

a nd b lack)

i n c hronological o rder, r espectively

( Paul

1 981). E ven i n t he e arly p hase, t wo t ypes o f t richrame s tyles a re f ound: r ed a nd b lack o n aw hite b ackground a nd b lack a nd w hite o n a r ed b ackground--the e xact a nalogues o f t hese t wo s tyles i n C ucuteniT ripolye h ave p recise o rigins h ere i n P etregti c eramic a rt ( V. D umitrescu 1 963a). T herefore, i t i s c lear t hat t he P etregti t richrome w ares a ntedate t he e arliest m anifestations o f C ucuteni-Tripolye p ainted p ottery, i ncluding t he b rief a ppearance o f C ucuteni-Tripolye b ichrome w are. I n a ddition t o p ainting t echnology, d ecorative m otifs o f C ucuteniT ripolye c eramics a lso d erive f rom t he P etregti c ulture, a s w ell a s v essel f orms: T he c ylindrical v essel s upports, t all a nd h ollow i n t he i nterior a nd h aving t wo h oles p laced o pposite t o e ach o ther n ear t he t op ( fig. 7 :8a a nd f ig. 8 :82, 8 3), a re n ot f ound a nywhere e lse i n t he C arpatho-Danubian r egion b ut e xist i n t he P etregti c ulture a nd t he v essel s upport s ubsequently b ecame a c haracteristic f orm a mong t he C ucuteni-Tripolye i nventory o f s hapes. A s m entioned i n s ection I I .B.4., e arly c ontacts a lready e xisted w ith t he P etregti c ulture t o t he w est. T he e vidence o n t he o rigins o f C ucuteni-Tripolye p ainted w are i n c entral T ransilvania, r ather t han t o t he s outh,

i s t herefore q uite c onvincing.

6 1

N otes t o C hapter I I

( 1)

T he t erm

' culture'

i s u sed

i n t his w ork,

a nd

i n t he a rchaeological

w orks c ited h erein, i n t he s ense o f w hat h as s ometimes b een c alled ' archaeological c ulture', o r ' culture a rea', u sing t he d efinition i ntroduced b y V . G . C hilde i n T he D anube i n P rehist ory

( 1929): A c ulture i s d efined a s a n a ssemblage o f a rtefacts t hat r ecur r epeatedly a ssociated t ogether i n d wellings o f t he s ame k ind a nd w ith b urials b y t he s ame r ite. T he a rbitrary p eculiarities o f I mplements, w eapons, o rnaments, h ouses, b urial r ites a nd r itual o bjects a re a ssumed t o b e t he c onc rete e xpression o f c ommon s ocial t raditions t hat b ind t ogether t he p eople.

R enfrew ( 1978b) s tands o pposed t o t he u se o f t he t erm ' culture', a s d efined a bove, s ince t he m odus o perandi i n p rehistoric a rchaeology o f n aming ' cultures' o n t he b asis o f t he s imilarities o r d ifferences a mong a rtifact a ssemblages i s v ery m uch d ependent u pon t he s equence o f d iscovery a nd i s q uite a rbitrary. T his i s a p articularly a cute p roblem i n E ast E uropean a rchaeology: O ftent imes ' cultures' w ere o riginally d efined o n t he b asis o f materials f rom o ne o r t wo s ites, t he ' culture' w as t hen s ubdivided ( usually i n s everal d ifferent w ays), a nd d uring t he c ourse o f s ubsequent e xcavations t hese ' cultures' n ecessarily s uffered n umerous r ed efinitions a nd r e-subdivisions. R enfrew ( 1979) h as a lso e mp hatically s tated: B oth t he m anipulatiop o f a rtefacts i nto t ypological s eries (Is eriation') a nd t heir d ivision i nto h ypothetical s patiot emporal e ntities ( 'cultures') m ust b e r ejected a s m eaningful e xplanatory p rocedures. E ach, h owever, w ithin a ppropriate l imits a nd w ith t he e xplicit f ormulation o f t he u nderlying a ssumptions, c an b e a p erfectly a cceptable m ode o f a nalysis: s eriation w ithin a l imited a rea w ill r emain a g ood a pproach t o r elative c hronology, a nd n aming b y ' cultures' w ill c ontinue t o b e a c onvenient s horthand, j ust a s we s till f or c onvenience s ometimes u se t erms l ike ' neolithic' o r ' bronze a ge', w hich n ow l ikewise h old n o e xplanatory c ontent o r p otential. T he d efinition o f ' culture' w ithin t he c ontext o f a rchaeology i s f ar f rom b eing r esolved: I n f act, i t w ould p robably b e b etter t o a void t he t erm a ltogether. H owever, u ntil a m ore a ppropriate c lassificatory t erminology i s d eveloped, R enfrew's s uggestion t hat c ulture'

b e u sed a s a " convenient

s horthand" t ogether w ith i ts

u nderlying a ssumptions will b e h eeded

( 2)

V .

D umitrescu

i n t his w ork .

( 1963a) h ad s ubdivided t he C ucuteni A p eriod i nto

6 2

f our p hases a ccording t o t he

f ollowing s cheme:

A l = b ichrome w are a nd b ichrome w are w ith i ncising; i ncised w are; A 2 = t richrome, b ichrome a nd i ncised w ares; A 3 = t richrome w are a nd i ncised w are ( bichrome w are d isappeared); a nd, A 4 = t richrome w are, n ew b ichrome w are ( incised w are h as d isappeared).

( 3)

A s o pposed t o t he P re-Cucuteni a nd C ucuteni A B a nd B p eriods, w hich w ere c ategorised a ccording t o m otifs a s w ell a s t heir m ethod o f e xecution, t he C ucuteni A p hases ( i.e. A l, A 2, A 3, A 4) a re d efined s trictly o n t he b asis o f d ecoration m ethod ( i.e. u se o f t wo c olors t hree c olors, i ncising). S ince t he d ramatic c hange f rom i ncised/ e xcised d ecoration t o a dvanced p re-fire p olychrome p ainting d id n ot a ppear t o h ave a ny i ntervening p eriod o f e xperimentation, t he a bove s cheme w as a n a ttempt t o o rganise t he m aterials f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f t he e volution o f t echnology . T hus, b ecause a ll e xcavations w ere p roviding t richrome m aterials a nd t richrome t ogether w ith b ichrome, i t w as t hought t hat s ome e arlier, t ransitional p hase m ust h ave e xisted w ith a s impler m ethod o f p aint d ecoration. With t his i n m ind, R adu V ulpe ( 1957) h ad d efined a ' Proto-Cucuteni' p hase i n w hich o nly b ichrome ware e xisted. D ue t o t he f act t hat t he c hronological t erminology w as b ecoming t oo c umbersome, V . D umitrescu ( 1963a) h ad f ormulated h is n umbered s equence a nd a t t he s ame t ime c hanged V ulpe's ' ProtoC ucuteni' t o ' Cucuteni A l'. H owever, u p u ntil t he p resent t ime, n o o ne h as y et f ound t he h ypothetical ' Al' p hase ( bichrome w are o nly) i n a c losed c ontext. T his e arly b ichrome w are, w hite o n r ed, d oes n ot o ccur f requently b ut a lways t ogether w ith t richrome w are;

f or i nstance,

i t h as n ow b een f ound a t A riugd

i n s outh-

e astern T ransilvania a nd a t B odegti-Frumueica i n M oldova, b ut d oes n ot o ccur a t a ll e ast o f t he S iret R iver. I t i s n ow g enerally r ecognised t hat n o s eparate ' Al' l evel w ill e ver b e f ound w ith t he r esult b eing t hat s ome r esearchers h ave n ow c ollapsed t he A l a nd A 2 p hases i nto ' Cucuteni ( V.

D umitrescu 1 974a; W hat

C o r nea 1 974-1976).

s hould b e e mphasised h ere i s t hat t he a bsence o f a ny

t ransitional s tage i n p ainting e xperimentation i s a n a dditional i ndication t hat t he t richrome t echnique was n ot a utochthonous i n t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture b ut w as d erived f rom t he P etregti c ulture o f c entral T ransilvania. I t i s w orthy t o k eep i n m ind t hat b ichrome a nd t richrome p ainting c oexist i n t he P etregti c eramic i nventory, b eginning w ith t he e nd o f P etregti A w hich i s c omtemporaneous w ith P re-Cucuteni I II-beginning C ucuteni A ( cf. f ig. 1 ). T herefore, t he i dea o f b ichrome a nd t richrome p ain ting w as p robably a dopted b y C ucuteni p otters a s a u nified t echn ological r epertoire a nd t hen c ombined p ainting w ith i ncising, w hich d erived f rom t he o lder P re-Cucuteni t radition; i ncising i s n ot f ound i n c ombination w ith p ainting o n P etregti p ottery. M oreover, i t a ppears a s n o s urprise t hat t he s ite o f A riued, w hich i s l ocated n ear t he r egion o f t he P etregti c ulture, w ould h ave b ichrome c eramics a s w ell a s s ites l ike I zvoare a nd B odegti-

6 3

F rumugica w hich a re l ocated d irectly a cross t he C arpathians a nd t hat s ites e ast o f t he S iret a nd i n t he U SSR s hould n ot h ave t his a rchaic b ichrome w are a t a ll. T his ' Al-A2' p hase ( in a ctuality ' A2' o nly) w ith b ichrome a nd t richrome w ares w as e vidently a n e arly r egional m anifestation . C oncerning s ynchronic v ariation i n c eramic p roduction, t he T ransilvanian z one ( 'Ariugd' o r ' Erösd') o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture h as d efinite r egional q ualities w hich s erve t o s et i t a part: A long w ith t he b ichrome a nd t richrome w ares i s a nother t ype o f b ichrome p ottery o f c ompletely d ifferent m anufacture. R ather t han b eing f ired i n a n o xidising a tmosphere, t his p ottery w as c ompletely r educed r esulting i n a t otally b lack p aste t hroughout. T he s urface d ecoration c onsisted o f w ide, s mooth c hannels a nd s ome i ncising w ith i ntervening s paces p ainted w ith a p ost-fire a pplication o f h aematite. T his b lack w are i s e ncountered o ften o n C ucuteni s ites i n s outhe s tern T ransilvania ( e.g, a t A riued, M alnae, B od-Priesterhügel) b ut f ragments o ccur s poradically a cross t he E astern C arpathians. T he d iachronic c onnection b etween p hases A 2 a nd A 3 h as a lso b een p ut i nto q uestion ( Com a 1 974-1976). I f p hase A 2 h as n ot b een f ound e ast o f t he S iret R iver, t hen w hat was h appening b etween t he S iret a nd P rut R ivers? D id P re-Cucuteni I II c ommunities c ontinue o n o r d id t he A 3 p hase a lready b egin? A ccording t o i ts d efinition, d uring t he C ucuteni A 3 p hase b ichrome w are w as a baondoned b ut t he P re-Cucuteni i ncised w are c ontinued. O ne o f t he p roblems i s t hat t he a rchaic i ncised w are c ontinued i n t he S iret-Prut i nterfluve ( e.g. a bgeeeti, T rugegti, a nd C ucuteni) b ut n ot w est o f t he S iret ( V. D umitrescu 1 974a). T his h as p rompted t he i dea t hat s ites b etween t he S iret a nd P rut R ivers w ere i nfluenced b y T ripolye A p opulations t o t he e ast ( V. D umitrescu 1 974a). H owever, a n I mportant p oint h as b een o verl ooked: C hanges i n t echnology ( i.e., t he a doption o f t richrome p ainting) w ere n ot e verywhere u niformly a dopted, a nd w hen t hese c hanges b ecame p ermanent, i t i s n ot s urprising t hat t he o lder t echnological t radition ( i.e. i ncising) l ingers o n. I n f act, w hat w e c an s ee i s a g radation i n t he a doption o f t richroms w are a nd t he p ersistence o f a rchaic i ncised w are f rom t he C arpathians-w here i ncised w are d oes n ot e xist b eyond e arly C ucuteni A --to t he D nestr, S outhern B ug, a nd D nepr R ivers w here i ncised w are c ontinues u ntil t he v ery e nd ( i.e. T ripolye C 1 /Cucuteni B ).

I n

t his i nstance, t he p ersistence o f t he i ncised w are o n s ites b etween t he S iret a nd P rut i s a r egional v ariation n ot i n t erms o f i nfluences f rom t he e ast, b ut m ore a ppropriately i n t erms o f a n on-uniform a doption o f c ertain t echnological s kills. A nd a s E . C om a ( 1974-1976) h as s uggested, p hases A 2 a nd A 3 p robably o verlapped

c onsiderably,

s uch t hat t heir d iachronic v alue

i s

l imited. T he f inal p hase o f C ucuteni A ( 'A4'), t heoretically d efined b y t he c omplete a bsence o f P re-Cucuteni i ncised w are, p resents a p roblem i n t hat i t d esignates t wo t ypes o f c eramic i nventories i n R omania:

t he e xtreme n ortheast a rea a nd t he c entral p art o f

e astern M oldova. B oth g roups e xhibit a n ew t ype o f b ichrome w are u nrelated i n t echnique. T he f ormer i s r epresented b y t he s ite o f

6 4

D rägu eni i n n ortheastern R omania w hose c eramic i nventory i ncluded a v ery u nusual t ype o f b ichrome w are: T he e ntire s urface o f t he v essel w as c overed w ith s mooth c hannels p laced i n h orizontal, v ertical, z ig-zag, o r s piralic p atterns a fter w hich t he c hannels w ere p ainted i n w hite a nd i ntervening s paces i n r ed ( cf. C rt maru 1 977). T he o ther g roup o f ' A4' p ottery i s l ocated f arther t o t he s outh i n e astern M oldova a nd i s a lso k nown a s t he ' Fedelepeni t ype', w hose i nventory i ncludes w hite o n r ed a nd a lso b rown o n w hite b ichrome w ares. I n b oth t he a forementioned g roups, t richrome w are p redominates a nd t he P reC ucuteni i ncised/excised w are h as c ompletely d isappeared. B ut a gain, c oncerning t his ' A4' p hase, t he s ame d ifficulties w ill a rise a s w ith t he ' A2' a nd ' A3' p hases: I f t his c hronological p hase h as o nly b een i dentified i n s uch a s mall a rea, w hat w as h appening o n t he r est o f t he t erritory? T he C ucuteni A p eriod i s a f unctional r elative c hronological d esignation f or a t ime w hen t richrome p ainting w as b eing a dopted a s am eans o f c eramic d ecoration . M oreover, c onsidering t he s ubstantially l arge g eographic z one, v ariation i n t he t ime a nd m anner o f a doption o f t echnological i nventions i s t o b e e xpected. D uring t he f irst h alf o f t his c entury, t he m any v ariations i n c eramic i nventories w ere u nderstood a s d iachronic, b ut i t n ow a ppears t hat C ucuteni A 2, A 3 a nd A 4 a t l east p artially o verlap.

( 4)

T he C ucuteni A B p eriod h as b een s ubdivided i nto t wo p hases: A B1 a nd A B2 ( V. D umitrescu 1 963b). P hase A B1 i s c haracterised b y t he O L, a nd s tyles; A B2 w as d efined a s t he a ppearance o f t he A BC < -( and 8 s tyles ( V. D umitrescu 1 941-1944). p redominance o f t he ' A lthough H . S chmidt h ad o riginated t he d esignation C ucuteni ' AB', h e h ad i ntended t hat i t b e m erely a t ransition, n ot n ecessarily a s eparate a nd d iscrete p eriod c omplete w ith i ts o wn s et o f p hases; t herefore, a ll o f t his w are w as p laced u nder " Cucuteni B " i n S chmidt's s ite r eport ( cf. S chmidt 1 924; 1 932:75, n ote 1 ). V . D umitrescu ( 1963b) a dmits t hat, a lthough A B w are h as b een f ound i n m any p laces i n e astern R omania, v ery f ew s ites c an a ctually b e s aid t o b elong e xclusively t o t his p eriod T raian-Dealul F intTnilor, C orlgteni, G helgie ti); a nd

( e.g. i n f act

t his A B w are i s q uite r are i n t he U SSR, a ppearing s poradically i n t he n orthern P rut-Dnestr i nterfluve. T herefore, a lthough C ucuteni A B i s o ften e quated c hronologically w ith t he p hase T ripolye B I I--and i s p resented h ere a s s uch i n t he s ynchronis ation c hart ( fig. 6 )--and a lthough b oth C ucuteni A B a nd T ripolye B I I b oth s erve a s t ransitions f rom t richrome t o m onoc hrome w ares, t he l atter w as d efined o n t he b asis o f d ifferent c riteria ( cf. n ote ( 7) i nfra). I t i s t entatively s uggested h ere t hat t he e ntire " Cucuteni A B" p henomenon h as a ll t he a ppearance o f a r egional a s w ell a s a t emporal v ariation f or n orthern M oldova.

(5 )

V .

D umitrescu

( 1963b) h as d ivided t he B p eriod

c entral a nd

i nto t hree p hases:

D uring B i, t he S s tyle p redominated w ith t he f irst o ccurrence o f ; during B 2, t he E -style p redominated w ith d ecline i n S, a nd t he f irst a ppearance o f S ;a nd i n t he f inal B 3 p hase t he s tyle p redominated. Among t he i nventory o f m otifs f or t his

6 5

p eriod i s t he f irst o ccurrence o f a nthropomorphic z oomorphic m otifs ( figs. 2 7-30).

( female)

a nd

T he m ajor p roblem with a ssigning d iachronic s tatus t o t he s ix s tyles i s t hat a s m any a s f our s tyles m ay o ccur o n t he s ame v essel ( figs. 2 5 a nd 2 6). H owever, a n a pproximate c hronological or d ivision m ay b e m ade b y g rouping t ogether s tyles 0 ( -8 f C ucuteni A B a nd s tyles E l , a nd f or C ucuteni B . T his i s s upported b y t he m ultiple o ccupation l evels a t t he s ites o f C ucuteni-Cet 4uia a nd B odeeti-Frumu “ca w here a ll s tyles o ccur; t nilor w hich h as o nly s tyles 0 ( ;Tru v ! ti, T raian-Dealul F int i T frgu O cna-Podei, a nd V alea L upului w ith s tyles E a nd o nly; l _ only. However, any f urther S chipenitz a nd P etreny w ith E s ubdivision o f t he s tyles h as n o c hronological v alue w hatsoever. F urthermore, s tyles 0 ( -6 a ppear c oncentrated i n e astern R omania, w hereas t he l atter t wo s tyles, E L . a nd E astern C arpathians t o t he D nepr R iver.

( 6)

A s w ith t he C ucuteni s equence, t here i s l ittle a greement a s t o s ubdividing t he T ripolye A , B , a nd C p eriods. F or i nstance, c oncerning t he ' A ' p eriod a lone, B ibikov h as s uggested t wo s ubdivisions; D anilenko--four s ubdivisions; a nd e rn 34 --six s ubdivisions

( 7)

,a ppear f rom t he

T .

P assek

( Cerny

1 981).

( 1949:55) h ad d efined t he T ripolye B p eriod

f rom t he

p resence o f p olychrome w are a s f ollows: T ripolye B I i s d efined b y p ainting b lack a nd w hite o n r ed a nd T ripolye B I I i s d efined b y p ainting r ed a nd b lack o n w hite a s w ell a s t he f irst a ppearance o f t he l arge p opulation c enters ( cf. c hapter I V)--and h ad d efined T ripolye C I /2 'I b y t he p redominance o f m onochrome w are. R ecently, T . M ovsa ( 1972) h as w anted t o i nclude t he C I / 1 ( I p hase u nder t he T ripolye B p eriod a s ' Tripolye B I II' w hich w ould h ave a ll p ottery w ith z oomorphic a nd a nthropomorphic f igures a s i ts l eitmotif. V . M arkeviI ( 1981:56-58) p refers t o p reserve P assek's p hase t erminology b ut t o r efine t he d efining c haracteristics o f t he C I /1( I p hase u sing t he f ollowing c riteria: -monochrome p ainting, b lack o n c lay,

i n c ombination w ith

t hin b lack o r r ed l ines; -among t he d ecorative m otifs a re s un a nd

l unar s ymbols

f loral d esigns, f emale f igures, a nimals; -intensive d isintegration p rocess o f s piralic o rnamentation; a nd, -complete d isappearance o f a rchaic w are.

6 6

( Tripolye A )

i ncised

F ig.

1 8

C ucuteni A B m otifs:

6 7

0 (

s tyle

6 8

•

7

•

s

' 4

/

/‚

•, • •; • . ; %,

, z •

‘ e l e ly

"

F ig. 2 0

C ucuteni A B m otifs:

6 9

t i

s tyle

C U

L 4z z t

( 7 3 4 4 e 4

4 4 4 J ( . 3

r 4 ( N I

t e 0 . 4 4

7 0

/•

F ig.

2 2

C ucuteni A B a nd B m otifs:

5

7 1

s tyle

( upper);

E

s tyle

( lower).

2

1

�-- �zzz

flt/!/kMl\''°4 /tV)t:''.lla

JI

Fig.

23

Cucuteni B motifs: £. style (3-13) ;

SE.

style "eye" motif (1); style (14).

72

8

style (2);

•

c . ) 4 )

7 4

7 5

F ig.

2 7

R epresentations o f w ild a nimals o n T ripolye C ( =Cucuteni B ) v essels.

7 6

F ig.

2 8

R epresentations o f d ogs o n T ripolye C ( =Cucuteni B ) vessels.

7 7

0 9 Z 1 . £ 3

C u 1 4

4 4

0 4 . 4 4 4 W W $ 4 0, W

01

ö 0 •

7 8

• C O r 1 C O C O

, \ , • .• •

f

• . .• • . . .

Jr l e

, g r i t

j c iv

F ig.

3 0

A nthropomorphic m otifs

o n T ripolye C ( =Cucuteni B ) v essels.

7 9

•l eI v '

# 0 :

4

4

e

t T 479

F ig. 3 1

)

C eramics s howing d esign d evolution f rom t he V ykhvatintsy b urial g round--transitional t o e arly B ronze A ge.

8 0

C HAPTER I II T he M anufacturing P rocess

I II .A .

T he g eology o f r aw m aterials u sed i n c eramic m anufacture

T he q uality o f a f inished p roduct i s n ot o nly d ependent u pon t he s tate o f t he c raft a nd t he s kill o f t he p otter b ut i s a lso d ependent u pon t he r aw m aterials, s o m uch s o t hat t he v ery e xistence o f a ny i ndustry d epends o n t he a vailability a nd q uality o f i norganic a nd o rganic s ubstances. I t i s t herefore m andatory, b efore d iscussing t he t echnology i n d etail, t o c onsider t he g eological s etting o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ultural a rea a s w ell a s t he o ccurrence a nd o rigin o f t he n atural r esources u sed t o m anufacture a nd d ecorate p ottery a nd t he p otential o f t hose r esources f or p rehistoric e xploitation.

G eological h istory a nd c lay f ormation T he t erritory o ccupied b y t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture r epresents, g eologically, t he S cythian P latform a nd p art o f t he a djoining U krainian S hield ( Burchfiel 1 976). T he w estern p art o f t his c ulture a rea, l ocated b etween t he E astern C arpathians a nd t he P rut R iver, i s r eferred t o a s t he M oldavian P latform ( Bgcguanu 1 968). I t w as d uring t he S armatian s tage o f t he M iocene ( fig. 3 2) t hat t he l ast s eries o f m arine d eposits w ere m ade, w hich f ormed t he e ntire r elief o f t he M oldavian P latform . T hese d eposits w ere m ade d uring a t ransg ression o f t he B lack S ea, w hich w as m ade p ossible b y a n egative e peirogenetic m ovement, o r l owering, o f t he P latform . T hese S armatian s ediments c onstitute m ostly d etrital r ocks, s uch a s c lay, m arl, s and, s andstone c onglomerates, t ogether w ith s ome h orizons o f c alcareous r ocks ( B cguanu 1 968:28-30). A t t he e nd o f t he L ower S armatian a nd a t t he b eginning o f t he M iddle S armatian, a n ew, u plifting m ovement r aising t he M oldavian P latform w as b egun . T his u plifting c ontinued t o t he e nd o f t he M iocene a nd i nto t he P liocene a nd w as r esponsible f or t he g radual r egression o f t he m arine w aters t o t he s outheast. W ith t he r egression o f t he m arine w aters, b eginning d uring t he L ower S armatian i n t he n orth a nd t he M iddle S armatian i n t he s outh, t his m aritime p latform b egan i ts t errestrial ( i.e., n on-marine) e volution . At f irst, i t w as t ransformed i nto a p lateau r elief, a fterwards i nto h illy t errain w hich c ontinues t o b e m odified e ven t o t he p resent d ay. T he l ithological c haracteristics o f t he S armatian f ormations s how t hat d eposition o f s ediments o ccurred i n s hallow c onditions. H owever, t hese g reat d eposits s ometimes r each o ver 1 000 m i n t hickness, i ndicating t hat t he s ea b ottom u nderwent s ubsidence c oncomitant w ith

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r ising a ccumulations o f s ediments ( Bäcguanu 1 968). T he d epositional e nvironment a nd c onditions o f s edimentation w ere n ot a lways u niform a cross t he P latform f rom n orth t o s outh a nd f rom w est t o e ast. F or i nstance, a t t he c ontact o f t he s ea w ith t he S ubcarpathians, t he V olhynian h orizon i s r epresented b y ad elta f acies w ith s and a nd g ravel d eposits; d irectly t o t he e ast, f ollows a l ittoral--sub-littoral f acies c onsisting o f c lay-sand, m arl, s andstone, a nd o olitic l imestone. F inally, f arther t o t he s outh f ollow d eeper f acies o f c lay-marl d eposits o ver 2 00 m t hick . I n a ddition, w ater c hemistry p roduced v ariations i n c lay/rock t ypes o n a l ocalised s cale. I n c onclusion, t he C ucuteni-Tripolye p opulations h ad s ettled i n a r egion o f s edimentary r ock f ormations. I n g eneral, o n t he M oldavian P latform, c lays a nd m arls p redominate t ogether w ith s ome l enses o f s and a nd p oorly c emented s andstone. T he c lay d eposits h ad b een p roduced b y t he f ollowing f actors: s ubsidence o f t he M oldavian P latform , s ubsequent t ransgression b y t he B lack S ea, w eathering o f r ocks f rom t he E astern C arpathians a nd t he P odolian U plands, d eposition o f w eathered m aterials o ver t he s ubmerged P latform , a nd a g radual u plifting o f t he P latform t o r eveal m uch o f t he p resent-day l andscape.

I II .A .2.

I ron o xides

R ed i ron o xide ( haematite), h ydrated i ron o xides ( haematite w ith a bsorbed w ater), a nd i ron h ydroxides ( goethite, l imonite) o ccur w idely a s w eathering p roducts o f a ll i ron-containing m inerals a nd a re f requently i ntermixed w ith m any o ther s ubstances i ncluding c olloidal s ilica, c lay m inerals, a luminum h ydroxides, e tc. G oethite a nd l imonite m ay a lso a ccumulate a s d irect p recipitates f rom m arine w aters a nd a lso o ccur i n b ogs. H aematite o ccurs c hiefly i n s ediments a nd t heir m etamorphosed e quivalents; i t i s a lso f ound i n s oils a nd a s aw eathering p roduct o f i ron-bearing m inerals. T hese s edimentary i ron o xides u sed i n r ed s lips o n C ucuteni-Tripolye c eramics a re q uite w idespread o ver t he M oldavian P latform a nd E astern C arpathians ( Rgdulescu a nd D imitrescu 1 966). C oncerning i ts a ppearance i n n ature, t he r ed, e arthy h aematite, o r " red o chre", i s e asily r ecognisable; u pon h ydration i t m ay b ecome s ofter a nd m ay t urn s lightly b rownish. G oethite, o r " yellow o chre", d iffers f rom h aematite b y b eing m ore y ellowish i n c olor; u pon d ehydration g oethite w ill y ield h aematite. L imonite i s n ot a s pecific m ineral b ut i s a n o mnibus t erm f or a r ange o f m ixtures o f t he a bove-mentioned i ron o xides a nd i s a morphous o r p oorly c rystalline; i ts m ain c onstituent i s g oethite, a nd t he c olor r anges f rom y ellow t hrough v arious s hades o f o range, b rown, a nd r ed, d epending u pon c omposition a nd w ater c ontent.

I II .A .3.

C alcium/magnesium c arbonates

S ince t he C ucuteni-Tripolye r egion h ad b een i nundated b y t he m arine w aters o f t he B lack S ea, s edimentary r ocks ( i.e. l imestones a nd m arls) c onsisting o f c alcium- a nd m agnesium-carbonates a re o nnipresent. L imestone r efers t o a ny s edimentary r ock c onsisting e ssentially o f c arbonates, t he t wo m ost i mportant o f w hich a re c alcite a nd d olomite. M arl i s a c alcareous m udstone w hich c onsists o f c lay m inerals, c alcium/ m agnesium c arbonates, a nd v ery f inely d ivided q uartz a nd i s am arine

8 3

s edimentary r ock . M arl i s n ot p lastic w hen w et, a s i s c lay, b ut m ay d issolve w hen i mmersed i n w ater a nd t hus y ield t he n ecessary c onstituents f or a l ight-coloured s lip.

M anganese o xides T he u se o f m anganese- a nd m anganese/iron-bearing m inerals f or b lack s lips, a lthough w ell d ocumented, i s s till a s omewhat p roblematic p henomenon f or t his c ulture: T he a rea o ccupied b y t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture i s e normous, a nd m anganese m inerals w ere u sed e verywhere o n a c onsistent b asis a nd t hroughout t he p ainted-ware s equence; h owever, t he d eposits o f m anganese o res w hich h ave b een r eported i n t he l iterature a re o nly s uitable f or m odern i ndustrial e xploitation a nd a re l ocated o n t he p eripheries o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye t erritory ( Savul 1 927, 1 938; S avul a nd I anovici 1 958; I anovici 1 956; I driceanu, B igu a nd B o;oman 1 966; K rajewski 1 938; S hnyukuv a nd O rlovsky 1 980). I n a ddition, t here i s n o d irect e vidence o f a ctual p rehistoric e xploitation o f C arpathian d eposites, s uch a s s herds, t ools, e tc . H owever, t he E astern C arpathians h ave n ot b een s urveyed f or a rchaeological s ites. N evertheless, s ome s ource(s) o f m anganese h ad t o h ave b een u tilised b y t his c ulture o ver a w ide g eographical a rea a nd f or a v ery l ong t ime; t herefore, a ll g eological s ources, r easonably e xploitable b y a ncient c raftsmen, m ust b e c onsidered. T wo t ypes o f m anganese d eposits c ould h ave b een u sed: t he s edimentary-metamorphic o res o f t he E astern C arpathians a nd/or t he r esidual d eposits i n b ogs a nd s oils a cross t he P odolian U plands a nd t he S cythian P latform . C oncerning t he f ormer, m ap 1 1 s hows a ll m anganese o re d eposits a ssociated w ith t he S outhern C arpathian ( Sebee M ountains, D elineeti, G lobu R äu) a nd t he E astern C arpathians ( Rgzoare a nd t he B istri;a R iver/ B istr 4a M ountains r egion) w hose m anganese o re d eposits c ontinue a cross t he c urrent p olitical b order a nd i nto t he U krainian C arpathians ( formerly k nown a s t he P olish E astern C arpathians) ( Krajewski 1 938; I anovici 1 956; S avul 1 938). T hese o res a re s edimentary m anganese d eposits, d ating t o t he P aleozoic, w hich w ere l ater m etamorphosed a long w ith t he a ssociated r ocks o f c rystalline s chists; t he m anganese m inerals a ppear i n t he f orm o f l enticular b odies i nterbedded a midst h orizons o f g raphitic b lack q uartz, w hite q uartz, a nd m icaceous s chists ( Savul a nd I anovici 1 958). T hese m anganese d eposits v ary i n s ize f rom s mall, a f ew m eters i n l ength a s a t A rgestrut a nd apräria, t o c ompact a nd l arge d eposits m easuring s everal h undreds o f m eters a s a t I acobeni ( Bistr 4a d eposits) ( Ianovici 1 956). T oday, t he B istri4a r egion c ontains o ver 3 0 s ources w orthy o f i ndustrial e xploitation; t hey a ppear a t d ifferent a ltitudes v arying b etween 8 50 m a nd 1 ,500 m ( Ianovici 1 956). T he m anganese d eposits o f ri v in ( Czywczyn) M ountains, b elonging t o t he s ame g eological t he 6 f ormation b ut l ying a cross t he R omanian-Ukrainian f rontier ( "Bucovina"), a ppear a t a ltitudes v arying b etween 1 ,290 m a nd 1 ,480 m ( Krajewski 1 938). T he e arliest r ecorded i ndustrial e xploitation o f t hese d eposits i n t he E astern C arpathians w as d uring t he l ate 1 8th c entury, a nd t he d escriptions o f t hese d eposits m ay g ive s ome i ndication o f h ow t hese d eposits a ppeared i n p rehistory. E xploitation o f t he m anganese m inerals

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t ook p lace o n s uperficial z ones o nly; t hese z ones c onsisted o f a n " iron c ap" ( i.e., a s urface l ayer o f l imonite a nd g oethite) a nd a " manganese c ap" o r l ayer o f o xidised m anganese m inerals l ying a bove m anganese s ilicates a nd c arbonates. L ater, d uring t he 1 880s, a nd c ontinuing t o t he p resent, s elective e xploitation o f m anganese s ilicates a nd c arbonates c ommenced, a s o pposed t o t he e arlier m ining o f s urf i cial p roducts o f w eathering ( Ianovici 1 956). T he C arpathian m anganese d eposits c ontain d ifferent

t ypes o f

m inerals: o xides a nd h ydroxides ( products o f w eathering), c arbonates, a nd s ilicates ( table 5 ). T he f ormer g roup i s e asily r ecognisable a s b lack; m anganese o xides t hat a lso c ontain i ron w ill a ppear d ark b rown; m anganese c arbonates a nd s ilicates a re v arious s hades o f g rey a nd p ink, r espectively. F or t he p urposes o f p otential p rehistoric e xploitation, o nly t he s urf i cial o xides/hydroxides a re r elevant t o t he d iscussion h ere. P yrolusite, t he m anganomelanes, w ad, a s w ell a s m anganite a nd b ixbyite a re t he m ost c ommon m inerals o n t he s urfaces o f m anganese o re d eposits. P yrolusite i s t he o nly m ineral o f t his g roup t o h ave a n i ron-grey c olour. " Braunstein" i s a n o ld c ollective t erm f or t he m anganomelanes a nd " wad": T he m anganomelanes a re b lack, h ard m anganese o res o f v ariable c omposition a nd w ith b otryoidal o r r hythmic s tructures. T he l atter t erm, ' wad", r efers t o s oft, l oose, p owdery, a nd l ightweight m asses t hat a re b rown t o b lack i n c olour. T he c hemical n ature o f w ad i s c omplex a nd m ay c onsist o f aw hole s eries o f m anganese o xides ( i.e., n 2 03 , a nd Mn 3 04 a nd t heir h ydrated p seudomorphs) ( Frenzel M nO, M n0 2 , M 1 980). W ad i s p robably t he m aterial w ith t he h ighest l ikelihood o f p rehistoric e xploitation d ue t o i ts p hysical c haracteristics a nd i mmediate u sability. T he U krainian z one o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture l ikewise i s r ich i n m anganese o res; i n f act, t he Ukraine h as t he l argest s ingle r eserve o f m anganese i n t he w orld i n t he " Nikopol d eposit" b ut w hich i s l ocated o n t he B lack S ea m argin a nd t hus l ies t oo f ar s outh f rom t he m ore n ortherly a nd w esterly C ucuteni-Tripolye z one.

T here a re o ther

s ources o f m anganese o re a vailable a nd a re l isted, t ogether with r elevant d etails i n f ig. 3 3. A ttention i s c alled t o t he r egions o f t he n v nn

( Czywczyn)

C arpathians,

t he n orthern p art o f t he R ahov m assif,

t he P odolian U plands, a nd t he w estern/southwestern/northern d istricts, s ince m anganese o xides a nd h ydroxides p redominate i n t hese a reas. M anganese o res a re q uite w idespread o ver t he n v nn C arpathians w hich h ave b een p reviously m entioned a s a c ontinuation o f t he B istr 4a c rystalline s chist s eries i n R omania ( Krajewski 1 938; S hnyukov a nd O rlovsky 1 980). T he R ahov m assif l ies w esterly o f t he n v nn M ountains a nd i s p art o f t he C arpathians b ut i s s omewhat d istant f rom t he C ucuteniT ripolye a rea. T he C retaceous r ocks o f t he P odolian U plands h ave y ielded m anganese h ydroxides. M ore i mportantly, h owever, a re t he l atest ( "Recent") r esidual i ron a nd m anganese a ccumulations ( fig. 3 3). T he bog a nd t urf i ron-manganese o res a re w idespread a cross t he w estern, s outhw estern, a nd n orthern d istricts o f t he U kraine ( i.e. C ucuteni-Tripolye t erritory),

e specially i n t he b asins o f t he P ripjat,

S ana, W. B ug, a nd

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C r y t a n e c h i s t ' s l i s a d g n e i n s C r y t a n e c h i s t s l i s a d l i m s t o n e n e

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1

O ne o ther s ource o f m anganese i n n ortheastern B ulgaria s hould b e m entioned. T he m anganese-bearing h orizon r uns p arallel t o t he B lack S ea i n t he V arna-Obrociste d istrict w hich i s p art o f t he " Moesian P latform" ( i.e., t he D anube R iver p lain o f s outhern R omania a nd n orthern B ulgaria); t hese d eposits c onsist m ainly o f p rimary c arbonate m anganese o res w ith o xide m anganese o res f ormed b y s urface o xidation ( Bogdanov 1 982). W hile t his m anganese s ource c ould h ave h ad p otential p rehistoric e xploitation, i t l ies t oo f ar t o t he s outh o f t he C ucuteniT ripolye t erritory . I n c onclusion, i t i s s uggested h ere t hat o nly t he o xides a nd h ydroxides o f m anganese w ere u sed f or t he b lack a nd s ometimes b rownb lack c olour o n C ucuteni-Tripolye c eramics. I n a ddition, i t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat p rehistoric p otters u sed t he p owdery, b lackb rown m asses o f w ad a nd b og o re w hich h ave b een d ocumented a cross t he U kraine, d ue t o l ess t ime, d istance, e levation, a nd e ffort i n t he p rocurement o f o res. T here i s a lso t he p otential e xploitability o f t he w eathered s urfaces o f E astern C arpathian m anganese d eposits, p robably i n t he B istri4a r egion. T his r egion h as n ot b een i ntensively s urveyed f or C ucuteni-Tripolye s ettlements; h owever, m ap 1 1A s hows t he l ocations o f k nown s ites n earest t o s ome o f t he B istri4a m anganese o re s ources i n t he e nvirons o f V atra D ornei. A lthough m ore s urveying i s n eeded, t his m ap o f s ites, d ating t o a ll p eriods o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture, a t l east i ndicates s ettlement d uring t he L ate N eolithic a nd C halcolithic a nd t herefore p ossible k nowledge o f m anganese o re s ources.

I II.B.

F orming p rocesses

F ollowing t he d iscussion o n t he r aw m aterials a vailable t o a ncient p otters, t he s pecific d etails o f c eramic m anufacturing w ill b e p resented h ere i n t wo s ections: 1 ) f orming p rocesses--which i ncludes i nformation o n c lay p reparation, v essel f ormation, a nd d ecorative t echnology ; a nd, 2 ) f iring p rocesses--which d iscusses t he e volution a nd d evelopment o f k iln t echnology, a tmosphere c ontrol a nd t emperature c ontrol. S everal s ources o f i nformation w ere u sed i n o rder t o e ffect a s c omplete a p icture a s p ossible o f c eramic t echnology d uring t he P reC ucuteni a nd C ucuteni p eriods. A rchaeometric a nalyses w ere m ade o n s herds w hich w ere o btained d uring o verseas f ieldwork . T hese a nalyses i ncluded p etrography, X -ray f luorescence a nd X -ray d iffraction f or s pecific i nformation o n t he m ineralogical n ature o f t he c lays a nd c lay p reparation, t he c hemical c omposition o f t he p aints, t he m ineralogical c omposition o f t he p aints a nd t he f iring t emperatures o f t he f ine w ares. E vidence o n t he u se o f t he p otter's w heel a nd p ottery k ilns i s t aken d irectly f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord. P ublished e thnographic m aterial a nd a n u npublished e thnographic i nterview g ave i nteresting i nsight i nto t ypes o f f uels a nd r aw m aterials f or p aints.

I II .B.1.

C lay p reparation

F or i nformation o n c hoice o f c lays a nd t echniques o f c lay p reparation, p etrographic t hin s ections w ere m ade o f s herds f rom s even s ites o f t he C ucuteni c ulture i n e astern R omania ( map 1 2) a nd m icroscopic a nalyses w ere c onducted b y t he a uthor.

9 2

T ables 6 -18 l ist t he r esults o f t he p etrographic a nalyses o f p ottery d ating f rom t he P re-Cucuteni I I t o t he C ucuteni B p eriods. B ased o n t hese p etrographic a nalyses a nd s tudy o f R omanian m useum c ollections, s everal c onclusions m ay b e d rawn. I n g eneral, h ighly f erruginous, m icaceous c lays w ere u sed, t hroughout t he P re-Cucuteni a nd C ucuteni s equence, w hich w ould

f ire e ither v arious

s hades o f r ed

i n a n

o xidising a tmosphere o r b lack i n a c ompletely r educing a tmosphere. O ccasionally, e xceptions a re f ound, f or i nstance a w hite c lay w as u sed d uring t he C ucuteni B p eriod a t t he s ite o f V äleni. B ut t he o ccurrence o f c lays w ith a h igh m ica-micaceous s chist c ontent i s r eflective o f t he g eology o f t he r egion, i .e. t here a re e xtensive m ica-schist f ormations i n t he s ub-Carpathians, t he d eposition o f w hose w eathered m aterials c ontributed t o t he c lay f ormation o n t he M oldavian P latform ( cf. m ap a nd s ection T he c oarse f raction, w hich c lay b ut

i ncLudes a ll n atural

i s u sed h ere t o r efer t o q uartz a nd

i nclusions

f eldspars o nly,

1 1

i n t he

i s d escribed

b oth i n t erms o f q uantity o f g rains a nd a verage g rain s ize. T wo t rends c an b e o bserved: D uring t he P re-Cucuteni p eriod b oth a l arger p ercent age o f c oarse f raction a nd a h ighly v ariable b ut l arger a verage g rain s ize a re p resent

i n t he c lay m atrix.

D uring t he l ater p eriods,

b oth

p ercentage o f c oarse f raction a nd a verage g rain s ize d ecrease s uch t hat d uring t he C ucuteni B p eriod, u ltra-fine c lays w ere b eing u sed. A t multi-level s ettlements ( e.g., V äleni a nd T ell P oduri), s everal i mportant c onclusions m ay b e m ade: T hrough t ime t here i s a c onsistent t rend t owards t he u se o f c lays w ith d ecreasing r atio o f c oarse f raction t o c lay m atrix; t his m ay d erive f rom i mproved m ethods o f c lay r efinement b y t he p otters, t he e xploitation o f d ifferent s ources o f c lay i n t he i mmediate e nvirons o f t he s ite, o r b oth. I n t he c ase o f T ell P oduri a nd G helgie ti, c areful c lay s election a nd i mproved r efining a re p robably r esponsible f or i ncreased f ineness o f t he l ater c eramics. A t T irgu O cnaP odei ( Cucuteni B ), t he f ineness o f t he c lay p aste i s c arried t o t he e xtreme: T he c lay h as t he l owest c ount o f q uartz/feldspar g rains a nd o ne o f t he h ighest

c ounts o f m ica o f a ll s amples a nalysed.

A t Väleni, t wo d ifferent t ypes o f c lay c an b e i dentified: D uring P re-Cucuteni a nd C ucuteni A , a f erruginous ( i.e., h igh i ron-bearing) c lay w as u sed; a nd d uring C ucuteni B b oth a f erruginous c lay a nd a l ighter, a lmost w hite c lay w ere u sed. T he i ron-bearing c lay i s p robably a l ocal c lay, s ince i ts u se w as c ontinuous d uring a ll t hree p eriods. A p ure w hite c lay o ccurs r arely i n R omania--most l ight-coloured c lays h ave s ome

i ron c ontamination,

a nd c ontemporary p otters w ho p refer l ight-

c oloured c lays a s s lips f or t heir p roducts h ave t o u se e ither a n o ffc olour c lay o r m ust p urchase p ure w hite c lay t hrough c omf i ercial d istrif b ution ( Rotaru 1 979:284). H owever, i t i s h ypothesised t hat t he l ightc oloured p ottery a t V aleni i s o f l ocal m anufacture a lso, s ince m uch w hite p ottery o f s imilar a rtistic s tyle a nd d ecor i s f ound a t t he s ite a nd n ot

i n t he

s urrounding r egion.

T emper ( i.e., a dditives t o t he c lay b y t he p ottery f or t he p urposes o f r educing c lay s hrinkage d uring d rying a nd f iring) w as u sed c onsistently d uring t he P re-Cucuteni p eriod a nd w as

c omposed o f p ulverized

s herds o r

p ottery f ragments. H owever, with t he a dvent o f p re-fire p ainting o f t he p ottery, t here w as a c onsistent a bandonment o f t he u se o f a ny f orm o f t emper a nd C ucuteni p otters a ppear t o h ave m anipulated t heir c lays w ithout t he a ssistance o f t emper. O f a ll t he R omanian m useum c ollections

9 3

C u c u ten i• e a r

V ä le n i• C h e lä iet i

l T e l P o du r i• T i rgu O c n a -Po de i et T i rg u B e re i•

M ap

1 2

S i tes i n N E R oman ia w i th a n a l y zed c e r am ic s amp le s

9 4

T ables

6 -17

P etrographic a nalyses o f C ucuteni p ottery.

E xplanatory n ote: S tandard p etrographic t hin s ections

( 0.03 mm t hick) w ere m ade f rom

C ucuteni s herds r anging i n d ate f rom P re-Cucuteni I I t o C ucuteni B . T he t ables a re o rganized a pproximately o n t he b asis o f c hronology. A p oint c ount, o r c ounting o f i ndividual m ineral g rains i n t he c lay m atrix, w as m ade o f t he m icas a nd t he c oarse f raction ( all o ther r ocks/minerals) i n a 1 s q. mm a rea. F ive a reas w ere c hosen a t r andom a nd t he r esults w ere a veraged. T he m icas w ere c ounted s eparately, s ince a ll c lays w ere f ound t o b e m icaceous a nd t he l arge q uantities o f m ica w ould n ot g ive a m eaningful p oint c ount i f a ll

f ragments o f r ocks/minerals w ere i ncluded t ogether.

T he p oint c ount d oes n ot i nclude t emper, o nly n atural i nclusions. T he p resence/absence o f g rain a lignment, e specially p arallel a lignment o f mica s heets, w as n oted i n o rder t o d etect t he u se o f a r otational d evice

( see t ext).

G rain s izes a re g iven i n mm .

A bbreviations: X T r O X

= p resent = t race a mount ( less t han 5 g rains) = o xidized t hroughout

R E I O

= r educed t hroughout = i nsufficient o xidation,

M G

= mixed g ases, u neven f iring

p resence o f c ore

9 5

T able 6

S ITE:

T ELL P ODURI

C ULTURE/PERIOD: S AMPLE N O .:

P re-Cucuteni I I ( incised/excised wares) P OD I I 1 P OD I I 2 P OD I I 3

M INERAL F RAGMENTS Quartz F eldspars: C a/Na P lagioclase M icrocline S anidine E pidote

X

X

X

X

X

X

T r

T r

B iotite

X

M uscovite C hlorite O paques: M agnetite g rains

X

X

X

H aematite g rains H aematite s tain C arbonates: C alcite

X X

R OCK F RAGMENTS C hert

X

Q uartzite S chist G ranite

X

X

QUANTITATIVE A NALYSIS T emper: V olume % A verage g rain s ize C oarse f raction: P oint c ount A verage g rain s ize Micas:

P oint

c ount

5 %

5 %

6 %

2

2

2

1 5 ±3

4 0 ±5

2 4 ±5

0 .25

0 .2

0 .3

1 10 + 9

5 0 + 10

4 5 + 8

FORMING/FIRING M ETHODS T emper:

a ll s amples:

G rain a lignment:

n one

n one

n one

A tmospheric c onditions:

R E

R E

M G

9 6

c rushed s herds

T able S ITE:

7

T ELL P ODURI

C ULTURE/PERIOD:

P re-Cucuteni I II

S AMPLE N O .:

( incised/excised w are)

P OD I II 1

P OD I II 2

POD I II 3

M INERAL F RAGMENTS Quartz

X

F eldspars: C a/Na P lagioclase M icrocline S anidine E pidote B iotite

X

X T r

M uscovite C hlorite O paques: M agnetite g rains H aematite g rains H aematite s tain C arbonates: C alcite

X X X

X

R OCK F RAGMENTS X

C hert Quartzite S chist G ranite

X

QUANTITATIVE A NALYSIS T emper: V olume % A verage g rain s ize C oarse f raction: P oint c ount A verage g rain s ize Micas:

P oint

c ount

4 7

5 7 0

5 7 0

0 .5

2

1

1 5 + 7

3 0 + 10

1 7 +4

0 .03

0 .25

0 .1

1 10 + 10

9 0 + 8

4 5 + 7

FORMING/FIRING M ETHODS T emper: G rain a lignment:

a ll s amples: a ll s amples:

A tmospheric c onditions:

M G

9 7

c rushed s herds n one R E

O X

T able S ITE:

8

T ELL P ODURI

C ULTURE/PERIOD:

I ntermediate P re-Cucuteni I II-Cucuteni A

S AMPLE N O .:

P OD I N 1

P OD I N 2

( unpainted;

c hanneling; u til. w ares)

P OD I N 3

M INERAL F RAGMENTS Quartz

X

F eldspars: C a/Na P lagioclase

X

X

X

M icrocline S anidine E pidote B iotite M uscovite C hlorite O paques: M agnetite g rains H aematite g rains H aematite s tain

X

C arbonates: C alcite R OCK F RAGMENTS C hert Q uartzite

X

X

S chist G ranite

X

X

X

QUANTITATIVE A NALYSIS T emper: V olume % A verage g rain s ize C oarse f raction: P oint c ount A verage g rain s ize M icas:

P oint

c ount

2 07 .

2 07 .

1 07 .

1

2

2

2 0 +4

4 0 + 10

2 5 + 6

0 .15

0 .2

0 .25

1 10 + 5

1 15 + 5

8 0 + 9

FORMING/FIRING M ETHODS T emper:

a ll s amples:

G rain a lignment:

a ll s amples:

A tmospheric c onditions:

J O

9 8

c rushed

s herds

n one R E

MG

T able

9

S ITE: T ELL PODURI C ULTURE/PERIOD: C ucuteni A POD A 1

S AMPLE N O.:

( black)

POD A 2

POD A 3

( unpainted,

P OD A 4 ( trichroMe

u tilitarian ware)

M INERAL F RAGMENTS

ware) X

Quartz Feldspars: C a/Na P lagioclase

X

X

X

X

M icrocline X

S anidine E pidote B iotite X

M uscovite C hlorite O paques: M agnetite g rains H aematite H aematite s tain C arbonates:

X

" .

C alcite R OCK FRAGMENTS C hert Quartzite S chist G ranite

QUANTITATIVE A NALYSIS T emper: 1 0%

5 %

5 %

n one

2 5 +4

2 5 ±7

1 5 ±3

3 6 +5

0 .05

0 .05

0 .05

0 .03

1 00 +8

3 5 ±6

1 4 ±3

3 +4 3

T emper:

s herds

s herds

s herds

n one

G rain a lignment:

a ll s amples:

A tmospheric c onditions:

R E

MG

O X

V olume % A verage g rain s ize C oarse

f raction:

P oint

c ount

A verage g rain s ize Micas:

P oint

c ount

FORMING/FIRING M ETHODS

9 9

M G

n one

T able 1 0 S ITE:

TELL PODURI

C ULTURE/PERIOD:

C ucuteni A B a nd O ucuteni B

S AMPLE NO.:

POD A B POD B ( trichrome) ( monochrome)

M INERAL FRAGMENTS Quartz

X

X

X

X

X

X

Feldspars: C a/Na P lagioclase Microcline S anidine E pidote B iotite M uscovite C hlorite O paques: M agnetite g rains

T r

H aematite g rains

X

H aematite s tain

X

X

C arbonates: C alcite R OCK FRAGMENTS Tr

C hert Quartzite S chist

Tr

G ranite

QUANTITATIVE A NALYSIS T emper: n one

n one

0 .02

0 .1

3 7 ±8

1 2 ±3

T emper:

n one

n one

G rain a lignment:

n one

n one

A tmospheric c onditions:

O X

OX

V olume % Average g rain s ize C oarse

f raction:

P oint

c ount

Average g rain s ize Micas:

P oint

c ount

FORMING/FIRING M ETHODS

1 00

T able

S ITE:

1 1

V XLENI

C ULTURE/PERIOD:

P re-Cucuteni I II

S AMPLE N O .:

( incised w are)

VL P 1

V L P 2

V L P 3

V L P 4

M INERAL F RAGMENTS Quartz F eldspars: C a/Na P lagioclase M icrocline S anidine E pidote B iotite X

M uscovite C hlorite O paques: X

M agnetite g rains H aematite g rains H aematite s tain C arbonates: C alcite

X

X

R OCK F RA G MENTS T r

C hert Quartzite S chist G ranite

QUANTITATIVE A NALYSIS T emper: V olume % A verage g rain s ize C oarse f raction: P oint c ount A verage g rain s ize Micas:

P oint c ount

n one

5 7 2

n om e

3 5 + 7

2 1 + 3

3 0 + 5

2 0 + 6

0 .2

0 .2

0 .2

0 .1

9 +4

5 ±2

1 0 ±4

5 ±2

s herds

n one

s herds

n one

2 9% 2

F ORMING/FIRING M ETHODS T emper: G rain a lignment: A tmospheric c onditions:

a ll s amples: R E

1 01

M G

n one M G

M G

T able S ITE: VÄLENI C ULTURE/PERIOD: S AMPLE N O .:

1 2

C ucuteni A a nd C ucuteni 1 3 VL A VL B.2 ( trichrome w are)

M INERAL F RAGMENTS Quartz F eldspars: C a/Na P lagioclase M icrocline S anidine E pidote B iotite M uscovite C hlorite O paques:

VL B 3

V L Et 4 Y L

ä5

( monochrome w ares

X

X

X X

X T r

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

M agnetite g rains H aematite g rains H aematite s tain

X

C arbonates: C alcite R OCK F RAGMENTS T r

C hert Quartzite S chist G ranite

QUANTITATIVE A NALYSIS T emper: V olume 7 . A verage g rain s ize C oarse f raction: P oint c ount A verage g rain s ize Micas:

P oint

c ount

a ll s amples:

n one

1 0+3

1 0+5

8 +3

7 +3

2 0+7

0 .1

0 .05

0 .05

0 .05

0 .05

5 0+7

5 +3

1 0+4

1 0+5

2 5+8

F ORMING/FIRING M ETHODS T emper: G rain a lignment:

a ll s amples:

n one

n one

n one

resent p resent present p

A tmospheric c onditions:

O X

O X

O X

1 02

Q X

O X

T able S ITE:

1 3

T tRGU B ERE gI

C ULTURE/PERIOD: S AMPLE N O.:

C ucuteni A ( trichrome w are) B ER A 1 B ER A 2

B ER A 3

M INERAL F RAGMENTS Quartz

X

X

X

F eldspars: C a/Na P lagioclase

X

X

X

M icrocline S anidine E pidote B iotite X

M uscovite C hlorite O paques: M agnetite g rains H aematite g rains H aematite s tain

X X

X

C arbonates: C alcite R OCK F RAGMENTS C hert Q uartzite S chist G ranite

T r X

QUANTITATIVE A NALYSIS T emper: V olume % A verage g rain s ize C oarse f raction: P oint c ount A verage g rain s ize M icas:

P oint

c ount

n one

n one

l ess t han 2 7 . 0 .5

8 +3

1 5 +3

0 .02

0 .01

3 0 + 10

4 0 + 10

8 ±3 0.02 7+ 3

F ORMING/FIRING M ETHODS T emper:

n one

n one

G rain a lignment:

n one

A tmospheric c onditions:

O X

n one O X

1 03

s herd fragments n one OX

T able 1 4 S ITE:

TiRGU BERE$T1

C ULTURE/PERIOD:

C ucuteni A ( unpainted,

S AMPLE NO.:

r ed p aste, u tilitarian ware)

B ER A 4

B ER A 5

X

X

M INERAL FRAGMENTS Quartz Feldspars: C a/Na P lagioclase M icrocline S anidine

T r

E pidote B iotite M uscovite

X

X

X

X

C hlorite O paques: M agnetite g rains H aematite g rains H aematite s tain C arbonates: C alcite R OCK FRAGMENTS C hert Quartzite

X

S chist

X

G ranite

T r

X

QUANTITATIVE A NALYSIS T emper: Volume % Average g rain s ize C oarse

f raction:

P oint

c ount

Average g rain s ize Micas:

P oint

c ount

n one

n one

2 5 ±7

8

0 .1

0 .25

3 5 +8

9 0 + 10

±3

FORMING/FIRING METHODS

G rain a lignment:

n one b oth:

A tmospheric c onditions:

O X

T emper:

n one oorly s orted c oarse n one, p O X

1 04

f raction

T able S ITE:

1 5

G HELXIE gI

C ULTURE/PERIOD:

C ucuteni A G H A 1 ( unpainted,

S AMPLE N O .: M INERAL F RAGMENTS

GH A 2 (trichrome w are)

u til. w are)

Quartz

X

Feldspars: C a/Na P lagioclase

X

M icrocline S anidine E pidote B iotite M uscovite

X

C hlorite O paques: M agnetite g rains

X

H aematite g rains H aematite s tain

X

X X

T r X

X

C arbonates: C alcite R OCK F RAGMENTS X

C hert Quartzite S chist

X T r

G ranite

X Tr

QUANTITATIVE A NALYSIS T emper: V olume %

1 07 .

A verage g rain s ize

n one

2

C oarse f raction: P oint c ount A verage g rain s ize

0 .02

Micas:

9 4 + 10

4 7 + 5

c rushed sherd

n one

P oint

c ount

1 2 +5

1 5 + 5 0.1

F ORMING/FIRING M ETHODS T emper: G rain a lignment: A tmospheric c onditions:

n one R E

1 05

n one O X

T able S ITE:

1 6

GHE IIIE gI

C ULTURE/PERIOD:

C ucuteni A B a nd C ucuteni B

S AMPLE NO.:

GH A B

1

( monochrome wares)

GH A B 2

G H B

M INERAL FRAGMENTS X

Quartz Feldspars: C a/Na P lagioclase

X

Microcline S anidine E pidote B iotite M uscovite

X

C hlorite

X

O paques: Magnetite g rains H aematite g rains H aematite s tain

X

C arbonates: C alcite R OCK FRAGMENTS C hert

X

X

Quartzite X

S chist G ranite

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS T emper: Volume %

n one

n one

n one

1 7 +3

1 7 +4

8 +3

0 .1

0 .1

0 .01

4 5 + 5

4 5 + 5

1 12 +8

T emper: G rain a lignment:

n one

n one

A tmospheric c onditions:

O X

Average g rain s ize C oarse

f raction:

P oint

c ount

Average g rain s ize Micas:

P oint

c ount

FORMING/FIRING M ETHODS

s trong a lignment

1 06

O X

n one i n a ll O X

s amples

T able 1 7 S ITE:

TiRGU O CNA-PODEI

C ULTURE/PERIOD:

C ucutenl P . ( monochrome w are)

S AMPLE N O .:

T OB

1

T O B 2

M INERAL F RAGMENTS Quartz F eldspars: C a/Na P lagioclase M icrocline S anidine E pidote B iotite M uscovite C hlorite O paques: M agnetite g rains H aematite g rains H aematite s tain

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

n one

n one

3± 3

4+ 3

0 .02

0 .02

1 05 ± . 10

1 09 + 10

T emper: G rain a lignment:

n one

n one

p resent

g ood a lignment

A tmospheric c onditions:

O X

O X

C arbonates: C alcite R OCK F RAGMENTS C hert Q uartzite S chist G ranite

QUANTITATIVE A NALYSIS T emper: V olume % A verage g rain s ize C oarse f raction: P oint c ount A verage g rain s ize M icas:

P oint

c ount

FORMING/FIRING M ETHODS

1 07

P etrographic a nalysis o f s herds f rom t he s ites o f C ucuteni a nd T ru§eeti ( from : E llis 1 980).

S a p l N u m b e r m e

P e r i o d ( C u c t e n i )

N

1

I J. C c .

2 0

5

v—

0

0

c n . .

P re - .1 -2 .0

X

X

X

X

. 2 ö j s Ü

=

u . . Ü

e

. u . .

v

X

X

X

X

C uc . 2

A

. 0 1 .1

X

X

X

X

X

3

A

. 0 1 .1

X

X

X

X

X

5

A

. 01 .1

X

X

X

X

X

X

6

B

. 0 1 .05

X

X

X

X

X

X

7

B

M1,1

X

X

X

X

X

X

8

B

. 0 1,1

X

X

X

X

X

X

9

" C"

. 03 -2 .0

X

X

X

X

X

X

" C"

. 0 1 -2 .0

X

X

X

X

X

X

1 0

1 08

e r S h d F r a g m e n t s

2 E v

I

t e c , T l eg h . e s

-i

I

T able 1 8

S ER A 1

F ig. 3 4

C ucuteni A s amples

f rom Trrgu B ere4ti.

( Heavy s tippling-black,

l ight s tippling-red, b lank-white.) F or f igs. 3 2-36: e = e xterior s urface, i = i nterior s urface, a ll s cales

1 09

i n c m .

C H A B 1

F ig.

3 5

amples f rom G helgie4ti. C ucuteni A a nd A B s hite G H A 2 : b lack, r ed , w hite o n c lay G H A B 1 : b lack a nd w lay G H A B 2 : b lack o n c

1 10

P OD A 4

P OD A l

T O 8I

T O 82

F ig,

3 6

C ucuteni A a nd A B

s amples

f rom T ell P oduri a nd C ucuteni B

s amples f rom Ttrgu O cna-Podei. P OD A 4 a nd POD A B: b lack, r ed, white T O B 1 :

b lack o n c lay

T O B 2 :

b lack a nd r ed o n c lay

1 11

I l 63

F ig. 3 7

C ucuteni A a nd B s amples V L A : b lack, r ed, w hite a ll o thers:

b lack o n c lay

12 1

f rom V äleni.

P OD 8

L

F ig.

3 8

C ucuteni B s amples f rom G helgieeti a nd T ell P oduri . G H B 1a nd P OD B : b lack o n c lay

1 13

s tudied, l ess t han t wo d ozen e xamples o f p ainted p ottery with t emper w ere e ncountered a nd d uring t he p ainted-ware s equence, o nly u npainted ( oxidised) u tilitarian w are a nd t he f oreign " Type C " w are c ontained c rushed s herd o r c lam s hell t empers, r espectively. U pon v isual i nspection, t he r eason f or t he a bandonment o f t emper i n p ainted w ares b ecame a pparent: T he i nclusion o f c rushed s herds, f or i nstance, i nhibited s urface p olishing a nd s eriously i nterfered w ith t he a esthetic q ualities o f t he s urface d ecoration. P etrographic a nalyses c onfirm t he a bsence o f s herds a nd a ny o ther k inds o f t emper ( cf. t ables 6 -18; a nd E llis 1 980). T he p etrographic t hin s ections w ere c arefully s tudied f or , s t he p resence o f p ulverized r ock, and o r o ther m aterials w hich m ay h ave b een i ntentionally a dded t o t he c lay. T he m ineral i nclusions i n t he c eramics w ere i dentified, c ounted, a nd m easured i n o rder t o d etermine w hether t hese i nclusions w ere n atural t o t he c lay o r w ere m ixed i nto t he c lay b y t he p otters. I t i s c oncluded t hat t he mineral i nclusions a re n atural a nd d o n ot c onstitute " temper". S everal o bservations s upport t his c onclusion: F irst, t he s amples f rom V äleni, T ell P oduri, a nd o ther m ulti-level s ettlements w hich s pan a ll p eriods f rom P re-Cucuteni t o C ucuteni B , s how t he s ame b asic m ineralogical c omposition w hich i ndicates t hat w hen t he u se o f s herd t emper w as a bandoned t here w as n o s udden i ncrease i n t he a mount o f p ulverized r ock o r o ther s ubstances-i n f act t o t he c ontrary, a nd t his i s m ost i ntriguing, t he t echnological t rend s how t hat t hese n atural c oarse i nclusions s teadily d ecline t hrough t ime. P ottery f rom t he C ucuteni B p eriod i s e xemplary f or i ts f ineness, i .e.

t he v ery s mall q uantities o f q uartz-feldspar i nclusions

( cf.

t he

s amples f rom Ttrgu O cna-Podei). T his d ecreasing v olume o f c oarse m aterial i n t he c lay m atrix m ay b e i ndicative o f l evigation o f c lays a nd/or t he m ore c areful s election o f c lays b y e mpirical o bservation. A lthough t his h ypothesis c annot b e p roven, s ome p artial s upport o f t he i dea o f c lay r efining o r l evigation m ay b e f ound f rom t he s amples f rom B ere4ti which s how a d ichotomy b etween t h& f ine p ainted w are a nd t he u npainted u tilitarian w are--both h aving a w ell o xidised, w ell f ired r ed-orange p aste, b ut t he a verage g rain s ize o f q uartz-feldspar i nclusions v aried c onsiderably--0.02 mm f or p ainted w are a nd 0 .1-0.25 n u l f or u npainted w are--possibly i ndicating s ome c lay l evigation w hich w ould b e a ble t o s ort o ut t he c oarser f ragments. O n t his s ame p roblem, V . G . C hilde ( 1923:268) h ad a lso r emarked f rom s urface i nspections t hat c arefully l evigated c lays w ere b eing u sed a t S chipenitz w hich d ates t o C ucuteni B . T he q uestion m ay v ery w ell b e a sked, h ow w ere t he C ucuteni p otters a ble t o w ork a nd m anipulate t heir c lays a nd, m ore i mportantly, c ontrol t he p roblem o f c lay s hrinkage d uring t he d rying a nd f iring o f v essels without t he a ddition o f t emper? A s w as p reviously m entioned, t he c lays u sed t o m anufacture C ucuteni p ottery h ad a v ery h igh m ica c ontent. T he g eology o f t he M oldavian P latform i ndicates t hat r esidual f ormed

c lays w ere

f rom t he d eposition o f w eathered m aterial f rom t he E astern

C arpathians d uring t he M iocene t ransgressions o f t he B lack S ea ( cf. s ection I II .A .1). T he p arent r ock, f rom w hich t hese r esidual c lays d erive, i nclude e xtensive m ica-schist f ormations a nd t herefore t he c onsiderable q uantity o f m ica a nd s chist i n t hese c eramics i s n atural t o t he c lay . B ut, m ore i mportant i s t he p otential e ffect o f t hese m ica i nclusions o n t he b ehaviour o f t he c lay . I t i s s uggested h ere t hat t he m icaceous c lays n eeded n o a dded t emper a nd t hat t he h igh m ica c ontent t ogether w ith t he o ther n atural i nclusions s ufficed t o p revent e xtensive c lay s hrinkage a nd s ubsequent c racking. O ther s cholars h ave n oted t his

14 1

s ame q uality o f m icaceous c lays 1 956:162).

i n o ther p arts o f t he w orld

( Shepard

W hat i s i nteresting i s w hen t he C ucuteni p otters r ealised t hat t heir a vailable c lays c ould b ehave i n a n a cceptable m anner w ithout t he a ddition o f t emper. D uring t he P re-Cucuteni p eriod, t here i s a c onsistent u se o f c rushed s herds a s t emper, a nd o ccasional b ut q uite r are p ieces o f C ucuteni A t richrome w are h ave b een f ound t o c ontain c rushed s herds. T herefore, i t i s with t he a dvent o f a n ew d ecorative t echnology, i .e. p re-fire p ainting, a nd t he c oncomitant c hange i n c ultural a esthetics o f s uch s urface-embellished p ottery w hich b rought a bout t hese c hanges. A lso n oteworthy i s t he r elative u niformity o f t hese t echnological c hanges a cross s pace. P art o f t his u niformity i s o bviously d ue t o t he t ypes o f c lays a vailable t o a nd c hosen b y t he c raftspersons. S econdly, i ntersite c ommunication--through t he m ovement o f p eople a nd/or i deas-h ad t o h ave b een a t i ts o ptimum l evel d uring t he t ransition f rom t he m anufacture o f i ncised/excised w are t o t hat o f p ainted w are.

II.B.2. I

V essel f ormation

D uring a ll p hases o f t he i ncised/excised a nd p ainted w ares, p ottery w as h and-built u sing t he c oil m ethod ( cf. H olubowicz 1 947; M arkeviZ Tripolye B I I) a nd C ucuteni B 1 981). H owever, d uring t he C ucuteni A B ( ( =Tripolye C I ) p eriods, t here i s b oth d irect a nd i ndirect e vidence o f t he i nvention a nd u se o f a r otational d evice i n c ombination with t he c oil m ethod. T he d irect e vidence o f r otary m otion i n c eramic p roduction c omes f rom b uilding n o. 3 --which w as u sed e xclusively f or p ottery p roduction-981:127). a t t he s ite o f V arvarovka V III i n S oviet M oldavia ( Markevill 1 I nside t he w orkshop, a w ooden p ost w as f ound w edged i nto t he g round t o a d epth o f 5 0-55 c m . T his p ost with a d iameter o f 3 6-38 c m w as p acked w ith c lay m ixed w ith c haff. A r ing o f c lay a nd c haff f or r einforcement, w ith a 1 2-13 c m r im a nd s tanding 5 c m a bove t he g round, s urrounded t he p ost ( fig. 3 9:3). S ince t his f eature w as d iscovered i nside t he p ottery w orkshop ( cf. s ection I II .D.), M arkeviC ' h as a ssumed t hat i t p layed a r ole i n v essel f ormation a nd h as o ffered s everal r econstructions o f m ethods o f r otation ( fig. 3 9:2, 5 , 6 ). A dditional e vidence c omes f rom t he l ocus a t V arvarovka X V: H ere a s andstone s lab w ith t wo h oles, o ne o f w hich was v ery w ell p reserved w ith a d iameter o f 4 5 m i l, w as f ound l ( Markevi 1 981:129-130). T he h ole s hows c lear i ndications o f r otary m otion a nd t he s andstone s lab i s b elieved t o h ave s erved a s a b ase f or a p ivoted t urntable o r s imple w heel ( fig. 3 9:1, 4 , 7 ). T here i s n o o ther p ublished d irect p roof f or a s imple f orm o f t he p otter's w heel, s ince t he n ecessary e vidence c ould b e o verlooked q uite e asily d uring e xcavations. V . M arkevi Zh as b een t he f irst t o h ave d ocumented s uch f inds

f or t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture.

T he i ndirect e vidence o f t he u se o f r otary m otion i n p ottery m anufacturing m ay b e o bserved f rom 1 ) m arks o n t he p ottery i tself, 2 ) t he s tandardisation o f v essel f orms a t e ach s ite, a nd 3 ) t he s trong a lignment o f n atural, e specially m icaceous, i nclusions i n t he c lay . M arkevi ( 1981:130) h as n oted h orizontal a nd p arallel s triations o n t he i nterior o f p ottery f rom S oviet M oldavia b elonging t o t he T ripolye C p eriod. I n a ddition t o t hese i nterior m arkings, S OM2 c omplete v essels

15 1

4

F ig. 3 9

1 . S andstone s upport s lab f or a r otational d evice f rom V arvarovka X V; 4 . r econstruction o f t urntable a fter ( 1); 7 . r econstruction o f a s imple w heel w ith s upport s lab a fter ( 1); 3 . r emains o f t he f oundation f or a p ottery w heel f rom V arvarovka V III; 2 ,5,6. p ossible v ariants f or r econstructing v essel-forming d evices f rom V arvarovka V III a fter ( 3).

1 16

h ave c ircular s tring i mprints o n t he b ase i llustrations).

( Markevi

1 981:130, n o

D uring t he l ater p eriods o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture, t he v ariety o f c eramic f orms d ecreases w hile v essel s tandardisation a nd v essel s ymmetry i ncrease, s uch t hat a t m any s ettlements a n e ntire s eries o f v essels m ay s how a lmost i dentical s hape a nd s ize; t his i s e specially t rue o f t he l arge b iconical v ases ( cf. c hapter I V). T his v essel s tandardisation i s n owhere m ore a pparent t han a t V arvarovka V III w here n ine s phero-conical v essels w ere f ound i n a n iche i n t he p ottery w orkshop ( MarkeviI 1 981:128). M ore d efinitive i ndirect p roof o f t he u se o f r otary m otion i n c eramic p roduction c an b e s een t hrough t he e xamination o f p etrographic t hin s ections o f t he p ottery i tself. T he p resence o f l arge n umbers o f l ongitudinal f lakes o f m ica i n t he c lay f abric w as o f e normous a id i n a scertaining g rain a lignment a nd t herefore t he u se o f r otary m otion, e specially i n s herds f rom t he C ucuteni B p eriod b ut a lso d uring C ucuteni A B. I n t he C ucuteni B s amples f rom Vgleni a nd T irgu O cnaP odei, p arallel g rain a lignment c ould b e r eadily o bserved i n t hin s ection a t 1 00x. T he s amples f rom G helgieeti, d ating t o b oth C ucuteni A B a nd B , s howed t he s trongest a lignment o f m ica g rains o f a ny o f t he s amples s tudied, w hich i ndicates t hat r otary m otion w as d efinitely u sed f or a n e xtensive p eriod o f t ime b eginning w ith t he C ucuteni A B p eriod. G . F oster ( 1959) a nd A . R ieth ( 1960) h ave d etailed a t l ength t he d evelopment o f t he p otter's w heel. F oster ( 1959:103-109) h as o utlined t he f ollowing f our t ypes o f r otary m otion i n c eramic p roduction : 1 ) t he u npivoted t urntable i n t he f orm o f a c lay s aucer o r aw ooden d isc t hat t urns; 2 ) t he p ivoted t urntable o r " tournette" w hich c onsists o f ad isc, u sually o f w ood, w ith a s ocket o n t he u nderside t hat i s b alanced o n a f ixed b oss o r p ivot; 3 ) t he s imple w heel w hich t akes o n a g reat v ariety o f f orms a nd c onsists o f ah ead o f s ufficient w eight a nd p roportions a s t o a llow s ufficient m omentum t o p ermit t he " throwing" o f a p ot a fter t he a pplication o f f orce, u sually b y m eans o f a s tick ; i n s ome f orms t here i s a s ocket i n t he u nderside o f t he w heel i nto w hich a f ixed n onr evolving p ivot p rojects; i n a nother f orm , t he p ivot i s f ixed i nto t he u nderside o f t he w heel a nd t he w heel a nd p ivot r evolve t ogether; a nd f inally, 4 ) t he " double" o r " kick" w heel which i s c haracterised b y t wo h orizontal d iscs j oined b y av erticle a xle, s upported a t t he b ase b y a t hrust b earing o r a s imple d epression i n a s tone. R ieth h as d ocumented a s imilar l ine o f w heel d evelopment a nd h as p roduced a g eneralised e volutionary s cheme f rom a n i mmense v ariety o f e thnographical a nd h istorical f orms o f r otational d evices ( Rieth 1 960: f ig. 1 26, r eproduced h ere a s f ig. 4 0). P etrographic a nalysis o f R omanian p ottery ( vide s upra) h as s hown t hat s ome f orm o f r otary m otion w as e mployed b eginning w ith t he C ucuteni A B ( =Tripolye B I I) p eriod a nd d efinitely o n aw ider s cale d uring C ucuteni ( =Tripolye C I ). B ased o n t he l imited, b ut p romising, e vidence f rom S oviet M oldavia, C ucuteni-Tripolye p otters u sed a p ivoted t urntable a nd p robably e ven a s ocketed a nd/or u nsocketed f orm o f t he s imple w heel. H owever, i t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat t he u se o f s ome f orm o f r otating d isc, t urntable, o r w heel d oes n ot p reclude t he u se o f o ther h and-building t echniques s uch a s t he u se o f c oils a nd m olding:

1 17

Ne \

" 1

, •

0

4 1 r z 4

1 18

A s F oster

( 1959:102) h as s tated,

" Pottery-making

i s most a ccurately

t hought o f a s a c ontinuum f rom h and m odeling t o f ull e xploitation o f t he w heel, w ith i nnumerable i ntermediate g radations."

11.B.3. 1

D ecoration

T he t echniques o f s urface d ecoration o f C ucuteni-Tripolye p ottery m ay b e c haracterised a s f ollows: 1 ) m odification o f t he c lay s urface i tself t hrough i ncising, e xcising ( the r emoval o f c lay f rom t he s urface t o p roduce a d esign i n r elief), c hanneling ( i.e. l ong, s mooth f urrows), i mpressing, a nd p olishing; 2 ) t he a pplication o f o ne, t wo o r t hree m ineral-based s lips w hich c onsist o f a c lay-water s uspension, with p owdered m inerals a s p igments, u sed e ither t o c over c ompletely t he s urface o f t he u nfired o bject o r t o p roduce d ecorative p atterns o n t he u nfired c lay s urface; o r 3 ) a ny c ombination o f b oth ( 1) a nd ( 2). T he u se o f aw hite p owder

( i.e.,

c alcium c arbonate) t o f ill t he

s paces p roduced b y e xcising, a s w ell a s t he a pplication o f r ed o chre ( i.e. h aematite)--both p ost-firing t echniques--is d ocumented d uring t he P re-Cucuteni I I p hase ( Marinescu-Bticu 1 974:67-68). T he u se o f a s lip i s n ot a ttested u ntil P re-Cucuteni I II, a nd a r are p re-fire white s lip a ppears d uring l ate P re-Cucuteni I II ( Marinescu-Bilcu 1 974:75, 7 7). I n t he c ontact z one i n c entral a nd s outheastern T ransilvania b etween t he P etreeti a nd t he e arly C ucuteni c ultures, t here i s a n a ttempt o n t he p art o f C ucuteni p otters t o i mitate t he P etreeti p re-fire p ainted w are--especially i n t erms o f p roducing r ed a nd b lack o n t he s ame v essel. P etreeti p otters h ad a lready k nown f or a l ong t ime t hat i n o rder t o e ffect s imultaneous r ed a nd b lack c olours u sing m ineral p igments a nd a pplied b efore f iring i n a n o xidising a tmosphere, o ne c ould n ot u se s olely a n i ron o xide, w hich w ould a t b est p roduce a d ark b rown c olour ( in a n a tmosphere o f m ixed g ases) o r w ould t urn t o v arious s hades o f r ed i n a n o xygen-rich a tmosphere. M anganese a nd f erromanganese o xides w hose c olours--black a nd b rown-black, r espectively--are s table i n a ll f iring c onditions s olved t he p roblem o f p roducing b lack a nd t herefore a m ultic oloured

s urface.

H owever,

i n i mitation o f t his t echnique,

C ucuteni

p otters i n s outheastern T ransilvania h ad p roduced t he c olor b lack b y f iring t he v essel i n a c ompletely r educing ( i.e., C O-rich) a tmosphere a nd t hen p roceeded, a s e arlier t radition d ictated, with t he p ost-fire a pplication o f p owdered h aematite f or a r ich r ed c olour. T herefore,

t hree i mportant

i nnovations

i n d ecorative t echnology

t ook p lace a t t he b eginning o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye p ainted w are s equence: 1 ) am astery o ver g aseous c onditions d uring f iring, b oth i n r eduction o xidation

( which p roduced a c ompletely b lack c lay m atrix) a nd i n ( which p roduced a c lay m atrix i n v arious s hades o f r ed)

a s

o pposed t o t he u ncontrolled a tmosphere i n t he f iring o f P re-Cucuteni c eramics ( cf. s ection I II .C.2); 2 ) t he r ecognition i n n ature o f t he e xistence o f m aterials ( i.e., m anganese-bearing m inerals) w hich c ould r emain b lack i n a n o xidising a tmosphere; a nd, 3 ) t he t echnique o f p roducing a p aint i n a water a nd c lay s uspension ( "slip") w hich would s erve t o a ffix t he c olour t o t he u nfired c lay s urface. C hemical a nalysis o f t he s lips o n C ucuteni-Tripolye c eramics o rder t o i dentify r aw m aterials w as f irst a ccomplished b y I .

1 19

i n

K rasnikov

( 1931) o n s herds f rom t he e ponymous s ite o f T ripolye n ear K iev--a s tudy w hich h as l argely b een f orgotten f or a lmost 5 0 y ears. S uch t echnical s tudies w ere r evived t hrough p hysico-chemical a nalysis o f c oloured s lips o n s herds f rom t he e ponymous s ite o f C ucuteni a nd a lso f rom T rugegti i n n ortheastern R omania ( Ellis 1 980). S herds f rom t he L ate T ripolye s ite o f B ilcze Z lote h ave a lso b een a nalysed r ecently ( Stos-Gale a nd R ook 1 981). I n a ddition t o t he f oregoing, r esults o f X -ray f luorescence a nd X -ray d iffraction a nalyses o f s herds f rom f ive a dditional s ites i n R omania ( Vgleni, G helgiegti, T ell P oduri, T trgu O cna-Podei, T irgu B eregti) a re o ffered h ere. T echnical d etails o f i nstrumentation u sed t o c onduct t he a nalyses a re g iven i n t he c aption t o f igures 4 1-46 a nd t able 1 9. V arious f orms o f i ron o xide w ere u niversally u sed i n t he C ucuteniT ripolye z one f or t he r ed s lip. A nalyses b y K rasnikov ( 1931), E llis ( 1980; a nd f ig. 4 4, t able 1 9 t his w ork), a nd S tos-Gale a nd R ook ( 1981) s t he r emaining p igment o n h ave c onfirmed t hat h aematite ( Fe20 3 ) i C ucuteni-Tripolye c eramics. H owever, a s s pecified i n t he s ection o n t he g eology o f r aw m aterials ( III .A), a v ariety o f h ydrated i ron o xides o r i ron h ydroxides c ould h ave b een u sed--haematite, g oethite, o r l imonite--which m ay a ppear i n n ature i n s hades o f r ed, b rown, o r y ellow . U pon h eating, a bsorbed w ater i s i mmediately d riven o ff a nd 600 ° C g oethite b ecomes h aematite; a t h igher t emperatures o f 4 00 ° c hemically b onded w ater i s l ost a nd a morphous f orms o f f erric o xide ( i.e. l imonite) b ecome c rystalline, a gain y ielding h aematite. F ig. 4 4 s hows a t ypical s pectrum f or a r ed s lip c ontaining h aematite. T he w hite s lip o n C ucuteni-Tripolye p ottery m ay a ppear a s w hite o r w ith v arious n uances o f y ellow o r p ink d ue t o i ron i mpurities i n t he c lay-based s lip. C ucuteni-Tripolye p otters h ad p roduced a w hite s lip i n t wo d ifferent w ays: A t t he s ites o f C ucuteni a nd T rugegti c alcium c arbonate w as p ut i nto a c lay s lip a nd t hrough t he p rocess o f f iring, a c alcium s ilicate ( Ca0.Si02) h ad f ormed ( Ellis 1 980). A t t he s ites o f T ripolye ( Krasnikov 1 931) a nd B ilcze Z lote ( Stos-Gale a nd R ook 1 981), a l ight c oloured k aolin c lay h ad b een u sed t o p roduce a w hite o r c ream c olour. O n t he s amples f rom T ell P oduri, V gleni a nd B eregti, l ightc oloured c lays w ere a lso u sed. A t T ell P oduri a nd Vgleni, a v ery g ood w hite s lip w as e ffected, w hereas a t B eregti t he l ight c oloured s lip w as ad ark p ink w ith v ery l ittle c ontrast i n r elation t o t he c lay s urface. T he m ethods o f p roducing b lack o n p rehistoric c eramics h ave a lready b een m entioned i n t his s ection . T he p resence o f m anganese a nd m anganese-bearing m inerals i n t he b lack s lips o n C ucuteni-Tripolye c eramics h as b een d ocumented i n t he e astern ( Krasnikov 1 931), w estern ( Ellis 1 980; a nd t his w ork) a nd n orthern ( Stos-Gale a nd R ook 1 981) r egions o f t his c ulture. I t i s n oteworthy t hat m anganese o xides a re s till u sed t oday f or d ecorating c eramics i n e astern R omania a nd a re d erived f rom t he B istr 4a R iver r egion m anganese d eposits ( map 1 1) w hich b orders t he C ucuteni-Tripolye z one ( Rotaru 1 980:275). T here i s a g reat v ariety o f m inerals f ound i n t he b lack s lips o f C ucuteni-Tripolye c eramics. F rom t he s ites o f C ucuteni a nd T rugegti, b ixbyite a nd j acobsite w ere d etected ( Ellis 1 980). A t B ilcze Z lote, b ixbyite, j acobsite, h ausmannite, a nd m agnetite w ere f ound i n v arious c ombinations i n t he b lack s lips o f s ix s herds.

1 20

T able 1 9 a nd f igures 4 4-46 s how t he r esults o btained f or t he b rown-black a nd b lack d ecoration o n c eramics f rom t he s ites o f Väleni, T ell P oduri, B eresti, G helgiesti, a nd T iisu O cna-Podei. W ith t he e xception o f t he s amples f rom B eresti, w hich h ad a b rown s lip a s a d ark c oloured p aint, a ll t he s herds f rom t he o ther s ites h ad a r ich b lack d ecoration. T he b rown s lip, t ypical o f c eramics f rom B eresti, w as f ound t o c ontain h aematite.

A ll o ther s amples c ontained m agnetite t ogether

with h ausmannite o r j acobsite. T he v ariety o f m anganese-, i ron-, a nd f erromanganese-bearing m inerals i n t he b lack/brown d ecorative s lips o f C ucuteni-Tripolye c eramics i s a f urther i ndication t hat i mpure, s edimentary c oncretions a nd/or b og a ccumulations o f o re w ere d iscovered a nd u sed b y p rehistoric p otters.

1 21

F igures 4 1-46

X -ray f luorescence a nd X -ray d iffraction a nalyses o f r ed, b rown, a nd b lack s lips o f C ucuteni p ottery .

E xplanatory n ote: P aint s amples o f s herds f rom V gleni, Tirgu O cna-Podei, T ell P oduri, G helgieeti, a nd T frgu B ereeti w ere a nalysed f or e lemental c omposition u sing X -ray f luorescence a nd f or m ineralogical c omposition u sing X -ray d iffraction. A p owder s ample w as s craped f rom t he s urface o f t he s herd p rior t o a nalysis i n o rder t o r educe c lay c ontamination . C lay m inerals w ere n ot d etected, s ince u pon f iring c lays l ose m ost o f t heir c rystalline s tructure; h owever, q uartz —as a n i mportant c omponent o f c lays--is a lways d etected i n c lay-based s lips. W hile t able 1 9 l ists t he s pecific s amples a nalysed a nd t he m inerals f ound i n t he s lips, t hese c harts l ist o nly o nce t he f ollowing r esults, s ince m any a nalyses w ere r epetitive: X -ray f luorescence ( Figures 4 1-43)

X -ray d iffraction ( Figures 4 4-46)

4 1

r ed p igment -iron

4 4

4 2

b rown p igment -iron

4 3

b lack p igment -iron a nd m anganese

r ed p igment a nd b rown p igment

h aematite

4 5

nd b lack p igment -j acobsite a m agnetite

4 6

b lack p igment -h ausmannite a nd m agnetite

F or t he X -ray d iffraction a nalyses, a G eneral E lectric X RD-6 w as u sed w ith c opper KO ( r adiation ( nickel f ilter) a t 2 5 k V, 4 5 m a. F or t he X -ray f luorescence a nalyses, a G eneral E lectric s pectrog oniometer ( wavelength d ispersive) w as u sed w ith t ungsten KO C r adiation ( LiF a nalyzing c rystal) a t 4 0 k V, 4 0 m a.

1 22

02&

F igure 4 1

1 23

F igure 4 2

1 24

0 0

F igure 4 3

1 25

, s s

c

y

( 1 )

TI

=

oc f

4 : 1 )

A nsua lu i 1 26

c P 9

oS S '

1 27

1 28

h a u s m a n i t e

T able

1 9

R esults o f X -ray d iffraction a nalysis o f b lack a nd b rown p igments o n O ucuteni A , A B,

S ite

( Period)

a nd B c eramics.

S ample N o.

M inerals D etected

Väleni

( B)

V L B 2

J acobsite* M agnetite*

V äleni

( B)

V L B 3

J acobsite M agnetite

T Irgu O cna-Podei

( B)

T O B 1

J acobsite M agnetite

T irgu O cna-Podei

( B)

T O B 2

H ausmannite* M agnetite

T ell P oduri

( B)

P OD B

H ausmannite M agnetite

T ell P oduri

( AB)

POD A B

J acobsite M agnetite

G he1äie4ti

( AB)

G H A B

1

H ausmannite M agnetite

G helgie*ti

( AB)

G H A B 2

H ausmannite M agnetite

Trrgu B erefti

( A)

B ER A 1

H aematite*

T irgu B erefti

( A)

B ER A 2

H aematite

* J acobsite = M nFe204;

M agnetite = F e 304 ;

H aematite = F e 2 O3

1 29

H ausmannite = M n 3 04 ;

I II .C .

F iring p rocesses 1 .

U se o f k ilns

I n m an 's i ncreasing c ontrol o ver t he e lements a nd f orces o f n ature, c learly i t i s t he c ontrol a nd, m ore i mportantly, t he m anipulation o f f ire a nd g aseous b y-products o f c ombustion w hich u shered i n t he a ge o f m etals.

T his c ontrol i s n o m ore c learly e vident t han i n t he o ccurrence

o f s pecific c onstructions, i .e. k ilns, b uilt t o c ontain, c ontrol, a nd r egulate t he v agaries o f t emperature a nd a tmosphere d uring t he f iring o f c eramics. A n a lmost

i nfinite v ariety o f c eramic f iring t echniques, w ith o r

without t he u se o f k ilns,

h as b een r ecorded i n a v ery r ich, w orldwide

e thnographic l iterature ( cf. S hepard 1 956; R ye 1 981). H owever, k ilns, d epending o n f orm a nd c onstruction, o ffer c ertain a dvantages o ver s imple p its: 1 ) 2 ) 3 )

r educed e ffects o f p revailing w inds r educed t ime t o r each m aximum t emperature m aintenance o f m aximum t emperature f or a l onger p eriod o f t ime

4 )

c ontrol o ver r eduction/oxidation c onditions

5 ) 6 )

f uel c onservation s low c ooling d own p eriod

T he i dea o f

t he c ontainment o f t he f iring p rocess w ill r educe t he

n egative e ffects o f p revailing w eather c onditions a nd t hereby a llow o ne t o r each r apidly a nd m aintain s teadily t he d esired t emperature. A nd, b y n ot a llowing h eat t o d issipate r apidly, a s i s a lmost u navoidable i n p it f irings, f uel i s c onserved. C ontrol o ver r eduction ( i.e. t he p resence o f c arbon m onoxide-CO-due t o i nsufficient o xygen t o c ombust t he f uel) a nd o xidation ( i.e. w here t he a mount o f o xygen i s more t han s ufficient t o c ombust t he f uel) i s p ossible w ith s imple p it f irings, h as b een e thnographically d ocumented o n r epeated o ccasions; b ut, d epending o n k iln c onstruction a nd p lacement o f f uel, t he n eed f or

a s

c onstant a ttention i s r educed a nd t he o ccurrence o f " firing e rrors" m ay e ven b e e liminated. T he c ontainment o f t he f iring o peration a lso a llows a s low c ooling-down p eriod--thus r educing t he p ossibility o f f racturing o f c eramics d ue t o t hermal s hock. B ecause o f t he i nherently h azardous

n ature o f a ll p yrotechnological

o perations, t he f iring o f c eramics u sually o ccurs a t t he e xterior o f t he m ain s ettlement. T herefore, u nless t he e xtra-settlement a rea i s s urveyed, e vidence f or t hese o perations o ftentimes r emains u nexcavated. T hirty-one s ites,

l ocated n orthwest a nd w est o f t he B lack S ea a nd

d ating f rom t he E arly N eolithic t o t he C halcolithic p eriods, h ave b een f ound t o s how e vidence o f c omplete k ilns, m aterials a ssociated w ith k ilns, o r s tructures u sed e xclusively f or t he p roduction a nd d rying o f p ottery. T hese " kiln s ites" a re a cattered f rom p resent-day B ulgaria, a cross R omania, t o S oviet M oldavia a nd t he U kraine ( maps 1 3 a nd 1 4). T he q uality o f t he e vidence f or k ilns o n t he N eolithic/Chalcolithic s ites r anges f rom s canty a nd s omewhat q uestionable ( e.g., H otgrani, Vgdastra, n rtgria, H äb 4esti, v ide i nfra) t o u nquestionable a nd e xcellent w ith a lmost c omplete p reservation ( e.g., Ctrcea, alabovtsi, A riusd, G lävgnestii V echi, Z iv anets, K oste ny I X, v ide i nfra).

1 30

M a p 1 3 S i t e s w i th e v id e n c e o f k i ln s NEOLITHIC . .. . . . a . C i rcea

C HALCOLITHIC i . Varaeti

u .

B g14a4i

b .

L eu

j .

V idra

v .

Tirgu B ereeti

c .

P ar4a

k .

J ilava

T A . 7

D rägueeni

d .

Tärtgria

1 .

S toicani

x .

C ucuteni

e . f .

V gdastra H otgrani

m . n .

S uceveni G aläbovtsi

y . z .

Valea L upului G läväneetii V echi L uka V rublevetskaja

g .

C ernica

o .

B ernadea

A .

h .

T echirghiol

p .

A riued

B .

S ine ny

q .

B odeeti

C .

V arvarovka V III

r .

T rueeeti

D .

K oszy/owce O boz

s .

H angu

E .

K oste ny I X

t .

H äbgeeeti

F .

‘ i vanets

1 31

1 00 k m

K IEV

•Ko s z yl ow ce -0bó 1 b a lets

L u ka V r ub le ve tska ja

O r igreen i•

G l iv

K o s tei t yl X T rqet iW e • e tu V e ck i •

V a rvar e

T i rgu • K e ree t i

M ap 1 4 C u cu ten i -T r ipo l ye s i tes w i th k i lns

1 32

I aV I

T wo t ypes o f k ilns e xist

i n t his r egion a nd t ime p eriod.

T he

s implest t ype, t he o ldest e vidence f or w hich d ates t o t he e nd o f t he E arly N eolithic (arcea), c onsists o f a c lay s tructure i n t he s hape o f a t runcated c one; b oth f uel a nd c harge ( i.e. t he c lay o bjects t o b e f ired) a re s ituated t ogether i n t he c hamber. A v ariation o n t his f orm i s t he s eparation o f t he f uel f rom t he c harge b y c onstruction o f a s mall,

t ubular s ide " chamber" i n t he w all o f t he k iln a s a f uel a ccess.

A nother v ariation o f t he s imple k iln i s t he c onstruction o f t wo o r m ore c hambers b eing s erved b y t he s ame f uel a ccess ( cf. f igures 4 8-54). T he m ost

c omplex t ype o f k iln f ound

i s t hat u sed b y t he p otters o f

t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture ( figures 4 7, 5 7, 5 9, 6 0). T hese k ilns a re c ylindrical o r r ectangular i n p lan a nd c onsist o f t wo v ertically a rranged p arts: a l ower s ection ( "firebox") w here t he c ombustion o f f uel t akes p lace a nd a n u pper s ection ( "chamber") w here t he p ottery i s p laced ( fig. 4 7). B oth p arts a re c ompletely s eparated b y a h orizontal g rate which i s p erforated w ith s mall h oles t o a llow t he h ot a ir b elow t o r ise i nto t he u pper c hamber. T his g rate i s s upported b y a s hort, m edian w all w hich s eparates t he f irebox i nto t wo h alves ( cf. f ig. 5 7). T his s upport w all h as a lso b een k nown t o c ontain p erforations o r v ents ( "flues") t o e qualise t he d istribution o f h eat a nd a ir i n t he f irebox i n o rder t o c ompensate f or t he u neven b urning o f f uel a nd t he s ubsequent u neven f iring o f p ottery ( e.g., G lävänestii V echi a nd K oste ny I X, v ide i nfra). O ne s light v ariation o f t his f orm o f k iln c an b e s een a t L uka V rublevetskaja, w here t he f irebox i s c onstructed t o o ne s ide a nd w ith t he p erforated g rate s upported o n a r otund p illar; t his e arly T ripolye A ( =Pre-Cucuteni I II) k iln m ay p rove t o b e a t ransitional f orm b etween t he s imple k iln w ith a l ateral f irebox a nd t he v ertically a rranged k iln. T he q uestion h as a risen,

e ti a nd o ther s ites, i n r eference t o Häbhis

a s t o w hy s ome o f t he f ragments o f g rates h ave " complete" p erforations, w hile o ther f ragments h ave s ome " incomplete" p erforations ( i.e., i mpressions; f ig. 5 5). T he b est s olution a ppears t o b e t he f act t hat i f t he g rate

i s p erforated e very 3 t o 1 0 c m--which i s u sually t he c ase--

t hen t he g rate w ould b e s ubstantially w eakened a nd u nable t o s upport a s tack o f v essels i f t here w ere t oo m any h oles; i ndeed, a fter s tudying f ragmentary g rates i n m useum c ollections i n R omania, m any o f t he f ractures o ccurred a cross " complete" p erforations. T he " incomplete" p erforations o r i mpressions s erve a d ual p urpose o f a llowing c onduction o f h eat a s w ell a s m aintaining t he s trength o f t he g rate a s a s upport f or v essels.

a s

T hese c omplex k ilns u sed b y C ucuteni-Tripolye c raftsmen a re k nown " up-draught" k ilns d ue t o t he o bvious v ertical m ovement o f h ot a ir

i nto t he f iring c hamber. E . C om a ( 1976a; 1 976b) a nd s ubsequently M . N ica ( 1978) h ave u sed t he t erm " reverberatory k iln" i n o rder t o r efer t o t hese C ucuteni-Tripolye k ilns.

T he a pplication o f t he t erm

" reverberatory" h ere i s e rroneous: R everberatory d esignates a s pecial t ype o f d own-draught k iln ( fig. 4 7). T his c onstruction c onsists o f a c hamber i n w hich t he c harge r ests; o n o ne s ide i s t he f irebox, a nd o n t he o pposite s ide i s t he c himney . f rom t he g ases e manating f rom t he a d own-draught k iln .

A t o ne e nd, t he c harge i s s eparated f irebox b y a l ow w all ( "bagwall") i n

I n a r everberatory k iln,

t here a re t wo b agwalls:

o ne a t t he f irebox e nd, t he s econd a t t he c himney e nd. T he r oof o f a d own-draught k iln c overs e verything--the f irebox, b agwall, c harge--and

1 33

1 34

i s h ighest o ver t he c harge a nd t hence s lopes d ownward t o t he c himney f lue, s o t hat t he h ot a ir, a fter s triking t he r oof, w ill b e d eflected d own--or " reverberated"--upon t he c harge ( fig. 4 7). A ll e vidence f or s imple a nd u p-draught k ilns i s l isted b elow i n a pproximate r egional a nd c hronological o rder, w ith a ppropriate r eferences a nd i llustrations w hen t hey e xist. I rregardless o f t he q uality o f t he e vidence, n o i nformation o n k ilns f or t his t ime p eriod a nd g eographical a rea h as b een o verlooked o r o mitted s o t hat t he f ull e volutionary d evelopment o f k iln p yrotechnology m ay b e a ppreciated.

I II .C.1.a.

E arly N eolithic k ilns

C hCEA ( Star nvo) I n t he 1 970s, n ine k ilns w ere d iscovered a t t his s ite: F our d ate t o t he E arly N eolithic S tar nvo c ulture a nd f ive d ate t o t he M iddle N eolithic D udepti ( =Vin U) c ulture ( figs. 4 8, 4 9). T hree o f t he S tar nvo k ilns w ere s ituated o n t he s outhern e dge o f t he s ite, a long t he p rotective d itch b ordering t he s ite; t he f ourth k iln, b elonging t o t his e arly p hase, a ppeared t owards t he i nterior o f t he s ite a nd c ontained p olychrome c eramics d ating t o t he S tar &vo I V p hase. T hese E arly N eolithic k ilns ( fig. 4 8) c onsisted o f a n a ccess p it ( D), l ateral f uel c hamber ( C), p ottery f iring c hamber ( B), a nd a n o pening ( A); t he o nly e xception t o t his w as k iln n o. 2 w hich h ad t wo a djoining f iring c hambers, b oth s erved b y t he s ame f uel c hamber. T he v arious d imensions a re g iven i n t able 2 0. I t i s p resumed b y t he e xcavator t hat v essels w ere p laced i nto t he k ilns f rom a bove a nd w ere k ept s eparate f rom t he f uel a nd c ombustion s o a s t o m inimise s urf i cial d efects o n t he v essels. I t i s a lso t hought t hat t he o pening o f t he k iln w ould a lso s erve t o r egulate t he t emperature i n t he f iring c hamber b y m eans o f a c over. I n t he a ccess p its o f a ll f our k ilns, w ere f ound n umerous f ragments o f b oth u npainted a nd p olychrome p ottery d ating t o t he S tar evo c ulture, p hase I V. I n a ddition, p olychrome s herds w ere a lso f ound o n t he b ase o f t he f iring c hamber o f k iln n o. 1 . A ll k ilns s how e vidence o f f iring; t he w alls o f t he f iring c hamber o f k iln n o. 1 h ad b een f ired t hrough a t hickness o f 2 5 c m, i ndicating u se o f t he k iln o ver a s ubstantial p eriod o f t ime. W hether o r n ot t hese f our k ilns w ere u sed c ontemporaneously i s s omewhat d ifficult t o p rove: T he o nly e vidence f or t his c omes f rom k ilns 1 a nd 2 w hich w ere b uild 4 m a part a nd a t t he e xact s ame d epth a nd i n w hose a ccess p its w ere f ound p olychrome s herds o f i dentical s tyle ( Nica 1 978).

I II.C.1.b.

M iddle a nd L ate N eolithic k ilns

C ikCEA ( Dudejti) ea, b elonging t o t he D udepti ( =Vin n) i .c T he f ive k ilns f rom Ci c ulture, w ere s cattered i n d ifferent p laces o ver t he s ite; k iln n o. 5 w as l ocated o n t he s outheast m argin o f t he s ite, n o. 6 i n t he s outhern m argin, a nd n o. 9 w as l ocated i n t he i nterior. A ll k ilns, a gain, w ere o f t he s ame b asic f orm ( fig. 4 0:5, 6 ) a s t he e arlier k ilns a t t his s ite

1 35

T able 2 0 D imensions o f E arly N eolithic k ilns f rom C ircea

1 * 0 .85

2

3

b oth 1 .25-0.75

4

0 .80

0.65-0.35

0 .69

0 .50

0 .50

0 .35

0 .75 0 .60 0 .25

n .g.

0 .65 0 .40 0 .20

n.g.

2 .50 1 .50

3 2 .5

1 .60 1 .50

2 .40 1

D iameter o f b ase o f f iring c hamber ( m ) P reserved h eight D imensions o f f uel c hamber ( 1x w x h )

D imensions o f access p it ( 1 xw )

D imensions o f M iddle N eolithic K ilns f rom C trcea

5

6

7

8

9

0 .65

1

a pprox. 1 -1.2

0 .75

0 .65

D iameter o f b ase o f f iring c hamber ( m )

0 .40

0 .40

n .g.

0 .40

0 .35

P reserved h eight

0 .80 0 .70

n .g.

n .g.

n .g.

a bsent

2 .50 2

n .g.

2 1 .25

a bsent

D imensions o f f uel c hamber ( 1 x w x h )

0 .35 2 .25 2 .25

* N umbering s equence a fter e xcavator's r eport n .g.

D imensions o f a ccess p it ( 1 xw )

( Nica 1 978).

= D imensions n ot g iven d ue t o i ncomplete p reservation.

1 36

1

t :N 4

A

I

A

2

3 5

A

8

Fig.

, 4

• • : *

4 8

C IRCEA:

( 1,2,3,4)

S tarCie vo C ulture;

A -Kiln o pening; B -Firing c hamber;

( 5,6)

D udeeti-Vin a C ulture

C -Fuel c hamber;

1 37

D -Access p it.

r • • C i ) 0 . , . . .

M 0 0 0 o i C f ) v 4 4 4 > 4

ON • •t

C T‘

1 38

w ith t he e xception o f k iln n o. 9 w hich l acked a f uel c hamber a ltogether. D imensions o f t he k ilns a re g iven i n t able 2 0. T he f uel a nd f iring c hambers o f a ll k ilns s how e vidence o f u se--especially n o. 5 w hose c lay w alls h ad b een f ired t o a d epth o f 1 5 c m . S herds o f t he D ude ti c ulture w ere a ssociated w ith t hese k ilns ( e.g., i n k iln n o. 5 , s herds a ppeared o n t he b ase o f t he f uel c hamber; s herds w ere a lso f ound i n t he a ccess p it o f n o. 6 a nd i n a s emi-subterranean d welling n ext t o k iln n o. 7 ). I n a ll i nstances, k ilns 1 -9 w ere a ssociated w ith o ne o r m ore p its w hich c ontained c eramic w aste p roducts a nd/or s herds ( Nica 1 978). L EU

( Dude4ti)

A k iln w ith t wo f iring c hambers w as d iscovered o n t he m argin o f t he e astern t errace o f t his s ite, q uite c lose t o a s ource o f w ater ( fig. 5 0). B oth c hambers were s ituated a t t he e xact s ame d epth a nd m easured a pproximately 1 .5 m i n d iameter.

T he w alls w ere p reserved t o

ah eight o f 0 .50 m a nd w ere i nclined s o a s t o f orm a t runcated c one. T he c hambers w ere i nterconnected b y a " tunnel" 2 0 c m i n h eight. T he s ingle f uel c hamber, w hich h ad s erved b oth f iring c hambers, h ad m ostly c ollapsed i nto t he a ccess p it. F rom t he a ccess p it w ere r etrieved b urnt w attle-and-daub f ragments, s herds, a nimal b ones, a s tone a xe, a nd a b one u sed f or b urnishing p ottery ( Nica a nd N4a 1 979; N ica 1 978). P ARTA

( VinCfa )

ulture w as f ound. T he w alls A s imple k iln b elonging t o t he V in ‘ c/a c f ormed a t runcated c one. N o d imensions n or f urther d etails a re g iven ( Popescu

1 964:553, n ote 1 3).

T XRTXRIA

( Turda4)

A s imple, o val-shaped k iln m easuring 0 .55 x 0 .48 m i n p lan w as e xcavated ( fig‘ 5 1). T he w alls o f t he k iln w ere 4 -5 c m i n t hickness ( Horedt 1 949:50-51). VXDASTRA

( Vgdastra)

A s imple k iln, w ith n o s eparate f uel c hamber, w as d iscovered

( fig

5 2), T he b ase w as a pproximately r otund, h aving a d iameter o f 0 .75 m . T he w alls o f t he f iring c hamber w ere m ostly d estroyed. C harcoal f ound o n t he b ase w as a nalysed a nd i dentified a s Q uercus s p. ( Mateescu 1 959: 6 8-69, p l. 1 1:2). I n 1 962 a nd 1 971, a dditional k ilns w ere f ound o n t his s ite, d ating t o t he Vgdastra I I p hase ( Com a 1 976b:355). H OTXRANI

( Vgdastra)

H ighly f ragmentary r emains o f a k iln d ating t o Vgdastra p hase w ere f ound

( fig.

c hamber o nly C ERNICA

4 9).

( Nica

I I

T he k iln w as r otund a nd c onsisted o f a f iring

1 978:25).

( Boian)

E xcavations b y E . C om a r evealed t wo s mall k ilns d ating t o t he B olintineanu p hase o f t he B oian c ulture ( cf. f igs. 1 , 2 ; m ap 4 ). T hey w ere c ircular i n p lan ( 0.90 m i n d iameter) w ith n o l ateral o pening ( fig. 5 1). T he f loors o f t he k i lns w ere b urnt d ark r ed a nd w ere h eat

1 39

7 91

F ig. 5 0

K iln f rom L eu.

4

a

0 , 5 m 6. 1 110. 1. 1 1.1 1 F

F ig.

5 1

-

-6 1... . ... d-

-

K ilns f rom T ärtäria

1 41

4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

( top)

M 1

a nd C ernica

( bottom).

c racked i n am osaic p attern . T he w alls w ere p reserved t o a h eight o f 1 5 c m a nd a re e stimated t o h ave b een o riginally 4 0 c m a nd c one-shaped i n p rofile ( Co r nea 1 976b). T ECHIRGHIOL

( Hamaneia)

E xcavations b y E . C om a a nd D . G albenu u ncovered a s imple k iln w hich w as c ircular i n p lan ( approximately 1 i n i n d iameter). T he k iln w as f ound i nside t he s ettlement a nd d ates t o t he " Ceamurlia d e J os" p hase o f t he H amangia c ulture ( cf. f ig. 2 ; m aps 4 , 1 3) ( Com a 1 976b).

II .C.1.c. I

C halcolithic k ilns

VXRX TI

( Gumelnita)

A s imple, c ircular k iln w ith a d iameter o f 1 .40 m w as f ound b y E . C om a ( fig. 5 2; m ap 1 3). B oth f loor a nd w alls w ere b urnt r ed. T he a rched w alls w ere p reserved t o ah eight o f 1 5 c m b ut a re e stimated t o h ave b een a bout 6 0 c m ( Co r nea 1 976b). V IDRA ( Gume1ni4a) D . R osetti r eported t hat h e h ad e xcavated a s imple, o void-shaped k iln ( mentioned i n F lorescu 1 965:189 a nd H oredt 1 949:51, n ote 9 ). J ILAVA ( Gume1ni4a) A k iln w as e xcavated b y D . R osetti, b ut d etails a re m issing ( mentioned i n C om a 1 976b). S TOICANI

( Stoicani-Aldeni)

F ragments o f p erforated g rates, m ade o f f ired c lay, h ave b een f ound. T he e xcavator c onsiders t hese g rates t o b e c onnected w ith k ilns ( Dragomir 1 977:8). S UCEVENI

( Stoicani-Aldeni)

F ragments o f p erforated g rates, w hich a re b elieved t o b e c onnected w ith k ilns, h ave b een f ound ( Dragomir 1 977:8-9). d ÄLÄBOVTSI ( Krivodol/Sg1o 4a) O ne k iln, d ating t o t he B alkan C halcolithic p eriod, h as b een f ound i n n orthwestern B ulgaria, n ot f ar f rom S ofia, i n c onnection w ith a s ettlement ( fig. 5 3). T his s imple k iln, w ithout a s eparate f uel c hamber, w as o val-shaped i n p lan a nd m easured 2 .50 x 1 .60 m . T he w alls w ere d estroyed, b ut t he k iln w as f ound w ith 2 8 v essels a nd o ther c lay o bjects i n s itu. T he p ottery a ssigns t he k iln t o t he K rivodol c ulture ( =Sälcu a c ulture i n s outhern R omania) B ERNADEA

( Petkov 1 964).

( Petreeti)

A k iln h as b een f ound a t t his s ettlement, b ut d etails a re l acking ( Popescu 1 968:684, n ote 5 4).

1 42

a

I

I

I I

I

t- I I

I I

'

''

I

Fig.

52

Kilns from V a'dastra (top) and Va'ra'.iti (b ottom).

143

9

F ig.

5 3

2 0

,

4 0

,

5 0

,

8 0

,

1 90co

K iln f rom G äläbovtsi, B ulgaria.

1 44

A RIU p

( Cucuteni A )

A t t he b eginning o f t his c entury, F . L äszlö h ad e xcavated a p artially d estroyed, s imple k iln ( fig. 5 4). T he c ircular f iring c hamber h ad a d iameter o f 2 m a nd a rched w alls p reserved t o a h eight o f a pproximately 0 .40 m . N o l ess t han 1 5 v essels w ere f ound i n s itu i n t he c hamber. I n t he m iddle s tood a v essel 6 3 c m h igh, a round w hich t he o ther v essels w ere p laced; i t f ollows t hat t he o riginal h eight o f t he k iln h ad t o a ccommodate t he h eight o f t his v essel ( Com a 1 976a; 1 976b). I n t he l ate 1 970s, e xcavations w ere r esumed a t t his s ite, u ncovering a t otal o f 1 1 s imple k ilns ( Szekely a nd B artök 1 979; Z aharia, e t a l. 1 981, 1 982). T hese k ilns h ad a n o val o r c ircular g round p lan--diameters r ange f rom 1 .20 t o 1 .40 m --and w ere b uilt q uite c lose t o o ne a nother. E ight o f t he k ilns w ere s ituated n ortheast o f t he o ld L gszlö e xcavations. I nside t he k ilns, f ragments o f p ainted a nd u npainted v ases a nd l oom w eights w ere f ound. M any o f t hese s herds w ere d eforned a nd t ransformed i nto a g lassy m aterial

( i.e., k iln w asters).

N orthwest o f t he s ite w ere f ound s till a nother g roup o f c ircular k ilns, b uilt o ne a fter a nother. Among t hese k ilns, w as a c omplex o f o ne c entral k iln w ith t wo s maller l ateral f iring c hambers. T he c entral c hamber w as c ircular i n g round p lan, m easuring 1 .10 m i n d iameter; t he a rched wall w as p reserved t o a h eight o f 3 0 a m . N o v ases w ere f ound i nside t he c hamber, b ut o utside t he w estern w all w as a s ingle v ase. E xcavations h ad r evealed t hat t he f oundation o f t he c entral c hamber i tself h ad a c omplex " stratigraphy": A t t he v ery b ase w as a l ayer o f b urnt r ed e arth 3 0 c m t hick, o ver w hich w as s pread a 5 c m l ayer o f c lay. T his w as f ollowed b y a 2 c m l ayer o f f ine y ellow s and, o ver w hich w as a gain p laced a 3 c m l ayer o f c lay. N ext f ollowed a l ayer o f s oil 5 c m t hick, 2 c m o f f ine y ellow s and, a nd f inally t he u ppermost l ayer w as 3 c m o f c lay ( Szekely a nd B artök 1 979). E vidently, t his k iln w as u sed o n r epeated o ccasions b y r e-surfacing i ts b ase, a nd p robably a lso i ts w alls, s ince t here i s n o t echnological a dvantage i n c reating s uch a " stratigraphy" o ther t han r e-lining a p reviously f ire-damaged s urface. T he t wo l ateral f iring c hambers o f t he a forementioned k iln w ere l ater a dded t o t he e ast a nd w est s ides o f t he c entral c hamber. T he e astern c hamber i s o blong i n g round p lan ( 100 x 5 0 c m) with a v ault m ade o f wattle-and-daub. N o s herds o r p ottery w ere f ound i n t he i nterior. T he w estern c hamber h ad t he s ame p lan a nd a rch b ut w as c onstructed o nly o f c lay. I n t he w all o f t he s outhern s ide o f t his w estern c hamber, a t ube-shaped " chimney" w as c onstructed. T his " chimney" w as s quare i n c ross-section ( measuring 7 c m a cross) a nd, a ccording t o t he e xcavators, w as p roduced b y p ositioning a s plit l og o f t he s ame d imensions i n t he a ppropriate p lace, b uilding t he v ault a round t he l og, a nd t hen r emoving t he l og.

A lso,

a ccording t o t he e xcavators, b ecause

n o t races o f c arbonaceous d eposits o r s oot w ere f ound

o n t he i nterior

s urface, t he " chimney" m ay h ave s erved a s a t emperature r egulator; t his m ay a lso e xplain t he f act t hat t he " chimney" o pening w as s topped b y a c lay l id ( Szekely a nd B artök 1 979). T wo u npainted v ases w ere f ound i nside t his c hamber. T he o penings o f b oth l ateral

c hambers w ere t o t he n orth, w hile t he

o pening o f t he c entral c hamber w as t o t he s outh.

1 45

* N.

z

•

•

F ig.

5 4

K iln f rom A riued

1 46

T he o ther k ilns i n t he v icinity o f t he a bove-described c omplex w ere c ircular i n g round p lan ( diameter 1 m ). T he w alls w ere c onstructed o f c lay. A c ircular o pening a t t he t op s erved a s v entilation w hich w as c overed b y a s herd o f a l arge s torage v essel. T he k ilns w ere g enerally e mpty u pon d iscovery, s ave f or s herds o f p ainted a nd u npainted v ases ( Szekely a nd B artök 1 979). B OD

WI-FRUM I4ICA ( Cucuteni A )

A p artially d estroyed c omplex, d ouble-chambered u p-draught k iln w as f ound. T he f irebox w as 1 m i n d iameter, w ith t wo f uel c hambers, d ivided b y a s upport w all, a nd w ith t wo f uel a ccesses. T he u pper f iring c hamber h as a s lightly c onical s hape i n s ection a nd i s s eparated f rom t he f irebox b y ap erforated c lay g rate. T he r econstruction b y t he e xcavator i s n ot s upported b y t he a rchaeological e vidence a nd, d ue t o i ts c onfusing n ature, i s n ot r eproduced h ere ( Matasä 1 946:25-26, n o. 9 ; C om a 1 976a; 1 976b). T RU5E gI

( Cucuteni A )

O n t he s outheast m argin o f t he s ite, a ppeared t hree d welling c omplexes w ith r emains o f p artially p erforated c lay g rates a nd o f k iln v aults c onstructed o n a s keletal f ramework o f b ranches. T he b est p reserved r emains c ome f rom t he n orth s ide o f d welling 7 9, w hich c onsist o f n umerous f ragments o f t he v ault a nd p artially p erforated g rates. I n c onnection w ith a ll r emains o f k ilns f ound a t t his s ite, f ragmented a nd w hole v essels o f v arious s izes w ere a lso f ound, u sually g rouped a round t he g rates. T he i ncised a nd p ainted d ecoration o f t hese c eramics a llows t he d ating t o b e f ixed t o t he C ucuteni A p eriod ( Petrescu-D t abov 4a, e t a l. 1 962). H ANGU ( Cucuteni A ) , T wo d estroyed k ilns w ere f ound i n t he i nterior o f t he s ettlement. N o f urther d etails a re a vailable ( Nicolgescu-Plop§or a nd P etrescuD ikbov 4a 1 959). H XBX4ESTI

( Cucuteni A )'

I n t he v icinity o f d welling n o. 9 , m any f ragments o f g rates w ere f ound i n p its. F rom r econstruction, t hese g rates w ere h orseshoe-shaped w ith d imensions 4 8.5 c m ( I) x 3 4 c m ( w) x 4 c m ( d). O n t he u pper s urfaces w ere " incomplete" p erforations f ormed b y f inger i mpressions ( fig. 5 5). T he g rates w ere m ade o f c haff-tempered c lay. U nfortunately, n o s herds n or p ottery w ere f ound i n a ssociation w ith t hese f ragmentary g rates. M oreover, s imilar g rates w ere f ound i nside d wellings. I t a ppears t hat t here w ere t wo t ypes o f p its f ound o utside o f d wellings: r ubbish p its w ith g rate f ragments i nside a nd " fire p its" w ith g rate f ragments a bove t he p it. T he l atter, a ccording t o t he e xcavators, w as p ossibly a ssociated w ith p ottery f iring, a fter w hich b roken g rates w ere d iscarded i nto t he r ubbish p its. I t i s a ssumed t hat f ireplaces w ith s imilar g rates, f ound i nside d wellings, w ould h ave b een u sed f or c ooking ( Dumitrescu, e t a l. 1 954:189-198). B ased o n t he h ighly f ragmentary e vidence f ound, t he e xcavators

1 47

_,.,,-·=-�-.-::--:-�

¾ -:

\ ·. I;,:.•.•. °'"•

L,. :- -�·I.

'

,

I

•

I

lu ·••

I '.

,.._t,�

�

�

I

�(! _. •

••

I

' i,-- te

•

g ,

e x ,

! i f

ta -

1 •

• • • •

/

M ap 2 4

T r ipo l y e C s i t es

i nt h e U k r a ine

1 82

•

i ndividual w ealth o r s tatus. O ther b urials h ave b een f ound, b ut t hey o ccur s poradically a cross t he C ucuteni-Tripolye t erritory n umbering t hree o r f ewer a t e ach l ocus, s uch t hat t heir u tility i n g eneralising o n t he s ocio-economic s tructure t hrough t ime i s l imited ( Com a 1 974a; B ibikov 1 952; M arkev iX 1 981). H owever, i nformation o n p alaeodemography a nd t he s ettlement s ystem f or t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture h as b een a ccumulating d uring t he p ast t en y ears a t a v ery r apid r ate a nd i s p roving u seful i n d ocumenting d evelopment t owards m ore c omplex s ocio-economic r elations. T his i nflux o f i nformation r esults f rom s everal i ndependent e fforts: t he c ompilation o f s ites i nto g azetteers ( Zaharia e t a l. C oman 1 980; M arkeviI 1 973; M onah e t a l., o f s ites

1 970; P äunescu e t a l. 1 976; i n p ress), t he a erial s urveying

i n t he U kraine a nd S oviet M oldavia b y K .

n _ kin

(igkin 1 973;

t iglits 1 971; Markevi 1 981:18, 7 4, f ig. 1 4), t he g eomagnetic s urveying o f s ites i n t he U kraine b y V . D udkin ( Dudkin 1 978; m aglij, e t a l. 1 973b), a nd t he e xcavations o f v ery l arge s ites i n t he U kraine ( Artemenko 1 979-80; f i laglij e t a l. 1 973a, 1 976, 1 977; k aglij 1 981; K ruts a nd R 34ov 1 983; M ovKa 1 983). T he g azetteers h ave s hown t he l ocations a nd n umbers o f s ites t hrough t ime a nd c learly d epict t he m ovements o f C ucuteni-Tripolye p opulations i nto n ew t erritories a s w ell a s t he t remendous d iachronic i ncrease i n s ites. T he g azetteers p roduced d uring t he 1 970s a re s omewhat o ut o f d ate, d ue t o t he i nflux o f i nformation; h owever, w ork i s p rogressing w ell t o p roduce a n u p-to-date c atalogue s olely f or C ucuteni s ites i n R omania ( Monah 1 982; M onah e t a l., i n p ress). S uch a n a nnotated l isting o f s ites c ould n ot b e l ocated f or t he U kraine; h owever, a s i ndicated i n c hapter I , s everal e xtremely l arge s ites h ave b een d iscovered i n t he Uman r egion, l ocated i n t he B ug-Dnepr i nterfluve o f t he U kraine ( map 2 5). T hese s ettlements, s urveyed i n t he 1 970s a nd o nly r ecently r eceiving l imited e xcavations, g ive g ood i ndications o f t he m agnitude o f p opulation g rowth a nd e conomic s tability. I n a ddition, t he d ata o n h ouse c onstruction s how t he i ncreasing u se o f l ong h ouses t hrough t ime a nd t he i ntroduction o f t wo-storey d wellings.

I V.B.1.

L ocation a nd

T able 2 2

i ncrease

i n s ettlements

l ists t he n umbers o f C ucuteni-Tripolye s ites f rom

p ublished g azetteers.

A s o f 1 970, 4 61 C ucuteni s ites w ere k nown f or

e astern R omania b etween t he C arpathians a nd t he P rut R iver; o f t hese, 3 3 a re P re-Cucuteni s ites, 1 48 C ucuteni A , 2 3 C ucuteni A B, a nd 1 25 C ucuteni B ( Zaharia e t a l. 1 970). T he c urrent g azetteer h as i ncreased t he n umber o f k nown s ites f rom 4 61 ( 1970) t o o ver 1 ,200 f or e astern R omania ( Monah 1 982; M onah e t a l., i n p ress). B etween t he P rut a nd D nestr R ivers ( i.e. S oviet M oldavia), V . M arkeviI ( 1973) h ad i dentified 5 6 E arly T ripolye ( =Pre-Cucuteni I II) s ites, 1 48 f or M iddle T ripolye ( =Cucuteni A a nd A B), a nd 1 09 f or L ate T ripolye ( =Cucuteni B ). M aps 1 5-24 s how t he l ocations o f s ites f rom t he E astern C arpathians t o t he D nepr River u sing t he 1 970 ( Zaharia e t a l.) a nd 1 973 ( MarkeviCi) oi R SR ( 1971) f or g azetteers a nd u sing d ata f rom A rheolohija U krains lk t he Ukraine. S ome o f t hese l oci m ay n ot h ave b een a ctual

1 83

s ettlements,

s ince

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a)

t hese d ata h ave b een c ompiled

f rom n umerous s ources i ncluding s urface

s urveys a nd t est s oundings a s w ell a s a ctual e xcavations. H owever, e ven i f o ne a llows f or t he f act t hat n ot a ll l oci o f p rehistoric a ctivity r epresent v illages, t here a re i ndications f or a c onsiderable g rowth i n p opulation a nd m ovement i nto a nd e xploitation o f a reas n orth, w est, a nd s outh o f t he c ore C arpathian a rea.

I V.B.2.

S ettlement

s ize a nd p lanning

N ew i nformation c oncerning t he s izes o f C ucuteni-Tripolye s ettlements t hrough t ime g ives n ot o nly m ore d irect i nsight o n p opulation g rowth b ut a lso s hows t he c onsiderable p lanning o f t hese s ettlements a nd h ow w ell o rganised t he a ctivities o f t he i nhabitants w ere. T he a verage C ucuteni-Tripolye v illage t hroughout t he p ainted w are s equence c onsisted o f 2 0 t o 5 0 d wellings a rranged i n n o p articular p reconceived p lan. H owever, d uring t he C ucuteni A a nd A B (Tripolye B ) p eriod a ppear t he f irst s igns o f t he d evelopment t owards l arge, h ighp opulation c entres. T his d ensification p rocess c ulminated d uring t he C ucuteni B (Tripolye C ) p eriod a nd i s e xemplified b y t he r ecently s urveyed s ites i n t he U man' r egion o f t he Ukrainian S SR. T he e arliest s ite t o d epart f rom t he u sual N eolithic p attern o f s ettlement f ormation i s t he c ompletely e xcavated s ite o f T rusesti i n n ortheastern R omania. T he s ettlement c onsists o f 9 8 d wellings--95 b elonging t o t he C ucuteni A p eriod--which a re n ot a rranged i n a ny s pecific p lan ( Petrescu-Dimbovi;a 1 963). V ladimirovka, d ating t o T ripolye B I I, i s t he o ldest o f t his g roup o f s ites t o s how s ome l imited s ettlement p lanning i n t he F orm o f h ouses a rranged i n s emicircular f ashion ( Passek 1 949). H owever, w ith t he i nception o f t he L ate T ripolye p eriod, c ircular o r e llipsoidal a rrangement o f s everal h undred t o p ossibly a s m any a s 2 000 b uildings c an b e o bserved

( figs.

6 7-69).

Two o f t hese l arge s ites, V arvarovka V III a nd P etreny

( Petreni),

a re l ocated i n t he P rut-Dnestr i nterfluve. O nly f ive o f t he 2 00 s truct ures a t V arvarovka V III h ave b een e xcavated, o ne o f w hich ( no. 3 ) i s a ctually a p ottery w orkshop ( section I II.D.) ( Markevi 1 981). A nd o nly e ight o f t he 4 98 s tructures a t P etreny w ere e xcavated a t t he t urn o f t he c entury

( von S tern 1 907).

H owever,

r ecent a erial

s urveying b y K .

h n kin

h as r evealed t he a rrangement o f s tructures a t P etreny i nto t en t ightly c oncentric r ings w ith i ntervening p athways ( Markev a 1 981:18, 7 4, f ig. 1 4). T he s ite i s l ocated i n i ntensely h illy t errain o n a h igh p lateau o f c onsiderable p roportions, w hich s lopes d ownwards t o t he n orth, e ast a nd w est, b ut d escends a bruptly o n t he s outh s ide t o a s tream b elow. D itches o r t heir a ccompanying r amparts a re a bsent. T he h ouse p latforms a re o f s tandard d imensions m easuring a pproximately 8 x 5 m ; o n t he o utskirts o f t he s ettlement i s a r ow o f l arger b uildings m easuring 1 4-16 x 6 -7 m . T he b uildings a ppear t o b e e quidistant a nd a rranged o f

i n c ircles w ith

s ome b uildings o ff b y t hemselves a t a d istance

1 20-150 m f rom t he s ettlement.

I n t he c entre r emained a f ree,

o val

p latform a pproximately 5 0 m i n d iameter, a nd t wo l arge b uildings w ere d etected c lose t o t he c entre. T he t otal n umber o f b uildings i ncludes 46 s mall, 9 m edium, 3 5 l arge a nd 8 p reviously e xcavated b y v on S tern, 4 t otalling 4 98. V . M arkevi ( 1981) c alculates a p opulation o f a bout 4 000, a ssuming t hat t he a verage n umber o f i nhabitants f or a s mall h ouse w as

7 , m edium h ouse

1 0,

a nd a l arge h ouse

1 85

1 5

( vide

i nfra).

T able 2 3 L argest C ucuteni-Tripolye s ettlements.

S ite

P eriod

N o. o f B uildings

A rea ( ha)

R eference(s)

T rugegti

C ucuteni A

9 5

4

P etrescu-Dimbovita 1 963

V ladimirovka

M iddle T ripolye

2 00

7 6

P assek 1 949

P etreny

M iddle-Late T ripolye

4 98*

3 0

v on S tern 1 907; M arkev C 1 981

V arvarovka V III L ate T ripolye

2 00

4 0

M arkevi

S tarye B adrazi

L ate T ripolye

**

5 0

M arkeviC/ 1 981

S ugkivka

L ate T ripolye

**

2 7

g igkin 1 973

K rasnostavka

L ate T ripolye

**

3 0

hgkin 1 973

C yg s yrkozivka

Lt a e T ripolye

**

5 0

g igkin 1 973

P 'jan akove

L ate T ripolye

**

6 0

g igkin 1 973

K osen i vka

L ate T ripolye

* *

7 0

hgkin 1 973

D obrovody

L ate T ripolye

2 50

g igkin 1 973; M ovga 1 983

N ebelivka

L ate T ripolye

**

2 50

g igkin 1 973

M ajdanets'ke

L ate T ripolye

1 200-1700* 2 70

G lybo ‘ Clo k

L ate T ripolye * *

3 00

niglits 1 971

T alljanky

L ate T ripolye

4 00

g igkin 1 973; R y ov 1 983

*

1 981

D udkin 1 978; g igkin 1 973; g maglij e t a l. 1 973a, 1 973b, 1 976, 1 977, 1 981; A rtemenko 1 979-80

K ruts a nd

* f igs. * * a rea o nly d etermined b y a erial s urveying; d etails a re l acking

1 86

M ap 2 5

N i gh -popu l a t io n T r ipo ly e s e t t lem en ts w i th e x c a v a t io n s i nS o v ie t M o ld a v ia a n d t h e U k r a in e

1 87

I n t he U kraine, a l arge n umber o f t hese d ensely p opulated L ate T ripolye s ites h ave b een f ound a nd s urveyed ( table 2 3, m ap 2 5). J udging b y t he o ccupation a reas, t hese s ites a ppear t o c luster i nto t wo g roups: 2 5-75 h a a nd 2 50-400 h a. U nfortunately, n o s pecific d etails a re a vailable f or t he f ormer g roup; h owever, f or t he l atter g roup, t hree s ites h ave r eceived a ttention a nd l imited e xcavation h as b egun . T he s ite o f M ajdanets'ke i s l ocated o n a p rojection o f a p lateau r ising o ver a r iver v alley a nd c overs a n a rea o f a pproximately 2 70 h a. O n t he a rea t hat h as r eceived m agnetometer s urveys a bout 4 00 s tructures h ave b een f ound a lready . T he w hole s ettlement i s e stimated t o h ave c onsisted o f a nywhere f rom 1 200 t o 1 700 b uildings a rranged i n 1 0 t o 1 2 c oncentric e llipses. T he b uildings w ere r ectangular i n p lan . A s a t P etreny, t here w as a r ow o f v ery l arge b uilding f oundations a t t he o utskirts o f t he s ettlement ( Artemenko 1 979-80; D udkin 1 978; g igkin ‚ t r i aglij e t a l. 1 973a, 1 973b, 1 976, 1 977, 1 981). 1 973; T he s ite o f D obrovody c overs 2 50 h a a nd i s l ocated b y a r iver. A s o f 1 981, 2 20 s mall r ectangular b uildings h ad b een i dentified f rom s urface s urveys c onducted a fter h arvesting. O nly t wo d wellings h ave b een e xcavated s o f ar. F rom a erial a nd s urface s urveys, t he b uildings h ad b een o rganised i nto s everal c oncentric r ings, a nd i nterconnecting p athways c ould a lso b e d etermined ( gigkin 1 973; M ovga 1 983). T he l argest k nown s ite i s T alljanky, c overing 4 00 h a, a nd w as a lso s ituated o n a p lateau. F igure 7 2 s hows t he a erial s urvey o f t he s ite a s k nown i n 1 973. T he s ettlement i s o val i n p lan a nd m easures 3 .5 x 1 .5 k m . A s o f 1 981, a s urface s urvey o f o ne s mall a rea o f t he s ite r evealed 4 38 b uildings a rranged i n s everal r ows a long t he s lope o f t he p lateau, b ut o nly o ne r ectangular b uilding ( 10 x 4 m ) h as b een e xcavated ( gigkin 1 973; K ruts a nd R 34ov 1 983). P opulation e stimates f or s ites s uch a s P etreny a re h ighly s peculative a nd a re b ased o n t he a ssumptions t hat a ll o f t he b uildings w ere r esidential i n n ature a nd o ccupied a t a bout t he s ame t ime. C oncerning t he f irst a ssumption, p ending a ctual e xcavation m any o f t he s maller b uildings m ay w ell p rove t o b e f ood s torage b uildings b uilt n ext t o a nd a ssociated w ith d wellings. T his h ypothesis i s n ot u nreasonable w hen o ne c onsiders t he s ite o f K olomijg nna w here a s mall f ood s torage b uilding w as f ound n ext t o a l onghouse ( section I V .C.1.) a nd t he l arge q uantities o f s torage v essels ( up t o 5 0) t hat a re f ound i n s ome d wellings a nd w hich w ould d ecrease a vailable l iving s pace. E ven l arger b uildings m ay n ot p rove t o b e r esidences: O f t he e ight b uildings ( out o f 4 98) e xcavated a t P etreny, a ll e ight w ere n onr esidential a nd a ssumed b y t his a uthor t o b e p ottery w orkshops; o f t he f ive b uildings ( out o f 2 00) e xcavated a t V arvarovka V III, o ne w as a lso a p ottery w orkshop. T he f oregoing d ata m erely u nderlines t he n eed f or t horough e xcavation b efore w e c an a ssume a b uilding t o b e a r esidence a nd s ubsequently e xtrapolate p opulation f igures. C oncerning t he s econd a ssumption a bove t hat m ost, i f n ot a ll, b uildings w ere u sed a t a bout t he s ame t ime--aerial s urveying, f ollowed b y m ore p recise m agnetometer s urveying, h as r evealed d efinite p atterns o f b uilding a rrangement a nd i ntervening p athways s o m uch s o t hat o ne c an o bserve p reconceived s ettlement p lanning i n c oncentric r ings o r e ven p lanning o f d istricts ( fig. 7 1).

1 88

E ven i f o ne t akes t he m ost c onservative v iew t owards p opulation e stimates a nd a ssumes t hat h alf o f t he b uildings w ere u sed f or p urposes o ther t han r esidential, t hen o ne c ould a t m ost d ecrease M arkevic's p opulation e stimate o f 4 000 f or P etreny t o 2 000. T his p opulation s ize s tands i n s tark c ontrast t o w hat i s n ormally t hought o f i n t erms o f N eolithic v illage p opulations. C learly, a b reak f rom t he N eolithic t radition a nd a c rucial e lement o f r anked s ociety, i .e. h igher p opulation a ggregates, c an b e o bserved h ere. I t i s i mportant t o k eep i n m ind t he g rowing n umber o f s uch l arge s ites w hich h ave b een d iscovered ( table 2 3). A lthough i t i s i mperative t hat o nly e xcavation w ill r eveal t he e xact n ature o f t hese b uilding a gglomerations-a nd e xcavation h as a lready b egun--the n umber o f t hese s ites i s t oo l arge t o b e i gnored i n a ssessing t he g rowing c omplexity o f s ocio-economic r elations.

I V .B.3.

S izes o f d wellings

C oncomitant w ith t he i ncrease i n t he n umber a nd s izes o f s ettlem ents i s a g rowing p redilection t owards t he c onstruction o f l ong h ouses a nd e ven t wo-storey h ouses. T he t radition o f t he o ne-family d welling g radually g ave w ay, d uring t he l ater p hases a nd a s o ne p rogresses t owards t he e ast, t o l arger b uildings. T his t rend i s c learly s een b y s uch L ate T ripolye s ites a s K olomij nIna I i n t he D nepr R iver r egion w hose d wellings r each u p t o 2 3 m i n l ength, m ay c ontain a s m any a s f ive o vens, a nd a re s ubd ivided i nto s everal r ooms ( Passek 1 949:134-135). T hese l arge d wellings p rompt o ne t o s uspect t hat i f t hese b uildings w ere n ot b eing u sed b y m ore t han o ne f amily t hey m ight a t l east h ouse k in o f t he e xtended f amily. A lthough, i t s hould n ot b e c onstrued t hat a ll b uildings a t a ny p articular s ettlement w ould h ave s imilar d imensions: B uilding s ize v aried c onsiderably a nd a ppears t o h ave b een d ictated b y f unction a nd/or n eed. U sing d ata f rom P assek ( 1949:134 f f), b uilding s izes c ould b e g rouped a s f ollows: 1 ) 2 ) 3 )

s mall: m edium : l arge:

4 -8 m ( 1) x 2 -5 m ( w); 1 0-15 c eramic v essels 1 0-15 m ( 1) x 5 -6 m ( w); 2 0-30 c eramic v essels 1 6-23 m ( 1) x 6 -8 m ( w); 3 5-50 c eramic v essels

T he c onstruction d etails o f t wo-storey b uildings w ere o utlined i n c hapter I I. H owever, t heir o ccurrence, l ocation w ithin t he s ite, a nd f unction v aried c onsiderably . F or i nstance o n s maller s ites ( i.e. u nder 2 00 b uildings) o nly o ne o r t wo o f t hese t wo-storey b uildings m ay o ccur a nd i n n o s pecific l ocation. W hereas, o n l arger s ites s uch a s P etreny a nd p ossibly a lso a t M ajdanets'ke, a r ow o f l arge t wo-storey b uildings w as f ound a t t he o utskirts o f t he s ettlements. F unction a lso v aries: A s w as d iscussed i n c hapter I II, t he t wo-storey s tructures f ound a t V arvarovka V III a nd P etreny w ere d etermined t o b e c eramic w orkshops a nd n ot r esidences. H owever, a t o ther s ites s uch a s B rynzeny I II ( Bränzeni), t he o ccupation d ebris r ecovered f rom t wo-storey b uildings d oes s uggest t hat t hey w ere u sed a s d wellings ( Markevii 1 981).

1 89

• r 4

• e 0

4 1

1 90 C u c t e n i T r i p o l y e v i l a g e

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0 ' 44

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1 91

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F ig. 6 9

A erial p hotographic s urvey o f P etreny

1 92

( Petreni).

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A erial

s urvey m ap

o f D obrovody;

s urveyed b y m agnetometer.

1 94

n orthern p art o f

s ite

F ig,

7 2

A erial p hotographic

1 95

s urvey o f T alljanky.

M ap 2 6 T r ipo lye s e t lemen ts i n t h e U m an ' r e g ion ( U k r a in e ) t

•s e t lemen t s 2 5 0 -400 h a t •s e t l em en ts 2 5-75 h a t •o t h e r , w e l d o c um e n t e d s e t lem en ts l t .o t he r , p o r l y d o cum e n te d s e t lem en t s o t

a M a jd an e ts ' k e

f S t f i k i vk a

b D o b r o v o d y

g K r a s n o s t a v k a

c T a lj a n k y l

y r k o z i v k a h t yc

d N e b e l iv ka

i r jan iko v e i

e G l yb o Eo k

1 96

K o s en i v k a

I V.B.4.

C onclusion:

" Chiefdoms" a nd t he p ath t o c omplex s ociety

F rom t he f oregoing i nformation, t wo p oints c an b e m ade r egarding t he p alaeodemography o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture: N ot o nly i s t here p opulation i ncrease a t a r elatively r apid r ate o ver t he b lack e arth z one, b ut a lso, a nd m ore i mportantly, t here i s a n a pparent p opulation d ensification p rocess d uring t he l atter p hases. T his i ncrease i n p opulation d ensity i s e vident f rom t he a gglomerated s ettlements a nd a lso f rom t he u se o f l arger a nd t wo-storey d wellings. N o c learer e xample o f e xtreme p opulation d ensity c an b e s een t han a t t he s ite o f P etreny ( Petreni) w here 4 98 b uildings w ere t ightly o rganised o ver a n a rea o f j ust 3 0 h a. T he m ap o f t he U man' r egion ( map 2 6) w hich i s b ased o n i ntense a erial s urveying ( gigkin 1 973) h as t remendous p otential f or i nformation o n t he w ider c ommunity. A lthough a ll o f t he s ites d epicted o n t he m ap a re k nown t o b e T ripolye s ites, l ack o f e xcavation a nd p recise p eriodisation p reclude u s f rom m aking a ny s pecific c onclusions a t t his t ime. H owever, a ttention i s c alled n ot o nly t o t he i ntense s ettlement o f t his r egion a nd t he n umber o f s ites, b ut a lso t o t he f act t hat t he s ettlements m easuring b etween 2 50 a nd 4 00 h a a re a t a pproximately e qual d istances ( between 1 0 t o 1 5 k m) f rom o ne a nother. T he s ettlements m easuring 2 5-75 h a i n a rea d o n ot, a t p resent, s how a ny p atterning. B ut t his f eature o f t he f ormer g roup o f s ettlements w ould a t l east i ndicate s ome s ocio-political b oundaries a nd a ccompanying s pheres o f i nfluence. N evertheless, l ooking a t t he C ucuteni-Tripolye t erritory a s a n i ntegrated w hole a nd f ollowing t he d evelopments t hrough t ime, a n e volutionary p ath t owards m ore c omplex s ocio-economic r elationships c an b e t raced. T his l evel o f s ocial o rganisation l ies s omewhere o n a c ontinuum f rom w hat h as b een t ermed " tribe" t o t he l evel o f " state" s ociety. I n 1 962, E . S ervice m ade a n a ttempt t o d elineate w hat h e t hought w ere t he s alient c riteria i n d efining t he " band", " tribe", a nd " chiefdom". T he u se o f t hese t erms h as c ome u nder s evere c riticism i n b oth s ocial a nthropology a nd a rchaeology ( cf. H elm 1 968; R enfrew 1 974), s uch t hat t he t erm " ranked s ociety" h as n ow b ecome t he p referred p hrase ( Renfrew a nd S hennan 1 982). P art o f t he p roblem i s t hat a ny s pecific t erm c annot r eflect t he i nfinite v ariability o f h uman e xistence, a nd i n s tretching d efinitions t o c over a r ealm o f p ossibilities i n s ocial o rganisation, t he e ssential m eaning o f a t erm c an e asily b e l ost. H owever, d espite t he t erminological c rossfire, E . S ervice's d efinition o f " chiefdom" s till r etains m uch v alue i n i dentifying c omplex, p re-state s ocieties ( Service 1 962:143-144). I t s hould b e e mphasised t hat i t i s n ot t he w ord c hiefdom t hat i s i mportant s o m uch a s t he c riteria, w hich s till p rovide v ery u seful g uidelines f or a rchaeology i n a nalysing s ocial e volution t hrough t ime. T herefore, t he w ord " chiefdom" w ill b e u sed i n t his t ext a s a s horthand d evice f or a h ost o f f eatures--established b y E . S ervice a nd r eiterated b y R enfrew ( 1973,

1 974)--which h elp u s t o r ecognise c omplex, p re-state s ocieties:

1 . 2 .

a r anked s ociety r edistribution o f p roduce f rom a c ontrolling c entre

3 . 4 .

g reater p opulation d ensity i ncrease i n t otal p opulation

1 97

5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0. 1 1. 1 2.

1 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6. 1 7. 1 8. 1 9.

i ncrease i n t he s ize o f i ndividual r esidence g roups g reater p roductivity c learly d efined t erritorial b oundaries am ore i ntegrated s ociety w ith a g reater n umber o f s ocial s tatuses c entres w hich c o-ordinate s ocial, r eligious, a nd e conomic a ctivity f requent c eremonies a nd r ituals s erving w ide s ocial p urposes r ise o f r eligious s pecialists s pecialisations, n ot o nly r egional o r e cological b ut a lso t hrough t he p ooling o f i ndividual s kills i n l arge c o-operative e ndeavours o rganisation o f p ublic l abour f or a gricultural o r c onstruction w ork i mprovement i n c raft s pecialisation p otential f or t erritorial e xpansion r eduction o f i nternal s trife i nequality o f p ersons o r g roups a s ar esult o f p ermanent p olitical l eadership d istinctive d ress o r o rnament f or t hose o f h igh s tatus n o t rue g overnment t o b ackup d ecisions b y l egalised f orce

I t i s i mportant t o n ote a gain t hat t he a bove c riteria a re m erely g uidelines: R enfrew ( 1974) m aintains t hat, u nder f avourable c ircums tances, a ll o f t he a bove c haracteristics s hould b e i dentifiable i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. H owever, s ince a rchaeological c ircumstances a re n ot a lways f avourable, a nd t his i s t he c ase w ith t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture, s ome o f t hese c riteria m ay n ot b e r eadily v isible a nd s ome m ay b e d erived i ndirectly o n t he b asis o f o ther a rchaeological d ata ( vide i nfra). T urning t o t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture i n t he l ate p eriod a s a n e xample, t he m ost r eadily r ecognisable c riteria f or t he e xistence o f r anked s ociety a re a s f ollows: G reater p opulation d ensity, i ncrease i n t otal p opulation, a nd a n i ncrease i n t he s ize o f i ndividual r esidence g roups ( on t he b asis o f i ncreased d welling s ize) h ave a lready b een d escribed w ell i n t his c hapter a s c lear h allmarks o f f undamental d emographic a nd s ocial c hanges. M ore c learly d efined t erritorial b oundaries c an b e i dentified f rom t he i ncreasing u se o f a s m any a s t hree d itch/rampart c onstructions w hich s urround a lmost a ll s ettlement ( cf. s ection I I.C.6) a nd s econdly, t he e qual d istances a t w hich t he v ery l arge s ites o f t he U man' r egion a re l ocated a lso i ndicate b ound aries ( vide s upra). T he p otential f or t erritorial e xpansion w as a lmost l imitless f or t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture a s i ts p opulations m oved o ver t he E astern C arpathians a nd a cross M oldova i nto t he U kraine w ith n o a pparent i mpediments. S ites s uch a s P etreny, V arvarovka VIII, M ajdanets'ke, D obrovody, T alljanky, a nd m any o thers m ay p rove t o b e c entres w hich c o-ordinated s ocial, r eligious, a nd e conomic a ctivities-p ending n ot o nly t heir e xcavation b ut a lso s tudy o f t he s urrounding s ites. M ost o f t he o ther c riteria c an o nly b e b ased o n v ery l imited d ata-a t t he p resent t ime--or m ust b e d erived l ogically f rom c ircumstantial e vidence. F or i nstance, t he e xistence o f s ettlements with p robably a s m any a s 2 000 d wellings, b ased o n m any h undreds o f c onstructions w hich h ave a lready b een f ound a t e ach o f t he l argest s ites--together w ith t he

1 98

f act t hat

t hese

s ettlements

s how v arying d egrees o f p reconceived

p lanning, i ndicating r easonable c ontemporaneity o f d welling o ccupation-l eads o ne t o c alculate t remendous p opulation a ggregates. B iologically s peaking, i t i s o nly l ogical t hat g reater p roductivity i n f ood p rocurem ent a ctivities i s a bsolutely e ssential. I t a lso f ollows t hat t he r edistribution o f p roduce, s kill s pecialisation, a nd t he o rganisation o f p ublic l abour f or a gricultural a nd c onstruction w ork--which c ould o nly h ave b een o rganised w ithin a r anked s ociety--would b e r equired f or t he s urvival o f t hese l arge, p re-Bronze A ge p opulation c entres. I n a ddition, t he i ncreased d ensification a nd l ongevity o f s ettlements l ike P etreny w ould n ecessitate t he r eduction o f i nternal s trife w ithout t he n eed o f f orce t o m aintain s tability. T he p roof o f c riteria 8 , 1 7, a nd 1 8--all r elating t o i ndividual s tatus within t he s ocial g roup--will n ecessarily h ave t o a wait t he d iscovery a nd a nalysis o f m ore b urials. C riteria 1 0 a nd 1 1 b oth r efer t o t he s piritual o r m agico-religious l ife o f t he i nhabitants. A ctual a rchaeological p roof o f r eligious p ersonages d oes n ot e xist a nd m ay n ever b e f ound e xcept i n a b urial c ontext. H owever, e vidence f or c eremonial/ritual b ehaviour a bounds o n C ucuteni-Tripolye s ites ( cf. G imbutas 1 982). S tylised f emale a nd z oomorphic f igurines a re f ound o n e very e xcavated C ucuteni-Tripolye s ettlement, i nside a nd o utside d wellings. T he m ost d ramatic e xample i s t he d iscovery a t T ell P oduri o f 2 1 p ainted a nd u npainted f emale f igurines w ith a ccompanying s eats ( "thrones") a ll c ontained i nside a P re-Cucuteni v ase ( Monah e t a l. 1 983). I n a ddition t o f emale s culptures a re a lso f ound w hat a ppear t o b e m odels o f s anctuaries ( e.g. T rusesti) a nd t he o mnipresent t win v ases ( "binocular v ases") w hich c ould n ot h ave s erved a ny u tilitarian p urposes, b ottomless

( cf.

F inally,

s ince t hey a re b oth h ollow a nd

o P etrescu-Dibbovi -

1 963;

G imbutas 1 982;

i mprovements i n p yrotechnology a nd

K andyba 1 937).

i n t he o rganisation o f

m anufacturing c learly c ontributed t o t he o verall d evelopment

o f c omplex

s ociety ( cf. c hapter I II). V ery e arly i n t he p ainted w are s equence a t t he s ite o f A riusd, t he d iscovery o f m ore t han a d ozen k ilns a ttest t o t he e mergence o f p ottery p roduction c entres a nd t his t rend c ontinued u ntil t he l atest p hase o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture w ith t he a ppearance o f c raft w orkshops a nd e ven c raft p roduction a reas a t t he o utskirts o f l arge s ites. U sing E .

S ervice's c riteria o ne c an i dentify t he d evelopment o f a n

e arly f orm o f r anked s ociety a mong t he C ucuteni-Tripolye p opulations. A dmittedly, s ome t ypes o f i mportant d ata a re l acking s uch a s b urials a nd t he t horough e xcavation o f t he

l arge s ites o f t he U man'

r egion .

H owever,

i t i s f elt t hat e nough d ata d o e xist t o d efine a n e mbryonic f orm o f c omplex s ocio-economic o rganisation i n a t l east t hree a reas--northeastern R omania, c entral S oviet M oldavia, a nd t he U man' r egion o f t he U kraine-d uring t he

l atter h alf o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye s equence.

1 99

P yrotechnology a nd

i ts r ole i n s ocio-economic e volution

T he r emainder o f t his c hapter w ill b e d evoted t o t he i nterrelations hips o f t echnological a nd s ocio-economic e volution . T he e ffect o f i ntense c eramic t echnology o n s ocio-economic d evelopment c an b e s een i n a t l east t hree a reas: t he r emoval o f a s ignificant p ortion o f t he p opulation f rom a gricultural p roduction, t he h igh d egree o f o rganisation o f m anufacturing a ctivities, a nd t he u se a s a m eans o f s torage t o which t he f inished p roduct w as p ut. T his s ituation w as n ot o ne-sided: S ocial a nd e conomic n eeds a lso waged t heir i nfluence o n c eramic t echnology. T he p opulation d ensification p rocess w ould n ecessarily r equire p rotection a gainst t he p ossibilities o f a d windling f ood s upply. T herefore, t he d emand f or w ell f ired s torage v essels n ecessitated m ass p roduction m ethods.

I V .C.1.

F eeding t he m asses:

t echnology a nd f ood

s torage

A s w as n oted i n c hapter I II, n o s ignificant c hanges i n p aste p reparation a nd v essel f iring c ould b e d etected d uring t he p ainted w are s equence--from t he b eginning o f C ucuteni A ( =Tripolye B I ), p otters h ad m anufactured d ense, w ell o xidised, w ell f ired p roducts. M uch v erbal d ebate h as i ssued c oncerning t he u se o f t his f ine p ainted p ottery. F ire a nd s oot m arks f rom c ooking a re s eldom o bserved, m any t imes v essels a re f ound i n a r itual c ontext, a nd t here i s a n u nusually h igh r etrieval r ate o f w hole, u ndamaged v essels w hen c ompared t o t he f inds f rom c ontemporaneous c ultures. T hese f acts t ogether with t he a ppearance o f t he s hell/sand-tempered " Type C " w are h ave i nduced s ome r esearchers t o b elieve t hat t he p ainted v essels w ere n ot u sed f or c ulinary p urposes a t a ll. H owever, n o s implistic e xplanation o n u se w ill s uffice. I t a ppears t hat u se, a s m ay b e d efined f rom a rchaeol ogical c ontext, v aried i n b oth t ime a nd p lace. O ne c annot s imply s ay t hat " Type C " w are w as u sed f or c ooking i n t he e ntire C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture ( cf. P assek 1 949). A s m entioned i n c hapter I I, t his i ntrusive w are i s q uite r are ( i.e. l ess t han a d ozen s herds), a nd e ven n one xistent, a t m any s ites i n t he C arpathian r egion . T he k itchen u se o f " Type C " w are m ay v ery w ell h old t rue f or t he m ore e asterly r egions a nd f or t he l atest p eriod o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture where t his ware m ay c omprise a s m uch a s 5 0% o r m ore o f t he t otal c eramic i nventory. M oreover, w e m ust n ot n eglect t he f act t hat e ast o f t he S iret R iver, t he a rchaic i ncised/excised w are p ersists r epertoire a nd

i n t he t echnological

c ould v ery w ell h ave h ad c ulinary p urposes.

H owever, r eturning t o t he s ubject

o f t he p ainted w are--which was

e ither t he s ole o r p redominant c eramic t ype a t C ucuteni-Tripolye s ites-s everal c riteria p oint t o t he i ncreasing u se o f t he p ainted w are a s a m edium f or f ood s torage. F irst o f a ll, v essel s hape a nd s ize, w hich w as q uite v aried d uring t he C ucuteni A ( =Tripolye B I ) p eriod ( figs. 7 a nd 8 ), b ecame m ore u niform i ncluding a p redilection t owards l arger v essels d uring t he C ucuteni B ( =Tripolye C ) p eriod ( figs. 7 3-76). I n a ddition, t he o rifices o f b iconical v essels w ere m ade more r estricted a nd t he a ccompanying u se o f c eramic l ids o r c overs w as q uite p opular ( fig.

1 0:76-103).

I t

i s n ot u ncommon t o e ncounter i n R omanian m useum

c ollections w hole v essels m easuring u p t o 1m i n h eight a nd w ith s ufficient d ensity a nd w eight a s t o r equire t he a ssistance o f t wo p ersons t o m ove t hem . T he r estricted a ssess, c onsiderable w eight,

2 00

a nd

mmmm m e s e. orsmears in se s oe •s a i s ie se ssee r wm po wi sl b . S u ms . s or.

F ig.

7 3

. 11 1. 1 1 111• 01 . 0. 1 1 .1 1 1 ** *** * *

S torage v essels f rom P etreny

2 01

• 1 1.

( 1/10 n atural s ize).

F ig.

7 4

S torage v essels

f rom K rutoborodintsy 1 1

2 02

( 1/10 n atural

s ize).

/ / / / /

% % \

\

/

\

\

. . . . .,. .

Fig.

7 5

.

.• ••

/

S torage v essels a nd T om Aevka

f rom S taraja B uda

( middle a nd b ottom;

2 03

( top;

1 /6 n atural

1 /20 n atural

s ize)

s ize).

F ig.

7 6

S torage v essels f rom V ladimirovka ( upper; 1 /6 n atural s ize) a nd K r aCatek ( lower; 1 /7 n atural s ize).

2 04

l ack o f m obility o f t hese v essels p recluded t heir u se f or e veryday f ood p reparation . B esides t heir c umbersome p hysical c haracteristics, t he a rchaeol ogical c ontext a lso o ffers s ome i nteresting d etails. O mnipresent i n t he r eports o f f inds f rom T ripolye B I I-C s ites a re t he g reat q uantities o f v essels ( as m any a s 5 0) t hat a re f ound i nside b uildings ( section I V.B.3). M any v essels h ave b een f ound c ontaining c harred g rain o r a nimal b ones, w hich h as t empted s ome t o r egard t his a s " ritualistic" b ehaviour ( section I II .D). A lso o f n ote i s t he o ccurrence o f v ery s mall b uildings w ithout h earths w hich w ere p robably n ot d wellings, f or i nstance b uildings n o. 7 a t t he L ate T ripolye s ite o f K olomi f aina I w hich m easured 2 4 s q. m , c ontained m ore t han 2 0 v essels, a nd w as b uilt q uite c lose t o a l onghouse ( no. 6 ) ( Passek 1 949:134). A ll o f t he f oregoing s uggest t hat t he p ainted w are--especially t he l arger v essels--were b eing u sed p redominantly f or s torage p urposes. T he v oluminous s hape, r estricted o rifices, w ell f ired a nd d ense w alls, l ocation, c ontents, a nd c ondition u pon d iscovery a ll s upport t heir u se a s

f ood

s torage c ontainers.

T he n ecessity f or f ood s torage b ecomes a pparent w hen v iewed i n t he c ontext o f a g rowing p opulation, a nd t his n eed b ecomes e ven m ore a cute i n r elation t o s ettlements w hich a re u nusually d ensely p opulated ( cf. H alstead a nd O 'Shea 1 982). A lthough t he b lack e arth z one o f t he U kraine i s o ne o f t he m ost f ertile r egions i n t he w orld, t his i s n o g uarantee a gainst t he v agaries o f w eather--the h ealth a nd l ongevity o f p rehistoric p opulations d epends n ot o nly o n a gricultural p roductivity a nd t he a vailability o f g ame, b ut a lso o n h ow w ell t he w inter a nd o ther p oor s easons a re s urvived. T he s uperb t echnological c apabilities, w hich w ere v ery e arly d eveloped i n t he h istory o f t his c ulture, p rovided a n e xcellent m eans f or f ood s torage a gainst h umidity a nd p ests. T his c apability s lowly b ut s urely o ffered s ome a dditional a ssurance o f f ood a vailability a nd l arger n umbers o f p eople c ould b e a dequately s upported. I t i s n o a ccident t hat s o m any l arge a nd d ense s ettlements h ave a lready b een d iscovered a nd t hat t hey d ate t o t he l atter p hases o f t he c ulture. P opulation d ensification w as a s low p rocess b ut c onsidering t he n umber o f l arge s ettlements s o f ar k nown s ome g uarantees o f a s table f ood s ource h ad t o h ave e xisted f or a g reat

l ength o f t ime.

I t i s a lso n o a ccident t hat t he l ongest a rea o f o ccupation f or t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture ( i.e. t he E astern C arpathians a nd s ubC arpathians) h appens t o b e a r egion n oted f or o ne o f t he l argest s alt f ormations i n E astern E urope ( map 2 7). E xploitation o f, c ontrol o ver, a nd t rading o f t his e ssential r esource n o d oubt c ontributed t o t he s tability o f C ucuteni-Tripolye v illage l ife i n t he f ace o f c ulture c ontact with e astern s teppe p astoralists, a s w ell a s e nhancing t he q uality o f f ood s torage, f ood c onsumption, a nd a nimal a nd h uman h ealth.

I V.C.2.

F rom a rtistic e ndeavour t o p ragmatism :

s ocio-economic n eeds

a nd c onstraints o n p roduction While t echnology e nabled a g rowing p opulation t o a chieve s tability i n f ood

a vailability, t he d ensification o f t he p opulation a t

a s P etreny

( Petreni)

c ulinary a nd

f ood

c reated e normous d emands

s torage v essels a nd i t

2 05

s ettlements

i n t erms o f b oth

i s s uggested h ere t hat m ore

S a l t f o r m a t i o n s

••

5 0

1 4

•

• 1•• .

•

-

% A , •v

‘‚ ‘

N . 1 /y

M a i n s a l t m a s i f s

46 ,

u n d e r c o v e r

I I

S a l t f o r m a t i o n

e C

• • ••

• •

•

. •

206

. 5 44 / 1‘

•

e fficient m eans o f p roduction w ould h ave b een a r equirement a t t he b ehest o f t he s ocio-economic s tructure. A s h as b een s tated i n c hapter I II, o nce s tandards f or p aste p reparation a nd f iring t echnique h ad b een e stablished a t t he b eginning o f t he p ainted w are s equence, t he t echnological i nnovations t o f ollow a ll r elated t o t he c oncept o f m ass p roduction a s a r esult o f e conomic d emands. O ne o f t he p ractices t o h ave b een a ffected i s t he d ecorative t echnology . D uring t he C ucuteni A ( =Tripolye B I ) p eriod, a lmost e very s ort o f c eramic o bject w as p ainted: c ups, j ars, v essel s upports, o pen b owls, d ishes, f igurines, a nd e ven l adels. N ot o nly w as t he e xterior s urface c ompletely c overed i n t hree c olours, b ut, w here f easible, t he i nterior s urface w as a lso p ainted. T his t radition c ontinued i nto t he C ucuteni A B p eriod w est o f t he P rut R iver. I t a ppears t hat t he c eramic m edium b ecame t he o bject o f a n e xplosion i n a rtistic a nd t echnological m eticulousness b eyond t he b ounds o f p racticality . T he d ramatic r eduction i n s urface d ecoration w hich o ccurs d uring t he C ucuteni B ( =Tripolye C ) p eriod i s p art o f t he r esponse o f t echnology t o e conomic d emands. T he o ther p art o f t he r esponse i nvolves t he u se o f a s imple w heel-d irect e vidence f or w hich w as f ound a t V arvarovka V III a nd V arvarovka X V a nd i ndirectly a ttested a t G helgieeti, Vgleni a nd Ttrgu O cna-Podei-w hich c ould e nsure a m ore u niform v essel a nd r educe p roduction t ime ( section I II .B.2). A lso i n c onnection w ith r otary m otion i s t he d iminished v ariety i n c eramic o bjects a nd t he m ovement t owards t he s tandardisation o f b iconical v essels a nd o pen b owls. T he d evelopment o f k ilns b egan v ery e arly, a s w as n oted f or t he s ite o f A riued i n T ransilvania. T he d evelopment o f t he u p-draught k iln f ollowed v ery s hortly e ast o f t he C arpathians. S ince m uch t ime a nd e nergy w ere b eing i nvested i n c eramic m anufacturing, f ire c louding, t hermal s hock a nd o ther f iring a ccidents c ould b e a voided, i f n ot e liminated, w ithin t he k iln . A lthough f iring t ime w as p robably l onger t han w ould h ave b een i n p it f irings, t he l ong, e ven f iring p roduced a d ense a nd s turdy v essel. A nd t he v ery n umbers o f k ilns f ound a t l ater iv anets, 1 8 a t K oszylowce-Oboz) a ttest t o t he s ites ( e.g. s even a t Z d emand f or i ncreased p roduction ( section I II .C).

I V .C.3.

E nergy a nd t he o rganisation o f l abour i n m anufacturing

I n t he p revious t wo s ections,

t he i nterrelationships o f t echnology

a nd t he s ocio-economic s tructure w ere e xplored s olely i n t erms o f t he f inished p roduct. T his a nalysis o f o utput w as d iscussed w ithin t he f ramework o f a n e arly a dvanced p yrotechnology w ith g rowing e mphasis o n m ass p roduction m ethods i n o rder t o s erve t he n eeds o f s ettlement e xpansion a nd p opulation a gglomeration. H owever, t his c oncluding s ection w ill d elineate t he t echnological a nd e conomic i nterrelationships f rom a n e nergy,

o r i nput, p oint o f v iew .

C oncerning r aw m aterials, t remendous a mounts o f c lay, a t a r easonable d istance f rom t he s ettlement o r w orkshop, w ould h ave b een n ecessary f or b oth h ouse c onstruction a nd p ottery m anufacturing.

2 07

L ikewise, t he c onstruction o f k ilns r equired t he u se o f c lay a s w ell a s s and a nd s traw . I n f act, i t i s d ifficult t o v isualise t he p rocurement o f t he n ecessary q uantities o f t his r aw m aterial, e specially a t t he d ensely s ettled s ites a nd s ettlements w here m any k ilns w ere f ound, w ithout t he a ssistance o f s everal f ull-time m ale w orkers, e ven i f n eeded o nly s easonally . T here i s a n i ndication t hat t he k ilns m ay h ave b een b uilt r ight a t t he c lay s ource, h owever, o nly d ata f rom o ne s ite, D rggueeni, c onfirms t his o bservation ( section I II .C.1). T he p rocurem ent o f w ood f or f uel c onsumption, a s w ell a s t he u se o f w ood i n g eneral, m ust h ave a lso r equired c onsiderable m anpower. W ood w as u sed n ot o nly f or f iring c eramics b ut a lso f or b uilding c onstruction . I n t erms o f h uman e nergy, l abour h ad t o h ave b een d iversified i n t hree a reas: p rocurement o f c lay a nd o ther r aw m aterials ( e.g. m inerals f or p igments, w ater, s and, s traw), f uel/wood p rocurement, a nd i n p ottery p roduction i tself. A lthough n o q uantitative d ata c an b e o ffered h ere, t he a bove-described r equirements f or f uel a nd r aw m aterials t ogether w ith t he m anufacturing p rocess i tself r emoved a dult h uman l abour f rom a gricultural a nd o ther f ood-getting a ctivities. T his i s n o m ore a pparent t han i n t he h igh a rtistic a nd t echnological q uality o f t he f inished p roducts, u niform p roduction m ethods, t he q uantity a nd d etailed c onstruction o f k ilns, a nd t he u se o f b uildings s olely f or m anufacturing a ctivities, a ll o f w hich i ndicate a s ubstantial i nvestm ent i n t ime a nd h uman e nergy--an i nvestment a nd a d etailed e mpirical k nowledge o f t echnology t hat p reclude a ny i dea o f c asual p ottery-making. O n t he c ontrary, n ot o nly i s t he p resence o f s everal l abourers f or t he p rocurement o f f uel a nd r aw m aterials i ndicated, b ut a lso t he p resence o f s everal t ypes o f c raft s pecialists w ho w ere k nowledgeable i n c lay r efinement, r otary m otion a nd v essel f ormation, d ecorative t echnology, a nd/or k iln c onstruction a nd f iring t echniques. V on S tern 's e xcavations a t P etreny m ay h ave r evealed a n e ntire c raft d istrict o r m anufacturing c entre a t t he b oundaries o f t he s ettlement w here a ctivities c ould b e c o-ordinated a nd o rganised i nto e fficient c eramic p roduction ( section I II .D). T he r emoval o f h uman e nergy f rom a gricultural d uties a gain u nderlines t he n ecessity f or e xcess f ood p roduction, f ood s torage, a nd t he s ocio-political s tructure w ith t he p ower t o d irect c ommunal e ndeavours a nd r edistribute f oodstuffs t o t hose i nvolved w ith c eramic m anufacturing.

I V.D .

C onclusion

O ver t he c ourse o f d iscussions, w e h ave s een s everal t rends i n p yrotechnology a nd t he s ocio-economic r eaction t o t hose d evelopments. D uring t he P re-Cucuteni ( =Tripolye A ) p eriod, p ottery-making c ontinued o n t he l evel o f ah ousehold i ndustry w hich s erved t he n eeds o f t he i ndividual f amily o r v illage. H owever, w ith i nnovations i n d ecorative a nd f iring t echnology o f t he C ucuteni A ( =Tripolye B I ) p eriod, c eramic p roduction i s c onsolidated a nd m ade i nto a m ore e fficient o peration a s c an b e s een b y t he a ppearance o f s ites w ith l arge n umbers o f k ilns--a t rend w hich c ontinues t hroughout t he s equence a nd c ulminates w ith t he o ccurrence o f c eramic w orkshops a nd p ossibly a lso c raft d istricts a t t he o utskirts o f v ery l arge s ettlements. A n e arly m astery o ver c eramic m anufacturing--in t erms o f t he r efinement a nd m anipulation o f c lays a nd c ontrol o ver f iring t emperature

2 08

a nd a tmosphere--ensured a h igh q uality p roduct. O ther t rends i n t he m anufacturing o f c eramics--i.e. i ncreased q uantities o f l arge, r otund v essels with r estricted o rifices--as w ell a s t he c ircumstances o f d iscovery--i.e. a ccumulations o f w hole v essels i n d wellings a nd/or s torage b uildings w ith n o e vidence o f c ooking u se--all i ndicate a n i ntense p reoccupation w ith f ood s torage c apability o n t he p art o f C ucuteni-Tripolye p opulations. T his f eature c omes a s n o s urprise w hen o ne c onsiders t he g rowing p opulation d ensification d uring t he l ast p eriod o f t he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture. B ut, w hile a dvancements i n p yrotechnology a llowed a m ore s table f ood s upply a nd t herefore a ssisted t he m aintenance o f h igher p opulations, o ne o f t he m ore i ntriguing p henomena i s t he r ole o f s ocio-economic n eeds i n t he s election o f c ertain t echnological i nnovations. A s o pposed t o t he e arlier i ncised/excised w ares, t he l ater p ainted w ares a re n oticeably m ore u niform i n t erms o f t he f abrication o f a f ine-grained, d ense p aste f ired t o a h igh t emperature i n aw ell o xidised a tmosphere. P hysical, a s w ell a s t echnological, c haracteristics o f c eramics b ecame m ore u niform i n t erms o f v essel s ize, s hape a nd d ecoration. A ll o f t he f oregoing i ndicate a c oncerted e ffort t o s et m inimum h igh s tandards o f c eramic m anufacturing; a nd i n a chieving t hose s tandards i n t he f ace o f g reat e conomic d emand, m ass p roduction m ethods--such a s t he u se o f r otary m otion, r educed s urface e mbellishment, a nd t he u se o f u p-draught k ilns t o r educe w astage--were e mployed t o e nsure t he a vailability o f c eramic p roducts. T he v ery b eginning o f r anked s ociety i s a s tage i n t he s pectrum o f h uman s ocial e volution t hat i s s till p oorly u nderstood a nd d ocumented. T he C ucuteni-Tripolye c ulture w as o ffered h ere m erely a s a n e xample o f a s ociety u ndergoing t echnological a nd s ocial e volution d uring t he N eolithic t o B ronze A ge t ransition p eriod i n E uropean p rehistory. T his p articular d ata b ase i s b y n o m eans r epresentative o f c ultures o f o ther e ras n or o f o ther r egions w hose u nique c ircumstances m old t heir i ndividual d estinies; r ather t his s tudy w as p resented t o s how o ne i nstance o f t he r ole t echnological d evelopment c an h ave i n t he t ransf ormation o f s ocio-economic r elationships a nd v ice v ersa, o ver a p eriod o f a bout

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f rom s mall,

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2 09

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M aterialy i I ssledovanija p o A rkheologii S SSR

S CIV

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