The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia 1803270489, 9781803270487, 9781803270494

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The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Hee Sook Lee-Niinioja

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Hee Sook Lee-Niinioja

Archaeopress Archaeology

Archaeopress Publishing Ltd Summertown Pavilion 18-24 Middle Way Summertown Oxford OX2 7LG www.archaeopress.com

ISBN 978-1-80327-048-7 ISBN 978-1-80327-049-4 (e-Pdf) © Hee Sook Lee-Niinioja and Archaeopress 2022 Cover: Kala, Djago temple (1268), East Java

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Contents

Abstract..........................................................................................................................................................................................x Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1. Introduction and Background of the Research....................................................................................................................1 1.1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................1 1.2. Background theories........................................................................................................................................................1 1.2.1. Islamic Ornament....................................................................................................................................................1 1.2.2. Ornament as Beautification and Symbolism ......................................................................................................1 1.2.3. The Three Genres: Arabesque, Geometry, Calligraphy......................................................................................2 1.2.4. Regionalism in Islamic Art and Architecture in Southeast Asia and Java, Indonesia ..................................8 1.2.5. Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java ...............................................................................................................................10 1.3. Gaps in knowledge..........................................................................................................................................................13 1.4. Research question and sub-questions ........................................................................................................................14 1.4.1. Principles of Research...........................................................................................................................................14 1.4.2. Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................................................14 1.4.3. Research Questions ..............................................................................................................................................14 1.5. Structure of the thesis...................................................................................................................................................15 Chapter 2. Methodology...............................................................................................................................................................................17 2.1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................17 2.2. Context – the three Islamic periods in Java ..............................................................................................................17 2.2.1. The Transitory Period (15C-1619).......................................................................................................................18 2.2.2. The Dutch Colonization Era (1619-1945)............................................................................................................18 2.2.3. The Contemporary Period (1945-the Present)..................................................................................................20 2.3. Research questions.........................................................................................................................................................22 2.4. Data collection by triangulation..................................................................................................................................23 2.4.1. Literature Review .................................................................................................................................................23 2.4.2. Empirical Work......................................................................................................................................................24 2.4.3. Interviews...............................................................................................................................................................27 2.5. Choice of the representative selection ......................................................................................................................27 2.5.1. Experiments...........................................................................................................................................................27 2.5.2. Attempts: the Larger and Smaller Selections, and the Perception of Six Local Indonesians ...................27 2.6. Four indicators to answer the research questions....................................................................................................28 2.6.1. Line: Element of Design........................................................................................................................................29 2.6.2. Shape: Element of Design.....................................................................................................................................29 2.6.3. Form: Element of Design......................................................................................................................................30 2.6.4. Rhythm: Principle of Design................................................................................................................................30 2.7. Five variables: background (1), the basic type (2), five further characteristics (3), other elements (4), other principles (5) of design .......................................................................................................................................31 2.7.1. Background (1).......................................................................................................................................................31 2.7.2. The Basic Type (2) and Five Further Characteristics (3).................................................................................31 2.7.3. Other Elements of Design (4): Space, Colour, Value, and Texture .................................................................34 2.7.4. Other Principles of Design (5): Emphasis, Unity-Variety, Size, and Proportion .........................................34 2.8. Overall view of analyzing the four motifs..................................................................................................................35 2.9. Limitations of the study ...............................................................................................................................................37 2.10. Summary .......................................................................................................................................................................37 Chapter 3. Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java .................................................................................................................................................38 3.1. Hindu-Buddhist Java (8-15C)........................................................................................................................................38 3.2. Java, Indonesia................................................................................................................................................................38 3.3. The process of Hinduization.........................................................................................................................................39 i

3.4. A fusion of Animism, Hinduism, and Buddhism .......................................................................................................40 3.5. Candis (temples): a replica of the Cosmos Mountain, Meru.....................................................................................41 3.5.1. Candis ......................................................................................................................................................................41 3.5.2. Borobodur (8C) of Central Java and Panataran (1197-1454) of East Java .....................................................42 3.5.3. The Two Cultures of Central (760-930) and East (930-1500) Java...................................................................43 3.6. Four motifs in Javanese temple ornamentation........................................................................................................45 3.6.1. Temple Ornamentation........................................................................................................................................45 3.6.2. The Prehistoric Tumpal ........................................................................................................................................45 3.6.3. The Hindu-Buddhist Kala-Makara........................................................................................................................46 3.6.4. The Hindu-Buddhist Lotus Bud ..........................................................................................................................48 3.6.5. The Hindu-Buddhist Scroll...................................................................................................................................50 3.7. Summary..........................................................................................................................................................................53 3.8. Islamic Java (15c-the present)......................................................................................................................................53 3.9. Syncretic Islam in Javanese mosques..........................................................................................................................53 3.9.1. Agami Jawi (Javanese Religion) and Agami Islam Santri (Islam of the Religious People)..............................53 3.9.2. The Arrival and Spread of Islam in Java.............................................................................................................54 3.9.3. Origins of Javanese Mosques ...............................................................................................................................56 3.9.4. Characteristic Javanese Mosques .......................................................................................................................57 3.9.5. The Sacred Mihrab................................................................................................................................................58 3.10. Javanese mosque ornamentation..............................................................................................................................60 3.10.1. Remnants of Pre-Islamic Ornaments...............................................................................................................60 3.10.2. Orthodox Islamic Ornaments by the Local Genius.........................................................................................61 3.10.3. Chinese and European Influences.....................................................................................................................64 3. 11. Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................65 Chapter 4. Identification of Motifs in Javanese Mosques ..................................................................................................................67 4.1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................67 4.2. Interviews........................................................................................................................................................................67 4.3. Interviews with Indonesians on identifying ornament...........................................................................................67 4.3.1. Background.............................................................................................................................................................67 4.3.2. Rules of Hindu-Buddhist Ornament ................................................................................................................69 4.3.3. Identifying Origins of Motifs in Javanese Mosques as Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic or Both.......................69 4.3.4. Continuity of Javanese Culture in Mosque Ornamentation............................................................................70 4.3.5. Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic Principles of Ornament......................................................................................70 4.3.6. Ornaments on Renovated Mosques....................................................................................................................71 4.3.7. Applying Theories to Selected Motifs in Javanese Mosques..........................................................................71 4.4. Summary..........................................................................................................................................................................75 Chapter 5. The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Tumpals in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation............................................................76 5.1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................76 5.2. Prehistoric tumpals in Javanese temples and mosques.............................................................................................76 5.3. Background......................................................................................................................................................................80 5.3.1. Tumpals between the Pre-Islamic and Islamic Periods....................................................................................80 5.3.2. Tumpals within the Islamic Period......................................................................................................................81 5.3.3. Conclusion..............................................................................................................................................................82 5.4. Analyzed by the basic type of line and its subdivisions ..........................................................................................83 5.4.1. Straight/Curved Lines..........................................................................................................................................83 5.4.2. Vertical/Horizontal/Diagonal of Straight Lines ............................................................................................84 5.4.3. Circular/Spiral/Undulating of Curved Lines .................................................................................................86 5.4.4. Conclusion..............................................................................................................................................................88 5.5. Comparing five further characteristics of line .........................................................................................................88 5.5.1. Conclusion..............................................................................................................................................................95 5.6. Examined by space: other elements of design ..........................................................................................................96 5.7. Observing emphasis: principles of design .................................................................................................................96 5.8. On Mihrabs .....................................................................................................................................................................97 5.9. Summary .........................................................................................................................................................................97

ii

Chapter 6. The Continuity of Pre-Islamic kala-makaras in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation....................................................99 6.1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................99 6.2. Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras in Javanese temples and mosques...........................................................................99 6.3. Background ..................................................................................................................................................................103 6.3.1. Kala-makaras between the Pre-Islamic and Islamic Periods..........................................................................103 6.3.2. Kala-makaras within the Islamic Period...........................................................................................................105 6.3.3. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................106 6.4. Analyzed by basic type of shape and its subdivisions............................................................................................106 6.4.1. Natural/Geometric Shapes ..............................................................................................................................107 6.4.2. Circular/Oval/Triangular/Square/Rectangular of Geometric Shapes ....................................................108 6.5. Comparing five further characteristics of shape....................................................................................................110 6.5.1. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................117 6.6. Examined by colour: other elements of design ......................................................................................................118 6.7. Observing unity-variety: principles of design ........................................................................................................119 6.8. On Mihrabs....................................................................................................................................................................120 6.9. Summary .......................................................................................................................................................................120 Chapter 7. The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Lotus Buds in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation.....................................................121 7.1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................121 7.2. Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds in Javanese temples and mosques..............................................................................121 7.3. Background ..................................................................................................................................................................126 7.3.1. Lotus Buds between the Pre-Islamic and Islamic Periods.............................................................................126 7.3.2. Lotus Buds within the Islamic Period...............................................................................................................126 7.3.3. Conclusion ...........................................................................................................................................................127 7.4. Analyzed by the basic type of form and its subdivisions ......................................................................................128 7.4.1. Primary and Non-primary Forms.....................................................................................................................128 7.4.2. Cubic/Conic/Spherical/Cylindrical/Pyramidal of Primary Forms.............................................................129 7.4.3. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................132 7.5 Comparing five further characteristics of form.......................................................................................................132 7.5.1. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................138 7.6. Examined by value: other elements of design ........................................................................................................140 7.7. Observing size: principles of design .........................................................................................................................140 7.8. On Mihrabs....................................................................................................................................................................141 7.9. Summary .......................................................................................................................................................................141 Chapter 8. The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Scrolls in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation............................................................142 8.1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................142 8.2. Hindu-Buddhist scrolls in Javanese temples and mosques....................................................................................142 8.3. Background ...................................................................................................................................................................147 8.3.1. Scrolls between the Pre-Islamic and Islamic Periods....................................................................................147 8.3.2. Scrolls within the Islamic Period......................................................................................................................147 8.4. Analyzed by the basic type of rhythm and its subdivisions..................................................................................148 8.4.1. Regular/Irregular Rhythms...............................................................................................................................149 8.4.2. Vertical/Horizontal/Diagonal of Regular Rhythms ....................................................................................150 8.4.3. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................151 8.5. Comparing five further characteristics of rhythm ................................................................................................152 8.5.1. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................159 8.6. Examined by texture: other elements of design .....................................................................................................160 8.7. Observing proportion: other principles of design .................................................................................................161 8.8. On Mihrabs....................................................................................................................................................................162 8.9. Summary........................................................................................................................................................................162 Chapter 9. Summary and Conclusion......................................................................................................................................................163 9.1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................163 9.2. Preparing findings .......................................................................................................................................................163 9.2.1. A Conceptual Frame: Awakening from Cultural Heritage.............................................................................163 iii

9.2.2. Regionalism in Islamic Religion and Ornaments during the Three Islamic Periods................................163 9.2.3. Emerging into a New World: Methodological Challenges ...........................................................................165 9.2.4. Theoretical Achievements: When Islamic Aesthetic Beauties Encounter Hindu-Buddhist Symbolic Connotations.......................................................................................................................................165 9.2.5. A Short Diversion: In the Midst of Climbing with Sisyphus ........................................................................166 9.3. The reincarnation of pre-Islamic motifs in mosques ............................................................................................166 9.3.1. SUB-QUESTION 1: Transcendence of Prehistoric Tumpals ..........................................................................167 9.3.2. SUB-QUESTION 2: Metamorphosis in Hindu-Buddhist Kala-Makaras..........................................................168 9.3.3. SUB-QUESTION 3: Lotus Buds in Javanese Imagination ...............................................................................168 9.3.4. SUB-QUESTION 4: Harmony between Symbolic Scrolls and Aesthetic Arabesques ................................169 9.4. The four motifs in relation to each other: diversity of expression in unity of concepts..................................170 9.4.1. Background...........................................................................................................................................................170 9.4.2. Lines, Shapes, Forms, and Rhythms ................................................................................................................173 9.4.3. Other Elements and Principles of Design........................................................................................................175 9.4.4. Decoration of Mihrabs........................................................................................................................................176 9.4.5. All Islamic Motifs and Those on Mihrabs........................................................................................................177 9.4.6. Application of the Four Sacred Motifs in Secular Contexts..........................................................................178 9.5. Evaluation and importance of the findings .............................................................................................................179 Evaluation 1: Continuity...............................................................................................................................................179 Evaluation 2: Influence.................................................................................................................................................179 Evaluation 3: Supposition.............................................................................................................................................180 9.6. Contribution of knowledge and further research ..................................................................................................181 My 15 Years’ Endeavouring ..................................................................................................................................................183 List of Appendices....................................................................................................................................................................184 2003........................................................................................................................................................................................194 2004........................................................................................................................................................................................194 2005-6....................................................................................................................................................................................195 2004........................................................................................................................................................................................196 Archaeologists:...................................................................................................................................................................202 (Hasan Muarif Ambary: abbreviated as ‘MA’) ...........................................................................................................202 (Santiko Hariani; SH) ....................................................................................................................................................202 (Uka Tjandrasasmita: UT).............................................................................................................................................203 (Edi Sedyawati: ES)........................................................................................................................................................205 Architects:...........................................................................................................................................................................206 (Achmad Fanani: AF).....................................................................................................................................................206 (Achmad Noe’man: AN)................................................................................................................................................206 (Josef Prijotomo: JP)......................................................................................................................................................207 Artists:..................................................................................................................................................................................208 (A.D. Pirous: ADP) .........................................................................................................................................................208 (Abay Subarna: AS) .......................................................................................................................................................209 Overall View and Syncretic/Orthodox Islamic Ornaments in the 30 Javanese Mosques ..............................210 The transitory period (15C-1619)................................................................................................................................210 The Dutch colonization era (1619-1945)....................................................................................................................211 The contemporary period (1945-to the present day)..............................................................................................212 Appendix 1...........................................................................................................................................................................214 Appendix 2...........................................................................................................................................................................235

iv

List of Figures Chapter 1. Figure 1.1. The historical development of arabesque�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3 Figure 1.2. Arabesque of the Umayyad dynasty�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4 Figure 1.3. Geometrical patterns������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6 Figure 1.4. Foliated calligraphy, Alhambra Palace, Granada, Spain, 14C������������������������������������������������������������������������������7 Chapter 2. Figure 2.1. Agung Demak (1479), Agung Mataram (1568-1601) in the transitory�������������������������������������������������������������19 Figure 2.2. Hidayatullah (1750), Al Wustho Mangkunegara (1878-1918) during the Dutch colonization ��������������������20 Figure 2.3. Al Azhar (1953-1958), Al Akbar Surabaya (1995-2000) in the contemporary period������������������������������������21 Figure 2.4. The basic type of line in tumpals���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������32 Figure 2.5. The basic type of shape in kala-makaras���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������32 Figure 2.6. The basic type of form in lotus buds��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33 Figure 2.7. The basic type of rhythm in scrolls����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33 Figure 2.8. Scaled value in tumpals�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35 Chapter 3. Figure 3.1. Java, Indonesia���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������39 Figure 3.2. Borobodur Temple, Central Java, 8C (Image: the Author)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������42 Figure 3.3. Panataran temple, East Java, 1197-1454 (Image: the Author)���������������������������������������������������������������������������43 Figure 3.4. Two cultures: Central and East Java (Image: the Author)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������44 Figure 3.5. Prehistoric tumpal (Kempers 1959)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46 Figure 3.6. Tumpals in Javanese temples (Image: the Author)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������47 Figure 3.7. Kalas and makaras in Javanese temples (Image: the Author)����������������������������������������������������������������������������48 Figure 3.8. Bodhisattva lotus-in-hand (Image: the Author)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������49 Figure 3.9. Various types of undulating scrolls in Javanese temples (Bosch 1960)����������������������������������������������������������50 Figure 3.10. Scrolls in Central and East Java (Image: the Author)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������51 Figure 3.11. Vine scrolls from antiquity to Islamic Umayyad palace, Greco-Buddhist Gandhara India, and Hindu-Buddhist Java, Indonesia�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������52 Figure 3.12. The spread of Islam from the 13th to 16th centuries in Indonesia (Fox 1998, Revised drawing: the Author)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������55 Figure 3.13. Mihrabs of 40 mosques in Java in alphabetical order (Drawing: the Author)����������������������������������������������60 Figure 3.14. Arabesque in Javanese mosques (Drawing: the Author)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������63 Figure 3.15. Geometry in Javanese mosques (Drawing: the Author)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������63 Figure 3.16. Calligraphy in Javanese mosques (Drawing: the Author)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������64 Figure 3.17. Chinese cloud-like flame (Drawing: the Author)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65 Figure 3.18. European flower (Drawing: the Author)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������66 Chapter 4. Figure 4.1. Examples of motifs in Javanese mosques shown to the interviewees�����������������������������������������������������������68 Figure 4.2. Examination of HBS, OIA, and CHI������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71 Figure 4.3. 30 Motifs for Examination��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������72 Chapter 5. Figure 5.0. The 48 tumpals����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������79

v

Figure 5.1. Continuity of tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods (Drawing: Pepin Press 1998; Image: the Author)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������80 Figure 5.2. Scaled value in tumpals�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������83 Figure 5.3. Straight/curved. Number(N). Mode(M)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������83 Figure 5.4. Vertical/horizontal/diagonal of straight lines. Number(N). Mode(M)����������������������������������������������������������85 Figure 5.5. Circular/spiral/undulating of curved lines. Number(N). Mode(M)����������������������������������������������������������������86 Figure 5.6. Broken/unbroken. Number(N). Mode(M)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������89 Figure 5.7. Natural/geometric. Number(N). Mode(M)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90 Figure 5.8. Inner/outline. Number(N). Mode(M)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������92 Figure 5.9. Short/long. Number(N). Mode(M)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������93 Figure 5.10. Simple/complicated. Number(N). Mode(M)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������94 Figure 5.11. Narrow/wide����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������96 Figure 5.12. Subordinate������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������97 Chapter 6. Figure 6.0. The 45 kala-makaras�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������102 Figure 6.1. Emersion of kala-makaras in mosques (Vogler 1949) ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������103 Figure 6.2. Continuity of pre-Islamic kala-makaras in Javanese mosque ornamentation (Image: the Author) ���������104 Figure 6.3. Scaled value in kala-makaras���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������107 Figure 6.4. Natural/geometric. Number(N). Mode(M) �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������107 Figure 6.5. Circular/oval/triangular/square/rectangular of geometric shapes. Number(N). Mode(M)��������������������109 Figure 6.6. Dynamic/static. Number(N). Mode(M)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������111 Figure 6.7. Single/assorted. Number(N). Mode(M)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������113 Figure 6.8. Illustrating/abstract. Number(N). Mode(M) ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������114 Figure 6.9. Smooth/complicated. Number(N). Mode(M) ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������115 Figure 6.10. Small /big. Number(N). Mode(M) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������116 Figure 6.11. Original/coloured �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������118 Figure 6.12. Separate/united���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������119 Chapter 7. Figure 7.0. 50 lotus buds�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124 Figure 7.1. Continuity of pre-Islamic lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation (Image: the Author)��������������125 Figure 7.2. Scaled value in lotus buds������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������128 Figure 7.3. Primary/non-primary. Number(N). Mode(M)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������128 Figure 7.4. Cubic/conic/spherical/cylindrical/pyramidal of primary forms. Number(N). Mode(M)������������������������130 Figure 7.5. Voluminous/slender. Number(N). Mode(M) ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������133 Figure 7.6. Open/closed. Number(N). Mode(M)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������134 Figure 7.7. Realistic/stylized. Number(N). Mode(M) ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������135 Figure 7.9. 2-3 dimensional/3-dimensional. Number(N). Mode(M) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������137 Figure 7.10. Light/dark ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������139 Figure 7.11. Small/big��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������140 re 7.8. Dynamic/static. Number(N). Mode(M) ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������136 Chapter 8. Figure 8.0. 50 scrolls������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������145 Figure 8.1. Continuity of pre-Islamic scrolls in Javanese mosque ornamentation (Image: the Author)��������������������146 Figure 8.2. Scaled value in scrolls�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������148 Figure 8.3. Regular/irregular. Number(N). Mode(M) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������149 Figure 8.4. Vertical/horizontal/diagonal rhythms. Number(N). Mode(M) ��������������������������������������������������������������������151 vi

Figure 8.5. Repetitive/non-repetitive. Number(N). Mode(M) ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������153 Figure 8.6. Harmonious/disharmonious. Number(N). Mode(M) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������155 Figure 8.7. Single/multiple. Number(N). Mode(M) ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������156 Figure 8.8. Strong/weak. Number(N). Mode(M)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������157 Figure 8.9. Continuous/discontinuous. Number(N). Mode(M)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������158 Figure 8.10. Smooth/rough ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������160 Figure 8.11. Progressive/Non-progressive����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������161 Chapter 9. Figure 9.1. Scaled values in tumpals����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������165 Figure 9.2. The four sacred motifs on secular objects (Image: the Author)���������������������������������������������������������������������178

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List of Tables Chapter 1. Table 1.2.3.1. A term 'rarely terminate' (o+) is intrepreted as 'infinite', and that of 'little remains of the vine' (o++) as 'abstract'.....................................................................................................................................................5 Table 1.1. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods...........................................................................................15 Chapter 2. Table 2.1. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods...........................................................................................22 Table 2.2. Four motifs, four indicators, and five variables....................................................................................................28 Chapter 5. Table 5.0. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods...........................................................................................76 Table 5.1. Background to the 48 tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods ..................................................81 Table 5.2. Number of straight/curved lines in the 48 tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods..............84 Table 5.2a. Modes and total numbers+: straight/curved lines in the 48 tumpals ..............................................................84 Table 5.3. Number of vertical/horizontal/diagonal of straight lines in the 48 tumpals between the preIslamic and Islamic periods............................................................................................................................................85 Table 5.3a. Modes and total numbers+: vertical, horizontal, and diagonal of straight lines in the 48 tumpals.............86 Table 5.4. Number of circular/spiral/undulating of curved lines in the 48 tumpals between the preIslamic and Islamic periods............................................................................................................................................87 Table 5.4a. Modes and total numbers+: circular, spiral, and undulating of curved lines in the 48 tumpals ..................87 Table 5.5. Number of five further characteristics of line in the 48 tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods.................................................................................................................................................................89 Table 5.5a. Modes and total numbers+: broken/unbroken lines in the 48 tumpals ...........................................................90 Table 5.5b. Total numbers of natural/geometrical lines in the 48 tumpals ........................................................................91 Table 5.5c. Modes and total numbers+: inner/outline lines in the 48 tumpals ..................................................................92 Table 5.5d. Modes and total numbers+: short/long lines in the 48 tumpals........................................................................93 Table 5.5e. Modes and total numbers+: simple and complicated lines in the 48 tumpals ................................................95 Chapter 6. Table 6.0. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods...........................................................................................99 Table 6.1. Background to the 45 kala-makaras between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods .......................................105 Table 6.2. Number of natural/geometric shapes in the 45 kala-makaras between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods ..............................................................................................................................................................107 Table 6.2a. Modes and total numbers+: natural and geometric shapes in the 45 kala-makaras.....................................108 Table 6.3. Number of circular/oval/triangular/square/rectangular of geometric shapes in the 34 kalamakaras within the Islamic period..............................................................................................................................109 Table 6.3a. Modes and total numbers+: circular/oval/triangular/square/rectangular of geometric shapes in the 34 kala-makaras......................................................................................................................................110 Table 6.4. Number of five further characteristics of shape in the 45 kala-makaras between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods ......................................................................................................................................................111 Table 6.4a. Modes and total numbers+: dynamic/static shapes in the 45 kala-makaras..................................................112 Table 6.4b. Modes and total numbers+: single/assorted shapes in the 45 kala-makaras ................................................113 Table 6.4c. Modes and total numbers+: illustrating/abstract shapes in the 45 kala-makaras ........................................114 Table 6.4d. Modes and total numbers+: smooth/complicated shapes in the 45 kala-makaras ....................................115 Table 6.4e. Modes and total numbers+: small/big shapes in the 45 kala-makaras ...........................................................117 Chapter 7. Table 7.0. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods.........................................................................................121 Table 7.1. Background to the 50 lotus buds between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods ...........................................126

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Table 7.2. Number of primary/non-primary forms in the 50 lotus buds between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods ..............................................................................................................................................................129 Table 7.2a. Modes and total numbers+: primary and non-primary forms in the 50 lotus buds ...................................129 Table 7.3. Number of cubic/conic/spherical/cylindrical/pyramidal of primary forms in the 50 lotus buds between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods .................................................................................................130 Table 7.3a. Modes and total numbers+: cubic/conic/spherical/cylindrical/pyramidal forms in the 50 lotus buds .......................................................................................................................................................................131 Table 7.4. Number of five further characteristics of form in the 50 lotus buds between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods ......................................................................................................................................................132 Table 7.4a. Modes and total numbers+: voluminous/slender forms in the 50 lotus buds ............................................133 Table 7.4b. Modes and total numbers+: open/closed forms in the 50 lotus buds ...........................................................134 Table 7.4c. Modes and total numbers+: realistic/stylized forms in the 50 lotus buds ...................................................135 Table 7.4d. Modes and total numbers+: dynamic/static forms in the 50 lotus buds ......................................................137 Table 7.4e. Modes and total numbers+: 2-3 dimensional/3-dimensional forms in the 50 lotus buds..........................138 Chapter 8. Table 8.0. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods.........................................................................................142 Table 8.1. Background to the 50 scrolls between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods..................................................147 Table 8.2. Number of regular and irregular rhythms in the 50 scrolls between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods ..............................................................................................................................................................149 Table 8.2a. Modes and total numbers+: regular/irregular rhythms in the 50 scrolls.....................................................150 Table 8.3. Number of vertical/horizontal/diagonal of regular rhythms in the 50 scrolls between the preIslamic and Islamic periods .........................................................................................................................................151 Table 8.3a. Modes and total numbers+: vertical/horizontal/diagonal of regular rhythms in the 50 scrolls .............152 Table 8.4. Number of five further characteristics of rhythm in the 50 scrolls between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods ..............................................................................................................................................................153 Table 8.4a. Modes and total numbers+: repetitive/non-repetitive rhythms in the 50 scrolls ......................................154 Table 8.4b. Modes and total numbers+: harmonious/disharmonious rhythms in the 50 scrolls .................................155 Table 8.4c. Modes and total numbers+: single/multiple rhythms in the 50 scrolls. ......................................................156 Table 8.4d. Modes and total numbers+: strong/weak rhythms in the 50 scrolls ............................................................157 Table 8.4e. Modes and total numbers+: continuous/discontinuous rhythms in the 50 scrolls ....................................159 Chapter 9. Table 9.0. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods.........................................................................................163

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Abstract This research aims to assess the continuity and significance of Hindu-Buddhist design motifs in Islamic mosques in Java. It is carried out by investigating four pre-Islamic motifs in Javanese mosque ornamentation from the 15th century to the present day. The research starts with the belief that typical Javanese ornaments were consistently used in pre-Islamic Hindu-Buddhist temples and Islamic mosques in Indonesia. This phenomenon was a result of syncretic Javanese Islam, composed of mystic animism, Hindu-Buddhism, and Islam, which differed from orthodox Islam in the Near East and Arab world. Among many ornaments, the most frequent four motifs are prehistoric tumpals, Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras, lotus buds, and scrolls, all of which have symbolic connotations and are used to decorate sanctuaries. Tumpals signify the Cosmos Mountain where gods abode; kala-makaras protect temples where the gods are believed to reside; lotus buds denote life and creation; and scrolls imply the start of life. For a comparison between the temple and mosque ornamentation, 10 Hindu-Buddhist temples and 30 mosques were purposively selected, and a representative sample of each motif was taken during the researcher’s fieldwork. In addition, 20 Indonesian scholars were interviewed to identify the origins of motifs in Javanese mosques. To answer the research questions, the background, basic type of indicator and its subdivisions, five further characteristics, and other elements and principles of design were investigated. Four indicators were chosen to test each of the four motifs. Tumpals were examined by line, kala-makaras by shape, lotus buds by form, and scrolls by rhythm. A few examples of each motif explained how they were analyzed in two stages, by the presence of each characteristic and its modal value-total number. This assessment was based on an amalgamation of (1) the researcher’s informed judgement, trained in art and design, (2) observations during the fieldwork, (3) elements and principles of design, according to literary sources, and (4) the respect to the Indonesian cultural heritage. The findings revealed continuity in the four motifs across the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. The continuities appeared in lines, shapes, forms, and rhythms. Lotus buds and tumpals showed significant continuities, while kalamakaras and scrolls changed in the transfer from temples to mosques. Kala-makaras needed to conform with the hadith (sayings of Prophet Muhammad), which forbids depicting living figures in Islamic ornamentation; thus, living images were rather abandoned and replaced by geometric shapes. Javanese scrolls in temples and mosques displayed the same characteristics of repetitive and continuous rhythms as the Islamic arabesque. Consequently, there arose a beautiful syncretism in the four motifs in ideas and forms. Hindu-Buddhist symbolism was mingled with Islamic aesthetics, keeping local Indonesian characteristics. The symbolic connotations of the four motifs allowed them to continue, and their influence was dependent upon the creativity of the local genius in each epoch.

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To my God, my parents, my families and others with me

Acknowledgement My Soul, My Mind, My Heart Until yesterday, I was making a wandering odyssey on an Indonesian boat, bound for Oxford Brookes in the U.K. Today, I am returning to my original harbour, to lay an eternal anchor. My unutterable gratitude and indebtedness towards many individuals whirl into three waves: they go through my soul, my mind, and my heart. None of the three can be differed, as each presents priceless, immeasurable, and precious humbleness. My first soul owes to my God who has provided me with his ‘justice and safety’ during my wandering journey. My second soul turns to my departed parents who imparted ‘pride’ and ‘wisdom’ to their daughter in the midst of the doubtable challenges. My third soul calls to my countries - South Korea, Norway, and Finland, where my lost ‘identity’ was rescued and my ‘cultural crisis’ was solved. Simultaneously, my mind yearns to thank those people who have created this work with me. My first mind owes to my excellent supervisors; Professor Mike Jenks for his calm whisperings on my restlessness and his brilliant voices on my work; Dr. Nicholas Walliman for his detective eyes in finding routes out of impasse and his sketches for my straying red thread of argument; and Dr. Aylin Orbasli for her passionate engagement with my chapters and her disciplined positive attitude towards my endless changes. But, please wait! All these fragmental treasures could not be seen in splendour if there were no Mrs. Margaret Ackrill’s intelligent and diligent reading in perfection. When she touches a word, the whole Pandora box is set in metamorphosis, thus all the ingredients twirl into a gourmet dish. Cross over oceans, my second mind flies to the 20 Indonesian scholars whom I interviewed. Especially, my immense thanks call Professor Uka Tjandrasasmita for his profound knowledge, enthusiasm and hospitality. He saved me from being lost in the labyrinth of syncretic Java. Across waves once more, my third mind expresses thanks to the Research Coordinator, the Research Centre, the Department of Architecture, the Graduate Office, Oxford Brookes University, and Indonesian authorities, institutes, temples, and mosques, and many other countries where I imprinted my footsteps. Simultaneously, my first heart longs to expose my thanks to my family, particularly my husband. He took over my official duties, acting marvellously in a double role in Indonesia. He encouraged me, understood me, and had confidence in me. His presence was visible and invisible, laying many tranquil carpets over my turmoil. My second heart runs to my sisters and brothers who eternally hold me in our inseparable destiny as a family of blood. My third heart is shared with my friends who were with me in solidarity on my voyage. It was my utmost privilege to have cooperated with so many fabulous people through this research, embroidered by humane communication with the common thread of making others happy. This research has rejuvenated my life. On my reincarnation, my last golden moment will be prospered in contributing to society. It is calling upon my knowledge urgently. Let me hurry up!

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Chapter 1.

Introduction and Background of the Research scrolls,4 signifying a concept of Paradise.5 Kühnel in Die Arabesque (1949) argues that arabesque is the most expressive artistic manifestation. Debates on the term ‘arabesque’ took place over a long period from the sole vegetal scrolls to the whole range of Islamic ornamentation. However, this research limits it to Islamic vegetal scrolls which appeared in Javanese mosques from the 15th century to the present day.

1.1. Introduction In 1859, Charles Darwin suggested a theory of evolution in his famous On the Origins of Species, while Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), a German poet, sacrificed his Werther to death in The Sorrows of Young Werther to continue his life in eternity. Whether a thing has died out by nature, or a human has disappeared by an act of will, the messages left behind tell us of continuity. Evolution implies creation; death proposes life. Exceptionally, these metamorphoses do not apply to Javanese temple and mosque ornamentation.

Moreover, Islamic ornament displays best in geometric patterns where basic devices of repetition, rotation, and reflection evoke mystical thoughts.6 As the only novelty, calligraphy became the key means of expressing symbolic connotation and aesthetic beauty.7 Muslims understand it as a visible form of the revealed Word of God, the Holy Koran. A fine script had to be developed as a Muslim’s religious duty and the appropriate ornament for mosques.8 In maximizing beauty and symbolism in the mosque ornamentation, the three genres are interrelated.

To testify this, the research deals with the degree of continuity and influence of four pre-Islamic motifs on mosque ornamentation in Java, Indonesia. It shows how prehistoric tumpals and Hindu-Buddhist kalamakaras, lotus buds, and scrolls have demonstrated their influences reaching from Hindu-Buddhist (515C) to Islamic periods (15C-the present). Accordingly, this chapter explains the approach to the research in different sections: (1) background theories, (2) gaps in knowledge, (3) research question and sub-questions, and (4) structure of the thesis.

1.2.2. Ornament as Beautification and Symbolism A proper understanding of their meaning can only be reached by detailed studies not only of the formal and technical aspects of these decorations but also by considering the regional, social and religious variations of people who created and beheld them (Baer 1998: 89).

1.2. Background theories 1.2.1. Islamic Ornament Islamic ornament seems to be conceptual and intellectual rather than emotional, expressing contemporary ideas of beauty and aesthetic concepts to communicate Muslim thoughts and to reflect the spirit of their times.1 In the context of a belief that ‘God alone is the Creator’, a new expression in ornament was created, using floral, geometric, and epigraphic motifs,2 although it brings ambiguity to their function as decorative as well as possessing meanings. Islamic ornament was inherited from Byzantine and Sasanian culture, and changed over time, stretching from Spain to India and Indonesia. Detailed studies of the regional, social, and temporal variations of the techniques and use of individual motifs are necessary.3

It has been a general acceptance that the function of Islamic ornament is beautification to endow visual pleasure, although many efforts have been attempted a symbolic role too.9 In this discussion, Brend (1991) argues that Islamic ornament rarely demands reading as a symbol; it stands as an affirming background with a latent symbolism. Hillenbrand (2001a) goes further, saying that Islamic ornament serves to beautify the structure, but can evoke a mystical idea. As no constant association between particular buildings and symbolic connotations exists, its visual pleasure is often the first aspect of the buildings considered. The dual nature of ornament was earlier observed by Grabar (1987). The inscriptions in the Dome of the Rock

Three genres of arabesque, geometry, and calligraphy developed. Arabesque is a stylized form of the vegetal

Riegl 1893; Burckhardt 1976 Ardalan and Bakhtiar 1973 Irwin 1997. 7  Grabar 1987; Hillenbrand 2001 8  Davies 1982 9  Grabar 1987; Baer 1998 4  5  6 

Mitchell 1978 Hillenbrand 2001 3  Grabar 1987; Baer 1998 1  2 

1

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia can be considered aesthetic; landscapes in the Grand Mosque of Damascus may symbolize Paradise, based on the Islamic concept. Clévenot (2000) shares Grabar’s view that the omnipresence of plants conveys an idea of ‘the Garden of Felicity’, nourished by the Koranic description.

1.2.3. The Three Genres: Arabesque, Geometry, Calligraphy Islamic art is essentially a way of ennobling matter by means of geometric and floral patterns, united by calligraphic forms which embody the word of God as revealed in the sacred book, the Holy Koran (foreword by Nasr in Critchlow 1989: 6).

Nonetheless, notions of the divine are stressed through ornament. They are not expressed through devotional images but through the totality of form that unites and characterizes all the visual arts of Islam.10 Anyone who is overwhelmed by the amplitude of nature tries to convey the same multiplicity in both symbolic and abstract ways to pay tribute to the Creator.11

In broadly speaking, Islamic ornament consists of three genres of arabesque, geometry, and calligraphy. The reluctance to depict living figures in the Islamic religious context could direct attention towards the creation of the arabesque. However, it would be a mistake to regard them as fixed, because Islamic artists reinterpret nature through their creation. Hillenbrand (2001a: 13) characterizes the arabesque as ‘a form that is a plant and yet not a plant. Imagination, not observation, was the key; nature, it is true, but nature methodized.’

This type of debate about combining beauty with symbolic meaning took place among Islamic scholars even within the first few centuries of Islam. Tha’libi and Muqaddasi said that the multiplicity of forms and colours in Islamic ornament leads the beholder to identify new features which arouse his curiosity and invite contemplation. In contradiction, al-Ghazzali (d.1111) claimed that ornaments are entirely related to religious beliefs and the notion of God.12

The geometric mode appears in basic forms of angular repetitive grids, stellar patterns, or curvilinear networks on the windows of mosques and palaces. In appreciating the interlacement of the stonework, it needs to be read by allowing the eye to follow the flow of intertwining forces.18 Epigraphic decoration intends to evoke mystery. In many of the finest monumental inscriptions, their meanings are not clear, due to the rhythmic exuberance of the lettering and the pattern. All three genres are interrelated. Epigraphic letters are cramped into angular geometric forms. Vegetal arabesque unfolds concentrically or spirally. Geometric networks took off the angularity by using buds of leaves. The uniqueness of Islamic ornament lies in the fact that the three elements infiltrate each other, creating ambiguity about their function.19

Whether aesthetic or symbolic in intention, Islamic ornament aims at concealing the structure of a building rather than revealing it.13 Or it can make them more attractive, bring out the essential nature of architecture, accentuate a plastic shape, and change it into something lively.14 ‘Ornament did not conceal the frame; rather, it emphasized connections between vertical and horizontal elements, articulated links and joins, and framed access and openings.’15 From different views, ornament highlights architectural elements, interacting with them by disguising or revealing them or being subordinated to the architecture.

1.2.3.1. Arabesque

The function of Islamic ornament can be summarized as an adornment of the surface, expressing contemporary ideas of beauty and aesthetic concepts through forms, materials, and techniques. Some are for the communication of symbolic connotation.16 Its complexity is defined as ‘Islamic art is not a mere concept, an abstraction, but is recognizably an entity, even if that entity defies easy definition.’17

Arabesque was identified during the 19th century as the principal Islamic ornament by Orientalists, who focused on the material culture of the Arabs in Syria, Egypt, North Africa, and Spain. Derived from the Italian word rabesco, the name referred to the style of ornamental pattern in Islamic design during the Renaissance.20 Riegl in Stilfragen (Problems of Style, 1893) limited the term ‘arabesque’ to a stylized form of the vegetal, and regarded it as the creation of the Arab spirit. Its basic feature is the geometrization of the stems of the particular vegetal elements, growing from one another infinitely in any direction. Herzfeld (1938) notes the term ‘arabesque’ in its broader sense. It denotes Islamic ornament, comprising some figurative components.

Burckhardt (cited by Yeomans 1999: 16) Ardalen and Bakhtiar 1973 12  Cited by Baer 1998 13  Jones 1978 14  Davies 1982 15  Behrens-Abouseif 1998: 152 16  Baer 1998 17  Hillenbrand 2001a: 256 10  11 

Burckhardt 1980 Hillenbrand 2001a 20  Naddaff 1991 18  19 

2

Introduction and Background of the Research

Acanthus during antiquity, Damascus, Syria (Image: the Author); Late Byzantine antique cornice, 5C (Kühnel 1949)

Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, the end of 9C (Kühnel 1949); Wood carving, Egypt, 13C (Kühnel 1949) Figure 1.1. The historical development of arabesque

However, ornament can hardly be described and analyzed, due to the differences in display across time and place. It was Kühnel who claimed the arabesque as the most expressive artistic manifestation in Islamic ornamentation, emphasizing its ornamental character. In Die Arabeske (1949), he rejects Herzfeld’s definition, and adopts Riegl’s theory, adding geometric, calligraphic and stylized figural elements. Kühnel identified two aesthetic principles of the arabesque: (1) rhythmical and harmonious movement, and (2) filling the entire surface.

‘Garden of Paradise’. With a combination of geometry and calligraphy, it exhibits the harmony of unity and multiplicity. Despite its categorical debates, the arabesque in a vegetal form has received the most attention. It is a distant relation of the acanthus and vine scroll ornamentation from the eastern Mediterranean area before the advance of Islam.21 Curving vine scrolls first appeared in the Dome of Rock and Mshatta in the eighth century, and were established in the stucco and mosaic decoration of the Great Mosque of Cordoba two centuries later in the form of half-palmettes. By the 11th century, arabesque was in full development in the Great Mosque of Al-Hakim in Cairo and was later introduced into the Quwwat Al-Islam Mosque in Delhi, India in a combination of the acanthus and Hindu lotus.22

… whatever their origin and form may be, so it is also here that no symbolic meaning can be constructed. Decisive is a decorative intent which is devoid of a meaningful purpose (Kühnel 1949: 9). The arabesque was further analyzed by Burckhardt (1976: 60-61), who includes both stylized plant forms and geometrical interlacing work. The former expresses a perfect transcription of the law of rhythm into visual terms, the sense of rhythm; the latter represents ‘the spirit of geometry’. Its solely decorative notion met opposition from Sufi scholars, Ardalan and Bakhtiar (1973: 42-43). The arabesque recreates the cosmic processes of the Creator through nature. Its rhythmic element reflects movement, manifests time, and signifies infinity, glorifying the concept of the

A few characteristics of the arabesque are discussed.23 As its more detailed descriptions could identify the origins of scroll motifs in Javanese mosques in this connection, the researcher analyzed 20 literary sources to trace central concepts and components of the arabesque (full texts in Appendix). Burckhardt 1976 Jones 1978 23  Riegl 1893; Kühnel 1949; Ardalan and Bakhtiar 1973; Burckhardt 1976 21  22 

3

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Frieze from the mihrab of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, 9C (Riegl 1893); Stucco ornament from Ibn Tulun mosque, Cairo, 9C (Riegl 1893)

Arabesque samples, the Great Mosque of Cordoba, 9C (Image: the Author) Figure 1.2. Arabesque of the Umayyad dynasty

(Jones 1856, 1982) continuous, geometrical, simple, infinite. (Bourgoin 1873a) geometric, abstract. (Riegl 1893, 1992) continuous, infinite, in any direction, abstract, anti-naturalistic, geometric, linear, oval, eccentric curves, polygonal, curvilinear, circular, two-dimensional, symmetrical, pointed, stylized, undulating, spirals, bifurcated. (Kühnel 1949, 1960, 1977) linear, abstract, unnatural, bifurcated, regular, spiral, interlacing,

ever-continuing, geometric, rhythmic, movement, infinite repetition. (Herzfeld 1953, 1987) infinite, dematerialization, abstract, anti-naturalistic, geometric, countless repetition. (Dimand 1958) abstract, geometrical, circular. (Grube 1966) stylized abstracted, geometrical, repeated. (Burckhardt 1967, 1976) stylized, undulating, logical, rhythmical, mathematical, melodious, linear, continuous, repeated. 4

Introduction and Background of the Research

3 Riegl

1893; 1992

o

o

4 Kühnel

1949; 1960; 1977

o

o

5 Herzfeld

1953; 1987

o

o

6 Dimand

1958

o

7 Grube

1966

o

Ardalan & Bakhtiar

o

1978

12 Davies

1982

13 Allen

1988

14 Naddaff

1991

15 Irwin

1997

o

16 Baer

1998

o

17 Yeomans

1999

18 Clévenot

2000

20 Trilling total

2001

rhythmic

spiral

simple

repetitive

mathematical

linear

curved o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o regular, bifurcated countless

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o logical, melodious o regular

o

o concentric

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o regular o

o

non-vegetal

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o+

o

o

o

o

5

7

3

13

o

soft, flat

o

dynamic, twodimensional

o

invade any unoccupied space organized, strict, logic

o

o++ 6

o spatial bifurcated

o o

12

oval, pointed, bifurcated

o

o o

o

o

o

o

11 Jones, D

19 Hillenbrand 2001a

o

o

1973 1973; 1987

o

o

o

10 Grabar

o

other expressions

o

8 Burckhardt 1967; 1976 9

undulating, moving

o

o

stylized

1873a

o

symmetric

2 Bourgoin

continuous o

infinite, limitless

1856; 1982

geometrical

1 Jones

circular

Year abstract

No Author

anti(de)natural

Table 1.2.3.1. A term 'rarely terminate' (o+) is intrepreted as 'infinite', and that of 'little remains of the vine' (o++) as 'abstract'.

8

4

5

4

o

o

11

2

delicate 4

7

2

7

7

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Windows of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, 785 (Image: the Author); Geometric designs, Alhambra Palace, Granada, Spain, 14C (Image: the Author) Figure 1.3. Geometrical patterns

(Ardalan and Bakhtiar 1973) rhythmic, movement, regular, continuity, endless circular, repeated, infinite, geometric, spiral. (Grabar 1973, 1987) concentric, circles, undulating, repetition, abstract, geometric. (Jones, D 1978) denaturalization, continuous, regular, limitless, rhythmical, movement, repetition, curved, geometric, mathematical. (Davies 1982) continuous rhythm, stylized, repeated, infinite, mathematical, circular. (Allen 1988) geometric, non-vegetal. (Naddaff 1991) denaturalized, repetitive, unnatural, symmetrical rhythm, repeated, spatial movement. (Irwin 1997) abstract, denaturalized, repeated, bifurcated. (Baer 1998) rhythmic, curved, spiral, abstract, stylized, soft, flat. (Yeomans 1999) dynamic, geometric, rarely terminated, stylized, two dimensional. (Clévenot 2000) stylistic, abstract, linear, invade any unoccupied spaces. (Hillenbrand 2001a) geometric, organized, mathematical, logical, abstract, surreal, strict. (Trilling 2001) delicate, simplified, repetitive, little remains of the vine.

moment of suspended animation of the effusion of content through form (Critchlow 1976: 8). Grabar (1992: 130-133) in The Mediation of Ornament suggests three functions of geometry: (1) framing (2) filling (3) linking motifs. The word ‘geometric’ is applied to three kinds of forms in Islamic ornament. (1) The first form is a geometric pattern in mosaic tiles and stuccoes, seen in the Alhambra in the 14th century. Despite changes in the composition and reconstruction and different social and contextual meanings, geometry denotes a ‘regular’ element which creates a ‘regular’ pattern. (2) The second is less rigid and more difficult to define than the first. In the Mshatta palace of the Umayyad, the majority of vegetal motifs are enclosed as a circular unit, which generates a regular outline and is classed as geometric. (3) The third is ‘loose’ geometry and includes all repetitive and rhythmic motifs in border patterns on mosaic floors and overall designs. Returning to the first form, stricter linear and geometric shapes have been displayed in a variety of combinations in all periods. Geometric patterns were universal in antiquity, but Islam elaborated them in complexity and sophistication, transforming decorative geometry into an art form. It demonstrates Islamic artists’ fascination with the visual principles of repetition, symmetry, and continuing generations of patterns, related to the study of mathematical calculations. All patterns were built up from a circle as a linear unit and a factor of the propositional system. The circle is developed into a square, a triangle or a polygon, and elaborated by multiplication and sub-divisions by rotation and by symmetrical arrangements, giving prominence to decorated surfaces.24

First and foremost, the description of the arabesque includes ‘geometrical’, but that of ‘abstract’ and ‘repetitive’ can be alternatives. ‘Infinite’, ‘continuous’, ‘rhythmic’, ‘stylized’ and ‘undulating’ are also favoured. 1.2.3.2. Geometry The Islamic art of geometric form, then, can be considered the crystallisation stage, both of the intelligence inherent in manifest form and as a

24 

6

Burckhardt 1976; Irwin 1997; Jones 1978 

Introduction and Background of the Research

Interlaced Kufic script (Image: the Author); Interlaced Naskhi script (Image: the Author) Figure 1.4. Foliated calligraphy, Alhambra Palace, Granada, Spain, 14C

The only novelty in Islamic ornament is calligraphy. It became a major vehicle for aesthetic energies and symbolic meanings because the word of God is recorded in the Holy Koran.28 Muslims understand that the use of a fine script (kalle, beautiful; graphe, writing) is both their religious duty and the most appropriate ornamentation for a mosque building.29 Forms and styles of calligraphy should be learned to underline epigraphy as a factor in Islamic ornamentation. Its advantage lies in the variety of styles, depending on the nature and context of texts in different periods.30 Sacred inscriptions take their position where any Muslim viewer can see them and learn them by heart, while an amalgam of lettering, texture, colour, and inscription embellishes the building.31

Islamic culture has proved itself in the application of geometric patterns for artistic effect. Anyone contemplating its abstract patterns can associate them with mystical thought25 because geometric patterns reveal an aspect of the multiplicity of the Creator.26 Circular roofs become a symbol of the cosmos; a square floor implies the earth itself. Both in harmony signify infinity. Critchlow (1989: 23) interprets the lower half of the symbolic circle as representing ‘the world of sense’; the upper half as ‘the world of being’. A circle corresponds to the Islamic view of creation. The circle as a metaphor for Divine Unity is stressed by Nasr (1987)27 that the Muslim love of geometry and number is directly connected to the doctrine of Unity (al-Tawhid). The sacred character of mathematics is evident in ornamentation, which presents the One and the many. For Grabar, geometry is an intermediary for displaying aesthetic beauty:

Two main styles of calligraphy developed: (1) the script known as Kufic from the name of the city Kufa in Iraq in the seventh century, and (2) the Naskhi, a word derived from signifying ‘to copy’ and its meaning is almost equivalent to ‘cursive’. The  Kufic  is a rectilinear and angular form for an aesthetic intention and scope. It was customary in the Holy Koran, due to the vertical strokes as its character and its more geometric configuration than the Naskhi. 

Geometry … forces one to look and to decide what to think, what to feel, and see how to act … The penalty of freedom in the arts is the loss of meaning … It is meant only to be beautiful (Grabar 1992: 154). 1.2.3.3. Calligraphy

Up to the 12th century, the Kufic was the script utilized in the ornamentation of mosaics and carved stones with its monumental character, easy transposition into various materials, and straight lines and empathic uprightness. The first use of epigraphic decoration was in the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem in AD 685-691.32

Recite in the name of thy lord who created Created man from a clot; Recite in the name of thy lord, Who taught by the pen, Taught man what he knew not (The Holy Koran, surah 96:1-5)

Jones 1978; Grabar 1987 Davies 1982 30  Burckhardt 1980 31  Hillenbrand 1994, 2001a 32  Papadopoulo 1980 28  29 

Irwin 1997 Ardalan and Bakhtiar 1973 27  Cited by Necipoğlu 1995 25  26 

7

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia The Naskhi was invented by Ibn Muqla and acquired its status as a major script at the hands of successive master calligraphers, such as Ibn al Bawwab and Yaqut al Musta’simi. The script was inherited from preIslamic and early Islamic scripts and appeared in a more systematized form at the end of the ninth century.33 Less monumental than the Kufic, it was mostly applied to inscriptions. To architecture, its curves and oblique slants brought a supple and living element.34

of Islam. The aim is to unravel the layers, to see how indigenous archetypes have been transformed by invading forms, and in turn to see how foreign imports have been adapted to the cultural soil … Beyond the particular, the regionalist tries to see the type, the general law, the originating principle (Curtis 1985: 74). Islamic culture and art have been influenced and remodelled by local traditions with countries with which they came into contact to comply with its religious and philosophical ideas. This interaction has enriched both the material culture of the Muslim world and those pre-existing ones.35 Today, Southeast Asia (the Malay)36 including Java, represents almost onequarter of Islam’s global community. Islamic civilization has been linked to the message of the Prophet since its arrival in Java in the early 15th century. Islam not only altered local cultural landscapes but also generated a unique heritage. One can ask why regionalism took place in this archipelago. Was it due to the awareness of continuing cultural heritage? The long geographical distance between the Arab world and Southeast Asia prevented the direct influence of the Islamic centre into this region at the beginning.37

Yeomans (1999:190) posits Islamic calligraphy to be ‘the geometry of line’. The proportion of the letters and the curved strokes go through mathematical calculations. And, the term ‘spiritual geometry’ describes both the structure of calligraphy and the essence and spirit of Islamic art. Mystical values are also manifest in calligraphy. A Sufi belief in awareness of God’s presence and purpose in His creation is exemplified in the iconic form of calligraphy. The very structure of calligraphy, composed of horizontal and vertical strokes woven into a fabric of profound richness, is potent with cosmological symbolism. The verticals … provide an ontological relationship as well as a structure for the design, while the horizontals … correspond to the creation that develops the balance and flow of the basic conception. It is through the harmonious weaving of the horizontal and the vertical that unity is achieved (Ardalan and Bakhtiar 1973: 45).

However, the expression of faith in art and architecture articulated the creed of Islam and produced the complexity of regional variations.38 Two factors can argue about creating regionalism. First, living in a spirit of tolerance, flexibility, and openness, the Malay people were able to accept changes through careful selection, reflection, and modification without discarding their rich cultural traditions. They witnessed HinduBuddhist, Chinese, Islamic and western cultures, which had an impact on the lifestyle.39 Second, the arrival of Islam to the archipelago coincided with an era of spiritualism in the Islamic world. Sufi mysticism had first appeared in Persia and spread rapidly through international trade routes following the Mongol seizure of Baghdad in 1258. As the Sufi precept of ‘universal toleration’ could negotiate with pre-Islamic culture,40 the new Malay identity was quickly expressed in Malay art, to affirm the ‘oneness of God’. Artists drew inspiration from a diverse heritage and transformed existing symbolism in line with Islam.41

1.2.3.4. Commonality among the Three Genres Similar expressions on the three genres appeared in various texts, such as geometric(al), linear, and mathematical, to show the interactive quality of Islamic ornament. (Arabesque) abstract, anti-natural, circular, continuous, curved, geometrical, infinite, linear, mathematical, mystical, regular, repetitive, rhythmic, symmetric. (Geometry) abstract, circular, continuous, geometric, linear, mathematical, mystical, regular, repetitive, rhythmic, symmetric. (Calligraphy) curved, geometric, mathematical, mystical, rectilinear. 1.2.4. Regionalism in Islamic Art and Architecture in Southeast Asia and Java, Indonesia

Rogers 2005 The term ‘‘Malay’ was first appeared in the Buddhist Sriwijaya, but has altered to historical situations. Although the Malay world is sometimes synonymous with Islam, the regional circumstance makes it difficult to sustain (Bennett 2005). In this research, the term ‘Malay’ corresponds to ‘Southeast Asia,’ to which Indonesia belongs. 37  Bennett, interview 2006 38  Bennett 2005 39  Yatim 2005 40  Bennett 2005: 22-27 41  Yatim 2005 35  36 

Regionalism looks for sustaining spiritual forces and refuses to accept that a tradition is a fixed set of devices and images … It … deals with climate, local materials and geography in epochs before the arrival 33  34 

Lee 2000 Papadopoulo 1980

8

Introduction and Background of the Research aesthetic style. In this region, Islamic art needed reconciliation of the ambivalent relationship between the two religions, caused by the ruler’s indigenous belief of the magic in art. The depiction of non-Islamic images such as the Hindu deity Ganesha or zoomorphic and anthropomorphic symbols with Koranic calligraphy requires understanding in light of the earlier animism. This method intended to represent non-Islamic images fitting into an aesthetic attitude tolerable to Islamic orthodoxy.

Besides, the close relationship between the rulers and Islam was spatially symbolized by placing Javanese palaces adjacent to the grand mosque and the town’s centre. The common heritage in many mosques reflects the close political relationship between Muslim rulers in different regions. Shared features are a tripartite division (base/body/superstructure), a centralized plan, multi-tiered roof, soko guru (four master columns), mutsaka (crown), an outer colonnade, serambi (veranda), a walled courtyard with two gateways, drum, and graveyard.42

In the syncretic process, armed Ganesha resembles Ali’s sword, leaving his Hindu iconography to suggest its transformative possibility. Another device was the metamorphosis of foliage into a figurative form. In a stone panel of Mantingan (1559), leaves and tendrils became a monkey shape. Makaras, disguised as foliate scrolls at Central Javanese temples, continued to adorn an Islamic ceremonial boat prow, signifying protection and richness.48 The preference of emblematic depiction brought a potentiality in ornamentation. Narrative realism was replaced by vegetal patterns - meandering clouds whose endless spiralling floral and foliate scrolls form a visual dynamism. The shift from figural representation to frame decoration achieved its finest expression in the illuminated manuscripts, batik, and sculptured wood.49

Until the late 19th century, mosques were constructed in a vernacular style with a Hindu-Buddhist multi-tiered roof, using wood to accommodate local conditions. The persistence of indigenous buildings had to take into account the local profusion of natural resources and variable climates, resulting in exuberant and diverse architectural styles. Elements associated with Islamic architecture - the dome and geometric ornament - do not feature in these traditions. Multi-tiered roofs are the most suitable form for tropical weather against heavy rain and humidity,43 and soko guru supports the uppermost roof, separating it from the double-layered outer roof, to admit light and to allow ventilation of the prayer hall.44 As pre-Islamic traditions underline the form and setting of sacred places, mystical Sufis borrowed them, based on their belief of mosques to be sacred, creating a combination of indigenous and Islamic ideas and forms in mosque architecture.45 A three-tiered roof symbolizes the mystical paths to God. Soko guru signifies the spiritual context of the vertical unity between God and his believers, continued from the Hindu belief in the identity of self and the universal soul.46

Calligraphy enjoys a status higher than arabesque or geometry in Islamic ornament. As the medium for transmitting the Koranic words, the Arabic script played a spiritually unifying role and placed in a unique position among Muslims,50 regardless of their ethnic or social backgrounds. In Southeast Asia, Arabic calligraphy often decorates the illuminated manuscripts, instead of exploring sophisticated calligraphic styles. The blessed Islamic phrases are to be read for their association with the grace of the Koran, and inscriptions are perceived as powerful image of blessing and protection. The image of talismanic textiles suggests the influences of Sufi metaphysics.

According to a Malay perspective, art functions as delight and purity. The difference between Islamic art and art in Malay is its religious values inherent in the artefacts. Despite the influence of pre-Islamic beliefs and art forms on the pattern of life in Southeast Asia, a bond between Islam and the local culture has been steadfast, because existing influences encouraged Malay people to accept the Islamic ideologies, to develop a distinctive regional art. The concept of their godlike ancestors and the primary aesthetics of cosmological belief in Malay penetrated Islamic cosmology into the form of syncretic culture.47

Among many types of motifs in Hindu-Buddhist fauna and floral and Islamic ornaments including the winged gate in early Javanese mosques, HinduBuddhist kala-makaras and floral seemed to continue the most, particularly the lotus flower. Islamic poets describe a flower as a book, where one can study the knowledge about God. And its combination with birds is a characteristic of Islamic Javanese decorative art, despite a ban by the hadith. The winged gate was neither traceable in Hindu-Buddhist nor Islamic culture, but, as a bird of the vehicle of Vishnu in Hindu myth, the

The avoidance of figurative representation separates Islamic art and architecture from the Hindu-Buddhist Fontein 1990 Noe’man and Fanani, interviews 2005 O’Neill 1994 45  Tjahjono 1998 46  Isnaeni 1996 47  Yatim 2005 42  43  44 

Bennett 2005 Yatim 2005 50  Rogers 2005 48  49 

9

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia motif could be the Javanese invention at the beginning of Islamization.51

Islam and its architectural form is inseparable from the social and economic contexts.

The Chinese settlements and their role in the creation of Islamic aesthetics in the archipelago are apparent in works of art. In Sumatra, where many Chinese settled and adopted Islam, the art of lacquer-making developed. In the timber-rich coastal Java, they influenced existing traditions of woodcarving and distinct batik styles.52

In 2004, Agung Semarang in Java was inaugurated. The architect Fanani55 explains that his design principle is a combination of locality and Islam, nationalism and internationalism, and strictness and smoothness, to symbolize the modern Javanese mosque. In architecture, pre-Islamic soko guru in the prayer hall extends through the roof, becoming minarets. In ornamentation, local floral motifs are designed according to the style of Islamic arabesque. Apparently, a return to the rich traditions of local culture with the pan-Islamic world becomes visible after 1945. However, the international solidarity of Islam and the unifying act of pilgrimage in the Arab world are in tension with the Javanese capacity to absorb and syncretize external elements. These factors can confuse attempts to distinguish and assess continuities and consistencies.56

Van Leur in Indonesian Trade and Society (1960) argues that Indonesian history must be understood in its terms and not in those borrowed from other cultures. In an interview held in 2004, Prijotomo, an Indonesian architect, underlined: ‘We are Javanese, and then, our religion is Islam’. Islamic art became an extension, rather than a radical change from earlier aesthetic traditions.53 The comments raise a question: what is the unique Javanese attitude on Islamic culture? The answer finds in Kusno’s article54, which argues that Java was the centre of the universe before the arrival of Islam, but on facing Islam, Java was aware of its limit. To keep a religious balance, the Javanese Muslims had to localize orthodox Islamic culture to the continuing traditional symbolism, not to feel the radical shift of the centre. As a result, constructing the syncretic mosque of Agung Demak (1479) represents the power of the new faith in Java from the viewpoint of Islam. Islam has localized and incorporated to become an element within the broader cultural framework of Java from the Javanese perspective. Java was not part of Islam, but Islam was part of Java or Javanese life.

As a whole, Islamic cultural heritage reflects unity in diversity in Southeast Asia. In appreciating its development, one should be mindful of the context of the multicultural societies, which created a rich practice through the integration of tradition, ethnicity, geographical space and belief. It was due to the inspiration of the Malay people, who generated regional Islamic culture and Malay identity in this archipelago.57 Regionalism in architecture is a concept of architectural design based on such determinants as the culture, the climate and the resources … The history of civilization shows … region and culturespecific architecture … in different parts of the world (Muktadir 1988: 81).

This philosophy has continued until five centuries later. A Javanese architect Mintobudoyo designed Soko Tunggal (1973) at Taman Sari in Central Java. The mosque has a single column, supporting four corner beams of the upper roof. The architect intended to construct a focus, a vertical centre that represents the ‘unity’ of the Javanese and the Islamic world. The vertical column pays tribute to global Islam; the horizontal spread of the four master pillars confirms the existence of the local power.

1.2.5. Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java Indonesia is located in Southeast Asia and is 1,900,000 sq km in area with an estimated population of 219,307,147 (www.world-gazetteer.com). Almost 90 % are Muslim, making Indonesia the largest Islamic nation in the world. Among its larger islands, Java contains 70 % of the whole population. With volcanoes, a tropical climate, rich rainfall, and fertile soils, Java has two cultures: Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic Java. Within the Hindu-Buddhist period (760-1500), Central (760-930) and East Java (930-1500) are distinguishable. In Islamic Java, a division of the three eras receives recognition: transitory (15C-1619), Dutch colonization (1619-1945), and contemporary (1945-the present).

Surprisingly, the mosque orients itself to the east, away from qibla, and any deviation from this direction for a mosque would violate the Javanese rule. Indicated by a group of architectural historians in Indonesia, the architect clarified that it is Java which is at the centre of the whole negotiation, and his idea was acceptable. This story shows how the transformation of Javanese

Marwoto 2003 Bennett 2005 53  ibid 54  Kusno 2003: 57-67; Saliya, Hariadi and Tjahjono 1990 51 

Fanani, interview 2004 O’Neill 1993 57  Bennett 2005

52 

55  56 

10

Introduction and Background of the Research sculptural ornaments should conform with the law, according to ancient texts, named silpasastra.61

(1) Hindu-Buddhist Java Leaving debates  on Hinduization in Indonesia, Krom (1931) argues that Indian culture was imposed by Indians on indigenous Indonesians, shown in HinduJavanese temples characterized by ‘an art originating in India, but executed by Hindu-Javanese’. To this, Bosch (1946) posits that the native inhabitants built these temples, describing Hindu-Javanese culture as the creative product of Indonesian society, guided by the Indian spirit. Kempers (1937) combines both: the two cultures are ‘one indivisible whole’, favouring the term ‘a stream of culture’ as a dynamic concept.58

Temple walls, carved with human beings, animals, and mythological characters as well as floral motifs, have a specific place in the scheme of temple architecture. The floral depiction on temples functions both as possessing religious connotation and creating aesthetic beauty.62 Among naturalistic and geometric designs in the temple ornamentation, four motifs - tumpals, kala-makaras, lotus buds, and scrolls - were most frequent, due to their symbolic connotation. Triangular tumpal was originated in the prehistoric period and continued in Hindu-Buddhist temples. Wagner (1959) affirms that the tumpal was symbolic, because of its magic character, or because it conveyed an idea of fertility. Tjandrasasmita (interview 2005) views it as representing the Cosmos Mountain.

In the temple ornamentation, the continuity of the two cultures between Central and East Java is visible. Krom (1923) maintains a unity of two cultures and a continuous aesthetic principle in the temples of both regions. He named Central Javanese art ‘Hindu-Javanese’ and treated East Javanese one as a ‘degeneration’ of Central Javanese style. Holt (1967) and Fontein (1971) claim that ornamentation of Central Java is a direct influence of Indian elements. That of East Java was created by local indigenous people. The naturalness of trees and foliage became stylized in East Java, marking an innovative process. In the temples of Central Java, rich artistic imagination and luxurious ornamentation were present in variations on lotus scrolls.

A kala head has a human face or a demon’s head, and a makara is a combination of a fish and the trunk of an elephant. A combined kala-makara represents the celestial mountain and is believed to expel demonic influences from temples. It also denotes a duality of the cosmos. The most dominant motif can be the primaeval lotus, which signifies creation and sanctity in Hinduism, as it grows from the waters of eternity and brings forth the Brahma (the god of creation). The decoration of naturalistic lotuses on temple walls displays the ideal beauty.63 Lotus flowers underwent a series of transformations with different symbolic meanings, starting with a bud.64 Scrolls in Javanese temples are called ‘recalcitrant’ spirals,65 which are the rootstock of the undulating lotus producing nodes (Sanskrit, parvan) at regular intervals; from each of these, a leaf-stalk emerges in the shape of a coiled spiral. At the bottom of scrolls, ‘the Golden Germ’, the start of life, appears and discerns Hindu-Buddhist scrolls from Islamic arabesques.

Central Java was influenced by Indian civilization through the peaceful adoption of religion, kingship, culture, and art. By the eighth century, the Sanjaya and Sailendra kingdoms erected a grand scale of Hindu Prambanan and Buddhist Borobodur temples respectively. Around 930, political power shifted to East Java where the two great Hindu kingdoms of Singasari and Majapahit arose. The Majapahit was the most illustrious era in the whole of Southeast Asia, founding the temple complex of Panataran. Spiritually, the Javanese have much in common with mystic animism. Into this, new Indian Sivaite Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism penetrated, and there occurred a fusion of beliefs and cultural elements. The term ‘Hinduization’ implies the absorption of both Hinduism and Buddhism.59 As an example, a  candi, a temple, is a place where gods show their actual presence, to represent a replica of the Cosmos Mountain, Meru - the mythical abodes of the gods. In this regard, representing a god, a king receives respect after his death, and the temple of his burial place is much adorned.60 As Hindu temples reflect the Cosmos Mountain, they symbolize the universe, and their

(2) Islamic Java Although Islam is the official creed and a means of unity in its present-day culture, ancestral and mythical beliefs provided a universal background to Islam in Java.66 Two types of religious manifestation exist. Agami Jawi (Javanese Religion) represents an extensive complex of mystically inclined Hindu-Buddhist beliefs and concepts, integrated within an Islamic frame of reference. Agami Islam Santri (Islam of the Religious The silpasastra discusses temple architecture and sculpture, but not temple ornamentation in depth. It is a canon of Hindu religious architecture (Sedyawati, interview 2005). 62  Gupta 1996 63  Sedyawati 1990 64  Bosch 1960 65  van der Hoop 1949: 272 66  Wertheim 1956 61 

Cited by Sudradjat 1991: 27-34 Wagner 1959: 104-106; Holt 1967: 35 60  Fontein 1971; Suleiman 1976 58  59 

11

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia People) is closer to the formal dogma of Islam.67 With the foundation of Muhammadijah organisation in 1912, which stresses pure orthodox Islam, Agami Islam Santri spread across the country, founding ummat, an Islamic congregation.68

Investigated by Marwoto (2003), mosques and graves on the north Javanese coast (pasisir) in the 15th century reveal pre-Islamic motifs: natural motifs such as the sun, fauna, floral, construction element, cross, pool, wayang and frame. Motifs appeared with Islam are heart-shaped leaf, geometric interlace, calligraphy, and the winged gate.

Among many debates about the spread of Islam in Indonesia, two principal routes are recognized. Indigenous Indonesians converted themselves after coming into contact with Muslims. Alternatively Muslim traders of Arabic, Persian, Indian and Chinese origins settled in Indonesia, practising their religion. Islam is likely to have been introduced through trade routes and arrived in Java in 1450.69

According to the researcher’s fieldwork in temples and mosques, tumpals, kala-makaras, lotus flowers or buds, and scrolls often appeared, due to their sacred character. The connotative lotus was much available in both Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods. Flowers with different numbers of petals in combination with birds are present on graves. Their coexistence accounts for the characteristic of Islamic decorative art in Java. Kalamakaras were stylized, to comply with the ban on living figures by the hadith. Tumpals continued, while scrolls had to cooperate with incoming Islamic arabesque.

The idea that the origin of Islam was in Gujarat in northwest India is favoured. Wertheim (1956: 193-196) stresses a ‘secularized’ Islam, which was adapted to trading cities in Southeast Asia. While Islam was spread by Muslim traders who married local women, in the heartland of Java, mystical Sufi teachers (walis, saints) had a significant role in Islamization. The animistic ancestor cult was both tolerated and incorporated into Islamic ritual. A ban on representing living beings in the hadith (the Prophet’s sayings) was not strictly observed. Instead, stylized and modified wayang (shadow puppet) of Hindu-Buddhist tradition was a vehicle of spreading Islam.70 Muslim missionaries described Islam as a mystical doctrine to penetrate into non-Muslims by a fusion of animism and Hindu-Buddhism, creating syncretic Islamic religion.71

The four motifs were frequent in the transitory period and gradually replaced by orthodox Islamic ornaments in the next periods. However, they continued in renovated and new mosques, probably initiated by the Javanese concern for cultural continuity. An extensive use of the four motifs in religious and secular buildings and objects represent regional motifs along with orthodox Islamic ornaments. The tradition says that Islamic ornaments were brought to Java by traders and ulamas (religious leaders) at the beginning of Islamization. As Java had already megalithic geometry and Hindu-Buddhist scrolls, incoming Islamic geometry and arabesque were assimilated into the existing motifs. It was Arabic calligraphy that was highly respected and survived. It was a new motif for the Javanese and a means of recording the Holy Koran. Calligraphy was popular during the Dutch colonization; abstract geometry and arabesque are extensive in contemporary mosques in the response of the current stream of simplicity in architecture.74

Javanese mosques inherited a number of architectural and symbolic components from Hindu-Buddhist temples, such as the tripartite division, a centralized plan, multi-tiered roof, etc.72 Krom was the first scholar to discuss syncretism in Java. Instancing the minaret (tower) of Kudus, its form was adapted from an old form, caused by the non-hostile attitude of Javanese Islam to established architectural tradition. His theory gained broad acceptance and has remained unchallenged until recently. Tjandrasasmita elaborates that Islam not only adopted local traditions into mosques but also contributed to the preservation of indigenous culture. The Sendang Duwur mosque (1561) is an example of a fusion of Hindu-Javanese and Islamic cultural elements, reflecting a close relationship between Hindu Majapahit and the coastal Islamic cities. Ornaments contributed to integrating Islam into Javanese culture and encouraged artists to adjust to new realities.73

The origin of the Javanese mosque went through much debate. Two ideas developed. The first was ‘cultural continuity’ which the pre-Islamic architectural tradition was the source of a mosque building. The other was ‘cultural influence’ on the mosques from Islamic India and China. A mihrab, a prayer niche, requires extraordinary respect, as it indicates the direction of prayer toward Mecca75 with lavish ornamentation in the Near East and Arab world.76 By contrast, traditional Javanese mihrabs tend to be simple in decoration with pre-Islamic motifs of symbolic tumpals, kala-makaras, lotus buds, and scrolls, creating a sacred atmosphere.

Koentjaraningrat 1990 Geertz 1964 69  Schrieke 1957; Wagner 1959; Geertz 1964; Koentjaraningrat 1990; Ricklefs 1993 70  Soemantri 1998 71  Pigeaud 1976; Koentjaraningrat 1990 72  Fontein 1990; Tjahjono 1998 73  Cited by Sudradjat 1991 67  68 

Fanani, interview 2006 Frishman 1994 76  Irwin 1997 74  75 

12

Introduction and Background of the Research the significance of Islam’s presence in the region. Exemplifying the marginalized Islamic art in Raffles’ The History of Java (1817), none of the illustrations is found in this book. European scholars working from the cultural viewpoint often have trouble in comprehending the delicate dialogue between art and spirituality in this Islamic world. The chronological relationship of Islam to Hindu-Buddhist traditions has reinforced the dichotomy between religion (agama) and indigenous traditions (adat).

A beautiful mihrab is a strategy for encouraging nonMuslims to embrace Islam in Java.77 The hadith neither forbad moderate ornamentation in mosques nor permitted it. Instead, it warned that the luxury would decrease Muslim faith in God, for fear of disturbing the prayers’ concentration.78 Islamic Java can be divided into three phases: (1) Continuation of pre-Islamic influence in the transitory period (15C-1619), (2) European and Islamic influences during the Dutch colonization of Java (1619-1945), and (3) a pure Islamic movement in the contemporary period (1945-the present).79 The first Islamic kingdom of Demak was founded on the northern central coast in the 15th century, conquering the Hindu Majapahit.80 Since then, Islam has became an indissoluble part of Javanese life yet retaining traditional socio-cultural structures.81 During the last decades of the 16th century, the Dutch were influential in the courts of Central Javanese kingdoms, and traders settled down in different regions, forming communities with the traditional Hindu-Buddhist style of mosques to be their life focus. From the end of the 19th century, new directions in theological education and social reform had introduced alternative architectural styles into Java. And the expansion of population brought renovations and constructions of mosques in the next decade, and designs from the Middle East, India, and North Africa took over local traditions. Although forms and symbols of pan-Islamic architecture made up a part of the cultural heritage, the details on many mosques still reflect their predecessors in the material or structural method, to continue the local culture.82

Hurgronje and Windstedt underlined Islam in Southeast Asian societies as somehow less authentic than that of the Middle East. For Geertz, Islam is more a social category than a belief system. Discussion on Islamic art would be constrained by the idea that Islam was another stream of influence in this region. It can be misleading that Islam followed the indigenous animistic societies and Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms chronologically as a part of a cultural dynamic; thus, Islamic art never achieved an identity regarding its unique aesthetic perimeters. Among several pieces of research so far, very few have discussed ornamentation in Javanese mosques. Krom (1923, 1931), Bosch (1921, 1946, 1961), Vogler (1949), Stutterheim (1956), Kempers (1959), Geertz (1964), Holt (1967), Fontein and Soekmono (1971), de Graaf and Th. Pigeaud (1976), Dumarçay (1986), and Prijotomo (1988) dealt with different subjects about Indonesia. Sedyawati and Santiko published many articles in the 1990s. However, almost all literary sources concentrate on Indonesian archaeology, architecture, anthropology, history, culture, and art. If any topic of ornamentation was mentioned in their bibliography, it was a brief description. Practical analysis of pre-Islamic and Islamic motifs in art and design was hardly acquirable.

In the transitory period, a significant continuity of pre-Islamic tradition was shown, while foreign influences, such as European and Islamic, occurred during the Dutch colonization. In the contemporary era, pan-Islamic motifs began to replace existing ones, but a tendency to continue the local cultural heritage maintains a distinct regional style. Javanese mosques display an amalgamation of pre-Islamic and Islamic components, incorporating Chinese and European influences.

Regarding art, Subarna (1982-1983, interview 2004) discusses continuity of prehistoric ornaments into Javanese art, stressing that the same type of kala was already found in Indonesia before Hinduization in the fifth century. Of archaeology, Tjandrasasmita (1984, interview 2004) explains the earliest example of syncretic architecture and ornaments at Sendang Duwur. Anbary (1998) also explores the background of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic archaeology. Of architecture, Sudradjat (1991) illustrates the history of Indonesian architecture, while Isnaeni (1996) focuses on the comparison between Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic architectural elements in terms of shared mystical concepts. Of ornament, two dissertations (Habib 2001; Marwoto 2003) have been available in light of archaeology. Habib writes on epigraphic research, and it is Marwoto, who mentions ornaments on the northern coast of Java. Marwoto borrows an expression from Sedyawati (1987: 4-6):

1.3. Gaps in knowledge The study of Islamic art and architecture in Southeast Asia seems to be much marginalized. Bennett (2005) argues in Crescent Moon-Islamic Art and Civilization in Southeast Asia that, until the late 20th century, scholarly discourse on Southeast Asian art neglected Prijotomo, interview 2004 Omer 2004  Tjandrasasmita, interview 2005 80  Raffles 1817; 1982 81  Tjandrasasmita, cited by Sudradjat 1991 82  O’Neill 1994 77  78  79 

13

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia cultural expression in its rightful place of the wider Islamic Arab world. 

In Indonesia, the study of art history is still at an early stage. An effort to make a division in Javanese ancient art was made by Krom (1926). He showed the development from Central Java to East Java … Bernet-Kempers (1959), in his study about Indonesian ancient art, created a kind of order, beginning with divisions into prehistoric, Hindu and early Islamic eras. Vogler (1949) carried further, examining Hindu-Javanese constructional art through the form of kala-makara. He made a distinction … in Central Java, and East Javanese art.

The purpose of this study is to examine the degree of continuity and influence of pre-Islamic ornament on Javanese mosque ornamentation through four motifs (tumpal,  kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll) from the 15th century to the present in Java, Indonesia.  It also aims at investigating the chronological development of the four motifs within sub-sections of the Islamic period (Transitory/Dutch colonization/ Contemporary). In particular, the motifs on mihrabs, the most adorned place in a mosque building, are compared with those in other locations, to see a commonality in their ornamentation.  This study seeks to identify the origins of Islamic scrolls in Javanese mosques, in terms of idea and form. Were they derived from HinduBuddhist scrolls? Or were they taken from orthodox Islamic arabesques? Or were they a combination of both?

No comprehensive, serious study of Javanese mosque ornamentation took place neither of the whole Java, nor across a given period, nor of specific ornaments, such as tumpals, kala-makaras, lotus buds, and scrolls, by using elements and principles of design as indicators. Identifying the origins of scrolls in Javanese mosques either as Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic or both was not done. These examples indicate significant gaps in knowledge about the continuity and influence of preIslamic ornaments on Javanese mosque ornamentation.

1.4.3. Research Questions

1.4. Research question and sub-questions

(Main question): What has been the degree of continuity of pre-Islamic ornaments in Javanese mosque ornamentation from the 15th century to the present day?

1.4.1. Principles of Research This research starts from Java, where every earlier tradition had inclined to be adapted into new incoming systems, resulting in various syncretic forms. One of these forms appeared in the mosque ornamentation. Javanese mosques are likely to have taken over preIslamic traditions, proved in Sendang Duwur (1561). Ornaments in mosques need an inspection to determine whether or not their ideas and forms inherited Javanese Hindu-Buddhist tradition. Obtaining a broad view of the mystical ideas in animism, Hindu-Buddhism, and Islam can find their similarities and examine how these concepts have been formulated in the temple and mosque ornamentation. This is possible by investigating syncretic ornaments across pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. Moreover, the development of these ornaments within the Islamic period needs to be observed, in parallel with verifying their integration into orthodox Islamic arabesque, geometry, and calligraphy.

Prehistoric

Kalasan temple

Agung Yogya mosque

(Sub-question 2): The hadith, the sayings of the Prophet, prohibits living figures from being depicted in art. Why therefore has the kala-makara, a favourite animal motif in Hindu-Buddhist temples, been adapted into Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how has it been used in Javanese mosques over time?

1.4.2. Purpose of the Study  Understanding of Javanese mosque ornamentation will not be possible without detailed studies of representative motifs, chosen from different periods and geographical areas in Java. In recording details of ornaments by using various disciplines - anthropology, archaeology, history, architecture, art, and design – a unique and profoundly developed ornamental tradition is achievable. And this research could place Javanese Islam with its wealthy conglomerate of religious and

Borobodur temple

14

Central Javanese temple

Agung Kasepuhan mosque

Introduction and Background of the Research Table 1.1. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

(Sub-question 3): How frequent was the use of HinduBuddhist lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how important has the lotus bud been in mosques within the Islamic period? East Javanese temple

exposes a local flavour which is different from the Arab world. It prepares for a later discussion of how orthodox Islamic traditions cooperated with pre-Islamic ones in Javanese mosques. Chapter 2 starts with an explanation of the three different Islamic periods in Java and observes whether history affected mosque architecture and ornamentation. And the main discussion concerns the methodology of tackling the research question. A research design, choice of methods for data gathering, observation, indicators, and other practical information can provide a broad view of the core methodology applied in this study. The limitation of the research is also defined.

Agung Kasepuhan mosque

(Sub-question 4): What if any was the influence of Hindu-Buddhist scrolls on Javanese mosque scroll designs? Kalasan temple

An overview of the sources of references on HinduBuddhist and Islamic Java presents Chapter 3, along with the dissimilarity between Central and East Javanese temples. The crucial element of this research into the degree of continuity of pre-Islamic motifs in Javanese mosque ornamentation is an examination of four syncretic pre-Islamic motifs (tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll) which persisted into the Islamic period. These four sacred motifs will explain the religious phenomena prevailed in Java and their roles in shaping ornamentation of temples and mosques. Instead of a new Islamic form imported from the Near East and Arab world, Javanese mosques continued nonIslamic traditions by adapting the existing ornaments into their mosques.  

Agung Yogya mosque

1.5. Structure of the thesis This thesis consists of nine chapters. Chapter 1 explains the background and objectives of this research, outlines the research activities and gaps in knowledge. To verify Islamic ornament in Java, Indonesia, general background theories on orthodox Islamic ornament of arabesque, calligraphy, and geometry are discussed with an emphasis on the commonality among them. A thorough examination of arabesque is done through literary sources. Were scrolls in Javanese mosques influenced by both Hindu-Buddhist scrolls and Islamic arabesques? Afterwards, regionalism in Islamic art and architecture in Southeast Asia, particularly in Java,

While Chapter 3 deals with Hindu-Buddhist and Islam ornaments, Chapter 4 focuses on interviews with 20 Indonesian scholars, tracing their opinions on the origins of motifs displayed in Javanese mosques. Are they Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic or both, in idea and form?  Chapters (5-8) take on the research questions and critical investigation of the degree of continuity of the four pre-Islamic motifs into Javanese mosque ornamentation. In Chapter 5, collected data about tumpals is analyzed by the line and summarized, to 15

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia arrive at the research findings. Chapters 6, 7, and 8 will repeat the same type of investigation into kalamakaras, lotus buds, and scrolls, in terms of shape, form, and rhythm respectively. In all four chapters, each sub-question is evaluated, and its detailed analysis presented. The outcome of investigating each motif determines the answer to the research question. In parallel with the examination of continuity between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, the four motifs within the Islamic period might show developments within it, because mosques built in a certain period may have different ornaments from those in another period. The observation of the use of the four motifs for mihrab ornamentation will enrich the result of the research.

of the research, namely the degree of continuity of preIslamic motifs into Javanese mosques. The evaluation of pre-Islamic tumpals, kala-makaras, lotus buds and scrolls in Javanese mosque ornamentation can reply to the research question and state conclusions that have not previously been published. Java has been a melting pot of syncretism between mystic animism, Hindu-Buddhism, and Islam throughout history. Javanese people are tolerant of any incoming culture from outside but strive to preserve their cultural heritage. The beautiful amalgamation of all the factors is indebted to the local genius. The conclusion also makes several suggestions for further research.

Finally, Chapter 9 reviews the result of each chapter, drawing them together, to respond to the main question

16

Chapter 2.

Methodology not possess skills in making Islamic ornaments, they focused on explaining the principles of the religion to local people. Poor execution of calligraphy on the earlier gravestones exemplifies the limited skills that transferred. This tradition spread, and the local genius created new motifs after modifying the existing ones with Islamic context. The first syncretic ornaments were named ‘local Islamic or Malay Islamic ornaments’, differing from the orthodox Islamic ones. Arabesque and geometry were somehow absorbed into HinduBuddhist scrolls and megalithic geometry. Arabic calligraphy kept its position and combined with the Malay language, inventing a local script, ‘Jawi’.

2.1. Introduction If there was methodology on saving species from Darwin’s evolution (1859) or rescuing the hero from Goethe’s (1749-1832) book, how could the world have changed? Of Goethe’s, neither might Napoleon have read the book seven times during his war campaigns nor passionate young Europeans have felt the need to farewell this world, due to their uncontrollable inner turmoil, influenced by ‘Sturm und Drang’ movement in the 19th century. Section 2.2 introduces a characteristic and the development of the three Islamic periods in Java, to set up the research methods. The next section calls attention to the research question with its four subquestions again. A detailed and operational framework of data collection with triangulation as its method shows the procedure of literary review, empirical works, pilot study, observation and measurement, and interviews. A purposive sample is clarified, including a choice of four motifs. Experiments, attempts, and the appropriate method of solving the research question are also noted. Focuses are given to four indicators for comparing pre-Islamic and Islamic motifs. Different variables to approach the research question, an overall view of analyzing the four motifs, the limitations of the study and a summary follow.

Around the 18th century during the Dutch colonization, Javanese Muslims were more able to make the journey to Mecca as pilgrims. They learned about orthodox Islamic ornament, finding them more beautiful than what they had at home. Eventually, they brought them home and adapted to local ornamentation and cultural context, to occur the second syncretism. Following Indonesian independence in 1945, any Muslim could travel everywhere and learn pan-Islamic ornament, repeating the same process. It was the third syncretism. Fanani (interview 2006) posits that each period had its Malay Islamic ornament. Marwoto (interview 2006) agrees with Fanani in part, but underlines the Dutch contribution in disseminating Islamic ornament in Indonesia: ‘We have only temples. We do not know how to make mosques. The orthodox Islamic dome arrived here through the Dutch who knew how to build them. They taught us since we had no direct contact with the Arab world’. Fanani accepts the Dutch contribution, arguing that Muslims’ visits to Mecca had more influence on Javanese mosques. Tjandrasasmita (1984: 57, interview 2006) gives another reason:

2.2. Context – the three Islamic periods in Java The Islamic period in Java can be divided into three distinct periods1: (1) continuation of pre-Islamic influence in the transitory period (15C-1619), (2) European and Islamic influences during the Dutch colonization of Java (1619-1945), and (3) a pure Islamic movement in the contemporary period (1945the present), caused by the political and religious movements, although other invasions such as Chinese, Portuguese, British, and Japanese brought lesser changes to the island.2 Islamic art and architecture were brought by not cultural people but traders and ulamas (religious teachers) around the 12th century.3 As foreign missionaries did

If Muslim missionaries brought their Islamic architecture and ornament and wished to introduce them here, they could not be acceptable, at first. We had already our architecture, such as a stepped roof, and ornaments, based on geographical and ecological experiences which were continuing.

For Fanani, three divisions can be: stage 1 (1000-1650), stage 2 (1650-1900), stage 3 (1900-2000), based on the Islamic movement in Java, but this research standardizes the terms ‘transitory’, ‘Dutch colonization’, and ‘contemporary’. 2  Tjandrasasmita, interview 2005 3  Tjandrasasmita, Anbary, Sedyawati, interview 2005

Whatever the case was, the assimilation of Islamic ornaments into the local culture could take place through the flexibility and tolerance of both Islam and the Javanese people. Different views imply the lack of research on Islamic culture in Indonesia.

1 

17

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia A comparison of architectural forms in the coastal and inland mosques reveals that, in the inland regions, mosques had a square prayer hall and a water channel bordering the serambi. In the coastal area, half of the mosques had a square hall and a stylized HinduBuddhist kala-makara on the mihrab. However, the mosque complex remodels the style of Hindu-Buddhist temples in East Java, which are surrounded by walls and located in the middle of the site with a prayer hall, soko guru, and tiered roof. The shift of political power from coastal to inland kingdoms brought a movement of Islam and its culture from trading to an agrarian basis. The basic elements of the mosque still remained.8

2.2.1. The Transitory Period (15C-1619)4 The transitory period starts from the foundation of the earliest Islamic kingdom of Demak around 1479, after the conquest of the Hindu Majapahit kingdom. It ends with the Dutch colonization of Java in 1619. During this time, remnants of Hindu-Buddhist influence were visible in Javanese mosques. Three kingdoms arose in sequence: Demak on the coast, Pajang and Mataram in the inland of Central Java. According to Javanese chronicles and oral traditions, the aim for struggling Islam from the coastal Demak to the inland Mataram was to gain legitimacy over Majapahit. At this time, mosques served both as places for prayer and for showing Islamic power over HinduBuddhism. After the foundation of Demak, Muslims strove to declare Islamic power, and Islam reached its supremacy during the rule of Sultan Agung (r. 16131645) of Mataram. Although Mataram and its spiritual sovereignty existed until Indonesian independence in 1945, the death of Sultan Agung in 1646 marked the starting point of a decline in the political power of Javanese rulers. During the Islamization, a few Islamic centres were founded along with the coast (pasisir) in Central and West Java, such as Kudus, Jepara, Cirebon, Banten, Gresik, and Surabaya, keeping close contact with Demak and sharing the pre-Islamic syncretic culture.5

2.2.2. The Dutch Colonization Era (1619-1945) During the last decades of the 16th century, English and Dutch ships began to explore Southeast Asia. To strengthen international trade, a European administration was set in place and regulated production to meet the demands of their home markets. Although the official start of the Dutch colonization of Java was on 30 May in 1619 when Jayakarta fell by J.P. Coen, the Dutch had already influenced the courts of Central Java. Traders, such as Acehnese, Javanese, Arabs, and Indians, from any part of the Muslim world, settled down harbours in Sumatra, Banten, Batavia and Surabaya in Java, forming communities with mosques as their life focus. Smaller in scale, the Hindu-Buddhist style was echoed in mosques. Agung Palembang (Sumatra), Kebun Jeruk, Angke, and Jami (Java) have a similar profile in a traditional pyramidal roof and soko guru. A wide range of ornaments of Middle Eastern and Indian, sometimes of European and Chinese or even regional inspiration, was applied to the doors, windows and details of masonry walls.

Tradition says that the oldest mosques were reused buildings within palaces or small payer-halls in villages. They modelled on existing building types used for a similar sacral purpose. The four master columns (soko guru) support the uppermost roof, separating it from the double-layered outer roof, to admit light and to allow ventilation of the prayer hall. The earliest large mosques are venerated as the oldest of their kind in Southeast Asia, and the first mosque is said to be Agung Demak (1479). Despite its renovation and reconstruction in the 19th and 20th centuries, the present form of this mosque still resembles the original one, becoming a standard for the mosque building later.6

The collapse of the Dutch East Indian Company at the end of the 18th century and a short British administration for seven years from 1811 provided an opportunity for the Dutch government to control Java from 1818. The first Mogul dome of Baiturrachman (1881) was built by the Dutch in Aceh, combined with the local serambi, which was further introduced in Javanese mosques. Towards the end of the 19th century, European liberal movements against injustices in the colonies neglected by the ruling government brought interest in their indigenous culture and religious life. As a result, existing Javanese mosques were held renovations by the support of the Dutch in the early 20th century, and new large mosques in Bandung and Semarang were sited on the public squares. A departure

The only mosque tower is located in a pilgrimage town of Kudus (Arabic: al- Quds), whose mosque has the tomb of the saint Sunan Kudus. The structure of the tower reflects that of Hindu Majapahit and recalls the kulkul towers of Balinese villages. It contains a cylindrical drum for calling prayer as a universal tradition both pre-Islamic and Islamic periods.7 The first Islamic Demak kingdom was founded around 1479, but as mosques might have already existed, the transitory period starts from the 15th century. 5  Isnaeni 1996 6  O’Neill 1994 7  Ambary 1998 4 

8 

18

Isnaeni 1996

Methodology

The coastal area of Agung Demak (Image: the Author); Serambi (veranda) & bedug (drum) (Image: the Author)

Maksura (place for king to pray) (Image: the Author); Makam (grave) (Image: the Author)

The inland area of Agung Mataram (Image: the Author); Paduraksa (double gate) (Image: the Author)

Mihrab (Image: the Author); Mustaka (Hindu crown) (Image: the Author) Figure 2.1. Agung Demak (1479), Agung Mataram (1568-1601) in the transitory

19

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Façade of Hidayatullah, West Java (Image: the Author); Ceiling (Image: the Author)

Al Wustho Mangkunegara, Central Java (Image: the Author); Prayer hall (Image: the Author) Figure 2.2. Hidayatullah (1750), Al Wustho Mangkunegara (1878-1918) during the Dutch colonization

from local tradition was apparent in the addition of a freestanding tower.9

Soeharto of Indonesia during the early 1980s. Sukarno wanted to build the National Mosque of Masjid Istiqlal, which would accommodate 20,000 at prayer inside and 100,000 in its courtyards. Javanese traditions were disregarded by his obsession with the mosque to rival all others in the Islamic world. Instead, the centralized domed space of the 14th-century Ottoman architecture became a model.10

2.2.3. The Contemporary Period (1945-the Present) From the end of the 19th century, new directions in theological education and social reform throughout the Islamic Arab world introduced alternative architectural styles from Cairo and Arabia. They were somehow accepted in Java but resisted by other nationalistic sections of the ummat. After independence in 1945, this trend was reversed in a movement towards solidarity among Muslim nations. A combination of Javanese and international styles in variety was a compromise in the context of modern technology and characteristic design.

During the period of Soeharto, a traditional but strictly functional design prevailed in more than 400 mosque buildings throughout the country. The governmentsponsored foundation Yayasan Amal Bakti Muslim Pancasila offered a standard design for a mosque building in less advantaged areas: a basic plan with a three-tiered roof, available in three sizes (15, 17 or 19 m2). Although its model was old Agung Demak, the absence of the soko guru in the new mosque design

An extensive ‘Islamic’ building program was initiated by President Sukarno and continued by President 9 

O’Neill 1994

10 

20

O’Neill 1993

Methodology

Al Azhar, West Java (Image: the Author); Prayer hall (Image: the Author)

Mihrab (Image: the Author); Madrasah (school) (Image: the Author)

Al Akbar Surabaya, East Java (Image: the Author); Ceiling (Image: the Author)

Prayer hall (Image: the Author); Mihrab (Image: the Author) Figure 2.3. Al Azhar (1953-1958), Al Akbar Surabaya (1995-2000) in the contemporary period

21

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Table 2.1. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

denies the metaphorical role of linking the believers to Allah.11

to work through their great tradition of mosquebuilding and make their architecture resonate with the grace and power of its expressive forms (O’Neill 1993: 154, 1994: 259-260).

A dome-like structure would appear to be discouraged by this official foundation. Perhaps this is a way to resist change and to retain cultural identity amidst the challenge of other images for a mosque such as that of a dome or a flat roof (Saliya 1990: 192-193).

In the transitory period, a significant continuity of pre-Islamic tradition was shown, while European and Islamic influences on Javanese mosques took place during the Dutch colonization. Toward the contemporary era, pan-Islamic motifs replaced those existing elements. However, a tendency to continue the traditional cultural heritage generates a regional style in architecture and ornamentation.

Javanese Muslims often associate their mosques with columns as a crucial design element. Soko Tunggal (1973) at Taman Sari in Yogyakarta took over the centralizing plan from its predecessor Agung Yogyakarta (1773), built by sultan Hamengkubuwono I of the Mataram kingdom. In the prayer hall, a single column reminds the mythological axis of the cosmos, by supporting the roof. The central column and its curving brackets are adorned to represent the stem and branches of the ‘celestial tree’ or the lotus. The central column indicates the unity of God and signifies the Sufi principle of the union between Muslims and God.12

2.3. Research questions Research is ‘a systematic investigation towards increasing the sum of human knowledge’ (Oxford English Dictionary). A specific research question should require its formulation to answer the aims of the research project. To validate the research, the strategy of its methodology of data collection plays a crucial role. Establishing the variables and possible relationships between them is the initial step of the research design.14 In this research, the overall question calls for an investigation of the continuity of pre-Islamic motifs in Javanese mosque ornamentation, elaborated through several sub-questions. It starts with a broad question that can be broken down into four sub-questions with their several constituents.

The expansion of population has brought the need for larger mosque complexes in recent years, and designs from the Middle East, India, and North Africa have replaced local traditions. The absence of the mihrab at Pondok Indah (1998) in Jakarta is a case. The less popular flat-roof was adopted at Salman (1974) in Bandung following Western functionalism. But, some young designers are searching for a more authentic architecture responsive to the local environment.13 Details on several mosques still reflect their predecessors in the material or structural method, to continue their cultural heritage. In this cosmopolitan atmosphere, uncertainties arise for local architects or ulamas who are attempting to find the appropriate Islamic forms.

(Sub-question 1): How has the tumpal, the popular prehistoric motif in Indonesia, become part of Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how has it been developed and used within the Islamic period?

… in recent years planners of complexes to accommodate the faithful at prayer in this eastern extremity of Muslim Asia have begun to examine their rich heritage. Inevitably they will continue O’Neill 1994 O’Neill 1993 13  Saliya 1990 11  12 

14 

22

De Vaus 2001

Methodology

Prehistoric

Kalasan temple

2.4. Data collection by triangulation

Agung Yogya mosque

Quantitative and qualitative researches take different approaches.15 Qualitative research collects and analyzes non-numerical data; quantitative research emphasizes quantification in collecting data and in its analysis. Moreover, ‘maximum variation’ can obtain a broad range of differences and patterns between the samples. ‘Snowball’ sampling, in which the first group of literature and scholars nominate subsequent sources of information and further individuals, is a tool for investigating literature in public libraries and personal contacts.16

(Sub-question 2): The hadith, the sayings of the Prophet, prohibits living figures from being depicted in art. Why therefore has the kala-makara, a favourite animal motif in Hindu-Buddhist temples, been adapted into Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how has it been used in Javanese mosques over time? Borobodur temple

Central Javanese temple

Seale (1999) posits that the concept of triangulation originates from discussions of measurement validation by quantitative methodologists. It was Denzin (1970) who first advocated and popularised triangulation in qualitative research. The term evokes an analogy with surveying or navigation, in which people discover their position on a map by taking bearings on two landmarks. This method assumes a single fixed reality that can be known objectively through the use of multiple methods of qualitative and social research.17

Agung Kasepuhan mosque

Four types of triangulation are suggested by Denzin (1978): data triangulation, investigator triangulation, theory triangulation, and methodological triangulation. Methodological triangulation represents a ‘between-method’ approach with several forms, such as a combination of ethnographic observation and interviews. This method is often cited as a rationale for mixing qualitative and quantitative methods in a study.

(Sub-question 3): How frequent was the use of HinduBuddhist lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how important has the lotus bud been in mosques within the Islamic period? East Javanese temple

In this research, methodological triangulation is a combination of literature review, observation and measurement, and interviews for data collection. Primary sources were available in Java, while the collection of its secondary data was taken from the UK and Indonesia, including additional information from other countries.

Agung Kasepuhan mosque

2.4.1. Literature Review

(Sub-question 4): What if any was the influence of Hindu-Buddhist scrolls on Javanese mosque scroll designs? Kalasan temple

It is the progressive narrowing of the topic, through the literature review, that makes most research a practical consideration (Hart 1970).

Agung Yogya mosque

The literature review was acquired from the library resources (the British Library, Courtauld Art Institute), museums (the British Museum, the Indonesia Nasional), government authorities (Department of Religion in Indonesia), institutes (Indonesian Institute of Science, National Archaeology Research Center in Indonesia), Pole and Lampard 2002 Gray 2004: 325 17  Blaiki 1991 15  16 

23

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia seminars (Indonesian Heritage Society), conferences (Thailand, Malaysia), media, and the internet.

24 from the 5000 mosques. A letter to the mosques from the researcher asking for their cooperation was issued. For the pilot study, more than 10 of the 24 suggested mosques and two temples of Borobodur (8C) and Prambanan (8-9C) in Central Java could provide an overview of any relationship between Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic ornamentation.

In this process, the researcher realized the necessity of personal contacts for data collection, due to a lack of references on the subject available in libraries of the UK and Indonesia. Although several pieces of research on Javanese ornament written by the Dutch scholars such as Krom (1923, 1931) and Vogler (1949) were available at the Leiden University in the Netherlands, a better approach was to contact Indonesian scholars, students, and related people directly. The reasons were (1) the researcher’s incapability in the Dutch language, (2) the limited time for the research, and (3) a possibility of acquiring insight into these publications from Indonesian scholars. Afterwards, academic papers of Tjandrasasmita (1984), Anbary (1998), and Subarna (1982-1983), written in Indonesian or a foreign language (in Dutch or in French), could be translated into English in Indonesia. Another method of collecting data was through interviews.

The results of the pilot study indicated strengths and weaknesses in the method. The advantage lies in the empirical examination of buildings as the best way to identify motifs because motifs from HinduBuddhist temples could compare to those in Javanese mosques. It is a realistic approach. The weakness was how to accomplish this work without arousing undue suspicions. For a solution, (1) a preliminary notice to the mosques was necessary, giving clear reasons for the visits, (2) at the mosques, a short interview was held with the mosque authority to gain access and permission to use a ladder to make measurements, (3) Indonesian manpower was required, such as an English speaking male driver, and Muslim assistants, male or female, for translating the conversation, giving a positive impression of the research, and assisting in making drawings of ornaments in mosques, (4) an official letter from the Department of Religion to the mosques was not obligatory, because each mosque had its norms and traditions, (5) a gesture such as a donation to a mosque could be helpful, (6) caution in behaviour, dress, and clean feet were a ‘must’, (6) speaking Arabic brought respect, (7) the survey could be suspended at any time, before prayers which take place five times a day, and (8) Friday was avoided; it was not a suitable day, due to its being a day of prayer.

When two PhD dissertations on Javanese architecture in English by Sudradjat (1991) and Isnaeni (1996), were acquired, the information on the development of Javanese architecture was clear. Later, when another PhD dissertation on ornaments on the northern coast of Java was presented by the writer herself (Marwoto 2003), specialised data could be gathered. It seems the research on Indonesian Islamic art and architecture was highly marginalized. 2.4.2. Empirical Work 2.4.2.1. Pilot Study The nature of the pilot study is to test methodology and set the standard for the broader research.18 In this research, the intended objectives are to record the frequency of occurrence and application of prehistoric and Hindu-Buddhist ornaments in Javanese temples and mosques. A pilot study was proposed to demonstrate the necessity of this research project. It also tests the method and explores a latent weakness in the project arising from an anticipated negative attitude of mosque authorities to the researcher who is a non-Muslim, foreigner, woman, and non-Indonesian speaking. This sceptical attitude was experienced during her residence in Kuwait to study Islamic art and culture and continued to be similar in Indonesia, due to the contemporary violence between different religions.

Human and cordial communications with mutual respect seemed the only way to proceed. Face to face meeting, in which goodwill can establish, was essential. Accordingly, all feasible steps were taken, and this had beneficial results later. 2.4.2.2. Purposive Sample The sample of people or objectives determines the nature and validity of the findings and theory generated by the research.19 A purposive sample is another form of judgement sampling, which relates to quota sampling: ‘A sample can be made up of people or units selected for a particular purpose; those selected are supposed to be typical’.20 It is ‘where the researcher selects what he/she thinks is a typical sample, based on specialist knowledge or selection criteria’.21

A few representative mosques were selected from the internet and tourist guide books on Java, and a comprehensive list of mosques in Jakarta was acquired from the Jakarta Tourist Office, which recommended 18 

Pole and Lompard 2002 Gardner 1976: 96 21  Walliman 2005: 58 19  20 

Robson 2002

24

Methodology Following the pilot study, a purposive sample seemed the most appropriate approach, because Javanese temples and mosques in displacing ornamental motifs should be chosen to answer the research question. A framework for a larger sample of mosques was drawn up, assisted by the Faculty of Architecture at Tarumanegara University and a CD2000 produced by the Institute of Technology in Bandung for educating architecture students. The CD2000 gave short accounts of history and architecture on 117 important Javanese mosques by chronology and geographical area. Even a little information on ornamentation was helpful in sampling Javanese mosques at large.

Agung Banten (1552-1570) were not counted, unless a glimpse of ornamentation was visible. If ornaments were visible in CD2000 or literary sources, those were the first choice for inclusion in the 30. Chronologically, 15 transitory, nine from the Dutch colonization, six contemporary mosques were selected. Pre-Islamic motifs in the transitory period became less used towards the contemporary period. Renovated mosques from the transitory and Dutch colonization periods were considered to be contemporary because motifs in renovated mosques could be renovated or reproduced. If motifs were original, and new paint was later added, they were dated to the foundation of the mosque building.

Finally, 30 representative mosques, recommended by the literature review, the tourist office, the internet, the faculty of architecture, and the CD2000, were collected, ranging from the 15th century to the present day. Representation of different regions in Java was taken into account. This time, to the list of 30 mosques, other temples, such as Mendut (9C) and Kalasan (9C) from Central Java, and Singasari (12C), Djago (1268), Jawi (13C), and Panataran (1197-1454) from East Java were included.

The researcher was aware of renovations of mosques and the lack of a documented record of their construction and of their ornaments. Geographically, 17 of the 30 mosques are from West Java, eight from Central Java, and five from East Java. Selection of more than half of the 30 from West Java was based on the knowledge of active Islamization, historical settlements in this area, and different styles of ornament. (Choice of Hindu-Buddhist temples): No visible difference between the ornamentation of Buddhist and Hindu temples exists.22 Buddhist Borobodur, Mendut, Kalasan, and Hindu Prambanan in Central Java were representatives of lavish ornamentation with an Indian origin. In East Java, syncretic Hindu-Buddhist Singasari, Djago, Jawi, and Panataran with indigenous ornaments were singled out. East Javanese temples became a prototype for Javanese mosque ornamentation, testified at Demak, Sendang Duwur and Astana Mantingan in the Islamic transitory period. However, Central Javanese temples could affect mosque ornamentation because of the same area in Central Java.

(Choice of Java): Java has the most syncretic culture in Indonesia. There is an expression: ‘Islamic Sumatra, Hindu Bali, and Javanese with Islam’. Java has many temples and mosques, making it an ideal island on which to study cross-cultural influences. (Choice of areas: West, Central, and East Java): The Hindu-Buddhist culture had begun in West Java in the fifth century, but flourished in Central Java, then shifted into East Java. Early mosques were built on pasisir (a coastal area) and culminated in the inland region of Central Java. Nevertheless, a few significant harbours in East and West Java gradually developed from the beginning of Islamization, and West Java became very active in building and renovating mosques in demand for an expanding population after the Dutch colonization. In selecting the region, city and village mosques were both represented, expecting different ornamentation from them. History shows that city mosques display more luxurious and larger size of ornaments than those in villages.

(Choice of four motifs: tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud, and scroll): (1) Javanese Islam is a syncretic religion derived from mystic animism, Hindu-Buddhism, and Islam. (2) The researcher often observed the four motifs in temples and mosques during the pilot study. (3) The prehistoric tumpal and Hindu-Buddhist lotus bud seem to have continued within the Islamic period without alteration; the Hindu-Buddhist kala-makara and scroll might have changed. Kala-makaras need modification following a ban of living figures in Islamic ornament. Scrolls would coexist with incoming Islamic arabesques. The four motifs are perfect examples to examine their continuity and influence on Javanese mosque ornamentation.

(Choice of 30 mosques): The fact that Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, itself has around 5000 mosques implies uncountable mosques present in Java. It was sensible to choose 30 examples from the 117 representative Javanese mosques, which CD2000 recommended. Some of the 30 were often introduced in other sources in literature and tourist guide books. The number of 30 seems sufficient to validate the research findings. In the choice of mosques, based on a purposive sample, their reputation in architecture or history such as

(Choice of the Islamic periods: 15C-the present with three divisions): Tjandrasasmita (interview 2005) 22 

25

Santiko and Sedyawati, interviews 2004

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia recommends the three Islamic periods; transitory (15C-1619), Dutch colonization (1619-1945), and contemporary (1945-the present), according to the political and social circumstances. Strong continuity of pre-Islamic motifs was evident in the transitory period; European and Islamic influences on mosque ornamentation took place during the Dutch colonization. Toward the contemporary era, orthodox Islamic motifs gradually replaced those existing ones. The analysis of the motifs in the contemporary period should not be negligible, because they reappeared in newly built or renovated mosques in a stylized form. A trend of returning to the local culture became conscious among Javanese, to keep their identity.

authority to cooperate between the researcher and local mosques, the effect of the official letter was never in full force, due to the bureaucratic system and slow procedures in Indonesia. Instead of waiting for the responses from the local authorities, the researcher contacted mosques directly. Several field trips took place in the spring and autumn of 2004 in Java, considering dates of Islamic festivals, floods, and possible rejections from mosques. The temple fieldwork met no difficulties, probably because temples are historical monuments that are no longer in use. Transport was a serious matter. Buses were crammed with local people, leading to the danger of being late. Sometimes, they halted in the middle of the road in heavy rain. A much worse concern was that mosques often found on small roads near market places in villages. To build a historical Javanese setting, the palace (kraton), mosques, markets, and inhabitants’ areas are integrated. On entering a mosque, courtesy was expressed by the researcher. Then, a short enquiry about the mosque’s architectural setting began, while a ladder was laid to take its measurements for drawings on the spot or later. The observation of mosques was carried out by on-site inspection, using survey equipment for measuring, drawing and photography. All the procedure was assisted by Indonesian manpower.

The inclusion of motifs from the contemporary period is that many of the samples have the uncertainty of their dates on a renovation, as no record was traceable in journals (scrolls at Astana Mantingan). Some attempted to reproduce the same design in idea and form from an earlier period (tumpals at Agung Demak). A few retained the pre-Islamic idea but changed their form (tumpals at Menara Kudus or kala-makaras at Al Marunda). Several have continued to new mosques (lotus buds in Pusdai Jaber). The sampling is an effective way to observe the degree of the continuity on the four motifs in idea and form. … the investigation towards art in the Islamic period was not applied intensively and continuously, as it was done to the art in Hindu period … Islamic art in Indonesia in some extent lost the continuity, different from in other Islamic countries … old mosques used material in the traditional way which did not last long, therefore it adds some difficulties to define the age and originality of the building (Ambary 1998: 192-193).

It proved that drawings are more suitable for analysis than photographs, despite being time-consuming, requiring patience, and hindered by bad weather. This method can enrich a researcher’s experience and knowledge of ornaments and their surroundings, particularly perceptions as a crucial part of the analysis of motifs. Finally, data were recorded through conducting interviews, drawing, and photographing. It ended with cordial farewells.

2.4.2.3. Observation and Measurement Empiricism is an approach to the study of reality in which knowledge is gained through direct experience. Hume says, ‘the only knowledge that human beings acquire is from sensory experience’.23 This research uses the empirical method of perceptive observation and measurement. This method contributes to the investigation of a close relationship between Javanese temples and mosques, in terms of the presence, continuity, and importance of the four motifs in both places.

In this process, an unexpected thing happened, despite the perfect preparation learned from the pilot study. A group of people irrelevant to the research accompanied the researcher as a form of hospitality; thus, the survey occasionally had to stop. Moreover, some mosques were reluctant to admit non-Muslims, while a few enthusiastic religious leaders were welcoming. Some mosques had uniformed security guards to protect buildings and their contents. Muslims at some local mosques showed their suspicion of the researcher. The difficulties of entering mosques could be the current violence in a given area. In this situation, Indonesian assistants were active in communication with mosque leaders, and the researcher remained in the background. Once mutual understanding emerged between the researcher and mosque leaders, the research investigations went

Before the fieldwork, visits to the Ministry of Religion (Departments of Hindu Guidance and Islam) and the Archaeological Research Center meant this study to bear the status of authorized research. Although the Director-General gave four instructions to each local 23 

Cited by Bernard 2000: 9

26

Methodology unsuitability for the research question. Some of them were partly used.

smoothly, often accompanied by mineral water and sweets from the mosque.

• An approach tracing geometry behind motifs, following Day’s (1903) theory whose patterns are composed of geometry. This was applied by Bain (1996) to Celtic art. • An approach counting numbers of geometry such as circle, triangle, and square in motifs. • An approach following eye movement in inspecting motifs, used by Papadopoulo (1980) on Islamic artworks. • An approach using visual pattern recognition, written by Dodwell (1970) and Friedman and Kandel (1999). • An approach to the perception of motifs, applying the visual research methods in design by Sanoff (1991). • An approach using a grid or musical beat to analyze motifs (Thiel 1981).

2.4.3. Interviews Due to a lack of material on this research subject, the researcher attempted to get the necessary information from Indonesian scholars and practitioners who specialized in art, architecture, archaeology, design, and history. Four types of the interview were conducted with different purposes. (1) The first type aimed at getting general information about Java, by borrowing books at libraries, consulting for correct samplings, asking for recommendations of other relevant people for meetings, and acquiring permissions to visit temples and mosques. (2) The second occurred in mosques during observation and measurement. Religious leaders seem to be better informed on their mosques than literary sources or people who work at the Department of Religion or other institutes. Javanese mosques do not always record their history. (3) The third was semi-structured but comprehensive interviews to identify the origins of motifs in Javanese mosque ornamentation by asking 20 Indonesian scholars. It was when a problem of distinguishing between Hindu-Buddhist scrolls and Islamic arabesque had arisen. (4) The last interview was at the crucial point of reviewing all collected motifs, for fear of missing an important point on this research and verifying written documents to be correct. These interviews were held with a few scholars in Indonesia. Contacting people was occasionally assisted by Indonesians, and during meetings with them, much encouragement to this research was given.

After attempting the six approaches, it returned to elements and principles of design as a yardstick in conducting the analysis, given the research topic and the researcher’s experience in art and design. Then, how can the best result from collected data be acquired? Two experiments were carried out: (1) concentrating on a few examples of each motif and describing their similarities and dissimilarities, used by archaeologists, (2) finding the mean in the scale between two opposite variables in a given sample, favoured by psychologists. 2.5.2. Attempts: the Larger and Smaller Selections, and the Perception of Six Local Indonesians Perception is the visual intake that stimulates the imagination and is the mental grasp of objects through the senses, leading to insight, but requiring attention, effort, practice, concentration, and commitment.25 The visual experience is dynamic.26

2.5. Choice of the representative selection 2.5.1. Experiments Concepts are the building blocks of theory; they consist of measures and indicators.24 An indicator is used for concepts that are less directly quantifiable to represent that concept; measure refers to things that must be counted. An indicator is an indirect measure of the presence of a concept. The use of multiple indicators has the advantage of recognizing and dealing with potential problems.

For the first attempt, the researcher chose the most representative selection with small numbers (6-8) to examine four motifs, focusing on decorated mihrabs. In this examination, the researcher perceived that lines, shapes, forms, and rhythms of the four motifs seemed to have disappeared, due to carelessness, renovation, and weather over time; thus, the analysis might not provide the exact information. As a substitute, a larger selection (45-50) of examples was collected to compare with the smaller ones (6-8), acquiring almost the same outcome from both.

In the proposal, the researcher suggested four indicators - line, shape, form (elements of design), and rhythm (principles of design) - in analyzing four motifs. However, the researcher experimented as much as possible to find the best analysis method, if one existed. All experiments were not fully pursued, due to their 24 

The next attempt was to compare pre-Islamic motifs to Islamic ones by using percentage, and a problem arose. 25 

Bryman 2003

26 

27

Stoops 1983 Arnheim 1974

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Unless the number of both examples was equal, this method does not work. Collecting the same number from the prehistoric and Hindu-Buddhist periods was another problem, particularly in the tumpal chosen from outside of Java.

2.6. Four indicators to answer the research questions The researcher has three reasons for applying elements and principles of design as indicators, to answer the research questions. (1) First, they are the basic components in art and architecture, discussed by Greek, Roman, medieval, Renaissance and modern philosophers. In Grammar of Ornament, Jones (1856) put forward geometry as general principles for decoration: ‘All ornament should be based upon a geometrical construction’, praising Alhambra palace built by the Moors.

In parallel, a short test was conducted by three to six local Indonesians who had no artistic training in perception. It was to observe whether their perceptions corresponded to that of the researcher; thus, this result could validate the researcher’s analysis. Six to eight different examples from the four motifs were shown to them once for a short time. During this process, they got confused and had difficulty in answering, probably as a result of not being accustomed to perceiving objects. This further test was stopped. Training in perception is necessary for this type of analysis.

… every ornament contains a grammar in itself. Every principle which we can derive from the study of the ornamental art of any other people is not only ever present here, but was by the Moors more universally and truly obeyed (Jones 1856, 2001: 185).

Having considered all, the researcher decided the larger (45-50) selection as representative with both descriptive and calculative methods in the analysis. Each motif is to be perceived many times at constant intervals. Observation during the fieldwork was taken into account.

(2) Second, Islamic ornament is partially composed of geometry - elements and principles of design. Critchlow (1989: 8) discusses a circle as a symbol for the ‘origin’ and ‘end’ of geometric forms.

Table 2.2. Four motifs, four indicators, and five variables Four Motifs

Four Indicators

Five Variables

Tumpal

Line

Background (1), the basic type (2), five further characteristics (3), other elements of design (4), and other principles of design (5)

Kala-makara

Shape

The same as above

Lotus bud

Form

The same as above

Scroll

Rhythm

The same as above Five Variables

Background (1)

The basic type (2)

Period Area

Five further characteristics (3)

Other elements of design (4)

Other principles of design (5)

Type

Characteristic

Space

Emphasis

Type

Characteristic

Colour

Unity-Variety

Location

Characteristic

Value

Size

Material

Characteristic

Texture

Proportion

Attachment

Characteristic

28

Methodology is defined as ‘the shortest distance between two given points’. It can be vertical, horizontal or diagonal, and appears stronger and more direct than a curved line. A vertical line is structural, upward, and the strongest, and expresses a state of equilibrium with the force of gravity. A horizontal line represents stability on the ground plane. A diagonal line indicates action, due to its disturbing effect.32 Horizontal lines create geometric shapes; contour lines decide space; repeated lines create texture.33

Islamic art is essentially a way of ennobling matter by means of geometric and floral patterns united by calligraphic forms which embody the word of God as revealed in the sacred book, the Holy Koran (Seyyed Hossein Nasr, cited by Critchlow 1989: 6). (3) Last, the researcher is specialized in visual art and design. These indicators can provide the best and comprehensive information on this research, propelling a challenge into a new method. Of the indicators, ornaments are based on elements (line, value, shape, form, space, texture, and colour) and principles (unity-variety, balance, emphasis, rhythm, proportion, and size). Principles of design show how the elements are aesthetically combined, to arouse a sensory response.27 The elements, the raw materials of works of design, are arranged to produce order in a composition, supported by principles.28

Of a curved line, Hogarth (1679-1764) introduces the aesthetic concept of his precise serpentine line as a ‘line of beauty’. He saw beautifying lines as the ideal sign of artistic craftsmanship.34 In this context, Riegl (1893) argues that line was the primary tool of the artist, and decorative art was the application of line to solve ornamental problems. The term ‘beautiful’ was bound up with the idea of organic undulating lines and with the art of classical Greece.35 Logarithmic spirals enhance the dynamism of the curve.36 Lines are associated with the ideas of praise, aspiration, and ascension. Vertical lines increase this feeling, but downward bent lines convey despair. As a language, a line is the most sensitive and vigorous speech for all purposes. The line is used as a vehicle to record nature and human features, appealing to human emotions and evoking sympathies with the life of nature and humanity.37

The table 2.2 explains how the four motifs are to be analyzed according to four indicators and five variables. Functions of the four motifs are not tested, because all are supposed to be symbolic.29 Balance is also not examined, as the majority of them are balanced in symmetry. 2.6.1. Line: Element of Design Without a study of Greek, we could not know the meaning of the great design, of harmonious lines and masses, of proportion and composition, of thoughtful correctness in figure-drawing, of the pleasant and proper disposition of the materials or motifs of an ornament (Collingwood 1883: 222-224).

This upward surge of lines, characteristic of Gothic art, was an element of beauty which at the same time responded to a profoundly appealing feature of medieval mysticism (Aubert 1959: 31). 2.6.2. Shape: Element of Design

The line consists of an extended point, and its only feature is the length. It connects other visual elements, describes edges, forms shapes, and articulates the surfaces of planes. Although line theoretically has only one dimension, it has visible thickness. The character of the line, such as bold or tentative, graceful or ragged, is decided by human perception of its length-width proportion, its outline, and its degree of continuity.30 Arnheim (1974: 183) says that line is a creation of the human sense of sight, constructed for simplicity, borrowing Delacroix’s (1798-1863) idea of the straight line as ‘never occurs in nature; they exist only in the brain of man’.

The shape is the outline of a plane figure or the surface configuration of a form. It is the basic means of providing recognition, identification, and categorization for specific figures and forms. The perception of shape depends on the level of visual contrast between the outline, which separates a figure from its ground.38 Positive and negative shapes and their interrelationships are a principle of composition. Positive shapes are the subject matter itself, becoming the centre of interest; negative shapes are the areas surrounding the positive shapes.39 The negative shape is not always of equal interest with the positive figure, but it provides an illusion of

Despite possessing no actual movement, a line suggests a direction, either one way or in diverse ways.31 Line may be divided into straight or curved. A straight line

Alexander 1965; Ching 1996 Stoops 1983 34  Cited by Burke 1955 35  Olin 1992 36  Grillo 1960 37  Crane 1900 38  Ching 1996 39  Handell and Handell 1995 32  33 

Holt 1989 Brommer 1975 29  Tjandrasasmita, interview 2005 30  Ching 1996 31  Krommenhoek 1975 27  28 

29

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia depth. Shapes can be formed by the lines, or by areas of texture, value, and colour. They vary from simple circles, triangles, and squares to complex silhouettes of nature and the human form in two-and threedimensional characters. Two-dimensional shapes are bordered by the lines, and are perceived as a visual unit distinct from their background.40 Three-dimensional ones can extend in any perceivable direction,41 creating forms.

elements are balanced and organized through the use of principles of design to establish harmonious unity in a form.49 A form has several characteristics, either a recognizable appearance or a particular condition in which something manifests itself. In art and design, the term denotes the formal structure of a work - a manner of arrangingcoordinating the elements to produce an image.50 The form is the shape of an area of a three-dimensional volume, defined by the lines of its borders. Straight lines generate triangles, squares, and pentagons. Triangles can be part of composing conic and pyramidal forms. Curved lines make shapes of circles, ellipses and ovals. Circles create spherical forms. Forms can be divided into natural and geometric forms, but no clear line can be drawn between them. The difference is that natural forms are representational; geometric forms are not. Natural forms are organic or living objects, such as foliage and humans, used in ornament realistically and conventionalized. When a natural form is simplified to fit its use, it is called ‘conventionalized’ or ‘stylized’.51

Four categories of shapes exist - (1) natural, (2) geometric, (3) abstract, and (4) non-objective. (1) Natural shapes come from nature or human figures; (2) geometric shapes from artificial construction; (3) abstract shapes are the outcome of stylizing natural ones; (4) and non-objective shapes do not originate from recognizable sources.42 The Gestalt psychology school says that the mind makes the visual environment simpler to understand. Given any composition of forms, the mind tends to reduce the image to the simplest and most regular shapes.43 Originated in Germany in the early 20th century, the school has been most influential in the field of perception. It formulated four laws of Proximity, Similarity, Continuance, and Closure44 to establish a visual field.45

According to a theory of the 20th century, there are five geometric forms (sphere, cube, cylinder, cone, pyramid). They are solid and closed entities that show weight and mass.52 Primary forms are those whose parts are related to one another in a consistent and orderly manner. They are steady in their nature and symmetrical. The sphere, cylinder, cone, cube, and pyramid are regular forms. Non-primary forms are those whose parts are dissimilar and related to one another in an inconsistent manner. They are asymmetrical and more dynamic than primary forms.53

Thus a shape is never perceived as the form of just one particular thing, but always as that of a kind of thing. Shape is a concept in two different ways: first, because we see every shape as a kind of shape compared what was said about perceptual concepts; second, because each kind of shape is seen as the form of a whole kind of objects (Arnheim 1974: 96). Shapes can be basic emotional symbols with a powerful impact.46 A clear and well-defined shape - a cross or key - can generate a universal appeal as a symbol.47

2.6.4. Rhythm: Principle of Design God is light, and light gives beauty to things; essential beauty must be identified with brightness which, together with harmony and rhythm, reflects the image of God (Aubert 1959: 32). Those ineffable feelings of God’s presence and purpose in His creation, that awareness of wholeness and infinitude, manifest in the natural world, and in those patterns and rhythms which govern it, are exemplified in iconic form in the art of calligraphy and illumination, as well as in the abstract disposition of mass, space and surface in architecture (Yeomans 1999: 19-20).

2.6.3. Form: Element of Design The Greeks seem the first people to have been delighted in the pure beauty of form and constantly reached out after an ideal perfection of the form.48 A form is a perfect combination of all visual elements, themes, moods, techniques, functions, structure, and organization. The Stoops 1983 Arnheim 1974 42  Holt 1989 43  Ching 1996 44  The Law of Proximity means the relative closeness of units which they are seen together as a new entity. The Law of Similarity concerns the tendency of commonalities in the attributes of separate elements to cause them to be seen as a group. The Law of Continuance refers to the trend of similarities in changes of attributes, while the Law of Closure deals with our perceptual tendency to group certain visual elements to establish one simple larger form. 45  Thiel 1981 46  Handell and Handell 1995 47  Stoops 1983 48  Hamlin 1916 40  41 

The word ‘rhythm’ in Greek means ‘to flow’. Long before the Greeks, rhythm was considered the creative principle, both in the manifestations of nature and in a Stoops 1983 Ching 1996 51  Alexander 1965 52  Stoops 1983 53  Ching 1996 49  50 

30

Methodology Chronologically, three divisions are prehistoric, Hindu-Buddhist, Islamic with transitory, Dutch colonization, and contemporary which include renovated/reproduced. Geographically, three areas are West, Central, and East Java. Of locations in a mosque building, prayer hall, serambi (veranda), and outside are selected. Three types of material are wood, stone, and other. Decorated and not-decorated are chosen for attachment.

regulated human life. In a world controlled by cruel gods, the Greeks invented a world of the mind, where disaster was expelled and a divine order ruled, demonstrating the repeated columns in the Parthenon.54 Rhythm in design is organized visual movement, built around repetitions of strong and weak design elements. As a means of conveying a feeling, rhythm has a variety of forms, such as sharp, jagged, jerky, irregular, radical, and energetic rhythms. Regular rhythm occurs when the repetition of size, shape, and colour remains the same with constant intervals. Irregular rhythm can add suspense to a work, and increase its interest, caused by the varying size, colour, and shape of units.55

Period: Prehistoric/Hindu-Buddhist/Islamic (Transitory/Dutch colonization/Renovatedreproduced Area: West/Central/East Location: Prayer hall/Serambi/Outside Material: Wood/Stone/Other Attachment: Decorated/Not-decorated

Three ways of achieving rhythm are through repetition, a progression of design elements, and a continuous basic line. Repetitive rhythm is marked by a recurrence of patterns and is the simplest rhythm. Progressive rhythm requires an increase or decrease in shapes and is stronger than a repetitive rhythm. Continuous rhythm consists of curves, giving a flowing effect.56 Repetition is one of the most outstanding characteristics of form in nature, creating complex rhythmic passages of the pattern. Five kinds of repetition exist: (1) simple regularity of shapes and intervals, (2) alternation repetition of two different elements, (3) inversion repetition in which the position of a unit is reversed, (4) irregular recurrence - a chosen shape appearing at irregular intervals or with various sizes, and (5) radiation - units fan out from a central point in the symmetrical or asymmetrical array.57

2.7.2. The Basic Characteristics (3)

Type

(2)

and

Five

Further

Based on various theories given by different scholars, the researcher made two categories of each indicator: (1) the basic type and (2) five further characteristics with their opposites. The basic type means the most representative characteristics in each indicator; the five further characteristics are additional ones, to enrich the information on each motif. Tumpals are analyzed by the basic type of line; kala-makaras by shape; lotus buds by form; and scrolls by rhythm, accompanying their five further characteristics. Meanings of each characteristic were described as objectively as possible, according to literary sources and the researcher’s view.

2.7. Five variables: background (1), the basic type (2), five further characteristics (3), other elements (4), other principles (5) of design

2.7.2.1. Tumpals, Analyzed by the Basic Type of Line and Five Further Characteristics

2.7.1. Background (1)

Sub-question 1 is to be answered by the line, because the line is the most suitable indicator for examining tumpals. They tend to have straight lines on frames and curved lines within them (Figure 2.4.).

Of background, five aspects (period, geographical area, location in a mosque building, material, attachment) are chosen to acquire an extensive result in continuity of the four motifs in Javanese mosque ornamentation. A period is directly related to the main research question. A comparison of the motifs between temples and mosques in Java shows their geographical distribution. Different locations of the motifs in a mosque building can reveal how the ornamentation in Javanese mosque mihrab is, compared to those in another Islamic world. Using various materials on the motifs proposes the creativity of the local genius. In general, temples favoured stone; mosques did wood. The term ‘attachment’ means whether the motifs are decorated with another motif such as calligraphy.

2.7.2.2. Kala-makaras, Analyzed by the Basic Type of Shape and Five Further Characteristics Sub-question 2 is to be answered by the shape. Different shapes of kala-makara appeared in Javanese mosques, becoming stylized by the Islamic art tradition. A comparison of their shapes can produce an interesting result. Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras have natural shapes. By contrast, some Islamic kalamakaras combined extremely stylized triangular and rectangular shapes (Figure 2.5.).

Holt 1989 Brommer 1975 56  Alexander 1965 57  Stoops 1983 54  55 

31

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Straight-Vertical & Horizontal

Curved-Circular

Straight-Diagonal/ CurvedUndulating

Curved-Spiral

The basic type of line and five further characteristics Straight line: Vertical/Horizontal/Diagonal Curved line: Circular/Spiral/Undulating (Broken/Unbroken): if lines of tumpals do not connect with the starting point and are repeatedly stopped, they are called ‘broken’. (Natural/Geometrical): if lines of tumpals are not stylized or are not composed of a circle, triangle, and square in composition, they are ‘natural’. (Inner/Outline): if lines of tumpals do not constitute a boundary, they are ‘inner’. Any lines within the frame are treated as ‘inner’. (Short/Long): if lines of tumpals are composed of short lines, they are called ‘short’. (Simple/Complicated): if tumpals became stylized by line, they are ‘simple’. Figure 2.4. The basic type of line in tumpals

Natural

Geometric-Circular

Geometric-Oval

Geometric-Triangular

Geometric-Square

Geometric-Rectangular

The basic type of shape and five further characteristics Natural shape Geometric shape: Circular/Oval/Triangular/Square/Rectangular (Dynamic/Static): if shapes of kala-makaras show a movement in different directions, they are ‘dynamic’. (Single/Assorted): if shapes of kala-makaras have different styles of shape, such as a circle, triangle, and rectangle, they are ‘assorted’. (Illustrating/Abstract): if shapes of kala-makaras are composed of natural lines and express a real image, they are ‘illustrating’. (Smooth/Complicated): if shapes of kala-makaras are perceived as jagged and uneven, they are ‘complicated’. (Small/Big): if shapes of kala-makaras are made of a big and whole shape, they are ‘big’. Figure 2.5. The basic type of shape in kala-makaras

32

Methodology

Primary-Cubic

Primary-Conic

Primary-Spherical

Primary-Cylindrical

Primary-Pyramidal

The basic type of form and five further characteristics Primary form: Cubic/Conic/Spherical/Cylindrical/Pyramidal Non-primary form (Voluminous/Slender): if forms of lotus buds look massive and large, they are called ‘voluminous’. (Open/Closed): if forms of lotus buds have open bulbs, or are likely to be opened, or surrounded by lotus petals, they are ‘open’. (Realistic/Stylized): if forms of lotus buds are constructed in a naturalistic way, they are ‘realistic’. (Dynamic/Static): if forms of lotus buds arouse actions, they are ‘dynamic’. (2-3 dimensional/3-dimensional): if forms of lotus buds are attached to other objects, such as walls and sculptures, they are ‘2-3 dimensional’. Figure 2.6. The basic type of form in lotus buds

Regular-Vertical

Regular-Horizontal

Regular-Diagonal

The basic type of rhythm and five further characteristics Regular rhythm: Vertical/Horizontal/Diagonal Irregular rhythm (Repetitive/Non-repetitive): if rhythms of scrolls repeat in the same way, they are called ‘repetitive’. (Harmonious/Disharmonious): if rhythms of scrolls occur regularly in harmony, they are ‘harmonious’. (Single/Multiple): if scrolls have one rhythmic style, they are ‘single’. (Strong/Weak): if rhythms of scrolls are dynamic, they are ‘strong’. (Continuous/Discontinuous): if rhythms of scrolls are not stopped in a given area, they are ‘continuous’. Figure 2.7. The basic type of rhythm in scrolls

2.7.2.3. Lotus Buds, Analyzed by the Basic Type of Form and Five Further Characteristics

2.7.2.4. Scrolls, Analyzed by the Basic Type of Rhythm and Five Further Characteristics

Sub-question 3 is to be answered by the form, due to their three-dimensional character. Any form which symbolizes ‘life’ and ‘creation’ of lotus buds such as a jar on roofs or round bases on floors to support pillars in mosques are accepted (Figure 2.6.).

Sub-question 4 is to be answered by the rhythm. Scrolls in Javanese temples and mosques bear the same characteristics of repetitive, continuous, and harmonious rhythms as Islamic arabesques. It investigates how Hindu-Buddhist scrolls combined with Islamic arabesques in ideas and forms (Figure 2.7). 33

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia 2.7.3. Other Elements of Design (4): Space, Colour, Value, and Texture

2.7.4. Other Principles of Design (5): Emphasis, UnityVariety, Size, and Proportion

The most relevant is selected for each motif. Tumpals are analyzed by space; kala-makaras by colour; lotus buds by value; and scrolls by texture.

The most significant principle is applied to each motif. Tumpals are tested by emphasis; kala-makaras by unityvariety; lotus buds by size; and scrolls by proportion.

Space, colour, value, and texture: other elements of design Tumpal (Narrow/Wide): if the space between adjacent lines is broad in tumpals, they are called ‘wide’. Kala-makara (Original/Coloured): if kala-makaras are made of natural materials, and are neither coloured nor painted, they are ‘original’. Lotus bud (Light/Dark): if lotus buds do not have layers; no darkness is created on their surfaces, they are ‘light’. Scroll (Smooth/Rough): if scrolls undulate regularly, arousing evenness, they are ‘smooth’.

Emphasis, unity-variety, size, and proportion: other principles of design Tumpal (Dominant/Subordinate): if lines are more important than other elements in a composition of tumpals, they are called ‘dominant’. Kala-makara (Separate/Unified): If shapes of kalamakaras are not separated from each other, they are called ‘unified’. Lotus bud (Small/Big): if lotus buds are small in reality, they are called ‘small’. Scroll (Progressive/Non-progressive): if the same type of rhythm recurs by increase, they are called ‘progressive’.

Space is the medium in which shapes exist. It has three characteristics of pictorial, illusionistic, and actual. Pictorial space is the outcome of artistic work. Illusionistic space creates perceptual illusion through various devices, while actual space deals with threedimensional work.58

Emphasis is created by visual importance through selective stress.64 It involves dominance and subordination. Dominance is the effect of superior value against the subordination of something of inferior importance.65 Reinforced through repetition, proportion, simplification, and contrast,66 emphasis can also be achieved by a group or the isolation of a feature.67

Colour evokes the emotional response, suggesting a mood and depth of experience. It is art and science. Physicists discuss abstract theories of colour about light and optical principles involved in colour sensation; chemists formulate rules for blending colours; psychologists are preoccupied with emotional responses to colours.59

Of Unity-Variety, da Vinci (1452-1519) said that ‘Every part is disposed to unite with the whole that it may thereby escape its incompleteness’. Each part should be essential itself and yet add to the total effect. Variety means different qualities through contrast. Unity and variety are interdependent in maintaining balance.68

Value is the degree of lightness or darkness of an object.60 Light values appear to expand and approach; dark values appear to contract and recede, regardless of their size or shape.61

Size describes the relative scale of a given element about other elements and the composition as a whole. It is perceived in many ways, as expressing symbolic meanings, attracting attention, and endowing dramatic emphasis. Big size means power.69

Texture refers to the surface of any object - natural or manufactured. It can be perceived in two different ways - visual and tactile. Tactile sensing happens through touch and connects to our experience.62 Variations on smooth or uneven surfaces produce different visual textures.63

Proportion refers to the relationship of a shape to a total unit.70 The Greeks’ search for correct proportions is reflected in architecture by the creation of balance and harmony. Their geometric plan of the ‘Golden Mean’ established a canon of perfect proportion.71

Stoops 1983 Alexander 1965 66  Gatto 1975 67  Holt 1989 68  Alexander 1965:13-15 69  Holt 1989 70  Alexander 1965 71  Stoops 1983 64  65 

Holt 1989 ibid Alexander 1965 61  Handell and Handell 1995 62  Stoops 1983; Ching 1996 63  Holt 1989 58  59  60 

34

Methodology Kala-makaras are to be examined in five aspects: background (1), the basic type of shape (2), its five further characteristics (3), colour, other elements of design (4), and unity-variety, principles of design (5). All are grouped into the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic three periods.

2.8. Overall view of analyzing the four motifs This section introduces an overall view of analyzing the four motifs, to examine their continuity and influence on Javanese mosque ornamentation. Specifically, two stages are applied for the basic type and five further characteristics: (1) verifying whether a given characteristic in a given type is present in examples of each motif, and (2) counting the frequencies of these characteristics by scaled values, modes, and total numbers.

Indicator: Shape Background: The analysis format is similar to that of tumpals. The prehistoric period is exempted. Among renovated/reproduced kala-makaras, no examples were found in newly built mosques during the contemporary period. The basic type of shape: Natural shapes and Geometric shapes (Circular/Oval/Triangular/ Square/Rectangular). Five further characteristics of shape: Dynamic/ Static, Single/Assorted, Illustrating/Abstract, Smooth/Complicated, Small/Big. Other elements of design: Colour (Original/ Coloured). Principles of design: Unity-Variety (Separate/ Unified).

For example, in tumpals, this assessment is demonstrated on a scale of characteristics of predominant lines from ‘many’ to the absence of the characteristics, ‘none’ (Fig. 2.8). Each point on the scale is given a numerical value (many=4, none=1). In other words, each of the tumpals is assessed and tabulated within a chronological group. The results drawn from this tabulation are summarized in the same table, and present the modal value of the characteristics in each group – that is the most frequently occurring value. They also provide total numbers in each group. The scaled values, modes, and total numbers are yardsticks for the continuity of tumpals in Javanese mosque ornamentation between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. Many (4)

Some (3)

Few (2)

None (1)

Lotus buds are to be examined in five aspects: background (1), the basic type of form (2), its five further characteristics (3), value, other elements of design (4), and size, principles of design (5). All are grouped into the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic three periods.

X

Indicator: Form. Background The analysis format is similar to that of kala-makaras. Grouped as a term ‘renovated/ reproduced, lotus buds both in newly-built and renovated mosques during the contemporary period are examined, because of their strong continuity. The basic type of form: Primary forms (Cubic/ Conic/Spherical/Cylindrical/Pyramidal) and Nonprimary forms. Five further characteristics of form: Voluminous/ Slender, Open/Closed, Realistic/Stylized, Dynamic/ Static, 2-3 dimensional/3-dimensional. Other elements of design: Value (Light/Dark). Principles of design: Size (Small/Big).

Figure 2.8. Scaled value in tumpals

Overall, tumpals are to be examined in five aspects: background (1), the basic type of line (2), its five further characteristics (3), space, other elements of design (4), and emphasis, principles of design (5). They are grouped into the prehistoric, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic periods including three divisions: transitory, Dutch colonization, and renovated/reproduced. Samples of tumpals in contemporary mosques were rejected due to the small number of examples seen. Indicator: Line. Five variables: Background (1) The basic type of line (2) five further characteristics of line (3) other elements of design (4) principles of design (5). The basic type of line: Straight lines (Vertical/ Horizontal/Diagonal) and Curved lines (Circular/ Spiral/Undulating). Five further characteristics of line: Broken/ Unbroken, Natural/Geometrical, Inner/Outline, Short/Long, Simple/Complicated. Other elements of design: Space (Narrow/ Wide). Principles of design: Emphasis (Dominant/ Subordinate).

Scrolls are to be examined in five aspects: background (1), the basic type of rhythm (2), its five further characteristics (3), texture, other elements of design (4), and proportion, other principles of design (5). All are grouped into the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic three periods. Indicator: Rhythm. Background: The analysis format is similar to those of kala-makaras and lotus buds. Grouped as a term ‘renovated/reproduced, scrolls both in newly-built and renovated mosques during the contemporary 35

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia 2.8. Example of Presence of 48 Tumpals

MOSQUE

HINDUBUDDHIST

TRANSITORY

DUTCH

RENOVATED/ REPRODUCED

no. 1 to 6

7 to 15

16 to 30

31 to 36

37 to 48

west AREA

central

BACKGROUND

east prayer hall LOCATION

serambi outside wood

MATERIAL

stone other

ATTACHMENT

decorated not-decorated

straight BASIC TYPE OF LINE

curved vertical STRAIGHT

horizontal diagonal circular

CURVED

spiral

FIVE FURTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE

undulating broken unbroken natrual geometrical inner outline short long simple complicated

ELEMENT

SPACE

PRINCIPLE

EMPHASIS

ISLAMIC

PREHISTORIC

narrow wide dominant subordinate

36

Methodology period are examined, because of their syncretic idea and form between Hindu-Buddhist scroll and Islamic arabesque. The basic type of rhythm: Regular rhythms (Vertical/ Horizontal/Diagonal) and Irregular rhythms. Five further characteristics of rhythm: Repetitive/ Non-repetitive, Harmonious/Disharmonious, Single/Multiple, Strong/Weak, Continuous/ Discontinuous. Other elements of design: Texture (Smooth/Rough). Other principles of design: Proportion (Progressive/ Non-progressive).

a contentious conclusion, but this can be a strength as well because creative thinking in solving the questions can give a vast space to new possibilities in research. It has to be stressed that the beauty of ornament depends upon one’s free thoughts, perceived individually, about one’s cultural background and experience. It can be seen in the principles appropriate to HinduBuddhist or Islamic ornaments. Hindu-Buddhist motifs stress symbolism overall, while Islamic ornaments underline beauty, based on mathematical calculations in geometry. Therefore, the researcher feels confident and proud of this research, because many possible methods will be attempted in analyzing the four motifs from different angles; thus, the findings can be validated with full support. The five aspects (background, the basic type of indicator and its subdivisions, five further characteristics, elements and principles of designs) will be thoroughly and objectively examined to each motif uncountable times at constant intervals, guided by the researcher’s attitudes hopefully of non-bias, conscience, commitment, and discipline, and with passion.

2.9. Limitations of the study Chapter 1 explained the scope of the research. Chronologically, Javanese mosque ornamentation was covered from the 15th century to the present day, including the prehistoric and Hindu-Buddhist periods. The geographical area was limited to Java, where all the different cultures have been practised. The starting point of this research was pre-Islamic ornaments in Javanese mosques with consideration of both HinduBuddhist and Islamic ornament traditions. The four motifs examined were tumpals, kala-makaras, lotus buds, and scrolls, which seemed to appear frequently both in temples and mosques. The research concerned the degree of the continuity of the four motifs in Javanese mosque ornamentation and their influence. The use of indicators for each motif was also limited. They are line, shape, form, and rhythm.

2.10. Summary This chapter has provided practical information, reasons for choosing the four motifs, indicators, variables, and different methods of answering the research question on the continuity of pre-Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques. For collecting data, literature review, empirical work, and interviews were applied, and in choosing the 30 mosques, a purposive sample was done. A larger (45-50) selection of examples in each motif explained the procedure to be taken. Experiments and attempts at the research questions were noted down. In data analysis, the researcher’s perception and observations during the fieldwork were taken, in addition to literary sources.

This research will use many different methods, mainly by perception. It is a combination of (1) the researcher’s informed judgment based on training in art and design, (2) observations during the fieldwork, (3) general rules on elements and principles of design, according to literary sources, and (4) the respect of the Indonesian cultural heritage. The extraordinary difficulty in this research lay in the hindrance of the lack of literary sources on the subject matter, as Indonesian Islamic ornaments seemed to be extremely marginalized in the research field among the West and Indonesia herself. This fact encouraged the researcher to pursue creative and innovative methods in tackling the research questions. This research could be a pioneer work, according to comments by the 20 Indonesian specialists in art, architecture, archaeology, design, and history. It can be put forward as a proposition to stimulate further studies, to fill in the gaps in Javanese history through an investigation of ornaments.

Overall, the four motifs are to be tested according to the five aspects. Background has period, geographical area, locations in a mosque building, material, and attachment. The four indicators are line, shape, form, and rhythm. Prehistoric tumpals are to be examined by line; Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras, lotus buds, and scrolls are by shape, form, and rhythm respectively. In examining motifs, two stages are made: (1) verifying the presence of a given characteristic in each indicator, and (2) finding its frequency by scaled value, mode, and total number. This extensive analysis anticipates continuity and changes of the four motifs over time in accord with orthodox Islamic ornament. A brief history of the Islamic period in Java and the limitation of the study were also discussed.

Of course, it has to be admitted that the perception and experiences of the researcher colour the interpretation of the primary data. Personal arguments may produce 37

Chapter 3.

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java but never adopted other cultures completely. Instead, Indonesians blended imported elements into existing circumstances, in order to create their own characteristic culture, with notable geographic variations (Pepin Press 1998: 9-10).

3.1. Hindu-Buddhist Java (8-15C) Bahasa Indonesia is the official Indonesian language adopted to unify diversity among its geography, people, and culture after independence in 1945. In parallel, a Javanese term ‘Bhinneka Tunggal Ika’ (unity in diversity), was created by Javanese people, to underline their identity and culture. Java has been a centre where mystical animism, Hindu-Buddhism, and Islam coexisted together, moving toward a syncretic religion. Java became a peaceful melting pot. It is a charm and a treasure. 

Indonesia, known as the Republic of Indonesia after gaining independence from colonial powers on 17th of August in 1945, is situated in Southeast Asia in the Malay Archipelago. The fourth most populated country in the world, Indonesia comprises more than 13,000 islands extending 4800 km along the equator from the Malaysian mainland and stretching towards Australia. The population is estimated at 219,307,1473 on an area of about 1,900,000 sq km. Indonesia’s main island groups are the Greater Sunda Islands (Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi), the Lesser Sunda Islands (Bali, Flores, Sumba, Lombok, and the western part of Timor), the Moluccas, and the Riau Archipelago. Papua, part of the island of New Guinea, was integrated into Indonesia in 1969.

Although this research focuses on the Islamic period, this chapter gives an account of the pre-Islamic period about its geography and history, Hindu-Buddhist Java, the process of Hinduization through contradictory and compromising theories. A fusion of mystic animism1, Hinduism, and Buddhism shows how a syncretic Javanese religion came into practice. Embellishing temples is described in the next sections. The origins and functions of the  candi  (temple) and the Cosmos Mountain are mentioned in Borobodur of Central Java and Panataran of East Java. A comparison between the two Hindu-Buddhist cultures in Java concerning ornament is argued.

Its ethnic structure falls into two groups, the Malayan and the Papuan, with many subdivisions, owing to numerous immigrations many centuries ago, largely from Asia. The Chinese constitute the majority of the non-indigenous population, and minorities of Arabs and Indians exist. Among more than 300 languages, Bahasa Indonesia has been adopted as the official language. Today almost 90% of the population is Muslim, making Indonesia the largest Islamic nation in the world. Around 7% of the population are Christian, and about 2% Hindu and 1% Buddhist.

This chapter highlights temple ornamentation, explaining four motifs of prehistoric2  tumpals, and Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras, lotus buds, and scrolls in temples. Santiko (interview 2004), an Indonesian scholar specializing in Buddhist archaeology, recommends: ‘It is wise to concentrate on motifs in Java, not to compare them with India or China because of local creativity’. However, some information about India is necessary for tracing the origins of the Hindu-Buddhist Javanese culture.

The most important islands, culturally and economically, are Java, Bali, and Sumatra. Java is 1200 km long and 500 km wide, situated about 70 south of the equator on the southern border of the Indonesian Archipelago with uninterrupted sequences of extinct and active volcanoes. The tropical climate, rich rainfall, and fertile soils provide for abundant agriculture.4

3.2. Java, Indonesia The huge Indonesian territory demonstrates a variety of cultural expression, yet throughout history … The country has taken elements from each civilisation through their contacts abroad,

Indonesia starts from the 3rd millennium BC of the neolithic period, characterized by the advent of village settlements, domesticated animals, polished stone tools, pottery and food cultivation. Seafaring was demonstrated as a major occupation by stylized boat motifs, depicted on pottery, in bronze reliefs, on the house, and sacred textiles of primitive tribes. At the end

1  During the prehistoric period, both animism and dynamism prevailed. Animism is based on a mystic belief in a cult of worshipping ancestors; dynamism stands for mystic beliefs in some objects, such as sun, rock, river, etc. As Sufi Islam has mystic beliefs, the term ‘animism’ is particularly used for representing a prehistoric belief in this research (Tjandrasasmita, interview 2005). 2  Tumpals  appeared both in neolithic and megalithic times in prehistoric Indonesia. Tjandrasasmita recommends standardizing the term ‘prehistoric tumpals’.  

3  4 

38

www.world-gazetteer.com Rutherford 1996; Koentjaraningrat 1990

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java

Figure 3.1. Java, Indonesia

16th century, the political power shifted to Central Java, where the Mataram kingdom was founded. Mataram was Islamic, but patterned itself after the great Hindu Majapahit, and practised mystic animism, HinduBuddhism, European pomp, and Islamic circumstance.6

of the neolithic period, megaliths were constructed, leaving many places of worship or tombs. No definite date can be given, but they are less than 2000 years old. The Chinese-influenced Dong Son Bronze-Iron culture of northern Vietnam began in the first millennium BC in Southeast Asia. All early Indonesian bronzes known to date are of the Dong Son type, dating between 500 BC and AD 500. Dong Son culture created ceremonial bronze drums and axes which are decorated with engraved geometric, animal, and human motifs. It was highly influential in Indonesian art and culture.5

European influences in the Malay Peninsula came with the arrival of the Portuguese, who captured Malacca in 1511 in pursuit of spice and established trading posts. The Dutch (1596) expelled the Portuguese and opened the United Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) in 1602. Becoming the leading power in Indonesia by the 17th century, the Dutch built Batavia (now Jakarta) as the capital of the colony and, two centuries later, they controlled the whole area. A short break (1811-1818) took place when the islands were ruled by the British as a result of a victory over Napoleon in a war (1811-1814).

Indonesia came under the influence of Indian civilization through trade and Buddhist missionaries in the fifth century. It was in the eighth century that the Sanjaya and Sailendra kingdoms were founded in Central Java, erecting Hindu Prambanan and Buddhist Borobudur temples, while Sumatra was ruled by Sriwijaya kingdom. Around 930, political power shifted to East Java, and the Hindu kingdoms of Singasari and Majapahit arose, covering vast areas of the Malay Peninsula. Under the Majapahit in the middle of the 14th century, the country experienced the golden period of the whole Indonesian history, and the temple complex of Panataran testifies to its magnificence.

The independence movement initiated early in the 20th century, and the formation in 1908 of Budi Utomo (High Endeavour) is often considered the start of organized nationalism. The Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI) was set up under the leadership of Sukarno in 1927, and after a brief occupation by the Japanese during the Second World War, Sukarno, as President, proclaimed an independent republic in 1945.7

Despite the earlier arrival of Muslim traders in the 11th century (1082), a gradual penetration of Islam began and, by the end of the 16th century, Islam replaced Hinduism and Buddhism as the dominant religion. The first Islamic kingdom of Demak was established on the coastline in northern Java after the conquest of Hindu Majapahit. And many foreign Muslim traders settled down in harbour cities. During the second half of the 5 

3.3. The process of Hinduization The island of Java received the same form of religioculture as that which developed in India, by means of progressive movements which infiltrated into it

6 

Rutherford 1996

7 

39

ibid ibid

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia during the course of the first millennium (Brown 1956: 193).

Bosch’s ‘indigenous theory’ was reinforced by Wales’ (1948: 68, 1951: 229) concept of the local genius. The term ‘the local genius’ designates the ability of certain Southeast Asians who can shape a foreign culture to make it suitable to local conditions, and thereby to create a new culture. Wales attempts to link the local genius with monumental art. Tjandrasasmita (interview 2004), an Indonesian Islamic archaeologist, shares the idea with Wales: ‘The proportion of ornament in temples depends upon artistic concepts and creativity. It is a result of the local genius’.

The introduction of Indian culture into Indonesia in the fifth century has been a subject of contention. Did South Indians take the initiative or native Javanese or both? It seems that Indian culture penetrated peacefully through diplomatic missions, immigration, trade, Buddhist missionaries, Indonesian pilgrimages, and inter-marriages.8 According to Stutterheim (1931), Indonesia came into contact with Indian culture in several ways, such as Indian immigration, which could inspire creative Indonesians to adopt India’s cultural heritage. The basic problem is to assess how these foreign elements were assimilated into Indonesian culture when ancient Javanese culture was ruled by the megalithic philosophy of life: ancestor-cult and animist rituals. Sedyawati (interview, 2004), an Indonesian scholar specializing in Hindu iconography, disagrees with Stutterheim on the basis that there is no concrete evidence of Indian immigration to Indonesia.

These continuous but different theories seem to be compromised by Kempers (1937: 16-17). The Indian and Indonesian cultures were components of equal value in ‘one indivisible whole’. In the relationship between two cultures, he rejects the term ‘influence’, preferring a dynamic concept of a cultural stream. Hindu-Javanese culture gradually came into being as an amalgamation of Indian and indigenous elements. His theory has been accepted by Western scholars; contemporary Indonesian archaeologists tend to continue with the ‘indigenous theory’.

In his PhD dissertation, A Study of Indonesian Architectural History, Sudradjat (1991) introduces the different options held by scholars. Krom (1931: 129) argues that Hindu culture and civilization were imposed by Indians on indigenous Indonesians, testified to by the Javanese Hindu kingdoms between the ninth and 13th centuries. He regards Hindu-Javanese temples as a result of Hinduization, but characterizes them as ‘an art originating from India executed by HinduJavanese’. Javanese artists who converted to Hinduism adopted Indian art traditions and added ‘reluctantly and accidentally’ to their Indonesian character.

Regarding the source of influences on Java, Wagner (1959) asserts that the South Indian culture of the Gupta kingdom was introduced into Indonesia between the third and sixth centuries. Fontein (1971) and Suleiman (1976) suggest that evidence identifies various influences from different regions with their distinctive cultures, such as the Pallava and Chola kingdoms in the South, Gujarat in the West, and even Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Of the four theories (Krom: Indonesia’s indebtedness to civilized Indian culture; Bosch: indigenous theory; Wales: the local genius; and Kempers: equal value of cultures), Bosch and Wales have appealed to Indonesians. The term ‘Hindu-Javanese’ is an expression combining Indian artistic tradition with indigenous Javanese spirit.

Bosch (1946: 20) has a different view. Indian influence was not the result of Indian efforts to expand their culture; it was a consequence of Indonesians who visited Indian sacred places and studied with Indian masters. Hindu-Javanese temples were built by native Javanese. Instead of using terms ‘influence’ or ‘mixing’, he described Hindu-Javanese culture as the creative product of Hindu-Javanese society guided by the Indian spirit: ‘predestined to develop into an independent organism in which foreign and native elements were to merge into a dissolvable entity’.

3.4. A fusion of Animism, Hinduism, and Buddhism The Javanese finds it easy to fuse various religious conceptions. Mysticism was a necessity of life for him, whilst he rarely attached decisive importance to theological problems. This accounts for the characteristic feature of religious life in Java: an open-minded tolerance. The second characteristic … is ancestor worship, originating in the neolithic age (Wagner 1959: 98).

Prijotomo (interview 2004), an Indonesian scholar specializing in Javanese syncretism, agrees with Bosch’s theory: ‘Temples in Central Java were originally in a Javanese style. They are a Javanese creation, a modified Hinduism. It is Hindu-Javanese’.

During the establishment of peasant culture, the indigenous Javanese had much in common with mystic animism, believing in spirits that inhabit the worldly environment. Into this culture, new and dynamic Indian Hinduism, particularly in its Sivaite (god of a destroyer) aspect, and Mahayanist (Great Vehicle)

Fontein 1971; Coomaraswamy 1972; Prijotomo 1992; Dawson and Gillow 1994

8 

40

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java Buddhist elements, penetrated in kraton (palace) noble art from the fifth century. Within a short time, there occurred a distinctive fusion of beliefs and cultural elements, and Hindu-Buddhist dogma was interpreted according to their liking and the convenience of mystical meditation, rather than dogmatic principles.9

3.5. Candis (temples): a replica of the Cosmos Mountain, Meru 3.5.1. Candis Architecture is a way of expressing people’s desires, giving the form that is desired to space. The temple is its most perfect expression. For all religions, space is the essential manifestation of divine creative powers. The temple raises a minute portion of the earth to superior importance, and is, by this fact alone, apart from any other symbolism, a proof of divine presence (Dumarçay 1986: 1).

In the process of the Indian infiltrations, Sedyawati (1990) points to two main elements: Hindu-Buddhism, and the Hindu social concept of kingship. Other related cultural characteristics, including ideas and techniques in architecture and sculpture, were selected and modified. In Central Java, Hinduism and Buddhism were tolerated alongside each other, sharing the Sanskrit language, a view of the world, and the nature of spiritual power and religious life. Reliefs on Borobodur depict Hindu Brahmans worshipping a Buddhist stupa (monument), and Buddhist Prince Sudhana receiving instruction from Siva, the Hindu god.10

In the early 19th century, Raffle’s (1830) interpretation of a candi as a royal tomb to enshrine the ashes of the burnt corpses of kings was widely accepted. A century later, Krom (1923) says that the candi is a monument erected over the ashes of a deceased person. His idea culminated further Stutterheim until Soekmono, an Indonesian archaeologist, challenged with a new theory.

During the reunification of Central Java, the Hindu Sanjaya acquired a new cultural and technical impetus from the Buddhist monuments of India. On the ruins of an old temple, Rakai Pikatan, the Hindu Sanjaya ruler, erected the Buddhist complex of the Plaosan temple as a step towards syncretism.11 King Kertanegara of Singasari constructed the Jawi temple, a combined Siva-Buddha shrine. In Majapahit of the 14th century, both religious leaders had equal status.12 Nevertheless, the expression ‘syncretism’ has caused a few disputes among scholars.

Stutterheim (1931) saw old Javanese candi to be different from Indian temples. They are not places for the worship of the Hindu deities, but are funeral temples to worship dead kings, who were identified with Hindu gods after their deification. Moreover, a candi is a continuation of ancient Indonesian animism in a new form. In this regard, Soekmono (1974) insisted that the candi is a shrine dedicated to deified kings, who were famed for their virtue during their lifetime. He demonstrated evidence of a pura (Balinese temple) where the animistic concept of ancestor worship with cosmological significance was applied. The installation of Hindu statues is similar to the consecration of monuments in megalithic culture. In 1990, Soekmono developed his theory that a tendency of returning to prehistoric concepts influenced the architecture of East Java. The temple complex of Panataran in Majapahit is a direct forerunner of the Balinese temple of today.13

Syncretism in the Hindu-Buddhist religion has been challenged. Now we use the term ‘coalition’ or ‘parallelism’, because syncretism in the Encyclopaedia of Religion is defined as the combination of two or more cultural traits, so that a new cultural element emerges containing both traits. In reality, they practised each in parallel. So, I favour the term ‘parallelism’ (Santiko, interview 2004). I only agree with Santiko when parallelism happens in simple things, but when things start to develop, it is called ‘diffusion’ (Tjandrasasmita, interview 2004).

From a cosmological viewpoint, a candi is a place where gods were considered to have their actual presence, representing a replica of the Cosmos Mountain, Meru. And the central object of worship is the image of the god; the king is treated as a living god and on his death, he merges with the god.14 If we accept the latest theory, a candi in Java is a temple dedicated to deified kings.

In a word, Javanese religion appears to be the outcome of a blending of mystic animism, Sivaite Hinduism, and Mahayanist Buddhism. The cultural history in Java proves how syncretism has peacefully occurred in temple architecture and ornamentation across Central and East Java.

Wagner 1959; Holt 1967 Fox 1998 11  Dumarçay 1986 12  Fox 1998 9 

10 

13  14 

41

Cited by Sudradjat 1991: 49-51 Fontein 1971; Suleiman 1976

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Figure 3.2. Borobodur Temple, Central Java, 8C (Image: the Author)

Nalanda, [are linked] to the renowned school of Gandhara, where the sculpture of stupas is linked with the Hellenistic sculpture of sarcophagi known to us from Asia Minor … we find an offspring thereof in the Borobodur (cited by Holt 1967: 48).

3.5.2. Borobodur (8C) of Central Java and Panataran (1197-1454) of East Java Borobodur occupies the foremost position in the study of form, function, and meaning in Javanese temple architecture and ornamentation. Interpreted as a ‘hill monastery’, it was built in the second half of the eighth century by the Buddhist Sailendra kingdom. Stutterheim (1956) claimed that Borobodur, like all other candis, symbolizes the Cosmos Mountain, the mythical abode of the gods. The temple has a tripartite division of the base of the monument, the square terraces of the pyramid, and the round terraces with stupas. Six of the nine terraces are square and are decorated, while the rest are circular and devoid of all ornamentation.

Munsterberg (1970) held a different view from Zimmer. Carvings in Borobodur exemplify Javanese characteristics, such as the use of black volcanic stone, the ethnic type of sculpture, and softer and gentler forms than Gupta’s carving. But he accepts that there is a reference to Indian models in form and iconography. Soekmono (1990) shares Munsterberg’s idea because the art form of Borobodur was not transferred intact from India to Indonesia, but was a combination of the Indian world of thought and Indonesian creativity by its native potentiality and tradition.

An examination carried out by Atmadi (1988) revealed that the layered stone and decorative structure system have the durability and the character of infinity to form an ideal home for the gods. The structure allows for ornamentation, reducing the massiveness of the building. Zimmer (1960) argues that the refined techniques of the sculpture and ornamentation of the temple appear to have an Indian origin, guided by indigenous inspiration, due to a close relationship between Gupta India15 and Borobodur. Stutterheim (1956) attempted to connect the temple with the GrecoBuddhist Gandhara,16 which flourished in Northern India in the first century AD. He relates:

In East Java, the most significant candi is the Hindu temple complex of Panataran (1197-1454). Situated on the north of Blitar, it was consecrated to Siva, the Lord of the Mountain. Despite some earlier construction during the Singasari period, the crucial parts were finished at the time of Majapahit. Panataran has a variety of ornamental motifs in three temple courts, which are connected. Kala heads and tumpals are on display at a temple in the first court. And another one in the next has a unique decoration. A big naga (snake) is coiled around a figure, and tumpals reappear. In the third court stands the main temple with a Meru roof. It bears lavish ornamentation with bands of friezes and numerous medallions of animals and reliefs, illustrating the Hindu epic story, Ramayana. These are designed in an ingenious wayang (shadow puppet) style.17

I found among the remains of Nalanda some things that may be recognized as the immediate models of Central Javanese art … The temples of West India, Gupta (c. 350-650 AD) is considered to be the golden age of Indian culture. Gupta shrines reflect ‘sudden glory’ under a fresh inspiration. Brown 1956 16  A Hellenistic fusion into Gandhara (BC250 to 450 AD) is called the Greco-Buddhist. The best example is a Corinthian capital with a small figure of the Buddha enthroned amidst the conventional Greek acanthus leaves. Brown 1956 15 

17 

42

Wagner 1959

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java

Figure 3.3. Panataran temple, East Java, 1197-1454 (Image: the Author)

Here the worship of Siva as a Mountain God facilitated a combination of Hinduism with old Indonesian terrace cults; in the resulting mixture of Indo-Javanese and Indonesian elements and a new combination of both there appeared for a brief period a definite style, not lacking in vitality (Coomaraswamy 1972: 209).

directly influenced by Indian elements; that of East Java was created by the indigenous Javanese. According to Wagner (1959: 104-105), the ornamentation in Central Java is subordinate to the concept of the building. Ornaments become like works of art ‘in their own right’ with lavish embellishment. In East Java, the style of sculptures is no longer Indian in character, but evolves into a style similar to the native wayang. He also disagrees with Krom’s ‘degeneration’ theory, maintaining that the visible change of form in religious art can be understood in terms of two interacting Javanese cultural movements.

3.5.3. The Two Cultures of Central (760-930) and East (9301500) Java Hindu-Buddhist art in Java is divided into two periods: Central (760-930) and East Java (930-1500). Several attempts have shown continuity between them. Krom (1923: 461) began discussing the unity of the two cultures, and temples of both regions display a continuous aesthetic principle. He called Central Javanese art ‘Hindu-Javanese’ style, and treated East Javanese art as a ‘degeneration’ of Central Javanese style:

Holt (1967: 71-83) shares Wagner’s perspective. On temple ornamentation in East Java, natural elements become stylized. Trees and foliage in a combined spiral and flame-shaped motif adorn the low relief. The filling of space, inspiriting it with vibrant configurations, is another new aspect. The style is an outcome of a creative response to the cultural climate of their time. Denying Krom’s theory, Holt describes a process of ‘indigenisation,’ in which foreign influences are integrated into local ideas and concrete forms as ‘the spirit of the age’.

The continuous line has never been broken in any respect, and the difference between what we call Central-Javanese and East-Javanese art … is the gradual development of the art sprouting from Hindu tradition in the Indonesian way … No matter how far the endpoints might stand from each other, Hindu-Javanese art remains one and indivisible (cited by Sudradjat 1991: 45).

Fontein (1971: 40-45) differentiates between two cultures. In Borobodur of Central Java, the artist practised his rich imagination and luxurious ornamentation in variations on lotus scroll and kalamakara motifs. Eastern Javanese temples do not display the same characteristics, despite their higher artistic quality. Their relief sculpture shows a stylized and

Krom has met with much opposition in a detailed analysis by Wagner, Holt, and Fontein (1971). They claim that the ornamentation of Central Java was 43

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Mendut temple (9C); Kalasan temple (9C), Central Java

Panataran temple (1197-1454); Jawi Temple (13C), East Java Figure 3.4. Two cultures: Central and East Java (Image: the Author)

literary flavour. Art of Central Java is ‘monumental and robust’; that of East Java is ‘intimate and poetic’. Despite this tendency towards wayang-like stylization, the tradition of spirited, lively rendition … continued to exist, and emerged, again and again, from among the more hieratic and stylized representations in relief sculpture (Fontein 1971: 44).

motifs in common, but they have their distinct motifs. Central Java has the kala, makara, lotus, rosettes, and upward rising or rectangular panels with scrolls, derived from Indian art. In East Java, motifs are concentrated in horizontal bands, particularly in three horizontal bands on the upper, middle, and lower parts of temple bases and bodies. Several motifs from Central Java reappeared sporadically or have vanished in East Java.

This dissimilarity was again noted by Klokke (2000). Central and East Javanese ornamentation have a few

Indonesian scholars gave various reasons for this. Tjandrasasmita (interview 2004) says that Central 44

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java primal source of life.22 A Hindu garuda (bird) is repeated with the Vishnu (Hindu god), or without him, to connote the mount of Vishnu. Reverence for the garuda in Indonesia became combined with a much earlier bird cult.23

Javanese ornaments have a classical Indian style, using the lotus, East Javanese motifs are indigenous. They are slender and use different forms of ornaments. Sedyawati (interview 2004) agrees with the revival of indigenous ornaments in East Javanese temple ornamentation. According to Prijotomo (interview 2004), the characteristics of Central Javanese ornaments lie in three-dimensional, voluminous, and natural qualities. By contrast, ornaments in East Java are twodimensional, flat, and stylized: ‘Decoration in East Java is a renaissance of pre-Hindu ideas, which were animistic and two-dimensional’.

It is the lotus (padma), by which the sacredness of the temple was most expressed, to signify the seat of the highest divinity, the birth of the Universe, the birth of the Buddha, and the ultimate truth.24 Indian mythology says that gods were born out of the lotus flowers, upon which they were seated.25 Of floral decoration on temples, two purposes of aesthetic beauty and religious connotation exist. The 4-, 5-, 6-, 8-petalled floral motif without leaves, stems, and fruits vary their symbolic meanings according to number. Their symbols are more important than serving a purely decorative function.26

3.6. Four motifs in Javanese temple ornamentation 3.6.1. Temple Ornamentation Indian art is essentially idealistic, mystic, symbolic, and transcendental. The artist is both priest and poet … Indian art appeals only to the imagination, and strives to realize the spirituality and abstraction of supra-terrestrial sphere (Bosch 1970: 222).

Moreover, on relief panels and niches of temples, kalpataru (the wishing tree) represents heaven, while purnaghata (a pot of plenty)27 appears with flowering plants or scrolls growing from ewers of holy water, symbolizing the elixir of immortality. To this, kinnara (heavenly musician), usually female, half-human, halfbird, is added.28

The Chinese-influenced Dong Son style of the BronzeIron age influenced Southeast Asian art.18 In Indonesia, spiral lines and decorative geometrical figures such as tumpals and swastika appeared along with ancient symbolic signs. Popular plant motifs were later introduced during Hinduization in the fifth century.

3.6.2. The Prehistoric Tumpal Javanese Islam adopted indigenous geometrical ornaments and Hindu-Buddhist floral motifs (Subarna, interview 2004).

As a candi represents the universe and the home of the gods, their proportion, numbers of pillars and corridors, and sculptures should conform to the Indian canon of architecture and sculpture, called silpasastra.19 The walls, carved with decorative motifs of human beings, animals, mythological characters, and floral motifs have a specific place in the scheme of temple architecture.20

A tumpal, a decorated triangle, is one of the most widely distributed ornamental motifs on temples. The motif, whose origin was from ancient neolithic and megalithic times, survived in regions, where Hinduism was almost infiltrated. No certainty on its origins has been reached. Some scholars interpret it as an unrecognizable human figure, due to its extreme stylization. Others consider a stylized bamboo shoot. Whether an ancestral figure or bamboo, the tumpal had a magic character or represented an idea of fertility.29

In adorning temples, Javanese artists elaborated a wide range of ornamental motifs from India into the Javanese environment. A combination of different motifs was usual, varying according to location, and in groupings on temples, to deliver messages of the divine nature of structures and ornaments. Many motifs are of things that Javanese believed were found in heaven. The two common motifs are triangular-shaped antefix and tumpal, carved with variations on tops of walls and cornices.21 As a combined animal form, kala-makara appears on lintels of doorways and stairs. Kala is a symbol of time, and makara, a representative of the

A probably ceremonial vessel from Madura outside Java shaped like a fisherman’s basket at the Museum Nasional in Jakarta reveals that a triangular decoration forecasts the tumpal ornamentation of later Indonesian

Soemantri 1998 van der Hoop 1949 24  Soemantri 1998 25  Wagner 1959 26  Gupta 1996 27  The Gupta capital has the purnakalasa (bowl of plenty), signifying a renewed faith. An allegory of the ‘vase and flower’ motif is one of the most graceful forms in the whole range of Indian architecture. Brown 1956 28  Tjahjono 1998 29  Wagner 1959 22  23 

Heine-Geldern, cited by Wagner 1959 Silpasastra is a canon that discuss of Hindu religious architecture and sculpture mainly, not temple ornamentation in detail. Sedyawati, interview 2005 20  Gupta 1996 21  Tjahjono 1998 18  19 

45

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Megalithic tumpals from Madura, outside Java Figure 3.5. Prehistoric tumpal (Kempers 1959)

art.30 Filled with scrolls, it is popular in batik work. Sometimes the triangle itself is omitted; only the scroll ornament remains to keep a more or less triangular shape.31

3.6.3. The Hindu-Buddhist Kala-Makara A kala head was shown in Hindu-Buddhist temples. In India, it was often taken to be a lion’s head (kirtimukha, banaspati), but in Indonesia, it merged into a human face or a demon’s head. The kala head with the swollen eye and tusk appears over an arched gate of Javanese Hindu-Buddhist temple, while a pair of makaras by curving outwards terminates at the bottom of a gatepost. A makara, an imaginary animal with the shape of a fish and the trunk of an elephant, was introduced into Indonesia during Hinduization.35

Hindu-Buddhist tumpal has another role of symbolizing the Cosmos Mountain, Meru. Beliefs about its role existed in prehistoric times. This thought was expressed in Hindu-Buddhist temples and Islamic mosques, due to Javanese Islam being a syncretic religion’.32 In Kalasan, built in the ninth century in Central Java, two types of the tumpal - freestanding and attached to other objects - were found during the fieldwork. At the temple entrance, a big  tumpal  adorns a lion’s upper shoulder and stretches over his neck and head. Its shape is not a typical geometric triangle, but its natural and curved triangle makes a similar frame to the tumpal.

In Indian mythology, a kala-makara (or naga, snake) motif represents the Cosmos Mountain, the abode of the gods. It also serves to ward off demonic influences from the temple.36 Kempers (1959) proposes that the kala and makara stand respectively for the celestial and watery elements in creation. In combination, they signify a duality, such as celestial/watery, or male/female. They imply the principal aspects of a totality, illustrated in a beautiful kala head from Kalasan. The face protrudes against a background of floral ornament, and part of the head has been transformed into leaves and shoots.

A tumpal border, composed of a row of isosceles triangles, is elaborated on the Naga temple of Panataran (1197-1454). Here the tumpal is embellished with scrolls, and occurs four times, twice to the right and twice to the left on stairways.33 In Djago (1268), tumpals on the upper corner of the entrance and the volute spiral on the flight of steps leading the second terrace testify to their popularity as ornaments in East Java.34

The kala-head, in Indonesia, apparently had various symbolic functions. As a head completes with the lower jaw, it could be interpreted as the bodyless head of the monster that swallows the moon (causing eclipses) and which was punished by decapitation (Kempers 1991: 71-72).

Kempers 1959 van der Hoop 1949 32  Tjandrasasmita, interview 2005 33  van der Hoop 1949 34  Kempers 1959 30  31 

35  36 

46

van der Hoop 1949 Wagner 1959

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java

Kalasan temple (9C), Central Java

Panataran temple (1197-1454); Djago temple (1268), East Java Figure 3.6. Tumpals in Javanese temples (Image: the Author)

47

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Kala, Borobodur temple (8C), Central Java; Makara, Prambanan temple (8-9C), Central Java

Kala, Djago temple (1268), East Java; Kala, Singasari temple (12C), East Java Figure 3.7. Kalas and makaras in Javanese temples (Image: the Author)

A kala face from Djago (1268) in East Java is much more human than that of Central Java. The mouth is as terrifying as the bulging eyes; the hands, a new addition in East Java, are raised in a threatening gesture. The high crest which crowns Central Javanese kala has been reduced to a triangular ornament above the nose, and the ear ornaments are shaped like the leaf decoration.37 Central and East Javanese kalas were again differentiated by Suleiman (1976) and Klokke (2000). The kala of Central Java has no lower jaw and shows a friendly appearance; that of East Java has a full face with a jaw having a fiercer look. A combined kala-naga in East Java replaces the kala-makara in Central Java.

37 

3.6.4. The Hindu-Buddhist Lotus Bud In Hindu-Buddhist art, many symbols have a decorative function and are elements of a highly developed system of ornamentation. They are encountered on a variety of works of art - on buildings, and in carved and painted figures. Some motifs are repeated in all Hindu-Buddhist lands, and many of them have a common link. The less representational and the more fitted for abstract decoration, they are easier to become ornaments. Plant motifs predominate over animal ones and geometric motifs over those consisting of figures.38 The lotus played the most significant role in HinduBuddhist art. Three types exist: (1) the red lotus

Kempers 1959

38 

48

Seckel 1964

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java

Prambanan temple (8-9C), Central Java Figure 3.8. Bodhisattva lotus-in-hand (Image: the Author)

1.

(nelumbium speciosum, Sanskrit padma) has broad petals with buds and a cone-shaped receptacle. Its leaves undulate at the edges, and its flowers rise over the water, (2) the blue lotus (nympahea stellata, Sanskrit utpala) has narrow petals, a flower half in the bud, a bulbous receptacle, and smooth leaves. Neither leaves nor flowers rise over the water, and (3) the white lotus (nymphaea lotus, Sanskirt kumuda) has broad but pointed petals with a bulbous receptacle. The leaves do not twine, but leaves and flowers float on the water.39

2.

Hindu mythology tells that the world was composed of atman (the soul) and maya (illusion), and its creation was symbolized by the growth of the lotus. As the primordial lotus grew from the waters of eternity, bringing the Brahma (the god of creation) and all other creations, it became a motif in representing creation and sanctity. In Hindu-Buddhist temples of Central Java, the lotus, characterized by naturalism, was extensive for wall decoration, signifying ideal beauty.40 The identity of the primaeval lotus and Dharma (mystical doctrine) is fundamental in the Mahayanist (Great Vehicle) Buddhism, too. The lotus, as the creator and supporter of the cosmic tree, became the pattern for the abstract notions of the Dharma, preached by the Buddha.41

3.

The lotus in iconography has four forms: (1) lotus goddess, (2) lotus supports, (3) Bodhisattva lotus-inhand, and (4) lotus flowers.42 van der Hoop 1949 Sedyawati 1990 41  Bosch 1960 42  Zimmer 1960

The lotus goddess (padma) dwells in the lotus and is synonymous with Sri Laksimi, the wife of the Hindu Vishnu god, the creator and maintainer of the world. Representing earthly fulfilment and bliss, Laksimi manifests the universal mother of life, presiding over the fertility and moisture of the soil and stands on the lotus. On an Amaravati pillar of the third century AD in India, an early example of the lotus pedestal for the Buddha exists. Here Buddha stands on expanded lotus calyxes. As luminous phantoms, Buddha and Bodhisattvas reflect the phenomenal planes of celestial and terrestrial interaction. The earliest seated Buddha on lotus calyxes appeared in the later Gandhara works of the third century AD. Since then, the lotus on the Buddha pedestal has become the principal image of Mahayana worship in Buddhism. The Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara is the most powerful Buddha, holding a lotus flower on a long stem in his left hand, supported by a lotus pedestal.43 In Java, at one time Avalokitesvara,44 the Buddhist goddess, moved by compassion for this wretched world, shed a tear which changed into a lake full of lotuses. On one of them arose a goddess. Her figure is represented in the central panel on the south side in Mendut of the ninth century in Central Java, and the stalk of the lotus is supported by two nagas.45 In Borobodur,

Zimmer 1960 Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara is a male Buddhist god in India, but it is a female goddess in Indonesia. Sedyawati, interview 2004 45  Kempers 1959

39 

43 

40 

44 

49

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

4.

Bodhisattvas carry a long-stemmed lotus in one hand.46 The lotus flower undergoes a series of evolutionary stages, beginning with a bud as a basic form of symbolic transformation. Three forms are developed: the half-open flower, the fully open flower, and the half-withered flower. Its symbol is applied when the lotus flower becomes part of a composite plant whose branches of candelabrum are spread, bearing the figure of a god or other object of worship.47 The best examples are shown on the railing pillars of Buddhist Bharut and the gateways of Sanchi in the second century BC in India. On Sanchi stupas, a whole scene of trees, plants, animals, and humans are embellished, giving the panorama a pastoral effect. Hindu temples show the lotus flower, such as Brahma sitting on a lotus, or purely decorative lotus.48

Figure 3.9. Various types of undulating scrolls in Javanese temples (Bosch 1960)51

Bosch (1960: 20, 23, 51) observes that various adaptations were introduced, to employ the natural plant of lotus scrolls on temple ornamentation for decorative purposes. Rather stylized, the submerged, horizontally growing part of the plant was visible to the spectator and transformed into a decorative motif. The importance of the scroll lies in its function as a symbol. It is the start of life, called Hiranyagarbha, ‘the Golden Germ’.

The lotus flower symbolizes the essential nature of all human beings and all things, in principle unpolluted … of the samsara sphere, or by Delusion, and realized by attaining Enlightenment. At the same time it forms a cosmic symbol which unfolds in all directions: the stalk represents the axis mundi, and thus the lotus also serves as the throne of the Buddha and the centre of the mandala (Seckel 1964: 279).

The Indian concept of the origin of life has been dominated by the belief in dual forces in nature. The male element is creative and omnipresent; the female one is chaotic, an inert mass of primaeval waters. When creative breadth enters the waters, ‘the Golden Germ’, the beginning and origin of all creation, is born. A close look at Borobodur exposes a variant on the lotus rootstock. An animal or a human or another emblem in a circular form replaces the lotus root and rises upwards, introducing nodes as ‘the Golden Germ’.

3.6.5. The Hindu-Buddhist Scroll49 It was not until the Hindu period in Java that vegetal ornaments came into the vogue; ever since, they have formed the principal part of Indonesian ornamentation (van der Hoop 1949: 233).

The idea of ‘the Golden Germ’ is crucial in using scrolls on Hindu-Buddhist temple ornamentation. It is also a clue to identifying the origins of scrolls in Javanese mosques, either Hindu-Buddhist, Islamic or both. ‘The Golden Germ’ has been explained by Santiko, Tjandrasasmita, and Sedyawati in interviews (2004): Hindu-Buddhist scrolls have a root on the bottom of their scrolls, sometimes replaced by makara or other animals to symbolize ‘life’.

In Hindu-Buddhist ornament, the scroll motif often occurs in the shape of a recalcitrant spiral. It is the rootstock of the undulating lotus which produces nodes (Sanskrit parvan) at regular intervals; from each node emerges a leaf-stalk in the shape of a spiral. These spirals undulate alternately to the right and the left. At the end of each leaf-stalk, there is a leaf that bends in the opposite direction to the stalk. Where the stalk curls clockwise, the leaf undulates the other way. Brandes named it ‘the recalcitrant spiral’.50

A comparison of Indian scrolls52 and those of Borobodur are attempted by Kempers (1959). Scrolls in Borobodur are a reminder of the Greco-Buddhist style, which had influenced the sculptural ornament. They also reflect The stem with its side-branches moves forward horizontally with two ways of treatment of a and b. Stems in c and d move vertically upward and present two modes. 52  Brown (1956) argues that over some surfaces of the Dhamek stupa at Sarnath, near Benares in India, a diaper pattern is luxuriantly and elegantly carved in floral scrolls. The most original designs are those forming a wide border around its lower circuit, composed of floral and geometric motifs. This floral - a spiral motif - is Gupta style and became the archetype of the border of spiral curves and foliated medallions on the façade of the Qutub Mosque at Delhi many centuries later, during the Muslim regime. It is an example of syncretic ornament between the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods in India. 51 

Miksic 1990 Bosch 1960 48  Gupta 1996 49  Different terms have been used in literature to describe the scroll. Brandes uses the term ‘spiral’; Kempers as ‘tendril’. This research chooses ‘scroll’ as a standard term. 50  Cited by van der Hoop 1949: 272 46  47 

50

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java

Borobodur temple (8C), Central Java; Mendut temple (9C), Central Java

Kalasan temple (9C), Central Java; Prambanan temple (8-9C), Central Java

Panataran temple (1197-1454), East Java; Jawi temple (13C), East Java

Djago temple (1268), East Java; Simping temple (13-14C), East Java Figure 3.10. Scrolls in Central and East Java (Image: the Author)

51

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

A vine scroll of Umayyad palace Syria, 8C (Image: the Author); A vine scroll in Borobodur, Central Java 8C (Image: the Author)

A vine scroll on a Roman lead coffin from Sidon, Lebanon 2-3C AD (Wilson 2001); A vine scroll in Gandhara, north-west Pakistan, 2-3C AD (Wilson 2001) Figure 3.11. Vine scrolls from antiquity to Islamic Umayyad palace, Greco-Buddhist Gandhara India, and Hindu-Buddhist Java, Indonesia

the lotus scrolls of Bharhut in India in the second century BC. A difference lies in the small-size of reliefs being placed in the curves of the scrolls in Bharhut, while there are larger panels separated by vertical recalcitrant spirals in Borobodur.

are not contrived, being merely enlargements of what the dogma prescribes, when observing how perfectly they harmonize with the whole, then we must admit that this temple had to be built that way and no other in order to be perfect (Bruyn, cited by Bosch 1961: 41).

Mendut is the most ornamental. Scrolls on panels sprout from a round tuber, which is sometimes replaced by a fish, a vase, or a tortoise. Decorative panels are surrounded by scrolls, in part purely ornamental, and partially filled with semi-divine beings. The body of the temple is decorated with 30 panels whose parts are ornamental motifs with scrolls. Kalasan has rich vegetation of flowers and curly leaves, too. The vine scroll, as a variant of the lotus motif, emerges from a tuber and develops sideways. As the tuber is a symbol of ‘plenty’, the lotus is supposed to sprout from a tuber.

East Javanese scrolls are stylized and indigenous. Djago (1268) displays scrolls, a variant of the spiral ornament, on the post and lintels. The vertical movement of the shortened scrolls has lost much of its smoothness. On the flight of steps, an arrangement of curls and scrolls springs from behind the back of a lion. In Panataran (1197-1454), scrolls are expressed in a medallion form on the main temple. Diameters are about 35 cm, and all kinds of animals serve to the decoration within a circular shape. Their tails continue into a scroll and recall Central Javanese ones, but are reduced to a single curl, filling the entire medallion.53

This temple is overcrowded with ornament … but when seeing the good taste with which it has been applied; when realizing that all these decorations

53 

52

Kempers 1959

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java Referring to the vine scroll, Trilling (2001) argues its prototype of the arabesque. In the sixth century BC, Greek artists adopted stylized plant forms from Egypt and the Near East and transformed them into the first vine scrolls. By the second century AD, the vine scroll of recognizable Western origin reached India. During the Gupta period between the late third and sixth centuries, artists elaborated vine scrolls to a new level of elegance, using them in images of the Buddha. Gradually, they became flame-like, distanced from the original plant-form, and were introduced into Java, during Hinduization in the fifth century.

were introduced from Hindu-Buddhist India. All are integrated side by side in temples, as sacred ornaments. Hindu-Buddhist culture in Java shows a possible connection between the prehistoric and Islamic periods, providing an inheritance for Javanese mosque ornamentation. 1.

2.

Trilling’s theory raises a question. Zimmer (1960) posits that the sculpture in Borobodur is of Indian origin, probably from Gupta India. Stutterheim (1956) associates Borobodur with the Greco-Buddhist school of Gandhara, accepted by Kempers (1959). The question remains open as to whether the vine scrolls in Borobodur came to Indonesia via India, based on the Greek original, while it also made a journey to the Arab world, to become the arabesque in mosque ornamentation. This supposition can suggest an example of syncretic ornament beyond time and space, mediating between different cultures.

3.

3.7. Summary This section shows a few findings, deducted from the limited number of accounts on Hindu-Buddhist Java. The outcome contributes to an understanding of Islamic Java in the next section and the analysis of the four motifs in further chapters.

A syncretic religion on the fusion of mystic animism, Hinduism, and Buddhism in the HinduBuddhist Javanese period anticipates a smooth introduction of Islam into Java. It leads us to inspect the four motifs in Javanese mosques. The sacred character of temple ornamentation endows ornaments in Javanese mosques to be sacred, differentiating them from orthodox Islamic ones for aesthetic beauty. The four motifs have symbolic connotations in the Javanese context. Similarities and dissimilarities of temple ornamentation between Central and East Java can identify the origins of motifs in Javanese mosques, particularly in scrolls. Naturalness in ornament appeared in Central Java, compared to stylization in East Java. The idea of ‘the Golden Germ’ (the creation of life) leads towards a solution. If a root shows in scrolls, the scrolls are of Hindu-Buddhist origin.

3.8. Islamic Java (15c-the present) This section focuses on its Islamic era, related to syncretic Javanese Islam and continuity of pre-Islamic motifs in mosque ornamentation. The difference between Agami Jawi (Javanese Religion) and Agami Islam Santri (Islam of the Religious People) enables to understand the presence of pre-Islamic ornaments and the later appearance of orthodox Islamic ones. The spread of Islam in Java and the origins and characteristics of Javanese mosques inform us of the political background and social circumstances. The adoption of existing architectural elements and the sacred mihrab in Java differ from those in the Middle East. Finally, a short account of pre-Islamic and Islamic ornaments displays a whole picture of Javanese mosque ornamentation from the start until now.

Hindu-Buddhist culture came to Indonesia probably through trade and Buddhist missionaries arriving in the fifth century. Despite different views about the origins of Hinduization, theories of indigenous and the local genius seem to be favoured today. Cooperation between Indian artistic tradition and indigenous creative spirits gave birth to the term ‘Hindu-Javanese’. Javanese religion is a product of fusing mystic animism, Sivaite Hinduism, and Mahayanist Buddhism. This syncretism has been displayed in Hindu-Buddhist candis (temples), the abode of gods, to represent the Cosmos Mountain, Meru. Java has two cultures: Central Java (760-930) and East Java (930-1500). Lavish and natural ornamentation in Central Javanese temples has Indian influence; simple and stylized ornaments in East Java reflect their native and indigenous style.

3.9. Syncretic Islam in Javanese mosques 3.9.1. Agami Jawi (Javanese Religion) and Agami Islam Santri (Islam of the Religious People) Islam came, in any case, by sea … but of trade … And the trading classes ... combined in Java to produce a religious system not quite doctrinal enough to be Middle Eastern and not quite ethereal enough to be South Asian. The overall result is what can properly be called syncretism (Geertz 1971: 12-13).

Hindu-Buddhist temples are adorned with many types of ornamental motifs, providing both aesthetic beauty and symbolic significance. The tumpal, a triangular shape, was derived from neolithic and megalithic times in Indonesia. The kala-makara, lotus bud, and scroll 53

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Islam, interpreted as ‘submission’ to the Will of God, was originated in the Arabian Peninsula by the Prophet Muhammad (c. 570-632) when he received revelations (the Holy Koran) from God in about 610. His migration (hijrah) in 622 from Mecca to Medina is the turning point in establishing the Islamic community (ummat), denoting the transition from the pagan to the Muslim world.

Indonesia, Agami Islam Santri, spread in the country, founding an Islamic congregation.57 Islam in Indonesia had been unfenced by many local customs (adat) and ideas. Learned Indonesian Muslims now consequently observed all around them a widespread need for reform; their feelings were strengthened by Dutch domination, which they felt had been made possible by the decline of (orthodox) Islam (Ricklefs 1993: 168).

Islam endows life with unity, and the essence of Islam is contained in a single sentence: ‘There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the Prophet of God (La ilaha illa’Llah Muhammad rausla’llah)’. This profession and credo (shahadah) of absolute monotheism is held to be the ultimate revelation of God’s Will, expressing the idea of unity. The principles of the Islamic faith are the Five Pillars. They are the credo; ritual prayer five times a day in the direction of Mecca (salat); the fast (sawm) in the tenth month of the lunar year, Ramadan; alms (zakat), giving between 2.5 and 10% of one’s wealth to the needy; pilgrimage (haj) to Mecca at least once in one’s life. Shariah, the Islamic law, clarifies the principles of Islam.54

Prijotomo (1992) interprets a character of the interplay of traditions and ideas as a universal tolerance of different races, colours, and creeds. Syncretism was practised by Sultan Agung58 of Mataram, who absorbed Islamic elements into Hindu-Javanese life. Javanese syncretism was in discussions through interviews in 2004. At first, Tjandrasasmita argues: ‘Indonesian Islam did not accept Islam 100%. It was a selection’. Pirous shares with the same view that HinduJavanese Islam is a somewhat relaxed Islam. Islamic orthodoxy started after the Dutch colonization of Java. For Prijotomo, the Javanese attitude makes a priority to Javanese identity; then to Islam as a religion.

In Java, although Islam is the official creed and has contributed to Javanese society as a means of enhancing the unity in culture, the basic patterns of ancestral and mythical beliefs provided a common background for religious experience.55 Two types of Islamic religious manifestation exist. Agami Jawi (Javanese Religion) represents an extensive complex of mystically inclined Hindu-Buddhist beliefs and concepts, integrated within an Islamic frame of reference. Agami Islam Santri, interpreted as ‘Islam of the Religious People’, is a variant of Javanese Islam, and is much closer to the formal dogma of Islam.56

3.9.2. The Arrival and Spread of Islam59 in Java The spread of Islam may have been the result of the presence in Java of Muslim foreigners belonging to various social classes: on the one hand substantial businessmen and their dependants in the harbour towns, on the other adventurous wanderers with a zeal for the propagation of the faith and an eye to concomitant worldly profit. It seems certain that the two groups were interrelated from the beginning (Pigeaud and de Graff 1976: 172-173).

Toward the middle of the 19th century, the isolation of Indonesian Islam from its Middle Eastern source started to break down. From the Hadhramaut of the Arabian Peninsula, more traders arrived in Indonesia, transmitting their orthodoxy to the local people. Besides, the growth of sea travel allowed Indonesian Muslims to go on the pilgrimage to Mecca. After returning from Mecca, religious leaders at pesantren, a boarding school for Islamic teachings, stressed that Islam was a different religion from polytheistic mysticism, and set up an orthodox body of Islamic teachings. The Islamic reform movements of Egypt and India produced an impact on open-minded Indonesian Muslims, encouraging them to embrace Islam as a living faith. With the foundation of Muhammadijah in 1912, a new movement emphasizing the need for pure Islam in

Over Indonesian history, the spread of Islam is one of the most significant processes and is the most obscure. Two developments probably took place in various areas Geertz 1964 Under Sultan Agung, the decorative arts rejuvenated. Agung sought to strengthen his authority in the state and to endow his monarchy huge influence and prestige. The motifs used during the kingdom are Hindu-Javanese prototypes. Wagner 1959. Islam had little impact on Javanese philosophy, but changed some basic social customs, such as circumcision and burial, replacing Hindu-Buddhist cremation. Ricklefs 1993 59  The arrival of Islam in Indonesia is still disputed. The first assumption is that Islam was directly originated from Mecca or Arabia since the seventh century, based on the Chinese source of HsinT’ang Shu. A Ta-shih Muslim community which settled at the coast of Sumatra had a plan to attack the Ho-ling kingdom under the reign of Queen Sima in Java in 674. Groenveldt 1960. The other assumption is that Sufi Islam came to Indonesia in the 13th century from Iraq, Persia, and India when Baghdad was attacked by the Mongols under Hulaghu in 1258; thus, the old route running the Persian Gulf via Baghdad to the ports of Syria and Asia Minor was replaced by the new one from Aden along the Red Sea to Alexandria, Egypt. This theory is sustained by the find of a gravestone of Sultan Malik as-Salih (1297) from Gampong Samudra. Moquette 1913 57  58 

Lewis 1992 Wertheim 1956 56  Koentjaraningrat 1990 54  55 

54

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java

Figure 3.12. The spread of Islam from the 13th to 16th centuries in Indonesia (Fox 1998, Revised drawing: the Author)

at different times. First, indigenous Indonesians who came into contact with Islam converted of their volition. Second, Muslim traders - Arabs, Persians, Indians, and Chinese – settled down, bringing their religion with them and associated practices.60 The influence of Islam spread across the archipelago via trade routes, and its principal introduction into Java was around 1450 from Gujarat61 in northern India.62

Islamization was gradually carried through several channels: trades among the Muslim traders with the local communities; marriages among the Muslims with the local girls, particularly from the noble families; preaching on Sufism; pesantren66; culture such as art, architecture, decoration, performance and literature, to create tolerance, syncretism, understanding, and adaptation of Islam for not as yet converted people.67

According to Islamic sources, one of the earliest gravestones (1419) found at Gresik on the coast of Java (pasisir) indicates that Malik Ibrahim, born in Persia, journeyed to Java as a Muslim trader. Gravestones in Tralaja in East Java prove the presence of Javanese Muslims in the Hindu Majapahit kingdom as early as 1376. Another tombstone of 1448 at Trawulan marks the burial of a Muslim queen of Majapahit from Champa (now Vietnam). Moreover, Tomé Pires, a Portuguese apothecary, spent time in Malacca from 1512 to 1515, visiting Java and Sumatra, and his book Suma Oriental tells of the penetration of Islam into Indonesia.63

In the cultural heartland of Central and East Java, its medium was by walis (saints) of the Sufi (mystical teachers) brotherhoods, nine in number (wali songo).68 Many of them were of non-Javanese origin and were often connected with particular port-towns along the coastal area. Sufis were travelling mystics who propagated charismatic traditions of ecstasy, asceticism, dance, and poetry, and such teachings could accord with the existing political and cultural climate of the HinduJavanese courts without causing undue conflict.69 Their preaching was often done at the Agung Demak mosque (1479) through sociological, psychological and cultural approaches, based on the principal concept of Islam with peace and order without force.70

What reached in Indonesia was a ‘secularized’ Islam adapted into the South Asian trading cities. As an ideology of equality, Islam attracted traders who live under the Hindu caste system, to become members of the Islamic community.64 Indonesian Islam was cut off from its centre of orthodoxy at Mecca.65

In Cirebon of Central Java, walis attempted to make Islam as simple as possible so that people could embrace this new religion easily. They said that mosques were oriented to the west, not to be too complicated and detailed for simple people; thus, many Cirebon mosques

Schrieke 1957; Geertz 1964; Koentjaraningrat 1990; Ricklefs 1993; Fox 1998 61  By the beginning of the 16th century, Gujarati merchants had trading posts in all the important commercial centres in South East Asia. Schrieke 1957 62  Wertheim 1956; Wagner 1959; O’Neill 1994 63  Ricklefs 1993 64  Wertheim 1956: 193-196 65  Geertz 1964 60 

The mandala education was converted into pesantren. Most forms and elements in the building were unchanged. By giving a new Islamic meaning to the ancient symbols, the Sufis achieved smooth communication with the believers. Moersid, Fanani and Budhi 1991 67  Tjandrasamita 1985 68  Schrieke 1957 69  Ricklefs 1974; O’Neill 1994 70  Tjandrasasmita 2006 66 

55

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia do not face Mecca. In Arab countries, orientation was specifically worked out to face the Holy Kaa’ba in Mecca.71

century on the foundation of the new Islamic kingdom of Demak.78 From then on, Islam became an indissoluble part of the traditional socio-cultural structure.79

During Islamization, polytheism, the deification of princes, and the caste system were rejected, except for the ancestor cult, a feature of mystic animism, which was both tolerated and incorporated into Islamic rituals, such as visiting graveyards. The ban on representing living figures by the hadith was not strict. Instead, the stylized wayang (shadow puppet)72 of Hindu-Buddhist tradition became a means of spreading Islam, due to its magic power73 and were being replaced by Islamic figures and phrases. Sunan Kalijaga, one of wali songo is considered to a wayang creator.74

3.9.3. Origins of Javanese Mosques Sudradjat (1991: 68-73) observes debates on the origin of Javanese mosque architecture which initiated in the late 1920s and continued until 1980. The first idea was ‘cultural continuity’, which the pre-Islamic architectural tradition was the source of the mosque architecture. The second one, adopted by a few radical scholars, was ‘cultural influence’ on the mosque, particularly from Islamic India and China. It was Stutterheim (1927) who took the initiative. Javanese mosque was a modified Balinese cock-fighting court (wantilan), and Muslims used this prototype, despite its profane character. Rouffaer (1932) proposed that the multi-tiered roof mosque was Hindu in its origin, modulated afterwards by Malay Muslims. While both saw the mosque at the level of physical form, Hidding (1930) searched for spiritual symbolism in mosques, calling attention to the Cosmos Mountain which played a crucial part in animistic and HinduBuddhist societies. The tiered-roof form of the mosque was thought to represent the Cosmos Mountain.  In interviews in 2005, Tjandrasasmita posits that the three tiered-roof form represents an Islamic idea to approach Allah through three ways (Insan, Iksan, Islam: faith, charity, Islam)80. Noe’man and Fanani relate this form to be the most suitable for tropical weather against heavy rain and ventilation.

Sufism was the most distinctive in converting HinduJavanese people because Islam was already imbued with oriental mysticism and had lost much of its original rigid orthodoxy on its spread from the Middle East into India. The Javanese, traditionally inclined to mysticism, realized a similar level of spiritual and material culture with this new religion.75 To propagate Islamic teachings, existing architecture and decorative art were powerfully visualized. Roofs of old mosques and palaces resemble the Hindu Cosmos Mountain, Meru; mihrabs, minbars, and tombstones are embellished with kala-makarass. The basic styles and characteristics of Javanese mosques were set up, distancing from other Islamic countries. They are a square ground plan and tiered-roofs as the common characteristics.76 Fanani (interview 2006) posits the domestication of Islam in Java in five ways: by changing foreign ulamas such as Malik Ibrahim to local wali songo who had never visited Mecca; by replacing the Islamic centre from the Middle East to the Malay peninsula; by domesticating books of ideas so that Hindu epics became Islamic stories; by creating a Jawi script which is a combination of Arabic scripts and local language; and by adopting existing art and architecture, called ‘Malay Islamic Javanese variant’.

In 1947, Pijper carried out an organized analysis of the characteristic elements of ancient Javanese mosques. They have a square ground plan, support on a massive elevated foundation, a pointed roof with two to five storeys narrowing upward, an extension for the mihrab, a serambi and an open space enclosed by a wall and a front gate. Their origin was not a foreign form, introduced by Muslim missionaries, but was a preIslamic structure, adapted to the demands of Muslim worship. Only the serambi, taken from Javanese houses, was added later to mosques.

At any rate, Islam spread in Java without causing undue political and cultural conflicts, due to the spirit of Islam and the tolerance of the people.77 The peaceful Islamization reached a turning point in the early 16th

Pijper’s theory was opposed by de Graaf (1947-1948), insisting on the origin of the mosque in Sumatra, where Islamic influence was first seen. Then he changed his mind. Islam brought itself through trade routes; the Javanese mosque building was not pre-Islamic, but was

Yunardi, interview 2004 Javanese believe that the soul of ancestors as shadows could be invoked by a sacred ritual. Hindu-Buddhist stories of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana were accommodated into the world of wayang, which Islam adopted. Due to the flexibility with the Hindu stories and the foresight of wali songo, Islam was concretized into the less modified but still predominant Hindu mythology. Wayang became a universal cultural value and ethics. Boedjardjo 1978 73  Soemantri 1998 74  Tjandrasasmita 1985 75  Wagner 1959; Johns 1961, cited by Prijotomo 1992 76  Pijper 1947 77  Tjandrasasmita 1985 71  72 

Raffles 1817; 1982 Tjandrasasmita 1978; cited by Sudradjat 1991 80  (1) The lowest roof represents Shariah as Islamic Law, (2) the second as Tariqah, a way to get Allah’s blessing, (3) the third as Hakikah – the spirit of a Muslim’s good deed, and (4) mustaka at the top as Marifah to know Allah. Suryo. Traditional Javanese Mosque. Romantika Arkeologia. 78  79 

56

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java meditation in temples. It is known that pre-Islamic traditions underline the form and setting of the site, its buildings, and images in sacred places. Mystical Sufis borrowed them, based on their belief of mosques to be sacred in space and structure, creating a combination of indigenous and Islamic ideas and forms in their mosques.85

a tradition of Indian Islam, perhaps from Gujarat or Malabar or Kashmir. In 1966, Wirjosuparto returned the origin of the Javanese mosque to pre-Islamic building typologies, giving an example of the pendopo, an extension in a building for meetings and performances. There was also an effort by Slametmuljana (1976) to suggest its origin from the Chinese pagoda, due to Chinese Muslims’ contribution to the conversion of the Javanese to Islam.

The common heritage in many mosques reflects the close political relationship between Muslim rulers in different regions in Java. Shared features are the tripartite division (base/body/superstructure), a centralized plan, multi-tiered roof, mutsaka (crown), an outer colonnade, serambi, a walled courtyard with two gateways, drum and graveyard.86

Whatever the origin was, these debates changed from a simple idea of the Javanese mosque as ‘cultural continuity’ and a narrow concern for the physical form of the mosque building into a more comprehensive incorporation of spiritual and symbolic aspects of Islam in the mosque building.

In interviews held in 2004, Prijotomo suggests that Javanese mosques adopted the existing forms, to attract non-Muslims to enter the building and receive Islamic teachings. The architecture was a mediator of introducing non-Muslim Javanese to Islam. Isnaeni shares a view that ‘The character of the Javanese mosque is Javanese culture. Muslims still consider Hindu-Buddhist ornament as a mystic way to approach to God’.

3.9.4. Characteristic Javanese Mosques A mosque is a place of prayer, the supreme act of submission to God. The Holy Koran defines the mosque as the place where Muslims worship and an expression of their belief in the unity of God was achieved through prayer: ‘And the mosques are for Allah (alone): so invoke not anyone along with Allah’ (surah 72:18). The Arabic word ‘masjid’ (mosque) means the place of prostration.

Isnaeni (1996) in his PhD dissertation, The Javanese Mosque, a Regional Interpretation of Form and Mystical Concepts, discusses the continuity of pre-Islamic mysticism to Javanese mosque elements. The multitiered roof symbolizes a link between God and Muslims, based on Sufis’ view. A mustaka, a crown of a red lotus at its apex, is a container of the essence of divine unity in Hinduism,87 but in Islam, it embodies the ultimate goal of the mystical path into God. Four master columns (soko guru) signify the spiritual context: the verticality and centralization express an ultimate unity between God and his believers, continued from the Hindu belief in the identity of self and the universal soul. Water has been significant in spiritual rituals to purify a person in Hindu-Buddhism and Islam. Islam requires ablution before prayer. The water channel, located in front of the mosque, represents new creatures that will fill the empty universe with life.

In the Islamic world, three types of a mosque in the urban context can be described: the masjid al-jami (a group/daily mosque for the neighbourhood), the masjid al-jumah (a mosque for Friday prayers with a sermon), and the mussalla (a ceremonial prayer place for an entire city).81 The mosque has several purposes, such as praying, a democratic and political institution for religion, law, and government, and an educational centre for teaching the Koran.82 The first mosque of the Prophet in Medina was an enclosure of mud-brick walls without ornamentation,83 and this early structure is believed to establish the basic space of a mosque for the Muslim community. Although mosques have been built, depending upon different cultural traditions around the world, the basic elements remained the same: mihrab (prayer niche), minbar (sermon pulpit), minaret (tower), a place for ablution, women’s prayer area, and sometimes maksura (prayer place for ruler).84

The development of pre-Islamic feature in Javanese mosques clearly indicates that Islam in Java did not introduce new forms of religious architecture. It is apparent the teaching itself was considered to be more important than physical characteristic of the mosque. Islam teaches that Allah has created this world as a mosque (Isnaeni 1996: 43).

In Indonesia, the introduction of the mosque and the idea of a communal prayer were new. And the Koran contains few regulations regarding the form of a mosque; thus, Javanese architects were free to interpret its requirement in accord with an individual Irwin 1997 Pope 1977; Hillenbrand 2001a 83  Irwin 1997 84  Kuban 1994 81 

Tjahjono 1998 Fontein 1990 87  Bosch 1960

82 

85  86 

57

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia During the field study, the majority of Javanese mosques have soko guru, mihrab and minbar in the prayer hall, two kinds of gateways, mustaka on the multi-tiered roof, occasionally together with the crescent of Islam, a drum, a partition between men and women prayers, and a few places for ablution. The influence of pre-Islamic architectural, decorative, and mystical elements on Javanese mosques is strong.

Then he came out to his people from Al-Mihrab and he told them by signs to glorify Allah’s Praises in the morning and in the afternoon (surah 19:11). A concave mihrab was built in 707-709 when Al Walid of the Umayyad brought Coptic masons to Medina, to rebuild the Prophet’s mosque. A Coptic devotional niche changed into a directional Islamic niche. Since then, the mihrab has become the central feature of all sacred architecture in Islam. Unlike an altar, the mihrab is not sacred itself but indicates the direction of prayer, which is sacred. For this reason, it is accorded extraordinary respect 93 and is the most ornate feature of the mosque94 with three types of Islamic ornament vegetal, geometric, and epigraphic.95

3.9.5. The Sacred Mihrab A mihrab, a prayer niche, has been the ultimate position in light of aesthetic and symbolic functions. It is an indention at the point, where the qibla axis meets the far wall of the mosque, taking the shape of an arch. Being the visual and the liturgical climax of the mosque where an imam (a religious leader) leads the congregation in prayer, the mihrab tends to decorate with lavish ornamentation. The mosque of the Prophet in Medina and the earliest mosques in the Umayyad dynasty had no mihrabs.88

The mihrab is the focus of religious symbolism in mosque architecture. Technically and theoretically, it could be a visual identification of the qibla wall. But popular belief shows it as a shrine for divine illumination and as the gate to Paradise (Hillenbrand 1994: 16-17).

Opinions on its origin are various. It had a forerunner in the niches of Byzantine architecture.89 Two origins are possible: the prototype of the Torah-niche in the synagogue, where Jews kept the Scriptures, and the apse of Christian churches in early Coptic chapels in Egypt. This was combined with the triumphal arch over the tabernacle, to show the symbolic presence of God.90 Or it could be the place for a statue in the Greco-Roman temple or the apse in a church.91

In the Middle East, mihrabs are often semi-circular; in Spain and Morocco, they are polygonal, accentuated by a hanging dome over or in front of them.96 From the early eighth century, the mihrab has either a single or, less frequently, double or multiple niches.97 Visibility, a principle in Islamic ornamentation, is focused on the portal, mihrab, and maksura.98 Arabs ‘almost’ always insisted on adorning the mihrab columns with capitals in conformity with their ornamentation.99 Ways of enhancing the mihrab depend on periods and places, and even non-ornamentation on it makes a visible distinction from its surrounding areas.100

The word ‘mihrab’ reappears several times in the Koran with many meanings before becoming attached to a niche in the back of the mosque. It is a place of honour but is difficult to know exactly what was meant in the context of the passage in the Koran. King Solomon, the patron of works of art, ordered the molten brass, and jinns (spirits) manufactured for him ‘maharib’ (plural of mihrab, statues, cooking vessels, and tableware).92

The same idea seems to be applied to Javanese mihrabs. However, the religious leader of Mansyur Sawah Lio (interview 2003) maintains that mihrabs in Jakarta do not have much ornamentation, for fear of disturbing prayers’ concentration on God. By contrast, Prijotomo (interview 2004), an Indonesian architectural historian, argues that a beautiful mihrab is a strategy for encouraging non-Muslims to embrace Islam.

They worked for him as he desired, high rooms, images, basins as large as reservoirs, and cauldrons fixed. ‘Work you, O family of Dawud, with thanks!’ But few of My slaves are grateful (surah 34:13). The word ‘mihrab’ was also used with the divine character by Wafi (1988: 71) in his paper, Les mihrab et leurs ornementations décoratives (the mihrabs and their decorative ornamentations), delivered at the international conference in Paris in 1980:

The sacredness of mihrabs was voiced by Isnaeni (1996: 229-231). Several Javanese mosques have a chronogram (candrasengkala) within or above the mihrab. Most mihrabs have a semi-circular vault and ornamentation, Frishman 1994 Irwin 1997 95  Wafi 1988 96  Davies 1982 97  Insoll 1999 98  Hillenbrand 2001a 99  Prisse 1983 100  Behrens-Abouseif 1998 93  94 

Dickie 1978 Irwin 1997 90  Stierlin 1996 91  Hillenbrand 1994 92  Grabar, edited by Hattstein 2000: 38 88  89 

58

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java agung demak ca. 3750 x 3280 cm

agung jepara 3620 x 7920 cm

agung kasepuhan 2020 x 3000 cm

agung malang 1840 x 2940 cm

agung mataram 3140 x 3210 cm

agung solo 2330 x 4070 cm

agung yogya 2100 x 3000 cm

al akbar surabaya 6400 x 6100 cm

al anwar angke 1130 x 3130 cm

al alam cilincing 2720 x 2730 cm

al azhar 2640 x 4000 cm

al makmur jipang 2150 x 2550 cm

al marunda 2960 x 2100 cm

mukarmah bandan 3360 x 2600 cm

al ukhuwah b. kota 7200 x 8400 cm

al w mangkunegara 2600 x 3150 cm

astana mantingan 3350 x 2705 cm

bayat 1000 x 1700 cm

caringin labuan 2780 x 2460 cm

carita labuan 2540 x 2820 cm

cut meutia 3550 x 2400 cm

hidayatullah 4760 x 3700 cm

jami kanoman 3430 x 3400 cm

kampung nembol 4000 x 3820 cm

kanari 1440 x 2500 cm

kasunyatan 2360 x 2550 cm

kanoman semarang 5550 x 5850 cm

langgar k. kanoman 2560 x 3000 cm

menara kudus 1785 x 1650 cm

menar kp. melayu 3240 x 2850 cm

59

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia merah panjunan 1500 x 2150 cm

pajlagrahan 1330 x 2000 cm

pusdai jaber 9000 x 5090 cm

raya cipaganti 3010 x 3570 cm

robayan jepara 1980 x 2650 cm

sabilliah malang 2480 x 3280 cm

sendang duwur 1820 x 2110 cm

sunan giri 1610 x 2780 cm

sunan kalijaga 2060 x 2790 cm

sunda kelapa 4330 x 5600 cm

Figure 3.13. Mihrabs of 40 mosques in Java in alphabetical order (Drawing: the Author)

often with the kala-makara. The kala head at the top in the centre with a scroll-like body flows down on either side and meets the makara at each end. Sometimes floral motifs replace it. For example, Agung Kasepuhan of Cirebon has a lotus flower suspending within the mihrab vault and the surya (sun) - a symbol of the Hindu Majapahit - represent power and supremacy. The motifs signify core aspects of life: ‘embodied immortal and religious duties (lotus flower), and the perfect attainment of spiritual insights towards victory in the after-life (the sun)’. Islam emphasizes Muslim duty in social and spiritual relationships, and without performing their duties, Muslim rights are not respected. The relationship between Islamic principles and the images of the lotus flower-the sun becomes clear.

Krom (1923) was among the first scholars to discuss the Islamization process in Java. Illustrating the minaret of Kudus as an adaptation of an old form, Islam in Java was not hostile to established architectural traditions, due to Javanese’ gradual conversion to Islam, rather than revolution. Moreover, the modification was limited to the principles of ornamentation, as Islam forbids depicting living ones. These encouraged two leading Indonesian archaeologists, Tjandrasasmita and Ambary, to develop this idea further.101 Tjandrasasmita (1984) attempted to prove that Islam took over local conditions and, to a certain extent, contributed to the preservation of indigenous cultural values and traditions. Islamic propagators and the Indonesian themselves have known tolerance, testified in architecture, decorative art, and other aspects of culture. Astana Mantingan (1559), Central Java and Sendang Duwur (1561), East Java fused Hindu-Javanese and Islamic cultural elements, indicating a close relationship between Hindu Majapahit and Islamic cities on the coast. The importance of ornaments is to integrate Islam into Javanese culture, encouraging artists to adjust gradually to new realities, instead of putting any imposition on them.

Many mihrabs were rebuilt during renovations, using new glazed ceramic tiles on the walls. The mihrab can have two or three arches, depending upon its size, but a traditional mosque has one mihrab. In contrast with luxurious mihrabs in other parts of the Islamic world, a simple Javanese mihrab is characteristic. Several modern mosques such as Pondok Indah (1998) of Jakarta have even omitted it.

This theory was shared by Ambary (1983). Indonesian Islamic art was a continuation of indigenous art from the prehistoric period, with the full absorption of Islamic calligraphy as a new element. Others, such as the dome and minaret, could not be integrated and remained as foreign objects. Ambary (1998) in his Menemukan Peradaban, Arkeologi dan Islam di Indonesia (Finding the Civilization of Islam and Archaeology in Indonesia) argues that Islamic art in Java tends to be

3.10. Javanese mosque ornamentation 3.10.1. Remnants of Pre-Islamic Ornaments Although the Mataram dynasty was Muslim, it patterned itself after the great Hindu-Javanese empires of previous centuries … Clearly, identification with the prestigious Majapahit royal house was of greater importance than religious solidarity with the coastal powers (Raffles 1817, 1982: 30).

101 

60

Cited by Sudradjat 1991

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java Centuries) investigates ornamental motifs in mosques and on chungkups (graves of important people) on the coastline of Java, where early Islam began. Different types of Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic motifs were found: natural (mountain, cloud, coral, sun), fauna (bird, lion, goat, horse, deer, monkey, snake, bugs, dog, tiger, fish, elephant, bull, kala-makara), floral (flower, leaf, tree, heart-shape), construction (one, four or five masts, non-winged or winged gate), interlace, calligraphy, cross, pool, wayang, and frame.

non-iconoclastic in places of worship, and does not separate architecture and ornament. Instead, they are integrated. He divides Javanese art between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods: Hindu-Buddhist art is characteristic of its political and cultural background. Islamic art is not; Research into the art of the Islamic period has not been intensive and continual, compared to that into the Hindu-Buddhist period; Islamic art has lost its continuity in certain things. During the HinduBuddhist period, art was centred, using professional artists in the palace. In the Islamic period, some cultural centres started to deviate from the original art forms, due to the foundation of small kingdoms, different interpretations of art, and diverse tastes of artists who created local art. As Islamic ornaments have pre-Islamic traditions, Hindu Majapahit art was full in swing during the Islamic period added by Islamic and Chinese patterns.

Among pre-Islamic motifs, kala-makaras and floral motifs continued. The lotus was much used in both Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods, filling the panels in a storytelling relief or without it. Islamic poets describe a flower as a book to study the knowledge about God. Flowers with different numbers of petals in a combination of birds103 are present on graves, and their coexistence can be a characteristic of Islamic decorative art in Java, despite a ban on living figures by the hadith. Motifs brought with Islam are heart-shaped leaf, geometric interlace, calligraphy, and the winged gate.

Syncretic motifs were further explained by Fontein (1990: 60-62). In Astana Mantingan, a large number of sculpted foliated stone medallions102 are combined with stylized animals - elephant, tiger, monkey, and crab, demonstrating a clever and artistic way of replacing living figures, instead of rejecting them in orthodox Islam. A combined kala head and deer on a doorway at the winged gate of Sendang Duwur indicates the artist’s indebtedness to his Hindu-Buddhist predecessor: ‘The gate has two large wings that make it look a garuda flapping its wings about to embark upon his adventurous flight in search of the elixir of immortality’.

A wish to present a living creature, especially animals, was kept on, even though sometimes the form is blurred. An Islamic characteristic on the northern Javanese coast is the tendency to take an existing shape, and transform it into a style which is considered to be more Islamic (Marwoto 2003: 377). 3.10.2. Orthodox Islamic Ornaments by the Local Genius

Prijotomo (interview 2004) posits a combination of pre-Islamic and Islamic ideas and forms in floral decoration at Sendang Duwur: ‘It is not a real floral, but a modified one, seen as floral. This ambiguity is a Javanese characteristic. Javanese mosques use HinduBuddhist motifs in an Islamic way. The form is Hindu, but the idea is Islamic, or vice versa. As Islam allows freedom, everybody can make their style, but keeping continuity.’

Islamic stylized design contains the Islamic spirit (Subarna, interview 2004). Ornament is a visual prayer. It consists of rhythmic repetition and continuity (Pirous and Noe’man, interviews 2004). Islamic ornament endows visual pleasure and the paradisiacal concept. Islam’s rejection of the representation of living beings has often been mentioned. The Holy Koran104 itself has no formal ban on this representation, but the hadith, the sayings of the Prophet, took a hostile attitude towards representation.105 It says, ‘those who will be most severely punished on the Day of Judgement are the murderer of the prophet, one who leads men astray without knowledge, and a maker of images of pictures’.106 Similarly, ‘The artists, the makers of images,

Islam penetrated slowly into Indonesian minds without force, due to its principal concept. Sendang Duwur reflects the process of acculturation with tolerance, syncretism, local genius, the friendship of the Javanese in the transitory period. It is the earliest product of Islamic Indonesian art (Tjandrasasmita 1984: 57). Marwoto (2003) in her PhD dissertation, Seni Dekoratif Pada Bangunan di Pantai Utara Jawa abad Ke 15-17 (Decoration of Mosques in Northern Java from the 15th to 17th

The bird motif, buraq, is favoured by Cirebon batik artists as a messenger of the Prophet. Kahfiati, interview 2006 104  The Holy Koran has no message about art and architecture, although it is uncompromising about idolatry: ‘Believers, wine and games of chance, idols and divining arrows are abominations devised by Satan. Avoid them, so that you may prosper’ (surah 5:95). Yeomans 1999:16 105  Grabar 1973; Davies 1982; Rice 1989 106  Bukhari’s collection of hadith, cited by Grabar 1973: 91 103 

102  The medallions of Hindu-Buddhist lotus or the tree of life on the wall of Mantingan (1559) is round and oblong. Stutterheim, Bergama, and others had the opinion that the tree of life is both related to the Cosmos Mountain in Hinduism and the life in Paradise in Islam. Tjandrasasmita 1985

61

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia will be punished at the last judgement by the decree of Allah who will inflict upon them the impossible task of breathing life into their works.’107

to the local culture, forming the second syncretism. Entering into the contemporary period, all Muslims were able to travel anywhere and observe pan-Islamic ornaments. They blended them with the local culture, inventing the third syncretism.

The hadith implies in no way that the Prophet prohibited mosque ornamentation. The Prophet neither forbade meaningful and moderate mosque ornamentation nor permitted it. But, luxurious ornamentation is believed to decrease Muslim faith in God by distracting concentration on prayer. The form, design, and function of the mosque ought to be inspired by Islamic faith, principles and values.108 Opinions of Indonesians in interviews in 2004 are as follows:

The first appearance of Islamic ornaments was the heart-shaped leaf (waru leaf), geometric interlace, and calligraphy. The heart-shaped leaf109, a kind of Islamic arabesque, decorated mosques and gravestones, such as Mantingan and Banten. Geometric interlace and Arabic calligraphy appeared on gravestones, ceramics and mosques of Kudus, Mantingan and Cirebon. Winged gate was neither found in the Hindu-Buddhist period nor any other Islamic culture. As a bird of the vehicle of Vishnu in Hindu myth, this motif could be the invention in Javanese Islamic decorative art. Again, interviews in 2006 can replace a lack of literature and research on this theme.

(Ambary): Artistic freedom is allowed in Islam, although ornament is regulated in the hadith. (Said): Islam has no instruction on using ornament, and artists have freedom. (Herman and Atik): Two schools exist in Islam. One forbade living figures to prevent iconoclasm; the other allowed them under the condition that ornaments should be used for a good purpose. Ornament is a means of attracting people to embrace Islam. (Noe’man): The careful implementation of ornaments in Javanese mosques is necessary. People’s urge to visit a place of worship is formed by their culture, and is practised on the material level. Javanese Muslims thought that the mosque should be the most beautiful and lavish building, legitimizing ‘God Himself is beautiful and He loves beauty.’ However, a deeper understanding of this thought tells against the lavishness, and warns superfluous ornament as a way close toward the devil (surah 12:27). Anything, which distracts from prayer, should be avoided. As a solution, stylized forms in repeated geometric patterns appeared while Koranic calligraphy verses became a means of communication.

ARABESQUE. (Marwoto): It is hard to define as Islamic ornament or not. Indonesian Muslims do not consider arabesque as important, compared to geometry and calligraphy as the sign of Islam. A few samples were found in the transitory period. (Tjandrasasmita and Fanani): A reason can be due to its rapid assimilation with Hindu scrolls when it arrived. Local culture accepted arabesque but modified it, as the motif resembled existing scrolls. GEOMETRY. (Marwoto): Prehistoric megalithic culture had geometry, but a simple Islamic geometric decoration was shown on ancient tombs in Aceh and earlier mosques of Cirebon around the 16th century. A difference is that Islamic geometry has its distinct pattern and grids; the megalithic ones do not have this rule. There seems no strong continuity on Islamic geometry, because of the specific patterns which Indonesian Muslims could not make it. Instead, they used the local geometry in earlier mosques, differing from that in new mosques. (Tjandrasasmita): There was an effort of a simple Islamic geometrical frame at Sendang Duwur or combined interlace with a foliated motif on the mihrab of Agung Kasepuahn. (Fanani): Despite the arrival of geometry in the first Islamization, it was not easily adopted, not because of local geometry but the complicity of Islamic geometry, based on a mathematical calculation which local people did not know. Megalithic geometry was simply made. When Muslims went to Mecca during the Dutch colonization, its technique was brought back. After independence in 1945, orthodox Islamic geometry was executed by architects who studied mathematics, and became popular.

Referring to Islamic ornament in Java, the tradition says that it arrived with the religion in the 15th century through trade and ulama, not through cultural expansions. In the beginning, foreign missionaries, who had no practical skills, taught local people, who then modified existing motifs with an Islamic viewpoint. They called them ‘Malay Islamic ornament’, differing from the orthodox Islamic ones. It was the first syncretism. During the Dutch colonization, Muslims could see and learn about pure Islamic ornament on their visits to Mecca. They brought them back home and adjusted Bukhari’s collection of hadith, cited by Massignon in ‘Methodes de realisation artistique: 48. Cited by Naddaff 1991: 113 108  Caliph Al Walid I (r.705-15) of the Umayyad introduced mosque ornamentation on a grand scale to enhance the status of Islam. Omer 2004 107 

It was used in Iranian ceramics in the 13th-14th centuries. During Yuan dynasty in China, the motif was known as ‘yun jian’ or cloud collar. Arabesque appeared on mosaics in Dome of the Rock. Baer 1998

109 

62

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java

Kampung Nembol (1880); Cut Meutia (1920)

Sunda Kelapa (1969-1971); Hidayatullah* (1750) * According to the keeper of the Hidayatullah mosque (interview 2004), a variation of arabesque was newly made during the renovation of the mosque a few years ago. The artist saw orthodox Islamic arabesque from books, but wanted to express it in a regional character. The motif was confirmed by a few scholars, such as Fanani (interview 2006), calling it ‘Malay Javanese Islamic arabesque’.

Figure 3.14. Arabesque in Javanese mosques (Drawing: the Author)

Agung Kasepuhan (1498); Jami Kanoman (1679); Carita Labuan (1889-1895)

Agung Malang (1853-1890); Cut Meutia (1920); Al Akbar Surabaya (1995-2000) Figure 3.15. Geometry in Javanese mosques (Drawing: the Author)

CALLIGRAPHY. (Marwoto): Islamic ornaments have always been in Java. Calligraphy was most visible; the others were shown from time to time, separately or mixed. (Tjandrasasmita): Arabic scripts were gradually introduced. Between two types of Kufic and Ta’liq/Nasta’liq on tombstones, Kufic110 was used in the words ‘Allah’ and ‘Muhammad’. Calligraphy

was also applied to Koranic words on sculptures and drawings to depict human beings, animals and flora. Between the 14th and 16th centuries, it was less used for mosque ornamentation but appeared on graves or in manuscripts, combined with Javanese and Arabic letters, called Jawi. From the 11th century, Kufic script was introduced by Cambay graves in Gujarat and other styles such as Naskhi showed on stone, glass, wood, and paper in the 18th century when the Middle East or Mogul architecture was established. Calligraphy

It was mentioned that a gravestone (1082) at Leran in Gresik was written in Kufic. Baloch 1980

110 

63

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Al Marunda (1527); Agung Jepara (1561)

Mukarmah Bandan (1789-1809); Sunda Kelapa (1969-1971) Figure 3.16. Calligraphy in Javanese mosques (Drawing: the Author)

had to be adapted into the local culture, creating a new syncretic Javanese Islamic one, regardless of more or less use in mosque ornamentation.

was successfully absorbed into local Javanese culture and decorated mosques as a creative art.111 (Suptra): All Islamic ornaments were accepted, but calligraphy was mostly used as a new form of art. Geometry and arabesque became syncretic with local ornaments, as a characteristic expression of Javanese Islamic ornament. (Sedyawati): Calligraphy was easily adopted here due to the message of Islam. Geometry and arabesque were likely continued. We can glimpse them in mosques.

3.10.3. Chinese and European Influences The Chinese also contributed to the development of Javanese culture. Their contacts with Indonesia were as early as the fifth century. Traders from the southern provinces of China and the coast of Campa (now Vietnam) became active in Java and the southern Archipelago in the 15th century. The tales of the Malay Annals of Semarang and Cirebon give rise to an assumption that Chinese Muslim traders and artisans lived in business quarters around mosques. Huge quantities of Chinese cash and earthenware were imported into Java.112 The annals contain information on the building of mosques by Chinese Muslims, too. The style is similar to the pagoda built in China, composed of superimposed roofs. Following their settlement in port towns in Java, such as Gresik, this style spread widely. The Chinese introduced carving tools for mosque ornamentation. Decorative stone reliefs on Islamic tombs on the north coast testify to Chinese workmanship, including the art of woodcarving for doors, panels, and chests.113

Fanani tries to resolve different arguments: ‘Islamic ornament continued all the time: a kind of arabesque at the transitory period; calligraphy during the Dutch colonization era; very popular geometry in the contemporary period’. From the researcher’s view, the study on Islamic ornaments was much neglected. Was it due to the continuity of pre-Islamic motifs in mosques? During the fieldwork on surveying 30 mosques, nine have arabesque on mihrabs, minbars, ceilings, railing, and walls in the prayer hall and at the serambi. Sometimes, the motif is displayed on lamps. The 14 mosques have stylized geometric motifs, adorned with floral, calligraphic, and bird-like motifs. Geometric designs have more variety than arabesque in their location, ranging from mihrabs, minbars, ceilings, doors, pillars, windows, railing, and walls to floors, both indoors and outdoors. Calligraphy appears in all mosques, particularly on mihrabs, graves, facades, signboards, and roofs. The crescent of the Islamic symbol was attached to calligraphy, making the name of ‘Allah’ visible. At renovated and newly built mosques in the contemporary period, geometry and arabesque were full. Nevertheless, every incoming Islamic ornament 111 

Chinese traders had a strong position in pasisir communities. They were also talented craftsmen in wood and ceramic (Fanani, interview 2004). The most distinct Chinese influence was curvilinear meanders and cloud motifs, shown on the relief of the Panataran temple complex in Majapahit. In Cirebon, Chinese motifs of cloud and rock, taken from ceramics 112 

Ambary 1998

113 

64

de Graff and Pigeaud 1984; Dawson and Gillow 1994 de Graff and Pigeaud 1984; Soemantri 1998

Pre-Islamic and Islamic Java

Agung Kasepuhan (1498); Sunan Kalijaga (1533) Figure 3.17. Chinese cloud-like flame (Drawing: the Author)

and tiles were used in mosques without any religious meaning.

and paintings, were incorporated into the designs of palaces and mosques and displayed in the gateway to the Kasepuhan Palace. The cloud motif often accompanies the kala-makara, becoming a flame or floral-like. The door of Agung Demak (1479) has a Chinese form of a dragon breathing fire. Ornamental Chinese plates were inserted into the walls of mosques at Banten, Kudus, Jepara, and Cirebon.114 Tjandrasasmita (interview 2004) posits the influence of Chinese rock and cloud in ceramics of mosques in Demak and Cirebon. Yunardi (interview 2004) gives a reason for a mixture of Arabic, Chinese, and local people’s influences on Cirebon mosques.

European motifs are sporadically shown in many mosques on glazed tiles or carved wood. The mihrabs and walls of Menara Kudus (1537) and Tambora (1761) bear floral tiles. The wooden minbar of Al Azhar (1952-1958) was engraved with the palmette and other geometrical motifs. Cut Meutia (1920), once a government office, echoes a trend of a prevailing European style with simple, elegant floral motifs and palmettes. 3. 11. Summary

Compared to their active colonization of Indonesia, Europeans did not leave a permanent mark on Islamic mosques in Java. Wertheim (1956) explains that, despite the foreign merchants’ trade, they did not mix with Indonesian society, partly due to the low esteem in which European traders were held. When the Portuguese115 set out to spread Christianity, they first had to adapt themselves to the peculiar Indonesian culture. It was the same for the Dutch colonizers in the 17th and 18th centuries. Javanese culture developed largely unaffected by the presence of the Dutch traders.116

Javanese people are syncretic, called ‘Indonesian tolerance and flexibility.’ Two Islamic manifestations exist: One is Agami Jawi (Javanese Religion), mystically inclined Hindu-Buddhist beliefs and concepts, and integrated them within an Islamic frame of reference. The other is the Agami Islam Santri (Islam of the Religious People), much closer to the formal dogma of Islam. Interviews revealed the importance of Agami Jawi. The Mataram kingdom practised syncretic teachings from mystic animism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Although Islam arrived around 1450 in Java, probably from Gujarat in northern India, it was gradually spread via several channels: trade, marriages, Sufism, pesantren, and art and culture, to create an adaptation of Islam. The origin of the Javanese mosque, either pre-Islamic or foreign in its source, is uncertain. As mystical Sufism believed mosques to be sacred places, existing ideas and forms of mysticism continued - a square plan, soko guru, and tiered-roofs from Hindu-Buddhist temples in East Java. Consequently, Javanese mihrabs are sacred, but are not as elaborate as those in the Arab world.

In interviews held in 2004, Tjandrasasmita claimed that Christianity did not influence Javanese mosques. If they did, palmette117, crown, and flower, especially the tulip or lily118, appeared. European and Indonesian styles in furniture were popular in the 19th century. He described this phenomenon as a Javanese ‘tolerance’. Sudradjat inclined to ignore the impact of the Dutch on mosques; Herman and Atik stated that Dutch ceramics Wagner 1959; Soemantri 1998 The Portuguese introduced a synthesis of eastern and European style at Water Castle in Yogyakarta. 116  The Dutch predominance appeared to the palaces of the GovernorGeneral (Jakarta) and Kasepuhan. Brown 1956; Dawson and Gillow 1994 117  Sasanian palmette, a prototype of Islamic arabesque, was introduced into Indonesia by the Portuguese and Dutch Christians, not by Muslims from India or the Arab world. Tjandrasasmita, interview 2005 118  The Ottoman tulip and lily became a means of cultural mediator in Europe, particularly during the Rococo period. 114 

Many pre-Islamic motifs continued in mosque ornamentation. Kala-makara and lotus were the most popular and recurrent. A grouping of the lotus flower and bird is also seen. Living figures were stylized, rather than abandoned, despite their ban in orthodox Islamic art. As new motifs, calligraphy, interlaced geometry, the heart-shaped leaf, and the winged gate appeared at Sendang Duwur (1561) as syncretic architecture

115 

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The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Cut Meutia (1920); Tambora (1761) Figure 3.18. European flower (Drawing: the Author)

and ornamentation. Islamic ornaments were brought by traders and missionaries. Calligraphy was mostly used; geometry and arabesque were assimilated with megalithic geometry and Hindu-Buddhist scrolls, called ‘Javanese Islamic ornaments’.

2.

Islamic Java is composed of multiple elements: prehistoric, Hindu-Buddhist, Islamic ideas and forms, including to a lesser extent Chinese and European influences. The syncretic religion was mirrored in Javanese mosque ornamentation. Continuity is a natural process for Javanese Muslims.

4.

3.

The debates on ‘continuity’ according to literary sources put forward into the interviews, to find information in detail.

A few findings can be applied to the analysis of answering the research questions. 1.

The majority of motifs are a continuation of preIslamic ornaments. The sacredness of Javanese mosques allowed their mihrabs and ornaments to be sacred, implying that Javanese ornaments function as both aesthetic and symbolic. Syncretism can cause difficulty in identifying motifs whether they have continued from Hindu-Buddhist Java or have been copied from the orthodox Islamic world outside Java.

The elements of Javanese mosques should be considered having mystical functions.

66

Chapter 4.

Identification of Motifs in Javanese Mosques 4.1. Introduction

4.3. Interviews with Indonesians on identifying ornament

A juxtaposition of symbolic connotation and aesthetic beauty in ornaments enriches a subtle and serene atmosphere in the temple and mosque ornamentation. In Hindu-Buddhist temples, scrolls represent ‘the start of life’, blessed by gods and goddesses, while in mosques, the magic of Islamic arabesques allures our eyes into wandering, denoting ‘the vision of paradise’. Intentionally or coincidentally, scrolls and arabesques came to merge into the wholeness, created by the local genius, and provide a passage to Paradise in Javanese mosques.

4.3.1. Background This research concerns the question of continuity of pre-Islamic motifs in Javanese mosque ornamentation. To answer the question, literary sources were pursued4 but did not fully function when the researcher met difficulty in identifying scroll motifs in Javanese mosques. Similarities exist between Hindu-Buddhist scrolls and Islamic arabesques, caused by their having the same character of undulation and repetition. The term ‘stylization’ applies to both.

Chapter 1 mentioned the lack of bibliographic material on Javanese mosque ornamentation; thus, part of this research has relied on contemporary scholarly views, gathered through a series of semi-structured interviews, as primary sources. This chapter charts the interview process and validates the findings from it. The interviews set out to answer three questions: (1) Does Hindu-Buddhism have a canon of temple ornamentation? (2) If there is no canon, how can the origins of motifs in Javanese mosques be identified as Hindu-Buddhist, Islamic or both? (3) What conclusions can an examination of motifs on renovated mosques facilitate?

Finally, the researcher considered interviews to clarify several points not discernable from the literature. There is a strong body of intellectuals and practitioners working in the field in Indonesia. Interviews with 20 specialists could be a new approach to the identification of origins of motifs in Javanese mosques. Between November and December in 2004, on the occasion of the researcher’s second field trip to Java, more than 20 interviews were conducted in West and East Java. The interviews were planned to be semi-structured around the three main questions with the possibility for spontaneous questions. This was made according to the researcher’s long experiences in an interview for the best outcome.

4.2. Interviews

The interviews were undertaken by telephone, mail, or face-to-face meeting at university, office, mosque, or home of the interviewees. Interviews were conducted with four archaeologists, eight architects, one architecture historian, two artists, one historian, a couple of ornamentists, one art historian, one designer, and one carver. Their names were found from literature reviews in Indonesia or by recommendation of one scholar by another. Despite their different backgrounds and range of ages between 40 and 70, they are all of the similar professions in art, design, and

Qualitative research is the ‘generation’ of ideas that can shape blocks of knowledge into manageable categories,1 and the interview is the most extensively used method in qualitative research. Three types of interviews are found: structured with schedule, semi-structured with schedule, and unstructured. In the semi-structured interview with schedule, the interviewer has a list of questions on specific topics, but the interviewee has freedom in making answers. Questions do not necessarily follow the outlined schedule and can be improvised, depending on the nature of the replies given.2 A successful interviewer needs nine qualities: ‘knowledgeable, structuring, clear, gentle, sensitive, open, steering, critical, remembering and interpreting’.3

4  Three sources were attempted: (1) Javanese temples and mosque ornaments (Stutterheim 1927; Kempers 1959; Fontein 1971), recommended by Indonesian archaeologists (Santiko and Tjandrasasmita) who underline that ornaments are created by Javanese local genius, (2) Indian influence on Indonesian ornaments (Coomaraswamy 1972; Sedyawati 1990), and (3) Hindu-Buddhist Indian temples as the origin of those in Indonesia (Burges 1956; Brown 1956; Zimmer 1960). Indian Architecture according to ManasaraSilpasastra (Āchārya 1996) and Balinese Traditional Architecture Principles in Hotel Buildings (Sulistyawati 1995) did not mention on rules of ornaments. A few scholars in the U.K. revealed no rules of HinduBuddhist temple ornamentation.

Glaser and Strauss 1967 Bryman and Bell 2003 3  Kvale 1996: 350 1  2 

67

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia architecture; Javanese who reside in Java except for one Balinese; Muslims except for one Christian; have international contacts through their studies, seminars, and conferences.

more research into this subject, since only a few theses (Habib, Marwoto) and articles (Tjandrasasmita; Ambary) have been published about it in detail hitherto. Question 1: Does Hindu-Buddhism have a canon of temple ornamentation? Question 2: If there is no canon, how can the origins of motifs in Javanese mosques be identified as HinduBuddhist or Islamic or both? Question 3: What conclusions can an examination of motifs on renovated mosques facilitate?

As part of the interview, a few drawings of motifs were shown to the interviewees, to build an interactive atmosphere and obtain a focused response to identifying origins of motifs in Javanese mosques, since the topic had not been explored before. All the interviews were taped, and some explanations were written down. The interviews were held in a setting which was quiet and familiar to the interviewees. They were objective, openminded, and conducted in an informal atmosphere. Most of the interviewees spoke English fairly, although an interpreter was required on one occasion. The interviewees seemed to enjoy communication with the interviewer, expressing curiosity and surprise, despite a few points of which they did not think previously or know.

Drawings shown during the interview were chosen from different areas and periods in Java, displaying either or both Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influences, in terms of ideas and forms. The examples were not comprehensive but intentional to clarify their origins. Scrolls of Agung Malang, Al Wustho Mangkunegara, and Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota appear to be Hindu-Buddhist, due to a resemblance of those in Hindu-Buddhist temples. Those of Hidayatullah and Sunda Kelapa are likely of Islamic origin, because they are associated with stylized arabesque. A motif of Raya Cipaganti is a combination of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic styles; that of Cut Meutia can be classed as European, according to the mosque designed by a Dutch architect during the Dutch colonization of Java.

The outcome of the interviews led to three conclusions. First, they supported the importance of empirical work (measuring, drawing, and comparing ornaments on existing monuments) to arrive at conclusions. Second, they opened up more alternatives by which to identify motifs from different religions. Last, they encouraged

Agung Malang (1853-1890)

Al Wustho Mangkunegara (1878-1918)

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota (1990)

Hidayatullah (1750-renovated)

Sunda Kelapa (1969-1971)

Raya Cipaganti (1933)

Cut Meutia (1920)

Agung Malang (1853-1890)

Al Akbar Surabaya (19952000)

Raya Cipaganti (1933)

Raya Cipaganti (1933)

Figure 4.1. Examples of motifs in Javanese mosques shown to the interviewees

68

Identification of Motifs in Javanese Mosques Geometric motifs were also examined, to add information on syncretism in Javanese mosque ornamentation. Several types of geometry existed in prehistoric times (Subarna 1982-3), and geometrical interlace appeared in the Islamic period (Marwoto 2003).

scroll (Sedyawati). The ambiguity was due to Islamic flexibility, taking any motif except living figures (Ambary, Tjandrasasmita). ‘Background’ covers culture, religion, people, politics, and economy of a society. Cultural history and people’s deeds and sayings are important. The mosque building itself is not a sufficient guide to identifying the origin of ornament as Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic (Noe’man, Prijotomo). Historical, anthropological, and socialscience approaches are necessary. Historical documents from political and all other sources should be used. ‘I try to see historical sources because manuscripts contain culture’ (Tjandrasasmita).

Further questions arise. Does Islamic interlace differ from prehistoric geometrical motifs? Can geometry be identified as Islamic, if it appears in mosques? What is the difference between geometrized Hindu-Buddhist lotus motif in Agung Malang and Islamic geometry resembling stylized lotus in Al Akbar Surabaya? Are the geometrical tiles of Raya Cipaganti interpreted as a design or a ready-made European material? Calligraphy has met no difficulty called ‘Islamic’.

The use of ‘chronology’ is helpful in making distinctions between the three Islamic periods: transitory, Dutch colonization, and contemporary. Transitory starts at the earliest mosques and ends at the beginning of the Dutch colonization. Contemporary begins in 1945 when Indonesia acquired independence. More orthodox Islamic elements appeared in the contemporary period (Tjandrasasmita, Isnaeni, Said).

4.3.2. Rules of Hindu-Buddhist Ornament Question 1: Does Hindu-Buddhism have a canon of temple ornamentation? Five of the 20 respondents answered that there are no rules observable in Hindu-Buddhist ornaments. A Hindu guidebook, silpasastra, deals with architecture and sculpture, not with ornament (Noe’man, Sedyawati, Lugra, Santiko, Tjandrasasmita). One was not sure about the existence of rules in stylization. The rest (14) had no comment about this matter. Techniques of ornamentation were inherited through generations (Roebiharto, Lugra). Carvers neither had knowledge of the meanings of motifs nor their proportions in adorning temples (Muharam). This indicates that no canon of temple ornamentation exists, confirming the researcher’s assumption. Javanese temple ornamentation was derived from India but was created by the local genius, naming ‘Hindu-Javanese’.

‘Creativity’ in the decoration of Javanese temples was referred to the term ‘the local genius’. Artists had their concepts of beauty, and modern mosques allowed them to explore a wide range of styles in ornamentation (Lubis, Muharam). ‘Empirical’ research among monuments and their surroundings was advocated. Fieldwork is the best way to provide an answer to the research questions. Motifs on Hindu-Buddhist temples should be observed and analyzed; then, its outcome could be compared with those in Javanese mosques (Sedyawati, Santiko, Tjandrasasmita). Investigating Javanese mosques are difficult due to changes, renovations, reconstruction, and lack of old descriptions and historical records. Empirical research into Javanese temples is crucial to understanding Javanese mosques (Budi).

4.3.3. Identifying Origins of Motifs in Javanese Mosques as Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic or Both Question 2: If there is no canon, how can the origins of motifs in Javanese mosques be identified as HinduBuddhist or Islamic or both?

‘Heritage’ of indigenous motifs from prehistoric times or Hindu-Buddhist motifs from India can categorize motifs in Javanese mosques whether pre-Islamic or Islamic. Cultural heritage in both temple and mosque ornamentation needs to be underlined (Subarna).

Nine approaches of identifying the origins of motifs were recommended: ambiguity, background, chronology, creativity, empirical method, heritage, principle, purpose, and reference.

‘Principle’ implies general rules on Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic ornament. Due to its importance in answering the research questions, a comprehensive discussion follows later.

‘Ambiguity’ is the result of syncretic Islam in Java, absorbing local animism and Hindu-Buddhism. It leads to an unclear boundary between different faiths; thus, no clear definition can be made with one religion or set of beliefs. It also applies to ornaments. The presence of continuity and change in ornaments at the same time throughout history has brought a problem in identifying the origins of motifs, such as the lotus and

‘Purpose’ is another expression as symbolic or aesthetic. Hindu-Buddhist ornaments are symbolic; Islamic ones as aesthetic, despite the use of the same motif (Lubis, Muharam). Borrowing Bosch’s theory, if scrolls have a 69

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia root, this has a meaning in Hindu-Buddhism. If not, the motif is more likely to be Islamic (Santiko).

Indonesia is a melting pot of assimilation, diffusion, synchronisation, and flexibility.

‘Reference’ refers to personal experiences or literary sources, which can identify the origins of motifs. If motifs have been seen before, in connection with Islamic buildings or literature, this experience prompted him to judge a motif as Islamic (Pirous).

4.3.5. Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic Principles of Ornament The outstanding result recommends that principles should be used in distinguishing motifs affected by different influences. Comments on Hindu-Buddhist (HB) or Islamic (I) principles on the ornament are given.

Two things were brought out. One was the term ‘cultural continuity’ as a preference for Javanese, which Fanani emulated in his Agung Semarang mosque (2004). Another was a distinction between the terms ‘Arabic’ and ‘Islamic’. Islamic does not necessarily mean Arabic but can be international. Arabic is an expression of ethnic Arab culture. Prijotomo underlined a Javanese philosophy, which affected Javanese mosque ornamentation: ‘I am Javanese, and then my religion is Islam’.

(Pirous) I: Abstract, repetitive, floral (Fanani) HB: Smoother, flowers; I: Geometry, rigid, strict, leaves (Noe’man) I: Repetition, geometry (Lubis) HB: Natural, animals with flowers and landscapes; I: Calligraphy, natural trees, leaves, flowers (Budi) HB: Natural, not stylized; I: Abstract, interlaced, intricate (Yunardi) HB: Flowers; I: Geometrical, straight, strong lines, leaves (Sedyawati) HB: A root in scrolls, sometimes replaced by other motifs like animals. Scrolls move to multidirections; I: Foliage, no root, the movement of scrolls has one direction. (Ambary) I: Stylistic, not necessarily repetitive (Isnaeni) HB: No rules about repetition, freer and more natural; I: Abstract, circular rhythm (Herman and Atik) HB: Might show repetition; I: Geometry, calligraphy, plants (Lugra) HB: Detailed floral motifs (Said) I: Geometry, calligraphy (Prijotomo) HB: Natural, coarse, not delicate. Threedimensional floral, a root in scrolls with plants or animals; I: Repetition (Muharam) HB: Natural; I: Geometric, abstract (Santiko) HB: A root in scrolls (Tjandrasasmita) I: Geometrical

The interviews showed ‘principles’ (16 responses out of 20) as the best approach. Chronology’ (14) and ‘creativity’ (13) are the alternatives. Although ‘empirical’ analysis is seen as less important (8), the researcher considers it the most appropriate in this research. 4.3.4. Continuity of Javanese Culture in Mosque Ornamentation Continuity of pre-Islamic ornaments in Javanese mosque ornamentation was strongly voiced. (Pirous): Indonesia has a transparent syncretism. For cultural continuity and identity, the Indonesian Koran used local motifs. (Subarna): Indonesian heritage is very important in mosque ornamentation. (Fanani): Javanese culture is concerned with continuity. Indonesia is a melting pot of syncretism and continuity. (Lubis): In general, Javanese mosques use HinduBuddhist motifs. (Yunardi): Indonesian mosques took local motifs, called ‘Islamic Indonesian motifs’. (Sedyawati): Continuity from old religions to a new one is a deep-rooted cultural value. (Prijotomo): Javanese mosques take Hindu-Buddhist motifs in an Islamic way: a combination of idea and form. (Ambary): Any motifs are allowed in Islam, as long as they do not cause controversy. (Herman and Atik): In Java, everything is mixed. Javanese make their style. (Tjandrasasmita): Islam adopted all kinds of design spiritually and physically because the principle of worship is the same in temples or mosques.

In identifying Hindu-Buddhist ornaments, their qualities are ‘natural, free, coarse, and detailed’ (6 responses). Other alternatives are ‘a root in scrolls, sometimes replaced by other motifs such as animals’ (4) and ‘floral or flowers’ (3). Of Islamic ornaments, ‘geometric and straight’ (7) is the first choice; ‘plant and leaves’ (5), ‘abstract’ (4), and ‘repetitive’ (4) are alternatives. Principles of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic motifs HB: C(1), E(1), F(3), H(1), I(6), K(1), L(4), O(1) I: A(4), B(3), C(1), D(1), F(2), G(7), J(5), K(4), M(2), N(1) A=abstract; B=calligraphic; C=curved, circular; D=continuous, one direction; E=delicate, smooth; F=floral, flowers; G=geometric, straight; H=interlaced, intricate; I=natural, free, coarse, detailed; J=plant, leaves; K=repetitive; L=a root, 70

Identification of Motifs in Javanese Mosques sometimes animals; M=stylistic, rigid, strict; N=strong; O=3-dimensional; HB=Hindu-Buddhist; I=Islamic motif

Kelapa, Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Hidayatullah) mosques displayed two types of motif, as influences from both Hindu-Buddhism and Islam are felt. A combination of idea and form in Hindu-Buddhism and Islam was practised in syncretic Javanese mosque ornamentation (Prijotomo 1984).

4.3.6. Ornaments on Renovated Mosques Question 3: What conclusions can an examination of motifs on renovated mosques facilitate?

Identifying origins of scrolls in Javanese mosques: Mosque/Period/Area/Influence (Transitory 15C-1619) 1. Pajlagrahan/1452/West/HBS, 2. Agung Demak/1479/Central/HBS, 3. Sunan Giri/1485/East/HBS, 4. Agung Kasepuhan/1498/West/HBS, 5. Al Marunda/1527/West/HBS, 6. Sunan Kalijaga/1533/Central/HBS, 7. Astana Mantingan/1559/Central/HBS, 8. Agung Mataram/1568-1601/Central/HBS

Ornaments on mihrabs in the transitory period showed Hindu-Buddhist influence. If they went through renovation after the 18th century, their ornamentation is probably Islamic (Said, Tjandrasasmita). Thorough research around the mihrabs is advocated, due to deficiency of documentation on mosque buildings (Heuken, Budi, Isnaeni). Many renovated mihrabs were adorned by local people (Yunardi), and new motifs on mihrabs could be copied from the West (Muharam). According to Prijotomo, a beautiful mihrab is a strategy to encourage non-Muslims to embrace Islam. In Said’s view, a low degree of ornamentation on mihrabs was caused either from a wish not to disturb prayers or because there was not enough finance for anything more elaborate. It seems that renovations of mosques took place after the Dutch colonization of Java, but that renovated/reproduced scrolls could have both HinduBuddhist or Islamic origins. 4.3.7. Applying Theories to Selected Motifs in Javanese Mosques

(Dutch colonization 1619-1945) 9. Agung Solo/1757/Central/HBS, 10. Agung Yogya/1773/Central/HBS, 11. Agung Malang/1853-1890/East/HBS, 12. Al Wustho Mangkunegara/1878-1918/Central/ HBS, 13. Kampung Nembol/1880/West/OIA, 14. Caringin Labuan/1883-1893/West/CHI, 15. Cut Meutia/1920/West/HBS, 16. Cut Meutia/1920/West/OIA, 17. Raya Cipaganti/1933/West/CHI

Origins of scrolls in Javanese mosques are tested, based on the interviews. Islamic arabesque was mentioned in literary sources. Three categorizations are Hindu-Buddhist scrolls (HBS); orthodox Islamic arabesque (OIA); combined Hindu-Buddhist scroll and Islamic arabesque in idea or form (CHI). Scrolls are chronologically listed according to the foundation date of the mosques, with renovated/reproduced ones at the end.

(Contemporary 1945-the present) 18. Al Azhar/1952-58/West/OIA, 19. Sunda Kelapa/1969-1971/West/CHI, 20. Sunda Kelapa/1969-1971/West/OIA, 21. Sabilliah Malang/1974/East/CHI, 22. Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota/1990/West/CHI, 23. Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota/1990/West/OIA, 24. Al Akbar Surabaya/1995-2000/East/OIA, 25. Pusdai Jaber/1996/West/OIA

30 motifs were selected from the 26 mosques of the pilot study and fieldwork. Four (Cut Meutia, Sunda

(Renovated/Reproduced) 26. Agung Jepara/1561/Central/CHI,

Sunda Kelapa (OIA). Agung Demak (HBS). The Al Wustho Mangkunegara Geometric, abstract, are ‘Golden Germ’ is Hindu(HBS). Makara is Hindu-Buddhist Islamic. No root in scrolls is Buddhist. Islamic. Figure 4.2. Examination of HBS, OIA, and CHI

71

Agung Jepara (CHI). Repetitive, diagonal rhythms are Islamic; natural and symbolic are Hindu-Buddhist

72

TRANSITORY

DUTCH COLONIZATION

CONTEMPORARY

26. Agung Jepara (CHI)

18. Al Azhar (OIA)

9. Agung Solo (HBS)

27. Agung Mataram (HBS)

19. Sunda Kelapa (CHI)

10. Agung Yogya (HBS)

28. Kanoman Semarang (CHI)

20. Sunda Kelapa (OIA)

11. Agung Malang (HBS)

29. Hidayatullah (OIA)

21. Sabilliah Malang (CHI)

12. Al W. Mangkunegara (HBS)

4. Agung 2. Agung Demak 3. Sunan Giri (HBS) Kasepuhan (HBS) (HBS)

14. Caringin Labuan (CHI)

6. Sunan Kalijaga (HBS)

30. Hidayatullah (HBS)

22. Al Ukhuwah B. 23. Al Ukhuwah B. Kota (CHI) Kota (OIA)

13. Kampung Nembol (OIA)

5.Al Marunda (HBS)

24. Al Akbar Surabaya (OIA)

15. Cut Meutia (HBS)

Figure 4.3. 30 Motifs for Examination

25. Pusdai Jaber (OIA)

16. Cut Meutia (OIA)

7. Astana 8. Agung Mataram Mantingan (HBS) (HBS)

For indentifying origins of scrolls, consultations were given by Indonesian scholars who argue on characteristic regional Islamic motifs.

RENOVATED/ REPRODUCED

1. Pajlagrahan (HBS)

17.Raya Cipaganti (CHI)

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Identification of Motifs in Javanese Mosques

artist

interview

Bandung, WJ 30.11.2004

artist

interview

Bandung, WJ 30.11.2004

3

Achmad Fanani

architect

interview

4

Achmad Noe’man

architect

interview

5

Adilsyah Hakim Lubis

architect

interview

Jakarta, WJ

11.11.2004

6

Adolf Heuken

historian

telephone

Jakarta, WJ

19.11.2004

7

Artini Roebiharto

Interior designer

e-mail

Jakarta, WJ

10.11. & 13.11.2004

8

Bambang S Budi

architect

e-mail

Japan

11.11. & 22.11.2004

9

Bayu Yunardi

architect

interview

Jakarta, WJ

26.11.2004

o

o

o

10

Edy Sedyawati

archaeologist

interview

Jakarta, WJ

18.11. & 29.12.2004

o

o

o

11

Hasan Muarif Ambary

archaeologist

interview

Jakarta, WJ

03.11.2004

o

o

o

12

Hendrajaya Isnaeni

architect

interview

Jakarta, WJ

03.12.2004

o

o

13

Herman and Ken Atik

ornamentist

interview

Bandung, WJ 30.11.2004

o

o

o

14

I. Geda Lugra

carver

interview

Jakarta, WJ

12.11.2004

o

15

Irsal Said

architect

interview

Jakarta, WJ

08.11.2004

o

16

Iwan Sudradjat

architecture historian

interview

Bandung, WJ 30.11.2004

o

17

Josef Prijotomo

architect

interview

Surabaya, EJ

10.12.2004

o

18

Muharam

art historian

interview

Jakarta, WJ

11.11.2004

19

Hariani Santiko

archaeologist

interview

Depok, WJ

03.11. & 23.11.2004

20

Uka Tjandrasasmita

archaeologist

interview

Bogor, WJ

05.11. & 20.11.2004

Jakarta, WJ

09.11.2004

o o

Bandung, WJ 30.11.2004

total

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

purpose

A. D. Pirous Abay Subarna

reference

1 2

heritage

Date

principle

Location

empirical work

Means

creativity

Profession

chronology

Interviewee

ambiguity

No

background

nine approaches others

o

o

continuity

o o

continuity

o

o

o

o o

o

o

structure

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

continuity

o o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

11 10 14 13

8

5 16

o

locality

o

o

continuity o

locality

o

o

continuity

8

9

Descriptions of nine approaches are made in section 4.3.3.

Figure 4.3.3. Identification of Orgins of Motifs in Javanese Mosques as Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic or both (in alphabetical order)

27. Agung Mataram/1568-1601/Central/HBS, 28. Kanoman Semarang/1575/Central/CHI, 29. Hidayatullah/1750/West/OIA, 30. Hidayatullah/1750/West/HBS

transitory period, and were further during the Dutch colonization era. It evolved in the contemporary period, while OIA became predominant instead. During the Dutch colonization era, decorating Islamic arabesque in Kampung Nembol could be the influence of a Palestine missionary who built the mosque. CHI appeared this time, and continued in the next period. Renovated/ reproduced scrolls employed Hindu-Buddhist, Islamic, and both, indicating continuity through syncretism in idea and form between Hindu-Buddhist scrolls and Islamic arabesques.

Period/Hindu-Buddhist (HBS)/Islamic (OIA)/ Combination (CHI) Transitory/8/0/0, Dutch colonization/5/2/2, Contemporary/0/5/3, Renovated/Reproduced/2/1/2, Total/15/8/7 There are 15 Hindu-Buddhist scrolls, eight Islamic arabesques, and seven with a combination of HinduBuddhist and Islamic origins. HBS were dominant in the

Hindu-Buddhist scrolls have been favoured in Javanese mosques, despite a tendency towards Islamic 73

A. D. Prious

Abay Subarna

Achmad Fanani

Achmad Noe’man

Adilsyah Hakim Lubis

Adolf Heuken

Artini Roebiharto

Bambang S Budi

Bayu Yunardi

Edy Sediawati

Hendrajaya Isnaeni

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

74

Irsal Said

Iwan Sudradjat

Josef Prijotomo

Muarif Anbary

Muharam

Hariani Santiko

Uka Tjandrasasmita

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

abstract

animal

x

HB

x

x

HB

x

centre-root

HB

HB

x

HB

x

x

x

calligraphy

x

I

I

x

x

I

x

circular x

HB,I

x

x

x

coarse HB

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

I

x

continous

I(1)

I(4) HB(2) HB(3) I(3) HB(1) HB(1) I(1)

I

x

I

I

x

x

x

I

delicate

detailed x

HB

x

x

x

any direction x

HB

x

x

x

x

HB

x

x

I, HB+

HB

x

free x

HB

x

x

x

I

I

x

I

I

I

x

x

I

I

x

geometric

I(2)

I(1) HB(1) HB(1) HB(3) HB(1) I(7)

I+

x

x

x

x

floral flower I

natural HB

HB

x

HB

HB

x

x

HB

x

x

I

I

I

x

x

I

I

x

plant, leave

I(1) HB(5) I(5)

x

I

x

x

x

interlaced

repetitive HB(1)

I(5)

I

x

I,HB+

I+

x

x

I

x

I

rigid

smooth x

x

x

HB

x

x

x

x

I

x

strict

I(1) HB(1) I(1)

x

x

x

I

x

I(1)

x

I

x

x

x

straight

Figure 4.3.5. Principles of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic Motifs according to the 20 Indonesian Scholars

Flower with animals are HB. No rule of repetition and delicacy in HB means that I has repetion and delicacy.

I:Islamic

HB: Hindu-Buddhist

I Geda Lugra

13

12 Herman and Ken Atik

Interviewee

NO

strong I(1)

x

I

x

x

x

stylistic I(1)

I

x

x

x

x

one direction HB

x

x

x

3 dimensional

I(1) HB(1)

x

I

x

x

HB+-no delica

HB+(might)

HB+-no repet

HB+(animal)

Remark

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Identification of Motifs in Javanese Mosques arabesques in the contemporary period. The continuity of Hindu-Buddhist scrolls, sometimes combined with Islamic style, can be seen in this analysis. 4.4. Summary In Java, syncretism, the local genius, creativity, and continuity are characteristic terms, to explain the ornamentation of temples and mosques. No explicit rules seem to exist, due to the syncretic history of religions in Java. From the interviews, five findings emerged: 1. 2.

3.

4.

There are no known rules on temple ornamentation. In identifying the origins of motifs as either Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic or both, nine approaches should be taken into consideration. They are ambiguity, background, chronology, creativity, empirical work, heritage, principle, purpose, and reference. Principles of HinduBuddhist and Islamic ornament, a chronology of the mosque building, and artistic creativity are the most important approaches. An empirical method comparing temples and mosques should have the same importance as the three factors. In identifying the origins of Hindu-Buddhist scrolls, the first quality to be found is ‘natural, free, coarse, and detailed’. ‘A root in scrolls’ and

5.

‘floral or flowers’ are alternatives. Of Islamic ornaments, ‘geometric and straight’ is seen as the major characteristic, followed by ‘plant and leaves’, ‘abstract’, and ‘repetitive’. An expression of ‘ornaments are based on geometry’ by Day (1903) corresponds to the analysis from the interviews with the 20 Indonesian scholars and literary sources on defining Islamic arabesque. As mosques started to be renovated after the Dutch colonization of Java, particularly in the beginning of the 20th century, some of renovated/reproduced scrolls were more likely to have their recognizable origins. Scrolls in Javanese mosques were strongly influenced by Hindu-Buddhist ornamentation in the transitory period. Islamic arabesques are common in the contemporary period. On the whole, purely Hindu-Buddhist or a combined style with Islamic arabesque in idea and form indicates how Javanese mosques have kept their cultural heritage.

The interviews recommended the three best approaches to identify motifs in Javanese mosques and supported the continuity of pre-Islamic motifs in Javanese mosque ornamentation, the same as does data obtained from the literature. Specific findings are to be applied to the analysis of scrolls in Chapter 8.

75

Chapter 5.

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Tumpals in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation A few examples of tumpals introduce the continuity between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. A broad analysis of their backgrounds is carried out. The line is an indicator for identifying changes in tumpals, and its five further characteristics discuss its development in the following section. For these analyses, the presence of each characteristic of the line in tumpals is verified; their frequency is measured by scaled value, mode and total number in each period. Whether new factors took part in the continuity of tumpals, other elements and principles of design are introduced. An account of tumpals on mihrabs in Javanese mosques accompanies a conclusion.

5.1. Introduction If you stroll around Javanese temples and mosques, you will be amazed by a beautiful triangular shape, a tumpal. If you by chance have a glimpse of a lion at the entrance of Kalasan temple, please be attentive! His job is to inspect every visitor to protect the sanctuary of his superior gods and goddesses. Be gentle to him! Otherwise, you will lose to see prestigious tumpals on his shoulder; they signify the Cosmos Mountain, Meru, where gods and goddesses reside, honouring his greatness as the king of the animal world. From Chapters 5 to 8, a comprehensive analysis of each pre-Islamic motif demonstrates continuity and influence on Javanese mosque ornamentation. Evidence was obtained from the investigations of the pilot study, fieldwork, and interviews. These chapters contain descriptions, patterns, and statistics of the number of occurrences of each motif, examined in five different aspects. The object is to test the influence of motifs through time from pre-Islamic Java and to assess their effect on the evolution of design affected by Islamic influence.

5.2. Prehistoric tumpals in Javanese temples and mosques 48 representative tumpals of the 80 surveyed were chosen and arranged by chronology and geographical area (Fig. 5.0). As the examples of prehistoric tumpals in Java were hard to find, six tumpals of Dayak origin in Borneo are taken from a book, Indonesian Ornament. Despite no clear information on the dates of their origins, the indications are that they are prehistoric, due to the composition of their lines and the use of bamboo material in three of them.

Chapter 5 aims at answering sub-question 1: “How has the tumpal, the popular prehistoric motif in Indonesia, become part of Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how has it been developed and used within the Islamic period?”

Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic tumpals came from temples, the Indonesian Archaeology Museum in Mojokerto in East Java, and mosques during the fieldwork. All nine Hindu-Buddhist tumpals are included here, but 33 of the

Table 5.0. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

The term ‘prehistoric’ means neolithic and megalithic times, when tumpals were used in decoration.

76

PREHISTORIC: 6

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 9

ISLAMIC: 33

77

TRANSITORY: 15

17. Pajlagrahan 1452

15C

12-15C

12-15C

16. Tralaja Muslim grave

14. East Javanese

9C

9C

13. East Javanese

8. Kalasan temple

2. Prehistoric

7. Kalasan temple

1. Prehistoric

1479

18. Agung Demak

12-15C

15. East Javanese

9C

9. Kalasan temple

3. Prehistoric

1479

19. Agung Demak

12-15C

10. East Javanese

4. Prehistoric

1479

20. Agung Demak

1147-1454

11. Panataran temple

5. Prehistoric

1479

21. Agung Demak

1268

12. Djago temple

6. Prehistoric

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Tumpals in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

78 1757

1568

1561

1757

29. Agung Mataram

28. Sendang Duwur

32. Agung Solo

1485

1480

31. Agung Solo

23. Sunan Giri

22. Merah Panjunan

DUTCH: 6

1761

33. Al Anwar Angke

1568

30. Agung Mataram

1485

24. Sunan Giri

1773

34. Agung Yogya

1559

25. Astana Mantingan

1773

35. Agung Yogya

1559

26. Astana Mantingan

1883-1893

36. Carita Labuan

1561

27. Sendang Duwur

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

79

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

1485

44. Agung Mataram*

1568-1601

1479

43. Agung Mataram*

1568-1601

*mosques built before the contemporary period

38. Sunan Giri*

37. Agung Demak*

1568-1601

46. Agung Mataram*

1573

40. Menara Kudus*

Figure 5.0. The 48 tumpals

1568-1601

45. Agung Mataram*

1485

39. Sunan Giri*

1773

47. Agung Yogya*

1568-1601

41. Agung Mataram*

1773

48. Agung Yogya*

1568-1601

42. Agung Mataram*

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Tumpals in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Group 1.

T3-Prehistoric

T8-Kalasan temple

T37 Agung Demak

T2-Prehistoric

T11-Panataran temple

T34-Agung Yogya

Group 2.

Figure 5.1. Continuity of tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods (Drawing: Pepin Press 1998; Image: the Author)

65 Islamic tumpals were taken, due to their similarities in design and a series of tumpals decorating the same mosque.

Dutch colonization of Java, tumpals are coloured by paint, or their material itself have colours. Taking these facts into consideration, tumpals, once employed in the megalithic period on fishing baskets, travelled to sacred Hindu-Buddhist temples, and finally settled down in sacred Javanese mosques, underlining their symbolism, rather than beauty.

The tumpal, a decorated triangle, was originated from neolithic and megalithic times in Indonesia and continued in Hindu-Buddhist temples. Although it is uncertain about its origin as a human figure or a stylized bamboo shoot, the motif was used as a symbol, due to a magic character, or because it conveyed an idea of fertility. It can represent the worship of the Cosmos Mountain, Meru. Many types and variations appeared, but the major shape is triangular, facing either downwards or upwards. Another type (antefix) is often present in Hindu-Buddhist temples. As it combines a triangle and a rectangle, Tjandrasasmita (interview 2005) recommends viewing it as a variant of the tumpal.

A preliminary visual assessment suggests two groups (Fig. 5.1). The first group (T3/8/37) shows a similar appearance of being curved with spirals, despite their dissimilar shapes, pointing either downwards or upwards. Prehistoric T3 could be made of bamboo; Hindu-Buddhist T8 (Kalasan) and Islamic T37 (Agung Demak) are of stone. T37 can be a reproduction of the design, inherited from the pre-Islamic idea. The second group (T2/11/34) shares the same type of border. Prehistoric T2 is edged on zigzagged diagonal lines; Hindu-Buddhist T11 (Panataran) and Islamic T34 (Agung Yogya) are enclosed with straight diagonal lines. As the mosque bearing T34 was built during the Dutch colonization era, it is coloured.

Despite different shapes - triangular, square, or free form - a few common characteristics could be traced in the functions: mystical and symbolic connotation (T3/14/40) and aesthetic and decorative beauty (T9/25/41). Chronologically and by geographical area, they appeared all over Indonesia across the time. They are made of wood, stone, or other materials. Some are richly decorated1. The majority display both straight and curved lines in symmetry and balance. After the

5.3. Background 5.3.1. Tumpals between the Pre-Islamic and Islamic Periods

A term ‘decoration’ has two meanings: (1) decorative motifs, such as leaves, flowers, and scrolls, are part of tumpals, composed of naturalistic lines in T5-6/11-12/16/19, (2) tumpals are perceived as decorative as a whole, regardless of any types of line on their composition in T7/9/23.

Of the 48 tumpals in the sample, six (T1-6) are prehistoric, nine (T7-15) Hindu-Buddhist, and 33 (T16-48) Islamic (Table 5.1). The six prehistoric came from outside Java.

1 

80

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Tumpals in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation Table 5.1. Background to the 48 tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

Number of tumpals: 48

HinduBuddhist: 9

Prehistoric: 6

West: 4 (4+) Area

Location

Dutch: 6

Renovated/ Reproduced: 12

2

2

0

3

8

4

10

East : 13 (7+)

6

5

0

2

Prayer hall: 3

1

1

1

Serambi: 9

5

4

0

Outside: 21

9

1

11

5

6

5

7

0

1

3

0

6

6

Stone: 17 (8+)

9

Other: 9 (9+) Attachment

Transitory: 15

Central: 25 (22+)

Wood: 22 (16+) Material

Islamic: 33

Decorated: 25 (19+)

2

4

6

5

8

Not-decorated: 23 (14+)

4

5

9

1

4

P=Prehistoric=neolithic/megalithic; HB=Hindu-Buddhist (8-15c); I=Islamic (15c-the present): IT= transitory (15c-1619); ID=Dutch colonization (1619-1945); IR=renovated/reproduced (1945-the present); += Islamic tumpals

Of the Hindu-Buddhist, three (T7-9) are from Central Java and six (T10-15) from East Java. Of the Islamic, 22 (T18-21/25-26/29-32/34-35/37/40-48) are located in Central Java; four (T17/22/33/36) in West Java; seven (T16/23-24/27-28/38-39) in East Java.

examples from the transitory, two are from West Java, eight from Central Java, and five from East Java. Only one tumpal appeared in the prayer hall, five in the serambi, and nine outside a mosque building, mainly on graves. A question arises: is the presence of a large number of tumpals on graves due to the survival of remnants of the animistic Cosmos Mountain concept, in which dead souls returned to Meru? Five tumpals are made of wood, seven stone, and three with other materials. Six are embellished, compared to nine in the lack of decoration.

Tumpals were the most common in Central Java, possibly due to the first Islamic kingdom of Demak and the foundation of the Mataram kingdom a century later. T16, the earliest Islamic tumpal in the sample, is on a Muslim’s grave at Tralaja near the capital of Majapahit in East Java. It suggests the Muslim residence inside the Hindu kingdom and explains an echo of a pre-Islamic motif in Islamic ornamentation already in the 15th century.

Dating from the Dutch colonization era, two tumpals were found in West Java, and the rest in Central Java. In the sample, none was from East Java. One tumpal appeared in the prayer hall, four in the serambi, and one outside the mosque building. Frequent use of tumpals in the serambi can be attributed to Mataram’s activity in erecting great mosques, such as Agung Mataram (1568-1601) and Agung Yogya (1773). Decorating the serambi with beautiful tumpals shows the greatness of the kingdom. All tumpals are made of wood and almost adorned.

All prehistoric tumpals could be bamboo in the material; all Hindu-Buddhist ones are stone. Of Islamic tumpals, 16 (T17-19/23-24/31-36/38-39/44-46) are wood, eight (T16/20-21/27-30/37) stone, and the rest (T22/2526/40-43/47-48) with other materials such as tile, demonstrating a European influence on Javanese mosque ornamentation after the Dutch colonization of Java. The decoration was shown in two prehistoric (T5/6), four (T7/9/11-12) Hindu-Buddhist and 19 (T16/19/23/25-26/28/31-32/34-39/41-44/46) Islamic tumpals. They are mostly adorned with scrolls within their frames.

Of the 12 renovated/reproduced, tumpals were mostly found in Central Java, outside the mosque building. They did not appear in West Java and serambi at all. Half of the tumpals in this sample are made of nontraditional materials, such as tile, glass, and plaster, with a scroll-like decoration inside their frames. These tumpals display a variety of designs. T37 (Agung Demak) has retained its original design from Hindu-Buddhist tumpals, due to a combined spiral and undulating lines.

5.3.2. Tumpals within the Islamic Period Of the 33 Islamic tumpals, 15 are transitory, six Dutch colonization, and 12 renovated/reproduced. Of the 81

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia T40 (Menara Kudus) repeats the animistic concept of the pre-Islamic Cosmos Mountain in an extremely stylized triangular shape. Located on the mihrab, it consists of 10 rectangles in rows of 4-3-2-1, and each rectangle is filled with a circle, triangles, and a diamond shape. Its materials are tile and glass in many colours. If it were not seen on the sacred mihrab, it could be rarely perceived as a tumpal. T41 (Agung Mataram), an antefix, has natural and geometrical lines; T48 (Agung Yogya) displays stylized lines as a characteristic. Stone in the material appeared to be common in the transitory period, and wood in the Dutch colonization2. A tradition of less decorating tumpals in the transitory changed into its liking during the Dutch colonization era and continued in renovated/reproduced tumpals.

particularly on graves, emphasizing Javanese Muslim syncretic culture of the ancestor worship. (Material): Wood, frequently used in prehistoric tumpals, did not influence Hindu-Buddhist ones. Prehistoric tumpals were made of bamboo. When they became a favourite in temple ornamentation, stone replaced wood as a suitable material, to underline the beauty of Hindu-Buddhist temples. In the transfer from stone temples to wooden mosques, tumpals followed the same type. New materials were pursued in renovated/ reproduced tumpals. (Attachment): The tradition of not decorating prehistoric tumpals continued in the Hindu-Buddhist period, but was no longer influential in Islamic tumpals. The influence of incoming orthodox Islamic ornament could be a reason. European ornaments such as palmettes and flowers also took part in this process.

5.3.3. Conclusion Islamic tumpals in the transitory period were influenced by Hindu-Buddhist ones in both material and decoration, but a change was taking place within the Islamic period, probably by the creativity of the local genius. The frequent appearance of tumpals in mosques, particularly in renovated/reproduced ones, gives strong evidence of the continuity of pre-Islamic tumpals in Javanese mosque ornamentation.

The nature of analysis of lines Visual perception is seeing, feeling, and expressing. Visual perception is related to one’s personal feelings and preferences to one’s memory and accumulated past experiences (Handell and Handell 1995: 14).

Preferred background: to the 48 tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Area: (HB) East Java, (I) Central Java Location: (I) Outside Material: (P) Wood, (HB) Stone, (I) Wood Attachment: (P) Not-decorated, (HB) Not-decorated, (I) Decorated

As Handell and Handell argue, this type of analysis is based on the researcher’s perception and observations during fieldwork from the start of the research. Perceptions may vary between individuals, and readers may not fully agree with the researcher. However, the aim here has been to remain consistent to facilitate a comparison of the four motifs between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods.

Preferred background to the 33 tumpals within the Islamic period Area: (IT) Central Java, (ID) Central Java, (IR) Central Java Location: (IT) Outside, (ID) Serambi, (IR) Outside Material: (IT) Stone, (ID) Wood, (IR) Other Attachment: IT) Not-decorated, (ID) Decorated, (IR) Decorated

In a simple analysis of tumpals, a broad division between straight or curved lines is helpful, but in five further characteristics, definitions in lines are intentional3, hoping to trace similarities and dissimilarities between tumpals and enrich the information on them. In categorizing ‘short’ or ‘long’ lines, according to the researcher’s view, short or much curved or zigzag lines are considered ‘short’; other viewers may regard them as ‘long’.

(Geographic Area): Islamic  tumpals  in Central Java showed the main continuity from Hindu-Buddhist ones in East Java in the sample. The reasons could be that the earliest Islamic kingdom of Demak in Central Java conquered Hindu Majapahit in East Java and foundation of the great Islamic Mataram kingdom and other sultanates took place here later.   

Moreover, lines in tumpals have disappeared as a result of deterioration over history, caused by natural weathering or other circumstances. This research is not based on an ‘exact’ line count, establishing a perfect solution according to the frequency of use of lines. The presence of lines in tumpals might be enough to answer the research question. In other words, this research

(Location in a Mosque Building): The majority of Islamic tumpals appeared outside the mosque building, Wood might be used in Hindu-Buddhist temples and Islamic transitory mosques, and disappeared mostly, due to natural circumstance, such as weather.

An intentional definition implies a specific meaning, of which the researcher developed the basic definitions of elements and principles of designs, based on literary sources and the researcher’s view.

2 

3 

82

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Tumpals in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation does not rely on purely scientific methods; instead, it combines some objective measures with subjective but informed judgement. It investigates a trend to continuity and influence from prehistoric tumpals, which the local genius had created via the HinduBuddhist to Islamic periods.

of all collected scaled values in the tumpals, testing commonalities between different types of lines. The modes do not necessarily correspond to the total numbers. They can be ‘none’ when the total numbers are high. Each tumpal is assessed between the maximal and minimal use of lines in all tumpals. If more than 20 lines were found, it is ‘many’; lines between 6 and 20 are ‘some’; lines under 6 are ‘few’.

Therefore, a degree of subjectivity should be valued; otherwise, it can be dangerous to make a judgement, ignoring the creativity of Indonesians. This analysis is an amalgamation of the researcher’s informed judgment based on training in art and design, observations during the fieldwork, literary sources on lines as a design element, and the respect to Indonesian cultural heritage. Taking these factors into account, this analysis can understand tumpals on their journey over time and from place to place in Indonesia. This attitude applies to the other motifs.

Many (4)

Some (3)

Few (2)

None (1)

X

Figure 5.2. Scaled value in tumpals

5.4.1. Straight/Curved Lines

5.4. Analyzed by the basic type of line and its subdivisions

Three examples are assessed whether straight and curved lines were found in a tumpal, and of how many numbers these lines appeared to be. Curved lines include any lines except for straight ones. Prehistoric T1 and Hindu-Buddhist T7 have only straight or curved lines respectively. Islamic T21 displays both types of lines. As T1 and T7 have numerous lines, they are graded as ‘many’.

The selected 48 tumpals were repeatedly analyzed over set intervals of time according to the researcher’s perceptions and observations. The basic type of line is divided into straight and curved lines. Vertical/ horizontal/diagonal of straight lines and circular/ spiral/undulating of curved lines are its subdivisions. All tumpals are investigated in two stages between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods: (1) verifying the presence of each characteristic of lines in the tumpals, and (2) measuring their frequency of use, as some tumpals have many lines; others do not. This assessment is demonstrated on a scale of characteristics of predominant lines. Each tumpal is given a scaled value (many 4, none 1), assessed and tabulated within a chronological group.

(Presence): Of the 48 tumpals, 42 have straight and 47 curved lines (Table 5.2). Of those with straight lines, six of each are prehistoric and Hindu-Buddhist, and 30 Islamic. All tumpals have curved lines, except for T1. It is common to find both lines between the periods. (Frequency): Prehistoric tumpals have two straight lines as ‘many’ (T1/6); two as ‘some’ (T3-4); two as ‘few’ (T2/5) (Table 5.2a). The mode is few=some=many, and the total numbers are 18 after summing each scaled value. Overall, curved lines are significant, despite less frequency in T17 (Pajlagrahan) and T18 (Agung Demak) of the transitory period. Almost equal use of both lines is seen in renovated/reproduced tumpals, such as T40

The results drawn from this tabulation are summarised in the same table, and present the modal value of the characteristics in each group - that is the most occurring value (‘mode’). Total numbers are the sum

T1-Prehistoric (Straight) N/Numerous. M/ T7-Kalasan temple: HB (Straight) N/0. M/ T21-Agung Demak: IT (Straight) N/19. Many. (Curved) N/0. M/None None. (Curved) N/Numerous. M/Many M/ Some. (Curved) N/16. M/Some Figure 5.3. Straight/curved. Number(N). Mode(M)

83

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Table 5.2. Number of straight/curved lines in the 48 tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

Basic type

Islamic: 33 (+)

Prehistoric: 6

HinduBuddhist: 9

Transitory: 15

Dutch: 6

Renovated/ Reproduced: 12

Straight: 42 (30+)

6

6

13

5

12

Curved: 47 (33+)

5

9

15

6

12

Number of tumpals: 48

tumpal (i)

1

2

3

4

5

6

10

11

12

13

14

15

19

20

21

22

23

24

straight 18+ curved 19+

X

tumpal

7

8

9

straight 17+

X

X

X

16

17

18

curved 32+ tumpal straight 32+

25

X

26

27

28

29

30

X

tumpal

31

Dutch: 6

curved 48+ straight 13+

X

Renovated/Rep:12

Islamic: 33

Transitory: 15

Hindu-Buddhist: 9

Prehistoric: 6

Table 5.2a. Modes and total numbers+: straight/curved lines in the 48 tumpals

tumpal

32

33

34

35

36

38

39

40

41

42

curved 21+ 37

43

44

45

46

47

48

straight 31+ curved 34+

Islamic: Curved lines are predominant with their modes from ‘some’ to ‘many’. The total numbers reveal a slight difference between the two types of lines, except for renovated/reproduced tumpals.

(Menara Kudus) and T41-43. They have straight lines on frames and curved lines inside them. Modes and total numbers of straight/curved lines in the 48 tumpals Straight 111 (76+): (P) Few=Some=Many/18, (HB) Few/17, (IT) Few/32, (ID) Few/13, (IT) Few/31 Curved 154 (103+): (P) Many/19, (HB) Many/32, (IT) Some=Many/48, (ID) Some=Many/21, (IT) Some/34

(Continuity and Influence): Curved lines of prehistoric tumpals continued strongly in Javanese temples and mosques. Pre-Islamic tumpals in Javanese mosque ornamentation seem to be continuous and influential, by the basic type of line, particularly through curved lines. The continuity underlines Javanese cultural heritage.

Prehistoric: The mode of curved lines is ‘many’. The total numbers reveal almost no difference between the two types of lines. Hindu-Buddhist: Curved lines are favoured with the mode as ‘many’. The total numbers prove their predominance and reveal a big difference between straight and curved lines.

5.4.2. Vertical/Horizontal/Diagonal of Straight Lines Straight lines are subdivided into vertical, horizontal, and diagonal. They are tested in 42 straight lines of 84

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Tumpals in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

T4-Prehistoric (Vertical) N/0. M/None. (Horizontal) N/2. M/Few. (Diagonal) N/6. M/Some

T14-East Javanese temple: HB (Vertical) N/4. M/Few. (Horizontal) N/4. M/Few. (Diagonal) N/4. M/Few

T47-Agung Yogya: IR (Vertical) N/0. M/None. (Horizontal) N/1. M/Few. (Diagonal) N/6. M/Some

Figure 5.4. Vertical/horizontal/diagonal of straight lines. Number(N). Mode(M)

the 48 tumpals. Except for T7-9/22/26/31, all tumpals display straight lines.

48 (Agung Yogya). T40 is composed of a large number of converse triangles and diamond shapes, originated from diagonal lines. Moreover, vertical lines, hardly used in prehistoric tumpals, almost disappeared in the following periods, but became common in renovated/ reproduced tumpals. Horizontal lines in prehistoric tumpals became more used in the Hindu-Buddhist period and continued almost fully in the Islamic period with a lower frequency.

In this analysis, any sloped lines are treated as diagonal; continuous zigzag lines are counted as one line such as T4. Prehistoric T4, Hindu-Buddhist T14, and Islamic T47 display a combination of two or three types of lines. T4 is categorized as having ‘few’ horizontal and ‘some’ diagonal lines. T14 is marked as ‘few’ of all types of lines; T47 has only horizontal and diagonal lines, graded as ‘few’ and ‘some’ respectively.

Modes and total numbers of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal of straight lines in the 48 tumpals Vertical 78 (52+): (P) None/9, (HB) None/13, (IT) None/21, (ID) None/9, (IR) Few/22 Horizontal 95 (65+): (P) None/11, (HB) Few/15, (IT) Few/28, (ID) Few/12, (IR) Few/25 Diagonal 85 (55+): (P) Few=Some/15, (HB) None/13, (IT) None/23, (ID) None/8, (IR) None/24

(Presence): Of the 42 straight lines, 20 are vertical, 38 horizontal, and 23 diagonal (Table 5.3). Of those with vertical lines, one tumpal is prehistoric, four HinduBuddhist, and 15 Islamic. Regarding horizontal lines, three are prehistoric, six Hindu-Buddhist, and 29 Islamic; five prehistoric, four Hindu-Buddhist, and 14 Islamic tumpals have diagonal lines. An examination of lines in tumpals indicates that all three types of straight lines are used, but horizontal lines are common across the three periods. Prehistoric tumpals employed more diagonal lines than the almost equal distribution of vertical/diagonal lines in Hindu-Buddhist ones. Islamic tumpals favoured horizontal lines.

Prehistoric: The mode of diagonal lines is ‘few=some’. The total numbers indicate their predominance, and reveal a slight difference between diagonal and horizontal lines. Hindu-Buddhist: Favoured horizontal lines are categorized as ‘few’. The total numbers reveal almost the same number of the use between the three types of lines. Islamic: Overall, horizontal lines are mostly found, marking their mode as ‘few’. The total numbers reveal a slight difference between the three types of lines.

(Frequency): The three types of lines are infrequent in use (Table 5.3a). Diagonal lines, often used in prehistoric tumpals, fell in the Hindu-Buddhist period, despite their occasional reappearance within the Islamic period in T40 (Menara Kudus), T41-42 (Agung Mataram), and T47-

Table 5.3. Number of vertical/horizontal/diagonal of straight lines in the 48 tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

Straight: 42

Islamic: 33 (+)

Prehistoric: 6

HinduBuddhist: 7

Transitory: 13

Dutch: 6

Renovated/ Reproduced: 12

Vertical: 20 (15+)

1

4

5

2

8

Horizontal: 38 (29+)

3

6

13

5

11

Diagonal: 23 (14+)

5

4

6

2

6

Number of tumpals: 48

85

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Table 5.3a. Modes and total numbers+: vertical, horizontal, and diagonal of straight lines in the 48 tumpals 1

2

3

4

5

6

vertical 9+

X

X

X

X

X

horizontal 11+

X

X

X

11

12

Transitory: 15

Hindu-Buddhist: 9

Prehistoric: 6

tumpal

diagonal 15+

X

tumpal

7

8

9

10

vertical 13+

X

X

X

X

horizontal 15+

X

X

X

diagonal 13+

X

X

X

tumpal

16

17

18

vertical 21+

X

Dutch: 6

Islamic: 33

X 19

20

21

horizontal 28+

15

X

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

tumpal

31

32

vertical 9+

X

X

horizontal 12+

X

diagonal 8+

X

X

tumpal

37

38

vertical 22+

X

X

horizontal 25+ diagonal 24+

14

X

X

diagonal 23+

Renovated/Rep:12

13

33

39

X

X

X

34

35

36

X

X

40

X

X

41

42

30

X

X

X

43

44

45

X

X

X

46

47

48

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

(Continuity and Influence): Prehistoric tumpals continued to Javanese temples and mosques by horizontal lines largely. The continuity and influence of pre-Islamic tumpals on Javanese mosque ornamentation seem not to be constant and strong by the subdivisions of straight lines.

T2-Prehistoric (Circular) N/ Numerous. M/Many. (Spiral) N/0. M/ None. (Undulating) N/0. M/None

X

X

5.4.3. Circular/Spiral/Undulating of Curved Lines Curved lines are divided into circular/spiral/ undulating. They are examined in 47 curved lines of the 48 tumpals. Except for T1, all tumpals have curved lines. The term ‘circular’ means any lines which are circles or

T8-Kalasan Temple: HB (Circular) N/0. M/None. (Spiral) N/Numerous. M/Many. (Undulating) N/6. M/Few

T26-Astana Mantingan: IT (Circular) N/0. M/None. (Spiral) N/18. M/ Some. (Undulating) N/14. M/Some

Figure 5.5. Circular/spiral/undulating of curved lines. Number(N). Mode(M)

86

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Tumpals in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation Table 5.4. Number of circular/spiral/undulating of curved lines in the 48 tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods HinduBuddhist: 9

Transitory: 15

Dutch: 6

Renovated/ Reproduced: 12

Circular: 16 (15+)

1

0

6

3

6

Spiral: 31 (24+)

1

6

11

5

8

Undulating: 43 (32+)

3

8

15

6

11

Number of tumpals: 48

Curved: 47

Islamic: 33 (+)

Prehistoric: 5

Transitory: 15

Hindu-Buddhist: 9

Prehistoric: 6

Table 5.4a. Modes and total numbers+: circular, spiral, and undulating of curved lines in the 48 tumpals tumpal

1

circular 9+

2

X

spiral 9+

X

X

undulating 12+

X

X

X

tumpal

7

8

circular 9+

X

X

spiral 19+

3

4

5

6

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

undulating 27+

X

tumpal

16

17

18

19

circular 23+

X

X

X

X

X

X

32

33

34

35

X

X

X

spiral 33+

20

21

22

23

X

X

X

24

25

26

27

X

X

X

44

45

28

29

30

X

undulating 41+

Dutch: 6

Islamic: 33

tumpal

31

circular 10+ spiral 16+

36

X

Renovated/Rep:12

undulating 18+ tumpal

37

circular 20+

X

spiral 24+ undulating 32+

38

39

40

X X

X

41

42

43

X

X

X

46

X

47

48

X X

X

are part of a circle. Undulating lines belong to curved lines, differentiated from circular and spiral lines. Prehistoric T2 has circular lines; Hindu-Buddhist T8 and Islamic T26 display both spiral and undulating lines. T2 is graded as ‘many’, due to many half circles inside the frame. T8 has ‘many’ spirals and ‘few’ undulating lines, compared to T26 which has both ‘some’ spiral and undulating lines.

(Presence): Of the 47 curved lines, 16 are circular, 31 spiral, and 43 undulating lines (Table 5.4). Of those tumpals with circular lines, one is prehistoric and 15 Islamic. No Hindu-Buddhist tumpals display circular lines in the sample. Regarding spiral lines, one tumpal is prehistoric, six Hindu-Buddhist and 24 Islamic. Three prehistoric, eight Hindu-Buddhist, and 32 Islamic tumpals display undulating lines. All lines are present 87

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia across the three periods, but undulating lines are the most common.

Preferred lines of basic type/its subdivisions in the 48 tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Straight/Curved: (P) Straight, (HB) Curved, (IT) Curved, (ID) Curved, (IR) Straight=Curved Straight: Vertical/Horizontal/Diagonal: (P) Diagonal, (HB) Horizontal, (IT) Horizontal, (ID) Horizontal, (IR) Horizontal Curved: Circular/Spiral/ Undulating: (P) Undulating, (HB) Undulating, (IT) Undulating, (ID) Undulating, (IR) Undulating

(Frequency): Undulating lines have the main continuity across the three periods (Table 5.4a). Used somewhat in prehistoric tumpals, they became the vogue during the Hindu-Buddhist period, and continued to a lesser extent in the whole Islamic period. Simple undulating lines in T17 (Pajlagrahan) are designated as a narrow and small space on a door frame in the serambi. Circular lines, rarely employed in the prehistoric period, evolved in Hindu-Buddhist tumpals, but reappeared intermittently in the Islamic period. Of the 48 tumpals, only T2 (prehistoric) and T40 (Menara Kudus) are full of circular lines. Very seldom shown prehistoric spirals increased gradually in Hindu-Buddhist tumpals, and continued in the Islamic period, despite their occasional absence, seen in T17-18 or T38-40.

(Straight/Curved): In prehistoric tumpals, straight lines were slightly predominant. Curved lines became frequent in the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods. Equal use of both types of the line was seen in renovated/reproduced tumpals during the Islamic contemporary period. The continuity of pre-Islamic tumpals in Javanese mosque ornamentation tended to be constant and influential by curved lines.

Modes and total numbers of circular/spiral/ undulating of curved lines in the 48 tumpals Circular 71 (53+): (I) None/9, (HB) None/9, (IT) None/23, (ID) None/10, (IR) None/20 Spiral 101 (73+): (I) None/9, (HB) None=Few/19, (IT) Few=Some/33, (ID) Few=Many/16, (IR) Few/24 Undulating 120 (81+): (I) None/12, (HB) Many/27, (IT) Few/41, (ID) Few=Some=Many/18, (IR) Some/32

(Vertical/Horizontal/Diagonal of the Straight): No clear and direct relationship could be made between these lines across the three periods. Popular diagonal lines in prehistoric tumpals were not influential; instead, horizontal lines connected the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods. The continuity of pre-Islamic tumpal ornamentation in Javanese mosques seemed to be neither consistent nor significant by the subdivisions.

Prehistoric: No type of line is constantly preferred, proved by their mode as ‘none’. The total numbers indicate the use of lines, especially undulating. A slight difference is seen between these lines. Hindu-Buddhist: Compared to prehistoric tumpals, Hindu-Buddhist undulating lines are more frequent, rated as ‘many’. The total numbers show that undulating lines are three times more used than circular ones in the sample. Islamic: Overall, undulating lines are still dominant, ranging between ‘few’, ‘some’, and ‘many’. The total numbers prove their majority, making a difference between the three types of lines.

(Circular/Spiral/Undulating of the Curved): Undulating lines in prehistoric and Hindu-Buddhist tumpals influenced Islamic ones, marking the strong continuity of pre-Islamic tumpals in Javanese mosque ornamentation. As a subdivision of curved lines, they bridged the three periods. (Pattern of Undulating): The modes of undulating lines were ‘none’ in prehistoric tumpals; ‘many’ in HinduBuddhist, and ‘few=some=many’ in Islamic ones. 5.5. Comparing five further characteristics of line

(Continuity and Influence): Undulating lines in prehistoric tumpals continued constantly in Javanese temples and mosques. The influence of pre-Islamic tumpals on Javanese mosque ornamentation seems to be rather strong by the subdivisions of curved lines.

More detailed analysis is undertaken by investigating five further characteristics of line. A choice of each characteristic was carefully considered, and its meaning as objectively as possible was described, according to literary sources and the researcher’s view. All lines were examined several times at constant intervals. Two choices were given for each characteristic because all tumpals have more than one characteristic. The five further characteristics are broken/unbroken, natural/ geometrical, inner/outline, short/long, and simple/ complicated. A few examples of each characteristic are assessed to illustrate their continuity between the preIslamic and Islamic periods.

5.4.4. Conclusion The continuous influence of undulating lines existed over time. An assumption can be made. Undulating of curved lines in tumpals highlights a symbolic connotation, rather than the beauty of a triangular shape, composed of straight lines. They can represent the Cosmos Mountain, three worlds in Hindu-Buddhism, and three ways to approach God in Islam. 88

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Tumpals in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation Table 5.5. Number of five further characteristics of line in the 48 tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods HinduBuddhist: 9

Transitory: 15

Dutch: 6

Renovated/ Reproduced: 12

Broken: 25 (22+)

3

0

8

5

9

Unbroken: 47 (33+)

5

9

15

6

12

Natural: 44 (32+)

3

9

15

6

11

Geometrical: 32 (22+)

5

5

9

4

9

Inner: 47 (32+)

6

9

14

6

12

Outline: 20 (14+)

4

2

6

2

6

Short: 48 (33+)

6

9

15

6

12

Long: 46 (33+)

5

8

15

6

12

Simple: 48 (33+)

6

9

15

6

12

Complicated: 38 (25+)

5

8

11

5

9

Number of tumpals: 48

Five further characteristics

Islamic: 33 (+)

Prehistoric: 6

T1-Prehistoric (Broken) N/Numerous. M/Many

T34-Agung Yogya: ID (Broken) N/12. M/ Some

T3-Prehistoric (Unbroken) N/Numerous. M/Many

T12-Djago temple: HB (Unbroken) N/ Numerous. M/Many

T19-Agung Demak: IT (Unbroken) N/ Numerous. M/Many

Figure 5.6. Broken/unbroken. Number(N). Mode(M)

perceived in short lines; lines which change directions: and inner lines within the frame of tumpals. Prehistoric T1 and Islamic T34 display broken lines. T1 has short lines, due to the interchange of lines and inner lines; T34 is composed of short and inner lines. T1 is graded as having ‘many’ broken lines, and T34 as ‘some’. No Hindu-Buddhist ones in the sample have broken lines.

(Presence) Of the 48 tumpals, 25 have broken and 47 unbroken, 44 have natural and 32 geometrical, 47 have inner and 20 outline, 46 have long, and 38 have complicated lines (Table 5.5). All tumpals contain short and simple lines, indicating their constant continuity across the three periods. Moreover, inner lines were fully present in prehistoric tumpals; unbroken, natural, and inner lines were in Hindu-Buddhist tumpals; and unbroken and long lines in Islamic ones. Unbroken, natural, and inner lines were more used than their opposites.

(Unbroken): Continuous lines such as spirals; long lines; lines which make a frame can be perceived as ‘unbroken’ lines. Except for T1, unbroken lines are present in all tumpals. Prehistoric T3, Hindu-Buddhist T12, and Islamic T19 display unbroken lines. All have

(Broken): If lines of tumpals do not connect with their starting point, they are called ‘broken’. They can be 89

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Transitory: 15

Hindu-Buddhist: 9

Prehistoric: 6

Table 5.5a. Modes and total numbers+: broken/unbroken lines in the 48 tumpals tumpal

Dutch: 6 Renovated/Rep:12

2

broken 12+

3

4

5

X

X

X

6

unbroken 18+

X

tumpal

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

broken 9+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

tumpal

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

broken 24+

X

X

X

X

X

31

32

33

34

35

36

40

41

42

unbroken 33+ 25

26

27

X

28

29

30

X

unbroken 46+ tumpal

Islamic: 33

1

broken 16+

X

unbroken 19+ tumpal

37

38

39

broken 25+

X

43

44

X

45

46

47

48

X

unbroken 35+

T5-Prehistoric (Natural) N/10. M/Some

T11-Panataran temple: HB (Natural) N/ Numerous. M/Many

T28-Sendang Duwur: IT (Natural) N/ Numerous. M/Many

T2-Prehistoric (Geometric) N/ Numerous. M/Many

T13-East Javanese temple: HB (Geometric) N/18. M/Some

T30-Agung Mataram: ID (Geometric) N/16. M/Some

Figure 5.7. Natural/geometric. Number(N). Mode(M)

spiral and long lines, graded as having ‘many’ unbroken lines. T3 has a triangular frame also.

frame of the gate. On the other hand, the sporadic use of broken lines died out in Hindu-Buddhist temples and the earliest mosques, such as T17 (Pajlagrahan) and T18 (Agung Demak). When they returned to T21 (Agung Demak), they were graded as ‘few’ in use. This tendency continued in the next periods, sometimes significantly used in T35 (Agung Yogya).

(Frequency): Unbroken lines are the most common across the three periods (Table 5.5a). The very popular unbroken lines in prehistoric tumpals continued almost in all later tumpals, despite a lower frequency in tiny tumpals like T44-46 (Agung Mataram) located in a narrow 90

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Tumpals in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

Transitory: 15

Hindu-Buddhist: 9

Prehistoric: 6

Table 5.5b. Total numbers of natural/geometrical lines in the 48 tumpals tumpal

1

2

natural 12+

X

X

Dutch: 6 Renovated/Rep:12

5

X 7

8

9

geometrical 16+

X

X

X

tumpal

16

17

18

tumpal

6

X

geometrical 18+ 10

11

12

13

14

15

22

23

24

X

X

43

44

natural 31+

X 19

20

X

X

34

35

21

25

26

X

X

46

47

27

28

29

30

natural 44+ geometrical 28+ tumpal

Islamic: 33

4

31

32

33

X

36

natural 17+ geometrical 13+

X

tumpal

37

X 38

39

natural 29+ geometrical 26+

40

41

42

45

48

X X

X

X

Modes and total numbers of broken/unbroken lines in the 48 tumpals Broken 86 (65+): (P) None/12, (HB) None/9, (IT) None=Few/24, (ID) Few=Many/16, (IR) Few/25 Unbroken 151 (100+): (P) Some/18, (HB) Many/33, (IT) Some/46, (ID) Some/19, (IR) Some/35

(Frequency): Natural lines are predominant in the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods, and geometrical lines in the prehistoric period (Table 5.5b). Partially used natural lines in prehistoric tumpals became the vogue in the Hindu-Buddhist ones but decreased slightly in the Islamic period. In renovated/reproduced tumpals such as T47-48 (Agung Yogya), there was a lower frequency of use, probably caused by the stylization of Islamic ornament.

The modes of unbroken lines are ‘some’ in both prehistoric and Islamic tumpals, and ‘many’ in Hindu-Buddhist ones. The total numbers prove their predominance and reveal a big difference between the two types of lines in all periods, except the prehistoric and Islamic Dutch colonization periods. (Natural): If lines of tumpals are neither stylized nor composed of a circle, triangle, or square, they are called ‘natural’. They can be perceived in complicated; many short: zigzag lines. Prehistoric T5, Hindu-Buddhist T11, and Islamic T28 have natural lines. T5 displays zigzag lines; T11 and T28 have both complicated and many short lines. T11 and T28 are categorized as ‘many’, compared to ‘some’ in T5.

On the other hand, geometrical lines, favoured in prehistoric tumpals, disappeared in Hindu-Buddhist temples (T7-9) in Central Java, but regained in the Islamic period. Interestingly, three tumpals (T25-26/28) have no geometrical lines. T25-26 (Astana Mantingan) and T28 (Sendang Duwur) share the commonness. Sendang Duwur mirrored the mosque setting of Astana Mantingan, providing the best example of syncretic architecture between the two periods (Tjandrasasmita 1998), so natural lines in Hindu-Buddhist tumpal ornament seemed to have been reflected in these Islamic tumpals.

(Geometric): Simple; long; circular and spiral lines can be perceived as ‘geometrical’ lines. Prehistoric T2, Hindu-Buddhist T13, and Islamic T30 have geometrical lines. T2 displays simple and circular lines; T13 has simple and spiral lines; T30 has circular, spiral, and long lines. T2 is graded as ‘many’, and T13 and T30 as ‘some’.

Modes and total numbers of natural/geometrical lines in the 48 tumpals Natural 133 (90+): (P) None=Some/12, (HB) Many/31, (IT) Few/44, (ID) Some/17, (IR) Few/29 Geometrical 101 (67+): (P) Many/18, (HB) None/16, (IT) None/28, (ID) None=Few/13, (IR) Few/26

91

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

T7-Kalasan temple: HB (Inner) N/ Numerous. M/Many. (Outline) N/0. M/ None

T3-Prehistoric (Inner) N/ Numerous. M/ Many. (Outline) N/10. M/ Some

T33-Al Anwar Angke: ID (Inner) N/ Numerous. M/ Many. (Outline) N/5. M/ Few

Figure 5.8. Inner/outline. Number(N). Mode(M)

Transitory: 15

Hindu-Buddhist: 9

Prehistoric: 6

Table 5.5c. Modes and total numbers+: inner/outline lines in the 48 tumpals tumpal

Dutch: 6 Renovated/Rep:12

2

3

4

outline 13+

X

tumpal

5

6

7

8

9

10

outline 11+

X

X

X

X

tumpal

16

17

18

19

X 11

12

13

14

X

X

20

21

22

23

X

X

X

X

X

34

35

36

X

X

41

42

43

44

15

inner 31+

inner 42+

X 24

25

26

27

28

X

X

X

47

48

X

X

29

30

X

outline 22+ 31

32

outline 8+

X

X

tumpal

37

38

39

40

X

X

X

X

tumpal Islamic: 33

1

inner 20+

33

X

inner 20+

45

46

inner 36+ outline 21+

(Frequency): Inner lines are frequent across the three periods, except for T18 (Agung Demak) (Table 5.5c). The very popular inner lines in prehistoric tumpals continued, and were influential in all tumpals, despite their different frequencies of use in the Islamic transitory period. On the other hand, outline lines, commonly used in prehistoric tumpals, almost evolved in the Hindu-Buddhist period and further. Two questions arise. Has a general concept of having a frame in a tumpal nothing to do with an actual outline, because outline lines were not preferred in many tumpals in the sample? Instead, is the absence of outline lines considered to be an allegoric representation of the ‘three’ concept? Whatever the answer can be, the

Of the modes of natural lines, ‘many’ is graded in HinduBuddhist and ‘few’ or ‘some’ in Islamic tumpals. The total numbers prove the predominance of natural lines and reveal a big difference between the opposing lines in the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic transitory periods. (Inner/Outline): If lines of tumpals do not create a frame or a boundary, they are called ‘inner’. Any lines within the frame are treated as inner lines. Prehistoric T3 and Islamic T33 have both inner and outline lines, compared to Hindu-Buddhist T7 which has only inner lines. In the three examples, inner lines are graded as ‘many’. Of those with outline lines, T3 is graded as ‘some’; T7 as ‘none’; and T33 as ‘few’ respectively. 92

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Tumpals in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

T6-Prehistoric (Short) N/Numerous. M/ Many

T9-Kalasan temple: HB (Short) N/ Numerous. M/Many

T35-Agung Yogya: ID (Short) N/ Numerous. M/ Many

T4-Prehistoric (Long) N/15. M/Some

T10-East Javanese temple: HB (Long) N/7. M/Some

T41-Agung Mataram: IR (Long) N/12. M/ Some

Figure 5.9. Short/long. Number(N). Mode(M)

Transitory: 15

Hindu-Buddhist: 9

Prehistoric: 6

Table 5.5d. Modes and total numbers+: short/long lines in the 48 tumpals tumpal

long 16+

X

tumpal

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

22

23

24

25

26

27

43

44

45

46

47

48

short 28+ long 25+ tumpal

X 16

17

18

19

20

21

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

short 46+ long 41+

Dutch: 6

short 21+

Renovated/Rep:12

tumpal

Islamic: 33

1

short 20+

tumpal

long 18+ short 38+ long 31+

93

28

29

30

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

T5-Prehistoric (Simple) N/4. M/Few. T15-East Javanese temple: HB (Simple) T20-Agung Demak: IT (Simple) N/5. M/Few. (Complicated) N/Numerous. M/Many N/4. M/Few. (Complicated) N/5. M/Some (Complicated) N/Numerous. M/ Many Figure 5.10. Simple/complicated. Number(N). Mode(M)

continuous use of outline lines is seen in renovated/ reproduced tumpals, such as T41-46.

Modes and total numbers of short/long lines in the 48 tumpals Short 153 (105+): (P) Some/20, (HB) Many/28, (IT) Some/46, (ID) Some=Many/21, (IR) Some/38 Long 131 (90+): (P) Some/16, (HB) Some/25, (IT) Some/41, (ID) Few=Some=Many/18, (IR) Some/31

Modes and total numbers of inner/outline lines in the 48 tumpals Inner 149 (98+): (P) Many/20, (HB) Many/31, (IT) Few=Some/42, (ID) Some/20, (IR) Some/36 Outline 75 (51+): (P) Some/13, (HB) None/11, (IT) None/22, (ID) None/8, (IR) None/21

The modes of short lines are ‘some’ in prehistoric tumpals and ‘many’ in Hindu-Buddhist ones. Islamic ones are either ‘some’ or ‘many’. Although the total numbers indicate their predominance, there is no big difference between the two types of lines on the whole, except renovated/reproduced tumpals in the Islamic contemporary period.

The mode of inner lines is ‘many’ both in the prehistoric and Hindu-Buddhist periods; it varies from ‘few’ to ‘some’ in the Islamic period. The total numbers indicate their predominance, and reveal a big difference between the two types of lines in all tumpals.

(Simple): If lines tend to create stylized and geometrized tumpals, they are called ‘simple’. They can be perceived in circular, oval, and triangular; straight; and shorter lines.

(Short): If lines of tumpals are composed of short lines, they are called ‘short’. They can be perceived in small curved; much zigzag; and short inner lines. Prehistoric T6, Hindu-Buddhist T9, and Islamic T35 display short lines. T6 is full of short zigzag lines, composing its frame, T9 has many small curved lines; T35 has short inner lines. All are marked as ‘many’.

(Complicated): Many curved or zigzag lines such as spirals; natural; and longer lines can be perceived as ‘complicated’. Prehistoric T5, Hindu-Buddhist T15, Islamic T20 display both simple and complicated lines. T5 is composed of straight and zigzag lines, and T15 and T20 have straight and spiral lines. All simple lines are graded as ‘few’. Of complicated lines, T5 and T20 are marked as ‘many’; T15 as ‘some’.

(Long): Big curved; straight; outline lines can be perceived as ‘long’ lines. Prehistoric T4, Hindu-Buddhist T10, and Islamic T41 have long lines. All have big curved and straight lines, categorized as ‘some’. T4 and T41 also have outline lines.

(Frequency): Overall, simple lines continued with moderate significance across the three periods, while complicated lines had a few intervals (Table 5.5e). However, when complicated lines reappeared, they were significantly used, seen in T3-6 (prehistoric), many Hindu-Buddhist tumpals, and T19-20 (Agung Demak) in the Islamic transitory period. This phenomenon was partially caused by the use of spirals. Simple lines increased in the Islamic transitory period, such as in T29-30 (Agung Mataram), and continued in the Dutch colonization era, such as in T35 (Agung Yogya) and T36 (Carita Labuan) located in a narrow space. Surprisingly, they were revived in renovated/reproduced tumpals with a low frequency, underlining the simplicity of Islamic ornament.

(Frequency): Of five further characteristics, short/ long lines are the most continuous, indicating the significant influence of prehistoric tumpals on Javanese temple and mosque ornamentation (Table 5.5d). Except for T1 (prehistoric) and T9 (Kalasan temple), all tumpals display both types of lines. Less significant use of short lines was shown only in three Hindu-Buddhist T8/1415, two Islamic transitory T17/18, and one renovated/ reproduced T45. The reason for the few lines in T14 (East Javanese temple), a stylized antefix, can be attributed to an emphasis on its symbolical function.

94

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Tumpals in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

Transitory: 15

Hindu-Buddhist: 9

Prehistoric: 6

Table 5.5e. Modes and total numbers+: simple and complicated lines in the 48 tumpals tumpal

complicated 17+

X

tumpal

Dutch: 6 Renovated/Rep:12

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

20

21

22

23

24

X

X

44

45

simple 20+ complicated 29+ tumpal

X 16

17

18

X

X

32

33

19

25

26

27

46

47

48

28

29

30

simple 38+ complicated 37+ tumpal

Islamic: 33

1

simple 17+

31

34

35

36

41

42

simple 16+ complicated 15+ tumpal

X 37

38

39

40

43

simple 29+ complicated 27+

X

X

X

Modes and total numbers of simple/complicated lines in the 48 tumpals Simple 120 (83+): (P) Few/17, (HB) Few/20, (IT) Some/38, (ID) Some/16, (IR) Few/29 Complicated 125 (79+): (P) Some=Many/17, (HB) Many/29, (IT) None=Few=Many/37, (ID) Few/15, (IR) Few=Some/27

Preferred lines of five further characteristics in the 48 tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic, and the 33 within Islamic periods Broken/Unbroken: (P) Unbroken, (HB) Unbroken, (I) Unbroken / (IT) Unbroken, (ID) Unbroken, (IR) Unbroken Natural/Geometrical: (P) Geometrical, (HB) Natural, (I) Natural / (IT) Natural, (ID) Natural, (IR) Natural Inner/Outline: (P) Inner, (HB) Inner, (I) Inner / (IT) Inner, (ID) Inner, (IR) Inner Short/Long: (P) Short, (HB) Short, (I) Short=Long / (IT) Short=Long, (ID) Short=Long, (IR) Short=Long Simple/Complicated: (P) Simple, (HB) Simple, (I) Simple / (IT) Simple, (ID) Simple, (IR) Simple

The mode of complicated lines is ‘some=many’ in prehistoric tumpals and ‘many’ in Hindu-Buddhist ones. The whole range of variation is seen in Islamic ones. The total numbers indicate almost equivalent use of two types of lines across the three periods. 5.5.1. Conclusion

Modes and total numbers of five further characteristics of line in the 48 tumpals Unbroken 151: (P) Some/18, (HB) Many/33, (I) Some/100 Inner 149: (P) Many/20, (HB) Many/31, (I) Few=Some, Some/98 Short 153: (P) Some/20, (HB) Many/28, (I) Some=Many, Some/105 Simple 120: (P) Few/17, (HB) Few/20, (I) Few, Some/83

The continuity and influence of pre-Islamic tumpals on Javanese mosque ornamentation were very extensive and powerful, in terms of the five further characteristics of line. • Between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods (Presence): Four out of five characteristics were present in all tumpals. The strong continuity of natural lines between Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic tumpals was contrary to an expectation of more geometrical lines in the Islamic period, according to the incoming stylized Islamic ornament. Can it be interpreted as Javanese Muslims’ longing for their cultural heritage through Hindu-Buddhist floral-like tumpals?

(Continuity and Influence): Prehistoric tumpals influenced Javanese temple and mosque ornamentation by unbroken, inner, short, and simple lines. The modes and total numbers indicated short lines as the most continuous across the three periods. But, in detail, 95

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

T1-Prehistoric (Narrow)

T11-Panataran temple (Narrow)

T38-Sunan Giri (Wide)

Figure 5.11. Narrow/wide

equal use of inner and short lines showed in prehistoric tumpals, while unbroken lines were the common in Hindu-Buddhist ones. In the Islamic period, short lines were foremost.

on lines, but T38 expresses more shapes by distancing lines from each other. (Presence): Of the 48 tumpals, 33 have narrow and 15 wide lines. Narrow lines are more than double the number of wide ones in the sample. Prehistoric tumpals have nothing but narrow lines. Hindu-Buddhist tumpals feature wide lines more commonly, and Islamic ones have more narrow lines.

• Within the Islamic period (Presence): To the four characteristics which were inherited from the pre-Islamic period, natural and long lines were added.

Number of narrow/wide lines in the 48 tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Narrow 33 (24+): (P) 6, (HB) 3, (IT) 11, (ID) 5, (IR) 8 Wide 15 (9+): (P) 0, (HB) 6, (IT) 4, (ID) 1, (IR) 4 Preferred lines: (P) Narrow, (HB) Wide, (I) Narrow

Modes and total number of five further characteristics of line in the 33 tumpals Unbroken 100: (IT) Some/46, (ID) Some/19, (IR) Some/35 Natural 90: (IT) Few/44, (ID) Some/17, (IR) Few/29 Inner 98: (IT) Few=Some/42, (ID) Some/20, (IR) Some/36 Short 105: (IT) Some/46, (ID) Some=Many/21, (IR) Some/38 Simple 83: (IT) Some/38, (ID) Some/16, (IR) Few/29

(Evaluation): Neither narrow nor wide lines were strongly continuous across the three periods. This dissimilarity indicates that space did not affect the continuity of pre-Islamic tumpals in Javanese mosque ornamentation. Can this result be interpreted whether designs of tumpals were arbitrary, depending on locations in temples and mosques, created by the local genius?

(Continuity and Influence): Short lines are the most common within the Islamic period with a strong influence. Unbroken lines were also shared with short ones in the transitory period.

5.7. Observing emphasis: principles of design Emphasis as a relevant principle is tested in tumpals by the researcher’s perception and observations during the fieldwork. Careful consideration of the meaning was given, and one option was allowed for each type.

5.6. Examined by space: other elements of design This section examines whether continuity and influence of the pre-Islamic tumpals also occurred in other elements of design. Space, as a relevant element, is applied, according to the researcher’s perception and observations during the fieldwork. Describing the meaning of space as objectively as possible was attempted, based on literary sources and the researcher’s view. One option was allowed for each type.

(Dominant/Subordinate in terms of emphasis): If lines of tumpals underline shapes or decorations or symbols, rather than lines themselves, they are called ‘subordinate’. Prehistoric T6, Hindu-Buddhist T10 and Islamic T25 tend to display subordinate lines because they highlight decorations (T6, T25) and shapes (T10).

(Narrow/Wide in terms of space): If the distance between adjacent lines in a composition of a tumpal is closer and compact, they are called ‘narrow’. Prehistoric T1 and Hindu-Buddhist T11 display narrow lines; Islamic T38 has wide lines. T1 and T11 seem to focus

(Presence): Of the 48 tumpals, 34 have dominant and 14 subordinate lines. Dominant lines underline the importance of lines in the composition of a tumpal. However, in prehistoric tumpals, such as in T5-6, a wish to express a floral image as a decorative motif inside 96

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Tumpals in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

T6-prehistoric

T10-East Javanese temple

T25-Astana Mantingan

Figure 5.12. Subordinate

their frames emerges. It wonders whether people in animistic prehistoric times hoped to pay tribute to Nature, and honoured it as a god of agriculture. This urge to decorate tumpals seems to have continued into Javanese mosques, such as in T25 (Astana Mantingan) or T41-43 (Agung Mataram). Covering the space in tumpals by decoration seems to correspond to a principle of Islamic ornament, called ‘horror vacui’ (a dread of empty space). Did the influence of orthodox Islamic ornament already begin in mosques? Dominant lines in prehistoric tumpals were consistent in the HinduBuddhist and Islamic periods. By contrast, although subordinate lines were not popular, renovated/ reproduced tumpals used almost equally both types of lines.

various ways, depending upon periods and places. Even the absence of ornamentation can visualize their surrounding areas. One reason for the commonness in Javanese mihrab ornamentation can be attributed to walis (saints), who participated in constructing the earliest mosques, moving from area to area, for Islamization. However, according to the number of tumpals that appeared on Javanese mihrabs, tumpals were not favoured. This also suggests that Javanese mihrabs are not luxuriously embellished; instead, they express simplicity. Two examples of tumpals can illustrate mihrab ornamentation in Java. T22 was found in Merah Panjunan (1480) and T40 in Menara Kudus (1537). Both mosques belong to the transitory period. T22 is an original tumpal from West Java and is made of a kind of plaster. T40 is a newly made tumpal from Central Java, made of coloured-glazed tile and glass. Chronologically different from each other, T22 has a diamond shape, and is composed of natural lines; T40 shows a triangular shape, combined of 10 rectangles with extremely geometrised lines. In appearance, no common feature can be seen, but a strong symbolic meaning of the Cosmos Mountain connects them.

Number of dominant/subordinate lines in the 48 tumpals between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Dominant: 34 (23+): (P) 4, (HB) 7, (IT) 11, (ID) 5, (IR) 7 Subordinate: 14 (10+): (P) 2, (HB) 2, (IT) 4, (ID) 1, (IR) 5 Preferred lines: (P) Dominant, (HB) Dominant, (I) Dominant (Evaluation): Dominant lines were both continuous and influential across the three periods, marking the importance of lines, rather than other features. Tumpals were mostly characterised by lines. Emphasis played a role in the influence of prehistoric tumpals on Javanese mosque ornamentation.

5.9. Summary This chapter aimed at answering the sub-question 1: How has the tumpal, the popular prehistoric motif in Indonesia, become part of Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how has it been developed and used within the Islamic period?

5.8. On Mihrabs The sacredness of Javanese mihrabs for both symbolic connotation and aesthetic beauty was discussed. Mystical Sufis adopted the sacredness of pre-Islamic art traditions into their mosques, creating them sacred. The mihrab was not exceptional. As an indicator of the building’s orientation towards Mecca, it symbolizes a gateway to Paradise. Moreover, since the religious leader leads the congregation in prayer, the mihrab is decorated with lavish ornamentation, although the hadith warns that luxurious decorations can disturb Muslim prayers. Ornamenting mihrabs was done in

Five aspects were examined in the 48 tumpals: (1) background (period/geographical area/location in a mosque building/material/attachment), (2) basic type of line (straight/curved) and its subdivisions (vertical/ horizontal/diagonal of straight lines; circular/ spiral/undulating of curved lines), (3) five further characteristics of line (broken/unbroken, natural/ geometrical, inner/outline, short/long, simple/ complicated), (4) other elements (wide/narrow in 97

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia space), and (5) principles (dominant/subordinate in emphasis) of design.

Tumpals, born on fishing baskets of an anonymous fisher in prehistoric times, transcended to sacred sanctuaries under the auspices of Hindu-Buddhist gods and goddesses many centuries later. Another epoch later, they were sited in sacred Javanese mosques as one of the prestigious ornaments. If they had not represented the holy worship of the Cosmos Mountain, where gods and goddesses reside, how could their destiny be so miraculously blessed? The indebtedness goes to Javanese Muslims who love their cultural inheritance.

The findings reveal that the continuity of pre-Islamic tumpals into Javanese mosque ornamentation occurred in the five aspects. But its influence was neither very significant nor weak.

98

Chapter 6.

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic kala-makaras in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras in Javanese temples and mosques

A Javanese term ‘Bhinneka Tunggal Ika’ approves its meaning of ‘unity in diversity’ in the temple and mosque ornamentation. When visual pleasure in beautiful tumpals is accumulated, the next surprise is waiting for any wanderer at the entrance of Borobodur temple or in Agung Mataram mosque. It is a living figure of kalamakara, a combination of a kala head, and a makara created from a fish and the trunk of an elephant. In the labyrinth of symbolic and aesthetic surroundings, the wanderer had to negotiate with the animal for a free pass into their sanctuaries.

45 kala-makaras among the surveyed 55 were chosen and arranged by chronology and geographical area (Fig. 6.0). Five Hindu-Buddhist and all 34 (except for one) Islamic kala-makaras were taken from temples, the Indonesian Archaeology Museum in Mojokerto, East Java, and mosques during the fieldwork. The rest of six Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras were found in a book, Indonesian Heritage and Klokke’s (2000) drawings. In selecting the sample, similar kala-makaras within the same period were rejected.

This chapter analyzes kala-makara motifs by shape, to answer sub-question 2: “The hadith, the sayings of the Prophet, prohibits living figures from being depicted in art. Why therefore has the kala-makara, a favourite animal motif in Hindu-Buddhist temples, been adapted into Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how has it been used in Javanese mosques over time?”

The kala-makara was frequent in Hindu-Buddhist temples. With a human face or a demon’s head, kalas appear over an arched gate of the temple, while a pair of curved makaras terminates outward at the bottom of a gatepost. A makara, an imaginary animal with the shape of a fish and the trunk of an elephant, was introduced during Hinduization, the same as the kala.

Starting with a few examples of kala-makaras to establish continuity across pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, the background of the 45 kala-makaras is discussed. A detailed examination of kala-makaras by the basic type of shape and its five further characteristics follows. To trace other influences, colour and unity-variety are tested in further sections. Kala-makaras on mihrabs are observed, accompanying a summary. From this chapter onwards, the term ‘pre-Islamic’ refers to ‘HinduBuddhist’.

Between Central and East Javanese kalas, the former has no lower jaw; the latter with a full face with a jaw. In Indian mythology, the kala-makara represents the holy Cosmos Mountain, Meru, the abode of the gods and expels demonic influence from temples as a protector. The kala is a symbol of the celestial element; the makara represents the watery element in creation; and as combined, it forms a duality and a totality. Many types and variations were seen during the fieldwork. The shape is a simple rectangle or a

Table 6.0. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods.

There are no examples of kala-makaras made in contemporary mosques in this sample, but many kala-makaras are found in mosques that were renovated during the contemporary period. As no clear historical records were found on their origin, the researcher has categorised them as ‘renovated/reproduced’.

1

99

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

TRANSITORY: 14

ISLAMIC: 34

100

1147-1454

8-9C

13. Agung Demak 1479

12. Tralaja Mulsim grave

15C

8-9C

11. Central Javanese temple

7. Panataran temple

8C

8C

6. Prambanan temple

2. Borobodur temple

1. Borobodur temple

1480

14. Merah Panjunan

12C

8. Singasari temple

8C

3. Borobodur temple

1480

15. Merah Panjunan

1268

9. Djago temple

8-9C

4. Prambanan temple

1498

16. Agung Kasepuhan

8-9C

10. Central Javanese temple

8-9C

5. Prambanan temple

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

101 1761

32. Al W. Mangkunegara 1878-1918

31. Al W. Mangkunegara

1878-1918

c.1561

1533

1679

23. Sunan Dradjat

22. Sunan Kalijaga

27. Al Anwar Angke

1498

1498

26. Jami Kanoman

18. Agung Kasepuhan

17. Agung Kasepuhan

TRANSITORY: 14

DUTCH COLONIZATION: 9

ISLAMIC: 34

1883-1893

33. Carita Labuan

1761

28. Al Anwar Angke

1568-1601

24. Agung Mataram

1498

19. Agung Kasepuhan

1933

34. Raya Cipaganti

1789-1809

29. Mukarmah Bandan

1596-1651

25. Kanari

1522-1570

20. Kasunyatan

1880

30. Kampung Nembol

1533

21. Sunan Kalijaga

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Kala-Makaras in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

ISLAMIC: 34

1596-1651

1568-1601

102

1889-1895

45. Carita Labuan

41. Kanari

1522-1570

1480

40. Agung Mataram

36. Kasunyatan

35. Merah Panjunan

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 11

Figure 6.0. The 45 kala-makaras

1717

42. Al Mansyur Sawah Lio

1527

37. Al Marunda

1750

43. Hidayatullah

1561

38. Sendang Duwur

1883-1893

44. Caringin Labuan

1561-1577

39. Al Makmur Jipang

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Kala-Makaras in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation Dutch colonization era, kala-makaras were more likely to be coloured. A preliminary visual assessment suggests four groups to show the continuity between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. The first group (K2/35/44) shares arched shapes in common. K2 (Borobodur temple) is an original Hindu-Buddhist kala-makara, composed of natural shapes. K35 (Merah Panjunan) and K44 (Caringin Labuan) are newly made Islamic ones with stylized shapes. Originating in different places and periods, they testify to Javanese Muslims’ concern about their culture. The second group (K1/10/34) has a separate kala and makara. K1 (Borobodur temple) is a kala; K10 (Central Javanese temple) is a makara. K34 (Raya Cipaganti) shows both kala and makara. In general, Hindu-Buddhist kala and makara are independently located but they emerged together in mosques. However, the original concept of Hindu-Buddhist kalamakaras can be seen in K34 many centuries later. The third group (K6/40) concerns a frame of the kala: K6 (Prambanan temple) and K40 (Agung Mataram) have a similar frame. The Mataram kingdom practised a syncretic religion of mystic animism, Hindu-Buddhism, and Islam, trying to take over the sovereignty of Hindu Majapahit. The fourth group (K13/28/31) deals with unified shapes. K13 (Agung Demak) is extremely stylized without decoration, while K28 (Al Anwar Angke) has natural shapes, like a tree with floral decoration inside the frame. K31 (Al Wustho Mangkunegara) seems to combine K13 and K28. It is an abstract shape with floral decoration within the frame.

Figure 6.1. Emersion of kala-makaras in mosques (Vogler 1949)

combination of rectangles and triangles in temples, and oval shapes in mosques. Their shapes changed in their transfer from temple to mosque ornamentation (Fig. 6.1), simplified, probably due to a ban on depicting living figures, following the hadith. On mihrabs, the kala sits on the top of a curved arch, accompanying makaras on each side of the bottom. One wonders, if they were not living animals, they could continue anywhere without changing their shapes and conflicting with Islamic art tradition. Shifting the natural shapes of Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras into Islamic geometric ones was an unavoidable process.

6.3. Background 6.3.1. Kala-makaras between the Pre-Islamic and Islamic Periods Of the 45 kala-makaras, 11 (K1-11) are Hindu-Buddhist, and 34 (K12-45) Islamic (Table 6.1). Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras were not found in West Java in the sample, but eight (K1-6/10-11) are from Central Java; three (K7-9) from East Java. Of Islamic kala-makaras, 23 (K1420/25-30/33-37/41-45) are located in West Java; eight (K13/21-22/24/31-32/39-40) are in Central Java: three (K12/23/38) in East Java. The concentration of Islamic kala-makaras in West Java can be attributed to earlier mosques in Cirebon and Banten during Islamization by walis (saints). It is also due to a demand for mosques, either renovated or newly built to accommodate an expanding population in Jakarta and its suburbs following Dutch colonization of Java. K12, the earliest Islamic kala-makara in this sample, appeared on a Muslim’s grave at Tralaja near the capital of Majapahit, indicating activity of Muslims inside the Hindu kingdom and a longing for the preservation of a Hindu-Buddhist motif already in the 15th century.

Despite the stylization, a few common characteristics are seen between all kala-makara in functions: mystical and symbolic connotation, such as K1 (Borobodur temple) and K12 (Tralaja Muslim grave) and aesthetic and decorative beauty, such as K2 (Borobodur temple) and K24 (Agung Mataram). Chronologically and geographically, they appeared all the time, spread in temples and mosques over the whole of Indonesia. They are made of stone, wood, and other materials such as brick, plaster and tile, and are sometimes adorned with other motifs of scrolls and calligraphy. After the 103

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Group 1.

K2-Kalasan temple

K35-Merah Panjunan

K44-Caringin Labuan

K1-Borobodur temple

K10-Central Javanese temple

K34-Raya Cipaganti

K6-Prambanan temple

K40-Agung Mataram

K13-Agung Demak

K28-Al Anwar Angke

Group 2.

Group 3.

Group 4.

K31-Al Wustho Mangkunegara

Figure 6.2. Continuity of pre-Islamic kala-makaras in Javanese mosque ornamentation (Image: the Author)

104

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Kala-Makaras in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation Table 6.1. Background to the 45 kala-makaras between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Number of kala-makaras: 45

Area

Location

Material

Attachment

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

Islamic: 34 Transitory: 14

Dutch: 9

Renovated/ Reproduced: 11

West: 23 (23+)

0

8

7

8

Central: 16 (8+)

8

4

2

2

East: 6 (3+)

3

2

0

1

Prayer hall: 17

6

5

6

Serambi: 3

0

1

2

Outside: 14

8

3

3

Wood: 10 (10+)

0

2

4

4

Stone: 21 (10+)

11

7

3

0

Other: 14 (14+)

0

5

2

7

Decorated: 31 (20+)

11

9

4

7

Not-decorated: 14 (14+)

0

5

5

4

HB=Hindu-Buddhist (8-15c); I=Islamic (15c-the present): IT= transitory (15c-1619); ID=Dutch colonization (1619-1945); IR=renovated/reproduced (1945- the present); += Islamic kala-makaras

All Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras are made of stone, compared to 10 (K12-13/16-18/20/23/27-29) Islamic ones. Of the remaining, 10 (K15/22/26/30-32/37/39/4445) are made of wood, and the rest (K14/19/21/2425/33-36/38/40-43) of other materials, such as brick, plaster, and tile. Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras are decorated by scrolls inside their frames, and 20 (K12/14-16/18/21-24/26/28/30-31/36/39-42/44-45) Islamic ones are adorned with different motifs.

and two of other materials. Five kala-makaras are not decorated. Entering into the contemporary period, eight renovated/reproduced kala-makaras were from West Java, and two from Central Java, and only one from East Java. Six kala-makaras appeared in the prayer hall; two in the serambi; and three outside the mosque building. Kala-makaras on graves are no longer popular. A reason can be clarified that many contemporary mosques, particularly those in the centre of big cities, cannot afford graves, due to the high price of the land. When Agung Malang (1853-90) was rebuilt, its grave had to be demolished. Moreover, orthodox Islam does not allow the cult of ancestor worship after the movement of pure Islam at the beginning of the 20th century in Indonesia. Four kala-makaras are made of wood and seven with other materials; stone is not any longer used. Seven kala-makaras have decorations.

6.3.2. Kala-makaras within the Islamic Period Of the 34 Islamic kala-makaras, 14 are transitory, nine from the Dutch colonization era, and 11 are renovated/ reproduced. Of the transitory, eight kala-makaras were from West Java, four from Central Java, and two from East Java. Six kala-makaras appeared in the prayer hall, and eight outside the mosque building, particularly on graves. Surprisingly, kala-makaras were not shown in the serambi in the sample. Two kala-makaras are made of wood, seven of stone, and five of other materials. Nine kala-makaras are adorned with motifs, such as scrolls or Arabic calligraphy.

A few renovated/reproduced kala-makaras display traditional and new designs. K36 (Kasunyatan), K37 (Al Marunda) and K38 (Sendang Duwur) do not associate with traditional kala-makaras, but their locations on mihrabs and gravestones define them as the kalamakaras. K37 was found on the grave whose mosque was located in a poor area in Jakarta. If it were a more affluent area, an elaborate kala-makara might have been the case. The extremely geometrized shape in K38 raises a question: was it the result of being situated close to Surabaya harbour where Javanese Muslims embark on trips to Mecca, bringing a new impulse from the orthodox Islamic world? On the contrary, K40 (Agung

During the Dutch colonization era, seven kala-makaras were found in West Java and two in Central Java. No kala-makaras were shown in East Java. Five kala-makaras appeared in the prayer hall; one in the serambi; and three outside the mosque building. Positioning kalamakaras in the prayer hall in the transitory period continued, and for the first time, the serambi was used. Four kala-makaras are made of wood, three of stone, 105

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Mataram) resembles K6 (Prambanan temple). At any rate, renovated/reproduced kala-makaras inherited a symbolic idea and geometric shapes from the transitory period, indicating continuity within the same period. Could it also indicate their origin from that period, since they are likely to be renovated or reproduced?

where urbanization is under process. The other is Agama Islam Santri movement around 1920 underlined pure and formal Islamic dogma, rather than keeping the animistic ancestor worship on graves. (Material): The favourite material of stone in HinduBuddhist temples affected Islamic kala-makaras in the transitory period, but it gave way slowly to the wood in the Dutch colonization era. In the next period, other material replaced wood which indicates Javanese Muslim’s creativity in choices.

The large number of kala-makaras both in the prayer hall and on graves highlights the sacredness of kalamakaras in mosque ornamentation. The ancestor cult seems to take precedence over the prohibition of living figures in Islam, because Javanese Muslims wished Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras to keep their prayer halls and graves sacred. Moreover, the absence of kala-makaras in the serambi explains the place itself as profane, considering its origin from Javanese houses and its adaptation to mosques later, for discussions, ceremonies, and cultural events of wayang (shadow puppet) show. It can be also argued that K35 (Merah Panjunan) replaces the mihrab when the original prayer hall had to be extended, to accommodate prayers on the Friday service.

(Attachment): A tendency to decorate kala-makaras emerged between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, except for a lesser use during Dutch colonization. Colour was introduced to mosque ornamentation this time, but colouring kala-makaras seems to be reluctant, possibly owing to their sacred character. 6.4. Analyzed by basic type of shape and its subdivisions To answer sub-question 2, the selected 45 kalamakaras were perceived several times with constant intervals and observations during the fieldwork by the researcher.

6.3.3. Conclusion The appearance of renovated/reproduced kala-makaras can prove the continuity of pre-Islamic motif into Javanese mosque ornamentation, particularly in the context of a symbolic connotation.

A shape is the outline of a plane figure of a form. The perception of shape depends on the level of visual contrast between the outline separating a figure from its ground. Repetitive shapes establish variety, and new shapes increase the sense of movement and countermovement in a composition. Positive shapes are the subject matter themselves; negative shapes are the areas surrounding the positive ones. Shapes can be formed by the lines, or by areas of texture, value, and colour, varying from simple circles, triangles, and squares to complex silhouettes of nature and the human form. They have both two-and three-dimensional characteristics.

Preferred background to the 45 kala-makaras between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Area: (HB) Central Java, (I) West Java Location: (I) Prayer hall Material (HB) Stone, (I) Other Attachment (HB) Decorated, (I) Decorated Preferred background to the 34 kala-makaras within the Islamic period Area: (IT) West Java, (ID) West Java, (IR) West Java Location: (IT) Outside, (ID) Prayer hall, (IR) Prayer hall Material (IT) Stone, (ID) Wood, (IR) Other Attachment (IT) Decorated, (ID) Not-Decorated, (IR) Decorated

In an analysis of the 45 kala-makaras, natural and geometric shapes are the basic type of shape, and circular, oval, triangular, square, and rectangular are subdivisions of geometric shapes. Continuity of kalamakaras between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods is examined in two stages. They are (1) verifying the presence of each type of shape, and (2) counting their frequency of use in number and establishing their scaled value, mode, and total number. If numbers of shapes are more than 10 or are perceived abundantly, they are graded as ‘many’; between 5 and 9 as ‘some’, and fewer than 5 as ‘few’. The interrelationship between the maximal and minimal use of shapes is considered.

(Geographic Area): Kala-makaras in Central Java continued mainly to Islamic ones in West Java. The reasons are Islamization from Central Java, where many Islamic kingdoms began, and the expansion of urban development to meet a need for new Muslim settlement. (Location in a mosque building): The majority of Islamic ornaments appeared on graves in the transitory period, but moved to prayer halls in the next period, highlighting mihrabs and minbars. One reason is the financial difficulty of affording graves in city mosques

Decoration within a frame of kala-makaras is not treated as shape: K12 (Tralaja Muslim grave), K22 (Sunan Kalijaga), K24 (Agung Mataram), K28 (Al Anwar 106

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Kala-Makaras in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation Angke), and K31 (Al Wustho Mangkunegara). K26 (Jami Kanoman) and K33 (Carita Labuan) are chosen as a kala. Many (4)

Some (3)

Few (2)

None (1)

kala-makaras display only natural shapes, compared to 10 Islamic ones. Natural shapes were preferred in the Hindu-Buddhist period, but in the Islamic period, geometric ones took over them, hindering dominant natural shapes of Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras on Javanese mosques. Geometric shapes are almost present in renovated/reproduced ones.

X

Figure 6.3. Scaled value in kala-makaras

(Frequency): The popular natural shapes in the HinduBuddhist period fell drastically in the Islamic transitory period, and almost evolved in renovated/reproduced kala-makaras, despite a revival in K26/28/40 (Table 6.2a). K40 (Agung Mataram) resembles K6 (Prambanan temple), linking the two periods. Geometric shapes were much shown in K19-21/38-39/41/45. K20 (Kasunyatan) and K38 (Sendang Duwur) have an extremely simplified design. Renovated/reproduced (K38-39/41/45) kalamakaras used geometric shapes along with the pure Islamic movement in the 1920s. As Islam forbids living figures in ornamentation, Javanese Muslims combined a Hindu-Buddhist idea of kala-makaras and an Islamic form in their stylized shapes, to avoid a conflict between Javanese and orthodox Islam, but to keep their cultural heritage.

6.4.1. Natural/Geometric Shapes Four examples of the initial assessment display whether natural and geometric shapes were found in a kalamakara, and how many numbers these shapes appeared to be. Defining natural shapes are kala-makaras which represent living animals; natural floral motifs without stylization. Geometric shapes are abstracted shapes - a circle, oval, triangle, square, and rectangle; simplified shapes; and stylized spirals. (Presence): Of the 45 kala-makaras, 21 have natural and 24 geometric shapes (Table 6.2). All Hindu-Buddhist

K4-Prambanan temple: HB (Natural) N/Numerous. M/Many

K16-Agung Kasepuhan: IT (Natural) N/Numerous. M/Many

K24-Agung Mataram: IT (Geometric) N/12. M/Many

K45-Carita Labuan: IR (Geometric) N/10. M/Many

Figure 6.4. Natural/geometric. Number(N). Mode(M)

Table 6.2. Number of natural/geometric shapes in the 45 kala-makaras between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

Basic type

Islamic: 34 (+)

HinduBuddhist: 11

Transitory: 14

Dutch: 9

Renovated/ Reproduced: 11

Natural:

11

5

4

1

Geometric: 24 (24+)

0

9

5

10

Number of kala-makaras: 45

107

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Transitory: 14

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

Table 6.2a. Modes and total numbers+: natural and geometric shapes in the 45 kala-makaras 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

geometric 11+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

kala-makara

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

natural 23+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

kala-makara(i) natural 39+

geometric 33+

Dutch: 9 Renovated/Rep:11

Islamic: 34

kala-makara

26

natural 16+

27

28

X

X X

X

29

30

31

X

X

X

geometric 18+

X

kala-makara

35

36

37

38

39

natural 14+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

32

33

geometric 32+

24

25

X X

X

34

X X

40

23

X

41

42

43

44

45

X

X

X

X

X

X

Modes and total numbers of natural and geometric shapes in the 45 kala-makaras Natural 92: (HB) Many/ 39, (IT) None/23, (ID) None/16, (IR) None/14 Geometric 84: (HB) None/11, (IT) Some/33, (ID) None=Some/18, (IR) Some/32

Geometric shapes are limited to stylized and abstracted shapes. Circular shapes include circles, circular-like shapes, and spirals; oval shapes include curved shapes, except for circular and spiral ones. Diamond shapes are treated as triangular. K14 (Merah Panjunan) has circular shapes; K21 (Sunan Kalijaga) oval; K22 (Sunan Kalijaga) triangular; K27 (Al Anwar Angke) square; and K19 (Agung Kasepuhan) rectangular. K14 has ‘some’ circular and ‘some’ oval shapes, due to their moderate use in number.

Hindu-Buddhist: The mode is ‘many’ in natural shapes, and the total numbers prove their predominance. They were three times more used than geometric ones in the sample. Islamic: The modes of favourite geometric shapes vary from ‘none’ to ‘some’. The total numbers reveal rather a big difference between the two types of shapes in transitory and renovated/reproduced kala-makaras.

(Presence): Of the 24 Islamic geometric shapes, 14 are circular, 18 oval, 16 triangular, seven square, and 14 rectangular (Table 6.3). Oval shapes are the most common, and are more used than other shapes in transitory and renovated/reproduced kala-makarass. More triangular shapes appeared in the Dutch colonization era. Square shapes seem the least popular.

(Continuity and Influence): Natural shapes in HinduBuddhist kala-makaras did not affect Javanese mosque ornamentation. It testifies to a new influence on shapes by Islamic ornament when kala-makaras were adapted into mosques.

(Frequency): All shapes continued with a weak influence (Table 6.3a). Significant use of oval shapes can be seen in K14/17/21 in the transitory period. K24 (Sunan Kalijaga) consists of big oval shapes which fell slightly during the next period, but regained in renovated/ reproduced kala-makaras. Of other types, K19 (Agung Kasepuhan) is made of triangular and rectangular; K45 (Carita Labuan) is of circular shapes to suit an arch on the mihrab wall. Triangular shapes appear irregularly except for a successive use in renovated/reproduced K37-39/41. K41 (Kanari) has diamond shapes, derived from doubled triangles. Squares shapes are largely seen in K43 (Hidayatullah).

6.4.2. Circular/Oval/Triangular/Square/Rectangular of Geometric Shapes Geometric shapes are divided into circular, oval, triangular, square, and rectangular. The five types of shapes are tested in the 24 geometric shapes of 34 Islamic kala-makaras, to observe the continuity in Javanese mosques. Multiple options were given, as the majority of kala-makaras is composed of more than one type of shape.

108

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Kala-Makaras in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

K14-Merah Panjunan: IT (Circular) N/7. K21-Sunan Kalijaga: IT (Circular) N/2. M/Some. (Oval) N/8. M/Some /Few. (Oval) N/6. M/Some

K27-Al Anwar Angke: ID (Circular) N/8. M/Some. (Triangular) N/7. M/Some. (Square) N/3. M/Few. (Rectangular) N/5. M/Some

K22-Sunan Kalijaga: IT (Oval) N/1. M/Few. (Triangular) N/1. M/Few

K19-Agung Kasepuhan: IT (Triangular) N/9. M/Some. (Rectangular) N/8. M/Some

Figure 6.5. Circular/oval/triangular/square/rectangular of geometric shapes. Number(N). Mode(M)

Table 6.3. Number of circular/oval/triangular/square/rectangular of geometric shapes in the 34 kala-makaras within the Islamic period Numbers of kala-makaras: 45

Geometric: 24

Islamic: 34 (+) Transitory: 14

Dutch: 9

Renovated/Reproduced: 11

Circular: 14

6

2

6

Oval: 18

7

3

8

Triangular: 16

6

4

6

Square: 7

1

2

4

Rectangular: 14

6

3

5

(Dutch colonization): Triangular shapes are the most common, having the mode as ‘few=some’. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal almost no differences between shapes. (Renovated/Reproduced): The total numbers explain oval and triangular shapes as equal, but oval shapes are mostly present in kala-makaras. Their modes are ‘few’ and ‘none’ respectively, indicating a significant use of triangular shapes when they were used. Few differences were shown in the total numbers between different types of shapes.

Modes and total numbers of circular/oval/ triangular/square/rectangular of geometric shapes in the 34 kala-makaras Circular 41: (IT) Few /16, (ID) None/8, (IR) Few/17 Oval 48: (IT) Few/19, (ID) None=Few/9, (IR) Few/20 Triangular 47: (IT) Few/16, (ID) Few=Some/11, (IR) None/20 Square 34: (IT) None/10, (ID) None/7, (IR) None/17 Rectangular 48: (IT) None=Some/20, (ID) None=Some/10, (IR) None/8 (Transitory) Oval shapes are mostly present in kala-makaras in number, but the same total numbers between oval and rectangular shapes. The mode of oval shapes is ‘few’, but that of rectangular shapes is ‘none=some’. Few differences between each shape were found in the total numbers, except square ones.

(Continuity and Influence): Within the Islamic period, oval shapes of kala-makaras continued in Javanese mosque ornamentation, along with other shapes in part. A weak influence occurred in the subdivisions of geometric shapes, implying any shapes were allowed to mosques. 109

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Table 6.3a. Modes and total numbers+: circular/oval/triangular/square/rectangular of geometric shapes in the 34 kala-makaras

Transitory: 14

kala-makara

12

13

14

17

18

X

triangular 16+

X

square 10+

X

X

26

27

X

X

29

30

31

X

X

X

X

32

23

24

25

X

X X

33

X

X

X

X

44

45

34

X

triangular 11+

X

square 7+

X

rectangular 10+ 35

36

X

X 39

37

38

circular 17+

X

X

oval 20+

X

triangular 20+

X

X

square 17+

X

X

rectangular 18+

22

X

X 28

21

X

X

oval 9+

kala-makara

20

X

circular 8+

Renovated/Rep:11

19

oval 19+

kala-makara

Dutch: 9

16

X

rectangular 20+

Islamic: 34

15

circular 16+

X 40

X 41

43

X

X X

X X

42

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

(Circular/Oval/Triangular/Square/Rectangular of Geometric Shapes): No particular shapes were dominant, despite the continuity of oval shapes. Favouring them can be attributed to stylized kala-makaras for arched mihrabs in mosques, compared to square or triangular shapes at temple gates.

6.4.3. Conclusion The continuity of pre-Islamic kala-makaras in Javanese mosques tends to be irregular and less influential, by the basic type of shape and its subdivisions. Preferred shapes of the basic type and its subdivisions in the 45 kala-makaras between the preIslamic and Islamic periods Natural/Geometric: (HB) Natural, (IT) Geometric, (ID) Geometric, (IR) Geometric Geometric: Circular/Oval/Triangular/Square/ Rectangular: (HB) None, (IT) Oval, (ID) Triangular, (IR) Oval

(Oval Shapes): The oval shapes vary between ‘none’ and ‘few’. Various types of shapes are due to different locations of kala-makaras in mosques or the local genius. 6.5. Comparing five further characteristics of shape A more detailed analysis of shapes takes five further characteristics. A choice of each characteristic and its meaning was done according to literary sources and the researcher’s view. They are dynamic/static, single/assorted, illustrating/abstract, smooth/ complicated, and small/big. All shapes were examined several times at a set of intervals by the researcher’s perception and observations during the fieldwork. One

(Natural/Geometric Shapes): Both shapes were present between the two periods. Natural shapes were predominant in Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras; geometric shapes in Islamic ones. Within the Islamic period, geometric shapes were mostly echoed.

110

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Kala-Makaras in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation Table 6.4. Number of five further characteristics of shape in the 45 kala-makaras between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

Five further characteristics

Islamic: 34 (+)

HinduBuddhist: 11

Transitory: 14

Dutch: 9

Renovated/ Reproduced: 11

Dynamic: 25 (17+)

8

9

3

5

Static: 20 (17+)

3

5

6

6

Single: 7 (7+)

0

3

2

2

Assorted: 38 (27+)

11

11

7

9

Illustrating: 18 (7+)

11

4

2

1

Abstract: 27 (27+)

0

10

7

10

Smooth: 35 (31+)

4

13

7

11

Complicated: 26 (15+)

11

5

5

5

Small: 28 (17+)

11

7

4

6

Big: 43 (34+)

9

14

9

11

Number of kala-makaras: 45

K7-Panataran temple: HB (Dynamic) N/Numerous. M/Many

K26-Jami Kanoman: ID (Dynamic) N/ Numerous. M/ Many

K36-Kasunyatan: IR (Dynamic) N/8. M/ Some

K2-Borobodur temple: HB (Static) N/2. M/Few

K20-Kasunyatan: IT (Static) N/6. M/ Some

K38-Sendang Duwur: IR (Static) N/5. M/ Some

Figure 6.6. Dynamic/static. Number(N). Mode(M)

or multiple options were given. A few examples of each characteristic are assessed to illustrate their continuity.

while all Islamic ones used big shapes. Assorted and big shapes continued constantly between the two periods.

(Presence): Among the 45 kala-makaras, 25 have dynamic and 20 static, seven have single and 38 assorted, 18 have illustrating and 27 abstract, 35 have smooth and 26 complicated, 28 have small and 43 big shapes (Table 6.4). Big shapes are the most common in kalamakaras between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. Dynamic, assorted, abstract, and smooth shapes are more used than their opposites. Assorted shapes are five times more used than single ones in the sample. Chronologically, Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras had assorted, illustrating, complicated, and small shapes,

(Dynamic): If shapes of kala-makaras tend to move in any directions, evoking tension, they are called ‘dynamic’. They can also be realistic features; thus, a concept of life is seen. ‘Dynamic’ shapes can be perceived in living images of Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras; much curved and smaller shapes: and curved rather than straight shapes. Hindu-Buddhist K7 and Islamic K26/36 have dynamic shapes. K7 is a living animal; K26 has much curved and smaller shapes; and K36 has big curved shapes. As K36 has fewer shapes than K7/26, it is graded as ‘some’. 111

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Transitory: 14

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

Table 6.4a. Modes and total numbers+: dynamic/static shapes in the 45 kala-makaras kala-makara(i)

2

X

kala-makara

12

dynamic 29+

X

static 23+

Dutch: 9

static 19+

X

Renovated/Rep:11

26

dynamic 15+

kala-makara

35

13

5

X 14

6

8

9

10

11

X

X

X

X

X

18

19

20

21

22

X

X

X X

15

7

16

17

X X

X

27

28

X

X

4

X

X

X

X

29

30

31

32

33

X

X

X

X

X

36

X

23

24

25

X X

X

44

45

X

X

34

X

X

dynamic 19+ static 21+

3

X

static 14+

kala-makara

Islamic: 34

1

dynamic 29+

37

38

X

X

39

40

41

X X

X

(Static): ‘Static’ shapes provide stable and balanced feeling without movement: a composition of kalamakaras in harmony; straight rather than curved; and stylized and geometric shapes can be perceived as ‘static’. Hindu-Buddhist K2 and Islamic K20/38 display static shapes. K2 is stable and harmonious; K20 has straight shapes; and K38 is composed of stylized and geometric shapes, such as triangles and rectangles which express calmness. K2 is categorized as ‘few’, due to a few stylized shapes; K20 and K38 as ‘some’.

42

43

X

X

X X

numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a big difference between both types of shapes in the HinduBuddhist period. (Single): If kala-makaras are composed of one type of shape, they are called ‘single’. A whole shape with different types of shapes is also ‘single’. The characteristic expresses a figurative image or a symbolic message. ‘Single’ shapes can be perceived as singular; curved or straight; simple shapes; and various width and length in the same type of shape. The whole shape K37 is counted as one shape; doubled or distorted mirror image shapes K13/28 as two. Single shapes were only found in Islamic K13/28/37. K13 has simple and curved shapes; K28 has curved shapes with variation in width; and K37 has a singular, straight, and simple shape. All are graded as having ‘few’ single shapes.

(Frequency): Overall, dynamic shapes were more used than static ones (Table 6.4a). They were frequent in Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras, but fell in the Islamic period. They are almost absent during the Dutch colonization era, such as in K29-33. A revival was seen in renovated/reproduced K39 or K41. The long absence was due to the stylization of kala-makaras, which expresses less dynamism. By contrast, static shapes were seldom in Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras. The tendency continued in the Islamic transitory period, except for geometrized K19 (Agung Kasepuhan). During the Dutch colonization era, they became popular such as in K27/29-30/33. Both types were fairly shown in renovated/reproduced kala-makaras.

(Assorted): ‘Assorted’ shapes present multiple images and meanings by using different shapes and sizes. Moreover, each shape is separated within a whole shape, perceived as an individual element; thus, a boundary between shapes is visible. They provide contrast and interplay between shapes, creating tension. Curved and straight shapes; dissimilar lengths and widths of different types of shapes can be perceived as ‘assorted’ shapes. Hindu-Buddhist K1 and Islamic K24/35 have assorted shapes. In K1, smaller and narrower shapes are shown on the upper part, but bigger and wider shapes are located on the lower part. They are composed of circular and oval shapes. K24 has a triangular shape on the upper part and oval shapes on the lower part, while K35 displays oval and rectangular shapes. All are marked as ‘some’, because of their number of shapes between the maximal and minimal use in the sample.

Modes and total numbers of dynamic/static shapes in the 45 kala-makaras Dynamic 92 (63+): (HB) Many/29, (IT) None/29, (ID) None/15, (IR) None/19 Static 77 (63+): (HB) None/14, (IT) None/23, (ID) Some/19, (IR) None/21 The modes of dynamic shapes are ‘many’ in HinduBuddhist and ‘none’ in Islamic kala-makaras. The total 112

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Kala-Makaras in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

K13-Agung Demak: IT (Single) N/2. M/Few

K28-Al Anwar Angke: ID (Single) N/2. M/Few

K37-Al Marunda: IR (Single) N/1. M/ Few

K1-Borobodur temple: HB (Assorted) N/5. M/Some

K24-Agung Mataram: IT (Assorted) N/6. M/Some

K35- Merah Panjunan: IR (Assorted) N/5. M/Some

Figure 6.7. Single/assorted. Number(N). Mode(M)

Dutch: 9 Renovated/Rep:11

Islamic: 34

Transitory: 14

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

Table 6.4b. Modes and total numbers+: single/assorted shapes in the 45 kala-makaras kala-makara (i)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

single 11+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

assorted 40+ kala-makara single 17+ assorted 35+

X

X

kala-makara

26

27

single 11+

X

X

assorted 21+ 35

36

single 13+

X

X

assorted 29+

X 28

29

30

X

X

37

31

32

33

34

X

X

X

X

X

kala-makara

25

38

39

40

41

42

43

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

44

45

X X

(Frequency): Assorted shapes were twice more used than single ones in the sample (Table 6.4b). They were very popular in Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras, but decreased slightly in the Islamic period. A break was seen in the transitory period, such as in K12 (Tralaja Muslim grave) and K13 (Agung Demak), but kala-makaras fully appeared in K16/26/40. K40 (Agung Mataram) resemble K6 (Prambanan temple), expressing

continuity of assorted shapes between the two periods. By contrast, single shapes were never popular. Modes of single/assorted shapes in the 45 kalamakaras Single 52 (41+): (HB) None/11, (IT) None/17, (ID) None/11, (IR) None/13 Assorted 125 (85+): (HB) Many/40, (IT) Some/35, (ID) Few=some/21, (IR) Some/29 113

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

K4-Prambanan temple: HB (Illustrating) N/Numerous. M/Many

K16-Agung Kasepuhan: IT (Illustrating) N/9. M/Some

K40-Agung Mataram: IR (Illustrating) N/ Numerous. M/Many

K12-Tralaja Muslim grave: IT(Abstract) N/5. M/Some

K31-Al Wustho Mangkunegara: ID (Abstract) N/3. M/Few

K45-Carita Labuan: IR (Abstract) N/10. M/Many

Figure 6.8. Illustrating/abstract. Number(N). Mode(M)

Transitory: 14

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

Table 6.4c. Modes and total numbers+: illustrating/abstract shapes in the 45 kala-makaras 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

abstract 11+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

kala-makara

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

illustrating 20+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

kala-makara (i) illustrating 37+

abstract 33+ 27

28

X

29

30

31

32

33

34

X

X

X

X

X

X

40

41

42

43

44

45

X

X

X

X

X

Dutch: 9

26

X

illustrating 12+ abstract 20+

X

Renovated/Rep:11

Islamic: 34

kala-makara

X

kala-makara

35

36

37

38

39

illustrating 14+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

23

24

25

X

X

X

X

abstract 32+

X

The modes of assorted shapes are ‘many’ in HinduBuddhist and ‘few=some’ in Islamic kala-makaras. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a big difference between different shapes overall.

ornamentation. Hindu-Buddhist K4 and Islamic K16/40 have illustrating shapes. K4 and K40 display living images, and are filled with figurative shapes; K16 has figurative shapes. K4 and K40 are graded as ‘many’; K16 as ‘some’.

(Illustrating): If shapes of kala-makaras are made of natural lines, and kala-makaras are recognizable, they are called ‘illustrating’. They depict real images or similar through shapes. ‘Illustrating’ shapes can be perceived in living animals of Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras: figurative shapes. All Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras tend to display illustrating shapes, characterizing temple

(Abstract): In this analysis, the term ‘abstract’ refers to stylized kala-makaras whose variations range from moderateness to extremity. Stylized and geometrized shapes, mostly found in Islamic kala-makaras; expressing symbolic connotation, rather than depicting the real images can be perceived as ‘abstract’ shapes. As 114

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Kala-Makaras in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

K11-Central Javanese temple: HB (Smooth) N/4. M/Few. (Complicated) N/4. M/Few

K25-Kanari: IT (Smooth) N/3. M/ Few. (Complicated) N/0. M/None

K41-Kanari: IR (Smooth) N/ Numerous. M/Many. (Complicated) N/4. M/Few

Figure 6.9. Smooth/complicated. Number(N). Mode(M)

Dutch: 9 Renovated/Rep:11

Islamic: 34

Transitory: 14

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

Table 6.4d. Modes and total numbers+: smooth/complicated shapes in the 45 kala-makaras kala-makara(i)

1

smooth 17+

2

3

X

4

5

X

X

15

16

6

7

8

9

10

11

X

X

X

X

18

19

20

21

22

X

X

X

X

33

34

44

45

complicated 35+ kala-makara

12

13

14

smooth 39+

23

24

25

X

X

X

complicated 22+

X

X

kala-makara

26

27

smooth 20+

X 28

29

30

31

X

X

37

38

39

X

X

X

X 35

36

32

X

X

complicated 16+ kala-makara

17

X 40

41

42

43

X

X

smooth 32+ complicated 20+

X

Modes and total numbers of illustrating/abstract shapes in the 45 kala-makaras Illustrating 83 (46+): (HB) Many/37, (IT) None/20, (ID) None/12, (IR) None/14 Abstract 96 (85+): (HB) None/11, (IT) Some/33, (ID) Some/20, (IR) Some/32

no Hindu-Buddhist ones were found in the sample, this term can represent Islamic ornament. Islamic K12/32/45 have abstract shapes. Probably, stylized shapes of K12 symbolize a protector against evil spirits on the grave. Stylized and geometrized shapes of K31 and K45 underline the sacredness of mihrabs and the simplicity of Javanese mosque ornamentation. All are graded as ‘some’, ‘few’, and ‘many’ respectively.

The mode of abstract shapes is ‘none’ in Hindu-Buddhist and ‘some’ in Islamic kala-makaras. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a big difference between two opposing shapes, except for the Dutch colonization era.

(Frequency): A fair distribution of both shapes was seen between the two periods (Table 6.4c). Illustrating shapes were dominant in Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras, but abstract shapes replaced them in the Islamic period. Preferring abstract shapes in Islamic kala-makaras could be encouraged by orthodox Islam. However, Javanese Muslims’ creativity to compromise living figures with an Islamic rule seems solved by using illustrating and abstract shapes. K13 (Agung Demak), K37 (Al Marunda) and K41 (Kanari) have different grades of abstractness.

(Smooth): If shapes of kala-makaras evoke evenness in texture, they are called ‘smooth’. Smooth shapes can be perceived in simple; big and curved; stylized and unified shapes; and the same type of shape. (Complicated): Uneven zigzag shapes; smaller shapes with different curves; and natural shapes can be perceived as ‘complicated’ shapes. Both types of shapes are present in the 45 kala-makaras. Hindu-Buddhist K11 115

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia and Islamic K25/41 display both shapes. K11 consists of big, oval, and floral-like curled small shapes, perceived as both smooth and complicated. K25 has big curved shapes, while K41 consists of uneven zigzags and many simple shapes. K11 is graded as ‘few’ in both shapes. K25 is marked as ‘few’ in smooth shapes only. K41 has ‘many’ smooth shapes and ‘few’ complicated ones.

Smooth shapes, rarely found in Hindu-Buddhist kalamakaras, are common in the Islamic period. In adapting to mosques, stylized kala-makaras seem to have more smooth shapes. Orthodox Islam movement around 1920 could push their use in renovated/reproduced ones. By contrast, the popular complicated shapes in the HinduBuddhist period fell drastically in the Islamic period, despite their significant use in K16 (Agung Kasepuhan), K28 (Al Anwar Angke) and K40 (Agung Mataram).

(Frequency): Both smooth and complicated shapes were used between the two periods (Table 6.4d).

K6-Prambanan temple: HB (Small) N/ Numerous. M/ Many

K33-Carita Labuan: IT (Small) N/17. M/Many

K3-Borobodur temple: HB (Big) N/4. M/ K29-Mukarmah Bandan: ID (Big) Few N/5. M/Some

K43-Hidayatullah: ID (Small) N/ Numerous. M/ Many

K39-Al Makmur Jipang: IR (Big) N/12. M/Many

Figure 6.10. Small /big. Number(N). Mode(M)

Modes and total numbers of smooth/complicated shapes in the 45 kala-makaras Smooth 108 (91+): (HB) None/17, (IT) Some/39, (ID) Some/20, (IR) Some/32 Complicated 93 (58+): (HB) Many/35, (IT) None/22, (ID) None/16, (IR) None/20

by small shapes, creating a lively impression. HinduBuddhist K6 and Islamic K33/43 have small shapes. K6 has many complicated narrow shapes, compared to K33 and K43 which have small simple shapes. All are graded as ‘many’. (Big): Single and unified shapes; bigger shapes relative to smaller ones; and symbolical stylized shapes can be perceived as ‘big’ shapes. Islamic kala-makaras tend to have big shapes, decorated with a floral motif or Arabic calligraphy. Big shapes appear more in Islamic kalamakaras, characterizing the simplicity and abstractness of Islamic ornament. Hindu-Buddhist K3 and Islamic K29/39 display big shapes. K3 has big shapes on the lower part; K 29 has stylized shapes bearing a symbol of protecting the grave; and K39 has big shapes overall. All are graded as ‘few’, ‘some’ and ‘many’ respectively.

The modes of smooth shapes are ‘none’ in HinduBuddhist and ‘some’ in Islamic kala-makaras. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a big difference between different shapes, except for the Dutch colonization era. (Small): The meaning has nothing to do with actual sizes of kala-makaras. This test finds interaction in shapes after their emersion in mosques, because small and big shapes exist in the 45 kala-makaras. If tiny shapes are many in kala-makaras, serving as a decorative effect, they are called ‘small’. Tiny and narrow: much curved, spiral, or zigzag shapes; and smaller shapes relative to bigger ones can be perceived as ‘small’ shapes. Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras are surrounded

(Frequency): Almost equal use of both shapes exists across the two periods (Table 6.4e). Compared to the frequent occurrence in Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras, small shapes were not notable in the Islamic period. 116

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Kala-Makaras in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

Transitory: 14

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

Table 6.4e. Modes and total numbers+: small/big shapes in the 45 kala-makaras kala-makara(i)

2

3

4

5

6

7

big 20+ kala-makara

12

13

small 24+

X

X

8

9

X

X 20

10

11

26

27

14

15

16

17

18

19

21

22

X

X

X

32

33

X

23

24

25

X

big 40+

Dutch: 9

small 17+

Renovated/Rep:11

kala-makara

Islamic: 34

1

small 39+

kala-makara

28

29

30

31

X

X

X

X

37

38

39

40

34

X

big 22+ small 24+

35

36

X

X

41

42

X

43

44

45

X

X

big 32+

Their popularity decreased drastically, except for K16 (Agung Kasepuhan) or K23 (Sunan Dradjat) in the transitory period. Their sharing with big shapes was seen in renovated/reproduced kala-makaras. On the other hand, less popular big shapes in Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras became the vogue in the Islamic transitory period, and continued further. K36 (Kasunyatan) and K39 (Al Makmur Jipang) have many big shapes. An allegorical thought can be attempted: many small shapes in Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras describe human-beings’ sufferings, caused by their small hearts, while Islamic kala-makaras have big shapes, to express the greatness of Allah.

• Between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods (Presence): Among the five further characteristics, dynamic and assorted shapes were present in all kalamakaras, indicating their continuity between the two periods. An assumption could be made on their commonality. To keep the continuing pre-Islamic idea with incoming Islamic one which prohibits living figures in ornament, Javanese Muslims created a living image of kala-makaras through dynamic and assorted shapes which could evoke movement.

Modes and total numbers of small/big shapes in the 45 kala-makaras Small 104 (65+): (HB) Many/39, (IT) None/24, (ID) None/17, (IR) None/24 Big 114 (94+): (HB) Few/20, (IT) Some/40, (ID) Few/22, (IR) Few=Some/32

Preferred shapes of five further characteristics in the 45 kala-makaras between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Dynamic/Static: (HB) Dynamic, (I) Dynamic=Static Single/Assorted: (HB) Assorted, (I) Assorted Illustrating/Abstract: (HB) Illustrating, (I) Abstract Smooth/Complicated: (HB) Complicated, (I) Smooth Small/Big: (HB) Small, (I) Big

The modes of big shapes are ‘few’ in Hindu-Buddhist and ‘few=some’ in Islamic kala-makaras. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a big difference between the two types of shapes, except for the Dutch colonization era.

(Continuity and Influence): Despite the popularity of dynamic and assorted shapes, the modes and total numbers show assorted shapes more influential. A big difference was found between them in the Islamic period. Modes and total numbers of dynamic and assorted shapes in the 45 kala-makaras Dynamic 92: (HB) Many/29, (I) None/63 Assorted 125: (HB) Many/40, (I) Few=Some/85

6.5.1. Conclusion The continuity of pre-Islamic kala-makaras in Javanese mosque ornamentation was neither extensive nor strong between the two periods, by the five further characteristics. Within the Islamic period, the continuity appears to be significant. 117

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia • Within the Islamic period

6.6. Examined by colour: other elements of design

(Presence): Static shapes took over dynamic ones in the Dutch colonization era and continued. Hindu-Buddhist assorted shapes were consistently present, together with abstract, smooth, and big shapes.

This section examines whether colour, a design element, took part in the continuity of pre-Islamic kalamakaras into Javanese mosques. (Original/Coloured in terms of colour): If kala-makaras are made of natural materials, and are neither painted nor coloured, they are called ‘original’. Colour was introduced in Java during the Dutch colonization era (Tjandrasasmita, interview 2004). Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras bear original shapes, such as K13/16/28. Islamic K18/26/39/41/45 are coloured to indicate a European influence on mosque ornamentation. K18 (Agung Kasepuhan) has a blue colour on a tombstone; K26 (Jami Kanoman), K39 (Al MaKur Jipang), and K45 (Carita Labuan) display green and gold colours.

Preferred shapes of five further characteristics in the 34 kala-makaras within the Islamic period Dynamic/Static: (IT) Dynamic, (ID) Static, (IR) Static Single/Assorted: (IT) Assorted, (ID) Assorted, (IR) Assorted Illustrating/Abstract: (IT) Abstract, (ID) Abstract, (IR) Abstract Smooth/Complicated: (IT) Smooth, (ID) Smooth, (IR) Smooth Small/Big: (IT) Big, (ID) Big, (IR) Big (Continuity and Influence): Big shapes were mostly continuous and influential, instead of assorted shapes. This phenomenon could be caused by locations of kalamakaras in mosques, Particularly on graves, mihrabs, and minbars where big shapes are displayed.

A supposition can be made: the blue represents the sacredness in mosques; the green is an Islamic message of peace; and the gold denotes the glory of Islamic kingdoms in Java. If so, how can K41 (Kanari) with yellow coloured tiles on the sacred mihrab be interpreted? Is it due to the creativity of the local genius or the lack of finical resources for ready-made tiles to be used?

(Original) K13-Agung Demak

(Original) K16-Agung Kasepuhan

(Original) K28-Al Anwar Angke

(Coloured) K18*-Agung Kasepuhan

(Coloured) K26-Jami Kanoman

(Coloured) K39-Al Makmur Jipang

(Coloured) K41-Kanari

(Coloured) K45-Carita Labuan

* A transitory K18, likely painted later, is not included as ‘coloured’, but introduced to demonstrate the use of colour. Figure 6.11. Original/coloured

118

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Kala-Makaras in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation (Presence): Of the 45 kala-makaras, 32 have original and 13 coloured shapes, indicating the preference of original shapes. Original shapes, fully used in the Hindu-Buddhist period, continued to the Islamic transitory period. Coloured shapes appeared during the Dutch colonization era, and are almost equal to original ones. In the contemporary period, colours became very popular, particularly on mihrabs where visibility is underlined.

(Separate/Unified in terms of unity-variety): If the shapes of a kala and makaras are not composed in oneness, they are called ‘separate’. They can be perceived in different locations of the kala and makara; dissimilar shapes which express the kala and makara. All Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras are separated, because kala heads occupy the top and makaras sit on the bottom of an arched gate in temples. Hindu-Buddhist K9/10 and Islamic K34/42 have separated shapes. K9 is a kala head; K10 is a makara; K34 and K42 present a separation of the kala and makara, made of different shapes. By contrast, a single and whole shape of the kala-makara; the same type of shape can be perceived as ‘unified’ shapes. No Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras were found, but Islamic K21/31/44 display unified shapes. All have a single and whole shape, composed of different types.

Number of original/coloured shapes in the 45 kalamakaras between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Original: 32 (21+): (HB) 11, (IT) 14, (ID) 5, (IR) 2 Coloured: 13 (13+): (HB) 0, (IT) 0, (ID) 4, (IR) 9 Preferred Shapes: (HB) Original, (I) Original (Evaluation): Original shapes connected the two periods. The sacredness in kala-makaras on mihrabs should be respected, as the absence of colours creates a solemn atmosphere in the prayer hall, underlining the purity of the mosque and encouraging the concentration

(Separate) K9-Djago temple

(Separate) K10-Central Javanese temple

(Presence): Of the 45 kala-makaras, 26 have separate and 19 unified shapes. Separate shapes were more used than unified ones. Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras are separated; Islamic ones have both by the emersion of

(Separate) K34-Raya Cipaganti

(Separate) K42-Al Mansyur Sawah Lio

(United) K31-Al Wustho Mangkunegara

(United) K44-Caringin Labuan

(United) K21-Sunan Kalijaga

Figure 6.12. Separate/united

of prayers. It is a characteristic of Javanese mosque ornamentation, far from ostentatious Islamic mosques of the Near East and Arab world. Colour did not contribute to the continuity of pre-Islamic kala-makaras in Javanese mosque ornamentation.

a kala and a makara in mosques. However, K 34 (Raya Cipaganti) and K45 (Carita Labuan) resemble HinduBuddhist ones. Separate shapes in the Hindu-Buddhist period fell up to half in the sample in the Islamic period. Unified shapes, rarely used in Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras, increased in the transitory period, and continued into the next two periods.

6.7. Observing unity-variety: principles of design As one of the related principles, unity-variety was tested in all kala-makaras.

Number of separate/unified shapes in the 45 kalamakaras between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Separate: 26 (17+): (HB) 9, (IT) 7, (ID) 4, (IR) 6 Unified: 19 (17+): (HB) 2, (IT) 7, (ID) 5, (IR) 5 119

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Preferred Shapes: (HB) Separate, (I) Separate=Unified

Oval 8: (IT) 3, (ID) 0, (IR) 5 Triangular 6: (IT) 1, (ID) 1, (IR) 4 Square 3: (IT) 1, (ID) 0, (IR) 2 Rectangular 5: (IT) 1, (ID) 1, (IR) 3

(Evaluation): Separate shapes were echoed between the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods, explaining that variety-unity contributed to the continuity of preIslamic kala-makaras in Javanese mosque ornamentation.

Kala-makaras on mihrabs were the most common in West Java, are made of other materials with decoration. Geometric shapes, particularly oval, were preferred.

6.8. On Mihrabs Mihrabs are decorated according to the Islamic art tradition. An analysis of kala-makaras on mihrabs is investigated in the background, the basic type and its subdivision, to observe the development within the Islamic period. One also finds out similarities or dissimilarities between all Islamic kala-makaras and those on mihrabs (Chapter 9). During the fieldwork, 12 kala-makaras (K14/16/21/24/26/31/36/38-39/4142/45) were recorded. Among them, six (K36/38-39/4142/45) are renovated/reproduced.

6.9. Summary This chapter answers sub-question 2: The hadith, the sayings of the Prophet, prohibits living figures from being depicted in art. Why therefore has the kala-makara, a favourite animal motif in Hindu-Buddhist temples, been adapted into Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how has it been used in Javanese mosques over time? Five aspects were considered in the 45 kala-makaras: (1) background (period/geographical area/location in a mosque building/material/attachment), (2) the basic type of shape (natural/geometrical) and its subdivisions (circular/oval/triangular/square/rectangular of geometric shapes), (3) five further characteristics of shape (dynamic/static, single/assorted, illustrating/ abstract, smooth/complicated, small/big), (4) other elements (original/coloured in colour) and (5) principles (separate/unified in unity-variety) of design.

(Background): Kala-makaras on mihrabs were mostly found in West Java, are made of other materials, and decorated. In the transitory and Dutch colonization periods, they are both from West and Central Java, but in the next period, they are more from West Java. Other materials, such as brick or tile, are preferred in the transitory and contemporary periods. Decorating kala-makaras with scrolls or Arabic calligraphy proves the importance of ornamentation. (The basic type of shape): Geometric shapes are absolute on mihrabs. Natural shapes were used in the transitory and Dutch colonization periods, contrary to the absence in renovated/reproduced kala-makaras.

All findings concluded that the continuity of preIslamic kala-makaras in Javanese mosque ornamentation was constantly shown in the five aspects. But their significance seemed not to be influential, particularly in shapes.

Number of natural and geometric shapes in the 12 kala-makaras on mihrabs Natural 2: (IT) 1, (ID) 1, (IR) 0 Geometric 10: (IT) 3, (ID) 1, (IR) 6

The kala-makara, a pre-Islamic heritage, was originated from India and was introduced to Java during the Hinduization in the fifth century. They signified ultimately the sacredness of temples and mosques over time. Although their shapes became stylized in the metamorphosis from temples into mosques, losing their living figures to conform with orthodox Islam, Javanese Muslims’ awareness of keeping the ancestor worship is apparent through a syncretic approach. Kala-makaras in any shape will appear in mosques. The reason is a symbolic connotation as the holiness.

(Subdivisions): Oval shapes were most common. An answer can be circular or oval arches of mihrabs, where kala-makaras should be fit. Number of circular/oval/triangular/square/ rectangular shapes in the 12 geometric on mihrabs Circular 6: (IT) 2, (ID) 0, (IR) 4

120

Chapter 7.

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Lotus Buds in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

are examined. Moreover, value as a design element and size as its principle reveal their contribution to the continuity. A short analysis of lotus buds on mihrabs is carried out, accompanying a summary.

7.1. Introduction I was Buddhist. Each time I was desperate to reassure my world, I made a quick passage to nearby temples. Amid meditation towards Nirvana, I heard a gentle voice: the Buddha, the Enlightened, was leaving from his world, his lotus seat, to console my wonderings. I wandered with him in a panoramic odyssey on a lotus boat, launching a voyage at the ancient Ptolemaic temples in Egypt, loading lotus buds at the Sanchi sanctuary in India, and laying anchors at East Javanese temples in Indonesia. With the Buddha and his passionate lotus, I recovered from my lost identity and culture.

7.2. Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds in Javanese temples and mosques The 50 lotus buds out of the surveyed 60 were selected and listed by chronology and geographical area (Fig. 7.0). Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic lotus buds were taken from temples, the Indonesian Archaeology Museum in Mojokerto, and mosques during the fieldwork. Of 16 Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds, ten were singled out, including two examples from a book Indonesian Ornament. All the 40 Islamic lotus buds were brought from mosques, sometimes in similar forms, but different periods. Any forms related to symbolic concepts of ‘life’ and ‘creation’ with lotus buds such as jars on roofs or spheres on floors to support pillars in mosques are accepted.

Lotus buds signify ‘life’ and ‘creation’ beyond time and space, and the flavour of their sacredness has no exception in Javanese mosques. Through a gradual transformation from temples, for Javanese imaginations, lotus buds reincarnated to represent the ‘oneness in Allah’, due to their holiness. Whatever it is, they are a remedy for my soul and a blessing for Javanese Muslims.

The lotus played a significant role in Hindu-Buddhist art and architecture. Hindu mythology says that the creation of the world is symbolized by the growth of the holy lotus, to represent creation and sanctity. In the Mahayanist, the lotus, as the creator and supporter of the cosmic tree, is the pattern for the abstract notions of the Dharma preached by the Buddha. The lotus iconography has four forms: the lotus goddess, lotus supports, Bodhisattva lotus-in-hand, and lotus flowers. Its flower undergoes a series of metamorphoses, beginning with a bud as a basic form of symbolic transformation.

This chapter focuses on lotus buds by form as an indicator answering sub-question 3: “How frequent was the use of Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how important has the lotus bud been in mosques within the Islamic period?” The structure of this chapter has five aspects of analyzing lotus buds. A preliminary visual assessment of lotus buds and their background cast a glimpse of continuity across pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. The basic type of form and its five further characteristics

Table 7.0. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods.

121

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 10

TRANSITORY: 16

ISLAMIC: 40

122

1533

19. Sunan Kalijaga

18. Al Marunda

1527

12. Sunan Giri

1485

12-15C

11. Pajlagrahan

1452

12-15C

9. East Javanese

8-9C

8. East Javanese

8C

2. Prambanan temple

1. Borobodur temple

1533

20. Sunan Kalijaga

1498

13. Agung Kasepuhan

12-15C

10. East Javanese

8-9C

3. Prambanan temple

1559

21. Astana Mantingan

1510

14. Langgar K. Kanoman

8-9C

4. Prambanan temple

1559

22. Astana Mantingan

c.1520

15. Al Alam Cilincing

8-9C

5. Central Javanese

1561

23. Sendang Duwur

1522-1570

16. Kasunyatan

9C

6. Kalasan temple

1575

24. Kanoman Semarang

1522-1570

17. Kasunyatan

12-15C

7. East Javanese

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

123

1770

34. Jami Al Islam

1679

27. Jami Kanoman

1596-1651

25. Kanari

1774

35. Agung Yogya

1717

28. Al Mansyur S.Lio

1596-1651

26. Kanari

1820

36. Menar Kp. Melayu

1750

29. Hidayatullah

1880

37. Kampung Nembol

1757

30. Agung Solo

1883-1893

38. Caringin Labuan

1761

31. Tambora

1933

39. Raya Cipaganti

1761

32. Al Anwar Angke

1761

33. Al Anwar Angke

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Lotus Buds in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

DUTCH COLONIZATION: 13

COLONIZATION

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 11

1537

*mosques built before the contemporary period

1485

48. Menara Kudus*

47. Sunan Giri*

1969-1971

41. Sunda Kelapa

1952-1958

40. Al Azhar

1561-1577

1717

50. Al Mansyur S.Lio*

1974

43. Sabilliah Malang

Figure 7.0. 50 lotus buds

49. Al Makmur Jipang*

1974

42. Sabilliah Malang 1996

44. Pusdai Jaber 1996

45. Pusdai Jaber

1480

46. Merah Panjunan*

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

124

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Lotus Buds in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation Various lotus buds were found during the fieldwork, but the main form is a regular sphere with the narrowest angle pointing upwards. Either naturalistic or stylized or combined forms, a few characteristics could be traced between all lotus buds in functions: (1) mystical and symbolic connotation, such as L6/27/36, and (2) aesthetic and decorative beauty, such as L2/21/37-39. Chronologically and geographically, they appeared all the time, spread over the whole of Indonesia, often accompanied by Hindu-Buddhist gods and goddesses in temples, and independently in mosques. They are located on graves and mihrabs where the sacredness should be retained. Using different materials, they are sometimes coloured in gold and green to express the glory of Islamic kingdoms and religion respectively. Some are embellished with scrolls, kala-makaras, and Arabic calligraphy. The majority keep singular, balanced, and symmetrical forms, stressing symbolic expressions of life and unity.

To demonstrate the continuity of Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation, a preliminary visual assessment suggests four groups of the lotus bud (Fig. 7.1). The first group (L6/15/36/47) shares conic forms in common. Despite different periods, geographical areas, and materials, Javanese Muslims’ wishes to continue the motif in mosques are apparent. L36/47 are painted in a golden colour, associating the sacredness of the golden lotus buds in temples. The second group (L12/17/25) has similar spherical forms, located on floors in mosque buildings. In the Islamic transitory period, they are made of wood, and support the four columns in the prayer hall, accompanying the concept of a new life, ‘the Golden Germ’, in HinduBuddhism. The difference is that L12 is from East Java; others are from West Java. The third group (L1/21/31/43) displays open forms. L1 (Borobodur temple) is held by a hand of a Buddhist

Group 1.

L6-Kalasan

L15-Al Alam Cilincing

L36-Menar Kp. Melayu

L47-Sunan Giri

L12-Sunan Giri

L17-Kasunyatan

L25-Kanari

L1-Borobodur

L21-Astana Mantingan

L31-Tambora

L43-Sabilliah Malang

L7-East Javanese

L13-Agung Kasepuhan

L35-Agung Yogya

L46-Merah Panjunan

Group 2.

Group 3.

Group 4

.

Figure 7.1. Continuity of pre-Islamic lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation (Image: the Author)

125

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia goddess; L21 (Astana Mantingan) is situated at the entrance of the mosque; L31 (Tambora) is on the grave; L43 (Sabilliah Malang) is on a pillar in the prayer hall. They are in dissimilar periods, geographic areas, and mosque locations, but they represent a symbol of life. The fourth group (L7/13/35/46) exhibits spherical forms. As the life creator, lotus buds were shown beside the Buddha figure in temples and appeared on mihrabs, making Javanese mosques sacred as a characteristic.

Islamization missionaries and their successors, using the lotus buds as a sacred motif in Islam? Or is it a result of the Dutch colonization of Batavia (now Jakarta) in West Java, where new mosques were needed for expanding population? All Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds are made of natural stone. Of those with Islamic lotus buds, 17 (L12/14/17/20/25/27-29/32/37/39/41-42/45/47-49) are made of wood; 12 (L13/15-16/19/21-23/31/3336) of stone; the rest (L11/18/24/26/30/38/40/4344/46/50) are of other materials, such as plaster or glass, indicating a European influence during the Dutch colonization era. Two lamps in the shape of the lotus bud from L43 (Sabilliah Malang) and L44 (Pusdai Jaber) are made of glass. In Islam, a hanging lamp has a sacred meaning, symbolizing divine light and the presence of God himself. The Holy Koran (surah 24:35) says: ‘God is the Light of the heavens and the earth; the likeness of His Light is a niche wherein is a lamp’. Only one Hindu-Buddhist lotus bud (L10) has decoration, compared to 12 (L13-14/19/26-27/37/39/41/45-46/4950) Islamic ones, embellished with scrolls. The absence of decoration on lotus buds can imply the motif as an important symbol, rather than adorning temples and mosques for aesthetic beauty.

7.3. Background 7.3.1. Lotus Buds between the Pre-Islamic and Islamic Periods Of the sample of 50 lotus buds, 10 (L1-10) are HinduBuddhist, and 40 (L11-50) Islamic (Table 7.1). HinduBuddhist lotus buds were not found in West Java; six (L1-6) are from Central Java; four (L7-10) from East Java. Of those with Islamic ones, 25 (L11/13-18/2529/31-34/37-41/44-46/50) are located in West Java; 10 (L19-22/24/30/35-36/ 48-49) in Central Java; five (L12/23/42-43/47) in East Java. Surprisingly, West Java is the common area for Islamic lotus buds, because historically, it was Central and East Java where Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Sailendra, Sanjaya, Singasari, and Majapahit built many temples. This tradition was continued by the first Islamic kingdom of Demak in Central Java in the 15th century. Two questions can be attempted: is the presence of a large number of lotus buds in West Java due to earlier

7.3.2. Lotus Buds within the Islamic Period Of the 40 Islamic lotus buds, 16 are transitory, 13 from Dutch colonization, and 11 renovated/reproduced ones. Of those with the transitory period, nine lotus buds

Table 7.1. Background to the 50 lotus buds between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

Transitory: 16

Dutch: 13

Renovated/ Reproduced: 11

West: 25 (25+)

0

9

10

6

Central: 16 (10+)

6

5

3

2

East: 9 (5+)

4

2

0

3

Prayer hall: 20

7

5

8

Serambi: 3

1

1

1

Outside: 17

8

7

2

Number of lotus buds: 50

Area

Location

Material

Attachment

Islamic: 40

HinduBuddhist: 10

Wood: 17 (17+)

0

5

6

6

Stone: 22 (12+)

10

7

5

0

Other: 11 (11+)

0

4

2

5

Decorated: 13 (12+)

1

4

3

5

Not-decorated: 37 (28+)

9

12

10

6

HB=Hindu-Buddhist (8-15c); I: Islamic (15c-to the present)= IT: transitory (15c-1619); ID: Dutch colonization (1619-1945); IR: renovated/reproduced (1945-to the present); += Islamic lotus buds

126

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Lotus Buds in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation were from West Java; five from Central Java; two from East Java. Seven lotus buds appeared in the prayer hall, only one in the serambi, and eight outside a mosque building, particularly on graves. Five lotus buds are made of wood; seven of stone; four of other materials. 12 lotus buds are not adorned, indicating a symbolic connotation from Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds.

Preferred background to the 50 lotus buds between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Area: (HB) Central Java, (I) West Java Location: (I) Prayer hall Material: (HB) Stone, (I) Wood Attachment: (HB) Not-decorated, (I) Not-decorated Preferred background to the 40 lotus buds within the Islamic period Area: (IT) West Java, (ID) West Java, (IT) West Java Location: (IT) Outside, (ID) Outside, (IT) Prayer hall Material: (IT) Stone, (ID) Wood, (IT) Wood Attachment: (IT) Not-decorated, (ID) Not-decorated, (IT) Not-decorated

During the Dutch colonization era, 10 lotus buds appeared in West Java and three in Central Java. No lotus buds were seen in East Java in the sample. Five lotus buds were present in the prayer hall; only one in the serambi; seven outside the mosque building. Frequent use of lotus buds on graves can be attributed to the syncretic Mataram kingdom, which practised mystic animism, Hindu-Buddhism and Islam. Six lotus buds are made of wood; five of stone; two of others, such as tile. Three lotus buds are decorated.

(Geographical area): Islamic lotus buds in West Java continued from Hindu-Buddhist ones into Central Java. Islamization by walis (saints) in the earlier Islamic period and the expansion of urban areas after the Dutch colonization of Java could be the reasons.

Referring to renovated/reproduced lotus buds in the contemporary period, six lotus buds were from West Java, two from Central Java, and three from East Java. Eight lotus buds appeared in the prayer hall; only one in the serambi; two outside the mosque building. Six lotus buds are made of wood, and five of others, such as coloured glass. The stone material was not used, and almost half of the lotus buds are decorated.

(Location in a mosque building): Outside as a favourite both in the transitory and Dutch colonization periods was replaced by the prayer hall, principally mihrabs in renovated/reproduced lotus buds of the contemporary period. This change can be caused by the high price of land in cities for graves. The transfer of lotus buds from graves to the prayer hall was likely initiated by Javanese Muslims’ wishes for keeping cultural heritage. It supports an argument of Prijotomo (interview 2004): ‘I am Javanese, then, my religion is Islam’. As the most prestigious motif in ancient Egyptian and Indian temples, lotus buds were also welcomed to Javanese mosques.

Among renovated/reproduced lotus buds, L46 (Merah Panjunan) from Cirebon in West Java is worth discussing. The mosque had several renovations, and a serambi was built, as the original prayer hall was too small to accommodate prayers on Friday services. Consequently, a Hindu-Buddhist gate bordered the courtyard and outside the mosque building became situated in the new serambi. On its top, a new lotus bud with a Koranic word signifies the sacredness of the mosque. Jumardi (interview 2004) underlines that mosques in Cirebon are sacred, and in this context, the lotus bud at the profane serambi extends this sacredness. L50 (Al Mansyur Sawah Lio) does not have a traditional mihrab, but an arch, combined with extremely stylized kalamakara and lotus buds, in the prayer hall serves as the mihrab. If lotus buds were not located beside the kalamakara, they are hardly recognized. The religious leader (interview 2003) says that many mosques in Jakarta do not decorate mihrabs, for fear of interrupting Muslims’ prayer. A simpler explanation might be the lack of financial resources.

(Material): Although stone was dominant in HinduBuddhist temples and echoed in the Islamic transitory period, wood replaced it during the Dutch colonization era. This choice is easy to verify. As an abode of gods and goddesses, Hindu-Buddhist temples are constructed of stone, and the ornamentation followed the same. By contrast, mosques are normally built of wood, and are designed to be for an everyday purpose, requiring renovations and constructions for a growing population in the urban areas. Tropical Java can easily supply abundant wood for erecting mosques. (Attachment): The absence of decoration on HinduBuddhist lotus buds corresponds to Islamic ones, underlining the holy symbolism of ‘creation’ and the ‘oneness in Allah’. Spherical forms are expected to appear in Javanese temple and mosque ornamentation, to express this symbolism.

7.3.3. Conclusion The frequent appearance of lotus buds in contemporary mosques gives evidence of their continuity and influence on Javanese mosque ornamentation.

127

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia 7.4. Analyzed by the basic type of form and its subdivisions

7.4.1. Primary and Non-primary Forms Four examples are initially assessed whether primary and non-primary forms were found in a lotus bud, and how perfect these forms appeared to be.

This section analyzes lotus buds by the basic type of form and its subdivisions, to answer sub-question 3. The chosen 50 lotus buds were perceived several times at constant intervals and observations during the fieldwork.

Primary forms are the basic forms - sphere/cube/ cylinder/cone/pyramid, based on a combination of a circle/triangle/oval/square/rectangle. They are seldom found in nature, but exist in the man-made built environment. Being symmetrical and balanced, these forms can be perceived in 3-dimensional. L7 (East Javanese temple) and L13 (Agung Kasepuhan) display primary forms; L2 (Prambanan temple) and L31 (Tambora) have non-primary ones. As lotus leaves are fastened to L7 and L13, they are graded as having ‘some’ primary forms. Of those with non-primary forms, L31 is full of natural forms, marked as ‘much’; L2 as ‘some’, due to less naturalistic forms than L31.

A form is a combination of all visual elements. The five fundamental forms are sphere, cube, cylinder, cone, and pyramid. Primary forms are those whose parts are related to one another in a consistent and orderly manner. They are steady in nature and symmetrical. In this analysis, primary and non-primary forms are the basic type, and cubic/conic/spherical/cylindrical/ pyramidal of primary forms are its subdivisions. The continuity of lotus buds between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods is approached in two stages. However, this analysis deals with the perfection of forms, instead of counting the number of forms in lotus buds: (1) verifying the presence of each type of form, and (2) measuring the perfection of all forms and establishing their scaled values, modes, and total numbers. If forms of lotus buds are perfect in primary forms or perfect-to-be, they are categorised as ‘much’. The most perfect form is graded as 4, and the least one as 2. The interrelationship between the most and least perfection of lotus buds is considered. Many (4)

Some (3)

Few (2)

None (1)

(Presence): Of the 50 lotus buds, 44 have primary and six non-primary forms (Table 7.2). Of those with primary forms, nine are Hindu-Buddhist, and 35 Islamic. Non-primary forms were found in one HinduBuddhist and five Islamic lotus buds. Primary forms were predominant between the two periods, indicating a strong and influential continuity from temples to mosques. (Frequency): Although primary forms continued mostly between the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods, there was a short interval in L37-39 during the Dutch colonization era (Table 7.2a). Non-primary forms almost did not exist, but among a few examples, L31 (Tambora) appeared on a grave inside the mosque. The owner of the grave is a Chinese who built the mosque during the Dutch colonization; thus, syncretic ornamentation of Hindu-Buddhist natural forms of lotus buds in stone, and ceramic tiles decorated with Chinese and European landscapes, illuminates the tomb.

X

Figure 7.2. Scaled value in lotus buds

L7-East Javanese temple: HB (Primary) N/3. M: Some

L13-Agung Kasepuhan: IT (Primary) N/3. M: Some

L2-Prambanan temple: HB (Non-primary) N/3. M: Some

Figure 7.3. Primary/non-primary. Number(N). Mode(M)

128

L31-Tambora: ID (Non-primary) N/4. M: Much

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Lotus Buds in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation Table 7.2. Number of primary/non-primary forms in the 50 lotus buds between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

Transitory: 16

Dutch: 13

Renovated/ Reproduced: 11

Primary: 44 (35+)

9

16

9

10

Non-primary: 6 (5+)

1

0

4

1

Number of lotus buds: 50

Basic type

Islamic: 40 (+)

HinduBuddhist: 10

Dutch: 13 Renovated/Rep:11

Islamic: 40

Transitory: 16

Hindu-Buddhist: 10

Table 7.2a. Modes and total numbers+: primary and non-primary forms in the 50 lotus buds lotus buds(i)

1

primary 24+

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

non-primary 12+

X

lotus buds

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

non-primary 16+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

lotus buds

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

X

X

X

primary 47+

primary 29+

X

non-primary 22+

X

X

X

X

lotus buds

40

41

42

43

X

primary 29 non-primary 13+

X

X

X

X

X

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

was constant by primary forms with different frequencies, showing the awareness of Javanese Muslims on their cultural heritage. A new impulse emerged gradually from the primary forms, starting to give way to free forms, instead of keeping perfection in form. Accordingly, the influence of Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds on Javanese mosque ornamentation became weaker.

Hindu-Buddhist: The modes of primary forms are ‘little’, compared to ‘none’ in non-primary forms. Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds are neither perfect nor stylized in primary forms. The total numbers indicate their predominance, used twice more than their opponent in the sample. Islamic: Primary forms have two modes of ‘little’ or ‘some’, indicating more stylized Islamic lotus buds than Hindu-Buddhist ones. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a big difference between the two types of the form except for the Dutch colonization era.

7.4.2. Cubic/Conic/Spherical/Cylindrical/Pyramidal of Primary Forms Primary forms are subdivided into cubic, conic, spherical, cylindrical, and pyramidal. These five types are tested in 44 primary forms of the 50 lotus buds, to observe the continuity in Javanese mosques. Cubic forms are composed of many squares; conic forms are of triangles and an oval; spherical forms are of circles; cylindrical forms are of rectangles and ovals, and pyramidal forms are of triangles and a square. L19 (Sunan Kalijaga) displays cubic forms, despite a bulbous form on the top. L6 (Kalasan temple) and L15 (Al Alam

Modes and total numbers of primary/non-primary forms in the 50 lotus buds Primary 129 (105+): (HB) Little/24, (IT) Some/47, (ID) Little/29, (IR) Little/29 Non-primary 63 (51+): (HB) None/12, (IT) None/16, (ID) None/22, (IR) None/13 (Continuity and influence): The continuity of preIslamic lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation 129

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

L4-Prambanan temple: L6-Kalasan temple: HB L15-Al Alam Cilincing: IT HB (Spherical) N/2. M/ (Conic) N/4. M/Much (Conic) N/4. M/Much Little

L19-Sunan Kalijaga: IT (Cubic) N/3. M/Some

L5-Central Javanese temple: HB (Cylindrical) N/2. M/ Little

L11-Pajlagrahan: IT (Cylindrical) N/3. M/ Some

L8-East Javanese temple: HB (Pyramidal) N/3. M/ Some

L18-Al Marunda: IT (Spherical) N/2. M/ Little

L34-Jami Al Islam: ID (Pyramidal) N/4. M/ Much

Figure 7.4. Cubic/conic/spherical/cylindrical/pyramidal of primary forms. Number(N). Mode(M)

Cilincing) are conic; L4 (Prambanan temple) and L18 (Al Marunda) are spherical; L5 (Central Javanese temple) and L11 (Pajlagrahan) are cylindrical; L8 (East Javanese temple) and L34 (Jami Al Islam) are pyramidal. L19, L11, and L8 are categorized as ‘some’, due to lotus leaves fastened to primary forms. L6, L15, and L34 are graded as ‘much’, because of pure singular forms; L4, L18, and L5 are marked as ‘little’, because they have similar, imperfect forms.

pyramidal. Overall, spherical forms are common, but conic forms are also echoed between the two periods. These two forms raise a symbolic assumption, because, in Hindu-Buddhism, spherical forms can imply a duality or a totality, and conic ones be a process of ‘creation’. In Islam, they might represent diversity in unity or the ‘oneness in Allah’. (Frequency): The five types of form did not continue constantly between the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods (Table 7.3a). Occasional use of spherical forms was seen in the Islamic transitory period and renovated/ reproduced lotus buds. Conic and cylindrical forms were sporadically employed. In the transitory, cubic forms appeared; pyramidal forms died out. A partial continuity of all types of form across the two periods implies that forms had to be adjusted, according to temple and mosque ornamentation, creating various

(Presence): Of the 44 primary forms, three are cubic, 12 conic, 18 spherical, 9 cylindrical, and two pyramidal forms (Table 7.3). Cubic forms were only found in Islamic lotus buds in the sample. Of conic forms, three are Hindu-Buddhist and nine Islamic. Four Hindu-Buddhist and 14 Islamic lotus buds display spherical forms; one Hindu-Buddhist and eight Islamic ones are cylindrical. One of each Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic lotus bud is

Table 7.3. Number of cubic/conic/spherical/cylindrical/pyramidal of primary forms in the 50 lotus buds between the preIslamic and Islamic periods

Primary: 44

Islamic: 35 (+)

HinduBuddhist: 9

Transitory: 16

Dutch: 9

Renovated/ Reproduced: 10

Cubic: 3 (3+)

0

2

1

0

Conic: 12 (9+)

3

3

3

3

Spherical: 18 (14+)

4

7

3

4

Cylindrical: 9 (8+)

1

4

1

3

Pyramidal: 2 (1+)

1

0

1

0

Number of lotus buds: 50

130

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Lotus Buds in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

Dutch: 13

Islamic: 40

Transitory: 16

Hindu-Buddhist: 10

Table 7.3a. Modes and total numbers+: cubic/conic/spherical/cylindrical/pyramidal forms in the 50 lotus buds lotus buds

1

cubic 9+

X

conic 14+

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

spherical 15+

X

cylindrical 10+

X

X

X

pryamidal 11+

X

X

X

lotus buds

11

12

13

cubic 20+

X

X

conic 23+

X

X

spherical 29+

X

cylindrical 23+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

14

15

16

17

18

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

19

20

21

22

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X X

23

24

25

26

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

pryamidal 16+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

lotus buds

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

cubic 10+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

conic 15+

X

X

X

X

spherical 12+ cylindrical 12+

Renovated/Rep:11

2

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

cubic 10+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

conic 14+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

cylindrical 13+

X

pryamidal 10+

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

lotus buds

X

X

X

pryamidal 12+

spherical 21+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

reveal few differences between each form, except for spherical forms in renovated/reproduced lotus buds.

forms. Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds are freestanding (L4) or supported by Buddha or his attributes (L5). In their adaptation into mosques, locations became diverse. A few (L41) are on the top of columns to support arched mihrabs; some (L12) are located on floors to bear columns.

Modes and total numbers of cubic/conic/spherical/ cylindrical/pyramidal forms in the 50 lotus buds Cubic 49 (40+): (HB) None/9, (IT) None/20, (ID) None/10, (IR) None/10 Conic 66 (52+): (HB) None/14, (IT) None/23, (ID) None/15, (IR) None/14 Spherical 77 (62+): (HB) None/15, (IT) None/29, (ID) None/12, (IR) None/21

Hindu-Buddhist: Although the modes in five types of form are ‘none’, the total numbers indicate the predominance of spherical forms. Few differences between all forms are shown. Islamic: The modes are ‘none’ in all types of form. Regardless of the use of all forms, the total numbers 131

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Cylindrical 58 (48+): (HB) None/10, (IT) None/23, (ID) None/12, (IR) None/13 Pyramidal 49 (38+): (HB) None/11, (IT) None/16, (ID) None/12, (IR) None/10

era. Spherical forms are likely to emphasize symbolic concepts of ‘life’, ‘creation’, and the ‘oneness in Allah’.

(Continuity and Influence): The continuity of preIslamic lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation tends to be not influential. If there was a temporary influence, it was carried out by spherical forms.

More analysis is carried out in five further characteristics of form. A choice of each characteristic and its meaning were reflected, according to literary sources and the researcher’s view. They are voluminous/slender, open/closed, realistic/stylized, dynamic/static, and 2-3 dimensional/3-dimensional. All forms are tested several times at constant intervals. One option was given for each characteristic.

7.5 Comparing five further characteristics of form

7.4.3. Conclusion Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds influenced significantly Javanese mosque ornamentation by the basic type of form. This influence did not occur in the subdivisions of primary forms, despite the partial continuity of lotus buds in spherical forms.

(Presence): Among the 50 lotus buds, 29 have voluminous and 21 slender, 21 have open and 29 closed, 13 have realistic and 37 stylized, and 31 have dynamic and 19 static, 22 have 2-3 dimensional and 28 3-dimensional forms (Table 7.4). Stylized forms are the most common between the two periods. Moreover, voluminous, closed, dynamic and 3-dimensional forms were favoured to their opposites. Except for realistic/ stylized and dynamic/static forms, a fair distribution between the two types of forms can be seen, indicating the continuity of all forms into Javanese mosque ornamentation.

Preferred forms of basic type and its subdivisions in the 50 lotus buds between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Primary/Non-primary: (HB) Primary, (IT) Primary, (ID) Primary, (IR) Primary Primary: Cubic/Conic/Spherical/Cylindrical/ Pyramidal: (HB) Spherical, (IT) Spherical, (ID) Conic=Spherical, (IR) Spherical (Primary/Non-primary): Primary forms of pre-Islamic lotus buds affected Javanese mosques consistently.

Chronologically, dynamic forms are dominant in HinduBuddhist lotus buds, used four times more than static ones in the sample. In the Islamic period, stylized forms were replaced. Closed forms were evenly shared with stylized ones in the transitory. Renovated/reproduced lotus buds seemed almost stylized by the principle of Islamic ornament. However, the variety of forms in lotus buds could be attributed to creative artists

(Cubic/Conic/Spherical/Cylindrical/Pyramidal of Primary Forms): A constant relationship can be set up by spherical forms between the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods. Conic forms were equally used with spherical ones during the Dutch colonization

Table 7.4. Number of five further characteristics of form in the 50 lotus buds between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

Five further characteristics

Islamic: 40 (+)

HinduBuddhist: 10

Transitory: 16

Dutch: 13

Renovated/ Reproduced: 11

Voluminous: 29 (24+)

5

11

6

7

Slender: 21 (16+)

5

5

7

4

Open: 21 (15+)

6

3

6

6

Closed: 29 (25+)

4

13

7

5

Realistic: 13 (9+)

4

3

4

2

Stylised: 37 (31+)

6

13

9

9

Dynamic: 31 (23+)

8

9

7

7

Static: 19 (17+)

2

7

6

4

2-3 dimensional: 22 (17+)

5

4

5

8

3-dimensional: 28 (23+)

5

12

8

3

Number of lotus buds: 50

132

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Lotus Buds in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

L9-East Javanese temple: HB (Voluminous) N/3. M/Some

L35-Agung Yogya: ID (Voluminous) N/4. M/Much

L41-Sunda Kelapa: IR (Voluminous) N/4. M/Much

L10-East Javanese temple: HB (Slender) N/3. M/Some

L16-Kasunyatan: IT (Slender) N/3. M/ Some

L47-Sunan Giri: IR (Slender) N/4. M/ Much

Figure 7.5. Voluminous/slender. Number(N). Mode(M)

they belong to the most voluminous group. L9 is marked as ‘some’, due to its less voluminous form than L35 and L41.

who were familiar with materials and locations in a mosque building. Muharam (interview 2004) said that contemporary mosques allowed any kind of creativity in mosque ornamentation.

(Slender): Conic and cylindrical; many small; closed forms; and forms positioning on the top of columns can be perceived as ‘slender’ forms. Hindu-Buddhist L10 and Islamic L16/47 display slender forms. L10 has a conic form; L16 has cylindrical and closed forms; and L47 has a tiny form. L10 and L16 are categorized as ‘some’, because they are neither voluminous nor slender. L47 is graded as ‘much’, due to its tiniest form in the sample.

(Voluminous): If forms of lotus buds look massive and large, they are called ‘voluminous’. They can be perceived in cubic or spherical; many big; open; and any forms which are located on the floor to support columns. Hindu-Buddhist L9 and Islamic L35/41 lotus buds have voluminous forms. L9 displays an open form; L35 has spherical and big forms; and L41 has many big forms. L35 and L41 are categorized as ‘much’, because

1

2

volumnious 20+

X

X

slender 19+ lotus buds

11

12

3

4

X

X

13

14

volumnious 40+ slender 26+

X

X

X

X

lotus buds

27

28

29

30

Dutch: 13

Islamic: 40

lotus buds

volumnious 27+ slender 28+

X

X

Renovated/Rep:11

Transitory: 16

Hindu-Buddhist: 10

Table 7.4a. Modes and total numbers+: voluminous/slender forms in the 50 lotus buds

lotus buds

40

41

6

X

X

15

16

X

X

31

X

volumnious 25+ slender 19+

5

42

32

7

X

X 44

X

X

X

17

18

19

X

X

X

33

34

35

X 46

X X

X

X

X

20

21

48

X 133

X

22

23

24

25

X X

26

X X

36

37

38

39

X

X

X

X

49

50

X

X

X 47

X X

10

X

X 45

9

X

X 43

8

X

X

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia (Frequency): Voluminous forms were more common than slender ones across the two periods (Table 7.4a). Half use of voluminous forms in Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds in the sample continued in the Islamic period, despite an interruption in L36-39 during the Dutch colonization era, caused by 2-3 dimensional and rectangular forms. Their maximal use was pursued in L8/12-13/28/40-41. It is logical why L12 (Sunan Giri) should be massive to sustain the ceiling of the mosque. On the other hand, slender forms were equally present with voluminous ones in Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds, but became fewer in the Islamic period, despite the thinnest forms in L26 (Kanari) and L42 (Sabilliah Malang). Slender forms can be attributed to collaboration with other motifs to create the sacred mihrabs.

L2-Prambanan temple: HB (Open) N/4. M/ Much

L6-Kalasan temple: HB (Closed) N/4. M/ Much

Modes and total numbers of voluminous/slender forms in the 50 lotus buds Voluminous 112 (92+): (HB) None/20, (IT) Much/40, (ID) None/27, (IR) None/25 Slender 92 (73+): (HB) None/19, (IT) None/26, (ID) None=Some/28, (IR) None/19 The modes of voluminous forms are ‘none’ in HinduBuddhist and ‘none’ or ‘much’ in Islamic lotus buds. The total numbers prove their predominance, except for the Islamic Dutch colonization era. A difference between the two types of forms is seen in the transitory period. (Open): If forms of lotus buds seem opened, they are called ‘open’. They can be perceived in fully opened lotus bulbs or flowers; buds to be opened; and conic and

L21-Astana Mantingan: IT (Open) N/3. M/Some

L27- Jami Kanoman: ID (Open) N/4. M/ Much

L19-Sunan Kalijaga: IT (Closed) N/2. M/ L22-Astana Mantingan: IT (Closed) N/3. Few M/ Some

Figure 7.6. Open/closed. Number(N). Mode(M)

Dutch: 13 Renovated/Rep:11

Islamic: 40

Transitory: 16

Hindu-Buddhist: 10

Table 7.4b. Modes and total numbers+: open/closed forms in the 50 lotus buds lotus buds

1

2

open 23+ closed 18+

X

X

lotus buds

11

12

open 21+

4

X

X

X

lotus buds

27

open 27+

5

6

13

7

8

9

X X

X

closed 40+

10

X X

X

X

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X 29

30

X

X

X

X

lotus buds

40

41

open 22+

X

X

42

43

31

32

X

X

44

45

33

34

35

36

X

X

X

X

46

X

X

47

48

23

24

25

26

X

X

X

X

X

37

38

39

X

X

X

X 134

49

50

X

X

X X

22

21

X

28

closed 24+

closed 21+

3

X

X

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Lotus Buds in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation spherical forms with lotus petals. Hindu-Buddhist L2 and Islamic L21/27 have open forms. L2 is fully opened; L21 is to be opened; L27 has spherical forms, composed of many lotus buds. L2 and L27 are categorized as ‘much’, because of their full openness, compared to L21 which is half opened, marked as ‘some’.

(Frequency): Closed forms were a little more used than open forms (Table 7.4b). Rather frequent open forms in Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds almost died out in the Islamic transitory period, despite their occasional revival later. Sharing with closed forms can be seen in renovated/reproduced lotus buds. L2/27/31 display full open forms. L2 (Prambanan temple) is located beside a Hindu god, and L31 (Tambora) is on the grave of a Chinese who built the mosque. On the other hand, occasional use of closed forms in Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds became common in the Islamic period, particularly in the transitory period. Although L6/25/30/49 are completely closed, metaphorically, the creation is still in progress.

(Closed): Closed forms with divisions by line, or without them; cubic forms with geometrized lotus leaves; and stylized cylindrical forms can be perceived as ‘closed’ forms. Hindu-Buddhist L6 and Islamic L19/22 display closed forms. L6 is fully closed; L19 is cubic with stylized lotus leaves; L22 has a lesser closure on the top. L6 is categorized as ‘much’, because of its complete closure, while L19 and L22 are marked as ‘little’ and ‘some’ respectively.

L1-Borobodur temple: HB (Realistic) N/4. M/Much

L20-Sunan Kalijaga: IT (Realistic) N/3. M/Some

L42- Sabilliah Malang: IR (Realistic) N/3. M/Some

L8-East Javanese temple: HB (Stylized) N/4. M/Much

L23-Sendang Duwur: IT (Stylized) N/3. M/Some

L46-Merah Panjunan: IR (Stylized) N/3. M/Some

Figure 7.7. Realistic/stylized. Number(N). Mode(M)

1

2

realistic 20+ stylised 25+

X

X

lotus buds

11

12

realistic 22+

X

X

stylised 48+

3

4

X

X

13

6

7

X

8

9

10

X

X

X 20

X

14

15

16

17

18

19

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

lotus buds

27

28

29

30

realistic 22+

X

X

X

X

lotus buds

40

41

42

43

realistic 15+

X

X

stylised 32+

stylised 33+

5

X

Dutch: 13

Islamic: 40

lotus buds

Renovated/Rep:11

Transitory: 16

Hindu-Buddhist: 10

Table 7.4c. Modes and total numbers+: realistic/stylized forms in the 50 lotus buds

31

24

25

26

X

X

X

X

X

37

38

39

X

X

X

33

34

35

36

X

X

X

X

X

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

135

23

X

32

X

22

X

X

X

21

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Modes and total numbers of open/closed forms in the 50 lotus buds Open 93 (71+): (HB) Some/23, (IT) None/21, (ID) None/27, (IR) None=Some/22 Closed 103 (85+): (HB) None/18, (IT) Little/40, (ID) None/24, (IR) None/21

were not found in renovated mosques in the sample. As L1 is almost similar to a real flower, it is graded as ‘much’. (Stylized): Abstract forms; geometrized forms regardless of having lotus flowers and leaves can be perceived as ‘stylized’ forms. Hindu-Buddhist L8 and Islamic L23/46 display stylized forms. All are abstract and geometrized with lotus leaves. As L8 seems to be more stylized than others, it is categorized as ‘much’.

The modes of closed forms are ‘none’ in HinduBuddhist and ‘none’ or ‘little’ in Islamic lotus buds. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a big difference between the two types of forms in the Islamic transitory period.

(Frequency): Overall, stylized forms were predominant (Table 7.4c). A universal idea of realistic forms in Hindu-Buddhist sculpture does not apply to lotus buds in the sample. Two questions can be attempted: is the stylization of lotus buds due to highlighting a symbolic message? Or had the lotus bud to be stylized, because of the term ‘bud’? Whatever the case was, stylized forms were continuous and influential in each period.

(Realistic): If forms of lotus buds are constructed in a naturalistic way and look like a real lotus bud, they are called ‘realistic’. They can be perceived in natural form; lotus flowers and leaves. Hindu-Buddhist L1 and Islamic L20/42 have realistic forms. L1 and L42 have natural forms; L20 is surrounded by lotus leaves. Realistic forms

L3-Prambanan temple: HB (Dynamic) N/4. M/Much

L10-East Javanese temple: HB (Static) N/2. M/Few

L37-Kampung Nembol: ID (Dynamic) N/3, M/ L45-Pusdai Jaber: IR (Dynamic) N/3. Some M/Some

L12-Sunan Giri: IT (Static) N/4. M/Much

L40-Al Azhar: IR (Static) N/4. M/ Much

Figure 7.8. Dynamic/static. Number(N). Mode(M)

The modes of stylized forms are ‘much’ in HinduBuddhist, and vary from ‘none’ to ‘some’ in Islamic lotus buds. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a big difference between the two types of forms in the Islamic period, hinting at a new phenomenon of lotus buds in mosque ornamentation.

Sometimes, they were extremely stylized, despite an interval in L1-2 /37-39. L1 (Borobodur temple) is held by a hand of a Buddhist goddess; L38 (Caringin Labuan) is located on the mihrab wall. On the other hand, occasional, but significant use of realistic forms in Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds nearly evolved in the Islamic period.

(Dynamic): if forms of lotus buds evoke a movement in any direction, they are called ‘dynamic’. They can be perceived in several spherical forms in a row vertically or horizontally; massive; and many small; open forms with natural lotus flowers and leaves. Hindu-Buddhist L3 and Islamic L37/45 have dynamic forms. L3 has many spherical forms vertically and horizontally; L37 has several small forms; L45 has massive forms. L3 is graded as ‘much’, due to a moving rod held by a Hindu

Modes and total numbers of realistic/stylized forms in the 50 lotus buds Realistic 79 (59+): (HB) None/20, (IT) None/22, (ID) None/22, (IR) None/15 Stylized 138 (113+): (HB) Much/25, (IT) Much/48, (ID) None=Some/32, (IR) Some/33

136

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Lotus Buds in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

Transitory: 16

Hindu-Buddhist: 10

Table 7.4d. Modes and total numbers+: dynamic/static forms in the 50 lotus buds lotus buds

2

3

4

5

X

X

X

X

X

lotus buds

11

12

13

14

15

dynamic 32+

X

X

static 29+

Dutch: 13

static 24+

X

Renovated/Rep:11

27

dynamic 28+

lotus buds

40

dynamic 23+

X

static 18+

6

7

8

9

X

static 14+

lotus buds

Islamic: 40

1

dynamic 27+

16

X X

X

28

29

30

X

X

X

41

42

43

X X

X

X

17

18

19

X X

31

32

33

X

X

34

35

45

46

47

X

X

X

X

X

god; L37 and L45 are marked as ‘some’, caused by less dynamic form than L3.

22

23

36

24

25

X

26

X X

37

38

39

X

X

X

X

X

X 48

X X

21

X

X

X

X

20

X

X

X 44

10

49

50

X

X

X in Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds fell slightly in the Islamic period. L2-4/41-45 display different grades of dynamic forms. L4 (Prambanan temple), composed of many spherical forms with vertical and horizontal layers and divisions, raises a motion of breaking up, if they were not balanced. Moreover, L41 (Sunda Kelapa) and L45 (Pusdai Jaber) remind of combined lotus and lily columns in ancient Egypt, celebrating the unification of the upper and lower lands. They also resemble Ptolemaic pillars which stretched up to the sky. L43 (Sabilliah Malang) has its repertoire. According to Islam, a hanging lamp is a gateway to Paradise. Consequently, lotus buds should be dynamic to reach unlimited space.

(Static): Conic and spherical; slender; singular; and stylized forms can be perceived as ‘static’ forms. Hindu-Buddhist L10 and Islamic L12/40 display static forms. L10 is conic, slender, and stylized; L12 and L40 are spherical, singular, and stylized. L10 is graded as ‘little’, because of less static than L12 and L40, which are marked as ‘much’. (Frequency): Dynamic forms were more common than static ones (Table 7.4d). Even so, popular dynamic forms

L7-East Javanese temple: HB (2-3 dimensional)N/3. M/ Some

L24-Kanoman Semarang: IT (2-3 dimensional) N/3. M/Some

L39-Raya Cipaganti: ID (2-3 dimensional) N/4. M/Much

L4-Prambanan temple: HB (3-dimensional) N/4. M/Much

L25-Kanari: IT (3-dimensional) N/4. M/ Much

L43- Sabilliah Malang: IR (3-dimensional) N/4. M/Much

Figure 7.9. 2-3 dimensional/3-dimensional. Number(N). Mode(M)

137

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Transitory: 16

Hindu-Buddhist: 10

Table 7.4e. Modes and total numbers+: 2-3 dimensional/3-dimensional forms in the 50 lotus buds lotus buds

2

3

X

X

X

lotus buds

11

12

13

2-3 dimen. 24+

X

X

3-dimen. 40+

Dutch: 13

28

3-dimen. 30+

X

X

Renovated/Rep:11

27

2-3 dimen. 25+

lotus buds

40

41

2-3 dimen. 27+

X

3-dimen. 18+

4

5

X

3-dimen. 20+

lotus buds

Islamic: 40

1

2-3 dimen. 21+

6

X X

14

7

8

9

10

X

X

X

X

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

42

43

X

25

26

X X

44

45

46

47

48

37

38

39

X

X

X

49

50

X

X

X

X X

24

X

X

X

Modes and total numbers of dynamic/static forms in the 50 lotus buds Dynamic 110 (83+): (HB) Some=Much/27, (IT) None/32, (ID) None=Some/28, (IR) Some/23 Static 85 (71+): (HB) None/14, (IT) None/29, (ID) None/24, (IR) None/18

X

in Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds became very frequent in the Islamic transitory period. Their gradual decrease occurred during the Dutch colonization era, and 2-3 dimensional forms lead in renovated/reproduced lotus buds. However, successive appearances in 3-dimensional forms can be traced in L15-23/29-36. L18 (Al Marunda) has a form of a jar. L18 is composed of many spherical forms in a row, and is sited on the roof, replacing a sacred Hindu mustaka (crown). It is a result of Javanese syncretism. A jar is interpreted as a life-giver, due to possessing water in it and links with the concept of the creation in lotus buds.

The modes of dynamic forms are ‘some=much’ in Hindu-Buddhist and ‘none=some’ in Islamic lotus buds. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a difference between the two different forms in all periods except the Dutch colonization era. (2-3 dimensional): If lotus buds are fastened to other objects, such as walls and sculptures, and their forms cannot be seen fully, they are called ‘2-3 dimensional’. Hindu-Buddhist L7 and Islamic L24/39 have 2-3 dimensional forms. L7 is fastened to a Hindu-Buddhist god; L24 is shown on a pillar, supporting an arched gate; and L39 is carved on a column in the prayer hall. L7 and L24 are graded as ‘some’, due to a few 2-3 dimensional forms, compared to fully 2-dimensional and dissimilar forms in L39.

Modes and total numbers of 2-3 dimensional/3dimensional forms in the 50 lotus buds 2-3 dimensional 97 (76+): (HB) None/21, (IT) None/24, (ID) None/25, (IR) None=Little=Much/27 3-dimensional 108 (88+): (HB) None/20, (IT) None=Some=Much/40, (ID) None/30, (IR) None/18 The modes of 3-dimensional forms are ‘none’ in HinduBuddhist, and vary from ‘none’ to ‘much’ in Islamic lotus buds. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a big difference between the two opposing forms in the Islamic transitory period.

(3-dimensional): 3-dimensional forms are freestanding. Hindu-Buddhist L4 and Islamic L25/43 are 3-dimensional. L4 was found in a sanctuary of a Hindu temple; L25 is located on the floor in the prayer hall, supporting four columns; and L43 is a hanging lamp on a pillar in the prayer hall. All are categorized as ‘much’, because they are composed of many similar forms, but with different volumes of forms.

7.5.1. Conclusion The continuity of pre-Islamic lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation was constant and strong between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, by the five further characteristics of form. These tendencies disappear in some characteristics within the Islamic period.

(Frequency): Neither 2-3 dimensional nor 3-dimensional forms were influential in the continuity, despite more frequency in 3-dimensional forms (Table 7.4e). Evenly shared with 2-3 dimensional ones, 3-dimensional forms 138

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Lotus Buds in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation • Between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

Dynamic 110: (HB) Some=Much/27, None=Some/83 3-dimensional 108: (HB) None/20, None=Some=Much/88

(Presence): Voluminous, stylized, dynamic, and 3-dimensional forms in lotus buds shared their continuity between the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods. A supposition can be attempted. Allegorically, ‘life’, ‘creation’, and the ‘oneness in Allah’ have something to do with volumes and dynamics, because a human or a thing cannot be created without the massiveness and an action. Moreover, 3-dimensional forms can signify the totality, while stylized forms enhance prayers’ concentration in temples and mosques. The stylization also consents to the principle of orthodox Islamic ornament. A disagreement between open and closed forms can be considered progress in creation.

(I) (I)

• Within the Islamic Period (Presence): Stylized and dynamic forms were constantly continuous. Each period has its favourite. Both closed and 3-dimensional forms were popular in the transitory and Dutch colonization periods; open and 2-3 dimensional forms in renovated/reproduced lotus buds. Voluminous forms interchanged with slender ones alternately. Preferred forms of five further characteristics in the 40 lotus buds within the Islamic period Voluminous/Slender: (IT) Voluminous, (ID) Slender, (IR) Voluminous Open/Closed: (IT) Closed, (ID) Closed, (IR) Open Realistic/Stylized: (IT) Stylised, (ID) Stylized, (IR) Stylized Dynamic/Static: (IT) Dynamic, (ID) Dynamic, (IR) Dynamic 2-3/3-dimensional: (IT) 3-dimensional, (ID) 3-dimensional, (IR) 2-3 dimensional

Preferred forms of five further characteristics in the 50 lotus buds between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Voluminous/Slender: (HB) Voluminous=Slender, (I) Voluminous Open/Closed: (HB) Open, (I) Closed Realistic/Stylized: (HB) Stylized, (I) Stylized Dynamic/Static: (HB) Dynamic, (I) Dynamic 2-3 dimensional/3-dimensional: (HB) 2-3 dimensional=3-dimensional, (I) 3-dimensional

Modes and total numbers of five further characteristics of form in the 40 lotus buds Stylized 113: (IT) Much/48, (ID) None=Some/32, (IR) Some/33

(Continuity and Influence): Although four characteristics connected the two periods, stylized forms were continuous and influential, testified to their modes and total numbers. They are graded as ‘much’ in Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds, and vary from ‘none’ to ‘much’ in Islamic ones. Stylized forms were a mediator between the temple and mosque ornamentation.

(Continuity and Influence): Between stylized and dynamic forms, stylized forms did bridging the three periods. Apart from different frequencies in each period, an absolute favourite for the stylization of lotus buds highlights symbolic undertone, rather than visual pleasure.

Modes and total numbers of five further characteristics of form in the 50 lotus buds Voluminous 112: (HB) None/20, (I) None, Much/92 Stylized 138: (HB) Much/25, (I) None=Some, Much/113

L6-Kalasan temple (Light)

L29-Hidayatullah (Light)

L38-Caringlin Labuan (Light)

L5-Central Javanese temple (Dark)

L14-Langgar K. Kanoman (Dark)

L33-Al Anwar Angke (Dark)

Figure 7.10. Light/dark

139

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia continuity of pre-Islamic lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation by dark forms.

7.6. Examined by value: other elements of design Value is investigated by the researcher’s perception in several times at constant intervals and observations. The meaning of value was objective as possible, according to literary sources and the researcher’s view. One option was given.

7.7. Observing size: principles of design A relevant principle, size, is tested by the researcher’s observations, rather than perception, since the analysis dealt with the actual size of lotus buds. Only one choice was allowed for each type of form.

(Light/Dark in terms of value): If forms of lotus buds are singular and unified without vertical or horizontal divisions, and no shade can be made on the surfaces by the sun or other light, they are called ‘light’. It also applies to the core form of lotus buds. Hindu-Buddhist L6 and Islamic L29/38 display light forms; HinduBuddhist L5 and Islamic L14/33 have dark forms. When the sun reflects, the plain surfaces on L6/29/38 do not cast shadows, but a part of the relief in L5/14/33 creates darkness.

(Small/Big in terms of size): If lotus buds are small in the reality, they are called ‘small’. Hindu-Buddhist L10 and Islamic L26/47 have tiny forms. L10 could be situated on the top of a stone column in the temple; L26 is on the top of a kala-makara gate; and L47 is on the mihrab. By contrast, big forms are used in HinduBuddhist L9 and Islamic L17/30. L9 is freestanding; L17 is located on the floor, supporting the four columns in the prayer hall, symbolizing a life-giver; and L30 is on the top of the gate in a palace mosque, underlining the greatness of the Islamic kingdom and lightening the world through Islam.

(Presence): Of the 50 lotus buds, 16 have light and 34 dark forms, indicating the predominance of dark forms both in Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic lotus buds. This tendency continued within the Islamic period.

(Presence): Of the 50 lotus buds, 26 have small and 24 big forms. Small forms were slightly more present than big ones. Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds favoured small forms, compared to big ones in Islamic lotus buds. Within the Islamic period, an interchange occurred. In the transitory period, big forms took over small ones, and continued in the Dutch colonization era, despite a small decrease. In renovated/reproduced lotus buds, small forms recovered their position.

Number of light/dark forms in the 50 lotus buds between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Light: 16 (15+): (HB) 1, (IT) 6, (ID) 5, (IR) 4 Dark: 34 (25+): (HB) 9, (IT) 10, (ID) 8, (IR) 7 Preferred forms: (HB) Dark, (I) Dark (Evaluation): Dark forms connected Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds with Javanese mosques. This phenomenon can be a result of enhancing the beauty of the sculpture, because the interplay between light and shadow on lotus buds is a crucial point in judging a masterwork of sculpture. A duality between light and shade brings a mystery and the sacredness in temples and mosques. Probably, the local genius had known this secrecy in their religious architecture. Value contributed to the

Number of small/big forms in the 50 lotus buds between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Small: 26 (19+): (HB) 7, (IT) 6, (ID) 6, (IR) 7 Big: 24 (21+): (HB) 3, (IT) 10, (ID) 7, (IR) 4 Preferred forms: (HB) Small, (I) Big

L10-East Javanese temple (Small)

L26-Kanari (Small)

L47-Sunan Giri (Small)

L9-East Javanese temple (Big)

L17-Kasunyatan (Big)

L30-Agung Solo (Big)

Figure 7.11. Small/big

140

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Lotus Buds in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation (Evaluation): No commonality was found between the two periods. Size did not contribute to the continuity of pre-Islamic lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation. However, lotus buds could share the symbolic connotation in the two periods, either ‘life’ in Hindu-Buddhism or the ‘oneness in Allah’ in Islam. During the fieldwork, the researcher observed more small forms in Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds and big forms in mosques. In an allegory, Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds had to be small for being carried by small hands of their gods and goddesses, while Islamic ones could stand themselves alone without support. In Buddhism, all human beings have small hearts, suffering from uncountable troubles. In a viewpoint of Islam, Allah is almighty, and has a big heart with greatness.

Number of cubic/conic/spherical/cylindrical/ pyramidal of primary forms in the 12 lotus buds on mihrabs Cubic 0: (IT) 0, (ID) 0, (IR) 0 Conic 1: (IT) 0, (ID) 0, (IR) 1 Spherical 5: (IT) 2, (ID) 1, (IR) 2 Cylindrical 3: (IT) 1, (ID) 0, (IR) 2 Pyramidal 0: (IT) 0, (ID) 0, (IR) 0 Lotus buds on mihrabs were the most common in West Java. They are made of wood and are embellished. Primary forms, especially spherical, were mainly used. 7.9. Summary This chapter was designed to answer sub-question 3: How frequent was the use of Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how important has the lotus bud been in mosques within the Islamic period?

7.8. On Mihrabs Mihrabs are the most important place for lotus buds, due to their symbolism. During the fieldwork, 12 lotus buds appeared on mihrabs: L11/13-14/27/37-38/4142/45/47/49-50. L47/49-50 are renovated/reproduced.

Five aspects were investigated in the 50 lotus buds: background (period/geographical area/ location in a mosque building/material/attachment), the basic type of form (primary/non-primary) and its subdivisions (cubic/conic/spherical/cylindrical/pyramidal of primary forms), five further characteristics of form (voluminous/slender, open/closed, realistic/stylized, dynamic/static, 2-3 dimensional/3-dimensional), other elements (light and dark in value), and principles (small and big in size) of design.

(Background): Lotus buds on mihrabs were most common in West Java. They are made of wood and are adorned. (The basic type of form): In the sample, primary forms were three times more used than non-primary in the transitory period and renovated/reproduced lotus buds. Non-primary forms appeared during the Dutch colonization era, such as L37 (Kampung Nembol) and L38 (Caringin Labuan). L37 is located on the pillars of the mihrab L38 is next to an opening of the mihrab. Both have 2-3 dimensional and open forms.

The continuity of pre-Islamic lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation took place in the five aspects. And the influence appears to be significant, due to their symbolic representation. The variety of forms can testify to ‘diversity in unity’ in Javanese culture.

Number of primary/non-primary forms in the 12 lotus buds on mihrabs Primary 9: (IT) 3, (ID) 1, (IR) 5 Non-primary:3: (IT) 0, (ID) 2, (IR) 1

Lotus buds, emerged from the Egyptian and Indian civilizations in the ancient world, had an absolute reason to be the most powerful ornament in Javanese temple and mosque ornamentation, beyond time and space. They have had a priceless prestige in HinduBuddhist gods’ and goddesses’ imaginations. This splendour was again prolonged by Almighty Allah and his people. The lotus bud is the greatest mediator for Javanese syncretic ornamentation. Javanese Muslims knew the magic and holiness of lotus buds, learned from their indebted ancestors.

(Subdivisions): Spherical forms continued mostly. No cubic and pyramidal forms were shown in the sample. In renovated/reproduced lotus buds, conic forms appeared, and spherical forms were equally used with cylindrical ones.

141

Chapter 8.

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Scrolls in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Hindu-Buddhist scrolls in Javanese temples and mosques

Javanese people are syncretic, called ‘tolerance and flexibility’. Two religious manifestations exist: Agami Jawi adapted mystically inclined Hindu-Buddhist beliefs and concepts and integrated within an Islamic frame of reference. Agami Islam Santri, a variant of Javanese Islam, is much closer to the formal dogma of Islam. This chapter is the last part of the four analyses, focusing on scrolls, to answer sub-question 4: ‘What if any was the influence of Hindu-Buddhist scrolls on Javanese mosque scroll designs?’

50 scrolls out of the 60 surveyed during the fieldwork were chosen and arranged by chronology and geographical area (Fig. 8.0). All Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic scrolls were taken from temples, a grave, and mosques in Java during the fieldwork. Similar scrolls during the same period were rejected. Hindu-Buddhist scrolls often occur in the shape of a recalcitrant spiral. It is the rootstock of the undulating lotus which produces nodes at regular intervals, and from each node, a leaf-stalk emerges in a spiral. Rather stylized, the submerged, horizontally growing plant was transformed into a decorative motif. The importance of the Hindu-Buddhist scrolls lies in the symbol of ‘the Golden Germ’, a start of life. The Indian concept of the origin of life has been dominated by the belief in dual forces in nature. When creative breadth enters the waters, ‘the Golden Germ’ is born.

Syncretic Javanese scrolls in a combination of HinduBuddhist and Islamic ideas and forms are ready to prove Java as a melting pot. A preliminary visual presentation casts a glimpse of continuity of pre-Islamic scrolls in Javanese mosque ornamentation. A background of 50 scrolls is viewed. The focus lies in the analysis by basic type of rhythm and its five further characteristics. A difference between the previous three chapters and this one is the use of indicators. The former were examined by elements of design (line, shape, form); the latter is by principles of design (rhythm). Principles of design show the way in which the elements are combined to arouse a sensory response. Texture and proportion also trace the continuity. All scrolls in mosques are recognized as Hindu-Buddhist either in idea or in form, according to the identification of their origins.

Numerous and various scrolls were found during the fieldwork. Hindu-Buddhist scrolls in Central Java are naturalistic and luxurious in decoration, influenced by India. They run vertically in a narrow panel beside the arched gate of kala-makaras. Scrolls in East Java are simple and stylized, revealing an indigenous character. They undulate horizontally in a narrow frame or sometimes shape a medallion. Both scrolls are occasionally combined with animals, human beings, and other circular objects.

Table 8.0. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

142

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

TRANSITORY: 17

ISLAMIC: 39

8. Panataran temple

1147-1454

7. Panataran temple

1147-1454

143 1452

19. Al Marunda 1527

15C

18. Agung Kasepuhan

1498

13. Pajlagrahan

8C

8C

12. Tralaja Muslim grave

2. Mendut temple

1. Borobodur temple

1533

20. Sunan Kalijaga

1452

14. Pajlagrahan

1268

9. Djago temple

8C

3. Mendut temple

1533

21. Sunan Kalijaga

1479

15. Agung Demak

1268

10. Djago temple

9C

4. Kalasan temple

1533

22. Sunan Kalijaga

1485

16. Sunan Giri

13C

11. Jawi temple

9C

5. Kalasan temple

1559

23. Astana Mantigan

1485

17. Sunan Giri

1147-1454

6. Panataran temple

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Scrolls in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

DUTCH COLONIZATION: 10

30. Al Anwar Angke 1761

36. Kampung Nembol 1880

1557

35. Al Wustho Mangkunegara

1878-1918

1561

1559

29. Agung Solo

25. Sendang Duwur

24. Astana Mantingan

144 1883-1893

37. Caringin Labuan

1773

31. Agung Yogya

1561

26. Sendang Duwur

1920

38. Cut Meutia

1773

32. Agung Yogya

1561

27. Sendang Duwur

1789-1809

33. Mukarmah Bandan

1568-1601

28. Agung Mataram

1853-1890

34. Agung Malang

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

145

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

*mosques built before the contemporary period

1559

1561-1577

46. Agung Jepara*

1969-1971

45. Astana Mantingan*

1933

40. Sunda Kelapa

39. Raya Cipaganti

1568-1601

48. Agung Mataram*

1974

42. Sabilliah Malang

Figure 8.0. 50 scrolls

1561-1577

47. Agung Jepara*

1973

41. Soko Tunggal

1575

49. Kanoman Semarang*

1974

43. Sabilliah Malang

1750

50. Hidayatullah*

1974

44. Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Scrolls in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Group 1.

S1-Borobodur temple

S35-Al Wustho Mangkunegara

S4-Kalasan temple

S38-Cut Meutia

S42-Sabilliah Malang

S9-Djago temple

S24-Astana Mantingan

S43-Sabilliah Malang

S6-Panataran temple

S15-Agung Demak

S23-Astana Mantingan

S5-Kalasan temple

S31-Agung Yogya

S40-Sunda Kelapa

Group 2.

S50-Hidayatullah

Group 3

Group 4.

Group 5.

Figure 8.1. Continuity of pre-Islamic scrolls in Javanese mosque ornamentation (Image: the Author)

Scrolls in Javanese mosques are an amalgamation of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic ideas and forms, created by the local genius. Those in the Islamic transitory period have difficulty to be called ‘scrolls’, because the repetition of rhythms as characteristic in scrolls cannot be visible, and different rhythms occur at the same time. If scrolls followed the rule of Islamic arabesque, based on geometry, their rhythms could be easily traced on arched mihrabs, where vertical, horizontal, and diagonal rhythms occur simultaneously.

temple), S12 (Tralaja Muslim grave), and S47 (Agung Jepara). Chronologically and by geographical area, they appeared all the time, scattered over the whole of Indonesia. They are made of different materials, and sometimes are coloured. A few are adorned with kalamakaras, and Arabic calligraphy. The majority of scrolls are balanced, and undulate regularly, repetitively, and continuously. They symbolize ‘the start of life’ in Hindu-Buddhism and ‘the vision of paradise’ in Islam. Islamic scrolls tend to be symbolic in syncretic Javanese mosques. Scrolls are the most universal motif in religious building ornamentation.

Whatever the case was, the majority of scrolls have commonness in functions: (1) mystical and symbolic connotation, such as S1 (Borobodur temple), S15 (Agung Demak), and S35 (Al Wustho Mangkunegara), and (2) aesthetic and decorative beauty, such as S8 (Panataran

A preliminary visual presentation suggests five groups for continuity. The first group (S1/35) shares ‘the 146

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Scrolls in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation Table 8.1. Background to the 50 scrolls between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

Number of scrolls: 50

Area

Location

Material

Attachment

HinduBuddhist: 11

Islamic: 39 Transitory: 17

Dutch: 10

Renovated/ Reproduced:12

West: 13 (13+)

0

4

5

4

Central: 22 (17+)

5

7

4

6

East: 15 (9+)

6

6

1

2

Prayer hall: 20

6

6

8

Serambi: 12

6

4

2

Outside: 7

5

0

2

Wood: 33 (33+)

0

12

10

11

Stone: 15 (4+)

11

4

0

0

Other: 2 (2+)

0

1

0

1

Decorated: 24 (16+)

8

6

4

6

Not-decorated: 26 (23+)

3

11

6

6

HB=Hindu-Buddhist (8-15c); I: Islamic (15c-to the present)= It: transitory (15c-1619); Id: Dutch colonization (1619-1945); IR: renovated/reproduced (1945-to the present); += Islamic scrolls

Golden Germ’ and vertical rhythms in common. A realistic Hindu-Buddhist makara in S1 (Borobodur) and its abstract Islamic one in S35 (Al Wustho Mangkunegara) can be examples. Both located in Central Java, S1 displays vertical rhythms; S35 has vertical, horizontal, and diagonal rhythms. The second group (S4/38/42/50) has a vase which signifies a ‘lifegiver’, instead of the makara. S4 (Kalasan temple) has multiple rhythms, but S38/42/50 display single rhythms. The concept of life is again expressed in the third group (S9/24/43) by even rhythms. The fourth group (S6/15/23) has disharmonious rhythms. As S15 is made by Hindu Majapahit architects who were invited by Islamic Demak, it is named ‘Majapahit scroll’. The last group (S5/31/40) shows continuous rhythms with the same symbolism. The Mataram kingdom practised syncretic ornamentation in S31 (Agung Yogya), based on mystic animism, Hindu-Buddhism, and Islam. S40 (Sunda Kelapa) has Hindu-Buddhist in idea and Islamic arabesque in form, revealing the continuity of syncretism even in renovated/reproduced scrolls.

scrolls were not shown in West Java, but five (S1-5) are in Central Java and the rest (S6-11) in East Java. Of those with Islamic scrolls, 13 (S13-14/18-19/30/33/3640/44/50) are from West Java; 16 (S15/20-24/28-29/3132/35/41/45-49) from Central Java; nine (S12/16-17/2527/34/42-43) from East Java. Central Java is the most common area for scrolls, likely due to the foundation of the three Islamic kingdoms of Demak, Pajang, and Mataram. All Hindu-Buddhist scrolls are made of natural stone, compared to four (S12/23-24/27) Islamic. 33 (S13-22/25-26/29-38/40-50) are made of wood, and only two (S28/39) are of other material, such as plaster. Eight (S1-2/4/6/8-11) Hindu-Buddhist and 16 (S12/14/17/19-20/27/31/33-34/38/42/46-47) Islamic scrolls are embellished with different motifs, such as animal, human being, geometry, and Arabic calligraphy. 8.3.2. Scrolls within the Islamic Period Of the 39 Islamic scrolls, 17 are transitory; 10 from Dutch colonization; 12 renovated/reproduced. In the transitory period, four scrolls appeared in West Java, seven in Central Java, and six in East Java. Each of six scrolls was shown in the prayer hall and in the serambi, and five outside a mosque building. Wood is predominant in 12 scrolls, but four scrolls are made of stone, and one of other material. 11 scrolls are not adorned, preferring the absence of decoration. During the Dutch colonization era, five scrolls were from West Java; four Central Java: one East Java. Six are shown in

8.3. Background 8.3.1. Scrolls between the Pre-Islamic and Islamic Periods Of the 50 scrolls, 11 (S1-11) scrolls are Hindu-Buddhist; 39 (S12-50) Islamic (Table 8.1). By geographical area, 13 are originated from West Java, 22 from Central Java, and 15 from East Java. In the sample, Hindu-Buddhist 147

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia the prayer hall, and four in the serambi. Scrolls are not present outside the mosque building. All are made of wood, and six are not embellished.

Beautifying the prayer hall creates a metaphorical ‘vision of paradise’ which Sufi Islam underlined. Or it could endow Javanese Muslims visual pleasure during their visits to mosques.

Referring to renovated/reproduced scrolls in the contemporary period, four scrolls appeared in West Java; six Central Java; two East Java. Eight scrolls are shown in the prayer hall, and each of the two scrolls is present in the serambi or outside. All are made of wood, except for one. Half of the 12 scrolls in the sample are decorated. S47 (Agung Jepara) and S48 (Agung Mataram) came from the transitory period, and S50 (Hidayatullah) from the Dutch colonization era. S47 is a combined Hindu-Buddhist scroll in idea and Islamic arabesque in form. Their rhythms resemble each other, but careful observation reveals an object as a notion of life, defining S47 as Hindu-Buddhist. S48 and S50 seem to have been influenced by Hindu-Buddhist temples, due to a naturalistic style in S48 and a vase for possessing water in S50, symbolizing a ‘life-giver’. The three examples testify Javanese Muslims’ syncretic philosophy of Javanese as cultural root and Muslim accepting Islam religion.

(Material): Stone was the material of scrolls in temples. In the Islamic period, wood was replaced. Pragmatically, the stone material is too heavy to stand on mihrabs, minbars, and pillars in mosques. (Attachment): A tradition of not adorning scrolls was shown in the Islamic period. Hindu-Buddhist scrolls produce new branches, coexisting with animals, human beings, and jars, to provide a paradisiacal and abundant atmosphere for the gods’ residence. By contrast, mosque ornaments need to be stylized along with principles of Islamic ornament. The hadith warned extravagant decoration against prayers’ concentration. Limited space in mosque buildings should be considered in embellishment. 8.4. Analyzed by the basic type of rhythm and its subdivisions

8.3.3. Conclusion

This section tests the continuity of scrolls by rhythm. To answer sub-question 4, the 50 scrolls were perceived several times at regular intervals and observations during the fieldwork.

Islamic scrolls in Central Java continued from HinduBuddhist ones in East Java, changing from stone to wood. Despite no commonality between the two periods, the appearance of scrolls in contemporary mosques gives evidence of the continuity in Javanese mosque ornamentation, symbolically and aesthetically.

The word ‘rhythm’ in Greek means ‘to flow’. Rhythm is an organized visual movement, built around repetitions of strong and weak design elements, creating repeated beats. Three ways of achieving rhythms are repetition, progression, and continuation. Repetitive rhythm is marked by a recurrence of patterns. Progressive rhythm requires an increase or decrease in shapes, and is stronger than repetitive rhythm. Continuous rhythm consists of curves, giving a flowing effect. Rhythms are divided into regular or irregular. In this analysis, regular and irregular rhythms are used by the basic type of rhythm. Vertical, horizontal, and diagonal of regular rhythms are subdivisions.

Preferred background to the 50 scrolls between the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods Area: (HB) East Java, (I) Central Location: (I) Prayer Hall Material: (HB) Stone, (I) Wood Attachment: (HB) Decorated, (I) Not-decorated Preferred background to the 39 scrolls within the Islamic period Area: (IT) Central, (ID) West, (IR) Central Location: (IT) Prayer hall=Serambi, (ID) Prayer hall, (IR) Prayer hall Material: (IT) Wood, (ID) Wood, (IR) Wood Attachment: (IT) Not-decorated, (ID) Not-decorated, (IR) Decorated=Not-decorated

Many (4)

(Geographical area): Hindu-Buddhist scrolls in East Java continued to Islamic ones in Central Java, due to the inheritance of Hindu Majapahit culture to Islamic Demak and the development during Pajang and Mataram in this area.

Some (3)

Few (2)

None (1)

X

Figure 8.2. Scaled value in scrolls

Continuity of scrolls between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods is assessed on the degree of regularity and constancy of rhythms: (1) verifying the presence of each characteristic of rhythm in all scrolls, and (2) measuring their regularity by scaled value and establishing their modes and total numbers. If scrolls

(Location in a mosque building): The prayer hall was the common place, although the serambi was equally shared in the transitory. Two assumptions can be made. 148

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Scrolls in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

S1-Borobodur temple: HB (Regular) N/4. M/Much

S19-Al Marunda: IT (Regular) N/3. M/Some

S6-Panataran temple: HB (Irregular) N/2. M/Little

S15-Agung Demak: IT (Irregular) N/2. M/Little

Figure 8.3. Regular/irregular. Number(N). Mode(M)

undulate repetitively and constantly, making the most regular rhythms, they are categorised as ‘much’. The interrelationship was considered between the most and the least regular rhythms in scrolls.

irregular rhythms suddenly became the vogue in the Islamic transitory period, making a radical transfer of scrolls from temples to mosques. A gradual syncretism of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic ideas and forms is expected from the next period.

8.4.1. Regular/Irregular Rhythms

(Frequency): Regular rhythms were more used than irregular ones (Table 8.2a). Their frequency was superior to irregular rhythms in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls, but this trend shifted in the Islamic period, almost evolving out. Recovery was partially seen in the Dutch colonization era, such as in S31-32 (Agung Yogya). In this royal mosque, rather stylized S31 and much-naturalized S32 expose the Hindu-Buddhist ‘Golden Germ’. A combination of stylized and natural scrolls proves syncretic Islam. By contrast, rarely used irregular rhythms in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls became dominant only in the Islamic transitory period, although their lesser use appeared later in S45-46. S46 (Agung Jepara) has refined quality, due to the famous woodcraft in this area from the 15th century. Resembling arabesque in form, S46 displays ‘the start of life’ in Hindu-Buddhism. The continuity of Hindu-Buddhist scrolls in Javanese mosque ornamentation occurred by regular rhythms, but was not influential.

Four examples are initially assessed whether regular and irregular rhythms were found in a scroll, and how constant these rhythms appeared to be. A priority was given to only one type of rhythm. Regular rhythms consist of consistency and repetition in beat; irregular rhythms occur inconstantly without repetition, becoming non-rhythmic. They are caused by a lack of rhythm. In the design element, regular rhythms are perceived when scrolls undulate in circular, oval, and spiral in the same direction, based on a similar type of line and shape. Hindu-Buddhist S1 and Islamic S19 have regular rhythms; Hindu-Buddhist S6 and Islamic S15 display irregular ones. As S1 repeats continuously and strongly, it is graded as having ‘much’ regular rhythms, compared to S19 whose regularity is weaker than S1, marked as ‘some’. S6 and S15 have irregular rhythms, categorised as ‘little’, because of few beats.

Hindu-Buddhist: The mode of regular rhythms is ‘much’ in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls, as opposed to ‘none’ in irregular rhythms. The total numbers indicate the use of regular rhythms almost double than irregular ones in the sample. Islamic: Islamic scrolls have a variety of modes. Regular rhythms are ‘none’; irregular rhythms range from ‘none’, ‘little’ to ‘some’ in modes. The

(Presence): Of the 50 scrolls, 24 have regular and 26 irregular rhythms (Table 8.2). Of those with regular rhythms, eight are Hindu-Buddhist and 16 Islamic. Three Hindu-Buddhist and 23 Islamic scrolls display irregular rhythms. Both types were fairly used between the two periods. Chronologically, regular rhythms were more favoured in the Hindu-Buddhist period, but

Table 8.2. Number of regular and irregular rhythms in the 50 scrolls between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

Transitory: 17

Dutch: 10

Renovated/ Reproduced: 12

Regular: 24 (16+)

8

3

6

7

Irregular: 26 (23+)

3

14

4

5

Number of scrolls: 50

Basic type

Islamic: 39 (+)

HinduBuddhist: 11

149

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Transitory: 17

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

Table 8.2a. Modes and total numbers+: regular/irregular rhythms in the 50 scrolls scroll(i)

Dutch: 10

Islamic: 39

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

X

X

irregular 17+

X

X

X

X

X

scroll

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

regular 22+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

irregular 41+ scroll

Renovated/Rep:12

1

regular 32+

10

29

30

31

32

X

X

X

19

20

21

X

X

X

irregular 15+

X

scroll

39

40

X

X

42

42

regular 26+

33

34

X

X

43

44

45

46

X

X

X

X

X

36

22

23

X X

37

24

25

26

27

28

X

X

X

X

X

38

X X

X X

35

11

X

X

regular 22+

irregular 18+

9

X

X

X

47

48

50

X X

total numbers indicate almost the same use of the opposing rhythms as a whole, but reveal a very big difference between them in the transitory period.

49

X

X

Buddhist scrolls nor Islamic arabesques, according to the literary sources so far. Can it be argued whether ‘diagonal’ rhythms were neglected, due to a few examples in the temple and mosque ornamentation, seen in S2 (Mendut temple), S4 (Kalasan temple), S37 (Caringin Labuan), and S40 (Sunda Kelapa)? The challenge of analyzing scrolls by rhythm is waiting for us.

Modes and total numbers of regular/irregular rhythms in the 50 scrolls Regular 102 (70+): (HB) Much/32, (IT) None/22, (ID) None/22, (IR) None=Some/26 Irregular 91 (74+): (HB) None/17, (IT) Little=Some/41, (ID) None/15, (IR) None/18

In this analysis, any sloped rhythms are regarded as diagonal. As some scrolls have more than one type of rhythm, multiple options were allowed for each type. Hindu-Buddhist S5 and Islamic S31 display vertical rhythms; Hindu-Buddhist S8 and Islamic S32 have horizontal rhythms; Hindu-Buddhist S4 and Islamic S37 have both horizontal and diagonal rhythms. S5 and S31 are graded as ‘much’, due to their continuous vertical undulation. S8 and S32 undulate regularly on the horizon, marked as ‘much’. S4 and S37 are graded as ‘some’ in both types of rhythm, due to a few beats.

(Continuity and Influence): Regular rhythms in HinduBuddhist scrolls were echoed in the Islamic period, but their influence tended to be weak. When HinduBuddhist scrolls and Islamic arabesques encountered in Javanese mosques in the transitory period, how was their assimilation; thus, regular rhythms could not influence Islamic ones? 8.4.2. Vertical/Horizontal/Diagonal of Regular Rhythms Regular rhythms can be divided into vertical, horizontal, and diagonal. The three rhythms are examined in 24 regular rhythms of the 50 scrolls, to observe the continuity. The characteristics of HinduBuddhist scrolls are their vertical and horizontal undulation. Central Java has upward rising scrolls or rectangular panels with scrolls. In East Java, motifs are concentrated in three horizontal bands on the upper, middle, and lower parts of temple bases and bodies. This phenomenon was confirmed during the fieldwork.

(Presence): Of the 24 regular rhythms, 12 have vertical, 13 horizontal, and 11 diagonal rhythms (Table 8.3). Of those with vertical rhythms, three scrolls are HinduBuddhist, and nine Islamic. Six Hindu-Buddhist and seven Islamic scrolls have horizontal rhythms, while two Hindu-Buddhist and nine Islamic scrolls do diagonal rhythms. (Frequency): Horizontal rhythms were the most common between the two periods, particularly in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls (Table 8.3a). Stylization in S8 (Panataran temple) and S9-S10 (Djago temple) in East Java differ from naturalness in S2-S3 (Mendut temple) and S4 (Kalasan temple) in Central Java. The same type of horizontal rhythm in S4 and S9 reappeared in S32 (Agung Yogya) and S24 (Astana Mantingan) respectively,

Besides the horizontal and vertical rhythms in HinduBuddhist scrolls, the researcher often observed diagonal rhythms in temples and mosques, especially in contemporary ones whose Islamic arabesque is present. The term ‘diagonal’ was neither discussed in Hindu150

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Scrolls in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

S5-Kalasan temple: HB (Vertical) S31-Agung Yogya: ID (Vertical) N/4. M/Much N/4. M/Much

S8-Panataran temple: HB (Horizontal) N/4. M/Much

S4-Kalasan temple: HB S32-Agung Yogya: ID (Horizontal) (Horizontal/Diagonal) N/3/3. N/4. M/Much M/Some/Some

S37-Caringin Labuan: ID (Horizontal/Diagonal) N/3/3. M/ Some/Some

Figure 8.4. Vertical/horizontal/diagonal rhythms. Number(N). Mode(M) Table 8.3. Number of vertical/horizontal/diagonal of regular rhythms in the 50 scrolls between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

Regular: 24

Islamic: 16 (+)

HinduBuddhist: 8

Transitory: 3

Dutch: 6

Renovated/ Reproduced: 7

Vertical: 12 (9+)

3

1

4

4

Horizontal: 13 (7+)

6

1

3

3

Diagonal: 11 (9+)

2

2

2

5

Number of scrolls: 50

indicating the continuity between the two periods. It is interesting to compare S2 (Mendut temple) and S40 (Sunda Kelapa), because S2, a Hindu-Buddhist scroll, used freely three types of rhythm in a square panel, but S40, an Islamic scroll, had to be fitted in the corner of the entrance gate by the three rhythms. Both seem to signify ‘the start of life’ in Hindu-Buddhism and ‘the vision of paradise’ in Islam. All types of rhythms in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls continued into the Islamic period more or less.

Modes of vertical/horizontal/diagonal rhythms in the 50 scrolls Vertical 78 (59+): (HB) None/19, (IT) None/18, (ID) None/19, (IR) None/22 Horizontal 84 (57+): (HB) None/27, (IT) None/20, (ID) None/17, (IR) None/20 Diagonal 73 (58+): (HB) None/15, (IT) None/20, (ID) None/14, (IR) None/24 (Continuity and Influence): The continuity of HinduBuddhist scrolls in Javanese mosques seems not to be constant, by the subdivisions of regular rhythms. If there was any rhythm, horizontal rhythms connected the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods.

Hindu-Buddhist: The modes of three rhythms are ‘none’, but the total numbers indicate the predominance of horizontal rhythms. A slight difference between the three types of rhythms occurred.

8.4.3. Conclusion

Islamic: The modes of the three rhythms are still ‘none’, indicating a weak influence of pre-Islamic scrolls on Javanese mosque ornamentation. The total numbers reveal equal use of horizontal and diagonal rhythms in the transitory period; vertical rhythms in the Dutch colonization era; and diagonal rhythms in renovated/ reproduced scrolls as the major rhythms.

No rhythms continued strongly between the preIslamic and Islamic periods by the basic type of rhythm and its subdivisions. Any type of rhythm was allowed to temple and mosque ornamentation, giving freedom to the local genius who beautifies their sanctuaries, following the concept of ‘the start of life’ and ‘the 151

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Table 8.3a. Modes and total numbers+: vertical/horizontal/diagonal of regular rhythms in the 50 scrolls

Dutch: 10 Renovated/Rep:12

Islamic: 39

Transitory: 17

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

scroll

1

2

vertical 19+ horizontal 27+

3

4

X

X

X

5

X

6

7

8

9

10

11

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

diagonal 15+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

scroll

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

vertical 18+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

horizontal 20+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

diagonal 20+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

scroll

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

vertical 19+ horizontal 17+

X

X X

X

X

23

24

25

26

27

28

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

49

50

X

diagonal 14+

X

X

X

X

X

X

scroll

39

40

42

42

43

44

45

46

vertical 22+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

horizontal 20+ diagonal 24+

X

X

vision of paradise’. It also meant that an arbitrary and chaotic syncretism between Hindu-Buddhist scrolls and incoming Islamic arabesque took place in the Islamic transitory period. Hindu-Buddhist scrolls had a revival during Dutch colonization.

X 47

48

X

8.5. Comparing five further characteristics of rhythm More analysis of rhythms is investigated by its five further characteristics. Selecting each characteristic and its meaning were carefully considered, according to literary sources and the researcher’s view. They are repetitive/non-repetitive, harmonious/disharmonious, single/multiple, strong/weak, and continuous/ discontinuous. All rhythms were perceived, observed, and examined several times at constant intervals during the fieldwork. Priority was given to only one characteristic.

Preferred rhythms of basic type and its subdivisions in the 50 scrolls between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Regular/Irregular: (HB) Regular, (IT) Irregular, (ID) Regular, (IR) Regular Regular: Vertical/Horizontal/Diagonal: (HB) Horizontal, (IT) Diagonal, (ID) Vertical, (IR) Diagonal (Regular/Irregular Rhythms) The continuity between the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods occurred by regular rhythms with insignificant influence.

(Presence): Of the 50 scrolls, 33 have repetitive and 17 non-repetitive; 29 have harmonious and 21 disharmonious; and 35 have continuous and 15 discontinuous rhythms. Each of 25 scrolls shares with single and multiple, and strong and weak rhythms. Continuous rhythms were common between the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods. Chronologically, repetitive and continuous rhythms were equal in the Hindu-Buddhist period; continuous rhythms appeared foremost in the Islamic period. Each era has its favourite: multiple rhythms in the transitory period; harmonious rhythms in the Dutch colonization era; continuous rhythms in renovated/reproduced scrolls.

(Vertical/Horizontal/Diagonal of Regular Rhythms) Horizontal rhythms were the most common, particularly in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls, and vertical and diagonal rhythms in the Islamic period. Within the Islamic period, an inconsistent relationship developed across different eras. Diagonal rhythms in the transitory period reappeared in renovated/reproduced scrolls; vertical rhythms favoured in the Dutch colonization era. Any rhythms neither continued fully to the next period nor affected each other.

152

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Scrolls in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation Table 8.4. Number of five further characteristics of rhythm in the 50 scrolls between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

Transitory: 17

Dutch: 10

Renovated/ Reproduced: 12

Repetitive: 33 (23+)

10

8

5

10

Non-repetitive: 17 (16+)

1

9

5

2

Harmonious: 29 (21+)

8

4

9

8

Disharmonious: 21 (18+)

3

13

1

4

Single: 25 (18+)

7

2

8

8

Multiple: 25 (21+)

4

15

2

4

Strong: 25 (17+)

8

3

6

8

Weak: 25 (22+)

3

14

4

4

Continuous: 35 (25+)

10

8

6

11

Discontinuous: 15 (14+)

1

9

4

1

Number of scrolls: 50

Five further characteristics

Islamic: 39 (+)

HinduBuddhist: 11

The very popular repetitive and continuous rhythms in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls decreased drastically in the Islamic transitory period, but started to recover almost fully in the next periods. Non-repetitive, disharmonious, weak, and discontinuous rhythms, rarely used in the Hindu-Buddhist period, became the vogue in Islamic transitory scrolls, indicating a confused amalgamation in transfer from temples to mosques. It explains the extraordinary assimilation of the HinduBuddhist idea and Islamic form in scrolls. ‘The Golden Germ’ in Hindu-Buddhism and the stylization in Islamic ornamentation had to confront for their coexistence. When this conflict ended, a smooth syncretic process returned to the next era. Unlike tumpals, kala-makaras, and lotus buds, the transition of scrolls seems more chaotic, due to incoming Islamic arabesque.

(Repetitive): If the same type of rhythm occurs regularly and consistently without shifting other types of rhythm; thus, the same beat is produced, they are called ‘repetitive’. They can be perceived in single rhythms; similar rhythms in multiple, either strong or weak in beats; and harmonious and continuous rhythms. Scrolls undulate in circular, oval, and spiral in the same direction, composed of similar types of lines and shapes. Hindu-Buddhist S9 and Islamic S24/43 scrolls display repetitive rhythms. S9 and S43 have single, similar, and continuous rhythms in strong beats, graded as ‘much’, compared to S24 which has ‘some’ similar rhythms in short beats. (Non-repetitive): ‘Non-repetitive’ rhythms produce a single beat without repetition. They can also be different

S9-Djago temple: HB (Repetitive) N/4. M/Much

S24-Astana Mantingan: IT (Repetitive) N/3. M/Some

S43-Sabilliah Malang: IR (Repetitive) N/4. M/Much

S7-Panataran temple: HB (Nonrepetitive) N/2. M/Little

S26-Sendang Duwur: IT (Nonrepetitive) N/4. M/Much

S29-Agung Solo: ID (Non-repetitive) N/3. M/Some

Figure 8.5. Repetitive/non-repetitive. Number(N). Mode(M)

153

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Dutch: 10 Renovated/Rep:12

Islamic: 39

Transitory: 17

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

Table 8.4a. Modes and total numbers+: repetitive/non-repetitive rhythms in the 50 scrolls scroll

1

2

3

4

5

6

repetitive 35+

X

X

X

X

X

X

scroll

12

13

14

15

16

17

repetitive 28+

X

X

X

non-repeti. 42+

X X

scroll

29

30

repetitive 21+

X

X

39

40

non-repeti. 20+

31

32

X

X

42

42

18

9

10

11

X

X

X

X

19

20

21

22

X X

33

34

35

X

X

X

43

44

45

repetitive 33+ non-repeti. 16+

8

X

non-repeti. 12+

scroll

7

X X

X

X

X

X

23

24

X X

X

X

36

37

38

X

X

X

X

46

47

48

49

50

X

X

X

X

X

25

26

27

X

X

X

28

X

X X

types of rhythm which repeat alternately at constant intervals; thus, a unified beat cannot be established. Multiple; disharmonious; and a combination of regular and irregular rhythms can be perceived as ‘nonrepetitive’ rhythms. Scrolls undulate in curve or zigzag inconsistently or alternately, composed of different types of lines and shapes. Hindu-Buddhist S7 and Islamic S26/29 scrolls have non-repetitive rhythms. S7 is combined with regular and irregular rhythms; S26 has multiple and disharmonious rhythms without repetition, creating a single beat; and S29 has multiple rhythms with alternating repetition. S7 is graded as ‘little’, because of a few different beats. S26 is marked as ‘much’, due to many single beats. S29 is graded as ‘some’, owing to a few different, but repetitive beats.

in S12-14/18/25-27. Finding rhythms in L18 (Agung Kasepuhan) seems difficult. Their popularity confirms a conflict between Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic scrolls in Javanese mosque ornamentation. Modes of repetitive/non-repetitive rhythms in the 50 scrolls Repetitive 117 (82+): (HB) Much/35, (IT) None/28, (ID) None/21, (IR) Some/33 Non-repetitive 90 (78+): (HB) None/12, (IT) None/42, (ID) None/20, (IR) None/16 The modes of repetitive rhythms are ‘much’ in HinduBuddhist, and ‘none’ or ‘some’ in Islamic scrolls. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a difference between the two types of rhythms except for the Dutch colonization era.

(Frequency): The dominance of repetitive rhythms testifies to a characteristic of scrolls in temples and mosques (Table 8.4a.). It also expresses their continuity, despite more use of non-repetitive rhythms in the Islamic transitory period. All Hindu-Buddhist scrolls displayed repetitive rhythms except for S7. S1 (Borobodur temple) and S5 (Kalasan temple) in Central Java are naturalistic scrolls, but S8 (Panataran) and S10 (Djago temple) in East Java are stylized scrolls. Sharing repetitive rhythms in common, Central Javanese scrolls tend more melodious and stronger in beats than those found in East Java. Of Islamic scrolls, significant use of repetitive rhythms occurred in S31-32/39-41/4748. S40 (Sunda Kelapa) and S47 (Agung Jepara) used repetitive rhythms maximally, to represent HinduBuddhist idea of ‘the start of life’ and an Islamic form of ‘infinitive repetition’. If no symbolic message embedded within them, the scrolls could be identified as Islamic arabesque.

(Harmonious): If rhythms are in balance and create good resonance in beat, they are called ‘harmonious’. They can be perceived in regular; continuous; even rhythms; and the balance of strong and weak rhythms. Scrolls undulate regularly and evenly in circular, oval, and spiral, composed of similar lines and shapes. HinduBuddhist S5 and Islamic S21/42 display harmonious rhythms. As S5 has regular, continuous, and even rhythms, it is graded as ‘much’. S21 is balanced with strong and weak rhythms, but is less regular than S5, marked as ‘some’. S42 is the least continuous in a few beats, categorized as ‘little’. (Disharmonious): ‘Disharmonious’ rhythms do not have good resonance in beat. Scrolls undulate in curve or zigzag inconstantly in diverse directions, composed of different lines and shapes. Irregular; radical; multiple rhythms can be perceived as ‘disharmonious’ rhythms. Hindu-Buddhist S11 and Islamic S23/34 scrolls have disharmonious rhythms. S11 displays irregular

On the other hand, non-repetitive rhythms became very frequent in the Islamic transitory period, seen 154

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Scrolls in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

S5-Kalasan temple: HB (Harmonious) N/4. M/Much

S21-Sunan Kalijaga: IT (Harmonious) N/3. M/Some

S42-Sabilliah Malang: IR (Harmonious) N/2. M/Little

S11-Jawi temple: HB (Disharmonious) N/3. M/Some

S23-Astana Mantingan: IT (Disharmonious) N/3- M/Some

S34-Agung Malang: ID (Disharmonious) N/3. M/Some

Figure 8.6. Harmonious/disharmonious. Number(N). Mode(M)

rhythms; S23 radical rhythms; and S34 multiple rhythms. All are graded as ‘some’, due to a few beats.

On the other hand, disharmonious rhythms, randomly emerged in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls, were much used only in the Islamic transitory period. A series of their significant use appeared in S14-18. Named ‘Majapahit column’, S15 (Agung Demak) was made by Hindu Majapahit architects to build the royal mosque. S15 resembles S6 (Panataran temple), the most prestigious temple through Majapahit’s reign.

(Frequency): Harmonious rhythms, particularly in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls, were predominant, despite significant use of disharmonious rhythms in the Islamic transitory period (Table 8.4b). Hindu-Buddhist scrolls S1-5 have regular rhythms almost in perfection, and this tendency reappeared in S30-33 during the Dutch colonization era. S2 (Mendut temple) is composed of vertical, horizontal and diagonal rhythms with a human figure in the centre of a panel. Was the figure designed for harmonizing rhythms? Or was he created for protecting the temple? Or was he guiding temple passages to visitors?

Modes of harmonious/disharmonious rhythms in the 50 scrolls Harmonious 115 (82+): (HB) Much/33, (IT) None/25, (ID) Some/28, (IR) Some/29 Disharmonious 92 (75+): (HB) None/17, (IT) Some/43, (ID) None/12, (IR) None/20

Transitory: 17

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

Table 8.4b. Modes and total numbers+: harmonious/disharmonious rhythms in the 50 scrolls scroll

Dutch: 10

Islamic: 39

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

X

X

disharmoni. 17+

X

X

X

X

X

scroll

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

harmoniuos 25+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

disharmoni. 43+ scroll

Renovated/Rep:12

1

harmoniuos 33+

29

30

31

32

33

34

10

11

X X

X

X

19

20

21

22

X X

harmoniuos 28+

23

X

X

X

X

X

scroll

39

40

42

42

43

harmoniuos 29+

X

X

X

X

X

35

36

37

38

X

X

X

X

44

45

46

47

48

X

X

X

X

X

X

155

49

50

X X

24

X

X

disharmoni. 12+

disharmoni. 20+

9

X

X

25

26

27

28

X

X

X

X

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

S1-Borobodur temple: HB (Single) N/4. M/Much

S31-Agung Yogya: ID (Single) N/4. M/ Much

S48-Agung Mataram: IR Single) N/3. M/ Some

S2-Mendut temple: HB (Multiple) N/3. M/Some

S17-Sunan Giri: IT (Multiple) N/3. M/ Some

S46-Agung Jepara: IR (Multiple) N/3. M/ Some

Figure 8.7. Single/multiple. Number(N). Mode(M)

The modes of harmonious rhythms are ‘much’ in Hindu-Buddhist, and ‘none’ or ‘some’ in Islamic scrolls. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a big difference of the opposing rhythms except for renovated/reproduced scrolls.

continuous rhythms in common. S1 and S31 have one type of rhythm in even and strong beats; S48 has single rhythms with a stop. S1 and S31 are graded as ‘much’, due to many regular beats, compared to S48 which is marked as ‘some’.

(Single): If scrolls are composed of one type of rhythm, and a similar beat is continuously made with or without a stop, they are called ‘single’. They can be perceived in continuous rhythms; the same type of rhythm, either strong or weak in beats. Scrolls undulate in circular, oval, and spiral, regardless of widths and heights, composed of similar lines and shapes. HinduBuddhist S1 and Islamic S31/48 scrolls share single and

(Multiple): ‘Multiple’ rhythms imply the simultaneous occurrence of similar or different kinds of rhythm, making several beats. Different rhythms; repetitive rhythms in several locations can be perceived as ‘multiple’ rhythms. Scrolls undulate in any direction, composed of the same or different lines and shapes. Hindu-Buddhist S2 and Islamic S17/46 display multiple rhythms. S2 has repetitive rhythms; S17 and S46

Transitory: 17

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

Table 8.4c. Modes and total numbers+: single/multiple rhythms in the 50 scrolls. scroll

Dutch: 10

Islamic: 39

2

3

X

4

5

X

6

7

X

X

multiple 18+

X

scroll

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

single 20+

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

multiple 44+ scroll

Renovated/Rep:12

1

single 28+

9

10

11

X

X

X

X

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X 29

30

31

32

33

single 26+

34

35

X

X

X

X

X

scroll

39

40

42

42

43

single 29+

X

X

X

X

36

X 44

45

46

X

X

X

X

37

38

X

X

47

48

49

50

X X

156

27

X

X

28

X X

X

X

multiple 14+

multiple 19+

8

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Scrolls in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

S4-Kalasan temple: HB (Strong) N/4. M/ Much

S38-Cut Meutia: ID (Strong) N/2. M/ Little

S40-Sunda Kelapa: IR (Strong) N/4. M/ Much

S6-Panataran temple: HB (Weak) N/2. M/ Little

S13-Pajlagrahan: IT (Weak) N/3. M/ Some

S44-Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota: IR (Weak) N/4. M/Much

Figure 8.8. Strong/weak. Number(N). Mode(M)

have different rhythms. All scrolls have rhythms simultaneously in several locations. All are graded as ‘some’, because their beats are neither many nor few.

Javanese temples and those in Gandhara, India, where Hellenism was infiltrated. A link between vine scrolls in Borobodur temple and Islamic arabesque was guessed.

(Frequency): Single rhythms were mostly used between the two periods, despite the predominance of multiple rhythms in the Islamic transitory period (Table 8.4c). Their strong occurrences can be seen in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls (S1/5/8-10) and Islamic (S30-32/39-41/4748) ones, after the Dutch colonization of Java. Single rhythms in S5 (Kalasan temple) are ready to challenge a nearby kala-makara at the arched gate, running over the whole temple facade, exposing their beauty. One wonders whether Islamic arabesque could have been invented, if any Muslim in the Near East had been here. Earlier, the researcher traced scrolls between Central

Of multiple rhythms, successive significances were shown in S15-18/23-26 in the Islamic transitory period. S17 (Sunan Giri) has unrecognizable rhythms, compared to clear rhythms in S24 (Astana Mantingan). Modes and total numbers of single/multiple rhythms in the 50 scrolls Single 103 (75+): (HB) None=Much/28, (IT) None/20, (ID) Some/26, (IR) Some/29 Multiple 95 (77+): (HB) None/18, (IT) Little=Some/44, (ID) None/14, (IR) None/19

Dutch: 10 Renovated/Rep:12

Islamic: 39

Transitory: 17

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

Table 8.4d. Modes and total numbers+: strong/weak rhythms in the 50 scrolls scroll

1

2

3

4

5

strong 32+

6

7

X

X

weak 15+

X

X

X

X

X

scroll

12

13

14

15

16

17

strong 23+

X

X

X

X

scroll

29

30

31

strong 21

X

X

weak 48+

39

40

32

X

X

42

42

X

X

X

X

10

11

X X

X

X

18

19

20

21

X

X

X

X

33

34

35

36

37

38

X

X X

X

X

X

44

45

46

47

48

X

X

X

22

23

X

X

X

43

strong 28+ weak 19+

9

X

weak 18+ scroll

8

X 157

X

49

50

X X

X

24

X

25

26

27

28

X

X

X

X

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia The modes of single rhythms are ‘none=much’ in Hindu-Buddhist, and ‘none’ or ‘some’ in Islamic scrolls. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a big difference between different rhythms in the transitory period.

be called ‘scrolls’? How can Islamic transitory scrolls be characterized, caused by the lack of rhythm? The strongest rhythms occurred in S1-2/4-5/8/10 in HinduBuddhist, and S31/40/S47 in Islamic scrolls. Very powerful rhythms in S8 (Panataran temple) and S10 (Djago temple) reject any stray within a fixed outline, undulating in circular and spiral. In S40 (Sunda Kelapa) and S47 (Agung Jepara), a combined Hindu-Buddhist idea and Islamic form approves the characteristic of rhythmical Islamic arabesque through strong rhythms.

(Strong): If rhythms evoke dynamic and powerful movement, they are called ‘strong’. They can be perceived in regular and repetitive; big; multiple; and progressive rhythms. Scrolls undulate circularly and diagonally, composed of different types of lines and shapes. Circular and vertical lines and shapes tend to arouse stronger beats than oval and horizontal ones. Hindu-Buddhist S4 and Islamic S38/40 scrolls display strong rhythms. S4 has progressive rhythms; S40 have regular, repetitive, and multiple rhythms. S38 has big rhythms. S4 and S40 are graded as ‘much’, due to a dynamic movement. S38 is categorized as ‘little’, because of a few beats which arouse a weak movement.

On the other hand, S16-19/25-28 have weak rhythms. S18 (Agung Kasepuhan) and S25 (Sendang Duwur) are composed of many small and single rhythms, being short in rhythms. Modes of strong/weak rhythms in the 50 scrolls Strong 104 (72+): (HB) Much/32, (IT) None/23, (ID) None/21, (IR) None=Some/28 Weak 100 (85+): (HB) None/15, (IT) Som/48, (ID) None/18, (IR) None/19

(Weak): ‘Weak’ rhythms occur in the lack of rhythm. The beats are obscure and feeble, thus rhythms can be hardly seen. Irregular and non-repetitive; small and single; and uneven and complicated rhythms can be perceived as ‘weak’ rhythms. Scrolls undulate inconsistently in any direction, despite the same type of line and shape. Hindu-Buddhist S6 and Islamic S13/44 scrolls have weak rhythms. S6 has irregular, small, and single rhythms; S13 has irregular and non-repetitive rhythms; and S44 has uneven and complicated rhythms. S6 is graded as ‘little’, because of a few beats, compared to S13 which has more beats. S44 is marked as ‘much’, caused by many single beats.

The modes of strong rhythms are ‘much’ in HinduBuddhist, and ‘none=some’ in Islamic scrolls. The total numbers show almost no difference between the opposing rhythms as a whole, but there arose big differences in details. (Continuous): If rhythms repeat regularly or alternately in single or in multiple, they are called ‘continuous’. They can be perceived in regular and repetitive; even and clear rhythms. Scrolls undulate in the same direction, composed of similar types of lines and shapes. Hindu-Buddhist S8 and Islamic S19/35 scrolls have regularity, repetition, evenness, and clarity in rhythm, but in different degrees. S8 and S35 are graded

(Frequency): Both rhythms appeared across the two periods, but strong rhythms were slightly more used (Table 8.4d). If scrolls do not show rhythms, can they

S8-Panataran temple: HB (Continuous) N4. S19-Al Marunda: IT (Continuous) N/3. M/ M/Much Some

S35-Al W. Mangkunegara: ID (Continuous) N/4. M/Much

S7-Panataran temple: HB (Discontinuous) S18-Agung Kasepuhan: IT (Discontinuous) N/2. M/Little N/4. M/Much

S36-Kampung Nembol: ID (Discontinuous) N/3. M/Some

Figure 8.9. Continuous/discontinuous. Number(N). Mode(M)

158

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Scrolls in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation

1

2

3

4

5

6

X

X

X

X

X

X

scroll

12

13

14

15

16

17

continuous 28+

X

X

X

scroll

29

30

31

continuous 24+

X

X

scroll

39

40

Transitory: 17

discontinu. 12+

discontinu. 41+

X X

discontinu. 16+

32

18

8

9

10

11

X

X

X

X

19

20

21

22

X X

33

34

35

X X

X

X

42

42

43

continuous 32+ discontinu. 13+

7

X

Dutch: 10

Islamic: 39

scroll continuous 35+

Renovated/Rep:12

Hindu-Buddhist: 11

Table 8.4e. Modes and total numbers+: continuous/discontinuous rhythms in the 50 scrolls

24

X X

X

X

36

37

38

X

X

25

26

27

X

X

X

28

X

X X

X

45

46

47

48

49

50

X

X

X

X

X

X

X 44

23

X X

X

X

X

X

as ‘much’, due to their continuous beats, while S19 is marked as ‘some’ with a few beats.

Modes and total numbers of continuous/ discontinuous rhythms in the 50 scrolls Continuous 119 (84+): (HB) Much/35, (IT) None/28, (ID) None/24, (IR) Little/32 Discontinuous 82 (70+): (HB) None/12, (IT) None/41, (ID) None/16, (IR) None/13

(Discontinuous): ‘Discontinuous’ rhythms mean lack of rhythm; irregular and non-repetitive; and limited rhythms. Scrolls undulate in many directions without repetition, composed of different types of lines and shapes. Hindu-Buddhist S7 and Islamic S18/36 display discontinuous rhythms. In S7, two different rhythms are stopped by a human figure; S18 seems not to have rhythms, caused by irregular undulation; and S36 has limited rhythms. S7 is graded as ‘little’, due to a few beats; S18 is marked as ‘much’, because of many single beats. S36 lies between S7 and S18.

The modes of continuous rhythms are ‘much’ in HinduBuddhist, and ‘none’ or ‘little’ in Islamic scrolls. The total numbers prove their predominance, and reveal a big difference between the two types of rhythms except for the Dutch colonization era. 8.5.1. Conclusion The continuity of pre-Islamic scrolls in the Javanese mosques was not constant. Their weak influence was caused by the radical change of rhythms in scrolls in the transfer from temples to mosques. A key finding of the descriptions of scrolls in Javanese temples and mosques calls attention. They are repetitive, harmonious, and continuous in rhythm. The term ‘repetitive’ links to ‘harmonious’ which associates with ‘continuous’ (Chapter 4). This also corresponds to Islamic arabesque, a stylized form of the vegetal scrolls, characterized as geometrical, abstract, repetitive, and continuous (Chapter 1). The same outcome from Hindu-Buddhist scrolls and Islamic arabesque could not be coincidental. The crucial difference between them is the symbolic Hindu-Buddhist ‘Golden Germ’.

(Frequency): Continuous rhythms were predominant (Table 8.4e). All Hindu-Buddhist scrolls except for S7 displayed significant frequencies. Their popularity decreased almost half in the sample during the Islamic transitory period, and remained until the full revival in renovated/reproduced scrolls. The best examples are S1/5/8/31-32. Both S5 (Kalasan temple) and S8 (Panataran temple) symbolize ‘the start of life’, bursting out new branches. Stylized S31 and naturalistic S32 (Agung Yogya) followed their predecessors; their continuous rhythms as Islamic arabesque in form stretched into vast and unlimited space, depicting ‘the vision of paradise’. By contrast, discontinuous rhythms were mostly seen in the Islamic transitory period, such as in S12-14/2527. S25 (Sendang Duwur) needs much attention to catch their rhythms.

• Between the Pre-Islamic and Islamic periods (Presence): Repetitive, harmonious, and continuous rhythms connected the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, despite an interval of their opposites in the Islamic transitory period. The three rhythms can represent 159

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia the characteristics of scrolls, regardless of their origins either as Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic or both. Single/ multiple and strong/weak rhythms could be additional characteristics.

• Within the Islamic period (Presence): No direct relationship across the three periods implies a weak continuity in rhythms. Nonrepetitive, disharmonious, multiple, weak, and discontinuous rhythms were predominant in the transitory period; other rhythms continued both in the Dutch colonization era and renovated/reproduced scrolls. When a chaotic syncretism in rhythm ended in the transfer from temples to mosques, the characteristics of Hindu-Buddhist scrolls became revived. Shifting rhythms seem to be unavoidable, because of Javanese Muslims, who wanted their cultural heritage, but had to beautify scrolls by any rhythm in their mosques by incoming Islamic arabesque. The freedom of Islamic ornament except for living figures could be another factor in this process.

Preferred rhythms of five further characteristics in the 50 scrolls between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Repetitive/Non-repetitive: (HB) Repetitive, (I) Repetitive Harmonious/Disharmonious: (HB) Harmonious, (I) Harmonious Single/Multiple: (HB) Single, (I) Multiple Strong/Weak: (HB) Strong, (I) Weak Continuous/Discontinuous: (HB) Continuous, (I) Continuous (Continuity and Influence): All three types of rhythms were almost the same in total numbers, justifying their equal contributions to the continuity. A weak influence of Hindu-Buddhist scrolls on Javanese mosque ornamentation took place. In the transfer of scrolls from temples to mosques, a phenomenon of discontinuity occurred in rhythm. This trend can be traceable in the geographical area, material, and decoration in the background of scrolls, explaining a syncretic process.

Preferred rhythms of five further characteristics in the 39 scrolls within the Islamic period Repetitive/Non-repetitive: (IT) Non-repetitive, (ID) Repetitive=Non-repetitive, (IR) Repetitive Harmonious/Disharmonious: (IT) Disharmonious, (ID) Harmonious, (IR) Harmonious Single/Multiple: (IT) Multiple, (ID) Single, (IR) Single Strong/Weak: (IT) Weak, (ID) Strong, (IR) Strong Continuous/Discontinuous: (IT) Discontinuous, (ID) Continuous, (IR) Continuous

Modes and total numbers of five further characteristics of rhythm in the 50 scrolls Repetitive 118: (HB) Much/35, (I) None, Some/83 Harmonious 117: (HB) Much/33, (I) None, Some/84 Continuous 118: (HB) Much/35, (I) None, Little/83

(Continuity and Influence): Four types of rhythms with an interval in the transitory continued with a low influence to the next periods. 8.6. Examined by texture: other elements of design Texture is investigated according to the researcher’s perception and observations during the fieldwork. Each

S5-Kalasan temple (Smooth)

S31-Agung Yogya (Smooth)

S50-Hidayatullah (Smooth)

S6-Panataran temple (Rough)

S15-Agung Demak (Rough)

S23-Astana Mantingan (Rough)

Figure 8.10. Smooth/rough

160

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Scrolls in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation meaning was considered. One option was allowed for each type.

8.7. Observing proportion: other principles of design Proportion is examined by the researcher’s perception and observations. Each meaning was considered. One choice was allowed for each type.

(Smooth/Rough in terms of texture): ‘Smooth’ rhythms can be perceived in regular and repetitive rhythms; continuous or alternating rhythms in harmony; and the balance of strong and weak rhythms. By contrast, irregular and non-repetitive rhythms; repeated rhythms at short intervals; and progressive rhythms can be perceived as ‘rough’ rhythms. Hindu-Buddhist S5 and Islamic S31/50 scrolls display smooth rhythms; Hindu-Buddhist S6 and Islamic S15/23 ones have rough rhythms.

(Progressive/Non-progressive in terms of proportion): If rhythms increase singularly or in multiple, and a gradual beat is created, they are called ‘progressive’. This phenomenon happens when scrolls undulate in larger and different sizes of a curved shape. Non-progressive rhythms include regular and single rhythms, or lack of rhythm. Hindu-Buddhist S4 and Islamic S37/47 display progressive rhythms; Hindu-Buddhist S3 and Islamic S32/41 have non-progressive ones.

(Presence): Of the 50 scrolls, 22 have smooth and 28 rough rhythms. Although rough rhythms were predominant, and were almost fully used in the Islamic transitory period, smooth rhythms were more common in other periods. More than half of the smooth rhythms in the sample in the Hindu-Buddhist period almost disappeared in the Islamic transitory period. They recovered during the Dutch colonization era, and remained more or less in the next period. One wonders whether smooth rhythms in Islamic arabesque influenced Javanese scrolls in mosques. On the contrary, rough rhythms, seldom used in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls, became the vogue in the Islamic transitory period, but fell radically in the next period.

(Presence): Of the 50 scrolls, 11 have progressive and 39 non-progressive rhythms. Non-progressive rhythms were used around three times more than progressive ones in the sample, favoured by both scrolls. Their popularity can be argued whether an amalgamation of Hindu-Buddhist idea and orthodox Islamic form was not practised in scrolls in Javanese mosques, because orthodox Islamic scrolls are supposed to have progressive rhythms on the corner panels, in general.

Number of smooth/rough rhythms in the 50 scrolls between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Smooth: 22 (15+): (HB) 7, (IT) 2, (ID) 6, (IR) 7 Rough: 28 (24+): (HB) 4, (IT) 15, (ID) 4, (IR) 5 Preferred rhythms: (HB) Smooth, (I) Islamic

Number of progressive/non-progressive rhythms in the 50 scrolls between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Progressive: 11 (7+): (HB) 4, (IT) 4, (ID) 1, (IR) 2 Non-progressive: 39 (32+): (HB) 7, (IT) 13, (ID) 9, (IR) 10 Preferred rhythms: (HB) Non-progressive, (I) Nonprogressive

(Evaluation): Divergence of the opposing rhythms indicates no constant continuity between the two periods. Texture did not contribute to the continuity of pre-Islamic scrolls in Javanese mosque ornamentation significantly.

(Evaluation): Commonality of non-progressive rhythms between the two periods indicate the continuity into Javanese mosque ornamentation. Proportion was a contributor in bridging Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic scrolls by non-progressive rhythms. It also implies that

S4-Kalasan temple (Progressive)

S37-Caringin Labuan (Progressive)

S47-Agung Jepara (Progressive)

S3-Mendut temple (Non-progressive)

S32-Agung Yogya (Non-progressive)

S41-Soko Tunggal (Non-progressive)

Figure 8.11. Progressive/Non-progressive

161

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia progressive rhythms in Islamic arabesque did not affect Javanese mosques.

of Hindu-Buddhist scrolls on Javanese mosque scroll designs?

8.8. On Mihrabs

This analysis has used rhythms in the 50 scrolls to identify their similarities and differences in the different periods and therefore the type of influences that might have occurred.

This examination is designed to observe scrolls on mihrabs as well as to investigate the development of mihrab ornamentation. 11 scrolls from the HinduBuddhist origins were found during the fieldwork. They are S19/24/28/32-35/38/43-44/47. As renovated/ reproduced scrolls, there are S43-44/47.

Five aspects are investigated: background (period/ geographical area/location in a mosque building/ material/attachment), the basic type of rhythm (regular/irregular) and subdivisions (vertical/ horizontal/diagonal of regular rhythms), five further characteristics (repetitive/non-repetitive, harmonious/disharmonious, single/multiple, strong/ weak, continuous/discontinuous), other elements (smooth and rough in texture), and principles (progressive and non-progressive in proportion) of design.

(Background): Overall, scrolls on mihrabs are more present in Central Java. They are dominantly made of wood, and are rather not decorated. Although all types of material were used in the transitory period, wood became the only material in the next periods. Decoration was more shown during the Dutch colonization era. (Basic type of rhythm): Regular rhythms are almost double than irregular ones in the sample. Favouring regular rhythms raises an assumption. If scrolls are not in harmony on mihrabs, they will disturb prayers’ concentration and will not create beautiful mihrabs, to indicate the gateway to Paradise.

The continuity of pre-Islamic scrolls in Javanese mosque ornamentation took place in the five aspects. But the influence was neither consistent nor very strong. When Hindu-Buddhist scrolls in vast temples had to yield their freedom into tiny mosques; when HinduBuddhist scrolls, accompanied with human beings and animals, had to be altered into lifeless shapes, according to a ban of living figures in Islam, their identity can only be preserved in their symbolic connotation. An idea of ‘the Golden Germ’, the origin of life, in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls had to encounter another idea of ‘the vision of paradise’ in Islamic arabesques, to sanctify and beautify Javanese mosques, especially on mihrabs which are regarded as a gateway to Paradise. Confronting this task, symbolic Hindu-Buddhist scrolls did not surrender to aesthetic Islamic arabesques; instead, they invited them to become symbolic in sacred Javanese mosques. Geometric and mathematical Islamic arabesques have no choice of rejecting this invitation, due to Sufi Islam in Java.

Number of regular and irregular rhythms in the 11 scrolls on mihrabs Regular 7: (IT) 2, (ID) 3, (IR) 2 Irregular 4: (IT) 1, (ID) 2, (IR) 1 (Subdivisions): Diagonal rhythms were mainly used. Vertical rhythms appeared during the Dutch colonization era, sharing with horizontal rhythms. All types of rhythm can be due to a rectangular panel on mihrabs where scrolls had to be filled up in three directions. Number of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal rhythms in the 11 scrolls on mihrabs Vertical 3: (IT) 0, (ID) 2, (IR) 1 Horizontal 4: (IT) 1, (ID) 2, (IR) 1 Diagonal 5: (IT) 2, (ID) 1, (IR) 2

Gradually, their different principles in ornamentation became assimilated by tolerant and inventive Indonesians, despite momentary chaos in their first encountering in ideas and forms. As soon as tranquillity emerges, Javanese Muslims hurry up to replace their cultural heritage at mosques. Why so? What they are looking for was the same sacred Golden Fleece: ‘the start of life’ in Hindu-Buddhism and ‘the vision of paradise’ in Islam. Scrolls in Javanese temples and mosques are the most cosmopolitan motif, sharing the characteristics of repetitive, harmonious, and continuous rhythms with Islamic arabesques in common. And, the holy ‘Golden Germ’, a crucial key of Hindu-Buddhist scrolls, was intact among Javanese Muslims.

Scrolls on mihrabs are mostly located in Central Java. They are made of wood and are not decorated, Scrolls favoured regular, particularly diagonal rhythms. Continuous rhythms were the most common characteristic as an addition. Smooth and nonprogressive rhythms displayed mihrabs. 8.9. Summary This chapter is the last analysis which aimed at answering sub-question 4: What if any was the influence

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Chapter 9.

Summary and Conclusion

9.1. Introduction

9.2.2. Regionalism in Islamic Religion and Ornaments during the Three Islamic Periods

WANDERER’S NIGHTSONG Over every hilltop is peace, Throughout the woods all noises cease, Little birds sleep in each leafy bough, Wait but in patience, soon Thou shalt sleep now. -Johann Wolfgang von Goethe-

Section 1.2 discussed orthodox Islamic ornaments and their introduction to Java, creating a regional characteristic. The definition and types of Islamic ornament should be identified from a Javanese viewpoint, due to its geography, natural resources, and syncretic culture of animistic, Hindu-Buddhist, Islamic, Chinese, and European ones, called ‘Islamic Javanese ornaments’.

This concluding chapter presents reflections on the research findings related to literature reviews which were connected to the research question. It also tries to evaluate the research outcome and its methodology. It submits the findings from the analysis of the four syncretic motifs (the tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll) across the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. In section 9.2, the important literary sources from chapters 1, 3, and 4 are summarized, to test the analysis of chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8, hoping to find their consent or disagreement with each outcome. In further sections, comparisons of the four motifs in five aspects clarify the answer to the research question on the continuity of pre-Islamic ornaments in Javanese mosques. The evaluation and importance of the findings, and further studies are suggested in sections 9.5 and 9.6 respectively.

Java, situated on the southern Indonesian archipelago, has a tropical climate, rich rainfall, and fertile soils, providing bountiful natural resources. The HinduBuddhist culture had influenced Java until Islam became the dominant religion in the 16th century. However, the basic patterns of ancestral and mythical beliefs were integrated within Sufi Islam which had lost much of its orthodoxy in its spread from the Arab world. Sacred pre-Islamic architecture and ornaments became a means for Islamization. Sufis borrowed this, based on a belief of mosques to be sacred, creating a combination of indigenous and Islamic ideas and forms. Ancestor worship and the cosmological belief penetrated Islamic cosmology in the form of regional culture. Roofs of old mosques resemble the Cosmos Mountain, Meru, while kala-makaras decorate mosque mihrabs.

9.2. Preparing findings 9.2.1. A Conceptual Frame: Awakening from Cultural Heritage

Table 9.0. Development of the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods

1

The term ‘prehistoric’ means neolithic and megalithic times, when tumpals were used in decoration.

163

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Islamic ornament is designed to provide visual pleasure to Muslim eyes and to represent God’s existence in their minds. Its character is abstract and geometrical. From a Malay perspective, ornament provides delight and purity. The main difference between Islamic art and Malay art is the level of religious values inherent in the artefacts. Islam allowed artistic freedom, despite regulation of ornaments in the hadith because ornament could encourage artists to adjust the integration of Islam into the existing culture. Accordingly, Javanese Islamic art became a continuation of the indigenous one, except for calligraphy which was a distinctly new import. In this connection, Javanese Islamic ornaments tend to achieve two functions of symbolic HinduBuddhism and aesthetic orthodox Islam.

into the local culture because it was a means of carrying God’s messages. The political and Islamic movement in Java is divided into three periods: transitory (15c-1619), Dutch colonization (1619-1945), and contemporary (1945-present). Each period created a syncretism between regional tradition and incoming Islamic culture, based on mutual tolerance and flexibility. These steps are (1) parallelism between old and new culture, (2) adaptation between the two and (3) creation of a new syncretic culture. The first syncretism (stage I: Transitory): Geographical isolation from the Arab world allowed Malay local culture to be the only source for mosque architecture and ornamentation. Syncretism occurred between Sufism and Javanese faiths; walis said that the direction of the qibla was the ‘west’. Strong continuity of preIslamic tradition was shown, but Javanese Muslims designated new functions and meanings to their mosques. Syncretic Islamic motifs were created by the local genius, as a result of modifying local motifs within an Islamic context. They learned from missionaries who brought orthodox Islamic ornaments to Java. New regional ornaments, termed ‘local Islamic or Malay Islamic’, differ from orthodox ones. Chinese motifs contributed partially to this process.

Among many transferred motifs from temples to earlier mosques, prehistoric tumpals, Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras, lotus buds, and scrolls are the ones that appear to continue the most. A combined bird-lotus or invented winged gate characterizes Islamic Javanese decorative art. Orthodox Islamic heart-shape floral (a kind of arabesque), geometric interlace, and calligraphy arrived with Islam to Java but also had to adapt into existing motifs and only appeared more prolifically in later periods. For the Javanese, it is hard to define arabesque as Islamic, owing to its similarity to the Hindu-Buddhist scroll. Local culture accepted and modified it; thus, arabesque was not greatly appreciated, compared to calligraphy, a clear sign of Islam of which a few samples were found in the transitory period. Geometry followed a similar fate to arabesque, due to the existence of geometric patterns in the prehistoric period. Nevertheless, a simple Islamic geometry appeared in Acehnese tombs in Sumatra and Javanese mosques around the 16th century. A difference between Islamic geometry and local practice is that the former has patterns, based on mathematical calculation; the latter does not follow such precise rules. The existence of prehistoric geometry and the lack of skills in mathematics prevented a frequent use of Islamic geometry. Local geometry, made by unskilled labour in transitory mosques, differs from Islamic geometry which is mathematically calculated by contemporary architects and is becoming popular.

(Islamization) Stage 1: Transitory /Stage II: Dutch colonization /Stage III: Contemporary (Source) Local Malay /Mecca, Medina /The whole world (Preachers) Wali songo /Ulamas: Al Makasari, Al Bakari, Al Bantan, etc /Ulamas: Nurcholish Madjid, Amien Rais, etc. (Doctrine) Sufism /Shariah, Orthodoxy /Modern Scientific (Communication) Oral lecture /Pesantren and book /Pesantren, university, prints, radio, multimedia (Ornamentation) Pre-Islamic, Chinese /European, Orthodox Islamic (calligraphy) /Pan-Islamic (arabesque, geometry) The second syncretism (stage II: Dutch colonization): Sources for inspiration during this phase became Mecca and Medina. Ulamas (religious leaders) were able to visit Mecca and bring orthodox Islamic architecture and ornaments back home, which were later adjusted to the local ones. They said that qibla directs ‘around the west’. However, the lack of skills also played a role in the postponement of replication until the Dutch colonizers’ engagement in teaching techniques. In architecture, the second syncretism occurred in a combination of dome and local serambi (veranda). During this time, European motifs, such as the palmette, were also introduced. Constant but lesser use of pre-Islamic ornaments as an

Between the 14th to 16th centuries, calligraphy was less used for mosque ornamentation but was regularly observed on gravestones or in manuscripts, combined of Javanese and Arabic letters, called Jawi. The blessed Islamic words were read to remember God, and inscriptions were perceived as potent as protection. The Koranic words on sculpture and drawings which depict human beings, animals and flora suggest the talismanic Sufi metaphysics. As the only successful Islamic ornament, calligraphy was gradually absorbed 164

Summary and Conclusion outcome of the new contacts between Java and the Arab world prompted calligraphy to become popular.

by rhythm. The meaning of each characteristic was carefully considered, according to the literature and the researcher’s view.

The third syncretism (stage III: Contemporary): A standard design and symbols of mosques, inspired by Demak (1479), was set up in Java. Every Muslim could travel and get sources from the whole world. PanIslamic ornaments were blended with local tradition, bringing the third syncretism of plurality. Muslims could interpret Islamic architecture and ornament to their tastes since the modern science and technology and Islamic environment in daily life are closely related. At this period, ulamas established the true location of the qibla as being the ‘northwest’. Orthodox Islamic motifs of arabesque, geometry, and calligraphy gradually replaced pre-Islamic ornaments. Flat roofs, the absence of mihrabs or columns, geometry and arabesque became a trend. Amid this, a new consciousness to formulate a style which reflects regional flavour and diversity became stronger towards globalization, either traditional or pan-Islamic or combined, to keep Javanese cultural heritage.

For the validity of data acquisition, a task was met by an amalgamation of (1) the researcher’s informed judgement, trained in art and design, (2) observations during the fieldwork, (3) general rules on elements and principles of design, based on literary sources, and (4) the relationship in respect of Indonesian cultural heritage. Two methods were applied to analyze the significance of use in the four motifs: their presence and frequencies of the four indicators, evaluated by scaled value, mode, and total number. Many (4)

X

9.2.4. Theoretical Achievements: When Islamic Aesthetic Beauties Encounter Hindu-Buddhist Symbolic Connotations Hindu-Buddhist Java had two cultures from Central (760-930 AD) and East (930-1500 AD) Java. Central Javanese ornamentation was influenced by India, proved by natural and extravagant floral designs, but East Java showed a return to its earlier heritage, evidenced in stylized and simple arrangements in temple ornamentation. The two cultures from the greatest Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms practised a fusion of different faiths, creating symbolic representations common to the four sacred motifs: tumpals as the Cosmos Mountain where gods abode; kala-makaras as protectors in temples where gods are believed to reside; lotus buds as symbolizing life and creation; and scrolls as representing the start of life. Hindu-Buddhist Java (815C) played the most important role in connecting the prehistoric and Islamic periods, delivering a cultural inheritance to Javanese mosque ornamentation.

There is a saying, ‘Start with what you have’. Before the operation of analyzing the degree of the continuity of pre-Islamic motifs in Javanese mosque ornamentation, collected data, acquired from the literature review, empirical work, and interviews were assembled as thoroughly and extensively as possible.

3.

None (1)

Each motif was examined in three steps: (1) the preIslamic and Islamic periods, (2) the Islamic period itself (transitory, Dutch colonization, renovated/reproduced in the contemporary), and (3) an overall overview. (Chapter 2)

9.2.3. Emerging into a New World: Methodological Challenges

2.

Few (2)

Figure 9.1. Scaled values in tumpals

Historically, Islamic art had lost its continuity in certain things. Some cultural centres were deviated from the original art forms, due to small kingdoms, different interpretations of art, and diverse tastes of local artists, compared to centralization and professionals in palaces during the Hindu-Buddhist period. Nevertheless, Islamic ornaments have always been in Java. Calligraphy was mostly visible; others appeared from time to time. The plurality of Islamic Javanese ornaments with this background is key to understanding regionalism in Java. (Chapter 1)

1.

Some (3)

A purposive sample was applied in choosing the 30 mosques, a representative selection of the four motifs was taken, and the motifs are to be comprehensively examined in five aspects (background, basic type of each indicator with its subdivisions, five further characteristics of each indicator, the most relevant element and principle of design).

The background led to three assumptions for testing the research questions. 1.

Specifically, the motifs are to be tested by four indicators (line, shape, form, rhythm): Tumpals by line, Kala-makaras by shape, lotus buds by form, and scrolls 165

The fusion of mystic animism, Hinduism, and Buddhism in the Hindu-Buddhist period could anticipate a peaceful integration of Islam in Java. Islam became a syncretic religion.

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia 2. 3.

The popular four Hindu-Buddhist motifs in temples continued into Javanese mosques. The sacredness of temples as the abode of the gods could allow their motifs to be used as symbolic in Javanese mosques, instead of simply aesthetic beauty, for which orthodox Islamic ornament stands. Moreover, the dissimilarity between Central and East Javanese scrolls could distinguish scrolls in Javanese mosques. If scrolls have naturalness, they are originated from Central Java. On top of this, ‘the Golden Germ’, the start of life in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls was an unmistakable key to identify the origins of scrolls in Javanese mosques. Where ‘the Golden Germ’ appeared, they were Hindu-Buddhist origin.

in Indonesia held in 2004 tells that: (1) a canon, called silpasastra, was established in Hindu-Buddhist architecture and sculpture, but not in ornamentation, and (2) for an alternative method of identification, nine approaches were suggested: ambiguity, background, chronology, creativity, empirical method, heritage, principle, purpose, and reference. Among them, the principles of ornaments, a chronology of mosques, and a comparison between temple and mosque ornaments by empirical work proved the most appropriate approaches. They also gave information about the continuity of pre-Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques and facilitated analysis of renovated/reproduced motifs. (Chapter 4) 9.3. The reincarnation of pre-Islamic motifs in mosques

The characteristics of Javanese Islam lie in two aspects. It was spread peacefully from India to Java, far from the violence and wars in conquests of non-Muslims in the Near East and Arab world. Javanese Islam blended into local traditions and existing faiths, inventing syncretic Islam (Agama Jawi) initiated by mystic Sufis, instead of inclining to orthodox Islam (Agama Islam Santri). At the beginning of Islamization in Java, wayang (shadow puppet) plays were a means to preach Islam, and Hindu-Buddhist ornaments continued smoothly from sacred temples to mosques, endowing mosques with sacredness as well as beauty.

This section presents a summary of all the findings from the main chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8. Each sub-question in each chapter illuminates the perspective of the analysis in five aspects, focused on continuity and significance of influence. Ornamentation on mihrabs is analyzed separately. MAIN QUESTION: Continuity and Influences of the Four Motifs ‘What has been the degree of continuity of pre-Islamic ornaments in Javanese mosque ornamentation from the 15th century to the present day?’

However, to avoid a conflict between the local culture and the hadith, Hindu-Buddhist living figures, such as kala-makaras, were stylized to a certain degree to make them acceptable. A strict obeisance to the hadith was not practised, seen in Sendang Duwur (1561) in East Java. Besides this process, multiple ideas and forms in Islamic Java (15C-to the present) became enriched by Chinese and European streams. This phenomenon can be shown in mosque ornamentation. The result from the study of the background indicated that (1) the majority of motifs in Javanese mosques were inherited from pre-Islamic ornaments, (2) the sacredness of Javanese mosques allowed their ornaments to be sacred and beautiful, and (3) syncretic Islam caused ambiguity in the origins of motifs. (Chapter 3)

Towards the main research question, approaches were carried out from three directions, due to Javanese syncretic culture, being an amalgamation of (1) animism which prevailed in prehistoric Indonesia, (2) HinduBuddhism, introduced from India during Hinduization in the fifth century, and (3) Javanese Islam, penetrating peacefully through incoming traders from India in the 15th century. By assembling different literary sources towards answering the research question, background of Islamic ornament of arabesque, geometry, and calligraphy had to be verified, to trace a relationship between orthodox and Javanese Islamic mosque ornamentation. In parallel with this, the study focused on Javanese Hindu-Buddhist temple ornamentation, which proved the Javanese mosques’ indebtedness to Hindu-Buddhist remnants, particularly in the Islamic transitory (15C-1619) period, because of their symbolic connotations and aesthetic beauties.

9.2.5. A Short Diversion: In the Midst of Climbing with Sisyphus As no literature could be consulted to identify motifs in Javanese mosques, particularly on scrolls, a solution was sought through interviewing 20 Indonesian scholars whose specializations are in art, architecture, archaeology, design, and history. The need for interviews was caused by the ambiguity in syncretic motifs, as some bore both Hindu-Buddhist ideas and orthodox Islamic forms. The outcome of the interviews

The frequent occurring four motifs (prehistoric tumpals, Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras, lotus buds, scrolls) were selected from temples and mosques in Java to examine their presence, influences, and development across the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. However, identification of the origins of scrolls in mosques, as either Hindu166

Summary and Conclusion Buddhist or Islamic or both in idea and form, proved more problematic.

‘unbroken’, ‘inner’, ‘short’, and ‘simple’ lines across the three periods. ‘Dominant’ lines also continued significantly. Neither ‘wide’ nor ‘narrow’ lines were constant. It was ‘horizontal’ lines which mainly continued between the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods.

9.3.1. SUB-QUESTION 1: Transcendence of Prehistoric Tumpals ‘How has the tumpal, the popular prehistoric motif in Indonesia, become part of Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how has it been developed and used within the Islamic period?’ Prehistoric

Kalasan temple

Leaving aside prehistoric wooden tumpals outside Java, when Hindu-Buddhist stone tumpals in East Java had to find their next home in Central Java in the wake of Islamization, not only their name was changed into ‘Islamic’ tumpals, but also their material returned to prehistoric wood, possibly by Javanese Muslims’ longing for their indigenous culture. Only survival was the absence of decoration on tumpals until the Islamic transitory period. Tumpals continued to be similar in the basic type of line and its subdivisions across the three periods.

Agung Yogya mosque

In other words, undulating of curved lines provided a reconciliation between pre-Islamic with Islamic tumpals, accelerated by four of the five further characteristics, emphasizing the importance of lines supported by principles of design. Whether adjacent lines in tumpals were closer to each other, it was irrelevant. Despite their occasional interruptions, to meet different demands arising from their locations in mosques, the reappearance of tumpals in renovated mosques is evidence of their survival.

The tumpal, a decorated triangle, was originated in neolithic and megalithic times in Indonesia and continued in Hindu-Buddhist temples and Islamic mosques. Despite its uncertain origin, the motif has a symbolic value, due to its magic character, or because it conveys an idea of fertility. In temple and mosque ornamentation, this syncretic motif represents the Cosmos Mountain, Meru, and reaches back to animism in prehistoric Indonesia.

This continuous existence of tumpals raises a question. Was it due to their transcendence from fishermen’s baskets? They were first welcomed to Hindu-Buddhist sanctuaries and again upgraded to sacred Javanese mosques. According to online dictionaries1, the term ‘transcendence’, derived from the Latin transcendens, has three meanings: (1) extending or lying beyond the limits of ordinary experience, (2) being beyond comprehension, and (3) transcending the universe or material existence.

The five aspects were examined : (1) background (period/geographical area/location in a mosque building/material/attachment), (2) the basic type of line (straight/curved) and its subdivisions (vertical/ horizontal/diagonal of straight lines; circular/ spiral/undulating of curved lines), (3) five further characteristics of line (broken/unbroken, natural/ geometrical, inner/outline, short/long, simple/ complicated), (4) space (wide/narrow) of other elements of design, and (5) emphasis (dominant/ subordinate) of principles of design.

Prehistoric tumpals extended their existence, and transcended into the realm of God, going beyond rational understanding. This blessing was impossible if tumpals were not symbolic and sacred, and this was what syncretic Javanese Sufi Islam was searching for, to worship Allah (Tjandrasasmita, interview 2006). The idea of the holy Cosmos Mountain both in mystic animism and Hindu-Buddhism propelled tumpals from a lower status to much higher up by the magic of the local genius. (Chapter 5)

The findings revealed the continuity of pre-Islamic tumpals in Javanese mosque ornamentation, but their influence was neither strong nor weak. It seems that tumpals continued, due to their symbolic connotation. Moreover, the analysis of the background argued for the continuity of tumpals, particularly in renovated mosques, despite a few intervals across the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. For a detailed analysis by line, strong continuity was found mostly in the use of ‘curved’, ‘undulating’,

Mariam Webster (http://www.m-w.com), Britannia (http://www. britannia.com), and the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language 2004

1 

167

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia On the whole, ‘natural’ shapes were more common, but the appearance of ‘geometric’ shapes in the Islamic period diminished their use, and therefore reduced their significant continuity. In the fragmental distribution of ‘geometric’ shapes, ‘oval’ ones mostly continued.

9.3.2. SUB-QUESTION 2: Metamorphosis in HinduBuddhist Kala-Makaras ‘The hadith, the sayings of the Prophet, prohibits living figures from being depicted in art. Why therefore has the kala-makara, a favourite animal motif in HinduBuddhist temples, been adapted into Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how has it been used in Javanese mosques over time?’ Borobodur temple

Central Javanese temple

When kalas and makaras dwelled separately in HinduBuddhist temples in Central Java, they were made of stone, but in the transfer to mosques in West Java, they became unified as one body of wooden kalamakaras. Probably Javanese Muslims’ love of their cultural heritage allowed its decorative aspect to be survived. Nevertheless, the real-life of kala-makaras had to go through metamorphosis, because they were not allowed any longer to smile and threaten temple visitors with natural shapes. Instead, they became motionless without expression, displaying geometric and stylized shapes in mosques. Why such a change? It can be explained by the hadith which forbids the depiction of living figures.

Agung Kasepuhan mosque

A pair of kala-makaras appears frequently in temples and mosques. The kala, a human face or a demon’s head, and a makara, an imaginary animal with the shape of a fish and the trunk of an elephant, were introduced during Hinduization in the fifth century. In Indian mythology, kala-makaras represent protectors of the sacred Cosmos Mountain and temples where gods are believed to reside, expelling demonic influences. They also express duality and a totality.

According to online dictionaries, the term ‘metamorphosis’ whose origin was from the Latin metamorphōsis has three main meanings: (1) change of physical form, structure, or substance, especially by supernatural means, (2) change in the form and often habits of an animal during normal development after the embryonic stage in biology, and (3) a usually degenerative change in the structure of particular body tissue in pathology.

Five aspects were investigated: (1) background, (2) the basic type of shape (natural/geometric) and its subdivisions (circular/oval/triangular/square/ rectangular of geometric shapes), (3) five further characteristics of shape (dynamic/static, single/ assorted, illustrating/abstract, smooth/complicated, small/big), (4) colour (original/coloured) of other elements of design, and (5) unity-variety (separate/ unified) of principles of design. From this chapter onwards, the two periods are called Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic; thus ‘pre-Islamic’ means ‘Hindu-Buddhist’.

Kala-makaras changed their forms and habits and underwent a degenerative change into a sublime abstraction, created by the local genius. This would have been impossible if there had been no syncretic Javanese Islam which still allowed some freedom to the cult of ancestor worship. The holy Hindu-Buddhist kalamakaras was fully adopted to represent the sacredness of Javanese mosques. (Chapter 6) 9.3.3. SUB-QUESTION 3: Lotus Buds in Javanese Imagination

The findings revealed the continuity and influence of pre-Islamic kala-makaras on Javanese mosque ornamentation as less constant and significant than those in tumpals. Kala-makaras continued, due to their symbolic connotation. Despite a few interruptions between the two periods, caused by different principles in ornamentation between Hindu-Buddhism and Islam, detailed analysis using shapes indicated that a strong continuity was mainly found in the presence of ‘dynamic’ and ‘assorted’ shapes. Within the Islamic period, ‘static’ shapes replaced ‘dynamic’, and continued together with ‘assorted’, ‘abstract’, ‘smooth’, and ‘big’ shapes. Also, ‘original’ and ‘separate’ shapes continued, indicating that colour was not preferred in kalas and makaras which were split from each other by shape.

‘How frequent was the use of Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation, and how important has the lotus bud been in mosques within the Islamic period?’ East Javanese temple

168

Agung Kasepuhan mosque

Summary and Conclusion The lotus is the most significant motif in HinduBuddhist art. According to Hindu mythology, the creation of the world is symbolized by the growth of the lotus, representing creation and sanctity. In the Mahayanist (Great Vehicle) Buddhism, the lotus is the pattern for the abstract notions of the Dharma (mystical doctrine). Its flower undergoes a series of evolutionary stages, starting with a bud as the basis of symbolic transformation.

Javanese mosques, and their symbolic connotation as the holiness was rejuvenated in Javanese imagination, signifying and beautifying sanctuaries. (Chapter 7) 9.3.4. SUB-QUESTION 4: Harmony between Symbolic Scrolls and Aesthetic Arabesques ‘What if any was the influence of Hindu-Buddhist scrolls on Javanese mosque scroll designs?’

Five aspects were tested: (1) background, (2) the basic type of form (primary/non-primary) and its subdivisions (cubic/conic/spherical/cylindrical/pyramidal of primary forms), (3) five further characteristics of form (voluminous/slender, open/closed, realistic/stylized, dynamic/static, 2-3 dimensional/3-dimensional), (4) value (light/dark) of other elements of design, and (5) size (small/big) of principles of design.

Kalasan temple

Agung Yogya mosque

The findings revealed a constant continuity of preIslamic lotus buds in Javanese mosque ornamentation, having a strong significance. This was probably enhanced by their symbolic connotations of ‘life’ and ‘creation’ in Hindu-Buddhism and the belief in the ‘oneness of Allah’ in Islam. Moreover, the analysis of the background supported the continuity of lotus buds, despite a few changes in geographical area and material. For a detailed analysis by form, a strong continuity was very evident in ‘primary’, ‘voluminous’, ‘stylized’, ‘dynamic’, and ‘3-dimensional’ forms. No consistent relation was seen in the subdivisions of ‘primary’, although ‘spherical’ forms were relatively continuous. It was ‘dark’ forms which were a real contributor in bridging the two periods, maximizing the beauty of lotus buds. ‘Size’ seemed to be less important.

Hindu-Buddhist scrolls often occur in the shape of a recalcitrant spiral: a rootstock of the undulating lotus which produces nodes at regular intervals. Among various adaptations, the rather stylized, horizontally growing part of the lotus scrolls was transformed into a decorative motif. The value of scrolls lies in their unquestionable symbolism of ‘the Golden Germ’, a start of life. Indian concepts say that the origin of life has been dominated by the dual forces in nature. When creative breadth enters the waters, ‘the Golden Germ’, as the beginning of all creation, is born. By contrast, Islamic arabesque is a stylized form of the vegetal motif, growing from one another infinitely in any direction, characterized by geometrical, abstract, repetitive, and continuous rhythms.

When Hindu-Buddhist stone lotus buds in Central Java were relocated to West Java, they became wooden Islamic lotus buds. A sole remnant of their traditional appearance was the absence of decoration, and probably their symbolic nature was deeply integrated into Javanese Muslims’ imagination. For them, the concepts of ‘life’ and ‘creation’ in Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds could correspond to the ‘oneness of Allah’ in Islam, because creation takes place by the mercy of Allah.

Five aspects of scrolls were analyzed: background, the basic type of rhythm (regular/irregular) and its subdivisions (vertical/horizontal/diagonal of regular rhythms), five further characteristics of rhythm (repetitive/non-repetitive, harmonious/ disharmonious, single/multiple, strong/weak, continuous/discontinuous), texture (smooth and rough) of other elements of design, and proportion (progressive and non-progressive) of other principles of design.

According to online dictionaries, the term ‘imagination’, originating from the Latin imagination, has three meanings: (1) the act or power of forming a mental image of something not present to the senses, (2) the ability to confront and deal with reality by using the creative power of the mind, and (3) creation of the mind.

The findings revealed the presence of pre-Islamic scrolls in Javanese mosque ornamentation as continuous, having neither strong nor weak influence. Scrolls are likely to have continued mainly, due to their symbolic connotations as ‘the start of life’ in Hindu-Buddhism, and the ‘vision of paradise’ in Islam. Moreover, the analysis of the background showed a weak continuity of scrolls across the two periods.

Lotus buds had the power of arousing imagination and could confront their beauty by the creativity of the local genius. They provided a sacred atmosphere in syncretic

For a detailed analysis by rhythm, a strong continuity was found in ‘repetitive’, ‘harmonious’, and 169

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia ‘continuous’ rhythms which surprisingly correspond to characteristics of Islamic arabesque. ‘Non-progressive’ rhythms were also sustained. In other words, by the basic type of rhythm, ‘regular’ rhythms played the main role in connecting Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic scrolls, but its influence was not significant. This also applies to the subdivisions, despite the most common ‘horizontal’ rhythms among them. Neither ‘smooth’ nor ‘rough’ rhythms in texture contributed to the continuity.

genius, and transcended into the sacredness of mosques. They went through a metamorphosis. A new world was born, composed of Symbolic=Syncretic=Sacred=Local Indonesian Genius in Javanese mosque ornamentation. These four characters serve perfectly to the concept of totality in Islam. The four sacred pre-Islamic motifs of tumpals, kala-makaras, lotus buds, and scrolls were the ultimate mediators of the totality. 9.4. The four motifs in relation to each other: diversity of expression in unity of concepts

Interestingly, in scrolls, a more radical change appeared between the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic transitory periods, compared to the other three motifs. A question arises: was this change caused by incoming Islamic arabesque? Or was this confusion in rhythms an unavoidable process, to evoke a feeling of abundance in mosques, particularly on mihrabs, which was said to be a gateway to Paradise?

What has been the degree of continuity of pre-Islamic ornaments in Javanese mosque ornamentation from the 15th century to the present day? This section answers the main question by assembling the four motifs, detailed in the previous chapters. It also traces their major influence on Javanese mosque ornamentation. Specifically, Javanese mihrab ornamentation is investigated, accompanying results of comparing all Islamic motifs and those on mihrabs.

When Hindu-Buddhist decorative stone scrolls moved to Central Java, they became clothed of wood and were not decorated, acquiring a new name of Islamic scrolls. For a smooth transfer from temples to mosques, Hindu-Buddhist scrolls had to cooperate with Islamic arabesques in ideas and forms, in harmony.

9.4.1. Background (1). Pre-Islamic/Islamic

According to online dictionaries, the term ‘harmony’ originated from the Latin harmonia, and has three main meanings: (1) agreement in feeling or opinion, (2) a pleasing combination of elements as a whole, and (3) the sound of two or more notes heard simultaneously in music.

(1a). Geographical Area East Java is where Hindu-Buddhist tumpals and scrolls were mostly found; Central Java is commonplace for Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras and lotus buds and Islamic tumpals and scrolls; and West Java for Islamic kala-makaras and lotus buds. A distinct feature is a shift of geographical area between the two periods. The changes occurred from East to Central Java or from Central to West Java, not back to East Java. The first Hindu-Buddhist culture was practised in Central Java and then moved to East Java. The earliest Islamic Demak kingdom in Central Java took over the sovereignty of Hindu-Majapahit in East Java. During Islamization in the transitory period, many mosques were built in West Java, and the foundation of Batavia as capital in Java by the Dutch colonization brought immigration into this area, requiring more mosques. No motif was constantly continued in the same area.

Scrolls agreed with arabesques, expressing a common idea of the sacredness, and combined their beauty in three characteristics in rhythms. ‘The Golden Germ’ in Hindu-Buddhist scrolls propelled Islamic arabesques to be holy in Javanese mosques, on behalf of syncretic Javanese Islam, commissioned by the local genius. Scrolls succeeded to coexist with arabesques, becoming the best example of syncretic ornament in Javanese ornament history. Accordingly, arabesques in Javanese mosques are symbolic, rather than aesthetic which is how orthodox Islamic ornament employs them (Chapter 8). All the findings of the four motifs signalize a common thread. Pre-Islamic motifs had to continue in Javanese mosques, for the sake of the commonality of the holiness in symbolism, to pay tribute to Allah. It was an inevitable destiny. Their influence was strong or weak, according to their locations in mosques, or the creativity of the local genius, or the level of the freedom afforded to Islamic ornament. Whatever the influence was, the continuity was always shown.

Preferred geographical area in the four motifs between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Tumpals: (P) Outside Java, (HB) East Java, (I) Central Kala-makaras: (HB) Central Java, (I) West Lotus buds: (HB) Central Java, (I) West Scrolls: (HB) East Java, (I) Central (1b). Material Prehistoric tumpals in the sample were most likely made of wood. Stone was used for the four motifs during the

All symbolic connotations in the four motifs were harmonized by syncretic Islam, imagined by the local 170

Summary and Conclusion Hindu-Buddhist period, but wood became prevalent in the Islamic period. Favouring stone in Hindu-Buddhist motifs is understandable. Stone temple construction underlines the solemn sacredness for the home of the gods, and ornaments followed this. It also has to do with being wearable and withstanding durability outdoors. Of course, it can be questioned whether the wood was used at all, but wood would not have survived, due to the climate, even if it had been used in Hindu-Buddhist temples.

Preferred decoration in the four motifs between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Tumpals: (P) Not-decorated, (HB) Not-decorated, (I) Decorated Kala-makaras: (HB) Decorated, (I) Decorated Lotus buds: (HB) Not-decorated, (I) Not-decorated Scrolls: (HB) Decorated, (I) Not-decorated (2). Islamic Itself (2a). Geographical Area

According to the researcher’s observation during the fieldwork, the stone temples were only seen. By contrast, mosques, intended to be everyday use for prayers and social activities, were built of wood, and accordingly, their ornamentation was made of the same material. In many cases, the four motifs appeared indoors, such as on mihrabs, minbars, and pillars, where light materials were needed. Islamic kala-makaras in the transitory period could be made of brick which Hindu Majapahit had used. As new materials such as tile were introduced during the Dutch colonization of Java, but their popularity was shown in renovated/reproduced kala-makaras. No motif was fully continuous in choice of material. A transitional change took place between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods.

Central Java seems to be commonplace for tumpals, and West Java for kala-makaras and lotus buds. Scrolls changed from Central to West Java, probably due to the erection of new mosques in West Java, where the Dutch colonization started. The revival of scrolls in Central Java was probably caused by renovations in mosques during the contemporary period. The constant presence of the three motifs is seen except for scrolls. Preferred geographical area in the four motifs within the Islamic period Tumpals: (IT) Central Java, (ID) Central, (IR) Central Kala-makaras: (IT) West Java, (ID) West, (IR) West Lotus buds: (IT) West Java, (ID) West, (IR) West Scrolls: (IT) Central Java, (ID) West (IR) Central

Preferred material in the four motifs between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Tumpals: (P) Wood, (HB) Stone, (I) Wood Kala-makaras: (HB) Stone, (I) Other Lotus buds: (HB) Stone, (I) Wood Scrolls: (HB) Stone, (I) Wood

(2b). Location in Mosque Buildings In the transitory period, a location outside the mosque buildings appears to be the most common. During the Dutch colonization era, this changed towards the prayer hall and became more common in renovated/ reproduced motifs in the following period. Scrolls kept the prayer hall as their favoured place. In general, gradual changes took place in the location of the four motifs.

(1c). Attachment The absence of decoration was more common on HinduBuddhist tumpals and lotus buds, and Islamic lotus buds and scrolls. Favouring decoration was Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras and scrolls, and Islamic tumpals and kalamakaras. Despite commonality in kala-makaras between the two periods, Hindu-Buddhist ones were decorated with floral motifs within the kala and the makara, to express an active image. Stylized Islamic kala-makaras were adorned with floral motifs, lotus buds, and Arabic calligraphy within their frames or next to them. Perhaps, a way to create living figures by decoration was attempted on Islamic kala-makaras, yet remaining in accordance with the hadith. Other common factors were shared in the symbolic use of lotus buds, hoping that their simple and unified forms could effect on more attention to prayers in temples and mosques. Decorated kala-makaras and not-decorated lotus buds were continuous, indicating a change in the two motifs between the two periods.

Preferred location in the four motifs within the Islamic period Tumpals: (IT) Outside, (ID) Serambi, (IR) Outside Kala-makaras: (IT) Outside, (ID) Prayer hall, (IR) Prayer hall Lotus buds: (IT) Outside, (ID) Outside, (IR) Prayer hall Scrolls: (IT) Prayer hall=Serambi, (ID) Prayer hall, (IR) Prayer hall (2c). Material Although three motifs inherited Hindu-Buddhist stone material in the transitory period2, wood was fully used during the Dutch colonization, and partly continued in renovated/reproduced motifs, due to its lightness and 2  Had wood disappeared in the transitory period due to climate? This can be doubted since scrolls were made of wood in the same period.

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The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia flexibility. Wooden scrolls were the only ones which continued fully. It indicates a radical change from the transitory to the following periods.

while the symbolism of lotus bud forms speaks for itself without any decoration? Within the Islamic period, except for lotus buds and scrolls, the other two motifs changed decoration alternately.

Preferred material in the four motifs within the Islamic period Tumpals: (IT) Stone, (ID) Wood, (IR) Other Kala-makaras: (IT) Stone, (ID) Wood, (IR) Other Lotus buds: (IT) Stone, (ID) Wood, (IR) Wood Scrolls: (IT) Wood, (ID) Wood, (IR) Wood

Locations of Islamic motifs in mosque buildings showed a logical and gradual transition. They were first located outside and then moved to the serambi or the prayer hall. There was no vice versa. This implies that outdoor temple ornamentation took some time to be adapted into indoor mosques. Probably tumpals and kalamakaras would be located outside; lotus buds and scrolls would be rather situated inside mosques if symbolic functions are considered. The symbolism of tumpals as the Cosmos Mountain and kala-makaras as protector of temples seemed to be suitable for outdoors. By contrast, the process of life and the “vision of Paradise” would better occur indoors. The preference of prayer hall in renovated/reproduced motifs indicated that renovation if any, happened primarily here.

(2d). Attachment The absence of decoration was prominent in the transitory and Dutch colonization eras. In three of four renovated/reproduced motifs, more decoration emerged. Lotus buds were consistently not-decorated, indicating that decoration was disfavoured by four motifs in general. Preferred decoration in the four motifs within the Islamic period Tumpals: (IT) Not-decorated, (ID) Decorated, (IR) Decorated Kala-makaras: (IT) Decorated, (ID) Not-decorated, (IR) Decorated Lotus buds: (IT) Not-decorated, (ID) Not-decorated, (IR) Not-decorated Scrolls: (IT) Not-decorated, (ID) Not-decorated, (IR) Decorated=Not-decorated

To observe the constant continuity of the four motifs within the Islamic period, renovated/reproduced motifs need to be observed. Of the geographical area, tumpals (Central), kala-makaras (West), and lotus buds (West) kept the same place all along. And scrolls were the only motif that sustained the prayer hall as their location and wood as a material. The other motifs changed their location and material from time to time. In decoration, lotus buds and scrolls continued as being not-decorated. This comparison showed no direct relationship between each period, suggesting that renovated/reproduced motifs were located arbitrarily or accidentally, either an outcome of artistic freedom or a limitation on financial resources. It also consents to several expressions given by the 20 Indonesian scholars who claimed that any flexible solution is allowed in symbolic and aesthetic mosque ornamentation in the contemporary period of renovations and reproductions.

(3). Overall Assessment and Conclusion Overall, a weak continuity in the four motifs across the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods was shown, due to a few changes in the transitory period. For example, no commonality was found between geographical areas. Transfers of the motifs occurred from East to Central, or Central to West Java. Within the Islamic period, there was consistency in geographical areas in the four motifs, except for scrolls. They started either from Central or West Java.

More or less favouring ornamentation on renovated mosques could be caused by two reasons: (1) Javanese tolerance of syncretism, despite a ‘pure Islam’ movement in the 1920s. Tolerance indicates Javanese Muslims’ continuous practice of Agama Jawi (Javanese Islam), composed of mystic animism, Hindu-Buddhism, and Islam. It is visible in the cult of ancestor worship, visiting graves in mosques with the whole family, putting food and flowers at the grave of ancestors, and cleaning tombs; thus, the preference for decoration was likely to tribute to Allah, beautifying their mosques as they have done to their ancestors’ graves. (2) The concentration to worship Allah through meditation under a simple surrounding based on Javanese Sufism.

In material, a radical but logical change took place between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods in the four motifs. Except for wood in prehistoric tumpals, a stream of continuity appeared in the transition from stone to wood. Within the Islamic period, stone in the transitory period replaced wood or other materials, which continued to the next period. Wooden scrolls were the only motif that continued. Decoration had its repertoire, starting without decoration, but being replaced by decoration later. Or it was the other way around. Pre-Islamic decorated kalamakaras and not-decorated lotus buds kept their routes all the time. A question arises: should the beauty of kalamakara shapes be enriched by additional decoration,

In conclusion, the four motifs appeared across all regions in various locations in a mosque building. 172

Summary and Conclusion They were made of a variety of materials, and were either decorated or not. A weak, but present continuity between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods informs us that, apart from their common use of motifs as symbolizing sacredness, Hindu-Buddhist temples and Islamic mosques have a dissimilar philosophy and rules on ornamentation. Therefore, a logical and gradual transfer was unavoidable in the Islamic transitory period, mediated by the local genius who combined their existing culture with art traditions of Islam and requirements in Javanese mosques.

Preferred subdivisions in the four motifs between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods *= more present characteristic between two types of line Tumpals: (P) Diagonal*, Undulating, (HB) Horizontal, Undulating*, (I) Horizontal, Undulating* Kala-makaras: (I) Oval Lotus buds: (HB) Spherical, (I) Spherical Scrolls: (HB) Horizontal, (I) Vertical=Diagonal (1c). Five Further Characteristics The continuity was shown in the five further characteristics of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic tumpals. In other motifs, the partial similarity was shown between the two periods, such as dynamic and assorted shapes in kala-makaras; voluminous, stylized, dynamic, and 3-dimensional forms in lotus buds; and repetitive, harmonious, and continuous rhythms in scrolls. However, unbroken lines, assorted shapes, stylized forms, and repetitive and continuous rhythms were the most frequent characteristics. It indicates partial changes across the three periods.

9.4.2. Lines, Shapes, Forms, and Rhythms This section focuses on the four indicators of basic type and subdivisions, and five further characteristics, to observe the continuity of the four motifs across the preIslamic and Islamic periods. The results were excerpts from a combination of the presence, modes, and total numbers of the four motifs. (1). Pre-Islamic/Islamic (1a). Basic Type

Preferred five further characteristics in the four motifs between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods *= the most common characteristic according to the presence, mode, and total number Tumpals: (P) Unbroken, Geometrical, Inner, Short*, Simple, (HB) Unbroken*, Natural, Inner, Short, Simple, (I) Unbroken, Natural, Inner, Short*=Long3, Simple Kala-makaras: (HB) Dynamic, Assorted*, Illustrating, Complicated, Small, (I) Dynamic=Static4, Assorted, Abstract, Smooth, Big* Lotus buds: (HB) Voluminous=Slender5, Open, Stylized*, Dynamic, 2-3=3-dimensional6, (I) Voluminous, Closed, Stylized*, Dynamic, 3-dimensional Scrolls: (HB) Repetitive, Harmonious, Single, Strong, Continuous*, (I) Repetitive, Harmonious, Multiple, Weak, Continuous*

Curved lines in tumpals and primary forms in lotus buds largely continued across the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods. Natural shapes in kala-makaras and regular rhythms in scrolls of the Hindu-Buddhist period did not continue; instead, geometric shapes and irregular rhythms replaced them in the Islamic period. Straight lines were popular in prehistoric tumpals. It indicates changes in the three motifs in the transition between the three periods. Preferred basic type in the four motifs between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Tumpals: (P) Straight, (HB) Curved, (I) Curved Kala-makaras: (HB) Natural, (I) Geometric Lotus buds: (HB) Primary, (I) Primary Scrolls: (HB) Regular, (I) Irregular

(2). Islamic Itself

(1b). Subdivisions

(2a). Basic Type

Undulating lines in tumpals and spherical forms in lotus buds continued across the two periods. Popular diagonal lines in prehistoric tumpals did not continue; instead, their horizontal lines largely corresponded between the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods. In kalamakaras, oval shapes were seen in the Islamic period. Horizontal rhythms in scrolls were more frequent in the Hindu-Buddhist period, compared to their vertical and diagonal ones in the Islamic era. Below indicates changes in tumpals and scrolls between the two periods.

Within the Islamic period, except for scrolls, curved lines in tumpals, geometric shapes in kala-makaras, and primary forms in lotus buds were consistently continuous.

Equal presence of both lines according to modes, but the total numbers show more ‘short’. 4  Equal presence of both shapes and equal total numbers on the whole. 5  Equal presence of both forms, but the total numbers show slightly more ‘voluminous’. 6  Equal presence of both forms, but the total numbers show slightly more ‘3-dimensional’. 3 

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The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Preferred basic type in the four motifs within the Islamic period Tumpals (line): (IT) Curved, (ID) Curved, (IR) Straight=Curved7 Kala-makaras (shape): (IT) Geometric, (ID) Geometric, (IR) Geometric Lotus buds (form): (IT) Primary, (ID) Primary, (IR) Primary Scrolls (rhythm): (IT) Irregular, (ID) Regular, (IR) Regular

Tumpals: (IT) Unbroken*, Natural, Inner, Short=Long10, Simple, (ID) Unbroken*, Natural, Inner, Short=Long, Simple, (IR) Unbroken*, Natural, Inner, Short=Long, Simple Kala-makaras: (IT) Dynamic, Assorted, Abstract, Smooth, Big*, (ID) Static, Assorted, Abstract, Smooth, Big*, (IR) Static, Assorted, Abstract, Smooth, Big* Lotus buds: (IT) Voluminous, Closed, Stylized*, Dynamic, 3-dimensional, (ID) Slender, Closed, Stylized*, Dynamic, 3-dimensional, (IR) Voluminous, Open, Stylized*, Dynamic, 2-3 dimensional Scrolls: (IT) Non-repetitive, Disharmonious, Multiple*, Weak, Discontinuous, (ID) Repetitive=Non-repetitive11, Harmonious*, Single, Strong, Continuous, (IR) Repetitive, Harmonious, Single, Strong, Continuous*

(2b). Subdivisions Horizontal and undulating lines in tumpals, and spherical forms in lotus buds continued; shapes in kalamakaras and rhythms in scrolls had to be altered. It can be argued that dissimilarities were caused by changes in the location of motifs in mosque buildings, operated by the local genius.

(3). Conclusion According to the analysis using the four indicators, the continuity of pre-Islamic motifs in Javanese mosque ornamentation was as follow. (Basic) Primary forms in lotus buds showed the sole continuity. (Sub) Undulating lines in tumpals and spherical forms in lotus buds continued. (Five) No consistent continuity was shown, except for Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic tumpals which displayed unbroken, natural, inner, short, and simple lines. A trend towards discontinuity across the preIslamic and Islamic periods can also be traceable in the analysis of the background.

Preferred subdivisions in the four motifs within the Islamic period *= undulating lines are more present than horizontal lines. Tumpals (straight/curved): (IT) Horizontal, Undulating*, (ID) Horizontal, Undulating*, (IR) Horizontal=Undulating8 Kala-makaras (geometric): (IT) Oval, (ID) Triangular, (IR) Oval Lotus buds (primary): (IT) Spherical, (ID) Conic=Spherical9, (IR) Spherical Scrolls (regular): (IT) Diagonal, (ID) Vertical, (IR) Diagonal

Within the Islamic period, (Basic) Curved lines in tumpals, geometric shapes in kala-makaras, and primary forms in lotus buds were consistently continuous. (Sub) Horizontal and undulating lines in tumpals and spherical forms in lotus buds also continued. (Five) Unbroken lines in tumpals, big shapes in kala-makaras, and stylized forms in lotus buds were foremost. Few changes occurred.

(2c). Five Further Characteristics There is a constant continuity in tumpals. In the other motifs, some characteristics continued, indicating no strong relationship between different periods. As the most common characteristics on the whole, unbroken lines in tumpals, big shapes in kala-makaras, and stylized forms in lotus buds were selected. Scrolls had their patterns, such as multiple rhythms in the transitory period; harmonious rhythms in the Dutch colonization era; and continuous rhythms in the renovated/ reproduced ones.

The outcomes in this section imply a big difference between the temple and mosque ornamentation in principle. A careful adjustment was needed in the transfer of motifs from temple to mosque ornamentation. Moreover, mosques had to provide appropriate locations for ornaments, regardless of their hierarchy in a mosque setting. And artistic freedom in any motif without causing conflicts with the hadith brought diversity in mosque ornamentation, created by the local genius, particularly in the Islamic transitory period when much of the radical change occurred.

Preferred five further characteristics in the four motifs within the Islamic period *= the most common according to the presence, mode, and total number 7  Equal presence of both lines, but the total numbers show more ‘curved’. 8  Equal presence of both lines, but the total numbers show more ‘undulating’. 9  Equal presence of both forms, but the total numbers show more ‘conic’.

10  Equal presence of both lines, but the total numbers on the whole show more ‘short’ lines. 11  Equal presence of both rhythms, but the total numbers show slightly more ‘repetitive’.

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Summary and Conclusion 9.4.3. Other Elements and Principles of Design

Preferred other elements of design in the four motifs within the Islamic period Tumpals (space: narrow/wide): (IT) Narrow, (ID) Narrow, (IR) Narrow Kala-makaras (colour: original/coloured): (IT) Original, (ID) Original, (IR) Coloured Lotus buds (value: light/dark): (IT) Dark, (ID) Dark, (IR) Dark Scrolls (texture: smooth/rough): (IT) Rough, (ID) Smooth, (IR) Smooth

This section collects the outcomes of the four motifs, comparing other elements and principles of design, to trace the continuity between the two periods. Tumpals were tested according to space; kala-makaras by colour; lotus buds by value; and scrolls by rhythm. (1). Pre-Islamic/Islamic (1a). Other Elements of Design

(2b). Other Principles of Design

The common factors between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods were found in original shapes in kalamakaras and dark forms in lotus buds. Narrow lines linked prehistoric and Islamic tumpals. Below indicates the continuity in the two motifs between different periods.

It shows a constant continuity of dominant lines in tumpals, and non-progressive rhythms in scrolls. A tendency towards a partial continuity occurred in kalamakaras and lotus buds. Preferred other principles of design in the four motifs within the Islamic period Tumpals (emphasis: dominant/subordinate): (IT) Dominant, (ID) Dominant, (IR) Dominant Kala-makaras (unity-variety: separate/unified): (IT) Separate=Unified, (ID) Unified, (IR) Separate Lotus buds (size: small/big): (IT) Big, (ID) Big, (IR) Small Scrolls (proportion: progressive/non-progressive): (IT) Non-progressive, (ID) Non-progressive, (IR) Non-progressive

Preferred other elements of design in the four motifs between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Tumpals (space: narrow/wide): (P) Narrow, (HB) Wide, (I) Narrow Kala-makaras (colour: original/coloured): (HB) Original, (I) Original Lotus buds (value: light/dark): (HB) Dark, (I) Dark Scrolls (texture: smooth/rough): (HB) Smooth, (I) Rough (1b). Other Principles of Design

(3). Conclusion

Except for lotus buds, other motifs had constancy, such as dominant lines in tumpals, separate shapes in kalamakaras, and non-progressive rhythms in scrolls.

Across the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, the continuity was partly shown in other elements of design. The common use of original shapes in kalamakaras and dark forms in lotus buds explained the preference of the absence of colour and the interplay of lightness-darkness in value. Within the Islamic period, narrow lines in tumpals and dark forms in lotus buds continued, underlining space and value as important elements.

Preferred other principles of design in the four motifs between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods Tumpals (emphasis: dominant/subordinate): (P) Dominant, (HB) Dominant, (I) Dominant Kala-makaras (unity-variety: separate/unified): (HB) Separate, (I) Separate=Unified Lotus buds (size: small/big): (HB) Small, (I) Big Scrolls (proportion: progressive/non-progressive): (HB) Non-progressive, (HB) Non-progressive

Of other principles of design, the continuity of dominant lines in tumpals, separate shapes in kala-makaras, and non-progressive rhythms in scrolls revealed the importance of emphasis, unity-variety, and proportion. This trend was again shown in tumpals and rhythms in scrolls within the Islamic period. It can be repeated that several factors were involved in the transfer of the four motifs from temples to mosques.

(2). Islamic Itself (2a). Other Elements of Design Narrow lines in tumpals and dark forms in lotus buds continued to across the three periods. Original colours in kala-makaras and smooth rhythms in scrolls partly continued.

All comparisons concluded that the continuity existed between the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods in some motifs, although their influence was not strong. The four motifs continued but had to be altered by incoming Islamic ornaments, such as a rule of the hadith, or the nature of the arabesque, bringing syncretism. Moreover, the freedom to decorate any motifs in 175

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Islamic architecture allowed for variations, as mosques are intended for everyday life. Here, the local genius was a big contributor, providing ornaments suitable for requirements in mosques. Whatever the case was, the symbolic connotations of the four motifs were still intact in sacred Javanese mosques. Aesthetic beauty was an additional function.

Preferred five further characteristics in the four motifs on mihrabs *=the most common according to the presence Kala-makaras (shape): Dynamic, Assorted, Abstract, Smooth*, Big* Lotus buds (form): Slender=Voluminous, Open, Stylized, Dynamic, 2-3 dimensional* Scrolls (rhythm): Repetitive, Harmonious, Single, Strong, Continuous*

9.4.4. Decoration of Mihrabs Analysis of the four motifs on mihrabs could demonstrate their development in Javanese mosque ornamentation. Tumpals were rejected, due to a few examples on mihrabs, despite a sacred concept as the Cosmos Mountain, and therefore contrary to expectations. When they appeared, they were not decorated, probably stressing symbolism, rather than visual beauty.

(4). Other Elements of Design Coloured shapes in kala-makaras, dark forms in lotus buds, and smooth rhythms in scrolls highlighted their locations. Preferred other elements of design in the four motifs on mihrabs Kala-makaras (colour: original/coloured): Coloured Lotus buds (value: light/dark): Dark Scrolls (texture: smooth/rough): Smooth

(1). Background Kala-makaras and lotus buds were found more frequently in West Java, and were decorated. Scrolls were more common in Central Java, and were not decorated. Kalamakaras were made of other material, compared to the frequent use of wood in lotus buds and scrolls. Emphasis on decoration was given to their symbolic connotation as a principal function and aesthetic beauty as an addition. Decorated mihrabs were more preferred.

(5). Other Principles of Design Unified shapes in kala-makaras, small and big forms in lotus buds, and non-progressive rhythms in scrolls were preferred. Preferred other principles of design in the four motifs on mihrabs Kala-makaras (unity-variety: separate/unified): Unified Lotus buds (size: small/big): Small=Big Scrolls (proportion: progressive/non-progressive): Non-progressive

Preferred geographical area in the four motifs on mihrabs Kala-makaras: (Area) West Java, (Material) Other, (Attachment) Decorated Lotus buds: (Area) West Java, (Material) Wood, (Attachment) Decorated Scrolls: (Area) Central Java, (Material) Wood, (Attachment) Not-decorated

(6). Conclusion

(3). Five Further Characteristics

Distinct features emerged from the three motifs on mihrab ornamentation. Regardless of geographical area and material, the preference of decoration did not take away the sacredness of Javanese mihrabs. Instead, it confirmed the symbolic connotations of the motifs as an absolute principal aim, and enriched their aesthetic beauty as an additional function. It could be argued that decoration might disturb concentration during prayers in mosques, but in the simple atmosphere of Javanese mosques, beautiful decoration would rather encourage prayers to pay tribute to God. Particularly, mihrabs are said to be a gateway to Paradise, so that creating an atmosphere of Paradise in a mosque seems to be a ‘must’ among Javanese Muslims.

As the most representative characteristics, smooth, and big shapes in kala-makaras; 2-3 dimensional forms in lotus buds, and continuous rhythms in scrolls seemed to be the answer, regardless of other additional characteristics.

On the whole, ovals shapes in kala-makaras, spherical forms in lotus buds, and diagonal rhythms in scrolls signified and beautified the sanctuary of Allah. Here, smooth and big shapes, 2-3 dimensional forms, and continuous rhythms were partially added. Coloured

(2). Basic Type and Subdivisions Oval of geometric shapes in kala-makaras; spherical of primary forms in lotus buds, and diagonal of regular rhythms in scrolls represented main characteristics. Preferred basic type and subdivisions in the four motifs on mihrabs Kala-makaras: (Basic) Geometric, (Sub) Oval Lotus buds: (Basic) Primary, (Sub) Spherical Scrolls: (Basic) Regular, (Sub) Diagonal

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Summary and Conclusion kala-makaras in unified shapes, magic of light and dark lotus buds in different sizes, and smoothly but notprogressive undulating scrolls enhanced the splendour of Javanese mihrabs.

Comparison of basic type and subdivisions between all Islamic motifs and those on mihrabs Kala-makaras: (Basic) All/ Geometric, Mihrab/ Geometric; (Sub) All/ Oval, Mihrab/ Oval Lotus buds: (Basic) All/ Primary, Mihrab/ Primary; (Sub) All/ Spherical, Mihrab/ Spherical Scrolls: (Basic) All/ Irregular, Mihrab/ Regular; (Sub) All/ Vertical=Diagonal, Mihrab/ Diagonal

9.4.5. All Islamic Motifs and Those on Mihrabs Although the mihrab is often the most decorated area in a mosque setting, Javanese mosques tend to be simple in ornamentation, compared to extravagance in mosques in other parts of the Islamic world. This section discusses whether hierarchy exists in placing ornaments between mihrabs and other places in a mosque building. All examples of Islamic motifs and those on mihrabs are compared.

(3). Five Further Characteristics Commonness shows between all Islamic motifs and those on mihrabs in kala-makaras and scrolls, using big shapes and continuous rhythms respectively. The difference was shown in lotus buds that all Islamic motifs had more stylized forms, compared to 2-3 dimensional forms in those on mihrabs. The reason for 2-3 dimensional forms was caused by their location on mihrab walls. Big shapes in kala-makaras and continuous rhythms in scrolls were popular in any place, implying no hierarchy in ornamentation, in terms of location.

(1). Background Unanimity shows between all Islamic motifs and those on mihrabs in geographical area and material. The difference was in the decoration of lotus buds. All Islamic motifs preferred the absence of decoration; those on mihrabs favoured decoration. The symbolic meaning of lotus buds on mihrabs was reinforced by additional motifs, such as floral and Arabic calligraphy. Decoration enriched the beauty of lotus buds which are appreciated by Javanese Muslims’ imagination, as the most important ornament.

Comparison of five further characteristics between all Islamic motifs and those on mihrabs Kala-makaras: All/ Big, Mihrab/ Smooth=Big Lotus buds: All/ Stylized, Mihrab/ 2-3 dimensional Scrolls: All/ Continuous, Mihrab/ Continuous (4). Other Elements of Design

Comparison of the geographical area between all Islamic motifs and those on mihrabs Kala-makaras: (Area) All/ West Java, Mihrab/ West; (Material) All/ Other, Mihrab/ other; (Attachment) All/ Decorated, Mihrab/ Decorated Lotus buds: (Area) All/ West Java, Mihrab/ West; (Material) All/ Wood, Mihrab/ Wood; (Attachment) All/ Not-decorated, Mihrab/ Decorated Scrolls: (Area) All/ Central Java, Mihrab/ Central; (Material) All/ Wood, Mihrab/ Wood; (Attachment) All/ Not-decorated, Mihrab/ Not-decorated

The commonality was only shown in lotus buds between all Islamic motifs and those on mihrabs. The absence of colour in kala-makaras and rough rhythms in scrolls were prevalent in all Islamic motifs, but the use of colour in kala-makaras and smooth rhythms in scrolls were more common in those on mihrabs. Lotus buds seemed to have dark forms in any location, stressing their value as an important element. Comparison of other elements of design between all Islamic motifs and those on mihrabs Kala-makaras: (colour) All/ Original, Mihrab/ Coloured Lotus buds: (value) All/ Dark, Mihrab/ Dark Scrolls: (texture) All/ Rough, Mihrab/ Smooth

(2). Basic Type and Subdivisions Commonalities were shown in geometric and oval shapes in kala-makaras, and primary and spherical forms in lotus buds. The difference in scrolls indicates that all Islamic motifs had more irregular rhythms, and equal use of vertical and diagonal rhythms. Those on mihrabs had regular and diagonal rhythms, which seems more logical. A common share of diagonal rhythms was seen. The unanimity of oval shapes in kala-makaras and spherical forms in lotus buds anticipated their appearance anywhere in mosques, representing the main characteristics.

(5). Other Principles of Design No difference shows between all Islamic motifs and those on mihrabs. Anywhere in mosques, kala-makaras, lotus buds, and scrolls displayed unified shapes, big forms, and non-progressive rhythms respectively. Unity-variety, size, and proportion were important principles.

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The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Comparison of other principles of design between all Islamic motifs and those on mihrabs Kala-makaras: (unity-variety) All/ Separate=Unified, Mihrab/ Unified Lotus buds: (size) All/ Big, Mihrab/ Small=Big Scrolls: (proportion) All/ Non-progressive, Mihrab/ Non-progressive

9.4.6. Application of the Four Sacred Motifs in Secular Contexts The four motifs have been widely used in buildings (palace, house, hotel, airport, and railway station), monuments, and objects (gamelan music instrument, batik, furniture, etc.). Although the secular use as either symbolic or aesthetic is dependant upon the artists’ intention, these motifs should bear spiritual concepts; particularly in gamelan and batik whose origins are from the microcosmic palace (kraton) in Java. In doing so, a strong continuity from the Universe into everyday life allows Javanese Muslims to feel safe both as Javanese and Muslim. In other words, Javanese Muslims cannot reject the original concepts of tumpals as the Cosmos Mountain and lotus buds as creation, regardless of beautifying them by neon signs in dark streets. By contrast, rarely used kala-makaras appear at gates or on bed frames in unrecognizably abstract and stylized shapes, while scrolls in a variety of forms appear on decorative pillars or even wedding invitations. Above all, lotus buds maintain their constant form with popularity, which can also be argued from a political background.

(6). Conclusion Many similarities between all Islamic motifs and those on mihrabs gave evidence that there is no hierarchy of mosque ornamentation in locations. All Islamic motifs in mosque buildings were equally treated, even on mihrabs where the hierarchy was stressed. Preference for decoration in lotus buds underlined the importance of their symbolic meaning, encouraging prayers’ concentration and enriching the beauty of their spherical forms, as the most important motif among Javanese Muslims. Oval shapes in kala-makaras and spherical forms in lotus buds represented their most distinctive and general character. Big shapes in kala-makaras and continuous rhythms in scrolls seemed to be additional characteristics, although 2-3 dimensional forms in lotus buds could be more appropriate on mihrab. Value was an important design element in lotus buds, to create the interplay of lightness and darkness. Unified shapes in kala-makaras, big forms in lotus buds, and non-progressive rhythms in scrolls contributed to Javanese mosque ornamentation as principles of design.

According to Ardhiati (2004, interview 2006), an Indonesian architect who specializes in Sukarno’s buildings, President Sukarno symbolized himself as the lotus bud, the god of Hindu Vishnu, the Creator. Sukarno wished to unify the vast regions and different races in Indonesia after independence in 1945. His ideology towards the international stage was that the old Hindu-Buddhist Borobodur and Prambanan temples could prove the nation’s supremacy. Consequently, the lotus (padma) which he chose from temples became the main ornament in architecture, interior, urban design, and crafts during the period of 1945-1959. Following interviews (2006), the four motifs seemed more likely spiritual and sacred.

The outcomes revealed simple Javanese mosque ornamentation, confirmed by several interviews with the 20 Indonesian scholars. It also proved that symbolism was superior to aesthetic beauty. The sacred Javanese mosque should be protected by humble Javanese Muslims. The introduction of Sufi Islam into Javanese mosques was proved by their ornamentation.

(Achjadi, batik historian): The sacred concept of tumpal as Meru has disappeared. It is a simple motif. (Anas, designer): In small Javanese villages, even extreme Muslims build a sacred Hindu split gate for

Tumpals: Yogya palace, Kala: Yogya palace, Lotus buds: Yogya palace, Scrolls: door frame Figure 9.2. The four sacred motifs on secular objects (Image: the Author)

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Summary and Conclusion ‘a welcome status’, to be identified as Javanese. It is a mixed Islamic culture. (Asmudjo, ceramist): For a secular purpose, Muslims can use tumpals, lotus buds, and scrolls, except kalamakara. (Haldani, ceramist): Kala-makara is not forbidden to Muslims. In palaces, it is spiritual and sacred, while it is an expressive and abstract ornament in everyday life. (Kahfiati, textile artist): On Cirebon batik, even a bird motif was used to represent a vehicle of the Prophet. It is spiritual but is not necessarily symbolic. (Panggabean, textile artist): People believe ornaments as spiritual and beautiful, protecting against evil, expressing the status of the inhabitant, and beautifying the house. They can be aesthetic in cities but are often symbolic in villages. (Subarna, painter): President Sukarno decorated the top of the Monas Monument in Jakarta with a lotus bud, to symbolize creation, unity, and identity. The monument itself is not religious, but the choice of lotus bud implies symbolic and sacred meanings, rather than aesthetic ones. (Sudradjat, architect): Around 1920 in Bandung, a Dutch architect decorated kala-makaras in a public building to mark the local culture. ‘We, Indonesians, want to continue this motif ’. (Tjandrasasmita, archaeologist): The symbolic motifs are also used on secular objects but are considered sacred and aesthetic.

Buddhist and Islamic ornaments, leading towards their reconciliation. Several reasons for the continuity can be assumed: (1) a tolerant attitude between incoming Islam and Javanese peoples’ acceptance of it, (2) similarity of Sufism to existing animism and Hindu-Buddhism in terms of mysticism; thus, ancestor worshipping could transfer to Hindu-Buddhist gods and further to Allah, (3) flexibility of Islamic religion towards local motifs in mosque ornamentation, (4) the contribution of local ornaments in converting people. At the beginning of Islamization, local traders who wanted to have equal rights and liberate themselves from Hindu caste systems chose Islam, for social and political reasons, rather than religious zeal. Consequently, there was neither capacity nor interest in creating new ornaments. Moreover, Java had already plentiful ornaments, (5) the lack of skills of the foreign missionaries in making orthodox Islamic ornaments, as Islam was not brought by cultural people, and above all (6) strong conscience of maintaining Javanese tradition amongst the population. Whatever the case was, the main reason for the continuity of the motifs seemed to be ‘the sacredness’ in symbolism, rooted deeply in the pre-Islamic period. The sacred Javanese temples and ornaments were extended to mosques by mystic Sufis. As Javanese mosques were sacred (Isnaeni 1996), any motif used in mosque ornamentation also became sacred and symbolic. Among the four motifs, lotus buds are the most constantly and smoothly continued.

9.5. Evaluation and importance of the findings

Evaluation 2: Influence

Before summing up all the findings, applying assumptions (chapters 1, 3, 4) into the analysis of the four motifs (chapters 5, 6, 7, 8) acknowledged that literary sources, interviews, and empirical work based on various strategies in methodology had the same conclusion. Syncretic and symbolic four preIslamic ornaments in Javanese mosques displayed the continuity with a variety of influences. Three evaluations are attempted on the continuity, influence, and supposition of the four motifs.

Concerning the influence of the four motifs on Javanese mosque ornamentation, again, the most powerful one is the lotus bud, as the influence was overall shown by high frequency. The next influential motif is tumpals, whose influence appeared broadly in five aspects. By contrast, neither shapes of kala-makaras nor rhythms of scrolls greatly affected Javanese mosques, although their backgrounds, elements and principles of design played a role in the process.

Evaluation 1: Continuity

This result raises a few questions. (1) Was the weak influence of Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras in Javanese mosques, due to the prohibition of living figures by the hadith in Islam; thus, a requirement for shapes to be stylized? (2) Did the appearance of Islamic arabesque prevent the frequent use of Hindu-Buddhist scrolls in Javanese mosque ornamentation? (3) One wonders whether prehistoric tumpals and Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds symbolizing the Cosmos Mountain and life respectively were perfect for syncretic Javanese Muslims’ imaginations without any restriction for use in mosques. (4) Was the significance of the four

Based on the collected conclusions from chapters 5 to 8, the continuity of the four pre-Islamic motifs has been evident all the time in Javanese mosque ornamentation in the five aspects. Of course, there was an interruption in the Islamic transitory period, but it is a well-known theory in social science and art that conflicts happen when new elements confront each other. In this respect, the transfer of pre-Islamic motifs from temples to mosques is not exceptional, and the conflict in the transitory period can be interpreted as an unavoidable process for different ideas and forms in Hindu179

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia motifs dependent upon their location in mosques, or the creativity of the local genius in each epoch, or the freedom given to Islamic ornament, except for depiction of living figures?

… sidra is identified and validated by Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam. Sidra means lotus tree or flower (seroja, padma), and lotus always grows together with the water. Sidra reflects moral and spiritual messages … Sidra in Hinduism-Buddhism symbolizes personal wisdom and maturity … Another wisdom arising from water flow is … the unity in diversity of life. It teaches us to listen to the sound of the water of which flows continuously … padma flower is … accepted as the symbol of holiness, wisdom, and knowledge (Ardhiati 2004: 249-250).

Tjandrasasmita (interview 2005), a distinguished Indonesian scholar and specialist in syncretic Islamic archaeology, argues that Javanese Islam has a few distinct characteristics. Javanese Muslims are concerned about the continuity in their cultural heritage, which was created by the local genius across centuries, beyond religions and faiths. Furthermore, Javanese Muslims emphasize the importance of holy ornaments derived from Hindu-Buddhism and try to link them with Islam. For example, a symbolic tree from the Garden of Eden, created by God, continued as an Islamic concept. Javanese Muslims connected this with the Tree of Life of Hindu-Buddhism.

These new meaning of lotus buds encouraged Fanani (interview 2006) who underlined that ‘Islamization is still going on for certain motifs. Now is the time to take care of ornaments’. In the spread of Islam, walis changed only existing artistic styles to an Islamic expression without giving specific meanings in detailed motifs; thus, pre-Islamic symbolism had to be used by the earlier Muslims of Java. Tjandrasasmita does not accept this view, saying that ‘Local culture could not be abolished unless there is extreme culturalization. The lotus was already used in Indonesia, so there is no link with an Islamic concept of Sidrat al-Muntaha’. However, lotus buds remain as an important decorative feature of Javanese temples and mosques.

Particularly, as a result of Muslims’ close contact with the Arab world after the pure Islamic movement in the 1920s, the understanding of the four motifs within orthodox Islamic context seemed enhanced. Of this, Tjandrasasmita (interview 2006) posits that tumpal was associated with the megalithic stepped mountain where ancestors abode, and the Cosmos Mountain for Hindu gods’ dwelling. A triangular shape of the mountain is a direction to worship gods in Javanese culture, and a triangular tumpal in mosques plays this role, as walis (saints) considered mosques to be the holy mountain, Meru.

Another interesting concept is the totality. As mentioned, Hindu-Buddhist living kala-makaras represent the totality, and Islamic stylized lotus buds denote the ‘oneness in Allah’. Islamic ornament stresses the notion of the divine through the totality of forms in ornament, manifested in geometry and numbers. Whether the totality is achieved in two different ways, either through Hindu-Buddhist devotional images or Islamic mathematical calculation, their common search is the doctrine of unity, composed of diversity.

For Fanani, an Indonesian architect specializing in religious buildings, the holy lotus (padma) is the birth of Vishnu in Hinduism. Lotus floats over and down the water, implying continuity. Lotus can be interpreted as ‘oneness in Allah’, due to its round form which implies ‘one’ for all. He associates this with Muslims’ perambulation of the holy Kaa’ba during the pilgrimage as one circle.

Evaluation 3: Supposition Lastly, of the degree of the continuity of pre-Islamic motifs in Javanese mosque ornamentation, the obvious outcome can lead to a few suppositions. (1) The sacred four ornaments, particularly any form of the lotus, in syncretic Islam in Javanese mosques have continued to this day with an expectation of their prolonging as long as Java exists, but (2) their frequent use in mosques has been and will be dependent upon the local genius, who wish to preserve the local culture. One wonders: did the local genius in every epoch consider the rules of elements and principles of design, or simply take cultural heritage for granted from their predecessors by inheritance?

Moreover, Hindu-Buddhist lotus buds have an extraordinary position in orthodox Islam. Nurcholish Madjid12, an Indonesian intellectual on Islam, quotes ‘Sidrat al-Muntaha’, translated as ‘lotus tree in the furthest limit’ in the Koran (an-Najm 53:18). The story is that, when the Prophet came to Allah, he saw the lotus tree very far, growing in a dangerous place. Metaphorically, the lotus means the highest wisdom that the Prophet has reached by the blessing of God. And ‘behind the tree’ means God’s mystery that only God knows. Reaching God and achieving his messages are very far and difficult.

Javanese Muslims are very familiar with their cultural heritage. Through existing media, Islam has effectively penetrated their hearts, because of

12  Nurcholish Madjid (2002: 111-112), and Interpretation of the Meanings of the Noble Quran, Dar-us-Salam Publications, Riyadh-Saudi Arabia 1996: 758

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Summary and Conclusion the love for heritage and the similarity to Islamic concept (Sedyawati, interview 2006).

Ornaments in Javanese temples and mosques are authentic proof of this.

Repeatedly, the findings from the empirical work validated the literature reviews and interviews with the 20 Indonesian scholars on syncretic Javanese Islam, symbolic Islamic ornaments, and the local genius which facilitated the continuity of the existing culture within the three Islamic periods. It is a regional approach to create Javanese Islamic architecture and art and smoothly cooperated with incoming orthodox Islamic ornaments of arabesque13, geometry, and calligraphy, even more with Chinese and European ones.

9.6. Contribution of knowledge and further research Before suggesting further studies, the researcher has an urge to explain the value of the outcome of this research, because future studies can not only evaluate but also take benefit of this. It is hoped that this study contributes to a deeper knowledge about Javanese mosque ornamentation, highlighting the importance of Javanese cultural heritage and ornaments as a communicator between different religions. A deeper understanding of syncretic ornaments can provide a better way of handling cultural subjects in modern Javanese mosque ornamentation.

In other words, Javanese Islamic ornaments tend to achieve two functions simultaneously, while HinduBuddhist ornaments underline symbolic connotations, and orthodox Islamic ornaments mainly stand for visual beauty to Muslims eyes. To this assimilation, Chinese and European ornaments joined in the name of the ‘sacredness’ throughout the three Islamic periods. Javanese Islamic ornaments assimilated two different principles from Hindu-Buddhism and Islam, bringing the common aim of sacred symbolism in mosques.

Therefore, the outcome should be useful as follows: (1) the knowledge will add to the existing ones in the temple and mosque ornamentation, (2) the four syncretic motifs will increase the awareness of their cultural constituents and identity among Javanese people, (3) appreciating these syncretic ornaments is essential to any contemporary ornamentists in Java, and (4) the peaceful co-existence of pre-Islamic and orthodox Islamic motifs in Java can be seen as an example for an open dialogue between different faiths in the current situation in which much conflict takes place.

Hindu architecture is part of nature; Islamic architecture isolated from it … Hindu sculpture is vegetative or figurate; Islamic, abstract … Hindu ornament is irregular, individualistic, symbolical; Islamic is mathematical, continuous, abstract (Goetz 1959: 190).

Pragmatically, (1) the four motifs can promote appreciation of the beauty of Javanese temples and mosques, (2) the dissimilar degree of continuity of the four motifs from temples to mosques expose the Javanese Muslims’ different attitudes towards ornamentation, (3) defining Hindu-Buddhist scrolls and Islamic arabesques can be facilitated, in light of their symbolic approach rather than their rhythms, and (3) the methods of using elements and principles of design can be innovative in research methodology and are strongly recommended to future researchers.

A strong continuity and influence of pre-Islamic motifs were shown in the transitory period (15C-1619), while European and Islamic influences on Javanese mosque ornamentation took place during the Dutch colonization era (1619-1945). Toward the contemporary period (1945-the present), orthodox Islamic motifs gradually replaced those existing ornaments. However, a tendency of continuity returns to characteristic regional ornaments in renovated mosques and is also a feature of newly built mosques, promoting ‘Javanese Islamic ornaments’ as a national identity.

Based on these results, further researches can be encouraged: (1) a comprehensive comparison of other potential syncretic ornaments across the preIslamic and Islamic periods in Java, (2) comparisons of ornamentation in churches/cathedrals and mosques in Java, (3) more investigation of the Chinese influence on Javanese mosques, and (4) extending comparative researches outside Java to Bali, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, and Papua. Once done, the slogan of Java and Indonesia as ‘unity in diversity’ will bloom with prosperity.

Java is a melting pot; Javanese Islam is syncretic; Javanese descendants adore their cultural heritage; and Javanese Muslims are tolerant, inventing a beautiful amalgamation from many sources, beyond faiths and religions, to pay tribute to Allah. Orthodox Islam has to encourage this, to coexist in the tropical and multicultural Java.

In addition to these topics, more innovative methodologies are encouraged to be pursued, particularly in countries where much cultural complexity has been involved. Earlier, Tjandrasasmita

Indirectly, this research indicates that Hindu-Buddhist scrolls do not own the concept of geometry or mathematical calculation, which is a ‘must’ in Islamic arabesque, despite their same characteristics of repetition and continuity.

13 

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The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia (interview 2004) recommended that a combination of historical, anthropological, cultural, religious, and other approaches was needed. To this, a few methods can be added: (1) visual perception through the eye, (2) appreciation through the mind, and (3) feeling through the heart. They can be carried out by using elements and principles of design.

money and harming the economy. But what he meant was an unnecessary and extravagant ornament. Therefore, more active researches on upgrading the quality of ornament are recommended. Indonesia, where diversity in unity exists, can be the best example for implementing this urgent task. Ornament - the elaboration of functionally complete objects for the sake of visual pleasure - has a unique place among the arts. It is as old as humankind, yet for most of the twentieth century it was systematically excluded from the mainstream of western art-making and art appreciation … Never before had so fundamental an expression of the creative spirit been singled out for elimination (Trilling 2001: 6).

Finally, but urgently, a new way of evaluating ornaments should occur, because, through a process of collecting information on an ornament from the literary sources and interviews, the researcher has always felt that ornament has been part of the architecture - underestimated and ignored by architects or other related people or even ornamentists themselves. Extremely speaking, ornament meant cheap craftwork, made by anyone anywhere anytime.

Before closing this research, a final thought emerges. Syncretic ornaments, accompanying a unique symbolic connotation as sacred, can represent a concept of ‘unity’. The four motifs of tumpals, kala-makaras, lotus buds, and scrolls can be a representative concept of ‘diversity’. When ‘unity’ encounters ‘diversity’ in metamorphosis, it turns to ‘unity’ sometimes. And it turns to ‘diversity’ sometimes. This ambiguity is a charm and a treasure in Javanese mosque ornamentation, to which pre-Islamic motifs have made a priceless contribution.

Please be aware! Ornament has been and will be the universal means, enhancing the value of architecture, enforcing the power of religions, and endowing the ultimate beauty to viewers. Ornament is a unique treasure for making architecture precious and splendid. Ornament can transcend architecture through metamorphoses by ornamentists’ imagination in harmony. Ornament is a wild celebration of freedom and fantasy, a deliberate flouting of whatever canons of naturalism happen to prevail. It can be hard to resist the assumption that the full resources of ornament, drawing simultaneously on the twin human instincts for beauty and fantasy, have always been available to anyone with the imagination and skill to harness them (Trilling 2001.21).

To tribute to the gods in the Cosmos Mountain and Allah in the perpetual space, Hindu-Buddhist symbolic connotations and Islamic aesthetic beauties have been endeavouring for the totality respectively. Marvellously, it appeared in the sacred Javanese temples first, then in the syncretic Javanese mosques. Javanese Muslims’ indebtedness returns to their greatest ancestors.

It is well-known that Ornament and Crime (1908), written by Loos, affected part of the society and peoples’ minds at the beginning of the 20th century, claiming that ornament took away our visual pleasure, wasting

Myself as a keen and passionate outsider to their rich culture, I wish them prosperity. Bhinneka Tunggal Ika: Unity in Diversity!

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My 15 Years’ Endeavouring During my communication with Archaeopress to publish my research paper in 2021, I was asked two reference names that knew or still know my research. Without any hesitation, I submitted them: Professor Susan Roaf, my examiner; Dr Aylin Orbasli, my supervisor at Oxford Brookes University in the U.K. After some time’s passing, I learned that they were pleased with my research publication, recommending further development on my research topic, if any, since 2006.

First, my topic is extraordinary in dealing with comparisons between different religions, particularly in current conflicted societies. Moreover, my methodology is innovative to many researchers. Second, in a positive way to explain, Indonesia has abundant cultural heritage so that researchers can find any topic easily. My topic can be a tiny part. Third, researchers prioritize research topics for their careers, either in teaching or research or anything related.

As their suggestion is meaningful, I immediately proposed to the publisher a new chapter – “My 15 Years’ Endeavouring,” hoping to find directly or indirectly related materials in light of my research topic. Unfortunately, I failed as the subject seemed(was) rare.

Fourth, my research needs much work and timeconsumption in actions, visiting mosques to investigate information. It demands extra effort to negotiate and discuss with people due to the lack of written materials about Javanese mosques.

In the meantime, for these 15 years after my PhD, I have been working to promote my research topic and to propose Javanese cultural heritage as a peace mediator at current conflict societies due to different religions and faiths: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Fifth, non-Muslim Western difficulty visiting mosques, religion are other matters. welcomes can generate if traditions.

Uncountable international conferences across the world, Uncountable interdisciplinary cooperation, such as architecture, anthropology, sociology, religion, cultural heritage, etc., Uncountable research presentations and writings, Uncountable face-to-face and virtual participation at meetings.

researchers may have although culture and More suspicions than there exist different

Sixth, Indonesia herself seems to prefer economics, politics, and current trend subjects in research. Finally, if I had not lived in Indonesia under a protected status, research on my topic or similar would be almost impossible. With all types of thoughts, I have been continuing my research with conviction, whatever situations occur.

Nevertheless, what arose to my mind at first were the impressions and observations in these years. I had perceptions and experiences from academic or nonacademic participants with curiosity, indifference, sometimes, enthusiasm regardless of their statuses. Whenever I went to conferences, people did not seem interested in what I was pursuing. Moreover, many Indonesians themselves did not know about this topic as well. I was often disappointed at unexpectedness with dismay.

Why so? I believe that commonness in cultural heritage can contribute to world peace. In other words, I am still carrying out this task through Java, Indonesia, whose county represents tolerance. Accordingly, one of the actions is to publish my research at Archaoepress to share knowledge and implement my belief. A long way, yet a new challenge for this research is waiting. Hopefully, it will be soon, after “My 15 years’ Endeavouring.” I am confident that this type of research is welcome for a new scholarship, and in this regard, I express my extra gratitude to the publisher for their kind acceptance of my manuscript.

Of course, I started wondering whether or not my presentation was wrong, as I seldom had feedback from participants. It took some time to gradually understand that my topic was unfamiliar and new to many researchers. Besides, there could be more reasons for peoples’ fewer interests in my research topic since I left university. These are my assumptions.

This edition is revised texts, images, drawings, and tables for readers’ easy reading. 183

List of Appendices Glossary References and Bibliography List of Fieldwork List of Interview Schedule Definitions of the Arabesque Identifying Origins of Motifs as Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic or Both by Principles of Ornament A Few Excerpts from Interviews with the 20 Indonesian Scholars Overall View and Syncretic/Orthodox Islamic Ornaments in the 30 Javanese Mosques

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Glossary Acanthus: Mediterranean leaf, the most preferred ornamental motif in religious architecture in the Western world. Agami Jawi and Agami Islam Santri: Agami Jawi (Javanese Religion) represents an extensive complex of mystically inclined Hindu-Buddhist beliefs and concepts, integrated within an Islamic frame of reference. Agami Islam Santri (Islam of the Religious People) is much closer to the formal dogma of Islam. Alun-alun: A public square in the city centre. Antefix: A triangular element, carved in a variation on the top of walls and cornices in Hindu-Buddhist temples. Arabesque: Stylized and geometrical leaves forming a continuous pattern composed of the acanthus, vine, and palmette. Avalokitesvara: Buddhist goddess. Bedug: A drum beaten to give signals or call to prayer at a Javanese mosque. Bodhisattva: A being who searches for the attainment of the Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.  Candi: Hindu temple for keeping ashes of the king. In Java, it can be a sepulchral monument. Candi bentar: A split-gate, a gateway with two separate, symmetrical parts flanking the entrance to a temple. Candrasengkala: Chronogram in Java to indicate the year. In it, four digits together form a year of the Saka. Cungkup: Royal tomb enshrining the ashes of the burnt corpses of kings. Dharma: Mystical doctrine which contains the part of the liberation from the life cycle to attain enlightenment through the way of Buddha. Gamelan: Ancient Javanese xylophone music instrument. Garuda: Hindu bird, sometimes accompanied by Vishnu. Hadith: Sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. Hijrah: the Prophet’s migration from Mecca to Medina in 622. The first year of the Islamic calendar. Horror Vacui: Dread of empty spaces. Covering the surface fully is a principle of Islamic art. Imam: A religious leader in prayer. Kaa’ba: The edifice in Mecca, which is the liturgical centre of Islam and towards Muslims pray. Kala: Literally, it is ‘time, death, or black’. The name is given to a demon’s mask mounted above doorways and niches in Hindu-Buddhist temple with makara. Kalpataru: Wishing tree, representing heaven. Kinnara, kinnari: Male and female mythical beings, halfhuman, half-bird; heavenly musicians. Koran: God’s message given to Muslims through the Prophet Muhammad: Book of Revelation. Kraton: Javanese palace.

Kufic: A script type of Arabic calligraphy, used in the Koran, due to its vertical strokes and largely geometric configuration. Kul-kul: A split wooden block, beaten to give signals for calling meetings and alarms. Madrasah: An endowed official college in which Islamic theology and law are taught. Mahayana: Great Vehicle. As one of the two major divisions of Buddhism, it is based on sophisticated metaphysical speculations of Enlightenment and of the Buddha. Majapahit: Hindu kingdom in East Java. Makam: A grave or cemetery complex. Makara: A mythical aquatic beast; probably a combination of a fish and the elephant’s trunk. Maksura: A prayer place for a king inside a mosque. Masjid: A place for prayer. Meru: A sacred structure in Hindu-Javanese temple, characterized by its multi-layered roof. Mihrab: A prayer niche at the centre of the western wall of the mosque for the Imam, indicating the direction of Mecca. Minaret: A tower for calling Muslims to pray. In Indonesia, the drum is used, instead. Minbar: A pulpit where the Imam preaches. Mustaka: An ornament on the top of a mosque in the form of a Hindu crown. Muzzein: A man calling the faithful to prayer five times a day. Naga: A mythical serpent. Padma: The lotus. Paduraksa: A gate with roof and double-door, where much ornamentation is applied. Palmette: A pseudo-leaf of Sasanian origin. Pasisir: The coastline of the northern part of Java where Islam started in the 15th century. Pawestren: A prayer place for women. Pendopo: An open pavilion of a traditional Javanese house in front of the yard to receive guests, performances and ceremonies. Pesantren: Islamic boarding school or an educational institution as a community. Purnaghata: A pot of plenty. Ramayana: Hindu epic. Qibla: The direction of Mecca towards which Muslims turn in prayer. Serambi: Veranda. Shariah: The canonical law based on the Koran and Sunna guidance and governing all religious and secular duties and prohibitions. Silpasastra: The universal law in architecture and sculpture from Hindu ancient texts. Siva: Hindu god of the destroyer. 185

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia Soko guru: The four main wood columns in a Javanese mosque structure. Stupa: Buddhist monument to preserve the ashes of monks and saints. Sufism: A mystical approach, employing contemplation and ecstatic states to reach communion with the Divine. Surya: The sun, a symbol of the Majapahit kingdom, representing power and supremacy. Tawhid: The divine unity in Islam. The Five Principles of Islam: The confession of faith (shahadah); the performance of ritual prayer five times a day (salat); the payment of religious tax

(zakat); observing the fast during Ramadan (sawm); performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (haj). Tumpal: A triangular motif from Neolithic-megalithic times, used in the Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic periods in Indonesia. Ummat: A community of the faithful, used of a specific locality or all Islam. Vishnu: Hindu god for peace. Walis: Javanese saints. Nine saints are called 'wali songo.' Wantilan: Balinese cock-fighting court. Wayang: Javanese shadow puppet. Wudhu: A spiritual washing place, before prayer. Ziarah: A visit to the graveyard.

186

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Interviewees 2004-2006 Ambary, Hasan Muarif (Archaeologist) Achjadi (Batik historian) Al Akbar, Ali (Calligrapher) Anas (Designer) Ardhiati, Yuke (Architect) Asmudjo (Ceramist) Bennett, James (Art curator) Budi, Bambang S (Architect) Eman, Mas Keulman (Architect) Fanani, Achmad (Architect) Haldani (Ceramist) Herman & Ken Atik (Ornamentist) Heuken, Adolf (Historian) Isnaeni, Hendrajaya (Architect) Kahfiati (Textile artist) Lubis, Adilsyah Hakim (Architect) Lugra, I. Geda (Carver) Marwoto, Irmawati (Archaeologist) Muhamadia, Abdul Muti (Researcher) Muharam (Art historian) Mustopo, Habib (Archaeologist) Noe’man, Achmad (Architect) Noe’man, Fauzan (Architect) Pangasa, Galih W. (Archaeologist) Panggabean (Textile artist) Pirous, A.D. (Painter)

Projotomo, Josef (Architect) Roebiharto, Artini (Interior designer) Said, Irsal (Architect) Subarna, Abay (Painter) Santiko, Hariani (Archaeologist) Sedyawati, Edy (Archaeologist) Sudradjat, Iwan (Architecture historian) Suputra, Wiyoso Yudo (Art historian) Tjahjono, Gunawan (Architect) Tjandrasasmita, Uka (Archaeologist) Yunardi, Bayu (Architect) Numerous people at different places, such as departments of religion, mosques, institutes, universities, museums, libraries, organisations, etc. in Indonesia and abroad.

193

List of Fieldwork (Jakarta, Thursday, 22 April, at 10:00): Fieldwork on mosques in Jakarta, West Java - Al Azhar, Hidayatullah, by car (Jakarta-Semarang-Kudus-Demak-Jepara, Tuesday, 20 April, at 6:30 - Friday, 23 April, at 17:00): Fieldwork on mosques in Semarang, Kudus, Demak, and Jepara, Central Java - Kauman Semarang, Agung Demak, Menara Melayu, Sunan Kalijaga, Astana Mantingan, Robayan Jepara, Agung Jepara, Menara Kudus, AlMakmur Jipang, Sunan Moria, by Argo Muria train and car (Jakarta, Sunday, 25 April, at 11:00): Fieldwork on mosques in Jakarta, West Java - At-Tiin, by car (Jakarta, Thursday, 29 April, at 10:00): Fieldwork on mosques in Jakarta, West Java - Pondok Indah, by car (Jakarta, Friday, 30 April, at 10:00): Fieldwork on mosques in Jakarta, West Java - Al Azhar, by car (Jakarta-Yogyakarta, Friday, 31 April at 08:00 - Monday, 3 May, at 21:00): Fieldwork on a palace, temples, mosques in Yogyakarta and suburbs, Central Java Kraton Yogya, Agung Yogya, Soko Tunggal, Agung Mataram, Borobodur Temple, Prambanan Temple, Kalasan Temple, by Dewi Pangga train and rent-car (Jakarta, Tuesday, 4 May, at 9:00): Fieldwork on mosques in Jakarta, West Java - Sunda Kelapa, by car (Jakarta, Tuesday, 4 May, at 11:00): To meet Mr Haj. Ahmad Fauzan Harun, Head of Kanwil Dep. Agama DKI, and Mrs. Haj. Maryam Achmad, Mr Sonny - Kanwil Kebudayan/Culture, DKI, Kanwill Departemen Agama (Jakarta, Tuesday, 4 May, at 14:30): To collect a CD of Ponk Indah, Jakarta (Jakarta, Wednesday 5 - Thursday, 6 May, at 09:00): Fieldwork on mosques in Jakarta, West Java -Cut Meutia, by car (Jakarta-Bandung-Cirebon, Friday, 7 May, at 04:00 – Saturday, 8 May, at 23:00): Fieldwork on mosques in Bandung - Raya Cipaganti, Al Ukkuwah Balai Kota, Salman ITB , Pusdai Jaber. and Cirebon, West Java - Agung Kasepuhan, Paljagrahan, Jami Kanoman, Langgar Kraton Kanoman, Merah Panjunan, by car (Jakarta-Banten-Jakarta, Friday, 14 May, at 07:00): Fieldwork on mosques in Banten, West Java -Kasunyatan, Kanari, Caringin Labuan, Carita Labuan, Kampung Nembol, by car (Jakarta-Yogyakarta-Solo-Malang-Surabaya-GresikPaciran-Mojokerto, Friday, 28 May at 06:30 - Monday, 31 May at 20:00) Fieldwork on mosques in Yogyakarta and around Agung Mataram, Agung Yogya, Soko Tunggal, Mendut Temple, Kalasan Temple; Solo, Central Java - Al Wustho Mangkunegara, Agung Solo; Malang - Sabilliah Malang, Agung Malang; Surabaya - Al-Akbar Surabaya; Paciran- Sendang Duwur,

2003 (Jakarta-Semarang-Kudus-Demak, Sunday, 21 September, at 06:30 - Thursday, 23 September, at 14:00): A pilot study of mosques and churches in Semarang, Kudus, and Demak, Central Java (Kauman Semarang, Demak Agung, Sunan Kalijaga), by Argo Muria train and car (Jakarta, Thursday, 16 October, at 09:30): To meet Dr Haris Sukendar, Assistant Deputy of the National Archaeology Research Centre (Jakarta, Monday, 1 December, at 11:00 - Jakarta, Wednesday, 3 December, at 16:00): A pilot study of a cathedral, a church, and mosques in Jakarta, West Java - Al-Azhar, Pondok Indah, Said Naum, Hidayatullah, AT-Tiin, Istiqlal, Al-Makmur R. Saleh, Cut Meutia, Sunda Kalapa, At-Taibin, Al-Makmur Tn. Abang, Jami Al-Islam, by car (Jakarta-Bali, Thursday, 4 December, at 12:40 - Sunday, 7 December at 10:00): A pilot study of temples in Bali, by Garuda Air and car (Jakarta, Friday, 12 December, at 13:30): A pilot study of mosques in Jakarta, West Java (Hidayatullah), by car 2004 (Jakarta, Wednesday, 4 February, at 11:00): To meet Mr Harum Abdullah, Secretary to the Director for Moslem Education for Society & Effective Mosques, the Department of Religion (Jakarta, Tuesday, 17 - Thursday, 19 February, at 10:00): To visit the library of the National Archaeology Research Centre (Jakarta, Thursday, 26 February, at 13:30): To visit Dr Yusnar Yusuf, Director for Moslem Education for Society & Effective Mosques, the Department of Religion, and to collect the Letter of Permit for mosques (Jakarta, Tuesday, 23 March, at 10:00): To meet Dr I. Made Titib, Director of Guidance of Hindu Society, the Department of Religion (Jakarta, Wednesday, 14 April, at 10:00): To meet research assistants of Dr Triharso at University of Tarumanegara (Jakarta, Monday, 19 April, at 10:00): Fieldwork on mosques in Jakarta, West Java - Al Alam Marunda, Al Alam Cilincing, Mukaramah Bandan, Luar Batang, by car (Jakarta, Tuesday, 20 April, at 10:00): Fieldwork on mosques in Jakarta, West Java - Al Anwar Angke, Jami Al Nawier, Al-Mansyur Sawah Lio, Jami Tambor), by car

194

List of Fieldwork Sunan Dradjat; Gresik - Sunan Giri; Mojokerto and around, East Java - Majapahit temples, Tralaja Muslim graves, the National Museum of History, by Bouraq Air, mini-bus, and rent-car (Jakarta, Wednesday, 21 July, at 10:00): Fieldwork (revisit) on mosques in Jakarta, West Java - Al Azhar, by car (Labuan, Wednesday, 4 August, at 10:00): Fieldwork (revisit) on mosques in Banten, West Java - Caringin, by car (Jakarta-Malang-Surabaya, Wednesday 8 December at 10:00 - Friday, 10 December, at 15:25): Fieldwork

on Hindu-Buddhist temples in Malang, Blitar, and Surabaya, East Java - Jawi Temple, Gunung Gangsir Temple, Singosari Temple, Kidal Temple, Djago Temple, Panataran Temple, Kalicilik Temple, Simping Temple, by Mandala Air and car 2005-6 Purposive re-visits to different mosques in Java, if needed; and to Hindu temples in Bali, Indonesia

195

List of Interview Schedule Trisakti University, Member of Cut Meutia Mosque at Cut Meutia Mosque, by car) Mr I Gede Lungra, Sculptor, Expert on Hindu Architecture, Bali at the office, by car (Jakarta, Thursday. 18 November, at 09:00 and Wednesday, 29 December, at 10:00): Prof. Edy Sedyawati, Archaeologist, Lecturer, Faculty of Archaeology, the University of Indonesia at her home, by car (Jakarta, Friday. 19 November, at 10:00, and by telephone): Pastor Adolf Heuken, Historian at his office, by car (Jakarta, Friday, 26 November, at 9:30): Mr Bayu Yunardi, Architect, Atelier 6 at his office, by car (Jakarta-Bandung-Jakarta, Friday, 30 November, at 04:30): Mr Iwan Sudradjat, Architecture Historian, Institute of Technology in Bandung at his university; Mr Achmad Noe’man, Architect of PT. Birnao at his office; Prof. A. D. Pirous, Artist at his home; Mr Eman Keulman, Architect at Ukuwah Balai Kota mosque; Mrs Ken Atik, Ornamentist and Mr Herman, Designer at Pusdai Jaber mosque; Dr Subarna, Lecturer at ITB university, by car (Jakarta, Friday, 3 December, at 12:00): Dr Hendrajaya Isnaeni, Architect, Lecturer, Faculty of Technology, University of Indonesia at his office of Arkitekton, by car (Surabaya, Friday, 10 December, at 15:25): Mr Josef Prijotomo, Architect, Lecturer, Faculty of Architecture, Surabaya Institute of Technology at his university, by car

2004 (Jakarta, Wednesday, 3 November, at 11:30): Prof. Dr Hasan Muarif Ambary, Archaeologist, Lecturer, Faculty of Archaeology, University of Indonesia, the Former Director of National Archaeology Research Centre at his office of Bait al-Quran, Taman Mini, by car (Depok, Wednesday, 3 November, at 13:00, and Tuesday, 23 November, at 12:00): Prof. Dr Hariani Santiko, Archaeologist, Lecture, Faculty of Archaeology, University of Indonesia, and Dr Irmawati at her university, by car (Bogor, Friday, 5 November, at 09:00, and Saturday, 20 November, at 09:00): Prof. Uka Tjandrasasmita, Archaeologist, Lecturer, Faculty of Archaeology, University of Indonesia, the Former Director of National Archaeology Research Centre at his home, by car (Jakarta, Monday 8 November, at 14:00): Mr Irsal Said, Architect of Pondok Indah Mosque at his office of PT Perencana Jaya, by car (Jakarta, Tuesday, 9 November, at 11:00): Mr Achmad Fanani, Architect of Agung Semarang Mosque at his office, Atelier 6, by car (Jakarta, Wednesday, 10 and 13 November, and via e-mail): Mrs Artini Roebiharto, Interior Designer, Faculty of Visual Communication, Tarumanegara University at her university, by car (Jakarta, Thursday, 11 November, at 14:00): Mr Muharam, Historian, Faculty of Design, Tarumanegara University at his university, by car (Japan, Thursday, 11 and 22 November, via e-mail): Bambang S Budi, Architecture Historian, Institute of Technology in Bandung (Jakarta, Friday, 12 November, at 10:00, at 12:00): Mr Adilsyah, Hakim, Lecturer, Faculty of Architecture,

*In 2005-6, several revisits to some scholars

196

Definitions of the Arabesque The following texts are extracts from the 20 scholars on description and definitions of Islamic arabesque. The core concepts were used in texts in different chapters, and here are full texts.

endlessly multiplied modular decorative units through “infinite correspondence” (unendliche Rapport) to cover whole surfaces in which foreground and background motifs were no longer distinguishable. Riegl saw the arabesque as a mirror of cultural tendencies. It embodied an antinaturalsitic drive for geometric abstraction that was an outcome of the Islamic prohibition against figural (cited by Necipoğlu 1995:65).

(Jones 1856, 2001: 157-158): It will be observed that, although the leafage which surrounds the centre is still a reminiscence of the acanthus leaf, it is the first attempt at throwing off the principle of leafage growing out one from the other: the scroll is continuous without break. The pattern is distributed all over the spandrel, so as to produce one even tint, which was ever the aim of the Arabs and Moors.

(Riegl 1893, 1992: 265-272): 1. The tendrils have once more become linear, more or less geometricized connecting elements. In their movements, however, they very often abandon the circular path that had remained a constant and characteristic feature of classical antique spiral ornament. Instead, they wind around in oval, eccentric curves, even forming polygonal shapes when, as is often the case, they converge from different directions. This is especially true when the tendrils are treated as bands, i.e, when tendril ornament combines with banded interlace. In this case, the main bands follow the new scheme, be it polygonal or curvilinear, while the fine tendrils filling up the interstices maintain beautiful, swelling, circular curves.

(Jones 1982: 66, 74, 2001: 204): This was translated into a universal principle in Proposition 8: “All ornament should be based upon a geometrical construction.” “However much disguised, the whole of the ornamentation of the Moors is constructed geometrically. Their fondness for geometrical forms is evidenced by the great use they made of mosaics, in which their imagination had full play. However complicated the pattern … may appear, they are all very simple when the principle of setting them out is once understood. They all arise from the intersection of equidistant lines round fixed centres … in fact, geometrical combinations on this system may be said to be infinite” (cited by Necipoğlu 1995:65).

2. The motifs resemble either the two-dimensional palmettes or the acanthus half leaves of antiquity, or, lastly, their Byzantine derivatives. The same antinaturalistic tendency, which had already restored the geometric quality of the tendrils, also manifested itself in individual motifs, firstly through the reduction of suppression of the separate leaves. Secondly, it appears in the pronounced, general preference for symmetrical schematization; and thirdly, in the way the pointed shapes, such as leaf tips for example, tend to curve back on themselves. In addition to the motifs that are stylized in a completely geometric manner, such as trefoils … Later we shall discuss how this relates to a very specific, fundamental law of Islamic surface ornament, the infinite rapport. Figure 167 is a continuous tendril with an offshoot bifurcating from each undulation of the main tendrils. At first, these offshoots create circular curves in the antique manner. But, instead of terminating in palmettes, their outer leaves continue as tendrils stems running in a direction opposite to the original circular spirals, and then they bifurcate once again.

(Bourgoin 1873a: 3-4): In Les art arabes Bourgoin defined this art form as essentially decorative, guided by the compositional logic of geometric schemes independent of observed nature and destitute of iconographic meaning: “One can consider Arab art as a system of decoration founded entirely upon the order of geometric forms and which borrows nothing or almost nothing from the observation of nature; that is to say, this art, very complete in itself, is destitute of natural symbolism and of ideal signification. The inspiration is abstract and the execution devoid of plasticity” (cited by Necipoğlu 1995:67). (Riegl 1893): The principal features of the arabesque were the geometrization of the stems of its vegetation, the particular vegetal elements used, and the fact that these elements can grow unnaturally from one another rather than branching off from a single continuous stem. But above all Riegl pointed out that the arabesque has “uendliche rapport”, or infinite correspondence, meaning that the design can be extended indefinitely in any direction (cited by Allen 1988: 3).

(Kühnel 1949: 6-8): Doubtless, it was foremost the artist who carried in himself the Islamic world view to plunge into linear speculations of an abstract nature. As in the case of other scrollwork, the arabesque, too consists essentially of stem and leaf. However, while the

(Riegl 1893): He interpreted the arabesque as the creation of an “Oriental spirit of abstraction” that 197

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia botanical identity of the grapevine or acanthus in more or less preserved in whatever application it might be found, there is no such organic connection in the case of the unnatural, bifurcated form of the arabesque … The stem, too, might wind itself along in regular waves, in spirals, or in complicated interlacing, it may grow through the leaf or renew itself from it – yet the main requisite for its composition remains the obligatory bifurcation and its ever-continuing course. With these two essential elements came the meaning to create order and liveliness; these consist of the serial arrangement with mirror image or upside-down repetitions, the creation of calyx or palmette forms by means of reciprocal duplication, the articulation through geometric strapwork or through cartouches and medallions.

Islamic principle of covering every inch of the space to be decorated is fully developed in the first style of Samarra. (Grube 1966: 16): … in Khirbat al-Mafjar and Qasr alHayr … Here again the general development is clearly visible from floral and growing plant decoration to the more separated, stylized abstracted motifs, based on the naturalistic forms. The surface is now divided more and more into geometrical sections and filled with a repeat pattern of rosette or single palmettes, creating an effect altogether different from that of the western, late classical world. (Burckhardt 1967): “The second form, the arabesque commonly so-called is composed of vegetable motifs, stylized to the point of losing all resemblance with nature and obeying only the laws of rhythm transposed into graphic mode, each line undulating in complementary phase, and each surface having its inverse counterpart. The arabesque is both logical and rhythmical, both mathematical and melodious, and this is most significant for the spirit of Islam in its equilibrium of love and intellectual sobriety” (cited by Necipoğlu 1995:78).

(Kühnel 1960, 1977: 8-9): Kühnel identified its two aesthetic principles as “rhythmical alternation of movement always rendered with harmonious effect, and the desire to fill the entire surface with ornament.” “Just as the infinite repetition underlines the significance of the individual forms which do not come into sharper focus through serialization, but rather seem to evaporate, so does the uninterrupted covering of the surface deprive them of all objective meaning” (cited by Necipoğlu 1995:75).

(Burckhardt 1976: 57-60): It is strange that, in achieving perfection in a decorative sense, the arabesque in plant forms should come closest to its purely linear and rhythmical prototype whereas its first manifestations in the Umayyad period are still offered to Hellenic naturalism … In its more stylized versions, an arabesque in plant forms bears no more than a distant likeness to a plant. But it does represent a perfect transcription of the laws of rhythm into visual terms. Its unfolding is continuous, like a wave, with contrasting phases having various degrees of resonance. The design does not need to be symmetrical, but, to make up for this, it always has certain repetitions, whose rhythmic character is accentuated by the fact that the sounds and the silences are aesthetically equivalent.

(Herzfeld 1953 Genesis: 44-45): “It is in the specific transformation of their formal elements that their arabesque character lies. The play of fantasy; the principle of variety, which creates new combinations and variations; the composition on the basis of infinite correspondence along one or two axes; the dematerialization of the elements, which completely transforms their original vegetal or objective sense and creates new, abstract decorative values, and with which is connected the amalgamation of the elements of the vase, stem, leaf, blossom, and fruit without the accentuation of distinctions-all this characterizes this ornament as arabesque” (cited by Allen 1988:3).

(Ardalan and Bakhtiar 1973: 43-44): Arabesque essentially recreates through Nature the cosmic processes of the Creator. As Nature is based on rhythm, so the arabesque is rhythmic in concept. It reflects movement marked by the regular reoccurrence of features, elements, phenomena; hence it has periodicity … As the complement of these forms and their colors, the spatial backgrounds often reflect the positive space continuity concept in which the interval becomes as important as the motif. These motifs generate endless circular patterns, like ripples in a pool, developing on single and multiple planes. The intention is the endless succession of form elements. The experience of these repeated patterns establishes the idea of infinity. The arabesque constitutes a simultaneous space-time synthesis in which the action of cyclical patterns on

(Herzfeld 1987: 364-367): Herzfeld noted the antinautralism and geometric abstraction of the arabesque, characterized by “countless repetitions” and an “infinite correspondence” that gave rise to completely covered surfaces reflecting a typically Islamic horror vacui, a psychological fear of empty spaces (cited by Necipoğlu 1995:74). (Dimand 1958: 88-89): In the second style of Samara the ornament is of an abstract character, consisting of vase motifs and geometrical scrolls bearing circular leaves or various types of palmettes. It is cut in flat relief and the motifs are covered with dense lozenge diapers. Many of the forms used here recall Iranian metalwork with stone inlay; others, such as the geometrical scrolls with circular leaves, are of Central Asiatic origin. The 198

Definitions of the Arabesque a geometric base coalesces in ascending spirals of spiritual realization.

a wave, with a tendency to become stylized. The most typical device is the arabesque which is a continuous line or stem that splits repeatedly to produce secondary stems which either split again or return to be reintegrated into the main one. Nor is the pattern immobile; rather it is a visual transcription of rhythm. The wavy lines are indeed infinitely adaptable to any area that they are expected to fill: they can contact and extend: they can stretch along borders or bridge gaps. The continuity of the interlacement too invites the eye to follow so that vision is transformed into a rhythmic experience. All the patterns are based on the mathematical calculations and are built up from one or more figures contained in a circle, using especially pentagons, hexagons and octagons.

(Jones, D 1978: 170-171): The ultimate extension of this tendency towards the denaturalization of natural forms is the arabesque. The arabesque is characterized by a continuous stem which splits regularly, producing a series of counterpoised, leafy, secondary stems which can in turn split again or return to be reintegrated into the main stem. This limitless, rhythmical alternation of movement, conveyed by the reciprocal repetition of curved lines, produces a design that is balanced and free from tension. In the arabesque, perhaps more than in any other design associated with Islam … The underlying geometric grids governing arabesque designs are based on the same mathematical principles that determine wholly geometric patterns.

(Allen 1988: 5-6): By this date the vine scroll could interlace with geometric frames-and this was new. Eventually, as a still later step, the pattern of the vine scroll was assimilated to the geometric framework: the stems of the vine were given the shape of what had formerly been a non-vegetal pattern, or conversely, the geometric framework came to life and the vine leaves sprouted directly from it. This visual shift created a highly variable and adaptable system of vegetal decoration whose method of construction is to intrinsic interest. This is what I define as the arabesque, the most distinctive and fascinating contribution of Islamic art.

(Grabar 1973): Grabar’s The Formation of Islamic Art, 1973, devoted a chapter to “Early Islamic Decoration: The Idea of an Arabesque.” Here Grabar discussed the methodological problem of assigning meaning to repetitive abstract patterns that did not “seem to have an intellectual or cultural content” but to have been aimed at “beautification” and “visual pleasure.” Grabar observed that the arabesque, in which every motif, even inscriptions, became “ornamentalized,” endowed the observer with considerable subjective freedom, given its “ambiguity” and “ambivalence” (cited by Necipoğlu 1995:75).

(Naddaff 1991: 111-113): Derived from a denaturalized leaf or tendril pattern, the overall structure and movement of the arabesque are based on the fundamental premise of repetition, indeed redundancy, and correspondingly symmetry … of the ninth-century mosque of Ibn Tulun: “From the freely flowing scroll, stemmed leaves with an unnatural outline emanate in both directions, then split again, and the whole regenerates itself imperceptivity in a symmetrical rhythm- unequivocally arabesque.” … The foundation of the arabesque, then, is the repeat unit, the horizontal and vertical mirroring of the design which ensures its spatial perpetuation. This repetition of design necessarily occurs in a spatially restricted region, which concretely influences its outer limits; but the very rhythm that derives from this spatially determined repeated movement, the visual rhythm that characterizes the arabesque, curiously counters its spatial movement.

(Grabar 1987: 188-189): The second example is the celebrated Mshatta façade … Each triangle contains one enormous rosette which is in high relief and which contains a group of concentric designs; the rest of the field contains consistently different compositions in which vine rinceaux are found together with separate circles and occasionally animals. A tenth-century piece of carved marble on the side of the mihrab in Cordoba (fig. 55) can serve as an example from the Western Islamic world. The main design is framed by a border of hardly distinguishable leaves and stems creating a sort of undulating pattern around the object. In the centre a single, straight, trunklike unit serves as the axis and the generator of a complex pattern of stems, leaves, split and complete calyces, that covers the rest of the field … or bevelled style at Samarra the repetition of characteristically slanted cuts has obliterated the originally vegetal nature of the units of decoration … In all these works the visible unit of design … totally subordinated to a number of abstract principles … the Qasr al-Hayr sculpture- can be defined through some sort of geometric structure.

(Irwin 1997: 198): In time the arabesque became more abstract, more denaturalized, as Muslim designers explored the ornamental possibilities of repeated patterns of coils and spirals, which bifurcated and sent outshoot, which proliferated to fill the surface to be decorated.

(Davies 1982: 133-134): Much more popular were designs derived from natural vegetation such as flowers and leaves –these give a certain nervous life to the ornament … all unfold in a continuous rhythm like

(Baer 1998: 5, 10): Being rhythmic in concept ... A series of identical designs, delineated and at the same 199

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia time separated from each other by various types of curved lines with spiral endings ... the designs are purely abstract … The sense of complete stylization is enhanced by another characteristic feature, the slant style of carving that is the beveling of the surface toward the curved outlines of the design, which creates a sculptured plane with a soft, flat modulation. The total impression is that of uniform, abstract pattern with no background between the individual designs.

linear development and has the same leaves or floral elements as vegetal designs, but it is distinguished by the fact that it spreads over large surfaces and invades any unoccupied spaces. (Hillenbrand 2001b: 27): … in vegetal ornament the point of departure was emphatically not the accurate rendering of nature; in geometric ornament the geometric forms themselves are as often concealed as displayed; in epigraphic ornament the letters take on shape and devices that hinders rather than help reading. True, all three types of ornament are organised; they are mathematical; each is logical according to its own standards. It is fundamentally abstract, even surreal, and fantasy is the source of its peculiar intensity. That fantasy, however, is kept under strict control.

(Yeomans 1999: 67): The new element – and this is characteristic of all Islamic design – is the resolution of oppositions – static and dynamic, organic and geometric. Geometry acts as a trellis supporting the design, but it is never closed, crystallised or static. It is invariable dynamic and open ended and rarely seeks to find a point of rest or termination. The floral and vegetal arabesques are stylised and two dimensional, respecting the flat plane of the surface to be decorated, unlike Hellenistic ornament, which tends towards naturalism.

(Trilling 2001: 124): Probably no other motif in Islamic art has so long or complex a history as the vine-scroll. Based on Byzantine models, and executed at first by Byzantine artists, it soon developed along distinctively Islamic lines. Allowing for regional and temporal variations, the Islamic vine-scroll, commonly called the arabesque, is characterised by delicate stems and simplified leaves bearing only the most tenuous resemblance to plant-forms. These in turn are woven into repetitive patterns whose complexity often obscures what little remains of the vine.

(Clevenot 2000: 118, 137): Vegetal ornamentation was subject to stylistic mutations which rapidly made it lose what was left of Greco-Roman naturalism. In its place a highly formal stylization appeared, sometimes pushed to the limits of abstraction. This mutation gave birth to what is commonly called the arabesque or, in Arabic, tawriq. The arabesque follows the same principles of

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Identifying Origins of Motifs as Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic or Both by Principles of Ornament Among nine methods for identifying origins of motifs as Hindu-Buddhist, Islamic, or both, the method of establishing ‘principles’ of ornaments tends to the most appropriate. Texts below are extracted from the interviews with the 17 scholars in different fields in Indonesia, 2004. (D. Pirous): To keep cultural continuity and identity, the Indonesian Koran was illustrated by local motifs, showing universal Islam. An Islamic principle of abstract and repetitive arabesque is applied in this book. A system and an element in motifs can identify the origins of motifs. If the system has repetition, it is Islamic arabesque. Repetition is an element of Islamic ornament. Arabesque has repetition and abstractness, using the floral. (Achmad Fanani): Islamic motifs have a square-like geometry and are rigid, while Hindu-Buddhist ones are smoother in line than Islamic ones. The Agung Semarang mosque is a combination of the locality and the universal Islam; nationalism and internationalism; strictness and smoothness. It symbolizes a modern Javanese mosque. Scrolls have difficulties in identifying their origins. In general, Hindu-Buddhist scrolls display flowers, and Islamic arabesques use leaves. If motifs look a flower-like lotus, they can be Hindu-Buddhist. If they resemble leaves, they are Islamic. (Achmad Noe’man): Ornament is like a prayer: repetition and continuity. Combined with geometry, it helps to identify Islamic motifs. (Adilsyah Hakim Lubis): Scrolls in a combination of calligraphy are Islamic. Hindu-Buddhist motifs are more natural than Islamic ones. Hindu-Buddhism employs animals in flowers and landscapes, and Islam uses natural trees, leaves, and flowers, except for animals. (Bambang S Budi): The identification of floral motifs depends on their shapes and forms. Hindu-Buddhist ornaments are more natural and are neither interlaced nor intricate, while Islamic ones are more abstract and have both. (Bayu Yunardi): Islamic floral is more geometrical than Hindu-Buddhist one. Islamic ornament uses leaves; on the contrary, Hindu-Buddhist ornament employs

flowers. However, Javanese mosques adopted flowers. More geometrical, straight, and strong lines are Islamic. (Edy Sedyawati): Hindu-Buddhist scrolls have a root, sometimes replaced by animals. It means a start of life, according to Bosch’s Golden Germ. Scrolls grow up from the root. Arabesque is foliage and has no root. Hindu-Buddhist scroll undulates alternately, and one scroll comes out from one branch, then another scroll from another branch. It is named recalcitrant scrolls by Brandes. Arabesque undulates towards one direction and does not have a root. (Hasan Muarif Anbary): If the lotus resembles Islamic arabesque, it is Islamic. Stylistic motifs can be arabesque, but they are not necessarily repetitive. (Hendrajaya Isnaeni): Hindu-Buddhist lotus has no rule of repetition. Hindu-Buddhist floral designs are much freer and natural than Islamic abstract ones. Although both have circular rhythms, HinduBuddhist ones are freer in movement inside their circular forms. (Herman and Ken Atik): Islamic ornament has mostly geometry and plant, called arabesque. The Pusdai Jaber mosque used local motifs, following an arabesque style. Hindu-Buddhist scrolls in Borobodur temple might be repetitive. Calligraphy and geometry are Islamic. (I Geda Lugra): Motifs in contemporary mosques are Islamic, and detailed floral ones are HinduBuddhist. (Irsal Said): Geometry and calligraphy are Islamic. (Josef Prijotomo): Hindu-Buddhist floral is threedimensional, and appeared in Central Javanese temples. According to Bosch’s Golden Germ, HinduBuddhist scrolls have a root. Arabesque is just repetition. Hindu-Buddhist floral is natural and coarse. (Muharam): Islamic motifs are strictly geometric and abstract. If motifs are natural, they are Hindu. (Hariani Santiko): Hindu-Buddhist scrolls have roots, because of a symbol. If they do not have them, they are Islamic. (Uka Tjandrasasmita): If the lotus is geometrical, it is Islamic.

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A Few Excerpts from Interviews with the 20 Indonesian Scholars The texts below are a few representative examples from the 20 interviews, carried out between November and December 2004 in Java, Indonesia. All Interviewees are specialists in their fields whose names were both included in the researcher’s bibliography and recommended. Several attempts resulted in interviews with them.

MA: As I said, as long as no controversy is found, we might say this motif is Islamic, although it does not follow the rule of an Islamic style; instead of adopting a Hindu-Buddhist way. It depends on your view. If you like to call this motif Islamic, it can be Islamic. You don’t want it; then it cannot be Islamic. The drawing of the lotus at the Al Akbar Surabaya mosque seems to be Islamic. It is an arabesque style. When I see stylistic motifs, I can consider them Islamic, despite lack of repetition, which is characteristic of arabesque. Moreover, as the mosque is recently built, the lotus can be Islamic. Contemporary architects favour orthodox Islamic ornamentation.

Archaeologists: (Hasan Muarif Ambary: abbreviated as ‘MA’) Professor Dr Ambary is one of the most respected archaeologists and scholars in Indonesia and abroad, due to his specialization in Islamic archaeology in Indonesia. He was Lecturer at the Faculty of Archaeology, University of Indonesia, and the former Director of Indonesian Archaeology Institute. The interview took place at Bait Al Quran in Jakarta, both on 16 June and 3 November 2004. He gave further contacts to the researcher both in Indonesia and outside.

HSL: If you see motifs which are similar to those in temples, they are Hindu-Buddhist origins. MA: Yes, if they are similar to those in temples, we can say they are Hindu or Buddhist, but as long as Islam does not find them controversial, we can call them Islamic too, as I stressed.

MA: According to the Koran, God loves beauty.

HSL: Perhaps, we should consider the circumstances of each mosque. The Kampung Nembol mosque was built by a Palestinian Muslim missionary. The village was very poor; thus, its outcome became a mixture of the local and Islamic styles. The Al Akbar Surabaya mosque became orthodox Islamic, due to the Surabaya harbour where Muslims start their journeys towards Mecca.

HSL: Is that a Sufi thought? How do you identify the origins of ornamental motifs in Javanese mosques? MA: It depends on how Muslims consider motifs, in terms of the Islamic principles, when they build mosques. If motifs are not controversial or against Islam, Muslims can take any motif from Hinduism and create their style. Islam does not forbid any floral ornamentation as long as it is beautiful, except for living figures, because God loves beauty. Therefore Indonesians assimilated with prehistoric animism, Hindu-Buddhism and Islam peacefully.

MA: It is correct. (Santiko Hariani; SH) Professor Dr Hariani is Archaeologist, Lecturer at the Faculty of Archaeology, University of Indonesia. Specializing in Hindu-Buddhist archaeology, she is wellknown both in Indonesia and abroad. The researcher’s first meeting was after her lecture on Durga, the consort of Shiva, at Museum Nasional in Jakarta. Since then, she has provided a great deal of information and recommended the ‘Golden Germ’, written by Bosch. Two interviews took place at the university on 3 and 23 November 2004.

HSL: The Hindu-Buddhist lotus is a good example. MA: The lotus is not popular in Islam, although Islam used floral motifs. Lotus is much used as a symbol in Buddhism. HSL: How about this drawing of a floral tile on the mihrab of Menara Kudus?

SH: To identify the origins of motifs, you have to find which Buddhist temples have motifs similar to those you have taken from Javanese mosques. Borobodur temple in Central Java has the most beautiful ornaments on panels. However, before doing that, it could be worth comparing motifs between Hindu and Buddhist temples, although there is little difference in structure. Then, apply these motifs to Islamic ones.

MA: It is a rose which has nothing to do with Islam. When Muslims renovated the mihrab, they put this tile without thinking about Islamic principles. It is a copy of Buddhism, reminding me of the Buddhist Borobodur temple. HSL: Your argument is very interesting. Does your experienced perception help to identify motifs? 202

A Few Excerpts from Interviews with the 20 Indonesian Scholars HSL: I wonder whether there are canons in HinduBuddhist temple ornamentation.

expression. As Hindu-Buddhism does not have a rule, in the case of tumpals, artists have the freedom to create any triangular shape from a ‘Three’ concept. As far as this concept is included, size or proportion in ornamentation does not matter. Buddhist temples have three (underworld, world, heaven) stages. Islam has the same idea of the three (Islam, Insan, Iksan) to approach God. So, prehistoric tumpals can be said to be symbolic.

SH: We don’t have any rules, because symbols are one thing, and forms can be another thing. In form, HinduBuddhist scrolls have roots, while Islamic arabesques do not have them. This is another way to identify the origins of motifs. HSL: There were many debates on the origin of Javanese mosques. How about a comparison between motifs in Javanese temples and those in Indian or Chinese temples?

HSL: How about other motifs? UT: The basic ornaments in Islam are geometry, arabesque and calligraphy. If the lotus has a geometrical pattern, then, it is Islamic. Islam adopted all kinds of design, both spiritually and physically. If you see motifs from an aesthetic view, they are made for beauty. In general, you can see the origins of motifs through their design. When you observe scrolls in the Mendut temple of Central Java, the lotus springs out from a pot, symbolizing a life of rebirth, based on a Hindu-Buddhist concept. Maybe you have read Bosch’s ‘Golden Germ’? Bosch mentioned the continuity of life, like the lotus from water. It signifies eternity.

SH: If you want to compare them with what happened in Java, you must focus on Java. Indian motifs are different from Javanese ones. Have you read Bosch’s ‘Golden Germ’? Hindu-Buddhist scrolls have a symbolic connotation. In Borobodur, many kinds of animals on the bottom of scrolls appeared. Islamic motifs do not possess living animals. HSL: If a symbol is attached to scrolls, they are HinduBuddhist. If no symbol is present, it is an Islamic origin. Is it correct?

HSL: The lotus has symbolically eternal meaning, compared to the physical infinity in arabesque. Lotus and arabesque express an idea and a form respectively.

SH: Islamic arabesques have no meaning. Instead, they have rhythms, like a prayer.

UT: Javanese mosques used the stylistic lotus as a symbol. In Buddhism, it is Dharma, God. In Islam, the lotus is associated with Allah. Decorating the lotus, as signifying paradise, was continued in Islam.

(Uka Tjandrasasmita: UT) Professor Tjandrasasmita is Archaeologist, former Lecturer at the Faculty of Archaeology, University of Indonesia, former Director of the Archaeologist Institute, and still does lecturing at different universities. He is the most prominent scholar in research into the Islamic transitory period. He published several books and articles, specializing on the Sendang Duwur mosque. Many meetings occurred at his home in Bogor, Java West, on 23 June, 5 and 20 November 2004, and 2005. He recommended many references, including Bosch’s ‘Golden Germ’, and advised on the researcher’s papers, and examined motifs in Javanese mosques.

HSL: Were ornaments on renovated mihrabs influenced by Hindu-Buddhist ones? UT: In general, mihrabs were renovated after the 18th century. They then might be more Islamic. HSL: How can the influence of temple motifs on Javanese mosques be traced? UT: You can observe principles of Hindu-Buddhist temple ornamentation. Then examine which mosques have the same style as you saw in temples. The principle is the same, either in temple or mosque, to pay tribute to God. A temple is a miniature of the Cosmos Mountain, Meru. I always say that Javanese mosques from the 16th to 18th centuries have a Hindu-Buddhist character, particularly during the Mataram kingdom.

HSL: According to these drawings which I made during the fieldwork, the lotus from the Al Akbar Surabaya mosque seems to be Islamic, due to its stylization. UT: I agree. The lotus seems to be an adjustment in the mosque. It is an Islamized lotus. Islamic floral design was derived from Hindu-Buddhist ornaments, displaying continuity.

HSL: Are there any differences between Central and East Java during the Hindu-Buddhist period?

HSL: Do you have a canon in temple ornamentation?

UT: Central Javanese temples have a classical Indian style, but East Javanese ones have an indigenous and slender style. In ornamentation, Central Java used the

UT: Silpasastra, a guide book, is designed for architecture and sculpture and is not for ornament. However, the ornament is attached to symbolism, owing to its 203

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia lotus. In East Java, different forms of ornaments, such as wayang (a shadow puppet), were present.

HSL: Chronology in architecture seems crucial in identifying the origins of motifs.

HSL: The scroll of the Agung Demak mosque resembles those in East Javanese temples.

UT: As architecture cannot be separated from ornament, you can study ornaments from architecture.

UT: This is correct. The mosque was built by Majapahit architects who constructed those in Cirebon and Banten later.

HSL: I am considering comparing the Javanese lotus with those in Gujarat in India because Islamic Gujarat mosques used Hindu motifs from their ancestors. Islam from Gujarat came to Indonesia.

HSL: It implies that historical background is important in identifying the origins of motifs.

UT: Islamic Gujarat mosques took over Hindu buildings. In East Java, we can see the influence of Cambay in Gujarat. It is precisely the same in material and style, but I think ornaments are more rooted and made here in Java.

UT: Yes. In Bali, you can see East Javanese temples. I have been approaching motifs from a combination of an anthropological viewpoint and a historical background. I am designing a method of analyzing history: a social science approach. The historical approach includes many aspects, including a political view. However, I try to see historical sources, because manuscripts contain culture.

HSL: Scrolls in temples have animals. UT: As temples represent the life of Buddha, animals are used for his attributes. Due to a ban on depicting living figures, found in the hadith, Islam took animals away and replaced them with floral. In other words, Islam did not change the concept, but different interpretations emerged. If objects are made for worship, they are forbidden. In Indonesia, when Islam arrived, anthropomorphic designs became stylized. As long as they are not meant for worship, they are fine.

HSL: Referring to the ornament of Borobodur, you said earlier that its size or proportion is not so important. UT: I think, the proportion is according to artists’ creativity and concept because the local culture has positive thinking towards a new creation, called ‘local genius’. Borobodur represents a cosmos; artists should consider the function of the temple.

HSL: Interestingly, the Raya Cipaganti mosque in Bandung was designed by a Dutch architect.

HSL: Nowadays, many ornamental panels are appearing in shops.

UT: It is difficult to recognize which the main influence on a mosque shows, but the dominance of HinduBuddhist ornaments is present in many mosques. Moreover, Chinese rock and cloud are shown on the ceramics of Demak and Cirebon mosques. The process of Islamization in Java was adapted by local culture. This is very important because Indonesians realized that a new religion and culture was not accepted fully. Rather, it was a selection. For me, it is the local genius. Christianity did not affect Indonesian culture so much. Christian ornaments are the palmette, crown, and so on. In the 19th century, a fusion of European and Indonesian styles in furniture was popular. It is a characteristic of Indonesian tolerance towards outsiders.

UT: The patterns on panels are originated from a religious concept, but unfortunately, they are not treated as they should be. For example, a mustaka (Hindu crown) on top of religious buildings is transformed into decoration. HSL: Is the carving technique inherited from ancestors? UT: Yes. HSL: To make sure, can we say that ornaments from the 18th century to the present are Islamic? UT: In Java, everything is flexible. Indonesia is a melting pot of assimilation, diffusion, and synchronization. Architecture and peoples’ life are integrated. Muslims still visit their ancestors’ cemeteries, to show their respect, which is not Islamic at all. The Hindu-Buddhist influence ranges from the 16th to 18th centuries. We call it ‘Hindu-Javanese’. The Islamic influence, with arabesque, geometry, and calligraphy, appeared after Dutch colonization.

HSL: Does Islamic arabesque have a symbolic connotation? UT: The principle of the arabesque is based on geometry, a cycle of life. The ornament has an aesthetic function that God likes. Arabesques serve to fulfil the unity with God.

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A Few Excerpts from Interviews with the 20 Indonesian Scholars (Edi Sedyawati: ES)

ES: You can only know from the existing HinduBuddhist motifs. You need an empirical approach.

Professor Sedyawati is Archaeologist, Lecturer at the Faculty of Archaeology, University of Indonesia. She is well-known for her iconography on Hindu-Buddhism. The meetings took place at her home at Menteng in Jakarta, on 18 November and 29 December 2004. She recommended a few books, such as Bosch’s ‘Golden Germ’, and advised the research papers.

HSL: According to the drawing of scrolls on the mihrab of the Al Ukkuwah mosque, it can be considered arabesque, since the mosque was built in the 20th century. But it can be European, too. ES: The arch on the mihrab reminds me of the background of a Buddha statue. It seems to be a Buddhist concept. Continuity from an old to a new religion seems to be displayed.

ES: Indian silpasastra has rules in architecture and sculpture, not in ornament. I feel somehow that HinduBuddhist temples in Indonesia depict the religious concept of automatization, such as scrolls as the beginning of life, mentioned in Bosch’s ‘Golden Germ’.

HSL: Many people expressed the same opinion. ES: The idea of continuity is very important politically in Java. It is a deeply rooted value. The Agung Demak mosque was built by Hindu Majapahit architects, containing a cultural root.

HSL: Are there any differences between Hindu and Buddhist ornamentation? ES: No. I have seen Hindu and Buddhist temples, but it seems they are similar, despite their regional differences. Perhaps artists who worked at different temples shared the same style.

HSL: Concerning identifying motifs in mosques, more I discuss with people here in Java, more I am confused. ES: The problem is continuity and change. Some popular motifs can be changed from one period to another. I advise you that you analyze continuous motifs from the past period, such as the lotus, kala-makara, and so on. The same analysis of the Islamic period should also be done. Then, compare them to each other.

HSL: The Singasari and Majapahit kingdoms of East Java created the lotus in a different style. How can we discern motifs either Central or East Javanese? Or Indonesian? ES: In iconography, if you are familiar with details of styles and lines, you can see the difference between Angkor temples in Cambodia and those in Indonesia. Angkor has a deeper execution in relief than Indonesian ones. Central Javanese reliefs are more voluminous, deeper, and higher than flatter East Javanese ones. Central Java is closer to India, but styles are different from Indian ones.

HSL: In the case of scrolls, Islamic arabesque appeared in mosques. ES: Then, start ornaments from mosques and find out which ornaments are mostly related to the pre-Islamic period. Scrolls in temples can be identified from Bosch’s ‘Golden Germ’. Hindu scroll has a root, called ‘the Golden Germ’. This is sometimes replaced by animals, such as a turtle, elephant, and makara. From there, scrolls grow up. One scroll from one branch comes out and undulates to one direction, and then another scroll from another branch repeats to another direction. Arabesque is just foliage without a root and a direction.

HSL: Javanese are very creative, shown in building Borobodur temple, although many interpretations on the building techniques were mentioned. ES: They have the resources to make a difference. In Java and Bali, we have sculptural heritages. We had tools before the Indian influence, named ‘Dong Son’ culture. I have written a paper that prehistoric heritages returned to the East Javanese sculpture, so East Java has more Indonesian character than Central Java. HSL: What does Indonesian Indonesians are flexible?

character

HSL: Oh, I see! The way how scrolls move is another crucial point to identify the origins of motifs, including a root at the bottom of the stem. Now I understand Brandes’ recalcitrant scroll. My second question is about motifs on renovated mihrabs. The mihrab of the Agung Malang mosque has new tiles. Is it a Hindu lotus with a Dutch material?

mean?

ES: A prehistoric style has a structure. It is a general character. I don’t have any idea, but Indonesians make things easier.

ES: It can be Dutch tiles. But, we have to approach from a historical view to identify motifs. The Astana Mantingan mosque displays a scene of a Hindu Ramayana story. Therefore, one of the best ways to identify motifs can be done by observing shapes. Moreover, you have to

HSL: Referring to ornamentation, as no canon exists, how can I identify the origins of motifs? 205

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia know the date of the foundation of mosques. We have to consider chronology.

HSL: Do you have a specific reason for the Andalusia style? You won the first prize in the architecture competition for this mosque design.

Architects:

AF: I respect the Umayyad in Cordoba. I guess that one of the reasons for the prize was the continuity of Indonesian culture, combining a universal Islamic tradition. The structure of my mosque has a Javanese meru roof and an Islamic dome, Javanese sokoguru (four pillars) in the prayer hall which transforms into Islamic minarets outside. It expresses universality and transition.

(Achmad Fanani: AF) Fanani is Architect of the Agung Semarang mosque which is still under construction. He is working at Atelier 6, Jakarta, and his article was shown in international papers. The meetings took place at his office on 6 May and 9 November 2004. He recommended other scholars, providing much information on Javanese mosque ornamentation.

HSL: Did you combine all without any meaning? Then, how do you identify the lotus scroll motif?

AF: On the part of the wall at the Imogiri graveyard of the Matram kingdom, three types of ornament displayed together: Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam. Islamic motif is geometrically square and rigid, while Hindu-Buddhist one is smoother in line than Islamic ones. You can also find them at the palace of Mataram in Yogya. It is syncretism.

AF: I did not give any separate meaning to them, rather I blend them. Judged from my feeling, the arabesque is difficult to explain. Hindu-Buddhist scrolls have a specific pattern, using the lotus, and resemble flowers. Islamic arabesque uses leaves, but do not use flowers. When I find a flower-like lotus, I feel a Hindu-Buddhist origin, but when I see leaves, I perceive them as Islamic.

HSL: They seem to be Chinese motifs.

(Achmad Noe’man: AN)

AF: If they were found in the coastal area (pasisir) in Java, they can be Chinese, because Chinese traders had a strong position in their communities. They were talented craftsmen in wood and ceramic. HSL: In syncretism, how can motifs be identified as Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic origins?

Noe’man is Architect of the Salman mosque, AtTin mosque, and many others. He is one of the leading architects, specializing in mosque buildings internationally. A meeting took place at his office, PT. Birano in Bandung, on 30 November 2004. Fauzan, his architect son, was also present.

AF: It is difficult to say, due to a mixture. It is a characteristic of the inter-culture in Java. Walisongo (nine spiritual leaders) used wayang plays to spread Islam peacefully and built the Agung Demak mosque.

AN: When I design a mosque, I look at our history or listen to what people say, or consult with the Islamic sources, although ornament was not mentioned in the Koran, but was in the hadith.

HSL: Are your scrolls at the new Agung Semarang mosque Islamic?

HSL: Hindu-Buddhist temples applied the rules of silpasastra in architecture and sculpture.

AF: Yes and no. I hope to create Javanese continuity because Indonesia is a melting pot. It is a progress of our culture from prehistoric times to the Islamic period. So I combined both local and universal Islamic culture for my mosque. I borrowed orthodox dome, minaret, arabesque, geometry, and calligraphy into this local mosque. In ornamentation, I used square and strict Islamic and curved and soft local geometries. My aim is a combination of emphasis both on the strictness and smoothness in balance. A movement starts from the strictness to the softness or vice versa. For example, I employed Islamic arabesque style to the local ukel motif, since the floral ukel expresses the continuity in our culture. I also borrowed the Umayyad style from Andalusia.

AN: Islam does not have that kind of rule, so we have to see how and what people built mosques. In designing a mosque, the Koran influenced me greatly. According to Surah 2, Al Baqarah 170, when God said to people to follow him, people rejected him. Instead, they followed their ancestors whom God taught. What I mean is that I have the freedom to design anything that I like. My tutor used to say that design is neither eclecticism nor what other architects made. It is a combination of the freedom and knowledge of technology. I always remember this philosophy. (Surah 2, Al Baqarah 170. When it is said to them: ‘Follow what Allah has sent down.’ They say: ‘Nay! We shall follow what we found our fathers followings.’ Even though their fathers did not understand anything nor were they guided?) HSL: Are your ornaments iconographic? 206

A Few Excerpts from Interviews with the 20 Indonesian Scholars AN: According to the hadith, God loves beauty. God likes beauty. Ornament is made for being aesthetic. However, mosques should be functional, too. So I did not use ornaments at the Salman mosque.

(Josef Prijotomo: JP) Prijotomo is Lecturer at the Faculty of Architecture, Surabaya Institute of Technology (ITS) in Surabaya, East Java. He wrote a book on ideas and forms of Hindu-Buddhism and Islam. A meeting occurred at his university in Surabaya on 10 December during the researcher’s second field trip to East Java. He also recommended Bosch’s ‘Golden Germ’.

FAUZAN: Economy also affects ornamentation. My father had to build the Salman mosque without any funding, but the At-Tin mosque is adorned with lavish ornaments because a rich patron wants the mosque both functional and ornamental to express his respect to Allah.

JP: A term ‘Islamic’ does not mean ‘Arabic’. Arabic architecture is Arab culture, while Islamic architecture is international. In Indonesia, Hindu animals at the Sendang Duwur mosque were stylized, due to a ban of living figures in Islam. Hindu stylization became Islamic. It is a kind of a mixture and is an Indonesian style for continuity.

AN: I try to follow the Koran: God does not like people who throw money away. HSL: The At-Tin mosque reminds me of a modern Islamic style, full of arabesque, geometry, and calligraphy. AN: Not really. For me, an ornament is like a prayer. It is repetition and continuity. Prayer is an endless arabesque. I don’t like to categorize ornaments, either Islamic arabesque or Javanese ornament. I combined both. An original Javanese motif is an amalgamation of prehistoric geometry and Hindu-Buddhist floral and animals which Kraton (the palace) produced.

HSL: Agama Jawi, Javanese Islam? JP: Yes. You can hardly find a pure Muslim here, due to syncretism. It is how Islam came peacefully to Java. HSL: Hindu-Buddhist motifs are present in mosques along with Islamic ones. How can I identity their origins?

HSL: What is your style?

JP: There seems to be a principle in Hindu ornament. Many times, we can find three-dimensional scrolls in temples, while ornaments on the Sendang Duwur mosque are almost two-dimensional.

AN: I learn both Hindu-Javanese and Islamic styles, and forget them, and make my style. HSL: The drawing of scrolls of the Al Akbar Surabaya mosque seems to be Islamic in origin, as the mosque was built about five years ago.

HSL: Two-dimensional ornaments can be Islamic? JP: Not necessary. From the 14th to 15th centuries in East Java, ornaments became two-dimensional, expressing a renaissance from prehistoric culture and faiths.

AN: It is difficult to say, but it is a syncretic Javanese form. HSL: Simply, can we say that the lotus is Hindu-Buddhist, and geometry is Islamic?

HSL: Are more stylized and abstract motifs Islamic? JP: Correct. Three-dimensional floral scrolls are Hindu, used in Central Javanese temples. The symbolic lotus was three-dimensional, but in continuation to East Java, they became two-dimensional. The delicacy inside the flower was still kept. When the lotus was adapted to the Sendang Duwur mosque, it became a combination of two-dimensional style and cloud. The lotus is not floral, but it is modified floral. Not real floral, but it can be floral. So when we see scrolls, it can be Hindu, but no. It can be Islamic, but no. This ambiguity and mixture are a Javanese characteristic.

AN: Islamic motifs are easily recognized, due to a geometrical concept. Islamic arabesque has a continuation. When a motif stops somewhere in ornamentation, they can be Hindu-Buddhist. HSL: Scrolls on the mihrab of the Al Ukhuwah mosque was defined as Hind-Buddhist, because of an arched form on the mihrab. When scrolls do not display infinity, it is Hindu-Buddhist. It is a different way to identify the origins of motifs. AN: Again, everything is mixed in Indonesia, but we try to make modern Islamic mosques.

HSL: Simply saying, motifs on original mihrabs are Hindu. If mihrabs are renovated, then they become Islamic. Isn’t it ambiguity? JP: No. They do not become an Islamic style, but they are a modified Islamic style. For Javanese, a beautiful 207

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia mihrab is very important for a simple reason. Myself as a non-Muslim, I can still enjoy ornaments in mosques. Ornament is a strategy for Illuminating Islam. That is why walis (spiritual leaders) used wayang plays. They want to keep a Javanese style for non-Muslims’ easy conversion to Islam. Ornament is designated for enjoying the beauty, and a mihrab is an important place. That is why Hindu Javanese people still visit mosques, and see beautiful ornaments, and become gradually Muslims. This only applies to Javanese Islam.

architecture itself is fine to examine, but we need to see people and their environment. In Madura, outside Java, many European crown ornaments were found. In terms of different environments, for Madurese, Islam is freedom; therefore, they decorated their mosques in a European way, not in an Arabic way. Traditional Sumatra mosques have no single Islamic arabesque, instead of using their own motifs. Pure Islam came after 1960. Before, Javanese Islam prevailed. In Indonesia, we are who we are, after our identity, religion follows. I am a Javanese, and my religion is Islam: a Javanese Muslim. This concept affected mosque ornamentation. We use Javanese culture foremost, calling ‘agama ageming dhiri’. It means religion is an outfit of our body, like an ornament to architecture.

HSL: You mean a modification of Hindu ornament in an Islamic way. JP: The renaissance of the Sendang Duwur mosque is an answer. According to Bosch’s ‘Golden Germ’, Hindu scrolls have a root. They are natural and coarse; Islamic arabesque is just a repetition. When I see motifs on mihrabs, I apply this theory. I am not confused; rather, I have difficulty in concluding, due to a modification. Mosques use Hindu motifs in an Islamic context.

Artists: (A.D. Pirous: ADP) Professor Pirous is Artist, the former Lecturer at the Faculty of Design and Art, Institute of Technology in Bandung. He is noted for editing the Indonesian Koran and exhibiting his artistic work in Indonesia and abroad. A meeting took place at his house in Bandung on 30 November 2004.

HSL: How about the motif at the Al Akbar Surabaya mosque? JP: Contemporary mosques do not use a Hindu style. They are inclined to be Arabic. You see a dome. This mosque has Islamic and Arabic styles. Javanese mosques do not have domes; instead, they take a pyramidal roof to protect against tropical weather.

HSL: You accomplished the first Indonesian Koran? ADP: We collected ornaments from all parts of Indonesia to display our mixed culture and politics in Indonesia. The arabesque which was illustrated in the Koran was derived from the Middle East, but we had plenty of local ornaments. So, I used local motifs in an arabesque style. Since motifs were found in the Indonesian Koran, either Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic arabesque. For me, the arabesque is an ornament which grows in the Islamic Middle East. However, if you allow my very extreme opinion, there is no Islamic art. Instead, there is Islamic Indonesia, Islamic Malaysia, and so on. Arab Muslims mean Arabic ethnic. Malay Muslims are from South East Asia. Although we have the same Islam, we develop it with our culture by the local genius. It is difficult to distinguish motifs either Hindu-Buddhist or Islamic.

HSL: ‘Local genius’ was often mentioned though interviews. JP: Temples in Central Java are originally a Javanese style. It can be influenced by India, but it is a Javanese creation, modified Hinduism. It is a successful combination of Indian and Indonesian cultures. The structure and style of the building are Hindu, but sculpture and ornament are Javanese. It is a result of the local genius’ creativity. HSL: It is another syncretism. JP: A combination of A and B exists. Idea (rule) follows A, then, form follows B. Or Idea follows B, then, form follows A. Idea persists, but form changes. Or form persists, and idea changes. The form is Hindu, but the idea is Islamic. Or form is Islamic, but Hindu is idea. It can answer your question on scrolls.

HSL: What is a Javanese style? ADP: The Islamic Mataram kingdom adopted HinduBuddhism. Prehistoric tumpal motif became Islamic too. This is a Javanese style. After the Dutch conquest over the Mataram, Indonesians started to become orthodox Muslims, because the Dutch were occupied in commerce and left mosques in ruin. Renovations of mosques were mostly done after independence in 1945.

HSL: Frankly speaking, I am exhausted to find a clear answer on identifying the origins of motifs in Javanese mosques, repeating the same questions to everyone. JP: I am not Muslim. I am talking as an architect. We have to acknowledge that local people existed before Islam. We have to see artefacts and interpret them. The 208

A Few Excerpts from Interviews with the 20 Indonesian Scholars HSL: Can we say that Hindu-Buddhist motifs were frequent in the Islamic transitory period, while Islamic motifs represent the contemporary period? Then how about motifs on renovated mihrabs?

starting everywhere. When you say ‘Allah, Allah’, they become an ornament. Ornament moves in space and is a visual prayer. (Abay Subarna: AS)

ADP: If you want to see motifs either black or white, it is difficult.

Dr Subarna is Lecturer at the Faculty of Design, Institute of Technology in Bandung (ITB). He wrote his PhD thesis on pre-Islamic ornaments in Indonesia. He is known as an artist and presented a paper at the international conference on mihrabs. A meeting took place at his house in Bandung on 30 November 2004. He recommended a few books which contributed to the research.

HSL: Arabesque has repetition and a geometric cycle. But Hindu-Buddhist scrolls do not have. ADP: Two things can be used in identifying motifs. They are a system and an element. If motifs have repetition in the system, they display the spirit of arabesque. In Indonesia, a repetitive system was found in motifs, but it is very delicate. Sometimes, I try to see it against Islam, but Islam accepts any floral. The other fact is that when I see a motif, I feel Islamic, due to abstractness. Or my experience on motifs in Islamic sources decides it as Islamic.

AS: Before the influence of Hindu-Buddhist culture to Indonesia, we had a prehistoric culture of geometry, such as the swastika, tumpal, and the same type of kala or naga used in Batak and other places. Then, we had Hindu-Buddhist lotus and scrolls. In other words, Islam did not influence ornaments. We had the same spirit as Islam, called ‘Indonesian spirit’. Islamic abstract design is an Islamic spirit. Of course, there is a difference between them, and you can find the local spirit in East Javanese temples where the revival of true local genius emerged. The Indonesian revival is locality and creativity. Moreover, despite Indian influence on Central Javanese temples, their characteristics are dissimilar to Indian ones. Ornaments existed in Indonesia with Indonesian spirit.

HSL: It seems to me that everybody has their interpretation of my questions. ADP: Indonesia is different, and your question is my question as well. We have animism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, etc. through transparency. HSL: Syncretism is the only answer. ADP: Syncretism means mixing, not matching, and is transparent. When I did an exhibition in Venice, a Sudanese Muslim artist exhibited a combination of Catholic and Coptic styles. He told me that, when he was a child, his grandmother used to read books about Jewish, Catholics, and Muslims; thus, his art became transparent.

HSL: You wrote on mihrabs. Is ornament on mihrabs symbolic? AS: Yes. They are Hindu-Buddhist kala-makara, lotus, and so on. HSL: How do I identify origins of motifs either HinduBuddhist or Islamic?

HSL: Can the lotus in mosques be associated with Buddhism?

AS: Roughly saying, Hindu-Buddhist influence was found in the older period, while Islamic one is in contemporary mosques. However, Indonesian heritages are very important.

ADP: As long as the lotus pedal was not placed for worship, it is fine. Javanese mosque has symbolic ornaments. That is a problem. Depending upon where motifs were located in a mosque building, they have different meanings. Return to the worship, repetition is one side of Islamic ornament. Arabesque has repetition, abstractness, and so on, composed of the floral. Repetition means infinity and connects to Sufism. If I see infinitive motifs, I associated with my prayer to Allah. You can start everywhere. Arabesque is the same,

HSL: Some says, silpasastra was used for architecture and sculpture, but was not for ornament, because the ornament is attached to architecture. AS: Hindu-Javanese architecture used silpasastra in temple construction with Indonesian spirit.

209

Overall View and Syncretic/Orthodox Islamic Ornaments in the 30 Javanese Mosques The transitory period (15C-1619) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, West Java (1452) Agung Demak, Demak, Central Java (1479) Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, West Java (1480) Sunan Giri, Gresik, East Java (1485) Agung Kasepuhan, Cirebon, West Java (1498) Langgar Kraton Kanoman, Cirebon, West Java (1510) Al Alam Cilincing, Jakarta, West Java (c.1520) Kasunyatan, Banten, West Java (1522-70) Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, Central Java (1533) Menara Kudus, Kudus, Central Java (1537) Astana Mantingan, Jepara, Central Java (1559) Sendang Duwur, Paciran, East Java (1561) Al Makmur Jipang, Jepara, Central Java (1561-77) Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, Central Java (1568-1601) Kanari, Banten, West Java (1596-1651)

1-15 (from the top left to right)

210

Overall View and Syncretic/Orthodox Islamic Ornaments in the 30 Javanese Mosques PRE-ISLAMIC

MIHRAB

1

ISLAMIC

2I

2P

3I

3P 4P

4I

CODES: Four pre-Islamic motifs: tumpal (T), kala-makara (KM), lotus bud (L), scroll (S) Three orthodox Islamic motifs: arabesque (A), geometry (G), calligraphy (C) 1. 2. 3. 4.

(mihrab except prayer hall, 1P: pre-Islamic motifs, 1I: Islamic motifs) (prayer hall, 2P: pre-Islamic motifs, 2I: Islamic motifs) (serambi, 3P: pre-Islamic motifs, 3I: Islamic motifs) (outside the mosque, 4P: pre-Islamic motifs, 4I: Islamic motifs)

Mosque 1. 1: lotus bud (1P) / 2: tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud (2P); calligraphy (2I) / 3: tumpal, scroll (3P) Mosque 2. 1: geometry, calligraphy (1I) / 2: lotus bud, scroll (2P); geometry, calligraphy (2I) / 3: tumpal, scroll (3P); calligraphy (3I) / 4: tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud (4P); calligraphy (4I) Mosque 3. 1: tumpal, kala-makara (1P) / 2: tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud (2P) / 3: kala-makara, lotus bud (3P); calligraphy (3I) Mosque 4. 1: tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud (1P) / 2: tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll (2P); calligraphy (2I) / scroll (3P) / 4: calligraphy (4I) Mosque 5. 1: kala-makara, lotus bud (1P); geometry, calligraphy (1I) / 2: kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll (2P); geometry, calligraphy (2I) / 3: tumpal (3P) Mosque 6. 1: tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud (1P); calligraphy (1I) / 2: tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud (2P); calligraphy (2I) Mosque 7. 1: arabesque, calligraphy (1I) / 2: arabesque, calligraphy (2I) / 3: tumpal (3P) / 4: lotus bud (4P) Mosque 8. 1: kala-makara (1P); calligraphy (1I) / 2: kala-makara, lotus bud (2P); calligraphy (2I) / 4: kala-makara, lotus bud (4P); calligraphy (4I) Mosque 9. 1: kala-makara (1P) / 2: kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll (2P); calligraphy (2I) / 3: tumpal (3P); calligraphy (3I) / 4: kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll (4P) Mosque 10. 1: tumpal, arabesque, geometry, calligraphy (1I) / 2: tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll (2P); arabesque, geometry, calligraphy (2I) / 3: geometry, calligraphy (3I) / 4: kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll (4P); calligraphy (4I) Mosque 11. 1: tumpal, scroll (1P); geometry (1I) / 2: tumpal, scroll (2P); geometry (2I) / 3: tumpal, lotus bud (3P) / 4: tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud (4P); calligraphy (4I) Mosque 12. 1: kala-makara (1P) / 2: kala-makara, lotus bud (2P) / 4: tumpal, lotus bud, scroll (4P); calligraphy (4I) Mosque 13. 1: tumpal. kala-makara, lotus bud (1P); calligraphy (1I) / 2: tumpal. kala-makara, lotus bud (2P); calligraphy (2I) / 3: lotus flower (3P); calligraphy (3I) / 4: calligraphy (4I) Mosque 14. 1: kala-makara, lotus flower with scroll (1P); calligraphy (1I) / 2: kala-makara, lotus flower with scroll (2P); calligraphy (2I) / 4: tumpal, kala, lotus scroll (4P) Mosque 15. 1: kala-makara (1P); geometry (1I) / 2: kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll (2P); arabesque, geometry (2I) / 4: kala-makara, lotus bud (4P); geometry, calligraphy (4I)

211

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia The Dutch colonization era (1619-1945) 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, West Java (1679) Hidayatullah, Jakarta, West Java (1750) Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, West Java (1761) Agung Yogya, Yogyakarta, Central Java (1773) Agung Malang, Malang, East Java (1853-90) Al Wustho Mangkunegara, Solo, Central Java (1878-1918) Kampung Nembol, Banten, West Java (1880) Caringin Labuan, Banten, West Java (1883-93) Carita Labuan, Banten, West Java (1889-95) Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, West Java (1933)

16-25 (from the top left to right) Mosque 16. 1: kala-makara, lotus bud (1P); geometry, calligraphy (1I) / 2: kala-makara, lotus bud (2P); geometry, calligraphy (2I) / 3: lotus bud (3P); geometry (3I) Mosque 17. 1: arabesque, calligraphy (1I) / 2: lotus bud, scroll (2P); arabesque, calligraphy (2I) / 3: arabesque, geometry, calligraphy (3I) Mosque 18. 2: calligraphy (2I) / 3: scroll (3P) / 4: tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud (4P) Mosque 19. 1: lotus bud with scroll (1P); calligraphy (1I) / 2: tumpal, lotus bud with scroll (2P); calligraphy (2I) / 3: tumpal (3P) / 4: tumpal, lotus bud (4P) Mosque 20. 1: lotus bud, scroll (1P); geometry (1I) / 2: tumpal, lotus bud, scroll (2P); geometry, calligraphy (2I) Mosque 21. 1: kala-makara, lotus flower scroll (1P) / 2: tumpal, kala-makara, lotus flower, scroll (2P); calligraphy (2I) / 3: geometry, calligraphy (3I) / 4: calligraphy (4I) Mosque 22. 1: lotus bud, scroll (1P); arabesque, calligraphy (1I) / 2: kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll (2P); arabesque, calligraphy (2I) / 3: lotus bud, scroll (3P); calligraphy (3I) / 4: lotus bud (4P) Mosque 23. 1: lotus bud (1P); calligraphy (1I) / 2: kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll (2P); calligraphy (2I) / 3: scroll (3P) Mosque 24. 1: kala-makara (1P) / 2: tumpal, kala-makara, lotus bud (2P); calligraphy (2I) / 3: calligraphy (3I) / 4: tumpal (4P); calligraphy (4I) Mosque 25. 1: geometry, calligraphy (1I) / 2: lotus bud (2P); geometry, calligraphy (2I) / 3: kala-makara (3P); arabesque, geometry, calligraphy (3I)

212

Overall View and Syncretic/Orthodox Islamic Ornaments in the 30 Javanese Mosques The contemporary period (1945-to the present day) 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Al Azhar, Jakarta, West Java (1952-58) Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, West Java (1969-71) Sabilliah Malang, Malang, East Java (1974)  Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, West Java (1990) Al Akbar Surabaya, Surabaya, East Java (1995-2000)

26-30 (from the top left to right) Mosque 26. 1: arabesque, geometry, calligraphy (1I) / 2: arabesque, geometry, calligraphy (2I) / 3: lotus bud (3P) / 4: lotus bud (4P); calligraphy (4I) Mosque 27. 1: lotus bud (1P); arabesque, geometry, calligraphy (1I) / 2: lotus bud (2P); arabesque, geometry, calligraphy (2I) / 3: arabesque, geometry, calligraphy (3I) Mosque 28. 1: lotus bud, scroll (1P); geometry, calligraphy (1I) / 2: lotus bud, scroll (2P); geometry, calligraphy (2I) / 4: geometry (4I) Mosque 29. 1: scroll/arabesque, geometry, calligraphy (1I) / 2: arabesque, calligraphy (2I) / 3: arabesque (3I) Mosque 30. 1: geometry, calligraphy (1I) / 2: geometry, calligraphy (2I)

213

Appendix 1 1. Information on Javanese Mosques (Alphabet) No

Mosque

Date

Location

Patron

Architect

Contact Name

Date Of Visit

1

Agung Demak, Demak, JC

1479

Kauman, Deman, JC

Wali Songo, Patat Palace

Raden Sephet & Trepas

o

22/09/03, 23/04/04

car/ train

2

Agung Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

1498

Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

Sunan Gunung Jati

S.Kalijaga, Sephet & Trepas

K Alhary Namen

5/8/2004

car

3

Agung Malang, Malang, JE

1853-90

Malang, JE

Regent Malang Dutch people

x

5/30/2004

air/car

4

Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, JC

15681601

Kota Gede, Yogjakarta

Panembahan Senopati

x

H. Asngari

15/11/03, 28/05/04

air/ car/ train

5

Agung Yogja, Yogyakarta, JC

1773

Ngupasan, Yogjakarta

Sultan Sri Hamengkubu Wono

K Wiryakusuno

x

15/11/03, 28/05/04

air/ car/ train

6

Al Akbar Surabaya, JE

19952000

Surabaya, JE

Tamzil Taher

Team ITS

x

5/30/2004

air/car

Cilining, Jakarta N

Fataillah

x

Syab

4/19/2004

car

Angke, Jakarta W

Ahmad

x

Suprianta

4/20/2004

car

Keboyaran, Jakarta S

Soedirjo, Tanjung Hok

x

Abdul Rachman

15/11/03, 22/04/04

car

Ario Penangsang

x

Khaya Nasuha(Iman)

4/26/2004

car/ train

Means Re.

7

Al Alam Cilincing, c.1520 Jakarta, JW

8

Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, JW

9

Al Azhar, Jakarta, 1952-58 JW

10

Jipang, Kudus, Al Makmur 1561-77 JC Jipang, Jepara, JC

11

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, JW

1990

Bandung, Periangan, JW

MUI of Bandung district

H. Kulman

o

5/7/2004

car

Al Wustho 12 Mangkunegaran, Solo, JC

18781918

Ketelan, Solo, Surakarta

Adipati Mangkunegara XII

Thomas Karsten

Munin

5/29/2004

air/ car/ train

1559

Mantingan, Jepara, JC

Queen Kalinyamat

x

Ali Syfili(Iman)

4/25/2004

car/ train

Caringin, Banten, JW

Syekh Asnawi

x

Secretary

5/14/2004

car

Sibil 5/14/2004 Soehardi(Iman)

car

13 14

Astana Mantingan, Jepara, JC

1761

Caringin Labuan, 1883-93 Banten, JW

15

Carita Labuan, Banten, JW

1889-95

Carita, Banten, JW

Syekh Al Khusani

Chinese Muslim

16

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, JW

1750

Karet Depan, Jakarta S

Villagers of the district

IAI

H.A. Nawawi(Iman)

12/12/03, 09/05/04

car

17

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1679

Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

Sultan Badruddin

x

Moeh Rais

5/8/2004

car

18

Kampung Nembol, Banten, JW

1880

Nembol, Banten, JW

Syekh Sholeh Zubaid

Villagers

x

5/14/2004

car

19

Kanari, Banten, JW

15961651

x

o

5/14/2004

car

Kanari, Banten, Sultan Banten JW IV

214

Appendix 1

No

Mosque

Date

Location

Patron

Architect

Contact Name

Date Of Visit

20

Kasunyatan, Banten, JW

1522-70

Kasunyaten, Banten, JW

Syekh Abdul Syukur

x

o

5/14/2004

car

21

Langgar Kraton Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1510

Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

Maulana Hasannuddin

x

Moeh Rais

5/8/2004

car

22

Menara Kudus, Kudus, JC

1537

Kauman, Kudus, JC

Sunan Kudus

x

x

22/09/03, 26/04/04

car/ train

23

Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, JW

1480

Panjunan, Cirebon,JW

Syarif A. alBagdadi

x

Mochanmad Yusuf Ishaq

5/8/2004

car

24

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, JW

1452

Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

Prince Cakrabuana

x

Moeh Rais

5/8/2004

car

25

Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, JW

1933

Bandung, Peiangan, JW

x

Wolf Schoemaker

Bukhari (Secretary)

5/7/2004

car

26

Sabilillah Malang, Malang, JE

1974

Malang, JE

Raden Nur Rahmant

x

x

5/30/2004

air/car

27

Sendang Duwur, Paciran, JE

1561

Paciran, JE

Sunan Sendang Duwur

x

x

5/30/2004

air/car

28

Sunan Giri, Gresik, JE

1485

Gresik, JE

Sunan Giri

x

x

9/22/2003

air/car

29

Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, JC

1533

Kadilangu, Demak, JC

Sunan Kalijaga, Prince Wijil

x

B.P.R.Prayitan Prawipokusuno

22/09/03, 25/04/04

car/ train

30

Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, JW

1969-71

Menteng, Jakarta C

Alamsyah Ratu Prawiranegara

x

Ahyoni

01/12/03, 05/04/04

car

215

Means Re.

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia 2 Information on Javanese Mosques (Period) No

Mosque

Date

Location

Patron

Architect

Contact Name

Date Of Visit

1

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, JW

1452

Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

Prince Cakrabuana

x

Moeh Rais

5/8/2004

car

2

Agung Demak, Demak, JC

1479

Kauman, Deman, JC

Wali Songo, Patat Palace

Raden Sephet & Trepas

o

22/09/03, 23/04/04

car/ train

3

Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, JW

1480

Panjunan, Cirebon,JW

Syarif A. alBagdadi

x

Mochanmad Yusuf Ishaq

5/8/2004

car

4

Sunan Giri, Gresik, JE

1485

Gresik, JE

Sunan Giri

x

x

9/22/2003

air/car

5

Agung Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

1498

Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

Sunan Gunung Jati

S.Kalijaga, Sephet & Trepas

K Alhary Namen

5/8/2004

car

6

Langgar Kraton Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1510

Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

Maulana Hasannuddin

x

Moeh Rais

5/8/2004

car

7

Al Alam Cilincing, Jakarta, JW

c.1520

Cilining, Jakarta N

Fataillah

x

Syab

4/19/2004

car

8

Kasunyatan, Banten, JW

1522-70

Kasunyaten, Banten, JW

Syekh Abdul Syukur

x

o

5/14/2004

car

9

Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, JC

1533

Kadilangu, Demak, JC

Sunan Kalijaga, Prince Wijil

x

B.P.R.Prayitan Prawipokusuno

22/09/03, 25/04/04

car/ train

10

Menara Kudus, Kudus, JC

1537

Kauman, Kudus, JC

Sunan Kudus

x

x

22/09/03, 26/04/04

car/ train

11

Astana Mantingan, Jepara, JC

1559

Mantingan, Jepara, JC

Queen Kalinyamat

x

Ali Syfili(Iman)

4/25/2004

car/ train

12

Sendang Duwur, Paciran, JE

1561

Paciran, JE

Sunan Sendang Duwur

x

x

5/30/2004

air/car

13

Jipang, Kudus, Al Makmur 1561-77 JC Jipang, Jepara, JC

Ario Penangsang

x

Khaya Nasuha(Iman)

4/26/2004

car/ train

14

Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, JC

15681601

Kota Gede, Yogjakarta

Panembahan Senopati

x

H. Asngari

15/11/03, 28/05/04

air/ car/ train

15

Kanari, Banten, JW

15961651

Kanari, Banten, JW

Sultan Banten IV

x

o

5/14/2004

car

16

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1679

Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

Sultan Badruddin

x

Moeh Rais

5/8/2004

car

17

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, JW

1750

Karet Depan, Jakarta S

Villagers of the district

IAI

H.A. Nawawi(Iman)

12/12/03, 09/05/04

car

18

Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, JW

1761

Angke, Jakarta W

Ahmad

x

Suprianta

4/20/2004

car

19

Agung Yogja, Yogyakarta, JC

1773

Ngupasan, Yogjakarta

Sultan Sri Hamengkubu Wono

K Wiryakusuno

x

15/11/03, 28/05/04

air/ car/ train

20

Agung Malang, 1853-90 Malang, JE

Regent Malang Dutch people

x

5/30/2004

air/car

Munin

5/29/2004

air/ car/ train

Al Wustho 21 Mangkunegaran, Solo, JC

18781918

Malang, JE Ketelan, Solo, Surakarta

Adipati Mangkunegara XII

216

Thomas Karsten

Means Re.

Appendix 1

No

Mosque

Kampung 22 Nembol, Banten, JW 23

Date

Location

Patron

Architect

Contact Name

Date Of Visit

1880

Nembol, Banten, JW

Syekh Sholeh Zubaid

Villagers

x

5/14/2004

car

Caringin, Banten, JW

Syekh Asnawi

x

Secretary

5/14/2004

car

Caringin Labuan, 1883-93 Banten, JW

Means Re.

24

Carita Labuan, Banten, JW

1889-95

Carita, Banten, JW

Syekh Al Khusani

Chinese Muslim

Sibil Soehardi(Iman)

5/14/2004

car

25

Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, JW

1933

Bandung, Peiangan, JW

x

Wolf Schoemaker

Bukhar i(Secretary)

5/7/2004

car

Keboyaran, Jakarta S

Soedirjo, Tanjung Hok

x

Abdul Rachman

15/11/03, 22/04/04

car

1969-71

Menteng, Jakarta C

Alamsyah Ratu Prawiranegara

x

Ahyoni

01/12/03, 05/04/04

car

1974

Malang, JE

Raden Nur Rahmant

x

x

5/30/2004

air/car

H. Kulman

o

5/7/2004

car

Team ITS

x

5/30/2004

air/car

26 27

Al Azhar, Jakarta, 1952-58 JW Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, JW

Sabilillah 28 Malang, Malang, JE 29

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, JW

1990

30

Al Akbar Surabaya, JE

19952000

Bandung, MUI of Bandung Periangan, JW district Surabaya, JE

Tamzil Taher

217

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia 3 Information on Javanese Mosques (Region) No

Mosque

Date

Location

Patron

Architect

Contact Name

Date Of Visit

1

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, JW

1452

Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

Prince Cakrabuana

x

Moeh Rais

5/8/2004

car

2

Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, JW

1480

Panjunan, Cirebon,JW

Syarif A. alBagdadi

x

Mochanmad Yusuf Ishaq

5/8/2004

car

3

Agung Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

1498

Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

Sunan Gunung Jati

S.Kalijaga, Sephet & Trepas

K Alhary Namen

5/8/2004

car

4

Langgar Kraton Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1510

Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

Maulana Hasannuddin

x

Moeh Rais

5/8/2004

car

5

Al Alam Cilincing, Jakarta, JW

c.1520

Cilining, Jakarta N

Fataillah

x

Syab

4/19/2004

car

6

Kasunyatan, Banten, JW

1522-70

Kasunyaten, Banten, JW

Syekh Abdul Syukur

x

o

5/14/2004

car

7

Kanari, Banten, JW

Sultan Banten IV

x

o

5/14/2004

car

8

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1679

Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

Sultan Badruddin

x

Moeh Rais

5/8/2004

car

9

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, JW

1750

Karet Depan, Jakarta S

Villagers of the district

IAI

H.A. Nawawi(Iman)

12/12/03, 09/05/04

car

10

Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, JW

1761

Angke, Jakarta W

Ahmad

x

Suprianta

4/20/2004

car

11

Kampung Nembol, Banten, JW

1880

Nembol, Banten, JW

Syekh Sholeh Zubaid

Villagers

x

5/14/2004

car

Caringin, Banten, JW

Syekh Asnawi

x

Secretary

5/14/2004

car

12

1596- Kanari, Banten, 1651 JW

Caringin Labuan, 1883-93 Banten, JW

Means Re.

13

Carita Labuan, Banten, JW

1889-95

Carita, Banten, JW

Syekh Al Khusani

Chinese Muslim

Sibil Soehardi(Iman)

5/14/2004

car

14

Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, JW

1933

Bandung, Peiangan, JW

x

Wolf Schoemaker

Bukhari (Secretary)

5/7/2004

car

Keboyaran, Jakarta S

Soedirjo, Tanjung Hok

x

Abdul Rachman

15/11/03, 22/04/04

car

Menteng, Jakarta C

Alamsyah Ratu Prawiranegara

x

Ahyoni

01/12/03, 05/04/04

car

H. Kulman

o

5/7/2004

car

15

Al Azhar, Jakarta, 1952-58 JW

16

Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, JW

1969-71

17

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, JW

1990

18

Agung Demak, Demak, JC

1479

Kauman, Deman, JC

Wali Songo, Patat Palace

Raden Sephet & Trepas

o

22/09/03, 23/04/04

car/ train

19

Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, JC

1533

Kadilangu, Demak, JC

Sunan Kalijaga, Prince Wijil

x

B.P.R.Prayitan Prawipokusuno

22/09/03, 25/04/04

car/ train

20

Menara Kudus, Kudus, JC

1537

Kauman, Kudus, JC

Sunan Kudus

x

x

22/09/03, 26/04/04

car/ train

21

Astana Mantingan, Jepara, JC

1559

Mantingan, Jepara, JC

Queen Kalinyamat

x

Ali Syfili(Iman)

4/25/2004

car/ train

22

Jipang, Kudus, Al Makmur Jipang, 1561-77 JC Jepara, JC

Ario Penangsang

x

Khaya Nasuha(Iman)

4/26/2004

car/ train

Bandung, MUI of Bandung Periangan, JW district

218

Appendix 1

No

Mosque

Date

Location

Patron

Architect

Contact Name

Date Of Visit

23

Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, JC

15681601

Kota Gede, Yogjakarta

Panembahan Senopati

x

H. Asngari

15/11/03, 28/05/04

air/ car/ train

24

Agung Yogja, Yogyakarta, JC

1773

Ngupasan, Yogjakarta

Sultan Sri Hamengkubu Wono

K Wiryakusuno

x

15/11/03, 28/05/04

air/ car/ train

25

Al Wustho Mangkunegaran, Solo, JC

18781918

Ketelan, Solo, Surakarta

Adipati Mangkunegara XII

Thomas Karsten

Munin

5/29/2004

air/ car/ train

26

Sunan Giri, Gresik, JE

1485

Gresik, JE

Sunan Giri

x

x

9/22/2003 air/car

27

Sendang Duwur, Paciran, JE

1561

Paciran, JE

Sunan Sendang Duwur

x

x

5/30/2004 air/car

28

Agung Malang, Malang, JE

1853-90

Malang, JE

Regent Malang Dutch people

x

5/30/2004 air/car

29

Sabilillah Malang, Malang, JE

1974

Malang, JE

Raden Nur Rahmant

x

x

5/30/2004 air/car

30

Al Akbar Surabaya, 1995JE 2000

Surabaya, JE

Tamzil Taher

Team ITS

x

5/30/2004 air/car

219

Means Re.

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

NO

MOSQUE

DATE

ALUNALUN

CEILING

DOOR

DRUM

GATE

MADRASH

MAKAM

MAKSURA

MIHRAB

MINARET

MINBAR

MUSTAKA

PAWESREN

PILLAR

PRAYER HALL

ROOF

SERAMBI

WINDOW

WUDHU

4 General Settings of Javanese Mosques (Alphabet)

1

Agung Demak, Demak, JC

1479

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

2

Agung Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

1498

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o+

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

3

Agung Malang, Malang, JE

1853-90

o

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

4

Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, JC

15681601

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

5

Agung Yogya, Yogyakarta, JC

1773

o

o

o

x

o

x

x

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

6

Al Akbar Surabaya, Surabaya, JE

19952000

x

o

o

x

o

x

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

7

Al Alam Cilincing, Jakarta, JW

c.1520

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

8

Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, JW

1761

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

9

Al Azhar, Jakarta, 1952-58 JW

x

o

o

x

o

o

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

x

o

o

o

o

o

10

Al Makmur Jipang, 1561-77 Jepara, JC

x

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

11

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, JW

1990

x

o

o

x

x

x

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

x

o

o

o

o

o

12

Al Wustho Mangkunegara, Solo, JC

18781918

o

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

13

Astana Mantingan, Jepara, JC

1559

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

14

Caringin Labuan, Banten, JW

1883-93

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

15

Carita Labuan, Banten, JW

1889-95

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o+

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

16

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, JW

1750

x

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

17

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1679

o

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

18

Kampung Nembol, Banten, JW

1880

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

19 Kanari, Banten, JW

15961651

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

20

Kasunyatan, Banten, JW

1522-70

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

21

Langgar Keraton Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1510

x

o

x

o

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

x

o

22

Menara Kudus, Kudus, JC

1537

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

220

RE

NO

MOSQUE

DATE

ALUNALUN

CEILING

DOOR

DRUM

GATE

MADRASH

MAKAM

MAKSURA

MIHRAB

MINARET

MINBAR

MUSTAKA

PAWESREN

PILLAR

PRAYER HALL

ROOF

SERAMBI

WINDOW

WUDHU

Appendix 1

23

Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, JW

1480

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

24

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, JW

1452

x

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

25

Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, JW

1933

x

o

o

x

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o+ o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

26

Sabilillah Malang, Malang, JE

1974

x

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

o

o

o+

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

27

Sendang Duwur, Paciran, JE

1561

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

28

Sunan Giri, Gresik, JE

1485

x

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

29

Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, JC

1533

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

30

Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, JW

1969-71

x

o

o

x

o

o

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

x

o

o

o

o

o

o+: modern muskata, #: partitioned pawestren inside the prayer hall

221

RE

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

NO

MOSQUE

DATE

ALUNALUN

CEILING

DOOR

DRUM

GATE

MADRASH

MAKAM

MAKSURA

MIHRAB

MINARET

MINBAR

MUSTAKA

PAWESREN

PILLAR

PRAYER HALL

ROOF

SERAMBI

WINDOW

WUDHU

5 General Settings of Javanese Mosques (Period)

1

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, JW

1452

x

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

2

Agung Demak, Demak, JC

1479

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

3

Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, JW

1480

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

4

Sunan Giri, Gresik, JE

1485

x

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

5

Agung Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

1498

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

Langgar Keraton 6 Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1510

x

o

x

o

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

x

o

7

Al Alam Cilincing, Jakarta, JW

c.1520

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

8

Kasunyatan, Banten, JW

1522-70

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

9

Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, JC

1533

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

10

Menara Kudus, Kudus, JC

1537

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

11

Astana Mantingan, Jepara, JC

1559

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

12

Sendang Duwur, Paciran, JE

1561

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

15681601

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

15961651

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

13 14

Al Makmur Jipang, 1561-77 Jepara, JC Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, JC

15 Kanari, Banten, JW 16

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1679

o

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

17

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, JW

1750

x

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

18

Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, JW

1761

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

19

Agung Yogya, Yogyakarta, JC

1773

o

o

o

x

o

x

x

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

20

Agung Malang, Malang, JE

1853-90

o

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

21

Al Wustho Mangkunegara, Solo, JC

18781918

o

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

22

Kampung Nembol, Banten, JW

1880

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

222

RE

NO

MOSQUE

DATE

ALUNALUN

CEILING

DOOR

DRUM

GATE

MADRASH

MAKAM

MAKSURA

MIHRAB

MINARET

MINBAR

MUSTAKA

PAWESREN

PILLAR

PRAYER HALL

ROOF

SERAMBI

WINDOW

WUDHU

Appendix 1

23

Caringin Labuan, Banten, JW

1883-93

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

24

Carita Labuan, Banten, JW

1889-95

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o+

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

25

Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, JW

1933

x

o

o

x

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o+ o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

26

Al Azhar, Jakarta, JW

1952-58

x

o

o

x

o

o

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

x

o

o

o

o

o

27

Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, JW

1969-71

x

o

o

x

o

o

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

x

o

o

o

o

o

28

Sabilillah Malang, Malang, JE

1974

x

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

o

o

o+

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

29

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, JW

1990

x

o

o

x

x

x

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

x

o

o

o

o

o

30

Al Akbar Surabaya, Surabaya, JE

19952000

x

o

o

x

o

x

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

o+: modern mustaka, o#: partitioned pawestren inside the prayer hall

223

RE

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

NO

MOSQUE

DATE

ALUNALUN

CEILING

DOOR

DRUM

GATE

MADRASH

MAKAM

MAKSURA

MIHRAB

MINARET

MINBAR

MUSTAKA

PAWESREN

PILLAR

PRAYER HALL

ROOF

SERAMBI

WINDOW

WUDHU

6 General Settings of Javanese Mosques (Region)

1

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, JW

1452

x

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

2

Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, JW

1480

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

3

Agung Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

1498

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

4

Langgar Keraton Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1510

x

o

x

o

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

x

o

5

Al Alam Cilincing, Jakarta, JW

c.1520

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

Kasunyatan, Banten, 1522JW 70

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

6 7

Kanari, Banten, JW

15961651

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

8

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1679

o

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

9

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, JW

1750

x

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

10

Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, JW

1761

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

11

Kampung Nembol, Banten, JW

1880

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

12

Caringin Banten, Labuan, JW

188393

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

13

Carita Labuan, Banten, JW

188995

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o+

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

14

Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, JW

1933

x

o

o

x

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o+ o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

195258

x

o

o

x

o

o

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

x

o

o

o

o

o

15 Al Azhar, Jakarta, JW 16

Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, JW

196971

x

o

o

x

o

o

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

x

o

o

o

o

o

17

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, JW

1990

x

o

o

x

x

x

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

x

o

o

o

o

o

18

Agung Demak, Demak, JC

1479

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

19

Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, JC

1533

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

20

Menara Kudus, Kudus, JC

1537

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

21

Astana Mantingan, Jepara, JC

1559

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

22

Al Makmur Jipang, Jepara, JC

156177

x

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

224

RE

NO

MOSQUE

DATE

ALUNALUN

CEILING

DOOR

DRUM

GATE

MADRASH

MAKAM

MAKSURA

MIHRAB

MINARET

MINBAR

MUSTAKA

PAWESREN

PILLAR

PRAYER HALL

ROOF

SERAMBI

WINDOW

WUDHU

Appendix 1

23

Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, JC

15681601

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

24

Agung Yogya, Yogyakarta, JC

1773

o

o

o

x

o

x

x

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

25

Al Wustho Mangkunegara, Solo, JC

18781918

o

o

o

o

o

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

1485

x

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

26 Sunan Giri, Gresik, JE 27

Sendang Duwur, Paciran, JE

1561

x

o

o

o

o

x

o

x

o

x

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

28

Agung Malang, Malang, JE

185390

o

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

29

Sabilillah Malang, Malang, JE

1974

x

o

o

o

o

x

x

x

o

o

o

o+

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

30

Al Akbar Surabaya, Surabaya, JE

19952000

x

o

o

x

o

x

x

x

o

o

o

o+ o#

o

o

o

o

o

o

o+: modern mustaka, o#: partitioned pawestren inside the prayer hall

225

RE

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

NO

MOSQUE

DATE

CANDI BENTAR / PADURAKSA

GARUDA

KALA-MAKARA

LOTUS

ROSETTE MEDALLION, ETC

SCROLL

TUMPAL

REMARKS

7 Megalithic, Hindu-Buddhist, Chinese, European Motifs in Javanese Mosques (Alphabet)

1

Agung Demak, Demak, JC

1479

x

x

maka

alun, wi

ga, mih, wa

do, maks, pi(se), wa(se)

ga, maka, pi(out,se)

mega, hindbudd, chin

2

Agung Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

1498

ga

x

maka, mih, min

mih

x

mih, min

pi

mega, hindbudd, chin

3

Agung Malang, Malang, JE

18531890

x

x

x

min

x

mih, min

pi

mega, hindbudd

4

Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, JC

15681601

ga

ga, mih

ga, mih, min, wa

ga, mih

ga, wa

maka, mih, min

ga, wa

mega, hindbudd

5

Agung Yogya, Yogyakarta, JC

1773

x

x

x

ga, min

pi(pr,se)

do, mih, min

do, pi(se), wa

mega, hindbudd

6

Al Akbar Surabaya, JE

19952000

x

x

x

x

ce, do, wi

x

x

no influence

7

Al Alam Cilincing, Jakarta, JW

c.1520

x

x

x

ga

x

x

pi(se)

mega, hindbudd

8

Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, JW

1761

x

x

maka, ro

maka, ro

maka

do

maka

mega, hindbudd, chin

x

x

x

do, ga

wi

x

x

hind-budd

9

Al Azhar, Jakarta, JW 1952-8

10

Al Makmur Jipang, Jepara, JC

156177

ga

x

mih, min

mih, se

mih, wa

x

mih

mega, hindbudd, west

11

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, JW

1990

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

no influence

12

Al Wustho Mangkunegara, Solo, JC

1878

x

x

min

maks, mih

x

mih, min

pi

mega, hindbudd

13

Astana Mantingan, Jepara, JC

1559

ga

x

maka

ga, mih, se, ga, mih, mih, min wa wa

mih, wa

mega, hindbudd, chin

14

Caringin Labuan, Banten, JW

188393

x

x

do, min

mih

x

do, min

x

hind-budd

15

Carita Labuan, Banten, JW

188995

x

x

mih, min

pi

wa, wa(out)

x

pi, wa(out)

mega, hindbudd, west

16

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, JW

1750

x

x

x

min

min

pi

x

hind-budd, chin

17

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1679

ga

x

mih, min

mih, se

wa

x

x

hind-budd, west

18

Kampung Nembol, Banten, JW

1880

x

x

min

ga, mih, min, pi(pr,se)

mih

do, mih, min

x

hind-budd

19

Kanari, Banten, JW

15961651

maka

x

ga, maka, mih

ga, pi

maka

x

x

hind-budd

20

Kasunyatan, Banten, JW

152270

x

ga

ga, maka, mih, min

maka, pr

ga

x

x

hind-budd

21

Langgar Keraton Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1510

ga

ga

mih, min

mih

wa

x

pi

mega, hindbudd, west

226

ROSETTE MEDALLION, ETC

DATE

22

Menara Kudus, Kudus, JC

1537

ga, maka, maka, pr maka, pr pr

23

Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, JW

1480

ga, se

ga

mih, min, se

mih, se

se, wa

24

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, JW

1452

x

x

min

mih

25

Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, JW

1933

x

x

ga

26

Sabilillah Malang, Malang, JE

1974

x

x

27

Sendang Duwur, Paciran, JE

1561

ga

1485

28 Sunan Giri, Gresik, JE

x

mih, pi

mega, hindbudd, west

wa

do, win

do, min, pi

mega,hindbudd,chin,west

pi

x

x

x

hind-budd

x

mih, min

x

mih, min

x

hind-budd

ga

mih, min

ga, maka

mih, wa

ga, maka, pi (out, pad), wa

maka, pi(out)

mega, hindbudd, west

ga

x

mih, min

mih, pi

x

do, ga

ga, pi

mega, hindbudd

maka, maka, min mih, min

x

do

pi(se)

mega, hindbudd, chin

ga

ga

x

hind-budd

29

Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, JC

1533

x

ga

30

Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, JW

1969

x

x

SCROLL

mega, hindbudd, chin, west

LOTUS

pr

GARUDA

REMARKS

MOSQUE

TUMPAL

NO

CANDI BENTAR / PADURAKSA

KALA-MAKARA

Appendix 1

maka, pr, mina, wa maka, pr pi

x

mih

ce(ceiling), dom(dome), do(door), fa(facade), fl(floor), ga(gate), la(lamp), maka(makam), maks(maksura), mih(mihrab), min(minbar), mina(minaret), pi(pillar), pr(prayer), ra(railing), ro(roof), se(serambi), si(signboard), wa(wall), wi(window)

227

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

GARUDA

KALA-MAKARA

LOTUS

ROSETTE MEDALLION, ETC

1

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, JW

1452

x

x

min

mih

wa

2

Agung Demak, Demak, JC

1479

x

x

maka

alun, wi

3

Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, JW

1480

ga, se

ga

mih, min, se

mih, se

se, wa

x

mih, pi

mega, hindbudd, west

4

Sunan Giri, Gresik, JE

1485

ga

x

mih, min

mih, pi

x

do, ga

ga, pi

mega, hind-budd

5

Agung Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

1498

ga

x

maka, mih, min

mih

x

mih, min

pi

mega, hindbudd, chin

6

Langgar Keraton Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1510

ga

ga

mih, min

mih

wa

x

pi

mega, hindbudd, west

7

Al Alam Cilincing, Jakarta, JW

c.1520

x

x

x

ga

x

x

pi(se)

mega, hind-budd

x

ga

ga, maka, mih, min

maka, pr

ga

x

x

hind-budd

x

ga

maka, maka, min mih, min

x

do

pi(se)

mega, hindbudd, chin

8

Kasunyatan, Banten, 1522-70 JW

9

Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, JC

10

Menara Kudus, Kudus, JC

1537

11

Astana Mantingan, Jepara, JC

1559

ga

x

12

Sendang Duwur, Paciran, JE

1561

ga

13

Al Makmur Jipang, Jepara, JC

1561-77

14

Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, JC

15

1533

REMARKS

DATE

TUMPAL

MOSQUE

SCROLL

NO

CANDI BENTAR / PADURAKSA

8 Megalithic, Hindu-Buddhist, Chinese, European Motifs in Javanese Mosques (Period)

do, win

do, min, pi

mega, hindbudd, chin, west

ga, mih, do, maks, ga, maka, wa pi(se), wa(se) pi(out,se)

mega, hindbudd, chin

maka, pr, mina, wa pi

maka, pr

pr

mega, hindbudd, chin, west

maka

ga, mih, se, wa

ga, mih, wa

mih, min

mih, wa

mega, hindbudd, chin

ga

mih, min

ga, maka

mih, wa

ga, maka, pi(out,pad), wa

maka, pi(out)

mega, hindbudd, west

ga

x

mih, min

mih, se

mih, wa

x

mih

mega, hindbudd, west

15681601

ga

ga, mih

ga, mih, min, wa

ga, mih

ga, wa

maka, mih, min

ga, wa

mega, hind-budd

Kanari, Banten, JW

15961651

maka

x

ga, maka, mih

ga, pi

maka

x

x

hind-budd

16

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1679

ga

x

mih, min

mih, se

wa

x

x

hindbudd, west

17

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, JW

1750

x

x

x

min

min

pi

x

hindbudd, chin

ga, maka, maka, pr maka, pr pr

228

NO

MOSQUE

DATE

CANDI BENTAR / PADURAKSA

GARUDA

KALA-MAKARA

LOTUS

ROSETTE MEDALLION, ETC

SCROLL

TUMPAL

REMARKS

Appendix 1

18

Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, JW

1761

x

x

maka, ro

maka, ro

maka

do

maka

mega, hindbudd, chin

19

Agung Yogya, Yogyakarta, JC

1773

x

x

x

ga, min

20

Agung Malang, Malang, JE

18531890

x

x

x

min

x

mih, min

pi

mega, hind-budd

1878

x

x

min

maks, mih

x

mih, min

pi

mega, hind-budd

Al Wustho 21 Mangkunegara, Solo, JC

pi(pr,se) do, mih, min

do, pi(se), mega, wa hind-budd

22

Kampung Nembol, Banten, JW

1880

x

x

min

ga, mih, min, pi(pr,se)

mih

do, mih, min

x

hind-budd

23

Caringin Labuan, Banten, JW

1883-93

x

x

do, min

mih

x

do, min

x

hind-budd

24

Carita Labuan, Banten, JW

1889-95

x

x

mih, min

pi

wa, wa(out)

x

pi, wa(out)

mega, hindbudd, west

25

Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, JW

1933

x

x

ga

pi

x

x

x

hind-budd

26

Al Azhar, Jakarta, JW

1952-8

x

x

x

do, ga

wi

x

x

hind-budd

27

Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, JW

1969

x

x

x

mih

ga

ga

x

hind-budd

28

Sabilillah Malang, Malang, JE

1974

x

x

x

mih, min

x

mih, min

x

hind-budd

29

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, JW

1990

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

no influence

19952000

x

x

x

x

ce, do, wi

x

x

no influence

30 Al Akbar Surabaya, JE

ce(ceiling), dom(dome), do(door), fa(facade), fl(floor), ga(gate), la(lamp), maka(makam), maks(maksura), mih(mihrab), min(minbar), mina(minaret), pi(pillar), pr(prayer), ra(railing), ro(roof), se(serambi), si(signboard), wa(wall), wi(window)

229

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

DATE

GARUDA

KALA-MAKARA

LOTUS

ROSETTE MEDALLION, ETC

SCROLL

1

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, JW

1452

x

x

min

mih

wa

do, win

2

Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, JW

1480

ga, se

ga

mih, min, se

mih, se

se, wa

x

mih, pi

mega, hindbudd, west

3

Agung Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

1498

ga

x

maka, mih, min

mih

x

mih, min

pi

mega, hindbudd, chin

4

Langgar Keraton Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1510

ga

ga

mih, min

mih

wa

x

pi

mega, hindbudd, west

5

Al Alam Cilincing, Jakarta, JW

c.1520

x

x

x

ga

x

x

pi (se)

mega, hindbudd

x

ga

ga, maka, mih, min

maka, pr

ga

x

x

hind-budd

6

Kasunyatan, Banten, 1522-70 JW

REMARKS

MOSQUE

TUMPAL

NO

CANDI BENTAR / PADURAKSA

9 Megalithic, Hindu-Buddhist, Chinese, European Motifs in Javanese Mosques (Region)

mega, hinddo, min, budd, chin, pi west

7

Kanari, Banten, JW

15961651

maka

x

ga, maka, mih

ga, pi

maka

x

x

hind-budd

8

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1679

ga

x

mih, min

mih, se

wa

x

x

hind-budd, west

9

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, JW

1750

x

x

x

min

min

pi

x

hind-budd, chin

10

Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, JW

1761

x

x

maka, ro

maka, ro

maka

do

maka

mega, hindbudd, chin

11

Kampung Nembol, Banten, JW

1880

x

x

min

ga, mih, min, pi(pr,se)

mih

do, mih, min

x

hind-budd

12

Caringin Labuan, Banten, JW

1883-93

x

x

do, min

mih

x

do, min

x

hind-budd

13

Carita Labuan, Banten, JW

1889-95

x

x

mih, min

pi

wa, wa(out)

x

pi, wa (out)

mega, hindbudd, west

14

Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, JW

1933

x

x

ga

pi

x

x

x

hind-budd

1952-8

x

x

x

do, ga

wi

x

x

hind-budd

15 Al Azhar, Jakarta, JW 16

Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, JW

1969

x

x

x

mih

ga

ga

x

hind-budd

17

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, JW

1990

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

no influence

18

Agung Demak, Demak, JC

1479

x

x

maka

alun, wi

19

Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, JC

1533

x

ga

20

Menara Kudus, Kudus, JC

1537

21

Astana Mantingan, Jepara, JC

1559

ga, mega, hindga, mih, do, maks, maka, pi budd, chin wa pi(se), wa(se) (out, se) do

pi (se)

mega, hindbudd, chin

ga, maka, maka, pr maka, pr, pi mina, wa maka, pr pr

maka, pr

pr

mega, hindbudd,˝chin, west

ga, mih, se, ga, mih, wa wa

mih, min

mih, wa

mega, hindbudd, chin

ga

x

maka, maka, min mih, min

maka

230

x

NO

MOSQUE

DATE

CANDI BENTAR / PADURAKSA

GARUDA

KALA-MAKARA

LOTUS

ROSETTE MEDALLION, ETC

SCROLL

TUMPAL

REMARKS

Appendix 1

22

Al Makmur Jipang, Jepara, JC

1561-77

ga

x

mih, min

mih, se

mih, wa

x

mih

mega, hindbudd, west

23

Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, JC

15681601

ga

ga, mih

ga, mih, min, wa

ga, mih

ga, wa

maka, mih, min

ga, wa

mega, hindbudd

24

Agung Yogya, Yogyakarta, JC

1773

x

x

x

ga, min

do, pi(se), wa

mega, hindbudd

Al Wustho 25 Mangkunegara, Solo, JC

1878

x

x

min

maks, mih

x

mih, min

pi

mega, hindbudd

26 Sunan Giri, Gresik, JE

1485

ga

x

mih, min

mih, pi

x

do, ga

ga, pi

mega, hindbudd

pi(pr,se) do, mih, min

27

Sendang Duwur, Paciran, JE

1561

ga

ga

mih, min

ga, maka

mih, wa

ga, maka, pi(out,pad), wa

maka, pi(out)

mega, hindbudd, west

28

Agung Malang, Malang, JE

18531890

x

x

x

min

x

mih, min

pi

mega, hindbudd

29

Sabilillah Malang, Malang, JE

1974

x

x

x

mih, min

x

mih, min

x

hind-budd

19952000

x

x

x

x

ce, do, wi

x

x

no influence

30 Al Akbar Surabaya, JE

ce(ceiling), dom(dome), do(door), fa(facade), fl(floor), ga(gate), la(lamp), maka(makam), maks(maksura), mih(mihrab), min(minbar), mina(minaret), pi(pillar), pr(prayer), ra(railing), ro(roof), se(serambi), si(signboard), wa(wall), wi(window)

231

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia 10 Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosques (Alphabet) NO

MOSQUE

DATE

ARABESQUE

CALLIGRAPHY

GEOMETRY

REMARKS

1

Agung Demak, Demak, JC

1479

x

do, maks, mih, ro, wi

mih

Islamic influence

2

Agung Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

1498

x

ga, maka, mih, wa, wi

mih

Islamic influence

3

Agung Malang, Malang, JE

1853-1890

x

wi

mih

Islamic influence

Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, JC 1568-1601

x

mih

x

Islamic influence

x

Islamic influence

4 5

Agung Yogya, Yogyakarta, JC

1773

x

mih, wa

6

Al Akbar Surabaya, JE

1995-2000

x

mih, wa, wi

7

Al Alam Cilincing, Jakarta, JW

c.1520

mih, min

mih, min, wa

x

Islamic influence

8

Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, JW

1761

x

min, pi(pr)

x

Islamic influence

9

Al Azhar, Jakarta, JW

1952-8

dom, mih, wa

dom, mih, wa

x

Islamic influence

10

Al Makmur Jipang, Jepara, JC

1561-77

x

fa, ga, mih, min, wa

x

Islamic influence

11

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, JW

1990

ce, ga, mih, ra

ce, mih, min, wa

ce(se), fl, mih, pi(pr), ra, wi

Islamic influence

x

do, ga, mih, pi(pr), wa

fl(se)

Islamic influence

12

Al Wustho Mangkunegara, Solo, 1878-1918 JC

ce, dom, do, mih, Islamic influence min, wa, wi

13

Astana Mantingan, Jepara, JC

1559

x

ga

do, mih

Islamic influence

14

Caringin Labuan, Banten, JW

1883-93

x

mih, min

x

Islamic influence

15

Carita Labuan, Banten, JW

1889-95

x

do, ga, ro, si, wa, wi

x

Islamci influence

16

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, JW

1750

mih, wa(se)

ga, mih, min, pi(pr), ro, wa(se)

wi(se)

Islamic influence

17

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1679

x

mih

fl, wa, wa(se)

Islamic influence

18

Kampung Nembol, Banten, JW

1880

mih

do, mih, min, wa, wa(se)

x

Islamic influence

19

Kanari, Banten, JW

1596-1651

min

ga

min

Islamic influence

20

Kasunyatan, Banten, JW

1522-70

x

ga, maka, mih, ro

x

Islamic influence

21

Langgar Keraton Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1510

x

mih

x

Islamic influence

22

Menara Kudus, Kudus, JC

1537

mih, min, wa

dom, do, maka, mih, ro, wa, wi

23

Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, JW

1480

x

do, wa

x

Islamic influence

24

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, JW

1452

x

wa(fa), wa

x

Islamic influence

25

Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, JW

1933

ga

ga, la, mih, pi(pr), wa

ga, mih

Islamic influence

26

Sabilliah Malang, Malang, JE

1974

x

fa, mih, wa

mih, min

Islamic influence

27

Sendang Duwur, Paciran, JE

1561

x

fa, maka

x

Islamic influence

28

Sunan Giri, Gresik, JE

1485

x

fa, wa

x

Islamic influence

29

Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, JC

1533

x

do, min

x

Islamic influence

30

Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, JW

1969-71

la, mih, wa

do, ga, mih, wa

mih, min, pi(pr), Islamic influence wi

do, ga, mih, min, Islamic influence wi, wi(se)

ce(ceiling), dom(dome), do(door), fa(facade), fl(floor), ga(gate), la(lamp), maka(makam), maks(maksura), mih(mihrab), min(minbar), mina(minaret), pi(pillar), pr(prayer), ra(railing), ro(roof), se(serambi), si(signboard), wa(wall), wi(window)

232

Appendix 1 11 Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosques (Period) NO

MOSQUE

DATE

ARABESQUE

CALLIGRAPHY

GEOMETRY

REMARKS

1

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, JW

1452

x

wa(fa), wa

x

Islamic influence

2

Agung Demak, Demak, JC

1479

x

do, maks, mih, ro, wi

mih

Islamic influence

3

Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, JW

1480

x

do, wa

x

Islamic influence

4

Sunan Giri, Gresik, JE

1485

x

fa, wa

x

Islamic influence

5

Agung Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

1498

x

ga, maka, mih, wa, wi

mih

Islamic influence

6

Langgar Keraton Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1510

x

mih

x

Islamic influence

7

Al Alam Cilincing, Jakarta, JW

c.1520

mih, min

mih, min, wa

x

Islamic influence

8

Kasunyatan, Banten, JW

1522-70

x

ga, maka, mih, ro

x

Islamic influence

9

Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, JC

1533

x

do, min

x

Islamic influence

10

Menara Kudus, Kudus, JC

1537

mih, min, wa

11

Astana Mantingan, Jepara, JC

1559

x

ga

do, mih

Islamic influence

12

Sendang Duwur, Paciran, JE

1561

x

fa, maka

x

Islamic influence

13

Al Makmur Jipang, Jepara, JC

1561-77

x

fa, ga, mih, min, wa

x

Islamic influence

14

Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, JC

1568-1601

x

mih

x

Islamic influence

15

Kanari, Banten, JW

1596-1651

min

ga

min

Islamic influence

16

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1679

x

mih

fl, wa, wa(se)

Islamic influence

17

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, JW

1750

mih, wa(se)

ga, mih, min, pi(pr), ro, wa(se)

wi(se)

Islamic influence

18

Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, JW

1761

x

min, pi(pr)

x

Islamic influence

19

Agung Yogya, Yogyakarta, JC

1773

x

mih, wa

x

Islamic influence

20

Agung Malang, Malang, JE

1853-1890

x

wi

mih

Islamic influence

21

Al Wustho Mangkunegara, Solo, JC

1878-1918

x

do, ga, mih, pi(pr), wa

fl(se)

Islamic influence

1880

mih

do, mih, min, wa, wa(se)

x

Islamic influence

22 Kampung Nembol, Banten, JW

dom, do, maka, mih, mih, min, pi(pr), ro, wa, wi wi

Islamic influence

23

Caringin Labuan, Banten, JW

1883-93

x

mih, min

x

Islamic influence

24

Carita Labuan, Banten, JW

1889-95

x

do, ga, ro, si, wa, wi

x

Islamic influence

25

Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, JW

1933

ga

ga, la, mih, pi(pr), wa

ga, mih

Islamic influence

26

Al Azhar, Jakarta, JW

1952-8

dom, mih, wa

dom, mih, wa

x

Islamic influence

27

Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, JW

1969-71

la, mih, wa

do, ga, mih, wa

do, ga, mih, min, wa, wi, wi(se)

Islamic influence

28

Sabilliah Malang, Malang, JE

1974

x

fa, mih, wa

mih, min

Islamic influence

29

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, JW

1990

ce, ga, mih, ra

ce, mih, min, wa

ce(se), fl, mih, pi(pr), ra, wi

Islamic influence

30

Al Akbar Surabaya, JE

1995-2000

x

mih, wa, wi

ce, dom, do, mih, min, wa, wi

Islamic influence

ce(ceiling), dom(dome), do(door), fa(facade), fl(floor), ga(gate), la(lamp), maka(makam), maks(maksura), mih(mihrab), min(minbar), ina(minaret), pi(pillar), pr(prayer), ra(railing), ro(roof), se(serambi), si(signboard), wa(wall), wi(window)

233

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia 12 Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosques (Region) NO

MOSQUE

DATE

ARABESQUE

CALLIGRAPHY

GEOMETRY

REMARKS

1

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, JW

1452

x

wa(fa), wa

x

Islamic influence

2

Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, JW

1480

x

do, wa

x

Islamic influence

3

Agung Kasepuhan, Cirebon, JW

1498

x

ga, maka, mih, wa, wi

mih

Islamic influence

4

Langgar Keraton Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1510

x

mih

x

Islamic influence

5

Al Alam Cilincing, Jakarta, JW

c.1520

mih, min

mih, min, wa

x

Islamic influence

6

Kasunyatan, Banten, JW

1522-70

x

ga, maka, mih, ro

x

Islamic influence

7

Kanari, Banten, JW

1596-1651

min

ga

min

Islamic influence

8

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, JW

1679

x

mih

fl, wa, wa(se)

Islamic influence

9

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, JW

1750

mih, wa(se)

ga, mih, min, pi(pr), ro, wa(se)

wi(se)

Islamic influence

10

Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, JW

1761

x

min, pi(pr)

x

Islamic influence

11

Kampung Nembol, Banten, JW

1880

mih

do, mih, min, wa, wa(se)

x

Islamic influence

12

Caringin Labuan, Banten, JW

1883-93

x

mih, min

x

Islamic influence

13

Carita Labuan, Banten, JW

1889-95

x

do, ga, ro, si, wa, wi

x

Islamic influence

14

Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, JW

1933

ga

ga, la, mih, pi(pr), wa

ga, mih

Islamic influence

15

Al Azhar, Jakarta, JW

1952-8

dom, mih, wa

dom, mih, wa

x

Islamic influence

16

Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, JW

1969-71

la, mih, wa

do, ga, mih, wa

do, ga, mih, min, wa, wi, wi(se)

Islamic influence

17

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, JW

1990

ce, ga, mih, ra

ce, mih, min, wa

ce(se), fl, mih, pi(pr), ra, wi

Islamic influence

18

Agung Demak, Demak, JC

1479

x

do, maks, mih, ro, wi

mih

Islamic influence

19

Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, JC

1533

x

do, min

x

Islamic influence

20

Menara Kudus, Kudus, JC

1537

mih, min, wa

dom, do, maka, mih, ro, wa, wi

mih, min, pi(pr), wi

Islamic influence

21

Astana Mantingan, Jepara, JC

1559

x

ga

do, mih

Islamic influence

22

Al Makmur Jipang, Jepara, JC

1561-77

x

fa, ga, mih, min, wa

x

Islamic influence

x

mih

x

Islamic influence

x

mih, wa

x

Islamic influence

x

do, ga, mih, pi(pr), wa

fl(se)

Islamic influence

23 24 25

Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, JC 1568-1601 Agung Yogya, Yogyakarta, JC

1773

Al Wustho Mangkunegara, Solo, 1878-1918 JC

26

Sunan Giri, Gresik, JE

1485

x

fa, wa

x

Islamic influence

27

Sendang Duwur, Paciran, JE

1561

x

fa, maka

x

Islamic influence

28

Agung Malang, Malang, JE

1853-1890

x

wi

mih

Islamic influence

29

Sabilliah Malang, Malang, JE

1974

x

fa, mih, wa

mih, min

Islamic influence

30

Al Akbar Surabaya, JE

1995-2000

x

mih, wa, wi

ce. dom, do, mih, min, wa, wi

Islamic influence

ce(ceiling), dom(dome), do(door), fa(facade), fl(floor), ga(gate), la(lamp), maka(makam), maks(maksura), mih(mihrab), min(minbar), mina(minaret), pi(pillar), pr(prayer), ra(railing), ro(roof), se(serambi), si(signboard), wa(wall), wi(window)

234

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 9 TRANSITORY: 15

Table 5.1. BACKGROUND TO THE 48 Tumpals

Appendix 2

DUTCH: 6

ISLAMIC:33 RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

o

o o o o o o o

o

o o o o o

o o o

o

o o o

o o o

o

o

o o o

o o

o o

o o o o

o

o o

o o

o o

o o

o o

o o

o o

o o

o

o o o

o o o o

o o o o

o o

o

o o

o o

o

o

o o o

o o

o

o o

o o o

o

o o o o o o

o o o o o o

o o

o o o o

o

o

o o o o o

o

o o o

o o

o o

o o o o o o o o

o o o o

o

o o o o o o o o o

T1=prehistoric; T2=prehistoric; T3=prehistoric; T4=prehistoric; T5=prehistoric; T6=prehistoric; T7=kalasan temple (9c); T8=kalasan temple; T9=kalasan temple; T10=east Javanese temple (12-15c); T11=panataran temple (1147-1454); T12=djago temple (1268); T13=east Javanese temple; T14=east Javanese temple; T15=east Javanese temple; T16=tralaja Muslim grave (15c); T17=pajlagrahan (1452); T18=agung demak (1479); T19=agung demak; T20=agung demak; T21=agung demak; T22=merah panjunan (1480); T23=sunan giri (1485); T24=sunan giri; T25=astana mantingan (1559); T26=astana mantingan; T27=sendang duwur (1561); T28=sendang duwur; T29=agung mataram (1568-1601); T30=agung mataram; T31:agung solo (1757); T32=agung solo; T33=al anwar angke (1761); T34=agung yogya (1773); T35=agung yogya; T36=carita labuan (1883-1893); T37=agung demak (1479); T38=sunan giri (1485); T39=sunan giri; T40=menara kudus (1537); T41=agung mataram (1568-1601); T42=agung matram; T43=agung mataram; T44=agung mataram; T45=agung mataram; T46=agung mataram; T47=agung yogya (1773); T48=agung yogya

o

o

o o o o o o o o o o

o o o

o o o o o o

o o o

o

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

PREHISTORIC: 6

noto o o o decorated

decorated

other

stone

wood

outside

serambi

prayer hall

east

central

west

TUMPALS

AREA

LOCATION

MATERIAL

ATTACHMENT

235

236

o

o

1

o

o

o

2

o

o

o

3

o

o

o

4

o

o

o

5

o

o

o

6

o

o

o

7

o

o

o

8

TRANSITORY: 14

DUTCH: 9

ISLAMIC: 34 RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 11

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

K1=borobodur temple (8c); K2=borobodur temple; K3=borobodur temple; K4=prambanan temple (8-9c); K5=prambanan temple; K6=prambanan temple; K7=panataran temple (1147-1454); K8=singasari temple (12c); K9=djago temple (1268); K10=central Javanese temple (8-9c); K11=central Javanese temple; K12=tralaja Muslim grave (15c); K13=agung demak (1479); K14=merah panjunan (1480); K15=merah panjunan; K16=agung kasepuhan (1498); K17=agung kasepuhan; K18=agung kasepuhan; K19=agung kasepuhan; K20=kasunyatan (1522-1570); K21=sunan kalijaga (1533); K22=sunan kalijaga; K23=sunan dradjat (c.1561); K24=agung mataram (1568-1601); K25=kanari (1596-1651); K26=jami kanoman (1679); K27=al anwar angke (1761); K28=al anwar angke; K29=mukarmah bandan (1789-1809); K30=kampung nembol (1880); K31=al wustho mangkunegara (1878-1918); K32=al wustho mangkunegara; K33=carita labuan (1883-1893); K34=raya cipaganti (1933); K35=merah panjunan (1480); K36=kasunyatan (1522-1570); K37=al marunda (1527); K38=sendang duwur (1561); K39=al makmur jipang (1561-1577); K40=agung mataram (1568-1601); K41=kanari (1596-1651); K42=al mansyur sawah lio (1717); K43=hidayatulla (1750); K44=caringin labuan (1883-1893); K45=carita labuan (1889-1895) 14, 16, 21, 24, 26, 31, 36, 38-39, 41-42, 45: kala-makaras on mihrab

notdecorated

decorated o

other

stone

wood

outside

serambi

prayer hall

east

central

west

KALA-MAKARAS

AREA

LOCATION

MATERIAL

ATTACHMENT

Table 6.1. BACKGROUND TO THE 45 Kala-makaras

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

237

o

o

1

o

o

2

o

o

3

o

o

4

o

o

5

o

o

6

o

o

7

o

o

8

TRANSITORY: 16

DUTCH: 13

ISLAMIC: 40 RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 11

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

L1=borobodur temple (8c); L2=prambanan temple (8-9c); L3=prambanan temple; L4=prambanan temple; L5=central Javanese temple (8-9c); L6=kalasan temple (9c); L7=east Javanese temple (12-15c); L8=east Javanese temple; L9=east Javanese temple; L10=east Javanese temple; L11=pajlagrahan (1452); L12=sunan giri (1485); L13=agung kasepuhan (1498); L14=langgar kraton kanoman (1510); L15=al alam cilincing (c.1520); L16=kasunyatan (1522-1570); L17=kasunyatan; L18=al marunda (1527); L19=sunan kalijaga (1533); L20=sunan kalijaga; L21=astana mantingan (1559); L22=astana mantingan; L23=sendang duwur (1561); L24=kanoman semarang (1575); L25=kanari (1596-1651); L26=kanari; L27=jami kanoman (1679); L28=al mansyur sawah lio (1717); L29=hidayatullah (1750); L30=agung solo (1757); L31=tambora (1761); L32=al anwar angke (1761); L33=al anwar angke; L34=jami al-islam (1770); L35=agung yogya (1773); L36=menar kp. melayu (1820); L37=kampung nembol (1880); L38=caringin labuan (1883-1893); L39=raya cipaganti (1933); L40=al azhar (1952-1958); L41=sunda kelapa (1969-1971); L42=sabilliah malang (1974); L43=sabilliah malang; L44=pusdai jaber (1996); L45=pusdai jaber; L46=merah panjunan (1480); L47=sunan giri (1485); L48=menara kudus (1537); L49=al makmur jipang (1561-1577); L50=al mansyur sawah lio (1717) 11, 13-14, 27, 37-38, 41-42, 45, 47, 49-50: lotus buds on mihrab

o

o

o

o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 10

noto o o o o o o o o decorated

decorated

other

stone

wood

outside

serambi

prayer hall

east

central

west

LOTUS BUDS

AREA

LOCATION

MATERIAL

ATTACHMENT

Table 7.1. BACKGROUND TO THE 50 LOTUS BUDS

Appendix 2

238

o

o

1

o

o

2

o

o

o

3

o

o

o

4

o

o

o

5

o

o

o

6

o

o

o

7

o

o

o

8

TRANSITORY: 17

DUTCH: 10

ISLAMIC: 39 RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

S1=borobodur temple (8c); S2=mendut temple (8c); S3=mendut temple; S4=kalasan temple (9c); S5=kalasan temple; S6=panataran temple (1147-1454); S7=panataran temple; S8=panataran temple; S9=djago temple (1268); S10=djago temple; S11=jawi temple (13c); S12=tralaja Muslim grave (15c); S13=pajlagrahan (1452); S14=pajlagrahan; S15=agung demak (1479); S16=sunan giri (1485); S17=sunan giri; S18=agung kasepuhan (1498); S19=al marunda (1527); S20=sunan kalijaga (1533); S21=sunan kalijaga; S22=sunan kalijaga; S23=astana mantingan (1559); S24=astana mantingan; S25=sendang duwur (1561); S26=sendang duwur; S27=sendang duwur; S28=agung mataram (1568-1601); S29=agung solo (1557); S30=al anwar angke (1761); S31=agung yogya (1773); S32=agung yogya; S33=mukarmah bandan (1789-1809); S34=agung malang (1853-90); S35=al wustho mangkunegara (1878-1918); S36=kampung nembol (1880); S37=caringin labuan (1883-1893); S38=cut meutia (1920); S39=raya cipaganti (1933); S40=sunda kelapa (1969-1971); S41=soko tunggal (1973); S42=sabilliah malang (1974); S43=sabilliah malang; S44=al ukhuwah balai kota (1974); S45=astana mantingan (1559); S46=agung jepara (1561-1577); S47=agung jepara; S48=agung mataram; S49=kauman semarang (1575); S50=hidayatullah (1750) 19, 24, 28, 32-35, 38, 43-44, 47: scrolls on mihrab

notdecorated

decorated o o

other

stone

wood

outside

serambi

prayer hall

east

central

west

SCROLLS

AREA

LOCATION

MATERIAL

ATTACHMENT

Table 8.1. BACKGROUND TO THE 50 SCROLLS

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

o

o

o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o

o o o o

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 9 TRANSITORY: 15

DUTCH: 6

ISLAMIC: 33

Table 5.3 & 5.4. THE 48 Tumpals, ANALYSED BY SUBDIVISIONS (BASIC TYPE) OF STRAIGHT AND CURVED LINES

o o

o o o o

o

o o

o

o o o

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

o o o o

o

o

o

o o o

o o o

o

o

o o o o o o o

o o o o

o

o o o o

o

o o o o o o o o o

o o

o

o o o

o

o

o o

o o

o o

o o o o o o o o

o o o o o

o o

o o o o

o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o

o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o

o

o o o o o o o o o o o

o

circular

o o

o o o o o

undulating

DUTCH: 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

diagonal

spiral

TRANSITORY: 15

ISLAMIC: 33

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

PREHISTORIC: 6

horizontal o

vertical

TUMPALS

curved

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

PREHISTORIC: 6

straight o o o o o o

TUMPALS

BASIC TYPE

STRAIGHT

239

CURVED

Table 5.2. THE 48 Tumpals, ANALYSED BY BASIC TYPE OF LINE

Appendix 2

240

o

4

o

5

o

6

o

7

4

5

6

7

o

o

o o

8

o

o

o

o o

o o

o

o

o

o o

TRANSITORY: 14

o

o

o

o o

o

o o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

rectangular

o

o

o

o

o

o

square

triangular

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 11

o

o o

o o

o

o

o o

DUTCH: 9

ISLAMIC: 34

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 11

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 o

3

DUTCH: 9

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

TRANSITORY: 14

ISLAMIC: 34

Table 6.3. THE 45 Kala-makaras, ANALYSED BY SUBDIVISON (BASIC TYPE) OF GEOMETRIC SHAPES

o

8

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

o

3

oval

2

o

2

o

1

o

1

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

circular

KALA-MAKARAS

geometric

natural

KALA-MAKARAS

BASIC TYPE

GEOMETRIC

Table 6.2. THE 45 Kala-makaras, ANALYSED BY BASIC TYPE OF SHAPE

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

241

1

pyramidal

cylindrical

spherical

conic

cubic

LOTUS BUDS

nonprimary

o

1

primary o

LOTUS BUDS

BASIC TYPE

PRIMARY

o

3

o

4

o

5

o

6

o

7

o

8

2

o

3

o

4

o

5

o

6

o

7

o

8

DUTCH: 13

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 11

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

TRANSITORY: 16

DUTCH: 13

ISLAMIC: 40

Table 7.3. THE 50 LOTUS BUDS, ANALYSED BY SUBDIVISION (BASIC TYPE) OF PRIMARY FORMS

o o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 11

o

o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

TRANSITORY: 16

ISLAMIC: 40

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o o o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 10

o

2

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 10

Table 7.2. THE 50 LOTUS BUDS, ANALYSED BY BASIC TYPE OF FORM

Appendix 2

242

o

diagonal

o

2

o

2

o

o

1

o

1

horizontal

vertical

SCROLLS

irregular

regular

SCROLLS

BASIC TYPE

REGULAR

o

4

o

5

o

6

o

7

o

8

o

3

o

o

4

o

5

6

7

o

8

TRANSITORY: 17

DUTCH: 10

ISLAMIC: 39 RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o o

o o

o

o

o

o o

o

o o

o

o o

DUTCH: 10

o

o

o

o o

o o

o

o

o

o o

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

TRANSITORY: 17

ISLAMIC: 39

Table 8.3. THE 50 SCROLLS, ANALYSED BY SUBDIVISION (BASIC TYPE) OF REGULAR RHYTHMS

o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

o

3

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

Table 8.2. THE 50 SCROLLS, ANALYSED BY BASIC TYPE OF RHYTHM

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

5

243

complicated

simple

long

short

outline

inner

o

6

7

DUTCH: 6

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

o o o

o o o o

o o o

o o o o o o

o

o o

o o o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

TRANSITORY: 15

ISLAMIC: 33

o o o o o o

o

o

o

o o o

o o

o

o o

o o o

o

o o o o o o o o o

o o

o

o o

o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o

o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o

o o o o

o o o o o o o o o

o o o

o

o o o o o

o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

o o

4

8

3

1

2

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 9

PREHISTORIC: 6

geometrical o o o o o

natrual

unbroken

broken

TUMPALS

FIVE FURTHER CHARACTERISTICS

Table 5.5. THE 48 Tumpals COMPARING FIVE FURTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE

Appendix 2

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

big

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

TRANSITORY: 14

DUTCH: 9

ISLAMIC: 34 RENOVAED/REPRODUCED: 11

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

small

o

o

o

o

8

o

o

o

o

o

7

complicated

o

o

o

6

o

o

o

o

o

5

o

o

o

o

4

smooth

o

o

o

3

o

o

illustrating

o

o

2

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

abstract

o

o

1

assorted

single

static

dynamic

KALA-MAKARAS

FIVE FURTHER CHARACTERISTICS

Table 6.4. THE 45 Kala-makaras COMPARING FIVE FURTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF SHAPE

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

244

245

3-dimensional

2-3 dimensional

static

o

o

o

o

o

o

dynamic

o

o

3

o

o

o

o

2

o

o

o

o

o

4

o

o

o

o

o

5

o

o

o

o

o

6

o

o

o

o

o

7

o

o

o

o

o

8

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

DUTCH: 13

ISLAMIC: 40 RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 11

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

TRANSITORY: 16

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 10

stylised

realistic

o

o

open

closed

o

1

slender

voluminious

LOTUS BUDS

FIVE FURTHER CHARACTERISTICS

Table 7.4. THE 50 LOTUS BUDS COMPARING FIVE FURTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF FORM

Appendix 2

FIVE FURTHER CHARACTERISTICS

o

1

o

2

o

3

o

4

o

5

246

o

discontinuous

continuous

weak

o

o

strong

o

o

o

multiple

single

disharmonious

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

harmonious o o o o o

non-repetitive

repetitive

SCROLLS

o

o

o

o

o

6

o

o

o

o

o

7

o

o

o

o

o

8

TRANSITORY: 17

DUTCH: 10

ISLAMIC: 39 RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

Table 8.4. THE 50 SCROLLS COMPARING FIVE FURTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF RHYTHM

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

247

TRANSITORY: 15

DUTCH: 6

ISLAMIC: 33 RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

o o o

o o o o o o

o o o

o o o

o o o

TRANSITORY: 15

o

o o o

DUTCH: 6

ISLAMIC: 33

THE 48 Tumpals COMPARING EMPHASIS, PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

o o

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 9

o o o o

o o o

o o

o o o

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

o o

o o o o

subordinate

o o

o o o o

o o o o

o o o o

o o o o o o o

o o

o o o

o o o o

o o o o

o o o o o

o o

o o o

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

PREHISTORIC: 6

dominant o o o o

TUMPALS

wide

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

PREHISTORIC: 6

narrow o o o o o o

TUMPALS

SPACE

EMPHASIS

THE 48 Tumpals, ANALYSED BY SPACE, OTHER ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

Appendix 2

o

original o

o

3

o

4

o

5

o

6

o

7

o

8

248

o

separate o

unified

2

1

KALA-MAKARAS

UNITYVARIETY

TRANSITORY: 14

o

o

o

4

o

5

o

6

o

7

o

8

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 11

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o o- o

o o- o o

o

o o

o

TRANSITORY: 14

o

DUTCH: 9

ISLAMIC: 34

THE 45 Kala-makaras COMPARING UNITY-VARIETY, PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

o o- o

o o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 11

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o o

o o

o

o o

o

o

o o

o o

o o

o

o

o o

o

o o

o

o

o

o o

o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

3

DUTCH: 9

ISLAMIC: 34

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

o-=colour on originals. Colour was introduced after the Dutch colonization of Java.

coloured

2

1

KALA-MAKARAS

COLOUR

THE 45 Kala-makaras, ANALYSED BY COLOUR, OTHER ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

249

big

o

o o o o o

DUTCH: 13

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 11

o o o

o o

o o

o o o o o o o

o o o o o

TRANSITORY: 16

o

DUTCH: 13

ISLAMIC: 40

THE 50 LOTUS BUDS COMPARING SIZE, PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

o

o o o

o o

o o

o

o

o o

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 11

o o o o o o

o

o

o o o

o o

o o o o o

o o o

o o

o o

o o o o

o o o

o o o

o o

o o o

o o o o o o

o o o

o o o o o

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 10

small o o o

LOTUS BUDS

TRANSITORY: 16

ISLAMIC: 40

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 10

dark o o o o o

light

LOTUS BUDS

VALUE

SIZE

THE 50 LOTUS BUDS, ANALYSED BY VALUE, OTHER ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

Appendix 2

250

1

o

1

nono progressive

progressive

SCROLLS

rough

smooth

SCROLLS

TEXTURE

PROPORTION

o

2

o

2

o

4

o

5

o

6

o

7

o

8

o

3

o

4

o

5

o

6

o

7

o

8

TRANSITORY: 17

DUTCH: 10

ISLAMIC: 39 RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

TRANSITORY: 17

o

o

DUTCH: 10

ISLAMIC: 39

THE 50 SCROLLS, ANALYSED BY TEXTURE, OTHER ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

o

o o

o

o

o

o o

o o

o

o

o

o o

RENOVATED/REPRODUCED: 12

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o o

o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

o

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

o

3

HINDU-BUDDHIST: 11

THE 50 SCROLLS, ANALYSED BY TEXTURE, OTHER ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Appendix 2

Pajlagrahan, Cirebon, West Java (1452 A.D.) Location: Kasepuhan village, subdistrict of Lemah Wungkuk, Cirebon Founder: Prince Cakrabuana (Walangsungsang)

ceiling

door

drum

gate

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB lotus bud

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

tumpal, kalamakara , lotus bud

calligraphy

tumpal, scroll

outside

prayerhall

serambi

251

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Agung Demak, Demak, Central Java (1479 A.D.) Location: Kauman village, subdistrict of Demak Founder: Wali Songo and Patah palace Architect: Prince Sephet and Prince Trepas from the Hindu Majapahit kingdom

alun-alun

ceiling

door

drum

gate

makam

maksura

mihrab

minaret

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB geometry, calligraphy

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

lotus buds, scroll

geometry, calligraphy

tumpal , scroll,

calligraphy

tumpal, kala-makara, lotus

calligraphy

252

Appendix 2

Merah Panjunan, Cirebon, West Java (1480 A.D.) Location: Panjunan village, subdistrict of Lemah Wungkuk, Cirebon Founder: Syarif Abdurrahman Al-Baghdadi

ceiling

drum

gate

mihrab

minaret

minbar

mustaka

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB tumpal, kalamakara

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

tumpal, kalamakara, lotus bud

kala-makara, lotus bud

253

calligraphy

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Sunan Giri, Gresik, East Java (1485 A.D.) Location: Subvillage of Sunan Giri, subdistrict of Kebomas, District of Gresik Founder: Sunan Giri

ceiling

door

gate

makam

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB lotus bud

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

tumpal, kalamakara, lotus bud, scroll

calligraphy

scroll tumpal, scroll calligraphy

254

Appendix 2

Agung Kasepuhan/Sang Ciptaras, Cirebon, West Java (1498 A.D.) Location: Kasepuhan Palace, subdistrict of Lemah Wungkuk, Cirebon Founder: Wali Songo and Sunan Gunung Jati Architect: Sunan Kalijaga, Prince Sephet and Prince Trepas from the Hindu Majapahit

alun-alun

ceiling

door

drum

gate

makam

maksura

mihrab

minaret

minbar

mustaka(+)

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

+ is a modern replacement of a Hindu mustaka

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB kala-makara , lotus bud

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll

geometry, calligraphy

geometry, calligraphy tumpal

255

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Langgar Kraton Kanoman, Cirebon, West Java (1510 A.D.) Location: Kanoman Palace, Cirebon Founder: Maulana Hasannuddin

ceiling

door

gate

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB kala-makara, lotus bud

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

tumpal, kalamakara, lotus bud

calligraphy

calligraphy

256

Appendix 2

Al Alam Cilincing, Jakarta, West Java (c.1520 A.D.) Location: Cilincing village, subdistrict of Cilincing, Jakarta Founder: Fataillah

ceiling

door

drum

gate

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB

PRE-ISLAMIC

arabesque, calligraphy

ISLAMIC

arabesque, calligraphy

tumpal lotus bud

257

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Kasunyatan, Banten, West Java (1522-1570 A.D.) Location: Kasunyatan village, subdistrict of Kaseman, Province of Banten Founder: Sultan Maulana Yusuf, Syekh Abdul Syukur?

ceiling

door

drum

gate

madrasah

makam

mihrab

minaret

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB kala-makara calligraphy

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

kala-makara, lotus bud

calligraphy

kala-makara , lotus bud

calligraphy

258

Appendix 2

Sunan Kalijaga, Demak, Central Java (1533 A.D.) Location: Kadilangu village, district of Demak Founder: Sunan Kalijaga and Prince Wijil

ceiling

door

drum

gate

makam

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB kala-makara

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll

calligraphy

tumpal

calligraphy

kala-ma, lotus bud, scroll

259

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Menara Kudus (Al-Aqsa Kudus), Kudus, Central Java (1537 A.D.) Location: Kauman village, subdistrict of Kudus city, district of Kudus Founder: Sunan Kudus

ceiling

door

drum

gate

makam

mihrab

minaret

minbar

mustaka

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB arabesque, geometry, calligraphy

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

tumpal, kalamakara, lotus bud, scroll

arabesque, geometry, calligraphy

geometry, calligraphy kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll

260

calligraphy

Appendix 2

Astana Mantingan, Jepara, Central Java (1559 A.D.) Location: Mantingan village, subdistrict of Jepara, district of Jepara Founder: Queen Kalinyamat and Prince Hadiri

ceiling

door

drum

gate

makam

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB tumpal, scroll

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

tumpal, scroll

geometry

geometry

tumpal, lotus bud

tumpal, kala-ma, lotus bud,

261

calligraphy

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Sendang Duwur, Paciran, East Java (1561 A.D.) Location: Sendang Duwur village, subdistrict of Paciran, district of Lamongan Founder: Raden Nur Rahmat, Sunan Sendang Duwur

ceiling

door

drum

gate

makam

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIRHAB kala-makara

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

kala-makara, lotus bud

tumpal, lotus bud, scroll

262

calligraphy

Appendix 2

Al Makmur Jipang, Jepara, Central Java (1561-1577 A.D.) Location: Jipang village, subdistrict of Mejobo, district of Kudus Founder: Ario Penangsang

ceiling

door

drum

gate

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB tumpal, kalamakara, lotus bud

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

tumpal, kalamakara, lotus bud

calligraphy

lotus flower

calligraphy

calligraphy

calligraphy

263

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Agung Mataram, Yogyakarta, Central Java (1568-1601 A.D.) Location: Jagalan village, subdistrict of Banguntapa, Kotagede, Yogyakarta Founder: Panembahan Senopati

alun-alun

ceiling

door

drum

gate

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB kala-makara , lotus flower with scroll

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

kala-makara, lotus flower with scroll

calligraphy

calligraphy

tumpal, kala, lotus scroll

264

Appendix 2

Kanari, Banten, West Java (1596-1651 A.D.) Location: KanarI village, subdistrict of Kasemen, province of Banten Founder: Sultan Banten IV

ceiling

door

drum

gate

makam

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB kala-makara geometry

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll

arabesque, geometry

kala-makara, lotus bud

265

geometry, calligraphy

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Jami Kanoman, Cirebon, West Java (1679 A.D.) Location: Kanoman palace, Cirebon Founder: Sultan Badruddin (Sultan Kanoman I)

alun-alun

ceiling

door

drum

gate

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB kala-makara, lotus bud

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

kala-makara, lotus bud

geometry, calligraphy

lotus bud

geometry

calligraphy

266

Appendix 2

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, West Java (1750 A.D.) Location: Karet Depan, Jakarta Founder: Muslims from Karet Depan region Architect: IAI

ceiling

door

gate

makam

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB arabesque, calligraphy

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

lotus bud, scroll

arabesque, calligraphy

arabesque, geometry, calligr.

267

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Al Anwar Angke, Jakarta, West Java (1761 A.D.) Location: Angke village, subdistrict of Tambora, Jakarta Founder: Prince Ahmad Jayakarta

ceiling

door

drum

gate

madrasah

makam

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

calligraphy

scroll

tumpal, kala-maka, lotus b.

268

Appendix 2

Agung Yogya, Yogyakarta, Central Java (1773 A.D.) Location: Ngupasan village, subdistrict of Gondomanan, Yogyakarta Founder: Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono I Architecture: K. Wiryakusumo

alun-alun

ceiling

door

gate

maksura

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB lotus bud with scroll

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

tumpal, lotus bud with scroll

calligraphy

calligraphy

tumpal tumpal, lotus bud

269

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Agung Malang, Malang, East Java (1853-1890 A.D.) Location: District Malang, Malang Founder: Malang Regent Architect: the Dutch

alun-alun

ceiling

door

gate

mihrab

minaret

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB lotus bud, scroll geometry

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

tumpal, lotus bud, scroll

calligraphy, geometry

270

Appendix 2

Al Wustho Mangkunegara, Solo, Central Java (1878-1918 A.D.) Location: Ketelan village, subdistrict of Banjarsari, Surakarta Founder: Prince Adipati Mangkunegara XII Architect: Thomas Karsten

ceiling

door

drum

gate

madrasah

maksura

mihrab

minaret

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB lotus flower, scroll

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

tumpal, kalamakra, lotus flower, scroll

calligraphy

geometry, calligraphy calligraphy

271

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Kampung Nembol, Banten, West Java (1880 A.D.) Location: Nembol village, subdistrict of Labuan, district of Pandeglang Founder: Syekh Sholeh Zubaid

ceiling

door

drum

gate

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB lotus bud, scroll arabesque, calligraphy

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll

arabesque, calligraphy

lotus bud, scroll

calligraphy

lotus bud

272

Appendix 2

Caringin Labuan, Banten, West Java (1883-1893 A.D.) Location: Caringin village, subdistrict of Labuan, district of Pandeglang Founder: Syekh Asnawi

ceiling

door

drum

gate

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB lotus bud calligraphy

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

kala-makara, lotus bud, scroll

calligraphy

scroll

273

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Carita Labuan, Banten, West Java (1889-1895 A.D.) Location: Carita village, subdistrict of Labuan, district of Pandeglang Founder: Syekh Al-Khusaini Architect: a Chinese Muslim

ceiling

door

drum

gate

mihrab

minbar

mustaka(+)

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

+ is a modern replacement of Hindu mustaka.

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB kala-makara

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

tumpal, kalamakara, lotus bud

calligraphy

calligraphy

calligraphy

tumpal

274

Appendix 2

Raya Cipaganti, Bandung, West Java (1933 A.D.) Location: Subdistrict of Cibeunying, Bandung Founder: Wolf Schoemaker

ceiling

door

gate

madrasah

mihrab

minbar

mustaka

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB geometry, calligraphy

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

lotus bud

geometry, calligraphy

kala-makara

arabesque, geometry, calligr.

275

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Al Azhar, Jakarta, West Java (1952-1958 A.D.) Location: New Kebayoran, Jakarta Founder: Soedirjo, Tanjung Hok, H. Ghazali Sahlan, and H. Suaid

ceiling

door

gate

madrasah

mihrab

minaret

minbar

mustaka(+)

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

+ is a modern replacement of Hindu mustaka

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB arabesque, calligraphy

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

lotus bud

arabesque, calligraphy

lotus bud

276

Appendix 2

Sunda Kelapa, Jakarta, West Java (1969-1971 A.D.) Location: Subdistrict of Menteng, Jakarta Founder: Alamsyah Ratu Prawiranegara

ceiling

door

gate

mihrab

minaret

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

+ is a modern replacement of Hindu mustaka.

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB lotus bud

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

lotus bud

arabesque, geometry, calligraphy

arabesque, geometry, calligraphy

arabesque, geometry, calligr.

277

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Sabilliah Malang, Malang, East Java (1974 A.D.) Location: Subdistrict of Klojen, Malang Founder: the Development Preparation of Committee of Blimbing Sabilliah Malang Mosque

ceiling

door

drum

gate

mihrab

minaret

minbar

mustaka

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB lotus bud, scroll

PRE-ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC

lotus bud, scroll

geometry, calligraphy

geometry, calligraphy

geometry

278

Appendix 2

Al Ukhuwah Balai Kota, Bandung, West Java (1990 A.D.) Location: Bandung Founder: MUI and Bandung district Architect: E. Kulman

ceiling

door

mihrab

minaret

minbar

mustaka(+)

pawestren

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

+ is a modern replacement of Hindu mustaka

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB

PRE-ISLAMIC

arabesque, geometry, calligraphy

ISLAMIC

arabesque, calligraphy

arabesque

279

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation, Indonesia

Al Akbar Surabaya, Surabaya, East Java (1995-2000 A.D.) Location: Subdistrict of Pagesangan, Surabaya Founder: Tarmizi Taher, Marie Muhamamd, etc. Architect: Team ITS

ceiling

door

gate

madrasah

mihrab

minaret

minbar

mustaka(+)

pawestren

pillar

prayer hall

roof

serambi

window

wudhu

contact

+ is a modern replacement of Hindu mustaka

Syncretic four pre-Islamic, and orthodox Islamic motifs in Javanese mosques MIHRAB

PRE-ISLAMIC

geometry, calligraphy

ISLAMIC

geometry, calligraphy

280

The Continuity of Pre-Islamic Motifs in Javanese Mosque Ornamentation assesses the continuity and significance of Hindu-Buddhist design motifs in Islamic mosques in Java. The research starts from a belief that typical Javanese ornaments were consistently used both in pre-Islamic Hindu-Buddhist temples and Islamic mosques in Indonesia. This phenomenon was a result of syncretic Javanese Islam, composed of mystic animism, Hindu-Buddhism, and Islam, which differed from orthodox Islam in the Near East and Arab world. The volume investigates four pre-Islamic motifs in Javanese mosque ornamentation from the 15th century to the present day: prehistoric tumpals, Hindu-Buddhist kala-makaras, lotus buds, and scrolls, all of which have symbolic connotations and are used to decorate sanctuaries. For a comparison between temple and mosque ornamentation, 10 Hindu-Buddhist temples and 30 mosques were selected, and a representative sample of each motif was taken during the researcher’s fieldwork. The findings revealed continuity in the four motifs across the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, reflected in lines, shapes, forms, and rhythms. The symbolic connotations of the four motifs allowed them to continue, and their influence was dependent upon the creativity of the local genius in each epoch. Hee Sook Lee-Niinioja is a scholar, journalist, artist and designer. An Asian pioneer student in Scandinavia (1975), she holds the following degrees: BA journalism: South Korea; BA & MA art-design: Norway; MA visual communication: USA; PhD architecture: UK. Specializing in comparisons of Hindu-Buddhist/Christian/Islamic architecture, cultural heritage, and semiotics, she has authored monographs, conference papers, and articles, and delivered lectures at universities/institutes/ NGOs worldwide. From 2017-20 she was President of ICOMOS-ICICH (Scientific Committee on Intangible Cultural Heritage).

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