The Cosmic Covenant: Biblical Themes of Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation 9781463212759

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n f 1981)17 ' . . . myths which we suppose were regarded as having happened once for all in the remote past, in fact were conceived to be recurring at regular intervals in the world in which the Babylonian authors lived' (Lambert 1968, p. 112). 18 Mowinckel 1921 [repr. 1961], I, chs. 1 - 3 . For the discussion since then see T D A T , art. 'awen. In his later work on the Psalms (1967), Mowinckel abandoned his earlier view that the 'workers of iniquity' (po'âle 'awen) in many psalms were practitioners of bad magic, but he rightly continued to maintain that 'awen is magical power. Probably he had to face the sensitive hostility of many Christians to talk of magic, due to an anxiety which I understand but do not see as necessary. This is well discussed by M. Mills (1990), ch. 2. On control rituals as reflected in the prophetic literature, see Fohrer (1966), Hayes (1968) and Murray (1982). 19 The MT says that the High God fixed the boundaries of the peoples 'according to the number of the sons of Israel'-, a fragment found at Qumran has 'sons of God' (or of gods), bearing out the L X X ' s 'angels of God'. Most modern versions follow the Qumran evidence. 20 See M. D. Goulder (1982), pp. 137-49- His study of the Korah psalms is a fine example of imaginative reconstruction of ritual, in such detail as goes beyond the intention of this chapter. Even if his main thesis (that the collection still reflects the order of the autumn festival in the old northern sanctuary of Dan) is not accepted, it is surely among the most impressive attempts of this kind to date, and it contains many illuminating comments on more than the Korah psalms. 21 Perhaps the most balanced treatment is that by H. M. G. Williamson (1982), pp. 291-301. 22 See W. J. Fulco, The CanaanitegodResep (New Haven, Conn., 1976); A . Caquot, 'Sur quelques démons de l'Ancien Testament (Reshep, Qeteb, Deber)', Semítica 6 (1956), 53-68. For a more general sketch, EncJud, s.v. 'Demons, Demonology', first part (cols. 1521-6, by D. R. Hillers). 23 Cf. Isai 13:7, likewise one of the Vôlkersturm scenes (see above, p. 77). Isai 13-34 are particularly rich in echoes of ritual language, as has been observed many times in this work. 24 Also Goulder (1982), who examines the relationship of the Asaph psalms to the larger Korahite group within which they are located. 25 Ps. 77, 78, 80, 81 (the other is Ps 105). On the Asaphites and other temple guilds see A. R. Johnson (1962), pp. 69-75, a n d idem (1979), pp. 264-5.

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Notes to pages 80-85 26 Cf. A . Caquot, 'Le Psaume XCI', Semitica 7 (1957), 21-37. 27 See ch. 4, pp. 54-55. 28 The fast on the 9th of A b remains with the theme of mourning for the destructions of the first and second temples and other disasters in Jewish history, but probably few Jews would now suspect that it originated in a control ritual against the 'noon-day devil' in the drought season. On Qeteb Meriri, see EncJud s.v. 'Demons and Demonology', col. 1528. 29 Murray (1982). 30 Cf. Geyer (1986). The genres of cursing and related activities are usefully analysed by S. H. Blank (1950). 31 A n example of a judgement oracle in the form of a taunt-song is Isaiah's oracle in Isai 37:22-29, the reply to Hezekiah's tehinnahprayer (37:17-20). The mocking dirge in Isai 14:4-21 is called a masal, while those of Ezekiel, e.g. 26:17-28:19 and 32:2-16, are called qinah. 32 That 'the Prophets' are books of oracles is emphasized by J. Barton in his fine book Oracles of God (1986). 33 Numbers 22-24. 34 2 Chron 25:2-6 and A . R. Johnson (1962, 1979), referred to above, p. 80 and in n. 25. 35 See above on the Tammuz-Ab fast. The apotropaic blood ritual of Passover disappeared with the sacrificial lamb. The Day of Atonement as described in Lev 16 was doubtless already considerably changed from its original form, while still retaining strongly magical features, though since the end of the temple these have disappeared. 36 M. Sukkah 5,1: 'He who has never seen the joy at the water-drawing has never in his life seen joy.' 37 R. Patai (1967), drawing much on Talmud and Midrash; for an account based more on earlier sources, see M. Barker (1991), pp. 82-9. 38 See Introduction, p. xx and ch. 3, p. 28. I depend on the account and critical judgement of J. Renger, 'Heilige Hochzeit' in Reallexikon fur Assyriologie 4, pp. 251-9. 39 To make another millennial leap (but duly acknowledging that it is one of pure fancy), we may remember the ritual by which, in the high days of Venetian power, the doge was to enact the marriage of Venice to the sea by casting a ring into the Adriatic. On the symbolic interpretation of actual marital union by the sixteenth-century Kabbalist Isaac Luria, see ch. 7, p. 139 and n. 50. 40 Translation in A N E T 3 , pp. 640-41. 41 Ps 45 is, of course, an epithalamion, but the king's bride is purely human, and there is no hint of the marriage securing fertility for the land. 42 M T 5-6. These have been shown to correspond closely to Egyptian royal investiture formulas: see R. E. Clements's commentary on Isai 1-39 (1980), pp. 107-8, for brief treatment and bibliography.

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43 On these chapters in Second Isaiah see J. Eaton (1979), pp. 85-89. 44 Ahlström (1971); see above, ch. 4, pp. 54-55. 45 See E. Schweizer (1988), who relates Philo on this to a Greek philosophical tradition on the 'elements' and cosmic order; it must be understood, however, that Philo's basic beliefs on this, as on so many topics, come from his tradition. 46 Philo, Spec. Laws, II, 190-92. 47 Cf. M. Mills (1990), ch. 2. 48 On this aspect of Tobit see M. Mills (1990), ch. 6. 49 See Alexander (1986), pp. 342-79; J. M. Hull (1974)50 'There are few activities in the history of which an unbroken chain of tradition from the remotest antiquity to our days can be traced more clearly and conclusively than in the Magic Arts' (A. A. Barb, 'The Survival of Magic Arts', in A. Momigliano [ed.], The Conflict between Paganism and Christianity in the Fourth Century [Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963], pp. 100-25, at p. 125. 51 Biblical Antiquities 60, tr. D. J. Harrington in Charlesworth, OTP II, p. 373; he also contributed the full and excellent notes to the edition in Sources Chrétiennes, vols. 229-30, pp. 232-6. 52 Texts, translations and discussion in D. Sperber (1966). 53 See D. C. Duling (1975); M. Mills (1990), ch. 4. 54 See M. E. Stone (1976). 55 Ant. VIII, 45. 56 Tr. D. C. Duling in Charlesworth, OTP I, pp. 935-8757 Cf. Vermes (1987), pp. 305-7; Alexander (1986), pp. 364-6. 58 Cf. J. Fitzmyer (1971), pp. 138-41.1. Fröhlich (1988) suggests that the Qumran sect saw themselves as being in the tradition of the Babylonian exorcistic healers, and regarded 'medical' healing as going back to the dangerous teaching of the rebellious 'Watchers' in 1 Enoch 7; she compares Sir 38:1-15, where prayer (vv. 9-11) is recommended more than doctors, on whom the remarks begin respectfully but end cynically. Unfortunately her theory, though attractive in its conclusion, depends on too many uncertain hypotheses. 59 Translation in Vermes (1987), pp. 103-127; see esp. cols. 10-14, PP114-121. 60 Critical edition by C. Newsom (1985); another translation in Vermes (1987), pp. 221-30. 61 See the discussion by C. Newsom (1985), pp. 59-72, 'The Qumran context of the Sabbath songs'. The speculation here is my own, not hers. 62 See Alexander (1986), pp. 361-4; J. M. Baumgarten (1988). 63 Text in PGM IV, 3007-86; translation quoted from H. D. Betz (1986), P- 9764 M. Gaster (1901), as compared with A. Deissmann (ed. 2, 1912), pp. 251-60 and the notes in Betz (1986), pp. 96-97. 65 Aramaic text and translation in G. Scholem (i960), p. 83; this transla195

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67

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69

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tion by present writer. 'Spell' ('isara) and 'bound' ('asirin, pi.) are from the same stem. 'Seal' (hitfama) has a similar function in the magical vocabulary. J . A . Montgomery (1913), p. 41 C. D. Isbell (1975) disagrees (pp. 1 3 15), but it is not clear if he has taken due account of the mode of burying so many of the bowls. Cf. also D. Sperber (1966), who relates this practice to the legend of David and the Tehom. C. H. Gordon (1941), pp. 273-76; C. D. Isbell (1975), pp. 3 1 - 3 3 , with his own translation. The version given here is somewhat conflated from their respective translations, which at various points have complementary merits. 'Enchant' and 'spell' (or incantation) are from the same Aramaic stem 'Sp, which goes back through Akkadian to Sumerian, like the activity to which it refers. See above, p. 79, on 'Asaph' etc. The verb appears in the Hebrew M T as 'sp (with samech) and has consequently bothered lexicographers, but needlessly. Cf. MacLaurin (1975), p. 27. 'Dragon', tannin: Gordon and Isbell have '(sea) monster', but I prefer the more 'mythical' word. 'Decree', gzirta-, the term corresponds to Heb. hoq. 'I brought', Gordon (Isbell 'came down'). The text is hard to read here; 'Hermon' is proposed by both scholars, as (ura, 'mountain' follows it. If it is correct, this is a striking link with 1 Enoch, as Hermon is where the rebel angels made their conjuration (1 Enoch 6:6). The restorations here and below may make readers wonder how so much can be reconstructed. In fact the magical bowl inscriptions are full of recurring formulas, so that if a gap occurs where such a formula seems to be beginning, the lacuna can often be filled in, with a high degree of probability, from other less damaged bowls. There are vast numbers in existence.

Chapter 6: Relationships Within the Kingdom of Peace 1 The classificatory style of 1 : 1 1 - 1 2 and 2 1 - 2 5 is clearly 'priestly', like that in Lev 1 1 etc.; see P. Beauchamp (1969), esp. pp. 240-44, and also W. M. Clark (1968). 2 Akkadian $almu, Hebrew $elem. The case is argued by H. Wildberger (1965). For examples of kings as the image of Bel and Marduk (and the same claim made for an exorcism-priest (aSipu] of Marduk), see C A D , s.v. $almu and Wildberger's discussion at pp. 2 5 3 - 5 5 , evaluated by A . de Pury (1985), pp. 68-69. The last-mentioned article presents a fine, if general, survey of most of the themes discussed in the present chapter. 3 In Ps 8:4-5 the status of a human being ('enoS and ben 'adam) as 'little less than 'elohim (we might translate 'than divine') comes close in meaning to the 'image' formula, and the psalm immediately goes on to speak of the animal creation as subject to humankind. Whether ben

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Notes to pages 98-100 'adam here originally referred to the king (as it surely does in Ps 80:17/ MT 16), or belongs already to 'democratized' thinking, can hardly be decided now. Ps 8:5 is quoted in Ps 144:3 (a more clearly royal psalm), sandwiched between quotations of Ps 18; the psalm closes with a prayer for abundance of offspring, both human and animal, and of crops. 4 This is finely expounded by P. Beauchamp (1987), PP- i39"8 2 - The mediatorial role and ideals of kingship have been outlined above, ch. 3, pp. 41-42 and ch. 5, p. 85. The very different caricature presented by W. Brueggemann (see Introduction, n. 10) is regrettable. To see the lasting value of the royal ideals, we now need to 'unpack' the metaphor, but this is hardly an impossible task. See Epilogue, pp. 162-63 and 168-69. 5 See J . Barr (1972), criticizing a regrettably influential essay by Lynn White (1967). Barr discusses these Hebrew verbs and their interpretation at pp. 2 1 - 2 3 . 6 A distinction is implied, however, between the plants and trees described in terms which mean that they produce cereals and fruit, which are given to humankind (Gen 1:29) and all other vegetation, which is given to animals (1:30). Thus in the priestly scheme there was originally no cause for conflict; cf. A . de Pury (1985), P- 65. See also the discussion below of P. Beauchamp's analysis. 7 It has been felicitously proposed to call this 'adam, made from the earth ('adamah), an 'earthling'. This helps to preserve the figure's pregnant character, for the 'adam is not purely and simply a male individual person; he (or 'it'?) is a symbolic Urmensch (or archetypal human being) which, in a sense, is going to be divided into male and female. Both Jewish midrash and some patristic commentators have found at least a hint of androgyny here; such interpretations are discussed briefly in R. Murray (1975), pp. 301-48 Thus St Ephrem (c. 306-73) says: It says "He brought them to Adam" in order to indicate his wisdom, and also the peaceful state which existed between the animals and Adam prior to his transgressing the commandment. For they came to him as though to a loving shepherd, passing in front of him without any fear, flock after flock according to their species and varieties. They had no fear of him, nor were they in trepidation of one another; a herd of predators passed by, followed fearlessly by a group of the animals upon which they preyed. (Syriac in S. Ephraem Syri In Genesim et in Exodum Commentarii, CSCO 152, pp. 3 0 - 3 1 ; tr. S. P. Brock (1990), P- 203. 9 On Creation, 148 (LCL Philo, I, pp. 1 1 6 - 1 7 ) ; the translation given here is my own, slightly abbreviated. The 'naming' is to be understood as the intuition and designation of essential natures rather than giving 'personal' names. R. Loewe has observed that the latter practice was unknown to the biblical and early

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11 12 13

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Jewish world. Already in Homer Odysseus' dog had a name (Argos), whereas, almost a millennium later, Tobias' devoted companion was still simply 'the dog' ('La Linguistica ebraica', in G. C. Lepschy [ed.], Storia della Linguistica I [II Mulino, 1990], 119-66, at p. 121). See (for a start) Ginzberg, Legends I, pp. 15-61 and V, pp. 180-2; for the Syriac Christian tradition see (e.g.) E. A . Wallis Budge, The Cave of Treasures (London, 1927), pp. 1 1 1 - 1 2 . On the whole, Jewish midrash here seems to concentrate on due separation of animals and avoidance of mating across species; Christian, mainly on harmony, drawing on Isai 1 1 . This contrast may perhaps reflect a division between different religious world-views represented in the biblical tradition; the idea that in paradise (and in the ark) all creatures lived together in harmony seems to be conceived in quite other terms than the priestly insistence on order through separation (the theme of Beauchamp, 1969). Beauchamp (1987), pp. 153-67. For a first glimpse at the problem see Driver and Gray (1921), p. 57. The commentaries of 'Rashi' (R. Shlomo Yitzhaqi, 1040-1105) and 'Radak' (R. David Qimhi, c. 1160-c. 1235) accompany the text in all Rabbinic Bibles {Miqraot Gedolot). I do not know of translations of their commentaries on Job. Rashi mentions a variant for 'abne (stones), namely 'adone, 'lords' of the wild, which he understands as a kind of half-human creatures, while he takes the 'beasts' in the second half of the verse not as ordinary animals but as werewolves (garoux in his old French). These he regards as the se'irim, 'satyrs', mentioned in Lev 17:7 as creatures to which cult must not be rendered (though 2 Chron 1 1 : 1 5 mentions the practice). Rashi's 'wild men' occur in the Mishnah (KiVayim 8:5 — they count as animals, not humans; see K. Kohler, 'Seltsame Vorstellungen und Bräuche in der biblischen und rabbinischen Literatur', A R W 13 [1910], 75-79). But does Job 5:23 have to refer to strange creatures at all? On the other hand, both ancient Israelites and most of the human race at all times have believed that there are more kinds of creatures than are recognized by modern westerners. The seventhcentury Saint Isaac of Nineveh certainly includes demons when he commends compassion for all creatures (see ch. 7, p. 147). Indeed, one recent commentator (A. de Wilde, 1981, p. 1 1 5 ) takes the stones in all simplicity (though personified); they will be friendly, not frustrating agriculture (cf. 2 Kgs 3:25). His examples are not near enough to be convincing; and yet - is it impossible that the thought of making peace even with inanimate hostile forces might have occurred to so imaginative a poet as the author of Job? For readers without Hebrew, it should be explained that the verbal forms which are commonly translated by the future have several other functions (continuous or uncompleted action in past or present, general or timeless statements, wishes and third-person commands). It

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is often a delicate and debatable decision, what tenses to use in a language which expresses time more precisely (and therefore makes it all too easy to introduce a clarity not in the H e b r e w ) . 16 It is arguable that the force of this hinneh continues till 11:9, after which a new opening formula occurs in 11:10. 17 B y these bracketed insertions I do not presume to suggest that hinneh should be read in the text, but simply to remind the reader of the argument just proposed, that its force remains from 10:33. 18 'Breath' (ruah) is traditionally rendered 'spirit'; here 'breath' is used to allow the possibility of a reference to G o d ' s creative action (cf. G e n 2:7), and also to avoid any hint of personification of ruah, which in earlier biblical Hebrew is only an expression of G o d ' s power. A s a royal endowment the ruaf} of Y H W H is claimed in the 'Last Words of D a v i d ' (2 Sam 23:2). 19 These royal endowments are closely linked with $edeq: wisdom (hokmah, cf. David, 2 Sam 14:20; Solomon, 1 Kgs 3 : 5 - 1 4 ) ; insight (binah, cf. Solomon, ibid.); counsel (esah, cf. 'wonder-counsellor', pele y oes, (Isai 9:6/MT 5); might (géburah, cf. 'mighty G o d ' , e/ gibbor, ibid.); knowledge (da'at) and fear (yir'at) of Y H W H (cf. 2 Sam 23:3b). 20 This line is regarded as an unnecessary addition by most modern scholars. Jerome used a different term so as to make the 'gifts' reach the sacred number seven. 21 T h e Hebrew clearly implies that in judging (sp(, the verb from which mispat is formed) and punishing (ykh, hif.) what the prince disregards is not merely anonymous hearsay but even the evidence of his own eyes and ears. Thus the sedeq by which he judges is not from himself but is the divine gift, as in Ps 72. 22 'Equity': misor. Though not so frequent as sedeq and mispat. this is a quality of divine judgment (e.g. Ps 67:5), though the related meySarim is commoner (e.g. Ps 9:9 etc.). 'The oppressed': lit. 'the humble of the land'; 'the oppressor': lit. 'the land'. This may seem an unacceptably free translation; but the first 'land' is related to the 'humble' in favour of whom the prince decrees punitive justice, presumably against their oppressors, while the second 'land' is paralleled by 'the wicked'. This suggests that 'land' here has a particular sense, 'land-owners', and especially oppressive ones. Such a semantic particularization would have parallels in several languages and cultures. 'Breath of his lips' (4b): the gift of divine ruah (v. 2) now works through the prince's own ruah. 23 V . 5 is paraphrased here in order to escape from the clichés of 'girding loins'. Sedeq is now paralleled by 'émunah, a covenantal attribute both of G o d and of humans loyal to each other. This stanza on royal justice is comparable to 2 Sam 23:3b, Isai 9:7 /MT 6d; Ps 72:2, 4, 12 and the whole of Ps 101 (a king's promise to execute justice). 24 ' A t home with': H e b gwr, to stay in a place, esp. as a ger, a resident alien.

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25 The identity of the two kinds of snakes is uncertain. 'Exploring': lit. 'stretch out hand', it is not clear what for. 26 'Land': it depends on context and interpretation whether to take 'ere.) thus or as the whole earth. The latter goes with the common eschatological explanation, but that arose later than the text itself. 'Land' seems to suit 'mountain' better. The phrase is paralleled in Habakkuk; see below, p. n o . 27 Alien enemies, e.g. Isai 5:29 or Jer 5:6; social enemies, e.g. Ps 59:6, 14; unidentified enemies, Ps 2 2 : 1 2 - 2 1 ; God himself threatening punishment, e.g. Hos 13:7-8. 28 E.g. Pss 15, 24, 48, 87. 29 See M. Barker (1991), ch. 2, 'The Garden' (pp. 57-103). 30 Cf. H. G. May (1962). The use of elohim without capital is deliberate, to remind the reader that in such a mythical context the 'Eden' is certainly a place of divine beings, but that the latter are not reducible to the one called YHWH Elohim in Gen 2. 31 See ch. 4, p. 57. 32 A N E T 3 , pp. 37ff. (tr. and notes by S. N. Kramer); the most recent translation and study is by P. Attinger in Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie 74 (1984), pp. 1 - 5 2 (in French). I follow the latter's version. 33 Most scholars seem to agree that 'Dilmun' is Bahrein (cf. G. Bibby, Looking for Dilmun, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970) - though this kind of identification of mythical places (be they Eden, Circe's island or Avalon) rather hinders than helps a fruitful reading of myth. See the brief interpretation by T. Jacobsen in Frankfort (1946), pp. 170-74. 34 Following Attinger (n. 32 above), with some advice from Professor W. G. Lambert. The words for the cries of the birds are probably simply imitative and without sinister implication. 35 Such trouble and hostility call for their own myths to help people to face them; an example could be the passage in the 'Erra epic' quoted in ch. 4 (pp. 59-60) where hostile behaviour on the part of animals is attributed to Erra's neglecting to control them. (This Akkadian poem, however, is much later than 'Enki and Ninhursaga', perhaps only two or three centuries earlier than the Isaian poem.) 36 The theme came into European literature with Hesiod, Works and Days, 109-25 (ninth century BCE). 37 Many examples are interestingly discussed by G. Ashe in his Camelot and the Myth of Albion (1971, London: Panther Books, 1975), which pursues the subject well beyond the Arthurian and Blakean themes of the title. Of course, messianism itself is an example of this pattern, as are all its developments; but the pattern is more widespread than Jewish and Christian messianism. 38 Irenaeus, Dem. 12, 14; see Murray (1975), pp. 304-6. 39 For the theme of paradise as a mountain, see Murray (1975) pp. 30610; in relation to the temple, Barker (1991), ch. 2.

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40 See ch. 4, pp. 63-65. 41 'In the courtyard large bulls, horses, eagles, bears and lions graze at will. They do not harm men at all. Rather all are sacred and tame': Lucian, On the Syrian Goddess, 41 (ed. and tr. H. W. Attridge and R. R. Oden (1976). (Unfortunately the Loeb Lucian has an eccentric translation of this work into a pastiche of Mandevillean fifteenthcentury English which is not easy to read.) See also B. Kotting, (1964). 42 The Aramaic inscription runs: tbrk '[It] / mn dy I' ys[d] / dm 7 hwgb' (approximate vocalization: tebarek 'Allat man dy la yesad dam 'al hugba). See H. J. W. Drijvers (1982). 43 Sibyllines III, 793-5; tr. J. J. Collins in Charlesworth, OTA I, p. 379. 44 Philo, Rewards and Punishments, LCL Philo VIII, pp. 364-7. 45 See above, ch. 3, pp. 38-3946 Several standard modern versions (French, German, Dutch) are freer, saying that the just person 'knows the needs of his cattle'; true, but the Hebrew is more pregnant. The nefes is the life which animals share with humans according to the nature of each, as it was granted to Adam to know and name. 47 Related to rehem, womb: AV 'tender mercies', or elsewhere 'bowels of compassion'; the yearning of Joseph when he met his younger brother again (Gen 43:30) or, in the New Testament equivalent, the compassion of Jesus for the helpless crowds (Mk 6:34). 48 Tr. in ANET 3 , p. 34; Beyerlin, NERT, E.T. p. 65. 49 Esp. in The Virtues, 125-60, LCL Philo VIII, pp. 238-63. 50 The Loeb translation has 'the very height of unholiness' for anosiotaton, but the Greek hosion corresponds rather to hesed (respect for ties of blood or covenant) than to holy (qados), which refers primarily to what must be kept separate from the profane or everyday sphere. 51 On all this see Keel (1980), pp. 28-40. 52 For a sketch, see EncJud, s.v. 'Animals, cruelty to', and L. Jacobs (1973), PP- 24-2953 Jewish writers commonly transliterate as bal tashchit. For an introduction see L. Jacobs (1973), pp. 119-21, and J. Gorsky in The Month (1991), pp. 78-83. 54 Jer 14:5-6; Joel 1:18-20; cf. ch. 4, pp. 50, 53~5455 Also in other cultures, from Gilgamesh, 'Shepherd of Uruk' (ANET 3 , pp. 73-74) to Homeric kings, especially Agamemnon, 'Shepherd of the peoples' (Iliad 2, 243 etc.). 56 Both discussed briefly in ch. 7. 57 Cf. J. Barton (1986). 58 See M. Barker (1988), ch. 3, 'The Origin of Evil'. 59 The plurals, 'theories' and 'interpretations', are deliberate, and correspond to the pluralism of authentic Christian tradition. It will be useful, especially for the next chapter and the Epilogue, to consider the following Excursus. 60 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, 1 Enoch: see Bibliography A. 201

Notes to pages 124-128 61 T r . in Sparks (1984), p. 875. 62 See Jansma, T . , 'Ephraem on Exodus II, 5: Reflections on the Interplay of Human Freewill and Divine Providence', O r C h r P e r 39 (1973), 5-2863 See D a l y , G . , 'Theological Models in the Doctrine of Original Sin', HeyJ 13 (1972), 121-42.

Chapter 7; Themes and Variations in Christianity and Judaism 1 C f . A c t s 2:36, and the dispute in M k 12:35-37. It was, of course, to take some centuries to work out exactly how Jesus as Kyrios ( L o r d , the regular G r e e k equivalent of Y H W H as 'Adonai) is related to the Father of whom he had spoken with such intimate confidence. 2 H o w e v e r , the manifold potentialities of Jesus' parables can allow an 'ecological' reading of some of them, as is well shown by James Crampsey for 'the Rich Fool' (Lk 12:16-20), 'the Tenants of the Vineyard' (Mk 1 2 : 1 - 1 2 and parallels) and the Seed parables in Mark (4:26-29 and 4:30-32, the latter with parallels). See J. Crampsey, ' L o o k at the Birds in the A i r ' in The Way 31 (1991), no. 3. 3 Whatever the facts behind the story, at least it reveals a belief that Jesus had a miraculously intimate knowledge of individual creatures. [Another story, that of the 'Gadarene swine' (Mk 5 : 1 - 2 0 ) might be thought to indicate indifference to the fate of these creatures. It is hardly possible, however, to deduce firm conclusions about motivations and causality, and on the part of w h o m , from the story as told.] 4 Most patristic references are gathered by U . Holzmeister (1951). This background is recommended by H. A . Kelly (1964). 5 G r e e k ed. by M . de Jonge (1978), pp. 122-23; this translation (also by de Jonge) in Sparks, A O T (1984), pp. 5 7 1 - 7 2 . 6 This is the conclusion of Kelly (1964). In origin the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs may be either pre-Christian or Jewish-Christian, but, like many biblical apocrypha, they were preserved (and often touched up) by Christians. T h e present passage is unquestionably christianized. 7 Ps-Ephrem, Sermons for Holy Week I, 95-96; ed. E . B e c k , C S C O 412/Syr. 181, G e r m a n tr. in 413/182. ' A n g e l s ' : ' i r e , the 'watchers'; the word is often associated with the rebellious angels, but E p h r e m uses it regularly for all angels. 8 See esp. J. Jeremias, s.v. ' A d a m ' , in T W N T I, pp. 1 4 1 - 3 (same pp. in T D N T I); W . A . Schulze (1955), and A . Feuillet (i960), w h o refers to others sympathetic to this reading. It is remarkable that in the modern Catholic mass lectionary M k 1 : 1 2 - 1 3 ' s paired with the 'Eternal Covenant' passage in G e n 9, a choice which contains a whole exegetical argument. 9 What a text says to poets and artists may also deserve the attention of exegetes. Robert Graves in his haunting early poem 'In the Wilder-

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128-130

ness' (revised in Selected Poems, ed. P. O ' P r e y , Penguin B o o k s , 1986, pp. 28-29), pictures Jesus in the wilderness, keeping company especially with those creatures which are thought most untamable, sinister or repulsive; the poem's climax pictures the scapegoat, 'poor innocent', attaching itself to Jesus as his most devoted companion, which 'Followed in Jesus' ways, Sure guard behind him kept, Tears like a lover wept'. Stanley Spencer has a moving series of eight paintings entitled 'Christ in the wilderness' (now in the A r t Gallery of Western Australia, Perth), five of which relate Jesus to animals or birds, several of them with reference to sayings of his. In one, 'Foxes have holes', he reclines by a colony of foxes, which play round him trustfully; in what is perhaps the most striking, 'The scorpion', he sits in a desolate landscape, holding a scorpion in his great workman's hands and contemplating it with loving wonder. In another, 'eagles', the birds are busy eating a dead deer beside where he reclines; he averts his attention, but does not oppose their activity. (Spencer doubtless had in mind Mt 24:28; as regards Jesus' attitude, one might think of G e n 9 : 2 - 5 rather than Isai 1 1 : 6 - 9 . ) Readers familiar only with the English words 'righteous-(ness)' and 'justification' may not realize that in Paul's G r e e k , as in its Hebrew background, the words they represent are closely connected. This can be set out in a table:

ENGLISH

GREEK

HEBREW

$edeq, sedaqah

=

dikaiosune

=

$addiq sadaq

= =

dikaios d. einai

= =

hiqdiq

=

dikaioo

=

dikaioma, 1 dikaidsis J

=

J (hasdaqah, only \ in modern H . )

righteousness, justice righteous, just to be in the right, be just to justify, make righteous justification

It will be argued in the Epilogue that the Christian theology of justification and salvation needs to rediscover the wider range of meaning of $edeq, including cosmic order, as it has been investigated in the present work. M y translation, though collated with the best modern versions. I will not presume to add to the almost infinite flood of commentaries. For a good short recent study of the passage in its context, with a survey

203

Notes to pages

12

13

14 15

16

17 18 19

20 21

22 23 24 25 26 27

130-134

of exegesis and reference to contemporary ecological concerns, see J . Lambrecht (1990). So he argued against Celsus' view that other creatures exist no more for humans than for themselves, in Contra Celsum IV, 76-99 (tr. H. Chadwick [1965], pp. 244-63.) Origen went too far in anthropocentrism and did less than justice to the value of all creatures. Presumably Paul would have seen the beginning of disorder in the curse on the soil (Gen 3 : 1 7 - 1 8 ) and the flourishing of thorns and thistles not as natural but as evidence that ideal order had been disrupted. Schweizer (1988); see above in ch. 5, pp. 87 and 195, n. 45. M. Barker (1988), p. 33, says that 'the world-view of 1 Enoch does fit very well as a background to Paul's argument in Romans 8'. I take this to refer to the cosmological scheme rather than the drama which it frames. See R. H. Charles (1912), pp. xcv-ciii and R. Bauckham, Jude and the Relations of Jesus in the Early Church (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1990), pp. 137-41. On the plurality of doctrines about sin, see above in the short Excursus at the end of ch. 6. See W. J . Dalton, Christ's Proclamation to the Spirits (AnBib 23, Rome, 1965); ch. 6 (pp. 163-7) argues that Enoch is the key to 1 Pet 3:19, against views that it concerns Christ's 'harrowing of hell'. The angels of the winds also appear in Jubilees 2:2. The '96' dating is an example of a pseudo-consensus. See T. J . Herron, 'The Most Probable Date of the First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians', in E. A . Livingstone (ed.), Studio Patristica X X I (Leuven: Peeters, 1989), pp. 106-21. On these models used in 1 Clement see A . Jaubert's Introduction to her edition in SC 167 (1971), pp. 78-83, summing up her fuller studies in VigChr 18 (1964), 74-84 and 193-203. Tr. by M. Staniforth (1968), pp. 33-34. Greek text in L C L , The Apostolic Fathers, ed. K. Lake, I. - 'Architect' is demiourgos, more strictly 'craftsman'. The theme of praise of the Creator and his works returns in 33 (Staniforth pp. 39-40). W. C. van Unnik (1950), 186-88, cites Testament of Naphtali 3, Assumption of Moses 12:9-10 and Psalms of Solomon 1 8 : 1 2 - 1 4 a s various forms of this argument. (Translations in Sparks, 1984.) See L. Sanders (1943), W. Jaeger (1961), pp. 12-26 and 1 1 3 - 1 1 8 . Cf. H. Thyen, Der Stil der jüdisch-hellenistischen Homilie ( F R L A N T 65 (1955))Cf. Sanders (1943), pp. 41-47. Cf. Jaeger (1961), p. 114; R. Murray (1977) and (1983). For a typical exponent of this kind of teaching, see the five volumes of Dio Chrysostom (c. 40-120) in L C L , ed. J. W. Colson. A brief example may be given here for comparison with 1 CI. 20: I might well speak next of the administration of the universe and

204

Notes to pages

28

29 30

31

32 33 34 35 36 37

38 39

134-137

tell how the world - the very embodiment of bliss and wisdom ever sweeps along through infinite time in infinite cycles without cessation, guided by good fortune and a like power divine, and by foreknowledge and a governing purpose most righteous and perfect, and renders us like itself since, in consequence of the mutual kinship of ourselves and it, we are marshalled in order under one ordinance and law and partake of the same polity. He who honours and upholds this polity and does not oppose it in any way is law-abiding, devout and orderly; he, however, who disturbs it, as far as that is possible to him, and violates it or does not know it, is lawless and disorderly, whether he be called a private citizen or a ruler, although the offence on the part of the ruler is far greater and more evident to all. (The First Discourse on Kingship 42, in L C L , Dio Chr. I, p. 23). More broadly, see Sanders (1943), ch. 5: 'L'Ordre cosmique et les vertus sociales', which relates chs. 20 and 33 to abundant examples of Stoic teaching, and especially 33-34 to Dio Chr. 36, 58-61. Cf. also W. C. van Unnik (1970a), esp. pp. 29-41. Cf. W. C. van Unnik (1970b). '1 Clement' makes considerable use of characteristically Stoic words which were also exploited in imperial propaganda, e.g. on the coinage: above all the pair eirene kai homonoia, on which see van Unnik (1970a). A good balance is expressed by D. W. F. Wong (1977). There is a useful edition with verse translation by E. H. Blakeney (1921). The hymn, in elegant 'Homeric' hexameters, celebrates the order of the universe under the rule of Zeus and calls on humans to correspond. Consequently there is a major problem for translators. It is a great pity that the Loeb translation sticks so habitually to 'word'; this may be the conventional first meaning in a Greek dictionary, but it is far from being the best to use in translating Philo. See M. Barker, 'Temple Imagery in Philo: An Indication of the Origin of the Logos?' in J . Emerton and W. Horbury, (eds.) Templum amicitiae (Festschrift for E. Bammel), Sheffield, 1991. Broadie and Macdonald (1978), esp. pp. 120-28. Tr. by M. Staniforth (1968), pp. 177-78. Tr. by E . Gifford (1904), vol III. 1., pp. 338-30 (see Bibliography A). Tr. and study by H. A . Drake (1975); there is an older translation in SLNPNF, Vol. I (London, 1845). N. A . Baynes, 'Eusebius and the Christian Empire' (1934), in Baynes, Byzantine Studies and Other Essays (London: Athlone Press, 1955), pp. 168-72. Drake (1975), both in the essays and in the notes, illuminatingly refers back to hellenistic and forward to Byzantine theory. Cf. R. Murray (1975), p. 29. Cf. R. Murray (1983).

205

Notes to pages

137-139

40 Cf. R. Murray (1977); the details are listed on pp. 110-14. 41 Jaubertin SC 167 (1971), p. 51. 42 Cf. the analogous point made above in ch. 5, pp. 74-75, apropos of the tendency to ascribe all psalms with ritual overtones to one annual festival. 43 Murray (1983), pp. 83-84. For Sifre on Numbers see tr. by P. P. Levertoff (London: SPCK, 1926), pp. 35-39. Cf. Midrash Rabbah, Leviticus IX, 9 (London: Soncino Press, 1939), pp. 115-20. Pereq haShalom, tr. in The Minor Tractates of the Talmud (London: Soncino Press, 1965), pp. 597-602. 44 Sifre Num. (see previous note), p. 38, slightly adapted. 45 i Q S ('Community Rule') 9; tr. G . Vermes ^1987), p. 74. 46 For a summary account see EncJud, s.v. 'Righteousness'. 47 Text in Singer, The Authorised Daily Prayer Book (London, 1890, constantly reprinted), p. 79 (etc.); Forms of Prayer for Jewish Worship I (London: The Reform Synagogues of Great Britain, 1977), pp. 40-43; the phrase quoted here is on p. 43. The first sentences of the 'Alenu go back to the temple service. Probably already by Talmudic times it had been joined to prayers of the New Year liturgy; the second paragraph, beginning 'Al ken neqawweh lak ('therefore we put our hope in you') and containing the letaqqen phrase, originally belonged to the prayers of the teqi'ata (blowing of the shofar) on Rosh ha-Shanah. (Cf. J. Heinemann, Prayer in the Period of the Tanna'im and the Amora'im [Jerusalem, 1978], pp. 173-75.) The whole composite 'Alenu with its additions was thereafter inserted in the standard morning prayer, so that its unity was traditional already before the time of Sa'adyah Ga'on (882-942). I am indebted to Dr W. J. van Bekkum of Groningen for information on this matter. 48 See Mishnah Gittin 4,5, tr. Danby (1933) p. 311, who translates the phrase 'as a precaution for the general good'; ibid. 5,3 (p. 312); 'Eduyot 1,13 (p. 424); Babylonian Talmud on these and also on Pesalfim 8,1 and tfagigah 1,1. The Soncino Press translation (London, 1948-62) uses variously 'for the sake of the social order' or 'in the public interest'. 49 See G . Scholem (1961), pp. 244-86 and 1965, pp. I09ff. 50 Scholem (1961), pp. 284-6. 51 See Scholem (1965), ch. 4, esp. pp. 130-57. He speaks of the symbolic interpretation of marital union as 'sacred marriage'. Though I have expressed the conviction that a Sumerian-type royal 'sacred marriage' ritual is unprovable for ancient Israel (Introduction, p. xx and especially ch. 5, pp. 83-84), in the latter passage I recognize that the symbolism of marriage and sexual union is employed in Hosea, Ezekiel etc., and could have been expressed symbolically in ritual (ch. 5, n. 39); it was also always a naturally open possibility that a development such as the Lurianic sacralization of marital union would come.

206

Notes to pages

139-142

52 See EncJud, s.v. 'Lamed vav Zaddikim' and G . Scholem (1971), pp. 251-56. 53 Diodorus Siculus gives an account of the Babylonian system (Hist. 2, 30; L C L Diodorus I, pp. 450-54), but his thirty astral 'counselling gods' (theoi boulaioi) are a confusion of the Babylonian 'decans' with the Egyptian system. 54 To Diognetus 6 (tr. Staniforth, 1968, p. 177). Two other secondcentury Christian apologists make similar claims: Justin (Second Apology, 7) and Aristides, Apol. 16. 55 Dem. 23, 10 (PS 1.2, col. 25); the last image is in ch. 14 (col. 40), but the Grape of blessing in the cluster is the theme of the whole discourse: see R. Murray (1975), pp. 113-18. 56 New Testament writers claimed that Israel's status as a 'kingdom of priests' (Ex 19:6) was now extended to Jesus' followers (1 Pet 2:9; Rev 1:6), even from the gentiles. Whatever the phrase's original meaning, its Christian adoption was clearly metaphorical, for the membership of the early Church included no kings, and though we are told that many Jewish priests became members (Acts 6:7), the Church's new ministry was evidently on a different basis, believed to be conferred by the Holy Spirit by laying-on of hands. Prophecy, however, was claimed to be in full exercise in the early Church (see, for example, Acts 13:1-3 and 21:8; 1 Cor 12-14, and the explicit claim of the book of Revelation, 1 ¡3 and 22:18). The appropriation of the Exodus text had to do with the claim to be God's people rather than directly with the Messiah, though obviously the three 'anointed' functions had their origin in the life of the holy people. 57 See E. Segelberg, 'The Benedictio Olei in the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus', OrChr 48 (1964), pp. 268-81. 58 G . Dix (ed. 2 rev. H. Chadwick), The Treatise on the Apostolic Tradition of St Hippolytus of Rome (London: SPCK, 1968), p. 10. The phrase (with martyrs added) has remained in the Roman Pontifical for the Chrism Mass on Maundy Thursday. The modern English text reads: 'It is from him [Christ] that chrism takes its name, and with chrism you have anointed for yourself priests and kings, prophets and martyrs . . . Through this sign of chrism, grant them [those who are baptized] royal, priestly and prophetic honour . . . ' . 59 See R. Dabin, (1950) and Y . Congar (1953), of which chs. 4-6 treat of the laity's part in each of the three functions as exercised by the Church. Ch. 5 deals with the royal function. The original edition is richly supplied with patristic references, many of which were unfortunately omitted in the E.T. (Lay People in the Church, London: Chapman, 2 1965). 60 Stromateis II, 18-19: Greek in G C S Clem. Alex. II, pp. 122-23; SC 38 (with French tr. and notes), pp. 46-47. There is an older version in A N C L XII (Edinburgh, 1869), pp. 11-12. The translation here is my own. It should be realized that the masculine language used both

207

Notes to pages

61 62 63 64

65 66 67 68

69

70

71 72

73 74 75

76 77

142-146

by Clement's sources and himself (reflecting the nature of ancient public culture) does not justify restricting its application to men. Wisdom develops in both sexes (as the Bible and the saints often illustrate), and kingship is a metaphor for the dignity of both in Christ. Plato, Politicus, 2 5 9 A B . A word-play: by Clement's time chrestos (good) sounded the same as christos (anointed). Plato, Minos 314c. Clement is a bit confused on the Spartans. O n this, on Pindar and on Speusippus, see notes in S C 38, p. 47. I have left both occurrences of logos in G r e e k in order to show that the word is used twice and not to limit its possible meaning. Basically 'right reason' would suit both times, but the first time it probably also refers to Christ as the divine Logos. See ch. 6, p. 100. Origen On Matthew, B k X I V , 7; G C S Origen (ed. E . Klostermann) X , pp. 289ft. References (Hilary, A m b r o s e , Jerome) in Congar (1953), pp. 315-16. ' O n e reason': this is carefully restrained. T h e notion that 'delay of the parousia' was the matrix of all Christian theologizing is, I believe, exaggerated, as is the excessive modern use of the G r e e k term, which, in the sense of Christ's return, is surprisingly rare in the New Testament. Was it timidity that made Cranmer, translating the old R o m a n prayer that contains the words cui servire regnare est (to serve w h o m is to be a king), change this into 'whose service is perfect f r e e d o m ' ? Summarized in the Catechism of the Church of Geneva (Tr. H. Beveridge (1849, repr. Edinburgh: Oliver & B o y d , 1958), vol. II, pp. 42-43J. H. N e w m a n , The Via Media of the Anglican Church (ed. 3, 1877), ed. H . D . Weidner (1990), pp. 24iff. Typical themes are tabulated by R . Patai (1967), and compared with similar themes in other ancient near eastern literatures (pp. 202-7 and notes, pp. 2 1 4 - 1 5 ) , but his Jewish examples are all from the Rabbinic period. T. Levi 18, 1 0 - 1 1 , tr. M . de Jonge in Sparks (1984), p. 537. C f . P. Nagel (1966), pp. 5 5 - 6 2 , on 'the recovery of paradise and restoration of the image of G o d through asceticism'. See R . Murray (1975a). T h e common belief that Saint A n t o n y was the 'first monk' is due to the Athanasian Life and western writers. T h e order of Syriac ascetics was called the 'Covenant' (qyama). T r . S. P. Brock (1990); see Biblio. A . C f . Murray (1975), pp. 254-62 and 306-10; Brock (1990), Intr. pp. 49-62 and esp. hymns 6 - 7 .

208

Notes to pages 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

91 92 93 94

95

96 97 98

146-150

See ch. 6, pp. 1 1 1 - 1 2 . Life of Antony (E.T. in ACW), p. 64. See ch. 6, pp. 102-103. Life of Antony, p. 63. Tr. S. P. Brock (1989), p. 41. Ibid., p. 9. See texts from Lev and Ezek, ch. 3, p. 39. Cf. R. Murray [1974-75]. 'Victorious' (Syriac nas$il)a) belonged to the vocabulary of imperial acclamations; Christians applied it to martyrs and ascetics who became known for their holiness. Cf. P. Brown (1982), 'The Rise and Function of the Holy Man in Late Antiquity', pp. 103-52. On the theme and its Jewish and Christian developments see J . B. Friedman (1970), chs. 1 - 3 . Orphic Hymns: see Bibliography A . 'Testament of Orpheus': see Friedman (1970), pp. 1 4 - 1 7 , for text, translation and brief discussion. Clement, Protreptikos (Exhortation) 1 , text and tr. in L C L , pp. 1 - 1 7 . 'Minstrel', pp. 8-9; instrument, pp. 1 2 - 1 5 ; ' n e w song', pp. 6 - 1 7 ; the animals allegorized, pp. 8 - 1 1 . Eusebius followed Clement in this allegorization in his orations in praise of Constantine, X I V , 5 (H.A. Drake [1975] pp. 1 1 5 - 1 6 ) . See ch. 6, p. m . H. Leclercq, 'Orphée' in D A C L XII, cols. 2735-55; H. Stern, 'Orphée dans l'art paléochrétien', C A r 23 (1974), 1 - 1 6 ; J . B. Friedman (1970), ch. 3. Cf. A . Grabar, Early Christian Iconography: A Study of its Origins (Washington: National Gallery of Art; London: Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1969), Intr. and ch. 2, esp. pp. 35-36. On this see C. Murray, 'The Christian Orpheus', C A r 26 (1977), 1 9 27 (with reply by H. Stern, p. 28). The symbolic assimilation of David to Orpheus is clearly a matter of convention for the Byzantine poet Georgios Pisides (seventh century): see his Hexaêmeron 89-91 (PG 92, col. 1437). M.-T. and P. Canivet, 'La Mosaique d'Adam dans l'église syrienne d'Huarte (V. s.), C A r 24 (1975), 49-68; P. Canivet, 'Le Bestiaire adamique dans les mosaiques d'Huarte (Syrie, fin Ve s.)', in Bourgeaud (1985), pp. 145-54. Huarte is near Apamea on the Orontes. The phrase is borrowed from Edward Hicks's favourite subject, on which see below, p. 160. On the phoenix and other mythical creatures see Canivet (1975), p. 54; (1985), PP- I48-53Text in P G 43, 517-34; for further editions and studies see the bibliography in T. H. White (1954). The popularity of the Physiologos in its various dependent traditions, from Arabic to Anglo-Saxon, has been said to be second only to that of the Bible (White, p. 232).

209

Notes

to pages

150-153

99 Most accessible in the translation with notes by T . H. White (1954), with historical appendix, pp. 230-70. 100 White (1954), p. 70: ' G o d created M a n and assigned him his three Councillors, viz, the Spiritual Mind, the Power of Behaving Properly, and Wisdom. If Man had stuck to these things, the heavenly kingdom would not have turned him away, but, because he did not stick to them, he has let slip his inheritance.' 101 Latin in C C S L I 4 3 a - b ; E . T . in Library of the Fathers, 4 vols., O x f o r d 1844-50. Gregory's hints are delightfully gathered and developed by B . O ' M a l l e y , with a foreword by D o m J. Leclerq, in The Animals of Saint Gregory (Rhandirmwyn, Llandovery: Paulinus Press, 1981). O ' M a l l e y (p. 9) also quotes St Bernard: ' M o r e things are learnt in the woods than from books. Animals, trees and rocks teach you things not to be heard elsewhere.' 102 Hebrew in (e.g.) J. D . Eisenstein (ed.), Otzar Midrashim (200 Minor Midrashim) (New Y o r k , 1928), pp. 522-25. It is quoted selectively by L. Ginzberg in Legends, I, pp. 44-46, with notes in V , 6062. See M . Beit-Arie in EncJud, s.v. 'Perek Shirah', who refers to his critical edition in 2 vols., Jerusalem 1966, but I have not seen this. 103 Santmire (1985), ch. 4, 'The Flowering of the Promise: Augustine'. 104 T r . in L C L (Bibliography A ) ; see S. Budzyk (1988). 105 See esp. Summa Theologiae I, q. 96, on the nature of the 'dominion' over creatures given to humankind, arts 1 - 2 . (Blackfriars edition, vol. 13; London: Eyre and Spottiswoode [1964], pp. 122-29; a I s ° in Linzey and Regan [1989], pp. 1 7 - 2 1 . 106 Most of Hildegard's works (in Latin) are in P L 197 or in J. B . Pitra's Analecta Sacra V I I I (Paris, 1882); critical text of Scivias in C C C M , 43 and 43a, 1978. Her major works have been appearing in G e r m a n translation since 1954 from O t t o Müller V e r l a g , Salzburg. 107 A n excellent brief introductory presentation is that by F. B o w i e and O . Davies (1990). Their Select Bibliography covers all that is most important; n.b. especially the editions and studies by P. D r o n k e and B . Newman. 108 See Hildegard's account quoted in her Life, and the Introduction to Scivias, in B o w i e and Davies (1990), pp. 63-65, 68. 109 Scivias ( ' K n o w the Ways' [of G o d ] ) , a doctrinal exposition of the whole scheme of salvation; Liber vitae meritorum (usually rendered 'The B o o k of Life's Merits', but the title is ambiguous and difficult), an account of virtues and vices and what happens hereafter; De Operatione Dei ('The B o o k of G o d ' s W o r k s ' ) , similar in scope to Scivias but richer in its symbolism. See B o w i e and Davies (1990), pp. 15-16. n o Hildegard's 'scientific' works consist of the Causae et curae ('Causes and cures', i.e. of disease) and the Physica (Natural History), which

2/0

Notes to pages

hi

112 113

114

115 116

117 118 119 120

121

122 123 124

153-156

speaks of the properties of many beings from the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms, especially with a view to use in healing or relationship with humans. See (e.g.) M.-D. Chenu, La théologie au douzième siècle (Paris: Vrin, 1957). Not surprisingly, Hildegard finds no place in Santmire (1985), which sadly impairs its value. She is, however, briefly appreciated by McDonagh (1986), pp. 134-36. Hugh was from the German nobility (and Richard a Scot). It is not impossible that Hildegard could have been sent copies of their works, but I know of no evidence of actual contact. H. Schipperges, the translator of Hildegard's scientific works, minimizes her dependence on tradition, emphasizing her personal experience (Hildegard von Bingen, Heilkunde, Salzburg: Müller, 2 i974), p. 43. Contra, K. Clausberg (1980). The Scivias miniatures are reproduced in the C C edition (n. 106 above); in a separate volume from the publishers of C C , Brepols of Turnhout; and in the German version, Wisse die Wege (Salzburg: Müller, 1974). The illustrations to the Liber de operatione Dei are reproduced in the Salzburg edition (Welt und Mensch, 1963), and, independently, in Clausberg (1980). See the illustrations to De operatione Dei, visions 2-3, and cf. the eleventh-century 'Microcosmos' diagram reproduced by Clausberg (1980), p. 81. This struggle is dramatized in the Ordo Virtutum, in Lieder (Salzburg: Müller, 1969, pp. 165-205, 300-15); for the critical text by P. Dronke, see Bowie and Davies (1990), p. 153; for the recording by Sequentia, ibid. p. 157. P. Dronke, 'Tradition and Innovation in Medieval Western ColourImagery', in Eranos-Jahrbuch 1972 (Leiden: Brill, 1974), pp. 51-107 at p. 83. Introduction to Physica, PL 197, H25a-b; German tr., Naturkunde (Salzburg: Müller, 1959), pp. 11, 15. End of Ordo Virtutum (Lieder [n. 116], pp. 314-15.) Lieder, pp. 53-56; critical text ed. B. Newman, Symphonia, pp. 14851; this translation is my own. Included on record by Gothic Voices, ' A feather on the breath of God' (1981): see Bowie and Davies, p. 157Lieder, pp. 146-48; Newman, Symphonia, pp. 126-27; on record as in n. 120. I regret quoting only phrases from a poem of closely-knit imagery, one of Hildegard's finest. Readers may be reminded of Herbert's 'Who would have thought my shrivel'd heart / Could have recover'd greennesse?' and Hopkins's 'dearest freshness deep down things'. Lieder, pp. 76-77; Newman, Symphonia, pp. 182-83. But Francis's earlier hymnic works do: see Sorrell, pp. 108-14. Sorrell, p. 112; see also pp. 69-75.

211

Notes to pages

156-162

125 Besides Sorrell's lengthy commentary in his chs. 5 - 7 , see E. Doyle (1980). 126 See Sorrell, pp. 79-87. 127 Cf. C. S. Lewis, A Preface to Paradise Lost (London: Oxford University Press, 1942), ch. XI. 128 A . O. Lovejoy (1936, i960), esp. pp. 60-61. 129 See above in this chapter, p. 130 and n. 12, on Origen's Stoic-based opposition to the Platonist Celsus. 130 Goethe, 'Metamorphosen der Tiere', 12-15, 31-32, quoted from Goethe, Selected Works, ed. D. Luke (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1964, pp. 152-53); this translation is my own: Zweck sein selbst ist jegliches Tier, vollkommen entspringt es Aus dem Schoß der Natur und zeugt vollkommene Kinder. Alle Glieder bilden sich aus nach ewgen Gesetzen, Und die seltenste Form bewahrt im Geheimen das Urbild. . . . Diese Grenzen erweitert kein Gott, es ehrt die Natur sie: Denn nur also beschränkt war je das Vollkommene möglich. 131 Hopkins is quoted here from the Penguin Poets selection, ed. W. H. Gardner (Harmondsworth, 1953). 132 Ronsard, quoted from P. de Ronsard, Poèmes, ed. A . Barbier (Oxford: Blackwell, 1946), pp. 145-46. 133 Blake, The Complete Poems, ed. W. H. Stevenson (London: Longman, 1972), p. 585ÎÏ. 134 Edwin Muir, Collected Poems (London: Faber, 1984), pp. 227 and 246-47. 135 A . Ford, Edward Hicks: His Life and Art (New York: Abbeville Press, 1985).

Epilogue 1 This is a time of urgently-written articles and pamphlets rather than major books. Numerous periodicals have 'Creation Numbers'. See (e.g.) The Month 249 (Aug.-Sept. 1988) and 251 (Nov. 1990) for several survey articles (also, in each of them, a sketch of many of the ideas in this book, and especially in this Epilogue); The Way 29.1 (1989); the books by S. McDonagh (1986 and esp. 1990), and the collections edited by W. Granberg-Michaelson (1987) and C. Birch (1990). Not so urgently focused on the ecological crisis, but a valuable theological contribution, is G. Daly (1988); on the Orthodox side can be mentioned the papers edited by G. Limouris (1990). 2 Cf. Lynn White, Jr (1967), reprinted in (among other works) Barbour (1973) and Spring (1974)3 J. Barr (1972); cf. J. MacQuarrie (1971-2). 4 Cf. R. Murray (1988), though this lecture was not focused on ecological issues.

212

Notes to pages

163-171

5 The charge is central to H. P. Santmire (1985), but many other writers on 'creation theology' make it. 6 On this the Anglican Church's Thirty-nine Articles are 'Protestant' while the clear implications of its Marriage Service are 'Catholic'. 7 E.g. Henry Vaughan and Thomas Traherne: see G. Dowell, Enjoying the World: the Rediscovery of Thomas Traherne (London: Mowbray, 1990). 8 See Santmire (1985), pp. 145-55, ' n a chapter which somewhat paradoxically finds Teilhard de Chardin comparable with Barth. On the contrary, S. McDonagh (1990, p. 195) sees Teilhard as having broken out of the anthropocentric tradition. 9 So Lynn White's conclusion (n. 2 above); Granberg-Michaelson (1984), pp. i26ff.; Santmire (1985), esp. pp. 9 7 - 1 1 9 ; from the side of Franciscan studies, E. Doyle (1980); R. D. Sorrell (1988), pp. 125-37. On alienation, see G. Daly (1988), esp. pp. 1 3 1 - 4 7 . 10 Evidently the present work also makes use of historical analysis of religious development. The criticism in this paragraph arises from suspicions of denominational prejudices affecting even the most learned scholarship. 1 1 The interconnection of these ideas is clearest in the range of passages which P. Beauchamp (1969) brings into relation with Gen 1; it is also implied by the semantic range of $edeq and mispat as H. H. Schmid has studied it (1968; cf. 1974). 12 For an attractive simple statement see A . Schmemann (1966). A famous Catholic meditation on the world in this light is Teilhard de Chardin's 'Mass on the World', written all alone in the central Asian desert in the 1920s; E.T. in Hymn of the Universe (London: Collins, 1965)13 Cf. E. McDonagh in A . Hastings (ed.) 1991, pp. 9 6 - 1 1 2 . 14 See R. Murray (1986). 15 This seems to be the view of W. Brueggemann (1978). It has also been forcibly put to me 'from the floor' after a talk, but it was interesting how many in the audience disagreed with the objector. 16 See A . Flannery (ed.) 1975, pp. 35off.; the best edition of this and all previous councils, with texts and new translations, is now that edited by N. Tanner (1990). 17 This is developed outstandingly by the seventh-century Orthodox theologian Máximos the Confessor; cf. A . Riou, Le Monde et l'Église selon Maxime le Confesseur (Paris: Beauchesne, 1973), pp. 63-70, briefly cited by J . McDade in The Month 251 (Nov. 1990), pp. 435-36. 18 In a lecture entitled 'The Contempt of Ritual' (1968); it grew into her Natural Symbols (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1973). 19 Cf. M. R. Ungummerr-Baumann and F. Brennan, 'Reverencing the World in the Australian Dreaming', The Way 29 (1989), 38-45. From North America the most frequently-quoted expression is the speech by Chief Sealth ('Seattle') at the tribal assembly in 1854 prepar-

213

Notes to pages

20 21

22 23 24

25

26 27 28

171-175

atory to the Indian treaties. What we have is the edited result of jottings by a young settler, Dr Smith; in writing them up he tried to reflect the impression made on him by what he said had been magnificent and most moving language. It is sad that we cannot get nearer than that to the original; but the gist chimes in with many statements quoted from nomadic peoples to 'civilized' settlers in many lands. (The text of 'Chief Seattle's speech' which I have used is published by Pax Christi and Friends of the Earth, London, 1976.) S. McDonagh (1986), pp. 154-68. Mt 26:28 and Mk 14:25; 1 Cor 11:25 and Lk 22:20. The text of the Lukan passage has come down in varying forms, while some manuscripts of Mt and Mk insert 'new' before 'covenant'. See the full discussion by J. Jeremias in The Eucharistic Words of Jesus (E. T. by N. Perrin, London: SCM Press, 1966), esp. pp. 168-73. Cf. R. D. Richardson's enlarged translated edition of H. Lietzmann's Mass and Lord's Supper (German original 1926; E. T. Leiden: Brill, 1979), in Part II, 'Further Inquiry', pp. 510-12. E.T. London: Catholic Truth Society, 1988. E.T. in The Tablet, 6 January 1990, 29-31. Among publications by church leaders should also be mentioned the pastoral letter by the Catholic bishops of the Philippines included in S. McDonagh (1990), pp. 207-16. March 5 - 1 2 . The document is entitled Now is the Time (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1990). The key phrase, 'Justice, Peace and Integrity of Creation' goes back to the previous WCC meetings in Vancouver (1983) and Basel (1989). This is the theme of the first part of L'enracinement (1949; ET The Need for Roots, London, 1952), reproduced as 'The Needs of the Soul' in S. Weil (1986), pp. 105-40. Weil (1986), p. 107. This and the following remarks touch on the problem of animal rights; it is surely relevant to the theme of this work, but it has to be argued out on clear ethical principles in a way which would lead beyond the biblical and symbolic scope of this work, and indeed beyond my personal competence. See A. Linzey, Animal Rights: A Christian Assessment (London: SCM Press, 1976; R. F. Nash, The Rights of Nature: A History of Environmental Ethics (Madison, WI and London: Wisconsin University Press, 1989).

214

Bibliography (N.B.: Some works of more limited relevance, especially if referred to only once, are cited with their bibliographical details in the notes where they occur, and are not listed below.) A. Source Texts and/or Versions

Aphrahat, Demonstrations, Syriac text and Latin tr., PS 1.1-2, 1894, 1907. No E . T . is yet available of Dem. 23. In French: Les Exposes, tr. Pierre, M.-J. (2 vols.), SC 349 and 359, 1987, 1989. Apostolic Fathers, ed. and tr. Lake, K . , 2 vols., L C L , 1913. tr. Staniforth, M. Early Christian Writings, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1968, 2 1987. Athanasius, Life of Antony, tr. Meyer, R. T . , A C W , London: 1950. Babylonian Talmud (tr.), ed. Epstein, I., 35 vols. London: Soncino Press, 1948-62. 2 Baruch, tr. Klijn, A . F. J., in Charlesworth, O T P , pp. 616-52. Cleanthes, ed. and tr. Blakeney, E. H., The Hymn of Cleanthes. (Texts for Students 26.) London: S P C K , 1921. 1 Clement, see Apostolic Fathers. ed. Jaubert, A . , SC 167, 1971. Clement of Alexandria, Protrepticus (Exhortation to the Greeks), ed. Butterworth, G . W., L C L , 1919. Stromateis II, ed. Camelot, P. T. and Mondesert, C . , SC 38, 1954. Dio Chrysostom, ed. and tr. Colson, J. W., 5 vols., L C L , 1949-51. Diodorus Siculus, ed. and tr. Oldfather, C. H. and others, 12 vols., L C L , 1946-67. Diognetus, Letter to, see Apostolic Fathers. 1 Enoch, The Book of Enoch, ed. and tr. Charles, R . H . , ed. 2, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1912. The Ethiopic Book of Enoch: A New Edition in the Light of the Aramaic Dead Sea Fragments, ed. and tr. Knibb, M. A . , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978. (This tr. also in Sparks, A O T . ) Ephrem Syrus, Hymns on Paradise, Syriac ed. Beck, E. in C S C O , vols. 174-75 (1957); E.T. (with Commentary on Genesis, section 2) intr. and tr. Brock, S. P., Crestwood, N Y : St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1990. The Erra Epic: L'Epopea di Erra, ed. Cagni, L. (Studi Semitici 34), Rome: Istituto di Studi del Vicino Oriente, 1969. Idem, The Poem of Erra, Malibu, C A . : Undena, 1977. (Transla-

215

The Cosmic Covenant tion in present work by Prof. Lambert, W. G . , unpublished, by kind permission.) Eusebius, In Praise of Constantine, A Historical Study and New Tr. . . . by Drake, H. A . , Berkeley, C A : University of California Press, 1975. Preparation of the Gospel, ed. and tr. Gifford, E. H., Eusebii Pamphili Evangelicae Praeparationis Libri XV. 4 vols, in 5 (E.T. in vol. Ill 1-2). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1904. '4 Ezra', tr. Metzger, B. M., in Charlesworth, O T P I, pp. 517-59. Hildegard of Bingen: good short bibliography in Bowie, F. and Davies, O . , Hildegard of Bingen, An Anthology, pp. i52ff. London: SPCK, 1990. Josephus, ed. and tr. Thackeray, H. St J., and others, 9 vols., L C L , 1926-65. Life and Against Apion, vol. I. Jewish War, vols. 2-3. Jewish Antiquities, vols. 5-9. Lucian, De Dea Syria, tr. Attridge, H. W. and Oden, R. R. ( S B L T T 9), Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1976. Mishnah, tr. Danby, H., The Mishnah, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1933.

Translated from the Hebrew,

Origen, Contra Celsum, tr. Chadwick, H., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953, 1965. Orphic Hymns, text, tr. and notes by Athanassakis, A . A . , (SBLTT 12), Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1977. Philo, ed. and tr. Colson, F. H. and others, 8+2 vols, L C L 1929-62. The works cited here are found as follows: On Creation (De opificio mundi), vol. I Who is the Heir (Quis divinarum rerum heres sit) vol. IV On Dreams (De somniis), vol. V Moses (De vita Moysis), vol. VI On Special Laws (De specialibus legibus) 1 - 3 , vol. VII; 4, vol. VIII On Virtues (De virtutibus), vol. VIII On Rewards and Punishments (de praemiis et poenis), vol. VIII Q. and A. on Exodus (preserved in Armenian) Philo Suppl. II Pseudo-Philo, Les antiquités bibliques de Pseudo-Philon, ed. Harrington, D . J., SC 229-30, 1976. Qumran Texts, The Dead Sea Scrolls in English, tr. Vermes, G . Third ed., revised and augmented. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1987. Sibylline Oracles, tr. Collins, J. J., in Charlesworth, O T P I, pp. 317-472. Testament of Solomon, tr. Duling, D. C . , in Charlesworth, O T P I, pp.

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[1990], The Greening of the Church, London: G. Chapman; Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. McLaurin, E. C. B. [1975], 'Joseph and Asaph', VT 25, 27-45. MacQuarrie, J. [1971-72], 'Creation and Environment', ET 83, 4-9. May, H. G. [1962], 'The King in the Garden of Eden', in Anderson, B. W. and Harrelson, W. (eds.), Israel's Prophetic Heritage. Essays in Honour of James Muilenburg. London: SCM. Miles, S. (ed.) [1986], Simone Weil: An Anthology, London: Virago Press. Miller, P. D., Jr. [1982] Sin and Judgment in the Prophets: A Stylistic and Theological Analysis (SBL Monograph Series 27), Chico, CA: Scholars Press. and others (eds.) [1987], Ancient Israelite Religion. Essays in Honor of Frank Moore Cross. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Mills, M. E. [1990], Human Agents of Cosmic Power (JSNT Suppl. 41), Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. Montgomery, J. A. [1913], Aramaic Incantation Texts from Nippur, Philadelphia: University Museum. Morgenstern, J. [1939], 'The Mythological Background of Psalm 82', HUCA 14, pp. 29-126. [1955], 'The Calendar of the Book of Jubilees: its Origin and its Character', VT 5, 34-76. Mosis, R., "akaf [citation in Hebrew] in TWAT VI (1987-90), cols. 74-79-

Mowinckel, S. [1961], Psalmenstudien /-V(Oslo 1921). [1962], The Psalms in Israel's Worship, Oxford: Blackwell. Mullen, E. T. [1983], 'The Divine Witness and the Davidic Royal Grant: Ps 89:37-38', J B L 102, 207-18. Murray, R. [1975], Symbols of Church and Kingdom: A Study in Early Syriac Tradition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [1975a], 'The Features of the Earliest Christian Asceticism', in Brooks, P. (ed.), Christian Spirituality: Essays in Honour of E. Gordon Rupp, London: SCM Press, pp. 65-77. [1977], 'Some Rhetorical Patterns in Early Syriac Literature', in Fischer, R. H. (ed.), A Tribute to Arthur Vööbus, Chicago: Lutheran School of Theology, pp. 109-31. [1982], 'Prophecy and the Cult', in Coggins, R. and others (eds.), Israel's Prophetic Tradition. Essays in Honour of Peter R. Ackroyd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 200-16. [1983], 'Hellenistic-Jewish Rhetoric in Aphrahat', in Lavenant, R. (ed.), III. Symposium Syriacum 1980 (OCA 221), Rome: Pont. Institutum Studiorum Orientalium, pp. 79-85. [1984], 'The Origin of Aramaic 'Ir, Angel', in Or 53 (Memorial Mitchell J. Dahood), pp. 303-17. [1986] 'Do we still need the Old Testament?', The Month 247, 198-204. 222

Bibliography [1988], Exegesis and Imagination (Ethel M. Wood Trust Lecture). University of London. Nagel, P. [1966], Die Motivierung der Askese in der alten Kirche und der Ursprung des Mönchtums (TU 95), Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. Newsom, C. [1985], Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice. A Critical Edition (Harvard Semitic Studies 27), Atlanta, G A : Scholars Press. Nicholson, E. [1986] God and his People: Covenant and Theology in the Old Testament, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Patai, R. [1939], 'The "Control of Rain" in Ancient Palestine', HUCA 14, pp. 251-86. [1967], Man and Temple in Ancient Myth and Ritual. Second Edition, New York: Ktav. Pidoux, G. [1954], 'Un aspect négligé de la justice dans l'Ancien Testament. Son aspect cosmique', RThPh, n.s. 4 (1954), 283-88. de Pury, A . [1985], 'Animalité de 'l'homme et humanité de l'animal dans la pensée israelite', in Bourgeaud et al., L'Animal etc., q.v. Renger, J. [1972], 'Heilige Hochzeit. A. Philologisch', in Reallexikon für Assyriologie, Vol. 4 (1972-75), pp. 251-59. Ringgren, H. [1987], 'The Marriage Motif in Israelite Religion', in Miller, P. D. and others, (eds.), Ancient Israelite Religion. Essays in Honor of F. M. Cross. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, pp. 421-28. Roth, W. M. W. [i960], 'NBL', VT io, 394-407Sanders, L. [1943], L'Hellénisme de S. Clément de Rome et le Paulinisme, Louvain: Bibliotheca Universitatis. Santmire, H. P. [1985] The Travail of Nature. The Ambiguous Ecological Promise of Christian Theology, Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Sawyer, J. F. A . [1967] 'An Analysis of the Content and Meaning of the Psalm-Headings', TGUOS 22 (1967-68), 26-38. Schmemann, A. [1966], The World as Sacrament, London: Darton, Longman and Todd. Schmid, H. H. [1966], Wesen und Geschichte der Weisheit (BZAW 101), Berlin, Töpelmann. [1968], Gerechtigkeit als Weltordnung (BHTh 40), Tübingen: Mohr. [1974], Altorientalische Welt in der alttestamentlichen Theologie, Zürich: Theologischer Verlag. Scholem, G. [i960], Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism and Talmudic Tradition, New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America. [1961], Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, New York: Schocken Books. [1969], On the Kabbalah and its Symbolism, New York: Schocken Books. [1971], The Messianic Idea in Judaism, New York: Schocken Books. 223

The Cosmic Covenant Scholnick, S. H. [1982], 'The Meaning of miäpat in the Book of Job', JBL 101, 521-29. Schultz, D. R. [1978], 'The Origin of Sin in Irenaeus and Jewish Pseudepigraphical Literature', VigChr 32, 161-90. Schulze, W. A . [1955], 'Der Heilige und die wilden Tiere: zur Exegese von Mc 1:13b', Z N W 46, 280-83. Schweizer, E. [1988], 'Slaves of the Elements and Worshippers of Angels: Gal 4:3,9 and Col 2:8, 18, 20', JBL 107, 455-68. Smith, M. S. [1990] 'The Near Eastern Background of Solar Language for Yahweh', JBL 109, 29-39. Sorrell, R. D. [1988], St. Francis of Assisi and Nature, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sperber, D. [1966], 'On Sealing the Abysses', JSS 11, 168-74. Sperling, S. D. [1982], 'An Arslan Tash Incantation: Interpretations and Implications', H U C A 53, 1-10. Spriggs, D. G . [1974]- Two Old Testament Theologies (SBT, Second Series, 30), London: SCM. Spring, D. and E., eds. [1974], Ecology and Religion in History, New York: Harper & Row,. Stamm, J. J. [1978], 'Das hebräische Verbum 'akar\ Or 47, 339-50. Stol, M. [1972], 'Akkadisches Sapitum, äapä(um und westsemitisches äp{', BibOr 29, 276-27. Stolz, F. [1970], Strukturen und Figuren im Kult von Jerusalem ( B Z A W 118), Berlin: de Gruyter. Stone, M. E. [1976], 'Lists of Revealed Things in the Apocalyptic Literature', in Cross, F. M. and others (eds.), Magnolia Dei: The Mighty Acts of God. Essays in memory of G . Ernest Wright. Garden City, N Y : Doubleday, 1976, pp. 413-52. Suter, D. W. [1979], 'Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest: The Problem of Family Purity in 1 Enoch', H U C A 50, pp. 115-35. Tanner, N. P., ed. [1990], Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, 2 vols, London: Sheed & Ward. Teixidor, J. [1983], 'Les tablettes d'Arslan Tash au Musée d'Alep', Aula Orientalis i (1983), 105-08, with note by P. Amiet, 'Observations sur les "Tablettes magiques" d'Arslan Tash', ibid. p. 109. Tsevat, M. [1969-70], 'God and the Gods in Assembly: A n Interpretation of Psalm 82', H U C A 40-41, pp. 123-37. Tur-Sinai, N. H. [1949], 'Sifir Samë, die Himmelsschrift', ArOr 17 (=Symbolae Hrozny II), 419-33. van Unnik, W. C. [1950], 'Is 1 Clement purely Stoic?', VigChr 4, 181-91. [1970a], 'Studies over de zogenaamde eerst brief van Clemens. 1. Het littéraire genre' ( M N A W . L . 33.4), 152-204. [1970b], '"Tiefer Friede" (i Klemens 2,2)', VigChr 24, 261-71. VanderKam, J. C . [1983], 'The Origin, Character and Early History of the 364-Day Calendar', C B Q 41, 209-17.

224

Bibliography [1984], Enoch and the Growth of an Apocalyptic Tradition (CBQ Monograph Series 16), Washington: Catholic Biblical Association of America. Waddell, H. [1934], Beasts and Saints, London: Constable. Weil, S. [1986]: see Miles, S. Weinfeld, M. [1977] 'berit' (citation in Hebrew) in T W A T I, cols. 7 8 1 808; cited from E . T . , TDOT II, pp. 253-79. Wenham, G. J. [1978], 'The Coherence of the Flood Narrative', V T 28,

336-48.

White, Lynn, Jr [1967, 1974], 'The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis' (Science, 1967) repr. in Spring (1974), q.v. White, T. H. [1954, i960], The Bestiary: A Book of Beasts, New York: Putnam. Whybray, R. W. [1987] The Making of the Pentateuch: a methodological study (JSOT Supplement Series, 53), Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. [1988], 'Ecclesiastes 1 . 5 - 7 a n d the Wonders of Nature', J S O T 41, 105-12. de Wilde, A . [1981], Das Buch Hiob (OTS 22), Leiden: Brill. Wildberger, H. [1965], 'Das Abbild Gottes: Gen 1:26-30', T Z 2 1 , 24559,481-501. Williamson, H. M. G. [1982], / and 2 Chronicles (The New Century Bible), London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott. Wong, D. W. F. [1977], 'Natural and Divine Order in 1 Clement', VigChr 31,81-87. Yadin, Y . [1985], The Temple Scroll: The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea Sect, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Zevit, Z. [1977] 'A Phoenician Inscription and Canaanite Covenant Theology', I E J 27 (1977), 1 1 0 - 1 8 .

225

Index Biblical Passages (N.B.: Not every mention of a biblical passage is included, but only actual citations or discussions. References are according to the order of books and numbering of verses in English Bibles.) Genesis 1-6, 14-15 1-8, 32-33 I. 97-99 1:26-30, 98-99 9:1-7, 34, 101 9:8-17, 35, 102 49:25, 40

Joshua 7, 45-46 Judges ":35,

1 Samuel 14:24-45,

Exodus 22:30-31, 114 23:4-5, 118 23:11-12, 119 23:18-19, 115-116 24:9-11, i84ni7 25:31-39, 73 34:25-26, 115-116

2 Samuel 12:1-6, 23:2-5,

2 Kings 23:5,11

120 85,89

73

1 Chronicles 2:7, 45 25:1-6, 80

120

Deuteronomy 14:1-22, 116 17:14-20, 121 20:19-20, 119-120 22:1-4, 118 22:6-7, 119 25:4, 118 28, 64 32:10, 76, I93ni9

46

1 Kings 4:29-34, 90, 120 6 - 7 , 72 8, 71-72 17-18, 45

Leviticus 19:23-25, 119 22:27-28, 114—115 26:5-12, 39 26:16, 64 Numbers 22:20-30,

46

2 Chronicles 20, 77-78 Job 5:22-23, 102, I98ni2-I4 7:12, 2 31:8, 65 38-39, 120 38:39-41, 60 38:8-11, 2

226

Index 54:7-10, 36-37 55:3-4, 37 55:12-13, 121 62:8-9, 66 65:21-25, 65, n o

Psalms

2, 75 8, 98, 196113 46, 77~79 50, 78, 101 72, 41-42,84 73-83, 76-79 74:13-17, 3,78-79 75:3-4, 76 78:71-72, 120 82, 23-24,76-78 83, 77-78 85:11-13, 40 89,

Jeremiah

4:23-24, 17,50 5:22-23, 3, 132f 8:7, 121 12:4, 50 14:2-6, 50 33:20-26, 4-6, 33, 35

5,84

89:38, 1871123 96:10-12, 121 98:7-9, 121 104, 1801114 104:9, 3 109:11, 65 128:2, 66 148, 4, 121

Lamentations 1:4, Ezekiel

28:12-19, 34:23-31,

24, 106 39,85

Hosea

1-4, 27-32, 18611112-18 2:3-3:3, 29-32 4 : i - 3 , 49 7:14, 1901132

Proverbs

6:6-8, 121 8:29, 3 12:10, 113 30:21-23, 60-61

Joel

1 - 4 , 51-56 1:8-16, 53 2:2-27, 54-55

Qohelet (Ecclesiastes)

2:4-21, 65 10:6-7, j 6 - I 7 ,

51

62

Amos

Isaiah

1:3, 60, 121 3:2-3, 88 3:5, 13-15, 62 10:33-34, 103-104 11:1-9, 103-110 14:10-15, 24 24:1-23, 17-22, 182115- 1841117 32, 41-42,56-57 33:7-9, 22-23, 1841118- 1851122 44:23, 121 45:8, 1881135 49-55, 36-38,85

5:n,

63

7:10, 9:i4,

46, 61 63

Jonah

4:11,

121

Habakkuk

2:6-20,

no

Zephaniah

227

1:2-6,

49

The Cosmic Covenant Haggai

1-2,

Romans

58-59

5:1-11, 131 8, 129-131

Malachi

3:10-11,

23,59

i Corinthians

9 : 9 - 1 0 , 129 15:21-49, 128 Septuagint Colossians Daniel

1:15-20, 129, 172

3:29-68,

9, 121, 151 i Peter

Wisdom of Solomon

3:19-20,

6:19, 142 9 : 2 - 4 , 99

Jude

6-14, New Testament

132

Revelation

7:i-3, 12:7-9,

Mark

1:13,

132

127-128

132 132

Other Ancient Literature

( N . B . : Only actual citations: see also General Index) Book of the Dead (Egyptian), "3 D i o Chrysostom On Kingship, 205-206n27 / Clement 1 1 1 9 - 2 0 , 133 Clement of Alexandria, Stromateis II, 1 8 - 1 9 , 143 Enki and Ninhursaga (Sumerian), 108-9 1 Enoch 2:1, 7 5:4-9, 7 69:13-28, 9-10 Ephrem, St, On Genesis, I97n8 Ps.-Ephrem, Sermons for Holy Week 128,202n7 Erra Epic ( A k k a d i a n ) , 25,59, I77n6,i85n25f

Greek Magical Papyri, 'Spell of Pibechis', 91-92 Isaac of Nineveh, 146-147

Josephus, Antiquities, V I I I , 45, 90 Jubilees 3 6 - 3 7 , 12 Lesser Hekhalot, 92 Memar Marqa, 12 Mishnah, Sukkah 5, 1, I94n36 Philo, Creation 148, 100 Rewards and Punishments, 111 -112 Special Laws II, 190-92, 87; Virtues 125-60, 115-120 Ps.-Philo, Antiquities 60, 89 Prayer of Manasseh, 11 -12 'Sibylline Oracles' III, 7 9 3 - 5 , hi Sifre on Numbers, 138 Testament of Levi 18, 145 Testament of Naphtali 8 , 2 , 127-128

228

Index Hebrew and other Terms Discussed (N.B.: 'etc.' covers related words, and sometimes cognates in other Semitic languages. Words beginning with aleph or ay in are listed under their first vowel in transliteration.) 'abal, 18, 53-54, 1 8 ^ 1 9 'abar, i8ini6, 19 'adam, 98-100, I97n7 'ädamah, 19, 21, 100 'akar (etc.), 29,45-47, i88ini-i89n6 'alah, xxii, 6, 59, i8in23 'anah, 29-30 'sp (etc.), 79-80, I96n68 'awen, I93ni8 bërit'olam, 1 6 , 1 8 , 3 3 - 3 4 , i83nio bërit salom, 37, 39-40, 185m gëbul, 2 - 3 heper, 18, i8ini9, i83nio herem, 45, 119 hoq (etc.), 2-4, 18, i8onio, i8in20 kbs, 99, I97n5 (Gr.) Logos, 135, 143, 205n3i 32, 2o8n64

(Eg.) Maat, 42, 61, 135, I76n6 mispat (etc.), 42, i 8 i n i 7 mistar (etc.), 4, i 8 i n i 7 moreh, 54-55 nbl (etc.), 46-48, i86n7 qinah, 81, I92n7 qiryah, 21, i83ni5 rdh, 99, I97n5 rahämim, 113, 20in47 salom, 42, 84-86, 104-105 sedeq (etc.), 42, 54-55, 176ns, i88n36-37,203ni0 selem (etc.), I96n2 tëhom, 2, 1 1 , 35, 40, 89-90 tëhinnah (etc.), 80, I92n7 tiqqun, 138-139, 2o6n48 'umlal, 18, 53-54, i89n20 yoseb, 18, 21 'yr, i84n2i zakar (etc.), 29, i86n9

Modern Writers Discussed Ahlström, G . , 5 1 , 5 4 - 5 6 , 8 6 , i87n23,i88n37, 19(^33-39, 1951144 Austin, J . , 68, 1 9 1 m Barker, M., 7 1 , i8in25, i82n2, i84ni7, i85n28, I9in47, I92n9, 10, I94n37, 200n29, 39, 20in58, 204ni5,205n32 Barr, J . , 162,197ns Barstad, H., i86n5, 189ns Barton, J . , i89ni2, I94n32, 20in57 Batto, B., xx, I77n9, 185m, i86nio,i5, i87n27, 31 Beauchamp, P., 101, i8on2, i87n2i, 196m, I97n4, i98nio-u

Blenkinsopp, J . , I9in46 Broadie, A . and McDonald, J . , 135, I76n6 Brueggemann, W., i77nio Cagni,L., i85n25-26 Carmichael, C., 117-118 Carmignac, J . , I78ni5 Day, J . , 2, 180m, 5 - 9 , 13, 182m, I92n5 Driver, G. and Gray, G . , i8omo Dumbrell, W., I76n2 Eaton, J . , i87n26, 30, i89ni3 Eichrodt, W., xix, 176m Eliot, T. S., i87n29 Fossum, J . , 18on 14, 182n38 Friedman, M., i86n3, 8, 10 Fröhlich,!., 195^8

229

The Cosmic Covenant Geyer, J., 1781114 Glasson, T., 1781115 Goulder, M., 77, 1931120, 24 Graves, R., 202-203119 Hillers, D., 5 1 , 6 3 - 6 4 , 6 6 , 1851122, 1891116, 1901124-25, 1911157, 61,63 Johnson, A., 193^5 Johnson, D., 183ns, 9, i84ni7 Kaufmann, Y., 4 8 , 1 8 9 m l Keel, O., 117-118 Lambert, W., vii, i85n25, I92n6, i93nI7 van Leeuwen, R., 47,60-62, 189ns, i9in50-55 Loewe, R., i83nio, I97n9 McCarthy, D., viif., I76n4, i8on6 McDonagh, S., 172 MacLaurin, E., 76,79-80, i82n36 Mills, M., I93ni8, I95n47~48 Morgenstern, J., 1851123 Mosis, R., 188m Mowinckel, S., 74-75,19203, I93ni8

Murray, R., i8in28, n5, i83n7, i 8 4 n i 8 - 2 i , I97n7, 20on38, 39, 204n26, 205n38, 39, 206n40, 43, 20 n 7 55i 2o8n75, 209n85 Newsom,C., i95n6o-6i Nicholson, E., xix, I78ni7, i83nio, i85n2, 4, I9in59 Patai, R., 71, I94n37, 2o8n72 de Pury, A., I96n2, I97n6 von Rad, G., xix, 176m Renger, J., I94n38 Schmid, H., xix, i76n5-6, i88n36-7 Scholem, G., 139, 206n49-207n52 Schweitzer, E., I95n45 Sorrell, R., 155-156 Spriggs, D., 176m Stamm, J., 188m Suter, D., 9, i82n29 Weil, S., 174-175 White, L., 162, I97n5 Whybray, R., 178ml, 1 9 1 ^ 6 Wildberger, H., I96n2

General Index Adam and adam (humankind), 98-100 Adam, New or Second, 122-123, 126-128 Animals and humankind, 94-121 - compassion towards, 54, 113-121 - covenant involving, 30, 3 2 34, 102 - duties towards, 112-19 - exist not merely for humans, 158,204ni2,2120130 - hostile (actually or as metaphor), 39, 59, 105 - laws about killing, 114-118 - peace with (actual or as metaphor), 99-105, ni-112

230

-praise God, 121,151 - suffering of, 53-54, 118-119 - in Syrian sanctuaries, 111, 20in4i, 42, and PI. 2 - in early Christian symbolism, 149-151 Aphrahat, 136-137, 140 Aristotle on Myth, 70, 177^7 Arslan Tash amulet, 6 - 7 , i8in2i-23 Asaphites and Asaph Psalms, 76-80, i93n24-25 Ascetics, early Christian, 145148, 208074, 75 - a n d animals, 146-148 - a 'democratization' of sacral functions, 148 Augustine of Hippo, 124-125,152

Index Davidic kings, 4-6, 3 1 , 37-38, 103-110 'Democratization', 98, 138, 140, 168-169 'Democratized messianism', 141 - excludes sexual discrimination, 141, 171-172 Demons, 80, 81, 89, 92, 1 9 3 ^ 2 Demythologization, 1,35,97, 162 Deuteronomy, influence of, xviiif., xxiii, 48, 88, 176m Deuteronomic revision of religion, 98, 179, 122 Diognetus, Letter to, 1 3 6 , 1 4 0 Disorder, cosmic and social, xxii, 8, 14-26, 44-67, 131 Divination, 79-80 Ecological crisis, xxivf., 1 6 1 - 1 7 5 Egyptian religion and ritual, 61, 1 1 7 , I76n6, I94n42 Enoch, Book of, xxii , 7 - 1 1 , 7 2 , 92, 123, 124, 1 3 1 , 132, I96n69 Ephrem of Nisibis, 145,197ns Eucharist, 1 7 2 - 1 7 3 Eusebius of Caesarea, 136, 20 n 5 37 Evil, origin of, 1 4 - 1 5 , 1 2 3 - 1 2 4 , 167 Exorcism, 79-80, 88-90, 1 9 5 ^ 8 Fast from Tammuz 17 to Ab 9, 5 1 , 81, I94n28 Flood and its sequel, 19, 23, 3 2 35,37.49 Francis of Assisi, 121,155-156, 2iini23-2i2ni26 Fundamentalism, xviii Goethe, 1 5 8 , 2 i 2 n i 3 0 'Grain, new wine and oil', 53, 54, 5 8 , i 9 o n 3 i - 3 2 Gregory the Great, Moralia, 1 5 1 , 2ionioi Hekhalot literature, 7 2 , 9 1 - 9 2 Hellenistic rhetoric and philosophy, spread of, 134-137

Autumn festival, 74-75, 82 Barth, K . , 164 Bestiaries, 150, 153 Beth Alpha synagogue mosaic, 73-74 and PI. 1 Binding, magical, 9 - 1 2 , 92 Blood, prohibition of eating, 34, 101 Calendar, 6, 8, 35, 97, i8in27 Canaanite religion, 45,48, 116-117 Cardinal virtues, the four, 144, 170 Chaos monsters (Leviathan etc.), 1 - 3 Cleanthes, 1 3 5 , 2 0 5 ^ 0 Clement, First Letter of, 133-134 Clement of Alexandria, 142144, 149 Cosmic elements (stoicheia), 87, 1 3 1 , I95n45 Cosmic order, harmony, xxf., 4 6, 7, 9 - 1 2 , 32-35, 82-86, 133-136 - (in other ancient cultures), 61, I76n6 -breach of, xxif., 8, 14-26 - p o e t s on, 155-160 Constantine, 136, 141 Covenant, various concepts of, xvii-xxv - blessing and curses, xxiii, 63-67 - 'eternal', 18, 27-43, 1 0 1 - 1 0 3 - treaty models of, xix, 63, I9in57, 59, 60 Creation, 1 - 1 3 , 9 7 - 1 0 0 -myths of, 1 - 2 - and salvation, essentially linked, 164-165, 169 - suffering of, in Paul, 129-131 Curse, 45, 46, 81-82, i94n3o; see also 'alah David, traditions about, 80, 89-90 231

The Cosmic Covenant Hicks, E . , 160, and PI. 6 Hildegard of Bingen, 152-155, 2i0ni07-2iini22 Hippolytus of Rome, 142, 2071158 Historicism in biblical study, xxif., 16 Historicization of myth, 1,35-36 - o f ritual, 78 'Image of G o d ' implies viceregal status, 98-99 Incantation bowls, 92, I96n66~70 Isaac of Nineveh, 146-147 Isaiah, Book of, 16, i82n4f, 1831117 Jesus, interpretations of his significance, 126 - and other creatures in the gospels, 126-127,202n2-3 - in the wilderness, 127-128, 202n4~9 Joseph, 80 Josephus, 73, 1 9 2 m l , 13, I93ni4 King, sacral role of, xxi, 4 1 - 4 3 , 5 5 - 5 7 , 72, 84-86, 98, 1 2 1 - Hellenistic and Byzantine mutants of, 136, 141 Kingly virtues, 4 2 - 4 3 , 85, 98-99, 104, 107, i 9 9 n i 9 - 2 3 ; see also 'Wise man as king' Kingship of G o d , 97-98 Korah psalms, 77, I93n20 'Lament psalms', term criticized, 7 1 , 80, I92n7 Luria, Isaac, 139, 2061149-51 Magic, 1 0 - 1 2 , 75, 79-80, 87-93, i82n33, 1 9 3 m 8 Maimonides, 117 Marriage metaphor, 2 9 - 3 2 , i86n9 Maternal aspect of G o d , 118

Menorah in Temple,

73

Mesopotamian religion and ritual, 5, 28, 75, 78-80, 8 3 - 4 , 98, 1 1 7 , I76n6, i96n Messianic functions in

Christianity, 1 4 1 - 1 4 3 , 207n56 Messianic reinterpretation, 86, 103, n o , 122, 2oon37

Metaphor,

95-112 passim, 141,

169-171 Midrash, 88-90, 1 0 1 , 1 3 7 - 1 3 8 , I97n7,i98nio Mosaic traditions, 16,66-67, 1 1 2 , 182ns Mountain, Holy, 104-106, 200n39; see also Paradise 'Mourning'of the land, 5 0 - 5 1 , 53 Myth, 1-3,8-9,14-15,27,70, 75, 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 , I 2 3 , 177117, 20on30, 33, 35 Name, divine, power of, 11-12 Noachic covenant, 3 2 - 3 7 Noah, 100-101 Oath, cosmic, 9-n Origen, 130, 143 Original sin, theories of, 123125, 1 3 1 Orpheus, Christian adoption of, 149-150 'Outsider'(moral and social), 47, 1911151 Paradise, 100, 106, 108; see also Mountain, Holy - as theme of Christian ascetics, 144-148 'Peace' (in all senses of salom), 4 2 - 4 3 , 57, 82-86, 1 0 3 - 1 1 0 Peace, praises of, in Jewish midrash, 137-138 'Peace with' and 'peace from', 34, 105

Pereq Shirah,

121,151

Physiologos,

150,209n98

'Performative utterance', 68-69, 79,8I Personification, 1-3,95-96 Philo, 73, 87, 100, 1 1 5 - 1 2 0 , 135, 143, 1 9 2 m l , 13, I93ni4

Priestly strand in Pentateuch ('P'), xxi, 1 , 6, 35, 1 7 8 m l 'Priestly' concerns and themes,

232

Index Theologians, failures of, 161-166 i , 32-35» 97, 101 T h e o l o g y of the Old Testament, Prophetic rhetorical genres, 81, xix 1941131 Thirty-six righteous persons in 'Prophetic liturgy', 22, cf. 7 7 - 7 8 Jewish tradition, 139-140 'Pseudo-Philo', 89, 1951151 Transposition of sacral themes and Qimhi and Rashi, 102-103, functions, 1 2 2 - 1 2 3 , 138-152 1981113 - Jewish and Christian ways Ritual and Rituals, 68-93 compared, 138-144 - for control of hostile forces, - of paradise themes in 7 5 - 8 2 , 89-92 Christian asceticism, - for establishment of salom, 144-148 82-86 - of biblical themes necessary - redevelopment of, necessary today, 161-175 today, 171-172 T r e e s , care for, 119-120 'Sacred Marriage' theory, xx, 28, Ugaritic texts and religion, 1, 83, 8 3 - 4 , i 8 6 n 5 , i94n38-39 117, i 8 6 n i o , I 9 0 n 3 i Salvation, see Creation Vatican Council, Second, 166, Shakespeare, 157-160 170, 171 Shepherd, metaphor for kings, Vegetarian diet before Flood, 120, 20in55 34, 99' 101 Sin, human, 1 4 - 1 5 , 123-125, 1 Vestments, priestly, 73, 87 Solomon, King, 7 1 - 7 2 , 89-91 War of the Sons of Light and Sons Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice of Darkness (Qumran), 91 (Qumran), 72,91,192ns Watchers, rebellion of the, 8-9, Spencer, S., 203n9 15, 124, 132 Stoicism, 130, 132, 134, 163, Windows of heaven, 19, 23, 35 204ni2, 27-205n28, 30 Wisdom, 97-100, 104, I99ni9 Structural patterns, 20, 3 1 - 2 , Wise man as king, 134, 1 4 2 - 1 4 4 3 7 - 3 8 , 57, xoo, i86ni6 'World upside down', 47, 60-62 Tabernacles, feast of, 83 Zodiac, 73 Temple and its symbolism, 71-74 -second, 87, 122-123 - veil of, 73

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