The Cross and the Shroud: A Medical Inquiry into the Crucifixion [Revised] 0913729469, 9780913729465

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SHROUD A Medical Inquiry into the Crucifixion Revised Edition

FREDERICK

PARAGON

T. ZUGIBE

HOUSE PUBLISHERS NEW YORK

REVISED EDITION

Published in the United States by Paragon House Publishers 90 Fifth Avenue New York, New York 10011 Copyright © 1988 by Frederick T. Zugibe All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form, without written

permission from the publisher, unless by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Zugibe, Frederick T. The cross and the shroud.

Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Jesus Christ—Crucifixion. 2. Holy Shroud. 3. Forensic pathology. 4. Crucifixion—Physiological aspects. I. Title. Forensic Medicine.

[DNLM: 1. Jesus Christ. W 800 Z94c]

BT450.283 1988 232.9'63 ISBN 0-913729-75-2 ISBN 0-913729-46-9 (pbk.)

2. Death.

87-15688 We

Contents

Illustrations Preface The Agony in the Garden of Olives The Scourging The Crown of Thorns Crucifixion—Historic Aspects The Cross, the Nails, and the Title

The Way to the Skull Nailing of the Hands and Feet Christ is Crucified Experiments on the Cross = WN SONATE Miscellaneous The Cause of Christ’s Death

its

A Medical Examiner Interprets the Turin Shroud

RLY

Recapitulation

203

References

209

Index

pay

Ulustrations

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Agony in the Garden Diagram of human skin magnified 100 times Photo of human skin under microscope magnified sixty times

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Photo of skin under microscope magnified 100 times The Roman flagrum The act of scourging Scourge marks on back area, Shroud of Turin Syrian Christ Thorn Christ’s Thorn Diagram of head region Shroud of Turin, Head region Types of crosses Diagram of the heel bone of a crucified man from a.D. 7 Roman nails ca. a.p. 83 Iron nail sized against human hand Relic of deteriorated titulus Reconstruction of the titulus from the relic The road to Calvary (map)

Carrying the cross Christ crucified and Judas hanging Palm of the hand Hand and wrist Hand and wrist Mathematical representation of force of tension Force of tension on arms Experiments to demonstrate amount of pull on the arms during suspension Diagram of wrist Cadaver suspended on cross by Barbet Villandre’s crucifix Radius bone of crucified man showing nail scratch Nail through palm (front)

Sea VTP eee hee {UPS Nee al tp al te eae eae ae Va ae ena a tf oa he i

7-10 7-11 7-12 7-13 7-14

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Illustrations

Nail through palm (back) X-ray of hand Heel bone of crucified man with nail as discovered Heel bone of crucified man after first attempt at reconstruction

Heel bone showing perforation Reconstructions of an A.D. 7 crucified man Reconstruction of an A.D. 7 crucified man Nr OO arn Position of feet during crucifixion Arched position of crucifixion Hand wound image on the Shroud of Turin Crurifragium of tibia and fibula bones Closeup of hand gauntlet Cardiac monitor and electronic blood pressure recorder Ear oximeter Experimental suspension on the cross COCSCOPSHIIAD HE NNN WHE KF APRON Experimental suspension on the cross 10-1 Diagram of chest region 10-2 Myocardial infarction 12-1 Giant posters of Shroud 12-2 Pilgrims in line to see the Shroud 12-3 Instituto Bancario San Paola 12-4 Frontal view of the Shroud of Turin (Positive) 12-5 Frontal view of the Shroud of Turin (Negative) 12-6 How Shroud was wrapped (Painting by Giovanni della \\

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67 68 72

73 73 74 74 76 78 82 85 87 91 92 93 105 112 120 124 121 124 125

Rovere) 126 12-7 Icon of St. Pontianus 128 12-8 Italy hides Shroud (1939 newspaper clipping) 129 12-9 Shroud of Turin left to Pope (1983 newspaper clipping ) 130 12-10 Impression of wound from auto accident 135 12-11 Wound from auto accident before washing 137 12-12 Wound from auto accident after washing 137 12-13 Blowup of hand and lower chest region (Shroud of Turin) 146 12-14 Position of the thumb (a and b) 148 12-15 Shroud of Turin (back region) 150 12-16 3-D imaging processing equipment 154 12-17 3-D relief of Shroud face 155 12-18 3-D relief of body 157 12-19 3-D relief of Shroud face after recursive filtration 158 12-20 Negative and positive Volckringer patterns (a and b) 170 12-21 3-D relief of Volckringer pattern L71 12-22 Shadows of parapets, Hiroshima 176 12-23 Shadow of human figure, Hiroshima 176 12-24 Species of pollen found on Shroud 182, 183, 184 12-25 Pollen of Paliurus spina Christi, mil 186 12-26 Weave of Shroud of Turin x 188 12-27 Cotton fiber from Shroud of Turin 188

Illustrations 12-28a 12-28b 12-29a 12-29b 12-30 12-3la 12-31b 13-1 13-2

Head region of Shroud of Turin 3-D relief of right eye region Blowup of right eye area of Shroud Typical Pontius Pilate lepton existing today Linen fibril from blood image area The Shroud of Turin (front) The Shroud of Turin (back) Crucifix sculpture by Father Peter Weyland Shroud of Turin during public viewing in 1978

ix

194 194 195 195 198 200 201 206 207

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Figure 3-1

Syrian Christ Thorn (Ziziphus spina Christi L. Wild).

A pair of stout, unequal, curved spines with sharp points are present at the base of each leaf.

22

Figure 3-2

The Cross and the Shroud

Ww

Christ’s Thorn (Paliurus spina Christi Mill.).

A pair of unequal, very stiff, sharp, stipular spines are present, with one of each curved and shorter than the other.

The Crown of Thorns

23

the opinion that the Syrian Christ thorn was a more likely candidate and was more common than the Christ’s thorn. The botanist G. Post agrees with Dr. Evenari, does not record Christ’s thorn in

Jerusalem, and indicates that it does not grow in Judea. He does record it in other areas about the Holy Land including Nazareth, Galilee, Jaffa, and Beirut. The great Linnaeus gave his opinion that the Syrian Christ thorn was the plant out of which the crown of thorns was made.

Authors such as Tristram and Warburger,

as

quoted by Hegi, have taken the opposite view and are of the opinion that it was common about Jerusalem. Zohary disagrees with Hegi, maintaining that Christ’s thorn is not a Mediterranean plant. The pliability and ease of plaiting a crown is perhaps the reason why many of the authors were partial to Christ’s thorn, but, because both plants are very similar morphologically, it makes little difference which of the two was used. Both the Syrian Christ thorn and the Christ’s thorn are characterized by closely spaced, sharp thorns as described above and have been plaited inherently, adding a greater surface area of thorns per unit of skin contact. The Syrian Christ thorn is a shrub that grows from nine to fifteen feet tall and contains smooth white branches with a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the base

of each leaf. The leaves appear leathery and are ovate to elliptical and contain small greenish-colored flowers in small clusters. The Christ’s thorn is a shrub that grows between three and nine feet tall, contains a pair of unequal, very stiff, sharp, stipular spines with one of each pair of the spines being curved and shorter than the other one. The leaves are also leathery and from oval to round in shape. OTHER

IMPLICATED

PLANTS

It is important to note that the popular greenhouse plant that widely adorns the homes of Christians, known commonly as the crown of thorns (Euphorea splendens or milii), is native to Madagascar and did not grow in the Holy Land during the time of Christ. This is a sprawling, branching, vinelike plant with angular stems and brilliant scarlet-colored flower bracts just below the true flowers. This flower is a member of the Euphorabaceae. It has absolutely nothing to do with the plants of the Bible. Zizyphus officinarum (Medic.), known as the jujube, a prodigious fruitbearing plant, had been implicated but it has been precluded,

24

The Cross and the Shroud

because, although it is cultivated in the region, it was brought from

China or India and it is not believed native to Palestine and Syria. Other plants that have been implicated include Koeberlinia spinosa, Canotia holacantha (mojave thorn), Holocantha emoryi, and Dalea spinosa. None of these plants had anything to do with the biblical plants used to make the crown of thorns. Unfortunately, many devout Christians tenaciously believe one plant or another to be implicated and are not swayed by reasoning. An interesting story in

this regard is told by the renowned botanist F Schwerin, who visited the Garden of Gethsemane in the early part of this century. A monk in charge pointed to a shrub growing there, which was the plant called Gleditsia tricanthos L. (honey locust, sweet locust, thorny locust), and informed Schwerin that it was the plant from which the crown of thorns was originally made. Even though Schwerin told the monk that the plant was an American species unknown at the time of Christ, the monk replied that two female

pilgrims originally brought it in a flowerpot and asserted that he was more inclined to believe the devout women than a mere botanist. ANATOMICAL

CONSIDERATIONS

OF THE HEAD

REGION

The head region is extremely vascular, that is, it contains myriads of blood vessels so that even small wounds cause marked bleeding episodes. The nerve supply for pain perception is distributed by branches of two major nerves: the trigeminal nerve, which essentially supplies the front half of the head, and the greater occipital branch, which supplies the back half of the head (Figure 3-3). Only a schematic representation of the nerve distribution is shown because the fine nervous branches divide almost infinitesimally throughout the skin. To appreciate this distribution, take a pin and attempt to find a spot on your scalp that is pain-free. You will soon realize that it is an almost impossible task. Stimulation of any of the branches of these nerves causes pain. For example, if any of the very tiny branches of the trigeminal nerve that supply the teeth are irritated, a toothache is initiated, and everyone knows the pain associated with a toothache. It js certainly difficult to believe that irritation of such a tiny nerve twig could cause so much pain. Another, major clinical entity associated with irritation of the trigeminal nerve is a condition of unknown cause called tic douloureux or major trigeminal neuralgia, first described by Fothergill in 1776, which causes paroxysmal bouts of

The Crown of Thorns

25

Figure 3-3

Diagram of the head region. Shows nerve distribution (light colored branches) and blood vessels (dark branches). (Permission of Urban and Schwartzenberg, Munich, West Germany, from Atlas of Descriptive Anatomy by Sobotta, Fig. 56.)

26

The Cross and the Shroud

stabbing, lancinating, explosive paroxysmal pains of the right or left half of the face lasting from seconds to minutes with intermittent refractory periods. Although it is characteristic for patients to be free of pain between paroxysms, instances of pain may at times occur in such rapid succession that a sustained background ache develops. Trigger zones or pain-provoking areas are usually present on a lip or side of the nose and can be activated by tactile stimulation. If such an area is touched or struck, a paroxysm of severe pain occurs that immobilizes the individual. Patients describe their pains as “knifelike stabs,” “electric shocks,” or “jabs with a red hot poker.” During the attack, tics or distortion of the face may occur and the patients may hold onto a bedpost in absolute agony. Light touches, facial movements, chewing, talking, or drafts of air across the face precipitate the attack. There appears to be an increased frequency of attacks during episodes of fatigue or tension. Patients have such a fear of provoking an attack that they tend to immobilize themselves. According to Dr. Robert Nugent, Professor and Chairman of the Department of Neurosurgery at West Virginia University School of Medicine, “Trigeminal neuralgia is said to be the worst pain that man is heir to. It is a devastating pain that is just unbearable in its several forms” (West Virginia University Newsletter, 1986). Mild cases sometimes respond to certain medications such as carbamazepine, which prevents conduction through the nerve, but medical therapy is usually unsatisfactory. Injections, compression of the nerve, sectioning the

nerve by surgery, alcoholic injection of the nerve, inhalation of trichlorethylene, .electrocoagulation, radio frequency ther mocoagulation, and other manipulations made on the nerve may be effective for months or years. The two following case histories serve as excellent examples of this clinical entity. A middle-aged executive of a large manufacturing company awoke one evening with stabbing pains along the side of his face that radiated to his upper teeth with a concomitant deep burning pain just below the ear. The pain disappeared after fifteen minutes

of intensive suffering, only to reappear two hours later

following yawning. The pain was more severe than in the first attack. He tried heat applications, pressure with the hands, posi-

tion changes, and medicating himself with six aspirin, all to no avail. His wife took him to a hospital emergency room, where an injection of Demerol abated his pain completely. A week later, following a high-pressure business meeting, a paroxysm of severe

The Crown of Thorns

24

pain traversed his face like a lightning bolt, stopped abruptly, but recurred a few minutes later when the patient went out into the cool air on the way to his automobile. The pain stopped, but started again while he was driving home. This man went directly to his family physician, who sent him to a dentist. The latter found an abscessed tooth, and when he injected the involved tooth with a local anesthetic agent (to eliminate pain), the pain immediately disappeared. The tooth was subsequently extracted, and the abscess was treated with antibiotics. The patient remained pain-free thereafter. The second case involved a middle-aged male with trigeminal neuralgia who had frequent attacks that were unresponsive to carbamazepine, and injection of the nerve with alcohol was unsuccessful. The pain was so severe that he would scream violently, holding onto a bedpost or similar object. The patient became addicted to high doses of narcotics but refused surgery to cut the nerve branch. He was found hanging from a beam in the basement accompanied by a suicide note reading, “Forgive me but I can no longer stand the pain.” EFFECTS

Now the plant with the effects of areas,

OF THE CROWN

OF THORNS

that we have a basic knowledge of the characteristics of used to plait the crown of thorns and a brief familiarity anatomy of the head region, with some insight into the irritating the nerves that supply pain perception to these

let us now

examine

the probable effects of the crown

of

thorns during the mock coronation of Christ. Scriptures relate that the soldiers filed past Jesus, taking the reed from him and striking it down on the crown of thorns. It is important to note that the crown was made by interweaving (plaiting) the thorn twigs into the shape of a cap. This placed a large number of thorns in contact with the entire top of the head, including the front, back, and sides. The

blows from the reed across Jesus’ face or against the thorns would directly irritate the nerves or activate trigger zones along the lip, side of the nose, or face, bringing on severe pains resembling a hot poker or electric shock lancinating across the sides of his face or deep to his ears. The pain would stop almost abruptly, only to recur again with the slightest movement of the jaws or even from a wisp of wind, stopping Jesus “dead” in his tracks. The traumatic shock from the brutal scourging would be further enhanced with each

The Cross and the Shroud

Figure 3-4

Shroud of Turin, head region. Note the tortuous impressions (white) on the foréhead, which represent blood from injuries caused by the crown of thorns.

The Crown of Thorns

29

paroxysmal pain across the face bringing him to his knees. Exacerbations and remissions of throbbing bolts of pain would occur all the way to Calvary and during crucifixion, being activated by the movements of walking, falling, and twisting, from pressure of the thorns against the cross stipes, and from the many shoves and blows by the soldiers. Because the head region contains a plethora of blood vessels, the blood would run freely down the face. This is very dramatically depicted in the Turin Shroud, which shows images representing rivulets and seepage points running down the forehead and confirms that the crown of thorns was plaited in the shape of a cap and not a circlet (Figure 3-4). This is an important fact for Christ’s crucifixion. The various blows across the face are shown on the

Shroud particularly in the region of the forehead, brow, right upper lip, jaw, and nose. The tridimensional pattern more vividly reveals a broken nose and confirms the above injuries (Figure 12-16).

a Crucifixion—Historic Aspects

HISTORIC

BACKGROUND

Cease was a barbaric form of capital punishment practiced by the Romans, Persians, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Greeks, Seleucids, Carthaginians,

and Jews. It

was most widespread prior to the birth of Christ and is believed to — be a punishment of Oriental origin, although some historians think

it originated in Asia Minor with the Phoenicians and Persians, who were famous for their torture techniques, which included impaling, burning in oil, drowning, beating, and crucifixion. Early sources also indicate that it was used by the Indians, Assyrians, Scythians, Taureans, Germani,

and Numidians.

Crucifixion was so common

that during the slave uprisings led by Spartacus in B.c. 73-71, about six thousand crosses lined the road from Rome to Capua. Although crucifixion was abolished by Emperor Constantine in the fourth century, Professor Paola Ricca relates that a recent paper by Professor Angelo Gramaglia of the Turin Seminary has shown that in the seventh century, during the fighting between the Arabs and

Christians, there were mass crucifixions of Christians in the man-

ner that Jesus was crucified, as a sign of contempt. Crucifixion is derived from the word cruciare, to torture and torment, and was an ignominious fate reserved for traitors, slaves,

hardened murderers, political or religious agitators, pirates, and individuals who had no rights. Historical sources indicate that in B.C. 519, Darius I, the Persian king, had three thousand political

30

Crucifixion—Historic Aspects

31

opponents crucified; Antiochus IV of Syria had Jews in Jerusalem flogged and crucified for breaking laws; Alexander Jannaeus, the Judean king, had eight hundred opponents crucified in B.c.88 after Herod’s death; and Publius Quintilius Varus had two thousand

crucified. According to the historian Flavius Josephus, about five hundred Jewish prisoners were crucified per day under the Emperor Titus in 70 a.p., during the siege of Jerusalem. It appears that the Romans learned the technique of crucifixion from the Carthaginians. Cicero, in the first century B.c., referred to crucifixion as “the most cruel and atrocious of punishments” (Crudelissimum eterrimumque supplicum). It was a supreme deterrent against political and military crimes and very effective in maintaining law and order. Even though Cicero felt that no Roman citizen could be crucified, in many instances of high treason or serious crimes against the state, they were punished by this method. THE

ROMAN

METHOD

It may be of interest that the Romans considered crucifixion a deterrent to crime. It was reserved at that time primarily for provincials, criminals, and slaves (servile supplicum) and was initiated methodically with utmost precision. Every Roman soldier was well trained in every step of the technique. THE

EXECUTIONERS

The exactor mortis, a centurion, was in charge of four Roman

soldiers, called the quaternio, who were entrusted with the duty of crucifixion. They were expert in the art of crucifixion and completed their task with utmost facility. Because crucifixions were very common, the execution team did not lack experience. The entire procedure was effected with great dispatch because of their vast experience. The exactor mortis was also entrusted with the responsibility of determining if the victim was dead and reporting this to the procurator, who then officially filed a certification. The Roman soldiers were also expert in making this determination because crucifixion was an almost daily occurrence.

. The Cross, the Nails, and the Title

THE CROSS

dlBee eer the period when crucifixion was practiced, several kinds of crosses were used. The basic forms were the crux simplex, composed of a single stake to which the hands were fastened above the head and the feet were fastened below (affixio), and the crux compacta, which consisted of two parts, the upright referred to as the stipes or staticulum, and the crosspiece, called the patibulum or antenna. The crux compacta varied in one of the following three forms. The crux commissa resembled the capital letter T and was sometimes referred to as the T-cross. The crux immissa, or capitata, is the conventional cross usually displayed in churches and sometimes called the Roman cross; its stipes projected above the patibulum (Figure 5-1). This form is the one that most scholars believe was used to crucify Jesus because Scriptures relate that the titulus or title (placard) was placed above his head depicting the nature of his crime. “Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the

Jews” (Mark 15:26 and John 19:19). This, of course, depended in a

large degree on the width of the patibulum because experiments

reveal sufficient space even on. the crux commissa. Another form, the crux decussata or X-cross, was also referred to as the Cross of St.

Andrew because this was the form used to crucify St. Andrew at Patrae. This form may not have been unique to St. Andrew because the historian Josephus, in the Jewish War, reports that during the 32

_ The Cross, the Nails, and the Title

33

siege of Jerusalem, the Romans crucified Jews in a multiplicity of positions.

THE CRUCIFIXION

SITE

The stipes or staticulum were constructed of strong wood and were usually permanently fixed in the ground in a hilly area on the city’s outskirts just beyond the walls so that the crucified were conspicuously displayed in full view. In Rome, crucifixion was initiated in the Esquiline Camp, just outside of the Servian walls, where the vulturelike birds of the Esquiline awaited their prey—the bodies of the crucified. The same pattern was true in Jerusalem. The Romans set up their place of execution just outside the walls, in a hilly, conspicuous region called Calvary (Latin: calvarii) or Golgotha (Aramaic: Gulgutha), both of which mean “skull,” prob-

ably because of the shape of this hilly knoll. It is of interest that the place of crucifixion was close to the nearby tombs. HEIGHT

OF THE

CROSS

There have been differences of opinion as to the height of the staticulum because historical references allude to both high and low

TTX

Figure 5-1

Types of crosses. (a) (b) (c) (d)

crux simplex (simple stake). crux immissa or capitata (conventional). crux commissa (T cross). crux decussata (Cross of St. Andrew). The crux compacta included types b, c, and d and was composed of two parts, the upright called the stipes or staticulum and the crosspiece called the patibulum.

34

The Cross and the Shroud

crosses. The former, among the Romans, was reserved primarily for special criminals who in some way had caused dishonor to a Roman. In general, however, the Roman crosses probably stood about seven to seven and a half feet in height because, from a practical point of view, it was easier to lift the crosspiece (pa-

tibulum) into position on a shorter cross after nailing the upper extremities of the victim to it. Conversely, it was easier to remove the victim from the cross after death. The shorter crosses also made it easier for wild animals to finish off victims. This contention is also supported by the fact that a short reed (hyssop) (Mark 15:36) was used to bring the posca to his lips. If the patibulum was about seven to seven and a half feet, an individual who was about 5’4” tall

(estimated average height of a man of that era) would need to utilize a reed from the hyssop plant measuring about eighteen inches to two feet long. The height is also compatible with the wound on the right side of the Shroud of Turin for the correct angle of penetration into the heart or pericardial sac by the spear. THE

SADDLE

There was much controversy as to whether the upright con-

tained a saddle (sedile, pegma, cornu, horn) about halfway up the cross that protruded, according to Cicero, like a rhinoceros’s horn.

The victim was straddled to it to support the body periodically in order to ease his misery (equitar cruci, to ride a cross). It has been charged by many workers that a sedile was necessary because the victim would not be able to survive for very long periods without this support and the nails through the hands would have surely pulled through. It is difficult, however, to conceive how a sedile could be permanently placed on a cross that would satisfy the height of all individuals, particularly in relation to the nailing of the hands. Our experiments show that the angle of the arms on the patibulum varies from sixty to seventy degrees according to an individual’s structural variations. Our experiments also show that

when the feet are bound to the cross (or nailed) there is for body support. This is also true of the suppedaneum that many investigators indicate would be required for same reason. This question will be elaborated on more

little need (support) much the

fully in a

subsequent section. The sedile, however, was usually used when it

was desired to have a crucified individual remain on the cross for long periods of time, sometimes for many days. For example,

The Cross, the Nails, and the Title

35

Lipsius tells of two cases where victims hung for nine days, but this appears difficult to believe, particularly if the hands and feet were

nailed. Perhaps, if the hands and feet were bound by ropes alone and the victim was not scourged beforehand, this might be possible. It must also be remembered that the weekend of Christ’s crucifixion was an unusually sacrosanct one. It fell on a double religious holiday, the Passover and the Sabbath. Therefore, it would be highly unlikely that any means to prolong his life would have been allowed, because sundown would soon be at hand. KIND

OF WOOD

The type of wood that crosses were made of was variable, usually depending on the wood available. It was hewn very roughly. Micropaleobotanical studies of fragments of alleged relics of the true cross reveal that it was made of pine. The most definitive study, however, was made on the piece of wood found on the end of the nail discovered in the heel bones of a crucified man that was excavated in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem in 1969-70 and dated to about a.p. 7. The paleobotanical study of this piece of wood revealed it to be from the olive tree (Figure 5-2). However, this could not be confirmed by a botanist from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem using a scanning electron microscope, as the sample was too minute. Although Yaden contended

that it was unlikely that olive wood was used for the upright of the cross because the trunk and branches are bent and crooked,

it

cannot be discounted because on occasion they attain a height of two to three meters. LEGENDS

OF THE

CROSS

It is of only passing interest that legends on the origin of the wood are legion, but I am including a few for the reader’s interest.

In Germany, the legend states that the pear tree took root and bloomed with flowers of a blood-red color after the death of Christ. In the United States, it is said that the flowery petals of the beautiful dogwood tree are stained red and drawn in as a reminder of Christ’s wounds. In Poland, they attribute the cross to the aspen,

which contained leaves that tremble in fear of God’s vengeance. Another legend relates that the aspen tree will protect one against lightning, whereas the poplar trees, which are related to aspens,

36

The Cross and the Shroud

Ferreous and calcareous sediment

Plaque of Pistacia

Limy crust Articular surface for cuboid bone

Acacia

Tuber calcanei right bone

Right sustentaculum tali

or

of the

Left sustentaculum tali Tuber calcanei left bone

of the

Granular-nodular fragment of olive wood

Figure 5-2

Diagram of the heel bone of a crucified man from a.D. 7.

The nail is still present and bent at the tip, which contains a piece of wood believed to be olive wood. A plaque under the head of the nail also contains wood. From the

excavations of the Tombs of Giv‘at ha Mivtar in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem. (Courtesy of the Israel Exploration Society and Mrs. Nicu Haas.)

will not afford this protection. A legend in England indicates that

the mistletoe was used to make the cross, and ever since, it has

been relegated to the status of a humble parasite. Similarly, in Italy, the clematis was considered the source of the cross, and the story

has it that at the time of crucifixion it was a large tree condemned forever to be a low-growing vine. In other countries, the oak, the alder, and the pine have been implicated. In this regard, it is believed that the pine started producing crosslike whorls after the crucifixion. THE NAILS

The nails used in crucifixion at the time of Christ bear little resemblance to the nails that we conventionally use in carpentry. The Roman nails were made of iron with a gradually tapering square shaft from head to point, About ten years ago, seven tons of homemade nails (almost a million nails) were unearthed in Scotland by Professor I. A. Richmond, Professor of Archaeology of the Roman Empire at Oxford, at the site of a Roman fortress at Inchtuthill, built in a.p. 83. These nails ranged from about 1 to 40 centimeters long (Figure 5-3). ;

Figure 5-3

Roman nails ca. a.p. 83. ee st of homemade iron nails from the site of a Roman fortress at Inchtuthill, Scotland.

(Courtesy of Sir Geoffrey Ford, The Institute of Metals, London.)

A telic of great interest now on exhibit in the Basilica of S. Croce in Gerusalemme, in Rome, Italy, was allegedly found by Helen, mother of the Emperor Constantine, near the beginning of the third century, and is purported to be one of the nails used in the crucifixion of Jesus. The nail is 12.5 centimeters long, has a square iron shaft that measures 9 millimeters at the head and tapers gradually to the point area, where it measures 5 millimeters. The head of the nail is in the shape of a dome with the edges extended as in a bell. A nail similar to this has been constructed for experimental purposes and is depicted in Figure 5-4. It is of interest to note that this nail bears a strong resemblance to the nail recovered from the Giv’at ha Mivtar excavation (Figure 7-17). The latter is about 12 centimeters long but was probably slightly longer in its original state. THE TITLE

Pilate also wrote a title and put it on the cross. It read, “Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews.” Many of the Jews read this title,

38

The Cross and the Shroud

Figure 5-4

Iron nail sized against a human hand.

Replica of the nail on display in the Chapel of Gerusalemme in Rome. Found in the third century by St. Helen and believed to be one of the nails that was used to crucify Jesus.

Ny

The Cross, the Nails, and the Title

39

Figure 5-5

Relic of deteriorated titulus. Also found in the third century by St. Helen and on display in the Holy Chapel of Gerusalemme. Believed to be the titulus on the cross that Jesus was crucified on. The characters appear in Aramaic, Greek and Latin.

40

The Cross and the Shroud

Figure 5-6

Reconstruction of the titulus from the relic as depicted in the previous illustration.

for the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city; and it was

written in Hebrew, in Latin and in Greek (John 19:19-20). “Over his head they put the charges against him which read, ‘This is

Jesus, King of the Jews’” (Matthew 27:37). The titulus (title) was the piece of tablet containing the crime of the cruciarius (victim) and was usually nailed to the cross above the victim’s head. This was carried by the condemned individual,

usually around his neck, from the place of sentencing and was part of the parade all the way to the crucifixion site. The chief priest made much of the fact that Christ’s crime was written as being King of the Jews and objected vehemently to

Pilate, “Do not write ‘King of the Jews,’ but, ‘This man said, I am King of the Jews,’” but Pilate answered him, “What I have written,

The Cross, the Nails, and the Title

41

I have written” (John 19:21-22). It appears that Pilate was no longer worried about the previous pressures about reportimg him to Rome. The above quoted scriptural references that the titulus was nailed above his head is the single most important argument that the crux immissa was used rather than the crux commissa. Our experiments indicate, however, that there was enough room for the title on the crux commissa. This is hardly important because the degree and type of suffering exhibited by Christ would be identical, regardless of which of the two crosses was used. The Basilica of S. Croce in Gerusalemme also contains a relic purported to be a part of the titulus containing characters in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew or Syro-Chaldaic. This badly deteriorated relic was allegedly found in Jerusalem by St. Helen in the early third century (Figure 5-5). A full proportional reproduction of the title was made using the relic piece as a base (Figure 5-6), and the characters are written from right to left. The inscription of the victim’s crime in three languages, related only by St. John, was probably done routinely because in Jewish War, Volume 5.2, Josephus, the historian, indicates that slabs placed at various intervals bore warnings, some written in Latin and some in Greek. The

biographer Julius Capitolinus wrote in the fourth century of a title written in Greek, Aramaic, Egyptian, and Persian and placed over

the sepulcher of the murdered emperor Giorgianus Pius. Moreover, the Interpreter’s Bible indicates that there was a need for the three languages in Jerusalem because Latin was the official administrative language, Aramaic was spoken by the Jews of the time, and Greek was the language of international commerce and culture.

6 The Way to the Skull

an hen

ange

he handed Him over to them to be crucified. So they took Jesus, and He went out, bearing His own cross to the place called the Place of the Skull, which is called in Hebrew, Golgotha” (John 19:16-17). CARRYING

THE CROSS

It was about noon, and the trip from Antonia to Golgotha (Calvary) was along one of the main streets and measured over onehalf mile (Figure 6-1). It was an unpaved, bumpy road studded with scores of crevices made by the carts and beasts of burden. As one approached the outside walls, the road assumed an uphill climb. The weather at that time was hot and dry, and Jesus, the cruciarius, was paraded through the main street, carrying the crosspiece weighing about fifty pounds, balanced across one or both shoulders (Figure 6-2). He also carried the titulus (title) or piece of tablet

around his neck naming the crime he was accused of, which would subsequently be nailed above his head on the cross. The exactor mortis and his team of four escorted Jesus while numerous soldiers lined the street to maintain order and to quell any riots because a serried mass of hostile people lined the streets, spitting and cursing at him as he passed by. It is important to evaluate Christ’s medical condition in order

to understand the full impact of his sufferings and agony. At this time, he was in a state of extreme exhaustion resulting from the

42

The Way to the Skull

43

Figure 6-1

Map of the Jerusalem area showing the cross on the road to Calvary. This trek measures over a half mile.

severe mental sufferings endured at the Garden of Gethsemane, which included a physical loss of sweat and blood, the brutal flogging at the praetorium, and the nerve-racking, lancinating pains from the crown of thorns. It is safe to assume that Jesus was already in a state of traumatic shock. The intense heat of the sun and the weight of the patibulum on his lacerated shoulders would induce intense weakness and dizziness or lightheadedness, causing him to stumble, totter, and fall. The noon sun was high, and the sweat poured over him (the Franciscan Way of the Cross depicts Jesus falling three times). This contention is not compatible with his clinical status. When we consider his condition, there is little

doubt that Christ fell many times before arriving at Calvary. It was the exactor mortis’s responsibility to make certain that the cruciarius

44

The Cross and the Shroud

Figure 6-2

Carrying the cross. (a) The arms are tied to the patibulum with ropes. (b) The patibulum is balanced on one shoulder. (c) The way the entire cross would be carried.

would get his just punishment of crucifixion and not die on the way. The exactor mortis was fearful that Jesus might not get up again and that he would not be able to execute his orders. He therefore delegated Simon of Cyrene, a passerby, to carry the patibulum for Jesus. Before Simon carried the cross, every time Jesus tripped and fell, lancinating pains would radiate across his face and scalp and precipitate severe pains in all of his muscles and joints. He had more and more difficulty getting up each time he fell while bearing the weight of the cross. As a physician, I find it almost incredible that he was able to make the trek to Calvary at all. He certainly had to be highly motivated. Most scholars support the concept that only the crosspiece or patibulum was usually carried by the cruciarius to the place of crucifixion. This issue has not been definitively decided because scientists such as Barbet estimated the weight of the cross to be about 220 pounds, with the crosspiece weighing about 110 pounds . They felt that this would be too heavy to carry. Innitzer’s group, however, estimates that the entire cross weighed only about 95-128 pounds, with the crossbeam weighing only about 36-48 pounds. Consultation with experienced builders who work with lumber on a daily basis indicates to me that a heavy 8-9-foot oak beam with a 6-

The Way to the Skull

45

foot crosspiece would weigh only about 125-130 pounds, with the crosspiece weighing about 50-55 pounds. The cumbersome cross would invariably have to be dragged by the victim in a slumped position with one arm of the cross being placed on the shoulder (Figure 6-2). Moreover, the large number of stipes (the uprights) already standing outside the city’s wall adds greater support to the concept that he carried only the crosspiece. There are two schools of thought regarding the manner in which the crosspiece was carried. Most scholars embrace the concept that each end of the crosspiece was tied to the victim’s wrists and arms (Figure 6-2), but the cross might have been balanced on one shoulder. The latter concept would be compatible with the statement of Tertullian that Jesus carried his cross on his shoulder. Some authors interpreted this as being the whole cross because they were under the impression that the patibulum had to be carried on both shoulders. In Jesus’ case, it would have been a difficult task to remove the ties from each wrist, to remove the patibulum and then place it on Simon of Cyrene’s shoulders, and again tie the wrists securely. Sindologists interpret two images on the back of the Shroud of Turin as evidence that the cross was placed over both shoulders and tied to the wrists. This interpretation, however, is subject to debate, and the reader is referred to Chapter 12 for

additional information. JESUS ARRIVES

AT CALVARY

When Jesus arrived at the crucifixion site, he was almost numb with exhaustion accompanied by marked shortness of breath because fluid had accumulated within and around his lungs as a consequence of the brutal scourging. His clothing was literally glued to his body by the blood in the open flagellation wounds, which had clotted to his vesture. In the Roman mode, the clothing

was usually removed following scourging, but because of the Jewish sensitivities, the robe obviously was left on Jesus during the journey to Calvary. Scriptures tell us that the soldiers cast lots for his garments (Mark 15:24), probably because the tunic was unsewn and completely woven in one piece making it too valuable to tear into four pieces. The dice were rolled, and it was the winner's job to remove

the victim’s vesture,

for it now

belonged to him.

|

wonder how he accomplished this feat. Did he soak the garments to soften the blood clots, as we physicians and nurses do frequently

46

The Cross and the Shroud

when removing a bandage that has adhered firmly to a wound? If one remembers that the name of the game was pain, then the mode

is clear. It was unquestionably yanked off, sending jolts of pain throughout his body. Everyone temembers having a sibling or friend who related that the easy way to remove a bandage that is adherent to a wound is to yank it off quickly. Even though the pain was only momentary, think of how many of these sharp pains you would experience if a giant gauze pad was stuck to the front and back of your whole body, including your arms, and it was suddenly pulled off. Here was Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews, lying naked on the ground in a state of utter exhaustion, his body racked with pain, and still to face the most ignominious of suffering, the

terrifying crucifixion.

V4 Nailing of the Hands and Feet

NAILING

OF THE HANDS

Wren Jesus appeared to his disciples and showed them his hands and feet, he said “See my hands and my feet, that it is myself” (Luke 24:39), and “He showed them

his hands and side. . . .” Then he said to Thomas, “Put your finger here, and see my hands; and put out your hand, and place it in my side... .” (John 20:20-27). Moreover, Psalm 22:16, which is believed to have predicted the Messiah’s fate, relates, “they pierced my hands and my feet.” One of the major controversies in sindonology concerns the anatomical location of the hand wound when Jesus was nailed to the patibulum (crosspiece) of the cross. For centuries, most devout

Christians believed that the nails passed through the palms of the hands in accord with the scriptural texts quoted above. Even ancient historians like Lipsius related that it was the hands that were transfixed in crucifixion, and early crucifixes, such as the ivory crucifix, dated to a.p. 420 in the British Museum (Figure 7-1), and the crucifix on a wooden portal of S. Sabena in Rome,

dated to the first half of the fifth century, showed the nails through the center of the palms. Everything was peaceful until the 1932 Exposition of the Shroud of Turin when Dr. Pierre Barbet, a Parisian surgeon, expounded the hypothesis that the palm of the hand could not support the weight of the body and that the nail actually passed through the wrist emerging at a focus corresponding 47

48

J

The Cross and the Shroud

fe ~~

,

Christ crucified and Judas hanging.

Ivory, casket panel, ca. 420 a.p., British Museum. Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum.

to where the image of the hand wound is located on the Shroud of Turin. His conclusions were based on hand anatomy, on observations made by artists who had hung cadavers to the cross, and on his personal experiments. He further supported his hypothesis by so reverently quoting from the revelations of St. Brigit, “My son’s hands were pierced at the spot where the bone was most solid.” However, when he developed his hypothesis that one nail pierced both feet, he totally ignored St. Brigit’s revelation that each foot was pierced separately. Barbet’s hypothesis is so entrenched in Shroud and crucifixion research that it is almost completely accepted as factual and has been quoted in articles and books. ad infinitum. Yet, no valid

Nailing of the Hands and Feet

49

experimental studies to confirm or refute his hypothesis had ever been conducted prior to my own studies. The unfortunate thing about this whole state of affairs is that there are serious errors in Barbet’s hypothesis that make his hypothesis totally untenable. Before investigating the source of these errors, it is important that we briefly review the essential features of the anatomy of the hand and forearm and the mechanical principles regarding the amount of pull exerted on each hand during suspension on the cross. ANATOMY

OF THE

HAND

Let us briefly review the essential features of the anatomy of the hand and forearm basic to an understanding of its structural integrity in relation to its fixation to the cross. It is important during this discussion that you constantly refer to the diagrams indicated. The palm of the hand is the front of the hand and does not include the fingers and thumb. This area contains a triangular fibrous structure called the palmar aponeurosis with the greater bulk of the fibers in parallel bands and with some transverse fibers running perpendicular to these bands (Figure 7-2). Although the transverse fibers may offer some support, the parallel fibers would offer little or no support if a nail were passed through this region. Another supportive structure, at the base of the fingers, is the superficial transverse metacarpal ligaments. The skin of the palm is thick and bound tightly to the palmar aponeurosis, in contrast to the dorsum (back) of the hand, where the skin is loose and pliable. There are, however, fibers from the deep muscles and tendons on

the back of the hand that provide strength and structural integrity. Now open your hand and observe the bulky prominence extending into the hand from the base of the thumb to the wrist. This is called the thenar eminence (Figure 7-2). If you touch the tip of your thumb to the tip of your little finger, you will note a deep furrow at the base of the thenar eminence called the thenar furrow. A branch of the median nerve coming from the wrist runs in this furrow. The wrist or carpus is composed of eight small bones, depicted in Figures 7-3 and 7-4, tightly bound to each other by interlacing ligaments that afford strength to this area. The region at the end of the bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) is extremely strong because the ends of the two bones abut against each other and are entwined by strong ligaments. More-

50

The Cross and the Shroud PALMAR CUTANEOUS BR. OF ULNAR N.

CUTANEOUS BR. OF RADIAL N. TO LAT. THENAR AREA

PALMARIS LONGUS TENDON

PALMAR CUTANEOUS BR. OF MEDIAN N.

VOLAR CARPAL LIGAMENT

*

THENAR MUSCLES

PISIFORM BONE

_ ULNAR ARTERY

MOTOR BR. OF MEDIAN N. TO THENAR M.

HYPOTHENAR MUSCLES PALMAR APONEUROSIS, MINUTE FASCICULI ADHERENT TO DERMA

FIGURE 1

PALMAR APONEUROSIS DIGITAL ARTERIES AND NERVES SUPERFICIAL TRANSVERSE METACARPAL LIGAMENT CUTANEOUS BRANCH OF ULNAR NERVE TO 5th FINGER

FIGURE 2

| {Nie ©CIBA

REG. NO. 675

Figure 7-2

Palm of the hand.

%

Note the palmar aponeurosis (triangular fibrous structure), the transverse metacarpal ligament at the base of the fingers, the thenar eminence (muscle) and the palmaris longus tendon. The median nerve runs from the wrist along the thenar furrow. (Illustration by Frank Netter, from Clinical Symposia. Courtesy of Ciba Pharmaceutical Co., copyright 1957.)

Nailing of the Hands and Feet

TENDONS

MEDIAN JPALMARIS LONGUS DUO

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Index

“

NOTE: Boldface page numbers indicate illustrations. Abgar V (Edessa), 127-128 Adler, Dr. Alan, 117; and blood samples, 161; blood studies of, 196; and

Bacon, Francis, xi

Baden, Dr. Michael, 139

ball lightning hypothsis, 177

facial image, 144-145; on painting theory, 162; and wound images, 138; on x-ray hypothesis, 178 Aglie church (Spain), 162 Agony in the Garden (n.a.), xvi

Ballestrero, Cardinal, 199 Barbet, Pierre, 44; on asphyxiation, 80; and cadaver experiment, 60; on De-

Akemin (Panopolis), 140 American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 116-117 anatomy of chest region, 103-105 Angelino, P. F and M. Abrate, 117 Annas, 12 Antiochus IV (Syria), 31 anxiety, 9-10 aorta, 103, 105, 112

ments with nailing, 58-61; hypoth-

apocrine glands, 4 Archaeological Chemistry, 139, 162

archeiropoitos, 128 Arculfo, bishop of France, 127 Aristotle, 3 Atherosclerosis, 111 Asche, Geoffrey, 173-174 asphyxiation, defined, 80

asphyxiation theory, as theory of Christ’s death, 79-85 Association of Scientists and Scholars International for the Shroud of Turin, 185 Austro-German Army hypothesis, 80-81

229

stot space hypothesis, 60; experiment

with arms,

53, 65; experi-

eses of, 47-49; on Shroud “thumbs,” 145-146; on P. J. Smith’s criticism, 117; on theory of blood and water, 107 Barabbas, 18 Basilica of S. Croce (Rome), 37, 41 Benson, Dr. Igor, 77; experiments of with coin scorching, 193

Biblical Archaeology Review, 181 bifurcation pattern hypothesis, 80, 8183 Biological Photography, 169 blood flow, 132-133 blood pressure recorder, 90 blood studies, 196-198 blood supply, of human skin, 2, 5, 6 blood and water effusion (Christ’s), 103— 110; hypothesis causing, 100-110, table, 109-110 Bollone, Dr. Baima, blood studies of, 196 Bollone, Prof. P. L. M., 161, 185

British Journal of Photography, 173

Index

230

British Museum, 47, 48; as coordinator of carbon-14 dating, 190 Broeg, L., 3

Bulst, Fr. Werner, S. J., 151 Buresi, Gino, 65

Caiaphas, 12 Calvary, 33 Cameron,

James,

83; on rigor mortis,

Christ’s thorn (Paliuris spina christi), 20, 22, 184; pollen of, 186 chromhidrosis, 8—9 Cicero, 31, 34 Clement II, anti-Pope, 159 Clothilde, Princess, 122 Clovio, G., 123 coin scorching experiments, 193 coins over the eyes study, 191-196 computer imaging studies, 153

132 Canadian Society of Forensic Sciences Jour-

Constantine, Emperor, 30

nal, 116 Canotia holacantha, 24

Coote, Dr. Graeme,

Capitolinus, Julius, 41 carbon-14 dating, 189-191; laboratories selected for, 199; theory of, 189; variations in, 191-192 cardiac monitor, 90 cardiac tamponade, 111

cardiogenic shock, 114 Carter, Dr. Giles, 178 Catherine of Ricci, 65

Catholic Encyclopedia, 160 causalgia, 69, 77 Celsus, 2 Center of Electron Microscopy, 187 Centro Studi e Laboratori Telecommunicazione (Turin), 153 Chagas, Carlos, 199

Chambéry. See fire of Chambéry Charny, Geoffrey de, 127, 129 Charny, Margaret de, 129

Chemical and Engineering News, 178 Chevalier, Ulysses, 159-160 Christ: and agony in garden, 1-11, 114; asphyxiation theory about, 79-85; blood and water effusion of, 103110; crown of thorns of, 19-29, 115; crucified (n.a.), 48, (Weyland), 205; crucifixion of, 30-31, 47-77; and death from shock, 113-118; hematidrosis of, 3-9; medical condition of before crucifixion, 42—44; mock coronation of, 19-20, 27; and

nailing, 70, 77; scourging of, 114— 115; suffering and death of, 203207; theories concerning His death, 106; thirst of, 102-103; and time of death, 117-118; trial of, 12-13; tunic of, 45-46; and way of the cross, 42-45, 115

contact hypothesis, 168-169 117; and scorch im-

ages, 193 II Corinthians 11:24, 18 Crawley, Geoffrey, 173 cross, the, 32-41; of author’s experiments, 86-87; height of, 33-34; legends of, 35—36; methods of carrying, 44, 45; sedile of, 34-35; weight of, 42: wood of, 35 Cross of St. Andrew, 32, 33 cross experiments (author’s), 86-101; design of, 88-89; effects of on heart and vessels, 98—99; effects of on respiratory system, 96-97; gauntlets of, 87; and manning cross, 91-94, 92, 93; methods and results of, 94-101; structure of, 86-87; volunteer preparation for, 89-91 Cross and the Shroud, A Medical Examiner Investigates the Crucifixion, The (Zugibe), xii crosses, types of, 33 crown of thorns, 19-29; effects of, 27-29; origin of, 20-23; shape of, 29; Shroud image of, 143-144 crown of thorns (Euphorea splendens), 23 cruciarius (Shroud): height of, 142-143; image of, 141-142 cruciarius (volunteer): blood chemistry of, 99-100; blood pressure of, 98— 99; hyperventiliation of, 97; and lactic acid content, 97-98; and oxygen saturation of blood, 96-97; pulse rate of, 99; and rapid heart beat, 98; respiratory quotient of, 97 crucifixion: historic aspects of, 30-31; and nailing of hands, 47-71; and nailing the feet, 71-77; nails used % in, 36-37; origin of term, 30; and position of corpus, 74, 78; and posi-

Zi

Index tion of feet, 76; and pull on each hand, 53-55; and raising the cross, 70-71; Roman method of, 31; sites of, 33; weather at time of, 42, 43; weekend of, 35

crurifragium (skelekopia) hypothesis, 80, 84-85 crux crux crux crux crux

commissa, 32, 33, 41 compacta, 32 decussata, 32, 33 immissa, 32, 33, 41 simplex, 32, 33

Eusebius (Caesaria), 140 Evenari, Dr. Michael, 20-23 exactor mortis, 31, 42, 44, 53, 69 executioners, Roman, 31

exocrine glands, 4 Exodus 12:46, 65 Exposition of the Shroud (1932), 47; (1978), xii Expository Times, 140

of Turin

Ferri, Lorenzo, 142

“fight or flight reaction,” 7, 99

Curto, Prof. Silvio, 187

Dachau concentration camp hypothesis, 80-81 Daguerre, Jacques, 160 Dalea spinosa, 24

Filas, Rev. Francis, 192-193 Filbert, Emmanuel, 129 Filogamo, Prof. Guido, 196 fire of Chambéry, 127, 163, 166, 174 flagrum, 14, 15

flash photolysis, 175

d’Arcis, Pierre, 159 d’Arcis Memorandum, 159, 198 Darier, G., 3 Darius I (Persia), 30-31 Danin, Dr. Avinoam, 185 “Death of the Cross, The” (LeBec), 3

force of tension on arms of crucified, 53— 55, 54

“Death by Crucifixion” (Zugibe), 116

Franciscan Way of the Cross, 43 Frei, Dr. Max, 162, 181-185 French Archaeological Mission (1886), 140

Delage, Prof, Yves, 167 della Rovere, Giovanni, 123, 126

De Salvo, Dr. John, on Volckringer hypothesis, 172 Destots space, 58, 59 Deuteronomy 17:16, 12

Deuteronomy 19:15, 12 Deuteronomy 25:3, 18 di Savoia, Umberto, 199 Doctor at Calvary, A (Barbet), 58, 117 “double flow” of blood concept, 82, 83 duct, of human skin, 2, 5, 6

Fossati, L., 162 Fourier analysis, 162 Franche, Prof. Giorgio, 196

Gadzhiev, R. G., 3-4 Galleria Sabauda Torino, 123 Garden of Gethsemane, 7; plants of, 24

Gedda, Dr. Luigi, 142-143 Germain, J., 154 Gilbert, RK.) Jr, 172

Giv’at ha Mivtar, 62, 72, 73, 85, 143 gleditsia tricanthos, 24 Golgotha, 33 Gorman, Ralph, 70

ear oximeter, 91; defined, 93

earthquake/quartz hypothesis, 177 Edwards, Dr. William, 117

electrical discharge modification, 178

forensic pathology, 138-139

177-

Emmanuel, first Comneno, 127 Enrie, Guiseppe, 120, 123, 152 epidermis, of human skin, 2, 5

Gossypium herbaceum, 185 Gramaglia, Angelo, 30 greater occipital branch (nerve), 24 Greek-English lexicon (Liddell-Scott), 63 Gregory of Tours, 71 Guadalupe church (Spain), 162

Esplicatione del Sacro Lenzuolo Ove Fu Involto II Signore in 1598 (Paleotto), 69

Esquiline Camp, 33 Essays: Of Studies (Bacon), xi

Haas, N., 72, 84 hand, anatomy of, 49-53, 50, 51, 52

Index

232

Haralick, Dr. Robert, 193 head region, the, 24-27; 25; blood vessels of, 24, 25; nerves of, 24-27, 25 heart, 104, 105, 112 heel of crucified man, 36, 72, 73 Heigi, G., 23 Heller, John H.: and blood samples, 161; blood studies of, 196; on painting theory, 162 hematidrosis, 3-7

hemopericardium, 104 hemothorax, 104 Herod, and innocence of Christ, 13, 18 Hersey, John, 175 Herschel, Sir John, 160 hippopotamus research, 8 Hiroshima (Hersey), 175 Hiroshima A-Bomb Memorial Museum, 175 Holocantha emoryi, 24 Holy Chapel of Gerusalemme, 37, 39 human artifice theory, 159-167; histor ical background of, 159-160; McCrone supports, 160-161; photography, 160 Human Pathology, 180 human skin: diagram, 2; photograph, 5, 6 Humanist, 165 Hurley, H., 8 Hutchins, G. M., 180 Huxley, Aldous, 85 Hynek, R. W., 80 hypovolemic shock, 114 hyssop reed, 34

icon of St. Pontianus, 128 Image of Edessa, 127-128 Inchtuthill, Scotland, 36, 37 Innitzer group (sindologists), 45 Inquest, The (Nickell), 166 International

Center

of Sindonology,

168 Instituto Bancario San Paolo, 120, 121 Interpreter’s Bible, 41 Ny Israel Fiber Institute, 181

Jackson, Capt. John P., 153; on painting theory, 162

Jannaeus, Alexander (Judea), 31 Jerusalem (map), 43 Jewish burial customs, 139-141, 192 “Jewish Shroud of Turin” (Sherbok), 140 Jewish War (Josephus), 13, 32-33, 41 John 18:28, 13

John 19:1, 13, 204 John 19:16-17, 42 John 19:19, 32 John 19:19-20, 40 John 19:21-22, 41

John John John John

19:28, 180 19:28-30, 102 19:32-34, 106 19:33, 84

John 19:34, 103

John 19:39, 140 John 19:39-40, 167 John 19:40, 139-140

John 20:20-27, 47, 62 Joseph of Arimathea, 117, 152 Josephus, Flavius, 13, 31, 32-33, 41.

Journal of American Medical Association, 117 Judas, hanging, 48 Judica-Cordiglia,

Giovanni,

107; and

contact hypothesis, 168; on height of man of Shroud, 143

“Julia lepton,” 193 ; Jumper, Capt. Eric J., 139, 153; on painting theory, 162 Jumper, E. J. and J. P. Jackson, and 3-D computer studies, 191-192 Jusgladii, 13 Knight Templars, 128 Koeberlinia spinosa, 24 Kohlbeck, Joseph, 179 La Cuesta church (Spain), 162

laboratories, for carbon-14 dating, 190, 199 Lampe, Dr. Ernest, 147 Lanciano, relics of, 197

languages, of titulus, 41 Lateau, Louise, 65 Lavoie, G. R., 134; and facial image, 144-145; on Jewish burial customs,

»

140-141

Lavsky, G. K., 3, 4

239

Index Le Bec, A., 3; on asphyxiation, 80; on thirst, 102 legend of Edessa, 127-128 Les cing plaies du Christ (Barbet), 58, 59 Lexicon Hebraicum et Aramaicum (Zorell), 63 Libby, Willard F., 189, 190 Linnaeus, 23 Lipsius, Justus, 34-35, 47; on nailing hands, 62

Lirey Church, 129 Listengarten, A. M., Log E/Interpretations Lorre, J. J. and D. analysis of back

3-4 Systems, 192 J. Lynn, 149; and image, 162

Lost Gospel According to Peter, The, 140 Louis VII, 127 Luck, Prof: C. P., 8

Luke Luke Luke Luke Luke Luke Luke

22:42, 7 22:42-44, 1, 203 22:43, 7 22:63-65, 12 23:1-2, 204 23:2, 13 23:5, 13

experiments, 62 Medical Dictionary (Stedman), 3

Medical Language of St. Luke (Hobart), 3 Medical World News, 139, 147 mercerization effect, 179

Meulemeester Technical Laboratory of Textiles of the University of Ghent, 185 microdensitometer, 153 Miller, V. C., and ultraviolet photography, 169 Mishna, 141 Mitchell, Morehouse, and Keen (authors), 69 Moedder, H. 80 Mole, R. H., 133 Monheim, L. M., 70

Luke 23:46, 142

Luke 24:39, 47, 62 Lusignano, Anna de, 129

Maloney, Paul, 185 man of the Shroud: and evidence of washing, 169; facial wounds of, 144; height of, 142; image of, 123, 124, 125; and image enhancement, 158; and rigor mortis, 132, 141-142; Tamburelli on age of, 156; washed after death, 133-134; wounds of, 133-134. See also Christ Mark 14:34, 1, 203 Mark 14:35, 7 Mark 14:62, 12 Mark 15:17-19, 19, 204 Mark 15:24, 45 Mark 15:26, 32 Mark 15:36, 34 Mark 15:43-45, 118, 152

mathematical representations: diagram, 54; illustration,

McCrone Associates Research Laboratory, 160 McCrone’s theory, arguments against, 161-165 Meacham, William, 191 Measuring Cross of Emperor Justinian, 143 median nerve, 50, 52, 69; and Barbet’s

54; photographs,

55, 56 Matthew 27:37, 40 McCrone, Walter C., 160-161, 198

Moran, Rex, 159-160, 177 Morano, Prof. Etrano, 187 Mosaic law, 16-18 myocardial infarction, 111 nail of St. Helen, 37, 38 nailing the feet, 71-77 nailing of hands, 47-71; Barbet’s thesis on, 58; theories on placement of nails, 62-69 Navarette church (Spain), 162 Nickell, Joe, 165-167 Niepce, Jean Nicephore, 160 Nitkowski, Eugenia, 179 Nugent, Dr. Robert, 26 Numbers 3:30, 12 Numbers 9:12, 65

Origen, 140 Otterbein, Fr. Adam, 160 Our Lady of the Rosary church (USA), 162

Padre Pio, 65

pain threshold, 70

234

Index

Paleotto, Alfonso, 67 palm, 49, 50; and effects of nailing, 69; upper part, 63-69; “Z” area of, 66, 68 palmar aponeurosis, 49, 50 palmaris longus tendon, 50, 52, 69

parasympathetic divisions (PD), 4, 6 patibulum (antenna), 32 Pellicori, Samuel: on fiber analysis, 165;

experiments of to accelerate aging, 174; on painting theory, 162; and ultraviolet photography, 169 Pelligrino, Cardinal, 190

pericardial effusion, 104 pericardium, 103 Pharisees, 12

photographic process theory, 173-174 “Physical Cause of the Death of Our Lord, The” (Whittaker), 3 Physiology and Biochemistry of the Skin, 8 Pia, S., photographic revelation of, 160 Pilate, Pontius, 11; coins of his time, 192; condemns Christ, 18; and cross title, 37, 40-41; on death of Christ, 152; and innocence of Christ, 13,

radical bone, 64 Raes, Prof. Gilbert, 185, 187 Reban, John, 151 Religious History (Theodoret), 140 Ricca, Prof. Paola, 30 Ricciotte, G., 155 Richmond, Prof. I. A., 36 Riecke, E., 3 rigor mortis: breaking, 132; described, 131132 Rinaldi, Fr. Peter, 119 Robert of Clary, 127 Rodante, Prof. Sebastino, 168 Rogers, Ray N., on fiber analysis, 165 Roman nails, 36, 37 Romanese, Dr., and contact hypothesis, 168 Rothman, S., 8 rubbings of Joe Nickell, 165-167

S. Sabena (Rome), 47 St. Anselme, 71 St. Bonaventure, 71

RostaGiace Primrose, W. B., 107, 114-115

St. Brigit, 48, 63, 65, 71, 110 St. Catherine of Siena, 65 St. Charles Borromeo, 69, 129 St. Francis of Assisi, 65 St. Gregory Nazianzen, 71 St. Helen, 37; finds titulus, 41 St. John Lateran (church), 143 St. Luke, profile of, 1-2 St. Luke’s Guild (London), 102 Sainte Chapelle de Chambéry, 127 Sanhedrin, 12 Savio, Pietro, 107, 187 Schwalbe, L. A., on fiber analysis, 165 Schwerin, F., 24 scorch radiation theories, 173-174 Scott, C sles scourging (flagellatio): d-scribed, 14-16; and Shroud of Turin, 18 scribes, 12

Proceedings of the United States Conference of Research on the Shroud of Turin, 154 Psalms 22:16, 47, 63 \

Second International Congress of the Shroud in Science, 111 Second International Scientific Conference of Sindonology, 120, 121

18; and scourging of Christ, 13, 18;

surprise of at Christ’s death, 117118 Pius, Giorgianus, 41 pleural effusion, 104 Poitier, Henry de, 159

pollen identification study, 181-185 pollen species on Shroud, table, 182-184 Pontifical Academy of Sciences, 199 Pontius Pilate lepton, 195

poor Clares, 129 Pope John Paul II, 130, 199

Porphyry, 2 Popular Photography, 165 posca, 34

Psalms 69:20, 11 pulmonary artery, 103, 112 pulmonary vein, 103

quaternio, 31, 42, 69

Secondo Pia, 122-123 sedile (saddle), 34-35 Serapion (Antioch), 140 “shadow” photographs (nuclear), 176 Shelley, W. B., 8 Sherbok, Rabbi Dan Cohn, 140

Index

235

shock: as cause of Christ’s death, 113117; described, 113; definitions of, 115-116; kinds of, 113-114

Smith; P= 117 Spatial Data Analysis Laboratory, 193 stigmatists, 65

Shroud Chapel of St. John the Baptist, 119

stipes (staticulum), 32; described, 33 “Stone of Unction,” 140 Stroud, William, 110-111 Stuiver, Dr. Minze, 191 el Sujuti, 102

Shroud News, 159-160, 177

Shroud Spectrum International, 191 Shroud of Turin: age of, 187; arm imprints of, 145, 148-149; and au-

thenticity question, 198; back and head images of, 17, 45, 150; and bifurcation pattern hypothesis, 80; blood streams on, 133; burned at Chambéry, 129; and coin experiments, 199; computer studies of, 199; cotton fiber of, 188; described, 122-123, 126-127; diagram of entire, 200-201; face of, 155, 158, 194, 195; feet image of, 71-72, 151; folded in fours, 128; forensic evaluation of, 138-139; hand wound of, 58, 63, 136-138, 145; head region of, 28-29, 65, 81-82, 194; hiding place of, 129; history of,

127-130; and image of crown, 143-— 144; linen fibril from,

197; lower

chest and extremities of, 146; medi-

cal studies of, 80; nail compressions of, 65; negative of, 125; ownership of, 130; photograph, 124; pilgrims at shrine of, 121; pollen species of, table, 182-184; public viewing of (1978), 206; and rigor mortis, 132, 152; scorch images on, 193; and scourge wounds, 18, 134-135, 149; side wounds of, 107, 149, 151; and

similarities with icons,

127; spear

wound of, 34; 3-D reliefs of, 155, 157, 158, 194; traded for castles, 129; tridimensional studies of, 152157; weave of, 188; willed to Pope John Paul II, 129; wrapping of, 126; and wrist wounds, 48; yarn described, 185. See also man of the Shroud “Shroud of Turin, The” (Crawley), 153 Shroud of Turin Research Project (STURP), 147 siege of Jerusalem, 31, 32-33 Simon of Cyrene, 44, 45 Sindone, 117 Sindone of Turin, 119

Skeptical Inquirer, 161

suppedaneum, 34 Surgical Anatomy of the Hand (Lampe), 147 sweat gland, of human skin, 2, 5, 6 sweating, 4, 6 sympathetic divisions (SD), 4, 6

Syrian

Christ

thorn

(Ziziphus

spina

christi), 20-21, 115

W_ctoss, 325,33 Talmud, 141

Tamburelli, Prof. Giovanni, 143, 144, 150, 153; on computer imaging, 154 Tenney, S. M., 114-115

Tertullian, 45 thenar eminence, 49, 50, 65-66 thenar furrow, 49, 50, 66, 67, 69 Theodoret, 140 theories of image formation, 158-203; and contact hypothesis, 168-169; and electrical discharge modification, 177-178; and human artifice

theory, 159-167; and hyperthermiacalcium carbonate hypothesis, 178— 181; and scorch radiation theories, 173-174; and radiation modification, 175; vaporgraphic, 167; and

Volckringer’s hypothesis, 170-173; and x-ray hypothesis, 178 Theresa of Konnersreuth, 8, 65 thirst, 180; of Christ, 102-103

3-D imaging equipment, 154 thrombolysius, 106, 133 thumbs on Shroud image, 145-147, 148 Thurston, Herbert, 160 tic douloureux, 24-26 titulus (title), 32, 37-41, 39, 40; carried by Christ, 42; languages of, 41 Titus, Emperor, 31 Tombs of Giv’at ha Mivtar, 36 Torres de la Alameda church (Spain), 162

Transflex process, 152-153 transverse metacarpal ligaments, 49, 50

Index

236

Vita Photographica Italiana, 123 Volckringer’s hypothesis, 170-173 Volckringer’s patterns, 170-171

traumatic shock, 113-114

Treatise on the Physical Cause of the Death of Christ (Stroud), 111 tridimensional studies of Shroud, 152157; of body region, 156; of face, 156; of head region, 155-156 trigeminal nerve, 24-26 Tristam and Warburger (authors), 23 Turbilo, Guilo, 123 12th International Radio Carbon Dating Conference, 190 Tyrer, John, 185, 187

Umberto II, King, 123

U.S. Air Force Weapons Laboratory, 154 University of Turin, 120 Vala, Leo, 152-153 vaporgraphic theory, 153 Varus, Publius Quintilius, 31 vena varae, 103 verberatio, 15 Vergy, Jean de, 159 Verven 554, 15 Victor Emmanuel III, King, 122 Vignon, Prof. Paul, 127, 153-154; and contact hypothesis, 168; on height of man of Shroud, 143; and vapor

graphic theory, 167 Villandre (sculptor), 58-60, 61 Villandre’s crucifix, 61 Vita De Gesu Christo (Mondaci), 155

%

Wedessow, Prof. Hugo, 111 Weyland, Fr. Peter, 79; and experimental cross, 86; on height of man of Shroud, 142

Whanger, Alan and Mary, 192-193 Whittaker, Dr. Ryland, 3; on blood and water effusion, 111; on thirst, 102— 103 Wilson, Ian, 127; on washing of Christ, 139 wounds, from accident victims, 135, 137 wrist: anatomy of, 49, 51, 52; diagram of, 59; radial side of, 63

x-ray hypothesis, 178

Yale University Vineland map, 160 Yudin, S. S., 133

“Z” area, 66, 68 Zias, J. and E. Sekeles, 72, 84 Ziderman, Dr. I., 181 Zino, Alberto, 196 Ziziphus officinarum, 23-24 Zohary, M., 23 Zurich Police Scientific Laboratory,

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RELIGION

sw» CROSS

SHROUD

This fascinating and meticulously researched study of the death of Jesus Christ, written by a forensic pathologist and medical examiner, is based on the author’s thirty years of experimentation and scholarly research. Dr. Zugibe conducted personal examinations of the shroud, the linen cloth in which Christ’s body was wrapped, as well as experiments using

volunteers suspended ona scientifically accurate cross. This probing study incorporates the findings of the 1978 Second International Scientific Conference on the Shroud of Turin,

new analyses that have emerged in recent years, and areas of controversy relating to Christ’s death. Profusely illustrated and thoroughly documented, this book brings clarity and coherence to a chapter of history that has been, alternately, overlooked and misunderstood. THE AUTHOR

Frederick T. Zugibe, M.D., is widely known and respected in the fields of cardiovascular disease and pathology. He is the Chief Medical Examiner of Rockland County, New York, and formerly Director of Cardiovascular Research with the Veteran’s Hospital in Pittsburgh. Dr. Zugibe is also an Adjunct Associate Professor of Pathology at Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. He wrote the definitive and widely used textbook Diagnostic Histochemistry and the best-selling Eat, Drink, and Lower Your Cholesterol. Dr. Zugibe was recently named President of ASSIST (the Association of

Scientists and Scholars International for the Shroud of Turin).

ry PARAGON HOUSE 90 Fifth Avenue New York, NY 10011 ISBN: 0-913729-46-9

$9.95