The Centre of City: Urban Central Structure 9813366745, 9789813366749

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Beixiang Shi Junyan Yang Yi Zheng

The Centre of City: Urban Central Structure

The Centre of City: Urban Central Structure

Beixiang Shi · Junyan Yang · Yi Zheng

The Centre of City: Urban Central Structure

Beixiang Shi School of Architecture Southeast University Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

Junyan Yang School of Architecture Southeast University Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

Yi Zheng School of Architecture Southeast University Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

ISBN 978-981-33-6674-9 ISBN 978-981-33-6675-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6675-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

Under the background of information and globalization, the urban central area has become the core of urban competitiveness. Through its control, decision-making and guidance ability in economy, industry, culture and many other aspects, it promotes the comprehensive development of the city and becomes the landmark window area of the city. With the global allocation of resources, more resources are absorbed in the urban central area, which promotes the continuous improvement of the scale and intensity of public service facilities in the central area, which makes the urban central area continuously split and expand, resulting in a new change trend: the service industry gathers in multiple urban centers, and there is a trend of functional division and spatial dislocation development. Based on this, a new form of spatial aggregation—urban center structure is formed. As a whole composed of different levels and types of public service facilities in the city, the urban center structure plays a key role in the supply network of urban public services. Its spatial function, spatial scale, spatial form, spatial structure and many other factors directly affect the service function of the city center structure. Based on the field investigation of the urban center structure in Asia, this book studies the theoretical connotation, development mode, hierarchical function and spatial layout of the central structure, and comprehensively uses the research conclusions and technical methods to solve the construction and layout problems of urban center structure in planning and design practice. On this basis, the book is divided into five chapters: Chapter 1 is an introduction to the urban center structure. This chapter starts with the concept of central area and central structure, analyzes the type characteristics of central structure, and then analyzes the dynamic mechanism of its development. Chapter 2 is the development mode of urban center structure. Based on the global perspective, this chapter analyzes the urban center structure mode in the service industry operation network, and investigates the development rules of the center structure under various modes, so as to refine the threshold characteristics of the urban center system upgrading, so as to explore the reference for the development orientation and spatial expansion of the city center structure.

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Chapter 3 is the functional structure of urban center structure. This chapter analyzes the correlation between spatial data and other influencing factors such as urban industry, population, land, and so on. It also analyzes the structural hierarchy of the central structure, such as primacy degree, centrality degree and wrong dimension. It also analyzes the spatial form relations such as its expansion area and spatial differentiation, and then explores its spatial characteristics and development rules. Chapter 4 is about the spatial layout of the urban center structure. The authors analyzed the spatial distribution law and location characteristics of service facilities, constructed the suitability analysis index system and spatial layout model of Municipal Center, and proposed the spatial plate division and location selection method of regional center. Chapter 5 is about urban center structure planning and design. Combined with the practice of urban center structure planning, this chapter elaborates how the related analysis technology, layout technology and planning technology of the urban center structure constructed in the previous article are specifically applied to the planning practice of urban center structure faced by planners. Nanjing, China October 2020

Beixiang Shi

Acknowledgments

The Centre of City: Urban Central Structure would not have been possible without the dedication and support of the following: Yi Shi Wei Sun Xinyu Hu Xiaobo Lu Biao Zhang Geyang Xia Yang Yang Yiwei Pan Lin Hua Xia Sheng Nan Sheng Jipeng Chen

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Funding Information

This book is supported by the Major Program of National Natural Science Foundation of China Research on Theory and Key Technology of Urban Center District Spatial Planning Based on Big Data (Grant NO. 51838002).

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Contents

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Overview of Urban Centrality (UC) Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Concept and Classification of UC Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 Definition of UC Zone Hierarchy and Indicators . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Definition of UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Connotations and Characteristics of the UC Structure . . . . . 1.2.2 Types of UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Stages in the Evolution of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Driving Mechanisms of UC Structure Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Internal Drivers: Industrial Economic Promotion . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Basic Guarantee: Land Space Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 External Drivers: Social Policy Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 1 18 22 22 28 39 41 42 53 61 70

2 Development Models of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 UC Structure Development Under the Impact of the Service Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Classification of Service Industries and Spatial Selection for Agglomeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Spatial Impact of Service Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3 Development Models of Spatial Agglomeration Among Service Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure from an International Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 MMC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 2MC-MSC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 1MC-MSC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4 1MC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Upgrade Thresholds from a 1MC to a 1MC-MSC UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71 71 72 80 90 101 101 104 116 123 131 133

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2.3.2 Upgrade Thresholds from a 1MC-MSC to a 2MC-MSC UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Evaluation Model of UC Structure Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Fuzzy Evaluation Model for the Spatial Agglomeration of the Service Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Linkage Analysis Model of the Service Industries and the UC Functional Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

156 180 182 189 193

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Industrial Correlations of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Population Correlations of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3 Land Correlations of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.4 Functional Correlations of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 The Primacy of the Hierarchical Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 The Hierarchical Difference of a Hierarchical Structure . . . . 3.2.3 The Centrality of the Hierarchical Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.4 The Completeness of the Hierarchical Structure . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.5 The Dislocation of the Hierarchical Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Analysis of the Spatial Form of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Analysis of the Location Quotient of the UC Structure . . . . . 3.3.2 Analysis of the Expansion Area of the UC Structure . . . . . . 3.3.3 Analysis of the Morphological Spread of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4 Spatial Topological Analysis of UC Structure Location . . . . 3.3.5 Spatial Differentiation Analysis of the UC Structure . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

195 195 197 200 203 203 228 231 234 240 242 246 258 258 267

4 Spatial Layout of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Analysis of Impact Factors on the Spatial Layout of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Spatial Distribution Patterns of Urban Service Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Characteristics of the Spatial Location Selection for the Agglomeration of Urban Service Facilities . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Factors Influencing UC Zone Formation by Urban Service Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Suitability Index System for the Spatial Layout of the City-Level UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Construction of the Index System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Selection of Evaluation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Index Standardization and Weight Determination . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Approaches and Methods of UC Structure Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents

4.3.1 Spatial Suitability Evaluation of the City-Level UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Optimization Calculation of the Layout Model . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Development Strategies for the City-Level UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Approaches and Methods for the Spatial Layout of District-Level Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Spatial Layout Theory of District-Level Centers . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Factors Influencing Urban Spatial Plate Division . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Division of District-Level Spatial Plates and Location Selection of Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 UC Structure Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Monograph on UC Structure Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Historical Development and Evolution of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Delineation of the UC Structure Spatial Range . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Analysis of the Current Spatial Status of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.4 Analysis of the Industrial Development of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Spatial Layout Determination of UC Structure Development . . . . . . 5.2.1 Analysis of the Functional Structure of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Spatial Suitability Evaluation of UC Structure Layout . . . . . 5.2.3 GIS-Based Calculation of Optimal Layout Model . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Future Development Patterns of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Development Strategies for the Spatial Form of the UC Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Approaches to Problem-Solving in the UC Structure . . . . . .

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354 364 374 384 384 389 395 401 401 401 419 437 474 495 495 520 536 562 563 571 586

Abbreviations

AHP BCG BRT CBD CPUA CRD GDP GIS HOPSCA LQ MC MMC MSC NTS R&D SC TOD UC WTA WW2

Analytic Hierarchy Process Boston Consulting Group Bus Rapid Transit Central Business District Central Plains Urban Agglomeration Capital Recreation District Gross Domestic Product Geographic Information System Hotel, Office, Park, Shopping Mall, Convention and Apartment Location Quotient Main Center Multiple Main Centers Multiple Sub-centers New Transport System Research and Development Sub-center Transit-oriented development Urban Center World Technopolis Association World War II

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Chapter 1

Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

The development of economic globalization and rapid urbanization has given rise to a new spatial structural characteristic found in the clustering of public service facilities in cities serving as economic centers. That is, there has been a clustering of the service industry in multiple urban centrality (UC) zones, which has exhibited trends of functional division and spatially dislocated development. This has led to a new form spatial aggregation—the UC structure. This chapter begins by explaining the concepts of the UC zone and the UC structure. It then examines the characteristics of various types of UC structures. Finally, it analyzes the dynamic mechanisms underlying the development of these structures.

1.1 Overview of Urban Centrality (UC) Zones From a spatial perspective, the UC structure refers to the overall system formed by multiple UC zones within a city. As such, the key to explaining the connotations of the UC structure lies in understanding the concept of “UC zones.”

1.1.1 Concept and Classification of UC Zones The main concept examined in this book is the UC zone. This concept is equivocal and ambiguous due to its inherent evolution and the varying focus or perspectives adopted by theoretical researchers from various fields. Practicing urban planners and professional researchers have dissimilar—or even divergent—views and understandings of the concept based on the respective perspectives of their disciplines. To avoid © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 B. Shi et al., The Centre of City: Urban Central Structure, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6675-6_1

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1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

confusion or barriers that may arise when discussing this concept, it is necessary to define and analyze it first, before studying related issues. In his book, Planning and Designing City Centers, Professor Kang Liang of Tianjin University proposes that city centers should have various functions including urban administrative management and administrative activities for public assemblies, as well as the largest aggregation of providers of high-end financial, trading and business services. They should also provide high-quality services related to various crafts and labor and serve as venues for the competition, exchange and exhibition of skills.1 This definition explains UC zones from the perspective of their functional composition. In Planning of Urban Centrality Zones, Professor Wu Mingwei of Southeast University and his co-authors propose, the UC zone is a comprehensive concept, a core region of the urban structure, and an important component of urban functions. It is where the public buildings and tertiary industry of a city aggregate, providing the city and its surrounding areas with the facilities and service spaces for economic, political, cultural, social, and other activities. It is also different from other parts of the city in terms of spatial characteristics.2 This definition analyzes the concept of the UC zone from the perspective of urban space and function. American scholar Cyril Paumier writes in Creating a Vibrant City Center: Urban Design and Regeneration Principles, the city center was the focus of a region’s economic and social life, where people came together to produce and trade goods and services, to meet, and to exchange information and ideas. It was a civic and cultural center and a symbol of community identity…Among its characteristics were accessibility, diversity of uses, concentration and intensity of use, and organizing structure.3 This definition explains the concept of UC zones from the perspective of social and public activities. With regard to the factor of spatial dominance, the UC zone mainly refers to the area where various types of public service facilities are aggregated. Historically, the benefits arising from the agglomeration of various urban functions in a city have led to the regional differentiation of urban space. Under the impetus of the market economy, commercial, office, administrative, cultural, and other public service functions have become relatively clustered in the city center and the aggregation of these physical spatial forms has gradually created the UC zone. Although our emphasis is on physical spatial forms, the implicit elements, such as non-material industrial support and public, cultural, and leisure activities, cannot be ignored. This is because, since ancient times, such industrial, economic, and sociocultural support has always had an impact on the formation and development of the UC zone. When a city’s service industry is highly developed and its economy is predominantly outwardoriented, the spaces for public activities and social interactions provided by the core 1 Kang

[1]. [2]. 3 Cyril [3]. 2 Wu

1.1 Overview of Urban Centrality (UC) Zones

3

area will achieve a certain level of aggregation. This area will also receive general recognition from its residents, thus achieving the status of a UC zone in its fullest sense. Therefore, based on the evolutionary process of a city’s overall functional structure, the UC zone is defined in this book as follows: The UC zone is located at the core of the city’s functional structure, with highly-aggregated public facilities and street traffic that serve as spatial carriers; its landscape image is one of the public buildings and open spaces with distinctive characteristics; its operating contents include a comprehensive range of service industry components and public activities; and its physical spatial form is an amalgamation of its residents’ psychological identity. The connotations of the UC zone characteristics can be further elaborated based on the following three aspects (Table 1.1). The significant disparities among different UC zones will cause the classification of UC zones to yield different results, whether based on spatial location, hierarchical size, and dominant function or on industrial characteristics, business model, and other classification criteria. (1) Classification based on a hierarchical scale As the public service core at different scale sequences and spatial ranges in the city, the UC zone embodies an important feature: hierarchy. Urban centrality zones can be divided into city- and district-level UC zones based on the differences in their service recipients and service range. A city-level UC zone refers to a public service hub whose radiation zone covers the entire city and, maybe, even beyond. It constitutes the core component of the UC structure and encompasses most of the city’s high-end service institutions, including commercial retailers, business offices, finance and insurance, and trade consultancy. As the functional core of the city, it provides the facilities and activity venues for economic, cultural, social, and other public activities. The development level of citylevel UC zones directly reflects the development status of the city’s service industry, while also indirectly reflecting the overall development status of the UC structure. Thus, it is a display window for the city’s cultural characteristics and landscape image. District-level UC zones are second-level city centers that mainly provide services to regions with relatively independent spatial divisions. They are carriers of service functions within individual districts. As the aggregation cores of economic, political, cultural, and other activities for the functional entities of urban districts, they provide comprehensive service functions to the districts that they serve. District-level UC zones exhibit considerable differences in the land use scale and grade of business format according to the differences in their service range. The service range is not simply based on the scope of administrative boundaries but is constrained by the city’s functional blocks and population distribution. The hierarchical difference in public service hubs has led to hierarchical differences in the land use and construction scale, industrial rank, and other aspects. In

Characteristics

Description of characteristics

Due to the influence of agglomeration effects, all service function institutions in the UC zone are concentrated within the same region to produce better scale effects, but this agglomeration is also accompanied by competition among institutions within the same industry. This competition is not only reflected in the rivalries on the market, but it also provides industries in the same region with a yardstick for comparison. While enhancing intense competition, agglomeration also strengthens the overall competitiveness of the UC zone as an area of industrial agglomeration

Intense market competition

(continued)

There is a demand for central locations by all urban functions. However, the differences in the land scarcity and internal accessibility of the UC zone have led to differences in status between locations, while market competition, in turn, has enabled industrial sectors with higher rent affordability to occupy city blocks with higher land prices. This difference in rent affordability is manifested spatially through the occupation of central locations in the UC zone by high-profit institutions

Land prices are the most direct means by which market mechanisms act on the UC structure. The interactions between “land price–rent affordability” determine the overall structural pattern and succession process in the UC zone. The objective differences in rent will affect the demand for land in various socioeconomic aspects, which, in turn, will cause spatial differences in land prices. The superiority of the urban spatial location occupied by the UC zone determines its high levels of land prices

High-profit industries

Economic attributes High land prices

Attributes

Table 1.1 Connotations of UC zone characteristics

4 1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Highly aggregated public service facilities

(continued)

The intensity of urban land use is heterogeneous. The highest building capacity per unit of land area is based on the level of land prices and is contingent on the demands for functional activities. In the process of urban evolution, public activities such as commerce and business tend to coincide with these conditions, whereby high-intensity development becomes an inevitable choice in order to dilute the high land prices and increase the affordability of land renting. In addition, public activities themselves have requirements for agglomeration, which eventually leads to the intensification of the building space in the UC zone, and its outward expansion to surrounding areas to form a contiguous region.

Spatial attributes

Description of characteristics

Characteristics

Highest level of transportation accessibility As part of an increasingly diversified urban transportation system, the UC zone occupies the most optimal areas for transportation services, including expressway networks, public transportation systems, and pedestrian systems. The internal and external transportation connections of the UC zone unfold in three-dimensional space, thus forming convenient core transportation networks that can provide business workers with the highest access to business opportunities for a given unit of time. For the city as a whole, the UC zone has superior comprehensive accessibility, which is a common requirement for the operation of public activities and is also the origin of the formation of the UC zone

Attributes

Table 1.1 (continued)

1.1 Overview of Urban Centrality (UC) Zones 5

Social attributes

Attributes

The comprehensiveness of the various public service facilities is one of the characteristics of the UC zone. The highly aggregated integration of facilities gives rise to intensive public activities, including business affairs, commercial consumption, and entertainment and leisure. Such intensive activities are reflected not only in the diversification of service types but also in the continuity in the hours of activity. The high degree of mixing among the different functions provides the possibility of 24-hour activity in the UC zone The formation of the UC zone is a cumulative result over a long period. In the course of this process, the UC zone becomes a spatial carrier of deep historical culture. It is a specific area for which the public has formed a psychological identity and has inherited the city’s cultural history and the public’s collective memory. The residents’ psychological identity is also one of the important reasons behind the cohesive power of the UC zone

Cultural and psychological identity

Distinctive spatial landscape image

Intensive public activities

Description of characteristics The UC zone is the most iconic area in the city. The concentration of public buildings in the UC zone has a distinguishing effect on the city’s spatial landscape. The UC zone has uniquely shaped iconic buildings and undulating skyline contours that provide its distinctive recognizability. These iconic buildings and building complexes not only meet its residents’ demands for public activities but also satisfy their needs on a spiritual level and can better reflect the charm and undertones of the city

Characteristics

Table 1.1 (continued)

6 1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

1.1 Overview of Urban Centrality (UC) Zones

7

terms of spatial forms, city- and district-level UC zones have vastly different distribution characteristics. The spatial pattern model of city-level UC zones is characterized by “small quantity, high intensity,” whereas that of district-level UC zones is characterized by “large quantity, low intensity.” The reason for this distinction is the differences in the industrial characteristics of the UC zones. City-level UC zones serve all residents within the city or even a larger area. Thus, there are significant barriers to entry in the service industry and relatively costly land prices, which require a greater degree of agglomeration and development intensity to attract the market and dilute land prices. This, in turn, will reduce the operating pressure due to high costs and guarantee high profits. The exact opposite is true in district-level UC zones. Therefore, significant differences will be observed between the functional industrial ranks within city- and district-level UC zones. (2) Classification based on industrial characteristics The service industry can be roughly divided into the following three categories: production service industries, lifestyle service industries, and social service industries. This classification is mainly based on the service recipients and the role played by the respective service industry in the city. Production service industries refer to industry types that are primarily involved in industrial production and business and trade activities. They mainly include finance and insurance, business offices, and hotels. Lifestyle service industries refer to those service industries that directly provide services and products to a large consumer base. They mainly include commercial retailers and leisure and entertainment industries. Social service industries refer to industry types provided by the government to ensure the smooth operation of the city, maintain social equality, and promote urban development. These mainly include administrative offices, culture and sports services, and medical and healthcare services. The aggregative characteristics of the service industry can drive the development of industrial “clusters” while also forming urban public service hubs through agglomeration under certain conditions. Considering the ideal agglomeration effects of single industries will give us three types of UC zones: 1. The single-industry agglomeration of production service industries will ultimately form a central business district (CBD) dominated by service industries such as business offices and finance and insurance. 2. The single-industry agglomeration of lifestyle service industries will form a central commercial district dominated by retail businesses. 3. The singleindustry agglomeration of social service industries will form a central social district dominated by functions such as culture and arts, administrative offices, and sports and fitness (Fig. 1.1). (3) Classification based on operating model One of the characteristics of the service industry is that moderate agglomeration can have a “positive effect,” which, in turn, promotes the development and growth of industrial “clusters.” Thus, the emergence of the service industry signifies the

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1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Fig. 1.1 Classification of service industries based on industrial characteristics

beginning of agglomeration. However, in the actual operation of the city, it is necessary not only to consider maximizing the efficiency of resource utilization but also to ensure social equality (the so-called “efficiency and equality” trade-off). Hence, certain industry types, such as administrative management, education, and scientific research, cannot operate purely according to market-oriented mechanisms, and its spatial pattern must be managed through the unified deployment and overall control of the government. Therefore, public service hubs can be divided into two main categories based on their different operating models: business-oriented public service hubs and security-oriented public service hubs. Business-oriented public service hubs: These refer to UC zones with comprehensive and professional functions serving the entire city and beyond. They include the main UC zone, sub-UC zone, and district-level UC zones. From the perspective of the investment mechanism driving the dominant service industries, business-oriented public service hubs mainly participate in market-oriented competition through the deployment of market operations and are dominated by industry types such as commercial retailers, trade and wholesale, business offices, hotels, and resident services. From the perspective of land supply, nearly all the land resource needs of the dominant industries are met through market competition, which shows a clear difference from industries such as administration, culture, and education. From the perspective of operational goals, the types of industries participating in marketoriented competition are all measured against the yardstick of economic benefits, and their ultimate operational goal is profit. Security-oriented public service hubs: These are urban centers formed through the aggregation of security-oriented service industries. Their service range covers the entire city and beyond, and they are mainly social service sub-centers. Although security-oriented public service hubs also serve the entire city, they are markedly different from business-oriented public service hubs. From the perspective of the industry’s investment mechanism, the main investors in these UC zones are the government and its affiliated institutions, which do not involve market competition. In terms of land supply, all of its land is obtained through administrative allocation,

1.1 Overview of Urban Centrality (UC) Zones

9

and it does not depend on market allocation. Its ultimate purpose is not to maximize benefits under market conditions but to provide the necessary security required for the city’s production and residents’ lives (Table 1.2). (4) Classification based on the dominant function The differences in the development stage, spatial locations, service positioning, and radiation range of UC zones have led to variations in their dominant functions. Some are comprehensive public service hubs comprising a mix of multiple dominant functions, whereas others are specialized public service hubs focusing on single dominant functions. From the perspective of dominant functions, UC zones can be divided into comprehensive service hubs, business and financial hubs, traditional commercial hubs, retail commercial hubs, leisure and entertainment hubs, convention and exhibition hubs, sports and fitness hubs, arts and culture hubs, administrative office hubs, transportation hubs, and research and education hubs. Comprehensive service hubs refer to urban public service hubs formed through the aggregation of multiple dominant industries. Typical cases include UC zones such as Central Tokyo, the People’s Square in Shanghai, Beijing Road in Guangzhou, and Xinjiekou in Nanjing. Such UC zones are characterized by the mixing of multiple dominant functions and exhibit the cohesion of multiple functions, including commerce, entertainment, offices, and finances. In terms of physical space, the diversification of industries has led to inconsistencies in the spatial needs of different industries, which endowed the space of the UC zone with a relative richness. Thus, vertical high-rise buildings (representing business offices, finance and securities, and other formats), massive public buildings (representing comprehensive commercial formats), and low-rise buildings (representing small commercial formats with distinctive brands) are all integrated into the UC zone, thus jointly creating a rich and diverse comprehensive UC zone. Generally, comprehensive service hubs develop over a long period, carrying with them a long historical heritage and the extensive psychological identity of its residents. It is difficult to alter the positioning and location of these UC zones during the process of spatial scale expansion, industrial structure upgrade, and functional substitution. Business and financial hubs: These are specialized public service hubs dominated by business offices, finance and insurance, trade consultancy, and other businesstype industries. Actual cases include the Central District of Hong Kong (Fig. 1.2), the Huanshi East Road in Guangzhou, and Lujiazhui in Shanghai. The dominant industries of these UC zones include trade consultancy, financial securities, and professional services, which occupy a major proportion of the land use structure and building capacity in these UC zones. At the same time, corresponding supporting service industries have also been developed, such as commercial shopping, catering and entertainment, and apartment facilities, to ensure the normal operation of the UC zone. In terms of spatial form, as the CBD occupies a core position with the most convenient transportation links, industrial competition will lead to land scarcity and high land prices, which force business facilities to develop upwards. Therefore, the

Service range

Citywide

Citywide

Type of UC zone

Business-oriented public service hubs

Security-oriented public service hubs

Specialized

Comprehensive

Service content

Government-led

Market-led

Investment mechanism

Table 1.2 Comparison of UC zone characteristics classified based on operating model

Government allocation

Market competition

Land supply

Social security

Economic benefits

Operational goal

Low

High

Economic vitality

10 1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

1.1 Overview of Urban Centrality (UC) Zones

11

Fig. 1.2 Business and financial hub (Central District of Hong Kong)

spatial characteristics of the CBD often exhibit significant “vertical” development, and its overall external spatial form is characterized by clusters of high-rise buildings. Traditional commercial hubs: Theses are specialized public service hubs relying on traditional architecture and business activities that exude a deep sense of history, the most representative of which are the Confucius Temple in Nanjing (Fig. 1.3), the City God Temple in Shanghai, and the Dashilan near Qianmen in Beijing. In terms of the dominant industries, traditional commercial hubs are dominated by traditional, small-scale specialty businesses. Industries such as antiques, calligraphy and painting, jade products, traditional snacks, and small commodity retail are vigorously developed in these areas, along with a certain number of supporting facilities, such

Fig. 1.3 Traditional commercial hub (Confucius Temple, Nanjing)

12

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

as small- and medium-sized hotels and special hotels. Traditional commercial hubs generally exhibit strong local historical and cultural characteristics, which can reflect the context of the city’s cultural development. In large cities with advanced economic development and rich historical heritage, the traditional and regional culture will gradually reveal their strong and distinctive competitive advantage and slowly evolve into a consumer industry. With their rich cultural heritage and their crucial role in urban tourism, traditional commercial hubs represent the joint and complementary development of cultural and tourism industries with commerce. Retail commercial hubs: These are urban specialized public service hubs formed through the aggregation of large-scale retail commercial industries. Generally, as the social service industry develops, central commercial districts purely for shopping purposes will gradually decrease and slowly transform into mixed experienceand shopping-type commercial UC zones. Given the characteristics of commercial industries, as well as people’s shopping and consumption habits, the spatial form of retail commerce is characterized by giantization, complexization, and mall-ization, while its business format has gradually extended to integrated industrial chains of shopping, dining, and entertainment, thus presenting a configuration of city blocks lined end-to-end with retailers (Fig. 1.4). Leisure and entertainment hubs: The main retail formats in these UC zones are leisure, entertainment, catering, exhibition, participation, and other experiential consumption. Examples include Kabukich¯o in Shinjuku, Tokyo, the Xintiandi district in Shanghai, and the Nanjing 1912 Block. This is a new type of UC zone that has emerged at a stage where service industries are highly developed, and there is a fine distinction in the types of lifestyle consumption. This has shifted the past consumption model of shopping-oriented commercial hubs toward experiential consumption focusing on “exploration-sightseeing-fun” (Fig. 1.5).

Fig. 1.4 Retail commercial hub (Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II Mall, Milan)

1.1 Overview of Urban Centrality (UC) Zones

13

Fig. 1.5 Leisure and entertainment hub (Kabukich¯o, Shinjuku, Tokyo)

Convention and exhibition hubs: These are urban specialized public service hubs formed through the aggregation of large-scale convention and exhibition industries. The accelerated pace of globalization has been accompanied by the increasing frequency of cooperation among various countries and regions, which has also given rise to the industrialization and spatial aggregation of conventions and exhibitions. For example, the development and expansion of the Pazhou Convention and Exhibition Center (Fig. 1.6) can be attributed to the Canton Fair. As the Canton Fair grew in scale and radiative capacity and Guangzhou rose in its prominence as the core city

Fig. 1.6 Convention and exhibition hub (Pazhou Exhibition Center, Guangzhou) (Jinan Olympic Sports Center). *Source Guangzhou Municipal Planning Bureau

14

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

of the Pearl River Delta, the aggregation of the convention and exhibition industry in Pazhou began to increase. This industrial aggregation, in turn, gave rise to commerce, entertainment, catering, hotels, and other related supporting industries, thus forming a specialized public service hub. Sports and fitness hubs: These are urban specialized public service hubs dominated by the aggregation of sports and fitness service functions. In terms of spatial form, these UC zones generally present structural characteristics dominated by large-scale sports facilities, such as stadiums and swimming pools. A typical case is the Beijing Olympic Green, which used the “Bird’s Nest” and “Water Cube” as the core to consolidate the surrounding sports service industry in order to achieve the ultimate goals of industrial agglomeration and improved radiation capability. The new town development of some cities involves using the city’s sports and fitness hub as an engine for regional development to drive the development of the surrounding areas. For example, the construction of the Nanjing and Jinan Olympic Sports Centers not only needed to accommodate major sporting events but also had to serve as the source that drives new town development (Fig. 1.7). Arts and culture hubs: These are specialized service hubs formed through the aggregation of cultural supporting industries. The dominant industries in these UC zones include large museums, concert halls, and theaters, accompanied by a certain number of retail and catering industries as supporting services. As a type of social security-oriented industry, the arts and culture industry places more emphasis on its homogeneity. Furthermore, its spatial pattern, development, and construction are mainly government-led, which results in its low-intensity, landscape-oriented spatial characteristics. For example, the Esplanade in Singapore is located opposite the Merlion Park and consists of a theatre, studio, concert hall, and supporting facilities. The two main buildings resemble two halves of a durian lying on the riverbank, which has the fragrant of the regional characteristics of Southeast Asia (Fig. 1.8).

Fig. 1.7 Sports and fitness hub (Jinan Olympic Sports Center)

1.1 Overview of Urban Centrality (UC) Zones

15

Fig. 1.8 Arts and culture hub (The Esplanade, Singapore)

Administrative office hubs: These specialized service hubs are formed through the aggregation of administrative offices, government services, and other special urban functions in the same space. The dominant formation is administrative offices. A series of downstream supporting services will gradually emerge with the improvement in the service industry chain of these functional zones, including commercial offices, professional consultancies, hotels, retail, and catering, but administrative offices will remain dominant. In spatial terms, the industrial characteristics of these UC zones will determine their external spatial form to a certain extent. Due to the supply characteristics of land resources in these functional zones, they generally present a low-density model of development and construction with respect to their external form. Typical cases include the Daejeon administrative hub in South Korea, the Taizhou New Town administrative hub and the Changzhou Wujin administrative hub in China (Fig. 1.9). Transportation hub: These specialized service hubs are formed through the aggregation of large-scale transportation facilities. Common facilities include railway stations, bus stations, and airports. Under normal circumstances, the aggregation of passenger flow in transportation hubs will give rise to a certain level of service industry support. In fact, even some cities have relied on transportation hubs for their gradual development and establishment. Zhengzhou is a typical case, as it is clearly a transportation hub city. The spatial location of the city’s main UC zone (Erqi Central District) is contiguous and overlapping with the railway transportation hub. Due to the difference in the characteristics of the two public service hubs, there is a certain degree of spatial mixing in the UC zone (Fig. 1.10). Research and education hubs: These are urban specialized service hubs derived from the aggregation of scientific research institutions, higher education institutions, and other service industries. Typical cases include the core service areas of university

16

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Fig. 1.9 Administrative office hub (Daejeon administrative hub, South Korea)

Fig. 1.10 Transportation hub (Zhengzhou Railway Station and Erqi Square)

towns, where the initial purpose is to share resources for scientific research through the spatial agglomeration of higher education institutions. This agglomeration, in turn, results in relatively strong demand, thus leading to the formation of a public service hub that serves the entire university town. For example, the Guangzhou University Town was formed based on the circular layout of ten higher education

1.1 Overview of Urban Centrality (UC) Zones

17

Fig. 1.11 Research and education hub (core area of Guangzhou University Town). *Source Guangzhou Municipal Planning Bureau

institutions, with the establishment of comprehensive development zones and shared zones within, which formed the public service core of the entire university town area (Fig. 1.11). (5) Classification based on spatial location The UC zone is where the aggregation of industries, crowd flow, and traffic flow takes place. Thus, its current level of development and its future potential for development is determined, to a large extent, by the advantages and disadvantages of its spatial location. Location not only refers to the spatial position of the UC zone in the city’s built-up area but also involves its interrelations with the surrounding areas and other UC zones. There are many factors that can affect the spatial location of the UC zone, such as the convenience of transportation, natural environmental factors, and government decisions. Based on the differences in spatial location, they can be divided into old-town and new-town UC zones. An old-town UC zone refers to a UC zone that is spatially located in a relatively core position of the city’s built-up area. It has generally undergone a long period of development, mainly through market resource allocation, and relies on its own advantages to gradually achieve industrial agglomeration. From the perspective of the functional format, it has a higher probability of displaying mixed functions. With

18

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

respect to the course of its development, it has undergone the process of functional substitution and upgrading, whereby, as it gradually expanded in size, the surrounding non-UC zone functions were slowly transformed into commercial, business, and other land uses for UC zone functions. A new-town UC zone generally refers to a new public service hub created in the suburbs following the expansion of the city. It usually has a short period of development and is still in the initial development stages. In terms of the startup model, unlike the market-led old-town UC zone, the development of the newtown UC zone tends to reflect a stronger policy intent to a certain extent. China, in particular, is still in the phase of rapid urbanization, and urban planning (which is the embodiment of policy intent) features more prominently in the development process of new-town UC zones. In terms of functional industries, the types of industries in such UC zones tend to be uniform, and they are in the process of single-industry agglomeration or transformation from single- to multi-industry agglomeration.

1.1.2 Definition of UC Zone Hierarchy and Indicators By consolidating the five classification methods above, we can divide UC zones into the following categories: main UC zones, sub-UC zones, and district-level UC zones (see Fig. 1.12). Main UC zone (or main center): This is the first-level comprehensive UC zone of the city and is the core area of the urban structure and function. It is the site for the comprehensive concentration of the city’s public buildings and tertiary industry, and it provides the facilities and service space for economic, sociocultural, and other

Fig. 1.12 Comprehensive hierarchical classification of UC zones

1.1 Overview of Urban Centrality (UC) Zones

19

activities. Its spatial characteristics are distinct from those of other areas in the city, and its dominant functions include commercial catering, business offices, culture and entertainment, and information consultation. As the core for the aggregation of political, economic, cultural, and other activities in the city and the original region of public buildings and the tertiary industry, it is a concentrated embodiment of the city’s level of economic and social development, it undertakes the functions of economic operation and public management, and its services cover the entire city. Sub-UC zones (or sub-centers): These are city-level specialized UC zones that supplement the functions of the main UC zones. They are dominated by one or two types of city-level specialized service functions, showing a high concentration of a single type of public activity, and their specialized services cover the entire city. In addition to fulfilling their functions as sub-UC zones, sub-centers also tend to be linked to the development of district-level centers, thus playing the role of driving new-town development. Therefore, many sub-centers have the functions of both subUC zones and new-town district-level UC zones. Their overlapping centrality positioning imposes certain thresholds on their scale of land use and building construction. For example, the sub-UC zones in megacities generally need to be above 1 km2 for them to achieve a sufficient clustering effect to perform their required functions effectively. Corresponding to the lifestyle, production, and social service industries, there are generally three categories of urban sub-centers, namely, lifestyle service sub-centers, production service sub-centers, and social service sub-centers. 1. Lifestyle service sub-centers: These are specialized service hubs providing the city with lifestyle consumption services, and they are dominated by functions such as retail and commerce, entertainment and leisure, and catering and consumption. Examples include traditional commercial hubs, leisure, and entertainment hubs, and bulk retail shopping hubs. 2. Production service sub-centers: These are specialized service hubs providing the city and the region with business management services, and they are dominated by functions such as finance, securities and insurance, headquarter offices, trade offices, technical consultancies, and conventions and exhibitions. Examples include business, convention, and exhibition hubs. 3. Social service sub-centers: These are specialized service hubs providing the city with social security services that are dominated by functions such as administrative management, education and scientific research, sports and culture, medicine and healthcare, and transportation hubs. Examples include administrative, sports, and culture hubs. The agglomeration of such service industries has given rise to social security service areas, which can be divided or unified in spatial distribution, without an inevitable trend toward aggregation. Due to their own driving force and radiative power, social service sub-centers tend to attract the nearby aggregation of UC zones that can drive marketization mechanisms while developing in conjunction with these UC zones. This has led to the emergence of “derivative, composite” UC zones, such as station-front business districts and administrative and business UC zones. The spatial overlaps between the locations of UC zones and social service sub-centers have given rise to “overlapping”

20

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

UC zones. Due to the industrial characteristics of social service sub-centers, the effect of human intervention is exceptionally prominent in their development, while their corresponding scale of land use and building construction largely reflects the results of administrative decision-making in the absence of optimized allocation and regulation through marketization. Therefore, many studies have only performed qualitative analyses on social service sub-UC zones. District-level UC zones (district-level centers): These are second-level UC zones in the city, which mainly provide services to regions or administrative areas with relatively independent policy zoning. They are the carriers of service functions within the districts. As the core for aggregating the economic, political, cultural, and other activities of functional entities within the districts, these UC zones are mainly responsible for the development of relevant supporting service industries for residents within the districts, and they provide comprehensive service functions to the districts they serve. By consolidating the criteria above for the classification of UC zones, we can analyze the investment mechanism, land supply, and service range of each type of UC zone, which will more clearly reveal the differences between social service sub-centers and other UC zones (see Table 1.3). We can see from the table that public services provided by social service subcenters, as well as other main and sub-UC zones, cover the entire city. However, due to the distinct industrial characteristics of social service sub-centers, both their investment mechanisms and land supply are government-led. In terms of economic vitality, city-level UC zones have the greatest vitality. In contrast, the social service sub-center is unable to actively participate in market competition or provide jobs for the market due to its unique industrial characteristics, which leads to difficulties in aggregating a large amount of crowd flow and material flow, thus giving rise to low economic vitality. Therefore, since the 1990s, the construction of many newtown UC zones in China, with administrative hubs and Olympic sports centers as the dominant function, is essentially the construction of social service sub-centers, which cannot effectively stimulate the economic and spatial vitality of surrounding areas. This has caused many new-town UC zones to have an empty and lifeless atmosphere (Fig. 1.13). To define the “main center—sub-center—district-level center” hierarchical structure of UC zones, we formulated a set of analysis and evaluation criteria composed of 10 first-level indicators and 29 second-level indicators according to the characteristics of the UC zones. The indicator descriptions were given for the contents of the corresponding components for each tier of the UC zone, which were used to comprehensively determine the classification of different UC zones. Details on the indicators are shown in Table 1.4. Based on Table 1.4, the criteria for each tier of the UC zone were summarized as follows: (1) Main center: The main center is the core spatial carrier of the city’s regional service functions. It occupies a leading position in providing various categories of lifestyle and production public service functions in the city. It has a large scale

Citywide

Citywide

Citywide

Commercial sub-center

Business sub-center

Social sub-center

Urban districts

Citywide

City-level public Main center centers

District-level centers

Service range

Type of UC zone

Comprehensive

Specialized

Specialized

Specialized

Comprehensive

Service content

Market-led

Government-led

Market-led

Market-led

Market-led

Investment mechanism

Table 1.3 Classification of UC zones based on hierarchical size and industrial characteristics

Market competition

Government allocation

Market competition

Market competition

Market competition

Land supply

Low

High

High

High, mid

High

Grade of business formats

High

Medium

High

Economic vitality

Economic benefits

Low

Social security Low

Economic benefits

Economic benefits

Economic benefits

Operational goal

1.1 Overview of Urban Centrality (UC) Zones 21

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1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Fig. 1.13 The functions of social service sub-centers are difficult to bring vitality to new districts

of land use and building construction, a service range that covers the entire city, and the highest level of public recognizability within the city. (2) Sub-center: The sub-center is the key spatial carrier of the city’s regional service functions. It occupies a leading position in providing one to two dominant lifestyle or production public service functions in the city. It has a certain scale of land use and building construction, a service range that covers the entire city, and a relatively high level of public recognizability within the city. (3) District-level center: The district-level center is responsible for the main public service functions of a specific district. It consists of centralized public service buildings that are in continuous use, provides lifestyle service industries with lower-end business formats, and its service range covers the district it serves. Based on this hierarchical classification of UC zones, we can gradually uncover the basic architecture of a UC structure composed of multiple UC zones.

1.2 Definition of UC Structure 1.2.1 Connotations and Characteristics of the UC Structure The UC structure can be regarded as a whole unit composed of the city’s individual UC zones. As the spatial core of public service facilities within the city, its main constituent unit is the city’s main center, sub-center, and district-level center. However, the UC structure should not be simply regarded as the overlay of all UC

1.2 Definition of UC Structure

23

Table 1.4 Criteria for the UC structure hierarchy First-level indicators

Second-level indicators

Indicator description

Location module A1

Core urban location B1

Located in the city’s ★ population and economic core, close to its main roads, and has convenient transportation

Key urban location B2

Located in a key population and economic node in the city, and has convenient transportation

Mature urban district B3

Located in a mature district in the city with complete supporting facilities

Large size B4

Large land-use area, and large gross building area

Medium size B5

Medium land-use area, and medium gross building area

Small size B6

Small land-use area, and small gross building area

High development intensity B7

High floor area ratio and building density

Medium development intensity B8

Medium floor area ratio and building density

Low development intensity B9

Low floor area ratio and building density

Size module A2

Land use module A3

Transportation Urban module A4 backbone transportation hub B10

Contains the city’s arterial roads and rail transit interchanges; has convenient transportation links, good accessibility, and large-scale parking facilities

Urban transportation node B11

Contains nodes of primary and secondary arterial roads, and rail transit stations; has good accessibility and large-scale parking facilities

Main Sub-center District-level center center

★

★

★ ★

★ ★

★

★

★

★

(continued)

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1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Table 1.4 (continued) First-level indicators

Second-level indicators

Indicator description

Building module A5

Sizeable number of large public buildings B12

Presence of ★ high-rise/large-span/mega public buildings and a certain level of aggregation

Small number of large public buildings B13

Presence of high-rise/large-span/mega public buildings with a limited degree of aggregation

Sporadic large public buildings B14

Presence of individual or no large public buildings

B15

Provides a variety of urban service functions, dominated by business, commercial, and other high-end functions, with adequate supporting facilities

B16

Dominated by a specific urban service function, with adequate supporting facilities

B17

Provides the lifestyle supporting facilities required by the district

Citywide multifunctional service range B18

Multifunctional service hub for business, commerce, etc., with a citywide service range

Citywide monofunctional service range B19

Monofunctional service hub for commerce, business, etc. with a citywide service range

District-wide service range B20

Lifestyle service hub with a district-wide service range

Good iconicity B21

Contains the city’s iconic landscape profile or iconic buildings, with richly distinctive city blocks

Function module A6

Radiation module A7

Iconicity module A8

Main Sub-center District-level center center

★

★

★

★

★

★

★

★

★

(continued)

1.2 Definition of UC Structure

25

Table 1.4 (continued) First-level indicators

Activity module A9

Branding module A10

Second-level indicators

Indicator description

Moderate iconicity B22

Contains a small number of iconic buildings with relatively distinctive city blocks

Average iconicity B23

No obvious iconic buildings

Vigorous activity B24

High frequency of public activities and a complete range of activity types

Good activity B25

Relatively high frequency of public activities and a relatively complete range of activity types

Weak activity B26

Average frequency of public activities and a relatively uniform range of activity types

High degree of branding B27

High public recognizability

Moderate degree of branding B28

Moderate public recognizability

Low degree of branding B29

Poor public recognizability

Main Sub-center District-level center center ★

★ ★

★

★

★ ★

★

zones. The emphasis of this structure is on interconnectivity and unified integrity, where the multiple UC zones are regarded as important components of the city, which will inevitably have a certain degree of mutual interactions. At the same time, the UC zones also coexist within the city to form a unified whole, jointly fulfilling UC functions and leading the agglomeration and development of urban service industries. The formation of the UC structure is a result of changes in the urban spatial structure brought about by the development of the city, the expansion of the urban population and land use scale, and the diversification of functions provided by the city. During this process, the changes in the urban spatial structure have a direct impact on the choice of spatial location for the aggregation of urban service industries. The formation of the UC structure generally undergoes the following developmental process: The continuous aggregation of commercial trade and public activities in a city gives rise to a UC zone, which becomes its key space for public activities and exchanges. With the acceleration of industrialization, there is a sharp increase in the urban population and land use scale, which brings about the gradual expansion and industrial upgrading of the UC zone. Due to constraints by factors such as infrastructure and radiation range during the development process, the urban center begins

26

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

to split from a single UC zone and undergoes restructuring to enter the development stage of multiple UC zones, thereby forming a multi-center urban structure. The interrelations among the different UC zones, thus, constitute the UC structure. The direct consequence of the expansion in city size and the improvement in economic level is the increase in urban service institutions and market service demands. In spatial terms, this translates into an increased number of UC zones. On the other hand, the increased scale and functional division of the service industry also contribute to the diversification of the main contents in the UC zone, while the agglomeration within each category of functionally distinct service industry will give rise to specialized urban centers with different functions. As the spatial carriers of the service industries, UC zones will evolve from a single UC zone to multiple UC zones during the course of urban expansion and the development of the service industry. In addition, the differences in function, hierarchical level, location, and scale will gradually give rise to the diversification of the UC structure. Therefore, the UC structure is defined in this book as follows: The UC structure refers to the organic whole of a city that consists of a collection of interrelated and interdependent UC zones with different dominant functions, hierarchical scale, and service range. Within the city, the UC structure exhibits two different levels of functional utility: At the macro level, the UC structure as a whole drives the economic and industrial progress of the city and participates in the intense market and global competition network. At the meso level, there are intricate competitive and cooperative interrelations among the UC zones within the UC structure, which also involves spatial differentiation and the dislocated development of business formats among UC zones due to differences in various natural and human factors. In general, the UC structure exhibits the following characteristics: (1) Integrity: The UC structure exists as a whole, and the individual UC zones within the system are intimately connected in terms of industry, market, information flow, capital flow, logistics, etc., on the basis of urban transportation. Changes that occur in one UC zone will necessarily lead to corresponding changes in other UC zones within the structure. The most prominent example is the dislocated development among the industries of different UC zones driven by market competition. Main UC zones develop comprehensive industries such as business offices, and large-scale commerce; sub-UC zones actively develop dislocated service industries, such as characteristic commerce, entertainment and leisure, culture and arts, and trade and wholesale; district-level UC zones develop general merchandise retail, catering and entertainment, and other lifestyle service industries that cover their respective districts. The main and sub-district centers together constitute a complete tertiary industry cluster that serves the entire city. This is not only the result of effective market-led resource allocation, but it also highlights the possibility and necessity of regulating the UC structure as a whole through planning and policies. The UC structure is an important framework for urban services, which targets all residents within the city, and even residents outside the city. Therefore, the service range of the UC

1.2 Definition of UC Structure

27

structure covers the entire urban region and constitutes a complete system of urban services. (2) Hierarchicality: The UC zones within the UC structure exhibit strongly hierarchical relationships. UC zones can be divided according to their different functions, service recipients, and service range into city- and district-level UC zones. The hierarchical relationship between the two gives rise to the hierarchical division of service industries within the UC structure, with a significant high- to low-end distribution in the grade of business formats. In addition, the hierarchical differences in structure will result in the hierarchicalization of the spatial scale of UC zones. By comparing the primacy of UC zones within China’s UC structures, we can see that the most comprehensive UC zone in Shanghai, the People’s Square, has a gross building area primacy of 1.9, while the largest UC zone in Beijing, the Chaoyang District, has a building area primacy of 2.0. A comparison of the tier differences between the main and sub-UC zones shows that in Guangzhou, the differential ratio in land use between the main and subcenters is 3.1:1 and that of the building area is 3.2:1; in Beijing, the differential ratio in the building area is 3.5:1; while in Shanghai, the differential ratio in the building area is 4.3:1.4 All of this shows strong hierarchical differences. (3) Differentiation: The dominant functions of the various UC zones in the UC structure show clearly differentiated division of labor, especially in specialized UC zones, as exemplified by the emergence of central commercial districts and central business districts. However, from the perspective of the overall structure, the dislocated development and coordinated division of labor in the dominant service industries of each UC zone jointly constitute a complete framework that serves the entire city. As an example, in Guangzhou, each UC zone within the UC structure formed its own characteristics in its industrial development. For instance, the Beijing Road UC zone is dominated by retail commerce, trade consultancy, and administrative offices, while the Sanyuanli UC zone is dominated by conventions and exhibitions, trade consultancy, and retail commerce (see Table 1.5). (4) Non-homogeneity: The UC zones that constitute the UC structure are the core of urban construction and the points of agglomeration in spatial development that exert strong cohesive effects. The higher the tier and the larger the size of UC zones, the stronger their centripetal force and the higher the degree of spatial aggregation. From an industrial perspective, the UC structure brings together the vast majority of service industries within the city to form the aggregation core of the service industry. From the perspective of spatial form, the development intensity and construction density within the UC structure present a sharp contrast with the surrounding areas. From the perspective of transportation convenience, all UC zones possess the most advantageous transportation 4 *Source Based on the field survey and calculation results obtained by the research group from UC

zones such as Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Guangzhou in 2008-2019 as part of a National Natural Science Foundation project (Quantitative Study on Intensive Land Use in Urban Centrality Zones in China, 50878046), same as below.

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1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Table 1.5 Size and dominant functions of UC zones in the Guangzhou UC structure Name of UC zone

Land area/ha

Building scale (10,000 m2 )

Dominant functions

Beijing Road

387.8

947.1

Retail commerce, trade consultancy, administrative offices

Zhujiang New Town

623.3

1,286.6

Trade consultancy, retail commerce, finance, and insurance

Sanyuanli

259.3

423.3

Convention and exhibition, trade consultancy, retail commerce

Huanshi East Road

138.0

385.1

Trade consultancy, hotels, retail commerce

94.7

218.4

Retail commerce, trade consultancy, hotels

Shangxiajiu

conditions in the city, with high accessibility and strong evacuation capacity. From the perspective of the city as a whole, the UC structure is the spatial aggregation of multiple large public service facilities within the built-up area of the city, showing strong non-homogeneity in its spatial distribution.

1.2.2 Types of UC Structure UC zones originated in the emergence of cities and the industrial agglomeration that came with commercial trade. The appearance of UC zones altered the structural spatial pattern of the city and promoted the development of urban service industries. The UC structure, on the other hand, stemmed from the “separation” and “reaggregation” of the service industries in UC zones, which also altered the original structural spatial pattern of the city. Therefore, the UC structure can be regarded as an advanced stage in the structural development of urban public service functions and an inevitable product at a certain point in the development of megacities. It is the spatial manifestation of the increasing service functions undertaken by the city. From a horizontal perspective, cities at different stages of development all correspond to the appropriate UC structure. From a vertical perspective, the same city will undergo changes in its UC structure at different stages of development due to changes in service needs, whereby the overall UC structure is adjusted through the expansion, upgrading, migration, and decline of UC zones. Therefore, the UC structure can be seen as a growing and changing “organism.” Based on the overall structure, UC structures can be divided into three types: the “single main center, multiple sub-centers” (1MC-MSC) structure, the “dual main centers, multiple sub-centers” (2MC-MSC) structure, and the “multiple main centers” (MMC) structure. Urban development occurs in distinct stages, and each stage exhibits different urban spatial forms, while the UC structure is one of the

1.2 Definition of UC Structure

29

structural frameworks of the urban spatial form. Therefore, the three forms of UC structure indirectly reflect the different stages of urban development. (1) Single main center, multiple sub-centers (1MC-MSC) structure The 1MC-MSC UC structure is one where the city has a single main center, multiple sub-centers, and a certain number of district-level centers, which are public service hubs that together constitute the UC structure (see Fig. 1.14). From the perspective of functional industries, this form is composed of one main UC zone with comprehensive public services, multiple sub UC zones with specialized public services, and a certain number of district-level UC zones serving their respective districts. The functional industries of the main UC zone have the absolute primacy advantage in the overall UC structure with respect to the industrial size, grade of business formats, industrial vitality, degree of format mixing, etc. The main UC zone is the core and “leader” of urban development, leading the joint development of other sub-UC zones and district-level UC zones, thereby driving the development of the service industries within the city and even those within the region. From the perspective of the construction scale and land use scale of UC zones, the main UC zone also maintains a status of absolute dominance, with a higher degree of primacy compared to the sub UC zones. From the perspective of the transportation environment, the main UC zone has the most favorable advantages in transportation and a high level of accessibility, while future transportation construction will maximize the development of the main UC zone. In terms of spatial structure, the main center generally occupies a relatively central position in the city, with multiple sub-centers and district-level centers surrounding its periphery, thus forming a “core-fringe” structural model. From the perspective of development history, the main UC zone has generally undergone a relatively long period of development and has experienced industrial upgrading, functional substitution, and format mixing, ultimately forming Fig. 1.14 Schematic diagram of the single main center, multiple sub-centers UC structure

30

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

a mixed, comprehensive public service hub with multiple dominant industries. Some sub-centers have resulted from the gradual development of the service industries over a long period of historical accumulation, whereas others are formed through new-town construction during the course of rapid urbanization. In summary, when considered from multiple angles, the 1MC-MSC UC structure consists of the main UC zone that occupies a position of absolute dominance while cities corresponding to this structure also reflect a strong sense of cohesion. Cities at this stage of development mainly include Osaka, Nanjing, Shenyang, Dalian, and Xiamen. For instance, Nanjing currently has a single main center and three subcenters UC structure, with Xinjiekou as the main center and Hunan Road, Confucius Temple, and Hexi as the sub-centers. As one of the symbols of Nanjing, the Xinjiekou main UC zone has undergone a long period of development and has gradually transformed from a simple commercial hub to a comprehensive business and commercial hub. The Confucius Temple, which is a nationally recognized traditional commercial hub, has actively developed its tourism and cultural industries while also turning into a key sub-center for Nanjing. Hexi, on the other hand, took advantage of the “10th National Games” and relied on the government to develop into a new sub-UC zone. The advantages of the 1MC-MSC UC structure include its high resource concentration and efficient land use. However, due to the limited spatial radiative power of a single main center and other structural reasons, this structure is also susceptible to imbalances in the service range of facilities among UC zones. Thus, it is suitable for cities without natural environmental constraints, such as those with plain terrains. Furthermore, when the city reaches an extremely large size, due to the immense economic value of the main center in the 1MC-MSC UC structure, it will continue to expand size until it reaches a considerable size requiring the robust support of infrastructure such as municipal administration and transportation (Table 1.6). (2) Dual main centers, multiple sub-centers (2MC-MSC) structure The 2MC-MSC UC structure is one where the city has two main centers at the same level, multiple sub-centers, and a certain number of district-level centers, which together constitute the UC structure (see Fig. 1.15). Compared to the 1MC-MSC UC structure, the 2MC-MSC UC structure has developed a new main center in the city, and this change in the quantity structure of the main center brings about an overall change in the characteristics of the UC structure. From the perspective of functional industries, this form is composed of two main UC zones with comprehensive public services, multiple sub-UC zones with specialized public services, and a certain number of district-level UC zones, which together constitute the UC structure. Generally, the dominant industries of the newly created main UC zone will tend toward modern service industries, such as business offices, finance and insurance, and large-scale high-end comprehensive commerce, whereas the original main UC zone will mainly be dominated by retail commerce, leisure and entertainment, and business offices. Thus, there is linked dislocated development of industries between the two main UC zones. From the perspective of primacy in construction

1.2 Definition of UC Structure

31

Table 1.6 Analysis of the advantages and disadvantages in the 1MC-MSC UC structure Advantages and disadvantages

Type

Description of characteristics

Typical cases

Advantages

High resource concentration

The city has only one main center, where its core economic, human, and market resources are highly concentrated, and it shows significant capital, technological, and policy advantages over other UC zones. Thus, the development of the main center will be maximized under limited conditions

Nanjing

Prominent iconic landscape

The city’s only main center Wuxi often undergoes intensive construction to achieve an iconic landscape that can be presented to the outside world. It reflects the overall urban image and style of the city, and it has good representativeness and recognizability

Higher land use efficiency

Under limited conditions for Dalian development, focusing all effort on constructing a single main center will achieve higher development intensity and enhance the land efficiency of the UC zone

Impact on urban historic preservation

The city’s single main center Jinan often overlaps or is adjacent to the old town. Due to the significant primacy advantages of the main center, its location has considerable economic value, with development pressure that cannot be diverted. This will bring about immense challenges to the continuation and preservation of the old town spatial pattern, which will affect the preservation of famous historical and cultural cities

Disadvantages

(continued)

32

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Table 1.6 (continued) Advantages and disadvantages

Type

Description of characteristics

Typical cases

Overly large UC zone

With only a single main center despite the improvement of the city’s economic strength, the main center will expand indefinitely, thus giving rise to a series of structural and functional problems, including intense land use and environmental degradation

Osaka

Heavy traffic congestion

The excessively high Zhengzhou development intensity, high density of buildings, and overly large traffic load in the main center will lead to traffic congestion and increase the travelling time and costs of users, which will lead to the decline in the various economic and social functions of the UC zone. Traffic congestion will also increase the city’s energy consumption and increase exhaust emissions, thus causing the continuous deterioration of the urban living environment

Small UC structure framework

The single main center resides in one place, which hinders the 1MC-MSC UC structure from forming an open UC structure framework. Thus, there is limited capacity for urban spatial expansion, which restricts the city’s development.

Shenyang

(continued)

and land use scales, the primacy of the UC structure will undergo drastic changes due to the appearance of two main UC zones. As the scale and grade of the new main UC zone improve, it will gradually catch up with, or even surpass, the existing main UC zone. This causes a shift in the geographical center of the UC structure, and its primacy will also exhibit an initial decrease, followed by an increase. In terms of

1.2 Definition of UC Structure

33

Table 1.6 (continued) Advantages and disadvantages

Type

Description of characteristics

Typical cases

Insufficient radiation range of UC zones

The public service capacity Shenyang of the single main center is limited, and its service range is also restricted by its location, which prevents its radiative capacity from meeting the needs of various areas in the city. This will result in an imbalance in the distribution of public service facilities, thus affecting the social equality and order of the city

Not conducive to the formation of external links

The single main center has Xiamen high development intensity and dense crowd flow, with high requirements for the allocation of transportation service facilities. Furthermore, land is scarce in the main center, which causes difficulties in constructing large-scale transportation facilities and stations. These factors will affect the rapid concentration and evacuation of traffic in the UC zone

Threat to the conservation of ecological green veins

The land surrounding the Nanjing main center has high location value, significant demand for development, and clear economic benefits. This has led to difficulties in focusing on the ecological benefits of natural green spaces, and the ecological green veins of the city are often exchanged for expansion space in the UC zone

spatial structure, the new main UC zone tends to appear at a certain spatial distance from the existing main UC zone, and its location will be consistent with the city’s main development trajectory. This is because if the new main center is too close to the old main center, the former will experience the overly strong attractive forces exerted by the old main center and will be unable to achieve the internal aggregation

34

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Fig. 1.15 Schematic diagram of the dual main centers, multiple sub-centers UC structure

of high-end service industries. However, if the new main center is too far from the old main center, this will cause the former to be isolated, which is also not beneficial to its development. The periphery of the two main UC zones is surrounded by multiple sub UC zones, thus forming a dumbbell-shaped spatial structure. In terms of development history, the new main UC zone is generally the result of gradual development from an existing sub-center, which slowly evolved into a main UC zone due to development advantages in transportation location, service range, land stock, costs of demolition and construction, and so on. In summary, the emergence of the new main UC zone breaks apart the monopolistic situation of the 1MC-MSC UC structure while further expanding the spatial framework of the city’s service industries and pushing its functional development toward a more integrated direction, thus causing the city to exhibit a “dual core” spatial form. Typical cities that are in the 2MC-MSC developmental stage are Hong Kong, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen. The advantages of the 2MC-MSC UC structure are that it prevents the unlimited expansion of the single main center and facilitates the flow of traffic, among others. However, the 2MC-MSC UC structure places extremely high requirements on the total population, economic scale, consumption levels, and other aspects within its service range. Thus, the forced planning and construction of dual main UC zones without consideration for the city’s level of development will cause the spatial separation of limited service facilities, causing the low aggregation of public facilities within each UC zone and the lack of a distinctive landscape image. In addition, an absence of dislocated development in a large number of UC zones within the 2MCMSC UC structure is more likely to cause problems with business format similarities in multiple UC zones, leading to a lack of distinctive image personality and landscape characteristics (Table 1.7).

1.2 Definition of UC Structure

35

Table 1.7 Analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of the 2MC-MSC UC structure Advantages and disadvantages

Type

Description of characteristics

Typical cases

Advantages

Prevents the unlimited expansion of the single main center

The construction of a new Beijing main center solves the problem of land scarcity in the city, expands the development space of UC zones, and alleviates the development pressure on the main center

Conducive for the preservation of famous cities

The presence of dual main centers provides more room for choices in urban construction and diverts the pressure for development, which can reduce interference with the city’s historical spatial patterns and historical city blocks, and is conducive to the preservation of famous historical and cultural cities

Beijing

Alleviation of traffic congestion

The dual main centers can divert the city’s traffic load, which reduces the traffic pressure on the roads and ensures a more balanced spatial distribution of traffic flow, while also alleviating the ecological and environmental pollution caused by traffic congestion

Shanghai

Larger UC structure framework

The increased distance between the two main centers opens up the UC structure framework, which is conducive to the expansion of urban space

Guangzhou

(continued)

(3) Multiple main centers (MMC) structure The MMC UC structure is one where the city has three or more main centers, multiple sub-centers, and a very large number of district-level centers, which are all public service centers that together constitute a multi-node network UC structure in the city (see Fig. 1.16). Networking refers to the formation of links among independent nodes to enable their integration, systematization, and unification, to achieve the ultimate goal of

36

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Table 1.7 (continued) Advantages and disadvantages

Type

Description of characteristics

Typical cases

More convenient for the formation of external links

The newly built main center has more land for construction, and less pressure on land supply, which enables the construction of large-scale transportation service facilities, thus facilitating the rapid concentration and evacuation of people and vehicle traffic in UC zones

Beijing

Larger radiation range of the UC structure

The dual main centers have a Shanghai larger radiation range than the single main center, which provides better coverage to all districts in the city and ensures a more balanced distribution of public facilities, thus helping to maintain social equality

Facilitates the dislocated The dual main centers can Hong Kong development of UC zones accentuate their respective industrial characteristics and achieve dislocated development, which is more conducive to highlighting the functional characteristics of the city Conducive to the The dual main centers can conservation of ecological relieve the pressure of green veins spatial expansion in UC zones, which ensures that more natural green spaces are conserved in the urban development on the peripheries of UC zones, thus facilitating the protection and extension of ecological green veins into the city

Guangzhou

(continued)

1.2 Definition of UC Structure

37

Table 1.7 (continued) Advantages and disadvantages

Type

Description of characteristics

Typical cases

Disadvantages

Lack of aggregation in UC zones

If the city has yet to reach Wuhan the required scale, the rush to construct a new main center will disperse the capital investment in urban development, resulting in the failure to achieve clustering effects due to insufficient total resources in the main centers, which will affect the development of UC zones

Business format similarities

The lack of attention on the Guangzhou dislocated development of industries in the city’s dual main centers will give rise to competition caused by business format similarities, which will inhibit the industrial development of UC zones

Localized traffic congestion

The roads connecting the Guangzhou dual main centers bear the main traffic pressure between the two main centers, which leads to localized congestion of road nodes, thus affecting the transportation links among UC zones

multiplying their overall effectiveness. “Networking” within the UC structure implies the substantial increase in the total number of UC zones, accompanied by the opening of communication channels among UC zones to strengthen their mutual industrial interactions. Not only can this increase the operational efficiency of the service industry and accelerate its development, but it can also reinforce the market’s ability to regulate the optimal allocation of sources, which will greatly improve the development efficiency of urban service industries. The MMC structure is an advanced form of the megacity UC structure, wherein multiple mature and unique large-scale comprehensive public service hubs exist simultaneously within the city. From the perspective of functional industries, the trend exhibited by the main UC zones in this development process is one of “specialization,” whereas that exhibited by sub-UC zones is one that is progressing toward “comprehensiveness.” Due to the massive size of the main UC zones, the spatial scale of the service industries within them is also relatively large, leading to the finer division of business formats in the operation process of highly-developed markets.

38

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Fig. 1.16 Schematic diagram of the multiple main centers structure

Thus, industries with similar characteristics and their related industries will begin to seek further aggregation and differentiation within the main UC zones. The trends exhibited by the sub-UC zones, on the other hand, will be the exact opposite. The continuous expansion of the urban built-up area will cause the transportation location of the sub-UC zones to occupy a more core position, leading to the gradual narrowing of differences in spatial location. In addition, other service facilities will also begin to aggregate within the sub-centers, thus pushing their functional structure toward a more comprehensive development trajectory. From the perspective of the internal links within the MMC structure, the gradual improvement in rapid rail transit networks and various road transportation facilities has resulted in more tightly connected transportation links within the UC structure, with minimal differences in transportation accessibility among the UC zones. Thus, participation in market competition is no longer dependent on differentiated transportation locations or industrial positioning but on genuine improvements in the operating efficiency of the service industries through a finer division of labor. A comprehensive analysis will reveal the following characteristics of the MMC UC structure: – Blurred size hierarchy among the UC zones in the UC structure without clear hierarchical differences in the “main–sub-district” tiers; – Further refinement and specialization of the division of labor in business formats to achieve the specialization of main UC zones and comprehensiveness of sub-UC zones in land use space; – Due to the substantial improvement in transportation infrastructure, there is a tightly connected network of communication among the UC zones;

1.2 Definition of UC Structure

39

– Functional formats are highly mature and can generate a large number of high-end derivative service industries. The MMC structure can provide a greater impetus to the development of urban service industries. However, due to its extremely high barriers to entry, its formation not only requires a relatively high level of economic development but also imposes substantial demands on the city’s population size, consumption level, industrial economy, transportation support, and other factors. Currently, cities that have attained the MMC stage include Tokyo, London, and other global central cities, which occupy the highest end of international urban development and assume a pivotal role in the process of globalization.

1.2.3 Stages in the Evolution of the UC Structure The continuous development and growth of the urban population has resulted in an increase in the scale of urban construction, necessitates a corresponding increase in the scale of service facilities, leading to changes in the UC structure that gradually evolves into higher-level structures. Throughout the evolutionary process of the UC structure, from the birth of the early UC zone to the present, its spatial structure has undergone the 1MC—1MC-MSC—2MC-MSC—MMC stepwise development trajectory, which has brought about higher-end development, a larger number of service functions, and a greater service radiation range within the region. In the initial stage of urban development, the demand for commercial trade gave rise to various types of service institutions that aggregated within the same space, thus forming the UC zone. Due to the small size of the city and the small urban population at that time, the types of service institutions required for urban development were relatively uniform and were at a relatively small scale. Thus, a single UC zone was able to meet the various public service needs of the city. When selecting a spatial location, service institutions tended to choose the geometric center of the city, which had the highest transportation accessibility. This not only provided comprehensive coverage for all residents in the city but also promoted the development of trade and industry. In the 1MC stage of development, nearly all city-level service industries in the city were aggregated within one UC zone. At this stage, the aggregation of service industries within the UC zone is still increasing continuously, and the city is gradually developing and growing under the influence of the 1MC structure (Fig. 1.17). With the development of the city, the aggregation of service industries within the UC zone will continue to increase, and intense competition will bring about negative effects, such as high land prices, traffic congestion, and environmental pollution, in the UC zone. This will cause the positive effects of clustering in the UC zone to shift toward the negative effects of clustering. High land prices will lead to immense operational difficulties among industries with low profitability, while traffic congestion, environmental pollution, and excessive competition will also have a negative impact on the development of the service industries. Therefore, some service industries will

40

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Fig. 1.17 Stages in the evolution of the UC structure

begin to abandon the main UC zone in their choice of spatial location and, instead, create a new spatial venue, thus giving rise to the first separation of service industries in the UC zone. Industries with limited profitability and high requirements for transportation conditions will have no choice but to break away from the original UC zone and re-aggregate in relatively remote locations, thus forming specialized sub-centers. The separation of the service industries will directly transform the urban structure from the original 1MC structure into a UC structure. The original main UC zone and the new specialized sub-centers resulting from the differentiation together constitute the 1MC-MSC UC structure of this stage. As the city continues to develop, the old main UC zone will be limited in its rate of development due to the negative effects of clustering. In contrast, the new specialized sub-centers are in the initial stages of development, and they will benefit from the positive effects of clustering within the service industries. As they are in a stage of

1.2 Definition of UC Structure

41

rapid development, there will be a rapid increase in the construction and industrial scale of these UC zones. Due to the differences in the urban location, transportation conditions, and size of available land among the specialized sub-centers, they will also exhibit differences in development potential. The specialized sub-center with the best development conditions will attract a greater flow of people and materials due to its higher degree of industrial clustering while also vigorously developing its relevant supporting industries, which will drive its development toward a greater functional mix. When it reaches a certain level of development in terms of size, types of dominant industries, and land use intensity, it will form a new comprehensive main center. This will be accompanied by another round of differentiation in its functional industries, which will generate new specialized sub-centers. At this point, the city would have attained the 2MC-MSC UC structure. Following the city’s economic development and the construction and enhancement of urban infrastructure, substantial improvements would also have been attained in urban transportation, which form the channels of communication among the UC zones within the UC structure. Thus, the differences in transportation location among the different UC zones will gradually plateau at high quality. The formation of good transportation locations and channels will elicit certain changes in the development of UC zones within the UC structure. The main UC zones will exhibit an agglomeration trend of industrial specialization. At this point, the main UC zones have relatively large land and industrial scales; thus, another round of specializationoriented agglomeration will be conducive to enhancing the functions and image of the main UC zones. However, the new specialization-oriented agglomeration is not concentrated at one point but is relatively dispersed. In contrast, the sub-UC zones will exhibit a trend toward comprehensiveness; that is, to safeguard the scale of their dominant, characteristic industries, they will undergo the low-level aggregation of non-dominant industries due to the improvements in infrastructure. Once the various UC zones go through another round of industrial aggregation and differentiation, the city will gradually evolve into a networked structure of multiple main centers, thus attaining the most advanced form of urban spatial development, that is, the MMC structure.

1.3 Driving Mechanisms of UC Structure Development The expansion and upgrade of the UC structure in its development process are the result of the interaction mechanisms among the city’s economic industry, spatial facilities, and public policies. Originally, the term “mechanism” referred to the structure and working principles of machines. In this book, the driving mechanisms of UC structure development refer to internal mechanisms of operation underlying the development and succession processes of the UC structure. Research on these mechanisms is important to explore their role in the development of UC structures. For any object to maintain a continuous and stable trend of development, it must first acquire a driving force, which is often closely related to the internal and external needs of

42 Table 1.8 Composition of driving mechanisms underlying the development of the UC structure

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Economic development

“Internal drivers” Industrial economic

Industrial structure

promotion Population spatiality

Urban structural form

“Basic guarantee” Land space support

Land use characteristics

Transportation support

Public policy guidance

“External drivers” Social policy

Sociocultural characteristics

regulation Psycho-cognitive needs

the object. The drivers of the UC structure are composed of many complex aspects, including economy, society, and culture. Its formation and development are mainly derived from the city’s industrial economy and geographic form, which are then constrained by public policies in terms of market competition and social security. Therefore, by analyzing the operations of the UC structural space, we can categorize the drivers of the development of the UC structure into mechanisms of industrial economic promotion, mechanisms of land space support, and mechanisms of social policy regulation, which together constitute the research on the driving mechanisms of the UC structure. The driving forces behind the development of the UC structure are derived from the three aspects above, while the speed and span of spatial expansion are determined by the level of coordination among them (Table 1.8). By elucidating and analyzing the factors influencing the development of the UC structure, we will be able to clarify the conditions and thresholds for its expansion, thereby achieving the goal of mastering the developmental trends of the UC structure.

1.3.1 Internal Drivers: Industrial Economic Promotion The level of economic development and demand for industrial development are the original driving forces behind the formation and development of the UC structure and the internal dominant factors of its driving mechanism. The emergence and expansion of the UC structure is the direct result of the agglomeration and differentiation of the service industries and the upgrade and evolution of the industrial structure, which can be regarded as the internal drivers for the generation, development, and

1.3 Driving Mechanisms of UC …

43

enhancement of the UC structure. The driving force of the industrial economy can be elaborated further based on the following three aspects: level of economic development, characteristics of the industrial structure, and spatial characteristics of the population. (1) Level of economic development The level of economic development is one of the key factors used to measure the status of a city’s comprehensive development. Its impact on the UC structure can be explored from two angles, vertical analysis and horizontal analysis. Vertical analysis adopts the perspective of urban development and evolution to analyze the evolutionary process of the UC structure and its structural differences at each stage resulting from the expansion of urban functions and city size. Horizontal analysis, however, is a comparative analysis of the structural differences in the UC structures of different cities at different stages of development within the same period. Under normal circumstances, the level of urban economic development is measured using indicators such as gross domestic product (GDP) and residents’ income levels. The higher the level of economic development, the higher the corresponding values, which will result in the formation of the corresponding UC structure. – Vertical analysis. The development of the UC structure is closely related to the rapid development of the global urban economy. Following the revitalization after World War II (WW2), most megacities entered a period of rapid urbanization and swift development of their tertiary industry. The developed economic level directly led to the diversification of the urban consumer structure, which drove the growth of public service industries and the rapid concentration of urban populations. The increase in the urban population significantly promoted the development and growth of urban lifestyle service industries, while rapid industrial development also gave rise to the development of production service industries, such as commercial offices and finance and insurance, and industrial agglomeration greatly increased the scale of UC zones. Some cities with high levels of economic development at that time, such as London in the UK and Paris in France, initiated the expansion of urban land use due to greater urban population size and industrial development, and thus had already began to develop the 1MC-MSC and 2MC-MSC UC structures. As more and more cities gradually entered a period of maturity, or even a post-industrial period, their urban functions also underwent significant changes, more specifically, the transformation from production-oriented to management- and service-oriented cities, thus giving rise to the rapid development of service industries. In addition to the rapid development of lifestyle service industries, such as retail commerce, catering and entertainment, and cultural services, there was also continuous growth in knowledge-based series, such as finance and securities, trade offices, and financial and legal consultancy. These service industries slowly began to aggregate in the UC zones, while also taking part in the adjustment and reorganization of

44

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Table 1.9 Evolution of the Tokyo UC structure over the course of historical development Development period

Pre-industrial period

Industrial period

Post-industrial period

UC structure

1MC

1MC-MSC 2MC-MSC

MMC

Main centers

Nihonbashi

Marunouchi–Ginza

Marunouchi–Ginza, Shinjuku, Shibuya, Ikebukuro

Sub-centers

/

Shinjuku, Shibuya, Ikebukuro, Ueno, Asakusa, Kinshich¯o

Ueno, Asakusa, Kinshich¯o, Shinagawa¯ Osaki, Rinkai

the UC structure, thus bringing the scale and level of agglomeration in the UC structure of major cities to a whole new level. As an increasing number of cities improved their economic level, their corresponding UC structure also advanced to an even higher tier of development. Tokyo, Japan is one example of a global metropolis, and its UC structure has attained the most advanced MMC structure (Table 1.9). Starting from the Edo period of the 17th–19th centuries, the UC structure development in Tokyo can be summarized in four stages: 1. Edo period—formation and development of the Nihonbashi main center; 2. Meiji Restoration (pre-WW2)— reinforcement stage of the Nihonbashi-Ginza main center and emergence of subcenters; 3. Tokyo Olympics (post-WW2)—a post-war surge in urban population and construction, improvement of the railway system, and rapid development of specialized sub-centers; 4. Japan’s economic peak (collapse of the bubble economy) to the present—gradual development and formation of the MMC structure.5 The above shows that during the development process of the city, its level of economic development has a direct impact on its UC structure, including the development tier, amount of construction, and land development, industrial scale, and other aspects of the UC structure. As the urban economy developed, the UC structure underwent a process of evolution from the 1MC to the MMC structure. – Horizontal analysis. The acceleration of globalization has underscored the imbalances in the level of economic development worldwide. In 2000, the income per capita of the USA was US$ 34,100, that of Mexico was US$ 8,790, while that of Nigeria was only US$ 8006 . Furthermore, the gap between cities has also continued to widen. The different roles played by individual cities in the globalization process have led to the corresponding differences in their level of economic development. The more important their role, the higher the level of their economic development, the more functional industries they contain that can affect the global economy, and the more the types of service industry within their UC structure. For example, New York, London, Tokyo, Paris, and other global core cities have a range of services that covers the entire globe. Their business industries, high-end luxury consumer industries, and so on are far more developed than those in other 5 Hu

[4].

6 Mankiw

[5].

1.3 Driving Mechanisms of UC …

45

cities, while their UC structures also occupy leading positions in terms of spatial scale and hierarchical level. A large land area and construction scale, as well as high-end service industries, are the ultimate manifestations of the city’s level of economic development in terms of urban space (Table 1.10). The Table 1.10 shows that the differences in the level of economic development and radiation range led to the differentiated development of the UC structure, such that cities with a higher level of economic development and a broader range of radiation also showed a more complete UC structure development, as well as a large land area and construction scale. In summary, the city’s level of economic development has a profound impact on its UC structure, which mainly affects the tier, construction scale, land use scale, and industrial scale of the UC structure. The improvement in the level of economic development will also enhance the city’s radiative power and attractiveness within the region, thus enabling the upgrading of urban service industries and expansion of urban population size. This entails the upgraded tier of UC structure development and the expansion of spatial scale. (2) Characteristics of industrial structure Urban industrial structure refers to the composition of service industries within a city, as well as their interconnections and ratio relationships. As the urban economy develops, finer divisions of labor will occur in the service industries, which will be accompanied by an increasing number of emerging industries, thereby increasing the complexity of the industrial structure. The agglomeration and separation of the service industries are the internal drivers for the formation and development of the UC structure; hence, the structural characteristics of a city’s service industries can have a substantial impact on the development and evolution of its UC structure. Each type of service industry has its own unique industrial characteristics, with differences in its profitability, conditions for selecting spatial locations, ability to provide employment, growth rate, and position within the city. Such differences will lead to significant variations in the internal functional composition, spatial location selection, and hierarchical scale of urban public service hubs and UC structures. Earlier, we divided service industries into three major categories (according to their industrial characteristics): lifestyle service industries, production service industries, and social service industries, all of which have different effects on the UC structure. – Effects of lifestyle service industries on the UC structure. This category can be further subdivided according to industrial characteristics, consumption habits, and frequency into routine lifestyle service industries (hereinafter referred to as “routine industries”) and non-routine lifestyle service industries (hereinafter referred to as “non-routine industries”). This internal differentiation has a substantial impact on the industrial spatial distribution within the UC structure (Table 1.11). The differences in characteristics among industries cause them to have vastly different outcomes in their selection of spatial locations. Due to the low operating threshold, high demand, and low profitability of routine industries, their primary

46

1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Table 1.10 Comparative analysis of current economic development level and UC structure(*Note: In the table, the statistical scope of total economy and GDP per capita for cities in Mainland China is the municipal district) City

City tier

Range of radiative influence

UC structure Total development economy stage (RMB 100 million)*

GDP per capita (RMB)*

Tokyo

Global core

Global

Multi-center 197,882 network

441,740 13,171

5,041

Singapore

International Southeast 2MC-MSC regional Asia level

12,056

332,892 2,923

1,430

Seoul

International East Asia regional level

19,258

198,544 5,802

2,751

Kuala Lumpur

International Southeast 1MC-MSC regional Asia level

1,587 (data from 2008)

104,804 3,136 (data from 2008)

1,270

2MC-MSC

UC structure construction scale (10,000 m2 )

UC structure land use scale (ha)

Hong Kong International East Asia regional level

2MC-MSC

19,927

282,407 5,825.1

1,022.4

Shanghai

International East Asia regional level

2MC-MSC

14,436

75,053

5,366.2

2,675.2

Beijing

International East Asia regional level

2MC-MSC

10,325.1 64,936

6,824.0

3,422.8

Guangzhou International Southeast 2MC-MSC regional Asia level

7,560.7

85,854

3,260.4

1,273.6

Shenzhen

International East Asia regional level

2MC-MSC

7,806.5

89,814

3,999.4

1,393.1

Nanjing

Regional level

East China

1MC-MSC

3,447.2

64,096

1,958.8

892.6

Shenyang

Regional level

Northeast 1MC-MSC China

3,385.8

66,515

2,564.7

1,160.6

Dalian

Regional level

Bohai 1MC-MSC Economic Rim

2,773.6

83,541

2,079.0

1,027.0

Wuxi

Regional level

Yangtze Delta

2,421.9

102,332 484.5

1MC

230.3 (continued)

1.3 Driving Mechanisms of UC …

47

Table 1.10 (continued) City

City tier

Range of radiative influence

UC structure Total development economy stage (RMB 100 million)*

GDP per capita (RMB)*

UC structure construction scale (10,000 m2 )

UC structure land use scale (ha)

Xuzhou

Regional level

Jiangsu

1MC

56,580

400.2

235.9

1,039.2

*Source 1. The spatial scale data for each UC structure were taken from the quantitative field survey results from the author’s laboratory. 2. Economic data for Chinese cities were taken from the China City Statistical Yearbook 2009. 3. Economic data for Hong Kong were taken from Hong Kong in Figs. 2009 released by the Statistics Department of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Note: Hong Kong’s GDP was originally HK$ 16,785, but to ensure the uniformity of units for comparison, the figure was converted based on the Bank of China exchange rate on December 31, 2008, of 0.8819, which gave RMB 14,802.70. 4. Foreign data; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo http://www.wa-pedia.com/statistics/japan_fact_sheet.shtm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Singapore http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_GDP http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2925661 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Hong_Kong http://number.cnki.net/cyfd/

Table 1.11 Analysis of differential characteristics within lifestyle service industries Industry type

Industrial characteristics

Consumer demands

Operating threshold

Profitability

Product category

Routine

High shopping frequency, high demand, easily attainable operating thresholds

Convenience, Spatial distance

Low

Low

Small commodities

Non-routine

Low shopping frequency, low demand, higher operating thresholds

Price, quality

High

High

Large commodities and valuable small commodities

considerations in the selection of spatial location are to be near the service areas and to reduce their operating costs. Non-routine industries, on the other hand, have higher profitability and capital flow; hence, their primary considerations when the selection of spatial location are to occupy the optimal location and expand their brand awareness. The differences in industrial characteristics have led to differences in business philosophy, as well as disparities in the selection of spatial locations. Routine industries are mainly concentrated in district-level

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1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

public service hubs, whereas non-routine industries are mainly concentrated in city-level public service hubs. – Effects of production service industries on the UC structure. Production service industries are a group of industries that use capital, knowledge, and technology to control, coordinate, and serve the material production of the city, and even the region. Production service industries are characterized by strong profitability and a broad radiation range. In terms of spatial location selection, they have a high demand for the transportation accessibility of motor vehicles, and agglomeration tends to take place in the core area of the city. As for the external spatial form, they generally exhibit “high intensity” and “vertical” development. Due to the high requirements for the transportation accessibility of motor vehicles, production service industries mainly aggregate in city-level public service hubs. When there is excessive agglomeration in the UC zone leading to reduced accessibility of motor vehicles, production service industries will re-select their spatial location. For example, La Défense in Paris and Yeouido in Seoul (Fig. 1.18) are both new business UC zones that were constructed to alleviate the excessive agglomeration of service institutions in the old-town UC zone. Another major impact of production service industries on the UC structure is reflected in the

Fig. 1.18 Yeouido sub-center, Seoul

1.3 Driving Mechanisms of UC …

49

Fig. 1.19 The addition of production service industries leads to the vertical mixing of public building functions, resulting in the increased height and strength of the UC zone

construction scale. Due to the high intensity and vertical development characteristics of its spatial carriers, when given the same land area, the addition of production service industries will bring about rapid expansion in the development and construction of the UC zone and the UC structure (Fig. 1.19). – Effects of social service industries on the UC structure. Social service industries can be divided according to their impact on the UC structure into the high-end and low-end categories. High end mainly refers to various types of city-level social service industries, such as arts and culture, administrative offices, scientific research and education, hub stations, and sports and fitness. Low end mainly refers to various district-level service industries, such as community libraries, primary and secondary schools, and community cultural centers. Social service industries are primarily industry types organized by the government to safeguard social equality; thus, the emphasis of its spatial pattern is relative homogeneity. A typical approach is to attract and inject market investment into UC zones still in the initial stages of development through the construction of new administrative centers, sports centers, or other social service hubs to drive the rapid development of the UC zone. Examples include the construction of the Nanjing Olympics Sports Center and the Tianhe Sports Center in the early stages of Guangzhou. In summary, the characteristics of the urban industrial structure are a combination of the three major service industries above. Each city will inevitably have a different combination in its industrial structure, which would have distinct effects on the UC structure. However, these effects are mainly reflected in the spatial location selection of the industry, the composition ratio of industries within the UC structure, the intensity of development and construction, and so on. (3) Population spatial characteristics The spatial characteristics of the population refer to its spatial distribution, size, density, and other indicators. Differences in the distribution of an urban population will lead to a certain level of disparities in the spatial location selection of urban public service facilities, while also exerting serious effects on the development scale

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1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

of the UC structure. Spatially, the UC structure not only undertakes productionoriented and high-end service functions, such as business offices and finances and insurance, but it also undertakes the functions of lifestyle services, which are closely related to urban population size. Therefore, even economic centers that play a key role in globalization may not necessarily exhibit an advanced development stage in its UC structure. Hong Kong is an obvious example of this. Although Hong Kong occupies a leading position in China in terms of international finance and securities and other business network nodes, its population is only about seven million, which has restricted the development of its UC structure. It currently has a “dual main centers, one sub-center” UC structure and its scale structure is much smaller than cities with massive populations such as Beijing and Shanghai.7 Based on the differences in industrial service range, the effects of population spatial characteristics on the UC structure can be comprehensively analyzed at the macro, meso, and micro levels. – Macro level. Economic centers generally serve their surrounding region. Cities with a higher tier and broader radiation range will have a larger scale of service industries. These industries, which mainly serve the region, will consider the effects of regional population distribution and flow when selecting the location for spatial agglomeration. Therefore, service industries that mainly serve the regional population can select any place in the city as their spatial location for agglomeration, with only the need to ensure good transportation accessibility for its service recipients. An example is the clothing wholesale trade industry in the Sanyuanli UC zone in Guangzhou. As its service recipients are mainly the regional population, the primary consideration of the industry is accessibility to external traffic. Thus, it is located close to transportation hubs, such as the Guangzhou railway station, bus station, and Baiyun Airport. In addition, the size and density of the regional population served by the city can also affect the scale of the service industries provided to the regional population. There is a proportional relationship between the two. More specifically, larger size and higher density will lead to a larger development scale of the corresponding service industries in the core cities, for example, the Chongqing and Tianjin municipalities. The scale and distribution range of the Tianjin UC zone are large, similar to those of Chongqing (see Chap. 2 for details). – Meso level. The location selection of the UC zone within the city’s spatial range is affected by the distribution of the urban population. For UC zones dominated by lifestyle and social service functions, their spatial location is closely related to the distribution centers of urban residents (Fig. 1.20). In the process of urban development, the formation of the UC structure, the expansion of urban land use, and the fluctuation of the population distribution relationships will cause the migration and change of the optimal location for serving residents, thus leading to corresponding changes in the spatial location distribution of the UC structure. 7 Hong

Kong’s population data were taken from Hong Kong in Figs. 2009 released by the Statistics Department of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.

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51

Fig. 1.20 Relationship between the center of population distribution and the main UC zones in Zhengzhou

– Micro level. This level mainly considers the effects of district-level population density on public service facilities. Generally, areas with a greater density of population distribution will significantly reduce the difficulties of operating public service industries, thus reaching the thresholds of industrial profitability, and are more prone to spatial clustering. The main types of industries operated by district-level centers include small-scale retail businesses and residential service industries, which can form a public service hub quite well. When industries select their spatial location, transportation accessibility will also have a major impact. In the transit-oriented development (TOD) model, district-level centers rely on good transportation conditions and high residential population density (Fig. 1.21). Typical cases include the distribution model of the UC structure in Hong Kong and Singapore. Owing to the completeness of their infrastructure, especially the rail transit system, the layout of UC zones is closely linked to large-scale public transportation facilities, and this has achieved good outcomes in spatial development. In addition, Hong Kong is also constrained by factors such as the scarcity of land for urban construction, which, in turn, reinforces a high-intensity development model guided by public transportation. Thus, a “multi-point flowering” spatial pattern is formed, with district-level UC zones in the city relying on rail transit stations (Fig. 1.22).

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1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Fig. 1.21 Land use model of district-level UC zones dominated by rail transit. *Source Bian Jingwei. Spatial Development and Rail Transit of Large Cities [M]. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press, 2006

Fig. 1.22 The city-district UC pattern of Hong Kong is integrated with rail transit stations

1.3 Driving Mechanisms of UC …

53

In summary, population spatial characteristics mainly affect the layout and functional structure of public facilities through population size and distribution, which, in turn, affect the spatial location selection of the UC structure and the development structure of its internal industries.

1.3.2 Basic Guarantee: Land Space Support The development of any urban space faces certain constraints. The natural geography, urban form, and infrastructure of the city can have a relatively huge impact on the expansion direction and layout of a UC structure, even creating thresholds for spatial expansion. With the advancement in technology, the ability to cross spatial thresholds is becoming stronger, but the status of the spatial environment is still the underlying carrier for the spatial expansion of the UC structure. The formation and development of the UC structure rely on the support of the physical space and it is inextricably linked to the surrounding land space. In general, the internal drivers, namely, the level of economic development, characteristics of industrial structure, and population spatial characteristics, form the root of UC structure development; whereas the supporting force of land space most directly determines the development scale and spatial structure of the UC structure and is a basic guarantee for its expansion. Land space support is composed of three aspects: urban structural form, land use characteristics, and infrastructure characteristics. (1) Urban structural form The urban structural form refers to the overall spatial framework presented by the city. It is the external spatial embodiment of the functional industries within the city and the “skeleton” on which the city relies to survive. It is jointly influenced by multiple factors, such as urban functional industries, city size, the surrounding natural environment, and urban transportation road network structure. Cities can be divided based on their structural form into cluster cities, linear cities, conglomerate cities, and so on. Different urban spatial forms will give rise to different UC structures. The differences in urban structural form have also led to differences in the spatial distribution of urban service industries, while the UC structure (which is where the aggregation of service industries takes place) has also shown the corresponding differences. By contrasting the differences in UC structure under the three typical urban structural forms listed above, we can analyze the impact of the urban structural form on the UC structure. – Cluster cities. A cluster city refers to a city that uses the main UC zone as a geometric origin for relatively even outward expansion. Under the conditions of the market economy, this model of urban spatial expansion enables the effective use of infrastructure resources and reduces investment costs. Therefore, a large number of cluster cities have emerged during the actual process of development. Ideally, the different tiers in the cluster city UC structure should maintain good

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1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

hierarchical differences with respect to development and construction scale, thus exhibiting a “pyramidal” shape. In terms of spatial form, it should form a circular structure with the main center as the core, the sub-centers surrounding the main center, and the district-level centers developing around the sub-centers. – Linear cities. As some cities are restricted by natural geography, administrative divisions, and other conditions in the course of their development, there is a clear directional extension in their urban spatial expansion. The ribbon development of a city implies that there are a linear population distribution and a linear layout of functional industries, thus also entailing that the spatial distribution of its UC structure follows a linear trend in which the main and sub-centers are connected in series. Given the radiation range of service industries at all tiers of UC zones in the UC structure, the impact on city-level service hubs, that is, the main centers and sub-centers, is relatively small; whereas the impact on district-level centers, which have a smaller service range, is relatively large, thus increasing the number of developments. Compared to cluster cities, the overall UC structure of the linear cities shows a certain extent of “flattening.” – Conglomerate cities. The development of these cities is subject to more restrictive natural and geographical conditions, where the land available for construction is more dispersed. Hence, the urban structure shows clear patches, with relatively loose connections between the clusters. Compared to linear cities, the UC structure of conglomerate cities shows an even further extent of “flattening,” mainly because the service radiation range of a single UC zone is reduced, leading to a higher number of public service hubs to meet the needs of the city. Districtlevel centers, in particular, are present in large numbers and have large sizes, high development level, and complex structures. Their spatial pattern also presents a “homogenous” structural model with a multi-point layout. Examples of conglomerate cities include Hong Kong and Chongqing, which have highly developed district-level centers in their UC structure due to the constraints of their mountainous environment. The main center is stripped of routine lifestyle service functions and, instead, has focused on the development of higher-end service industries such as high-end commerce, business, and finance. Table 1.12 compares the UC structures of the three types of cities and their respective characteristics, which reveals the mechanism by which the urban structural form affects the UC structure. The future development direction of the urban structure will also have a certain impact on the UC structure. The development direction of the urban structure signals the development trends of urban space and service industries, which will provide significant guidance to the location selection of newly built UC zones in the future. A typical example is the development of the UC structure in Guangzhou. As the city and its service industries gradually expanded eastward, the selection of new UC zones at different time points also continued to shift eastward. It starts from the Shangxiajiu area in the early stages to the Beijing Road UC zone after the liberation and the Huanshi East Road UC zone in the 1990s. Then, it moves to the TianheZhujiang new-town UC zone at the turn of the century and the Pazhou UC zone that

1.3 Driving Mechanisms of UC …

55

Table 1.12 Impact analysis of the urban structural form on the UC structure City type

Cluster cities

Linear cities

Conglomerate cities

City-level UC structure

Circular

Linear

Homogenous

Pyramidal shape

Flattened

Further flattening

Shenzhen

Chongqing

Schematic diagram of public UC structure

Features of UC structure

Case cities Chengdu

*Note In the schematic diagrams, large circles represent main centers, squares represent sub-centers, triangles represent social service sub-centers, and dots represent district-level centers

is currently under planning. This is in complete agreement with the development trend of the urban structure (Fig. 1.23). The urban structural form determines the spatial structure of the UC structure to a certain extent. The future development direction of the urban structure also signifies the expansion direction of the UC structure. Different urban structural forms will also give rise to differences in the maturity of public service hubs at each tier of the UC structure. Therefore, the impact of the urban structural form on the UC structure is mainly reflected in the spatial form, future development direction, and structural ratio at all tiers of the UC zone.

Fig. 1.23 The layout of Guangzhou’s new UC zones is closely related to the eastward shift of the urban morphological structure

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1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

(2) Land use characteristics As the core and the engine driving economic development, the UC structure must adhere to its geographical environment while exerting its immense driving force and radiative power. Land use characteristics have an impact on the overall structural pattern of the UC structure, the spatial location selection of UC zones, and the scale of development and construction. – Natural geographical characteristics. The natural geographical characteristics of the location mainly include geographical position, topography, hydrology, and vegetation. The most influential of these on the UC structure is topography. Cities can be divided based on their topographical differences into three major categories: mountainous terrain, hilly terrain, and plain terrain. The impact of natural topography on the layout of the UC structure is the smallest for plain terrain, followed by hilly terrain, and the largest for mountainous terrain. The most significant differences between mountainous cities and plain cities are their urban structural forms and mode of transportation. Due to the different heights of mountains and the different conditions of the urban land available for development and construction, mountainous cities tend to exhibit a prominent conglomerate pattern, with loose connections between clusters due to the constraints of natural factors. Thus, their UC structure will also display an obvious “multi-core” structure. As the development of plain cities is less affected by natural factors, their UC structure tends to preserve relatively complete hierarchical relationships during the development process, thus exhibiting a clear “pyramidal” structure (Table 1.13). The degree of topographical constraint experienced by hilly cities lies between that of mountainous and plain cities; thus, its UC structure exhibits the characteristics of both. Evidently, there are also other natural geographical characteristics that will have a certain impact on the UC structure. For example, soft soil zones and water conservation areas will affect the location selection of public service hubs. The climatic environment of the city will also affect its spatial venues and architectural forms. However, given the progress of science and technology today, the city’s natural geographical characteristics will have a decreasing impact on its UC structure, and this impact is gradually transforming into a characteristic of local tradition and historical context. – Urban land use characteristics. Land is the most important and most scarce basic resource in the development of the UC structure. In the construction process of the UC structure, land resources have shown an increasingly important economic value on top of its actual value in use, which has affected the layout of urban functional industries and the spatial structure of the UC structure. Within UC zones, land that is closer to the spatial geometric center has greater economic value. This economic value is not only reflected in its use value, such as transportation convenience and complete support services, but also in the implicit value, such as corporate image and brand strength, provided by these core areas to urban residents. Therefore, the economic value of land in UC zones may be tens or

1.3 Driving Mechanisms of UC …

57

Table 1.13 Impact analysis of topographical characteristics on UC structure City category

Schematic diagram of UC structure hierarchy

UC structure Degree of Case cities characteristics topographical impact

Mountainous terrain

Large development scale of main and sub-centers, with numerous district-level centers; UC structure shows tendency toward flattening

Large

Hong Kong, Chongqing

Plain terrain

Complete hierarchical structure; UC structure shows a pyramidal structural characteristic

Small

Beijing, Shanghai

*Note In the schematic diagrams, circles represent main centers, squares represent sub-centers, and triangles represent district-level centers

even hundreds of folds higher than that of land in the suburbs. For example, the main UC zone in Nanjing shows a clear hierarchical difference in the land value (Fig. 1.24). Construction land in the UC zone near large, open spaces, such as green squares and water systems, has higher economic and social value. Many famous UC zones also depend on large, open spaces for development, for example, Manhattan, New York, and the Central District of Hong Kong. The economic value of land under a market economy is mainly reflected in land prices, building rents, and other costs. Land with greater economic value will have higher land prices and rent. The levels of land prices and rents will result in the differentiated spatial distribution of the city’s functional industries. Due to the differences in the profitability of service institutions, industry types with higher profitability will be able to afford higher land prices and rents, and hence will select spatial locations that are closer to the core area of the UC zone. For example, comprehensive commerce, business offices, finance and securities, and similar industries are mostly located at the intersections of main roads, while also diluting the expensive land prices of the UC zone by increasing the amount of construction per unit of land. In contrast, industries with low profitability are only able to choose locations on the periphery of the UC zone or in the suburbs, such as wholesale trade industries.

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1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Fig. 1.24 Distribution of land value in the main UC zone of Nanjing. *Source Wu et al. [2], p. 198

Therefore, the differences in profitability among industries will have a certain impact on the spatial selection and internal industrial types of UC zones. (3) Transportation support characteristics Transportation support is the bloodline of the UC structure. Its impact on the UC structure can be analyzed from two angles, namely, mode of transportation and road network structure. Differences in the mode of transportation lead to differences in UC structure from the perspective of dynamic flow, which influences the spatial pattern of UC zones. Differences in road network structure, on the other hand, affect the spatial location selection and internal functional structure of the UC structure and UC zones from the perspective of static space. – Mode of transportation. There are a number of factors that can affect a city’s mode of transportation, such as urban atmosphere, lifestyle, and public policy. Each city has its own unique choice of transportation mode, and its dominant

1.3 Driving Mechanisms of UC …

59

Table 1.14 Impact analysis of choice of transportation mode on the UC structure Name of city

Hong Kong, China

Curitiba, Brazil

Los Angeles, USA

Dominant mode

Rail transit

Bus rapid transit (BRT)

Cars

Characteristics of transportation mode

Large initial investment and high transportation volume; can be used to aggregate crowd flow and facilitate the development of industrial agglomeration

Small investment and low transportation volume; more suited to small and medium-sized cities; can be used to aggregate crowd flow and industries

Low aggregation of crowd flow; serious waste of resources; not conducive to the spatial agglomeration of urban service industries

Characteristics Fully developed main and sub-UC zones; of UC district-level UC zones depend on the transit structure stations, and the UC structure shows characteristics of flattening

Relatively dispersed layout of urban functional industries and less developed UC zones

Spatial expansion

Homogenous sprawl toward the periphery

Development along rail transit lines

Development along the BRT lines

Morphology of land use patterns

*Image source Zheng Ke. Rail transit-oriented urban development—TOD practices in the expansion of station areas in Shanghai [D]. Shanghai: Tongji University, 2004

transportation mode will affect the structural characteristics of its UC structure. Transportation modes can be roughly divided into public and private transportation, based on different modes of operation. Representative modes of public transportation include rail transit and urban bus transit, while private transportation mainly refers to cars. The following table analyzes the effects of the choice of transportation mode on the UC structure (Table 1.14).8 The table shows the differences in the aggregation and guidance of crowd flow between public and private transportation, causing substantial differences in the spatial characteristics of their UC structures. The aggregation of crowd flow entails the aggregation of functional industries. Thus, the integration of resources and the accelerated development of public service hubs can be achieved through the guidance provided by public transportation modes. – Road network structure. The impact of the road network structure on the UC structure occurs at a more micro level, mainly involving the spatial location selection of public service hubs and their scale of development and construction. For cities, the traffic capacity of the road network is the main criterion for measuring the road network structure. Road networks with stronger traffic capacity will be 8 The

representative city for rail transit is Hong Kong, China; the representative city for urban bus transit is Curitiba, Brazil; and the representative city for cars is Los Angeles, USA.

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1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

able to undertake a larger construction scale of public service hubs. However, for UC zones, accessibility is the criterion for measuring the quality of transportation. Based on the external spatial forms of UC zones, when given cases with roughly equal percentages of road area, we will find two types of road network models: “wide roads-sparse network” and “narrow roads-dense network,” each of which has its own unique characteristics (Table 1.15). With respect to the vitality of industrial operations, the “dense network” model greatly enhances the street frontage of the UC zone, which is the main location for the operations of service institutions; hence, this model is more conducive to cultivating the vitality of service institutions. From the perspective of land supply in the urban environment, the area of city blocks in the dense network model is Table 1.15 Comparison of the advantages and disadvantages between the two types of road network models Model title

Narrow roads-dense network

Wide roads-sparse network

Model The road network is fine and dense, characteristics and it is relatively homogenous in UC zones. It is composed of two- to four-lane streets, arranged in a checkerboard or stellate network. The roads are of similar grades, and the average area of city blocks is under 2 ha, with similar sizes

UC zones are distributed in blocks with several urban main roads (6–8 lanes) intersecting vertically and horizontally to form the basic skeleton of the road network, and the collector road network shows a staggered distribution within this framework. There are large differences in the grades of roads, with a clear hierarchy, and city blocks vary in size

Model advantages and disadvantages

This road network model of UC zones, formulated under the planned economy system, is increasingly becoming unsuitable for the characteristics of business needs in a market economy, which is reflected in the following aspects: 1. low degree of traffic smoothness; 2. excessively large city blocks; 3. diminishes the vitality of the UC zone

This road network model is well suited to the characteristics of service needs in a market economy, which is reflected in the following aspects: 1. high degree of traffic smoothness; 2. composed of small city blocks, which are conducive to market development; 3. enhances the vitality of the UC zone

Schematic diagram of model

*Source Yang Junyan, Wu Mingwei. Quantitative Research on the CBDs of Chinese Cities— Morphology, Function, Industry [M]. Nanjing: Southeast University Press, 2008

1.3 Driving Mechanisms of UC …

61

smaller, which implies that the operating and construction thresholds are lower, thus facilitating the development and construction of the UC zone. From the perspective of road network capacity, the aggregation of traffic flow in the dense network is relatively low; hence, its traffic capacity is relatively high. Overall, when given cases with roughly equivalent percentages of road area, the narrow roads-dense network model is more conducive to the development of UC zone functions, as well as the aggregation of service industries. Transportation support is an important guarantee and is the skeleton that sustains urban development, which plays an influential role in the UC structure. From the structural model selection of the UC structure at the macro level to the development scale of public service hubs at the micro level, all must be supported by good transportation conditions.

1.4 External Drivers: Social Policy Regulation As a complex agglomeration of public service industries, the development of the UC structure is not only subject to the explicit effects of the industrial economy and land space but also to the implicit effects of society and culture. The personal choices of consumers are guided by public policies, sociocultural characteristics, and models of commercial psychology, which produce a synergy of collective choices. This synergy has an immense impact on the development of the UC structure, and it can be regarded as the external effects of public consciousness on the UC structure. If understood in terms of planning, this synergy is the regulatory power of social policies. (1) Public policy guidance In the driving mechanism of UC structure development, social and public policies mainly play a regulatory role. The government mainly uses urban planning, land planning, economic taxation, and other public policies to directly or indirectly guide the layout of public service facilities, thus playing an increasingly important role in the construction and development process of the UC structure and UC zones. This includes aspects such as location selection, spatial expansion and migration, cultivation of new UC zones, functional transformation, and so on. Public policies can be divided into positive and negative effects, according to their different effects on UC zones. – Positive effects. This refers to the active and facilitative role of the government’s policy guidance on the development process of the UC zone. As the core nodes of urban comprehensive services, UC zones generally take a long time to develop before they can fully take on core functions. However, active promotion through public policy guidance will accelerate the formation of the synergy of public will, thereby greatly reducing the development time of UC zones, while also

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promoting their formation and improvement. For example, Lujiazui of Pudong, Shanghai started from nothing and developed into a city-level main service center in Shanghai over the course of only one decade. This UC zone has aggregated a large number of service industries, such as finance and insurance, trade offices, and large-scale retail commerce (Fig. 1.25), which has enabled it to serve as a financial core of the Yangtze River Delta, and even of the whole country. Generally, the Lujiazui UC zone has been strongly driven by the positive effects of public policies from its initial selection of spatial location to its mid-stage development and cultivation, which is the main reason for its rapid rise within a short time. From an overall perspective of the UC structure, government policy guidance can achieve the goals of market resource allocation and adjustment of service industry development, while also having a significant effect on the spatial structure of the UC structure, as well as its industrial scale and types. Another example is the placement of the Disney Theme Park in Pudong, Shanghai. Its spatial location selection, development, and construction will also be a typical behavior of public policy guidance with positive effects. The location of the theme park not only greatly enhances the value of its spatial venue, but it may also have a significant impact on the UC structure of Shanghai, leading to the development of new urban tourism and leisure hubs based on the theme park. With regard to the transformation of UC zones, policy guidance can also play an active, facilitative role. The development process of the Tianhe-Zhujiang new-town UC zone in Guangzhou is a typical example that demonstrates the transformation of the dominant functions in the UC zone under policy guidance. In the early 1990s, the construction of the Tianhe Sports Center enabled it to serve as a sports and fitness hub in Guangzhou. In the next 20 years, under the guidance of the government’s development policy, the CITIC Tower and other surrounding high-rise commercial buildings were constructed, which gradually transformed the Tianhe-Zhujiang new-town UC zone into a business hub. With the help of major public events around 2009, such as the Asian Games, various construction projects in the south of the Tianhe-Zhujiang new-town UC zone and the construction of Zhengjia Plaza and other large-scale comprehensive shopping malls were completed. This further shifted the area from a business hub to a multi-functional, mixed development, and comprehensive main UC zone (Fig. 1.26). This shows the important positive effects of the government’s policy guidance in leading the transformation of public service functions of the UC zone. – Negative effects. This refers to the control, or even inhibitory role, of public policy guidance on construction in the development process of UC zones. Typical cases include the development of traditional commercial hubs in the city. Generally, traditional commercial hubs have a quality that is distinct from other types of UC zones in terms of functional industries, spatial form, commercial activities, cultural connotations, and other aspects, and they are unique within the UC structure. Traditional commercial hubs embody the city’s historical heritage and the continuation of its cultural history. Many traditional commercial hubs

1.4 External Drivers: Social Policy Regulation

63

Fig. 1.25 Comparison between the 1990 plan of the Lujiazui UC zone in Shanghai and the actual development land use in 2003 and 2010

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1 Introduction to the Urban Centrality Structure

Fig. 1.26 Schematic diagram of the transformation process in the Guangzhou Tianhe-Zhujiang new-town UC zone. *Source Urban Planning and Design Institute of Southeast University, Planning of City-Level Urban Centrality Structure in Guangzhou, 2008

have preserved a large number of historical artifacts, cultural architecture, and even historical and cultural city blocks, which serve as carriers of the memory of historical life and the continuation of characteristic cultures. Therefore, the general idea of policy guidance for traditional commercial hubs is to control high-intensity development and construction and to emphasize the preservation of cultural heritage and lifestyle, thereby promoting the development of traditional cultural industries and enhancing the public’s sense of identity. In summary, public policy guidance has a great influence on the UC structure. Various aspects of public service hubs are affected and directed by government policies, including its spatial location selection, guidance on industrial development, scale of development and construction, shaping of the spatial form, and transformation of the development direction. Whether public policies have positive effects or negative effects, their ultimate goal is to promote the city’s economic development and enrich the cultural life of urban consumption. (2) Sociocultural characteristics Social culture exhibits distinctive epochality, relative stability, strong inheritability, and clear regionality. Social culture exists as metaphysical, intangible matter that has a subtle influence on the development and evolution of the UC structure through historical and cultural heritage, and special spatial sequences. – Characteristics of historical and cultural heritage. A city’s historical and cultural background has a huge impact on the layout of its UC structure. In some historical UC zones, their overall positioning, spatial form, dominant functions, land use structure, road structure order, and architectural style are deeply rooted in

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the minds of its residents, showing extremely strong iconicity and orienting effects. The development or adjustment of the UC structure should involve adequate understanding and respect for its historical context in order to carry out the organic combination between the development of the UC structure with the city’s original historical layout and spatial texture, thus constituting the harmonious development of the whole. – Special spatial sequences. In the UC structure of certain capitals and worldfamous cities, there generally exists special spatial sequences with administrative, commemorative, or other significance. These form a large-scale axis of public facilities, which reflects a strong sociocultural atmosphere that has a certain impact on the UC structure. For example, the axes of special spatial sequences in Beijing and Paris are intimately related to their UC structure. In Beijing, this axis forms the spine of its urban form. When planning the site selection of the Olympic Sports Center, consideration was given to the cultural connotations of this axis, and the city’s largest sports and fitness center was placed as a northern extension of the central axis, which also reinforced the role of the city’s axis (Fig. 1.27). A similar case is the spatial location selection of the La Défense UC zone in Paris, which also followed the layout approach of “extending the old axis and reinforcing the new axis” (Fig. 1.28). (3) Psycho-cognitive needs The diverse choices made by people in urban areas are affected by their psychology and cognition to a certain extent. When the public has similar psycho-cognitive needs, their collective needs can have a significant impact on their selection of the location of public service facilities, thereby affecting the spatial form of the UC structure. Therefore, different means of psychological identification and consumption patterns can play a role in the development of the UC structure. For example, the selection of similar consumption formats can actively promote the vigorous development of specific service industries and the selection of the same consumption venue can give rise to a new UC zone in this spatial location. Based on the different perspectives of psycho-cognitive needs, these can be divided into psycho-cognitive inertia and the level of psychological needs, both of which affect the UC structure from different angles. – Psycho-cognitive inertia. As the area for the agglomeration of residents’ public exchanges and service consumption, UC zones are the venues for the occurrence of major events over the course of social development and are important vessels for the collective memories of urban residents. The various behaviors and emotional expressions that occur in UC zones can cause residents to feel a sense of identity and belonging toward specific areas in the city. This feeling is based on the long-term accumulation over the temporal dimension of urban development and often brings with it elements of preconceived and subjective ideas. The power of such ideas is often spontaneous and instinctive, with profound historical and cultural roots, manifesting as social concerns and participation. Therefore,

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Fig. 1.27 Relationship of the special spatial sequence axis in Beijing with its UC structure. *Source National key landscape architecture plan [J] Landscape Architecture, 2004 (1)

Fig. 1.28 Relationship between the special spatial sequence in Paris and its main UC zone

1.4 External Drivers: Social Policy Regulation 67

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Fig. 1.29 The Qianmen area in Beijing during the Guangxu era of the Qing dynasty

the memory and cognition of spaces in UC zones are accompanied by a “stubborn” inertia resulting from cultural inheritance and continuation. For example, Qianmen Street in Beijing has been the location of the city’s commercial hub since the Qing Dynasty (Fig. 1.29). Despite going through the baptism of war, upheavals in the social system, transformation of the economic environment, and a multitude of other factors (while also disregarding the fact that it was in decline and that many other larger UC zones with more diverse industries have emerged in the city), this area was persistently the recipient of widespread recognition by the public. Thus, following its reconstruction in 2008, it was rapidly restored as the main commercial hub in the city. Another example is the Quanye Bazaar in Tianjin (Fig. 1.30). Following the adjustments in urban development strategies and direction, the Quanye Bazaar, which was a cultural relic of the colonial period, was listed as a conservation area of historical style. This imposed restrictions on Fig. 1.30 Quanye Bazaar, Tianjin

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Fig. 1.31 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

large-scale construction, and guidance was given on the direction of industrial development, which led to the decline in its industrial economy. However, from the psycho-cognitive perspective of the residents, Quanye Bazaar is still considered a “golden location” for urban commerce, and merchants who settled there left a subconscious impression as owners of “famous, old-school shops.” Psychocognitive inertia not only has a positive effect on urban development, but it can also have negative effects. For example, a major reason for the poor long-term development of the Yuhautai District in Nanjing is that the city’s residents have already formed subjective psychological preconceptions about the area, such as, “its Yin Qi is too strong.” – Level of psychological needs. The famous humanistic psychologist, Abraham H. Maslow, believed that there are five levels of human needs, namely, physiological, safety, interpersonal, esteem, and self-actualization needs9 (Fig. 1.31). The different levels of needs indirectly reflect the differences in subjective ideas, behaviors, and views. Furthermore, the higher the level of needs, the greater the hierarchicality of corresponding service contents and facilities, which can affect the development of the service industries within the UC structure to a certain extent. During the course of urban economic development, the consumption structure of urban residents will become more open, and their disposable income will increase gradually, thus forming a considerable capacity for commodity consumption. The consumption structure will then evolve from its original uniform composition to a more diversified composition, and the demand for material and cultural life will grow. The elevation in the level of needs will bring about a corresponding demand for urban service facilities. When this demand is popularized and scaled up, a new corresponding service industry may emerge within the UC structure. Therefore, the overall elevation in the level of needs in society will result in the development of supporting industries. In terms of consumption structure, it is reflected as the diversification of consumption and public services and the finer divisions of labor in the service industries. Due to the differences in the public’s levels of need, increasingly 9 (USA)

Maslow [6].

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Table 1.16 Comparison between the level of psychological needs and types of service industries Level of needs

Content of needs

Examples of service industry types

Physiological needs

Food, water, air, health, etc

Lifestyle service industries, low-end retail commerce, etc

Safety needs

Personal safety, living stability

Real estate

Interpersonal needs

Friendship, love, belonging, etc

High-end retail commerce, cultural service industries, etc

Esteem needs

Achievements, reputation, status, etc

Luxury goods consumption, boutiques

Self-actualization needs

Self-actualization, realization of potential, etc

/

diverse service industries will appear in public service hubs, which will affect the service industry functions and spatial forms within the UC structure. The commerce industry, for example, is initially dominated by low-end residential service industries and retail commerce, but it will later give rise to an aggregation of large shopping malls, then to a large number of brand stores and boutiques in more advanced stages. Therefore, a higher level of needs leads to an increase the people’s demand for choice and the expansion of range (Table 1.16), while the expansion in scale will trigger the diversification and refinement of the service industries within the UC structure, leading to the comprehensiveness and specialization of their spatial carriers. In summary, psycho-cognitive needs mainly affect the UC structure through the people’s consumption choices, primarily influencing the service industry composition of the UC structure, and the spatial location selection of public service hubs, while possibly also having a lasting impact on the categories and development scale of the service industries.

References 1. Liang, Kang. 1991. Planning and designing city centers. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press. 2. Mingwei, Wu, Kong Linglong, and Chen Lian. 1999. Planning of urban centrality zones. Nanjing: Southeast University Publishing House. 3. Cyril Paumier (USA). 2007. trans. Feng Yang. Creating a Vibrant city center: Urban design and regeneration principles. Shenyang: Liaoning Science and Technology Publishing House. 4. Baozhe, Hu. 2001. Tokyo’s commercial center. Tianjin: Tianjin University Press. 5. Mankiw, N.G. 2003. trans. Liang Xiaomin. Principles of Economics (Volume 1) (3rd edition of the original book). Beijing: China Machine Press. 6. (USA) Maslow. 1987. trans. Lin Fang. Human Potential and Value. Beijing: Huaxia Publishing House.

Chapter 2

Development Models of the UC Structure

The UC structure is the spatial carrier for the aggregation of different categories and tiers of UC zones. This chapter analyzes the classification of service industries and examines the different models of UC structure within the operational network of the service industries from a global perspective. We will also consider the development patterns exhibited by the representative examples of UC structures under each model. The patterns will enable us to extract the threshold characteristics for the upgrading of UC structures and to propose methods for evaluating the development stage of service industry agglomeration and its spatial linkage with the UC structure. This will provide a reference for exploring the development positioning and spatial expansion of the UC structure.

2.1 UC Structure Development Under the Impact of the Service Industries In the previous chapter, we analyzed the internal and external drivers of spatial expansion in the UC structure, which revealed that the service industries are a fundamental support for the formation of the UC structure. The spatial selection of different service industries varies significantly, while the different aggregation requirements of service institutions at different development stages can also lead to a variety of spatial development models in the UC structure. Thus, the analysis of urban service industries will reflect the current development level of the UC structure and its future development potential.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 B. Shi et al., The Centre of City: Urban Central Structure, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6675-6_2

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2.1.1 Classification of Service Industries and Spatial Selection for Agglomeration The special diversity of the service industries and the different needs of various service institutions for spatial venues have resulted in significant differences in location choice for spatial agglomeration among different service industries. The disparities in the profitability of service industries imply that they have different thresholds of spatial operating costs, which they can afford, whereas differences in the service recipients of their operations will also be reflected in the spatial location selection of the service industries. (1) Classification of Service Industries The service industries encompass an extensive range and, as key industries that serve and guarantee the smooth operation of the city, they are widely distributed in all spatial locations of the city. The development of the division of labor in the service industries has led to significant differentiation in industrial characteristics. The development characteristics of the industries themselves show that nearly all service industries require a certain level of spatial agglomeration development, which not only produces scale effects and externalities but also increases the industry’s radiative capacity and creates a good environment that is conducive to industrial development. With respect to the level of industrial agglomeration, service industries with a higher level of marketization, such as retail commerce, catering services, commercial offices, and finance and insurance, will have a higher level of agglomeration, whereas service industries with a lower degree of marketization, such as research and education, will have a higher level of dispersion. From the perspective of profitability, modern high-end service industries such as brand stores, business offices, and finance and insurance, which have high profitability have a significantly higher demand for aggregating in core locations compared to the catering industry, low-end retail industry, residential service industry, and other traditional service industries with low profitability. In contrast, some security-oriented service industries need a more homogeneous layout due to their requirements to ensure social equality, such as medical and health care, primary education, and social welfare industries. Therefore, the spatial selection for the agglomeration of service industries must be analyzed by category. In the previous chapter, the service industries were roughly divided, according to their service recipients, into three major categories: production service industries, lifestyle service industries, and social service industries. Based on the different allocation and operational models, the service industries can also be divided into two major categories: business-oriented service industries and social service industries. Table 2.1 summarizes the different categories of service industries to analyze their respective needs for spatial selection. For business-oriented service industries, the configuration of spatial location selection, agglomeration level, and other aspects is mainly achieved through “the

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Table 2.1 Summary of the classification of service industries Category of service industries

Sub-categories of service industries

Business-oriented service industries

Production service industries

Banking industry, securities industry, insurance industry, other financial activities, telecommunications service industry, computer service industry, software industry, real estate, commercial service industry, low-end hotel industry, high-end hotel industry, professional and technical services, geological exploration industry

Lifestyle service industries

Retail industry, catering industry, leasing industry, wholesale industry, entertainment industry, news and publishing industry, radio, television, film, and audiovisual industry, residential service industry

Social service industries

Administrative offices, sports, healthcare, education, research and experimental development, science and technology exchange and promotion services, social security industry, social welfare industry, postal industry, transportation industry, arts and culture industry

invisible hand” under market economy conditions. Hence, the agglomeration spatial location and development scale of business-oriented service industries adhere to the operating principles of market competition to a large extent, and service institutions with greater economic strength tend to occupy optimal spatial locations. Social service industries, however, differ in terms of operational goals, land supply methods, and operational methods, which implies that they are more influenced by administrative decision-making factors. Hence, they do not fully comply, but are closely associated, with the operating principles of market competition in the spatial selection process. (2) Impact Factors of Spatial Location Selection The spatial patterns of the service industries in the city are affected by a number of subjective and objective factors. Subjective factors include the profitability of the service industries themselves, while objective factors include transportation conditions, operating costs, etc. The differentiation in the characteristics of the service

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industries may lead to significant spatial separation in their layout. The impact factors can be roughly divided into three major categories: industrial economy, supporting infrastructure, and landscape culture. Industrial economy can be further divided into profitability, land and rent prices, and population density. Supporting infrastructure can be further divided into inbound transportation accessibility, outbound transportation convenience, and land stock. Factors of landscape culture can be further divided into environmental quality, image presentation, and historical culture. The following is a detailed comparative analysis of the various service industries, which aims to explore the main impact factors of the different service industries (Table 2.2). The table shows that there are differences in the impact factors for location among the different types of service industries: Almost all business-oriented service industries are affected by profitability, and land and rent prices, but these factors had a smaller impact on social service industries. Modern, high-end services, such as the finance and insurance industry, and trade consultancy industry are also affected by the image presentation factor. As the wholesale industry mainly undertakes the tasks of distribution and diversion, it is necessary to ensure a good level of outbound transportation convenience in order to actively promote its development. Due to the homogeneity in its mechanism of resource allocation, the majority of social service industries are largely dependent on administrative decision-making with respect to the development scale and spatial location. Therefore, this type of a service industry is less affected by the market. (3) Spatial Distribution Characteristics As the predominant industry in the city, the service industries are widely distributed in most of the spatial venues in the city, and they play a significant economic, cultural, and political role. Different categories of service industries have their unique industrial characteristics and impact factors of spatial location, which cause them to choose different urban spatial locations for industrial agglomeration. For example, the finance and insurance industry, trade consultancy industry, and high-end retail industry are mainly concentrated in city-level UC zones; the wholesale trade industry is dependent on location advantages for outbound transportation and will, therefore, agglomerate in the fringe area of the city; and the low-end retail industry, catering industry, leasing industry, and other such industries are more extensively distributed within the city and will agglomerate in most city- and district-level UC zones. The differentiation in the spatial locations of the service industries enables them to adequately fulfill their urban service functions while also shaping an orderly UC structure in the city. The spatial distribution characteristics of the service industries are summarized below, based on comprehensive consideration of multiple aspects, including the characteristics of the service industries themselves, the impact factors affecting their spatial location selection, and the current distribution characteristics within the city (Table 2.3). The table indicates that, under an allocation mechanism that is oriented by market efficiency as the priority, business-oriented service industries will create













































Leasing industry

Banking industry

Securities industry

Insurance industry

Other financial activities

Telecommunications service industry

Computing service industry

Software industry

Real estate

Business service industry

Professional and technical services





Catering industry 













































Outbound transportation convenience

Inbound transportation accessibility



Supporting infrastructure

Land and Profitability rent prices

Population density

Industrial economy

Retail industry

Administrative offices

Types of service industries

Table 2.2 Analysis of main impact factors on the spatial location selection of service industries





Land stock







Historical culture























Environmental quality

Landscape culture























(continued)

Image presentation

2.1 UC Structure Development Under the Impact of the Service Industries 75



Higher education

 





Primary education

Healthcare

 



Sports





Arts and culture industry

Entertainment industry







Wholesale industry





Radio, television, film, and audiovisual industry





High-end hotel industry









Low-end hotel industry



News and publishing industry





Inbound transportation accessibility





Outbound transportation convenience

Supporting infrastructure

Land and Profitability rent prices

Population density

Industrial economy

Geographical exploration industry

Types of service industries

Table 2.2 (continued)







Land stock





Historical culture





Environmental quality

Landscape culture







(continued)

Image presentation

76 2 Development Models of the UC Structure

 

Social welfare industry

Postal industry 



Social security industry







Science and technology exchange and promotion services







Research and experimental development



Outbound transportation convenience

Inbound transportation accessibility

Residential service industry

Supporting infrastructure

Land and Profitability rent prices

Population density

Industrial economy

Types of service industries

Table 2.2 (continued) Land stock

Historical culture

Environmental quality

Landscape culture Image presentation

2.1 UC Structure Development Under the Impact of the Service Industries 77

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Table 2.3 Service industry agglomeration and characteristics of spatial location distribution Types of service industries

Agglomerated/Dispersed

Distribution of spatial locations for industrial agglomeration

Administrative offices (provincial, municipal, district)

Agglomerable

The development of this industry is greatly affected by factors such as land stock and environmental quality, and it is generally located in the fringe area of the city; it can also agglomerate within new districts and new towns to drive new town development

Retail industry

Agglomerated

Catering industry

Agglomerated

Leasing industry

Agglomerated

Agglomerates within all tiers of UC zones (city-level and district-level UC zones) in the city

Banking industry

Agglomerated

Securities industry

Agglomerated

Insurance industry

Agglomerated

Other financial activities

Agglomerated

Telecommunications service industry

Agglomerated

Computer service industry

Agglomerated

Software industry

Agglomerated

Real estate

Agglomerated

Business service industry

Agglomerated

Professional and technical services

Agglomerated

Generally, agglomerates within the city’s main centers and the sub-centers of well-developed, high-level megacities Generally, agglomerates within the city’s main centers and the sub-centers of well-developed, high-level megacities

Geographical exploration industry

Agglomerated

Low-end hotel industry

Agglomerated

A supporting industry derived from low-end service industries, such as the retail and catering industries; generally, agglomerates within all tiers of UC zones, but is located in more fringe areas

High-end hotel industry

Agglomerated

A supporting industry derived from modern, high-end service industries, such as the banking industry, securities industry, insurance industry, telecommunications service industry, computing service industry, etc.; generally, agglomerates within the city’s main center and CBD (continued)

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Table 2.3 (continued) Types of service industries

Agglomerated/Dispersed

Distribution of spatial locations for industrial agglomeration

Wholesale industry

Agglomerated

Dependent on outbound transportation facilities, such as railway stations, airports, and high-grade urban roads; due to its low profitability and high demand for land resources, this industry can only undergo agglomerated development in relatively remote suburbs

News and publishing industry

Dispersed

Radio, television, film, and audiovisual industry

Dispersed

Dispersed in areas with good transportation conditions, without a clear tendency toward agglomeration

Arts and culture industry

Agglomerable

Can be agglomerated in the historical areas of the main city or the center of new towns to form a cultural industry cluster that includes art galleries, museums, art centers, etc

Entertainment industry

Agglomerated

Agglomerates within all tiers of UC zones (city-level and district-level UC zones) in the city

Sports and fitness

Agglomerable

Can be agglomerated in the center of new towns to form a sports industry cluster, such as the Olympics Sports Center

Medicine and healthcare

Dispersed

Distributed homogeneously in the city

Primary education

Dispersed

Distributed homogeneously in the city

Higher education

Agglomerable

Research and experimental development

Agglomerable

Can be mutually agglomerated to form a large-scale functional area, such as university towns or science parks; due to their high demand for land resources, these are generally located in the suburbs of the city

Science and technology exchange and promotion services

Dispersed

Dispersed within the city

Social security industry

Dispersed

Dispersed within the city

Social welfare industry

Dispersed

Dispersed within the city

Postal industry

Dispersed

Dispersed within the city

Residential service industry

Agglomerated

As services supporting the daily lives of residents, this industry generally agglomerates in UC zones at the level of residential clusters and residential districts

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internal and external environments that are more conducive for industrial development through spontaneous spatial agglomeration, only displaying differences in spatial location selection due to their different industrial characteristics. Not all social service industries require a dispersed and homogeneous layout; spatial agglomeration can be implemented under specific circumstances in industries such as administrative offices, arts and culture, and sports and fitness to create a specific urban image. This is mainly because such industries are not tightly linked with the daily lives of most urban residents; therefore, a certain degree of spatial clustering will not affect the normal operation of the city. Moreover, the land supply method for these social service industries involves administrative allocation, while planning and policy guidance have significant control over its spatial agglomeration. Thus, they can achieve the required size within a short time in order to exert their radiative power and driving force.

2.1.2 Spatial Impact of Service Industries The service industries form a major component of the UC structure and can have a fundamental impact on the development of the UC structure through spatial agglomeration, separation, and re-agglomeration within an environment regulated by market competition. The agglomeration of the service industries entails the expansion of the industrial scale and the enhancement of radiative capacity in the UC zone. When agglomeration reaches a certain scale, and the positive effects of industrial spatial agglomeration start to become negative effects, the service industries will begin to show a trend of separation in their spatial distribution, leading to a gradual spillover from the single UC zone and the establishment of a prototype for the UC structure. The re-agglomeration after the separation of the industries will shape the UC structure from a spatial perspective. The development and evolution of the UC structure is, fundamentally, the result of the combined action between the agglomeration and separation effects of the service industries, which is also a manifestation of the spillover-backwash effects in urban geography at the meso-micro level. (1) Agglomeration effects Agglomeration is the relative concentration of public service facilities within a spatial range. The efficiency of such concentrated operations is much higher than the even spatial distribution of public service facilities within the city. It can be understood as the polarization process of service industry functions, which refers to the gradual shift from its initial homogeneous spatial distribution toward non-homogeneity. The non-homogeneous concentration in the spatial activities of the service industries can bring about significant agglomeration effects. The high level of specialization and market segmentation of the service industries within the UC zone will reduce

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service costs while also producing additional economic spillovers, resulting in high economic performance, which is mainly manifested in the following aspects1 : – Sharing of public resources. The sizeable agglomeration of service institutions in UC zones significantly reduces the costs of information exchange, searching, and transportation. It also enables the sharing of public resources. The input of urban public goods, such as infrastructure, roads, and communication facilities, is indivisible, which implies that the input is not related to scale. Hence, as the number of institutions increases, the average cost will decrease. Therefore, the aggregation of service institutions within UC zones will allow the sharing of public goods, thereby saving on operating costs. – Acquisition of professional talents. The service industry is characterized by its labor- and knowledge-intensive nature, which implies that talents are the lifeline of service institutions. The agglomeration of the service industries is accompanied by the agglomeration of talents in the UC zone. This imperceptibly creates a professional talent market, thus enabling highly technical talents to discover institutions that suit them more easily while also allowing service institutions to find talents that they need more easily, thereby reducing search costs. The formation of such talent agglomeration can help institutions cope with some uncertainties in the operation of the service industry, and it also creates a good work atmosphere for the highly technical personnel, using the “Rainier effect”2 to shape a good social circle and friendly atmosphere to attract talent. In addition, the UC zone will provide a regional standard for the salaries of employees, which not only prevents talent loss due to overly low salaries but also prevents unnecessary costs to the employers due to overly high salaries. This will help to attract an influx of talent and knowledge-based institutions to form a mechanism of interaction. – Convergence of service markets. The UC zone targets the entire urban market, and strong market demand will induce the rise and development of relevant service institutions. The agglomeration of service institutions in the UC zone will increase the ease of finding suppliers and customers, thus promoting the development of service industry clusters.3 Due to the indivisibility of services, that is, the simultaneous production and consumption of services, service institutions must aggregate in regions with large crowd flow and economic prosperity. A large number of interactive relationships often exist among industries with respect to knowledge, products, and services, which sometimes may even be crossholdings or strategic alliances. Vertical integration and horizontal alliances are especially prominent among the service industries, with industrial chains and complementarities within the services provided. This allows a large number of institutions 1 Jiang

[1]. salary of a professor at the University of Washington in Seattle is generally about 20% lower than the average salary of a professor at a famous American university, but those professors are willing to sacrifice opportunities for higher income because of the beautiful scenery of Seattle. This is known as the “Rainier effect”. 3 Zhou [2]. 2 The

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that provide similar services to form a virtuous competitive and cooperative environment. This differentiated supply and scaled operation will provide consumers with more diverse choices and can more easily attract their attention. – Exchange of technical information. Information and technical resources are one of the determinants of the development of service industries. Service industries place particular emphasis on the technical characteristics of their services and the rapid response to the external market. Therefore, the effectiveness of information and technical channels is a core requirement for the service industries. The aggregation of service industries in the UC zone involves bringing together a large number of professionals with similar professional competencies to create an informal venue for knowledge exchange. This enables the transmission and communication of knowledge, especially implicit knowledge, among companies, thus forming a relatively dispersed and informal learning process. In addition, the aggregation of service institutions within the UC zone will transform the weak and unsupported conditions of individual service institutions. This generally makes it more convenient to acquire professional information, which enables the earlier detection and response to changes in the external market. – Economies of scope. The geographic proximity of institutions within the UC zone enables them to establish reputation mechanisms and cooperative relationships more easily, thus improving the efficiency of implementation. Due to the permeation and associations among different service institutions, they can be united through close collaboration, which is ultimately reflected in the market as highly unified integrated services. These large-scale comprehensive services will also promote the further integration of service institutions within the UC zone and gradually elevate the competition among individual institutions to the competition among larger assemblages, thus re-shaping the competitive form. From a systems perspective, the individual competition among service institutions in the UC zone depends on the overall competitiveness of the zone. Therefore, to increase its overall competitiveness, service institutions within the UC zone will weaken their mutual friction and will be more inclined to cooperate, thus forming a new competitive and cooperative pattern in the UC zone. – Achieving innovation effects. The frequent exchanges and cooperation among the service institutions within the UC zone can promote the complementarity of information resources, and enhance the capacity for technological and service innovations, which will generate more new services and new technologies. Innovation effects can also result from the immense driving force of intra-industry competition. “The competitive pressure, peer pressure and constant comparison that occur within business clusters also constitute the driving force behind innovation”.4 Within the UC zones, the relatively concentrated geographical location of service institutions implies that a large number of similar institutions are aggregated within the same space. Hence, their operating methods, technical characteristics, client channels, prices, and costs are more transparent, which leads to intense competition and more direct effects of competitive pressure. The 4 Xu

[3].

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intense competition can stimulate innovation factors and continuously promote the virtuous evolution of the service industry.5 For example, the trade wars of Erqi Square, Zhengzhou, in the 1990s and of Xinjiekou, Nanjing at the turn of the century led to a win-win situation for numerous parties, enabling the dislocated development of auxiliary industries, such as business catering, white-collar fitness, pet boarding, etc., thus producing a large number of “derivative industries” in the service industry. The aggregation of the same, similar, or related service institutions to form a new type of industrial relationship that is both cooperative and competitive enables these institutions to share fully in the external benefits of agglomeration within the UC zone in the process of providing valuable services. This will maximize the competitive advantages and overall value of the entire service industry, and these agglomeration effects will cause the agglomeration of service industries in the UC zone under the impetus of the market. The agglomeration of service industries can be divided into two major categories according to the type of agglomerated industry: homogeneous agglomeration and heterogeneous agglomeration. Homogeneous agglomeration refers to the behavior whereby service industries of the same or similar type aggregate within the same spatial location to form a large industrial cluster. This mode of agglomeration is most commonly seen in daily life, the most obvious of which include local cuisine streets, electronics streets, wholesale building supplies streets, small commodity or shoe and hat markets, etc. Heterogeneous agglomeration refers to the behavior whereby two or more types of service industries aggregate within the same spatial location to form an industrial cluster. Based on the interrelations among the agglomerated industries, they can also be divided into derivative, symbiotic, and complementary agglomerations.6 – Derivative agglomeration. This implies the presence of a sequential order in the appearance of the service industries in the same spatial location. The strong momentum and radiative power in the development of the dominant industry will give rise to the substantial agglomeration of people and material flow, thus becoming a “hotbed” for fostering downstream supporting service industries. By taking advantage of the good conditions for development, these downstream service industries will also start to agglomerate in the same spatial location, ultimately forming a derivative-agglomeration industrial cluster. For example, in the periphery of CBD business office buildings, we can often find a large number of legal and financial professional consultancies, high-end clubs, fitness and entertainment centers, catering for white-collar workers, and other supporting lifestyle service facilities. – Symbiotic agglomeration. This refers to the agglomeration of two or more types of dominant industries within the same spatial location due to similar factors of location selection, but without a clear hierarchical relationship between the two. 5 Liu 6 Xu

[4]. [5].

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The differences in the service recipients of the industries indicate that they are not in competition with each other. A typical example is the agglomeration of commercial and business industries within the comprehensive service hubs of the city. The two are naturally stratified in terms of vertical space, whereby commercial industries are mainly aggregated in ground-level spaces, while businesses tend to aggregate in high-rise spaces. Together, they shape the efficient and intensive model of space utilization, as well as the urban landscape image of the UC zone. – Complementary agglomeration. This refers to the spatial agglomeration of two or more dominant industries within the same spatial location, leading to a mutually facilitatory and beneficial trend of virtuous development, which is conducive to the development and growth of the different dominant industries above. Under the conditions of a market economy, all business-oriented service industries can freely choose their spatial locations, and service industries that can give rise to complementary agglomeration will inevitably choose to aggregate in the same place. However, the location selection of some government-led service industries is coordinated by the government. Thus, proper consideration can be given to the favorable effects of complementary industrial agglomeration when arranging spatial locations. Typical examples include the complementary development between commercial and cultural industries. The commercial industry brings more participants and consumers for the cultural industry through the agglomeration of popularity, while the development of the cultural industry can also improve the commercial industry to a certain extent by increasing recognizability and enhancing radiative power. The two industries form a mutually facilitatory virtuous cycle, such as the Liulichang commercial hub in Beijing and the Xintiandi leisure and entertainment hub in Shanghai. The agglomeration effects stated above were compiled and summarized to analyze the types of service industry agglomeration (Table 2.4). Table 2.4 Analysis of the types of service industry agglomeration Type of agglomeration

Examples of industry types

Real-life cases

Homogeneous agglomeration

Commercial industries agglomerate to form retail commercial hubs Business industries agglomerate to form CBD

Yiwu “Small Commodity Market” Lujiazui CBD, Shanghai

Heterogeneous agglomeration

Derivative

Supporting the high-end hotel industry in the CBD

Central District, Hong Kong; Mid¯osuji, Osaka

Symbiotic

Commercial and business industries in the comprehensive public hub

Xinjiekou, Nanjing; Beijing Road, Guangzhou

Complementary

Cultural and commercial industries in the traditional commercial hub

Confucius Temple, Nanjing; Shangxiajiu, Guangzhou

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Fig. 2.1 Driving forces of agglomeration and separation effects on UC zone development

Agglomeration provides a greater platform and more opportunities for the development of the service industries, but such agglomeration effects cannot grow indefinitely. As the agglomeration continues to increase among the service industries in the UC zone, the “positive effects” of the agglomeration will start to weaken and its “negative effects” will gradually emerge. At a certain critical point, the increase in industrial agglomeration will not only stop promoting the development of the service industries but also will inhibit their growth, even causing the decline of the industrial clusters. This is the dominant result of “separation effects.” (2) Separation effects The aggregation process of the UC zone will also give rise to several problems, mainly due to the excessive concentration of economic activities in the same space, which can lead to additional costs or loss of revenue and utility, causing the development of service institutions in the surrounding areas (Fig. 2.1). – Increase in factor costs due to land prices. As more service institutions hope to enter the UC zone, the immense spatial demand and land scarcity in the UC zone will lead to an imbalance in supply and demand, which will result in rising land prices. Therefore, the UC zone will become the peak area of urban land prices, directly leading to high demolition and construction costs that will increase the barrier to entry for service industries. In addition, high land prices will also raise the prices of other production and living factors, such as parking prices, residential prices, the prices of production supporting services, and the prices of lifestyle supporting services. The combined effect of these factors will increase the operating costs of service institutions in the UC zone. – Traffic congestion due to space limitations. In the increasingly diversified urban transportation system, the UC zone occupies the optimal area for expressway networks, public transportation systems, pedestrian systems, and other transportation services, thus forming a convenient core transportation network to provide business participants with the highest accessibility to business opportunities per

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unit time. However, as the UC zone expands in size, the dense flow of people and vehicles will increase the traffic load, causing increasingly frequent road congestion and parking difficulties. This will slow down the traffic flow in the UC zone, and decrease work efficiency, which will diminish the superior comprehensive accessibility of the UC zone to the city as a whole. – Negative externalities due to concentration. The agglomeration of service institutions and the population in the UC zone brings about service convenience but can also give rise to a large number of negative externalities. Overconcentration will damage the natural landscape environment of the city; vehicles will release exhaust emissions that will pollute the air quality and cause noise pollution; the large number of high-rise buildings will block out sunlight; the large number of air conditioners will cause the heat island effect; the large number of glass curtain walls will cause light pollution; and there is also the aggregation of domestic waste and water pollution. These externalities will increase the production costs of institutions in the UC zone and lead to losses. – Interference among different business formats due to mixing. The mixing of business formats among the service industries can bring about various collaboration and joint opportunities, which will give rise to the economies of scale. However, this will also lead to mutual interference between high- and low-end business formats, as well as the interference of the catering and entertainment industries with other business formats through sound, light, and odor pollution. The excessive agglomeration of public service facilities will also result in many maladies in the development of the main center, primarily due to the additional costs or the loss of revenue and utility caused by the excessive concentration of economic activities in space. When the negative impact of agglomeration gradually replaces its positive impact as the dominant effect, there will be spatial separation in the service industries of the UC zone, leading to the re-selection of service industry locations within the UC zone. Some service industries undergo spatial separation due to internal and external constraints. Contrary to agglomeration, separation implies the constant or reduced distribution density of entities within a certain spatial range. Based on the different trends of change in the agglomeration scale of service industries within the study area, this can be divided into “emigratory separation” and “conserved separation.” – Emigratory separation. This is where, during the separation process of the service industries, there is a decrease in the scale and proportion of a given service industry in the UC zone, which has gradually moved away from the original UC zone due to the negative effects of agglomeration. Generally, service industries that adopt emigratory separation are constrained by their own profitability, which limits their ability to afford the high land prices and retail rents in the UC zone, thus causing them to gradually withdraw from the core area, level by level. The most obvious example is the wholesale trade industry. Due to its weak profitability and high demand for outbound transportation, it is more prone to exhibiting emigratory separation. The gradual agglomeration of the wholesale trade industry in the

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fringe areas of the UC zone, or even in the suburbs, not only lowers the operating costs but also enables it to rely more easily on urban outbound transportation facilities, which are both conducive to the development and growth of the industry. With the expansion of urban land use and population growth, the operating costs within the UC zone will slowly rise and the urban outbound transportation hubs will gradually migrate to the fringe areas, which will result in the migratory separation of the wholesale trade industry. Hence, the wholesale trade industry that was located within the original UC zone will gradually migrate toward new spatial locations. – Conserved separation. This is where, during the separation process of the service industries, the industrial scale and proportion of certain service industries within the UC zone remains more or less the same, while the negative effects of agglomeration have only limited the continuous and rapid expansion of these industries. In terms of absolute numbers, the industrial scale of a given service industry in the UC zone will not have decreased or may even be increasing slowly. However, in terms of relative numbers, its industrial scale is expanding rapidly within the scope of the city, but the proportion within the UC zone is showing a relative decline. A typical example of such an industry type is retail commerce. The spatial location selection of this industry is affected by multiple factors, including inbound transportation accessibility, land and rent prices, profitability, and crowd flow density. In the early stage of UC zone development, retail commerce will have undergone rapid development and occupied a dominant position in the UC zone. When the development of the UC zone has reached a relatively high level, the growth in the scale of retail commerce will gradually slow down, and the majority of newly added commercial institutions will be located in the peripheral areas. Thus, although the absolute numbers of retail commerce within the original UC zone are still increasing at a slow pace, its proportion is declining when compared to other rapidly growing service industries in the UC zone. (3) Re-agglomeration effects At the early stages of the establishment of the UC zone, the agglomeration effects far exceed the separation effects, thus playing a dominant role in attracting a larger number of service institutions to aggregate within the UC zone. This enables the formation of the UC zone and its gradual transformation into the core of urban service industries. Thereafter, as the UC zone continues to develop and expand, separation effects will begin to emerge. Rising land prices and increasing production and living costs within the UC zone will cause its outward expansion toward the surrounding areas. Low-profitability industries that cannot afford the high land prices and operating costs will gradually break away from the UC zone due to market competition, whereas high-profitability industries, such as finance, offices, and commerce will occupy the main space of the UC zone. Once the UC zone development reaches a relatively large scale, separation effects will play an even more dominant role as traffic congestion, deteriorating environmental quality, and the mutual interference of business formats within the UC zone cause a large number of service institutions to

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Fig. 2.2 Schematic diagram of the two models of service industry re-agglomeration

disperse outward from the UC zone. Service industries that have separated spatially from the UC zone will re-select spatial locations for agglomeration according to their own characteristics and needs. The separation stage of service industries is relatively short, and this stage will not have a significant impact on the UC structure. However, the re-agglomeration that occurs after separation is an excellent means to fundamentally shape the spatial structure of the UC structure. The service institutions will undergo re-aggregation and re-organization within locations suited to their respective industries and gradually form new UC zone nodes around areas with convenient transportation. Based on the differences in the spatial location selection of the service industries during re-agglomeration, this process can be divided into “leapfrog re-agglomeration” and “extensional re-agglomeration” (Fig. 2.2). – Leapfrog re-agglomeration. The emphasis of this process is on spatial discontinuity and fragmentation. It refers to the leap in the re-agglomeration location of service industries from the range of the original UC zone to a new space in the city. A certain spatial distance is maintained between the two spatial locations, which are interrelated but not fully connected. This mode of re-agglomeration is one of the key means by which the UC structure is formed. With the development, expansion, and role transformation of the new agglomeration locations, some will gradually become functional urban sub-centers, which, together with the main center, will constitute the city’s UC structure, thereby achieving the transformational leap in the spatial structure of urban public services from a single main center to higher-level UC structures. Therefore, this process plays a key role in the formation and development of the UC structure. Different service industries rely on spatial locations with different characteristics. We have previously analyzed the impact factors affecting the spatial location selection of different service industries; thus, a large number and a wide range of functional sub-centers may appear within the UC structure during the leapfrog re-agglomeration stage. Among them, functional sub-centers with the strongest location advantages and most superior comprehensive conditions will have the greatest potential for future development,

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such as those located on the urban development axis and consistent with the direction of urban development or those with superior waterfront landscapes. These may even develop into the second comprehensive main center. – Extensional re-agglomeration. This implies that spatial location for the reagglomeration of the service industries has not broken away from the scope of the original UC zone but, instead, has migrated from the core to the fringe area, thus forming a new agglomeration core in the fringe area of the UC zone. It is manifested merely as a re-supplementation to the development scale of the UC zone. This mode can be viewed as the extension and growth of the original UC zone. The end result is the expansion of the spatial scale of the UC zone and the strengthening of its service functions without having a structural impact on the UC structure. The advantage of this mode is that it can fully utilize the infrastructure and brand influence of the original UC zone, which will enable the convenient and rapid agglomeration of service industries. Its disadvantage is that even though its spatial location is a certain distance away from the peak land prices of the UC zone, it will still be affected by high land prices, high congestion, and other negative factors, which will limit the scope of further increasing industrial agglomeration. Thus, the formation of the UC structure is, in essence, the interaction between two forces. On the one hand, agglomeration effects will act as the attractive forces for spatial agglomeration to drive the formation of the UC zone. On the other hand, separation effects will act as a repulsive force to promote the functional differentiation and upgrading of the UC zone, thus causing its dispersion and eventually leading to the formation of a UC structure composed of multiple UC zones. The spatial combination of the main-sub-district centers of the UC structure can complement each other in terms of location and function. This is because for the UC structure to provide its services in the city, the most basic requirement for its location, given that all other factors are constant, is to be centralized, that is, to be located in the geometric center of the city as much as possible. In the study of spatial morphology, it is believed that clusters are more superior to strips and other spatial forms, while the configuration of the relevant coefficients in the study of urban transportation is also clearly premised on the centralization of the UC zone. In economically developed cities, the immense demand for main urban service functions will result in the almost unlimited expansion of the scale and range of the UC zone, pushing its borders toward the periphery of the city. Evidently, this is not conducive to the functional agglomeration and core functions of the UC zone. In addition, due to the more specialized division of labor in the service industries of economically developed cities, a larger number of functional hubs will hope for an aggregation that is suited to their respective characteristics. Therefore, the main-subdistrict multi-center spatial structure of the UC structure will take into account the needs of both aspects mentioned above and achieve the organic integration between the centralization and separation of urban service industries, thus forming a more efficient spatial structure in the development of urban public facilities.

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2.1.3 Development Models of Spatial Agglomeration Among Service Industries The emergence of the UC structure can be regarded as the result of a series of spatial effects, namely the agglomeration–separation–re-agglomeration of the service industries. The spatial agglomeration of the service industries will produce the UC zone, while their spatial separation and re-agglomeration will give rise to the UC structure. With the development of the urban economy, there will be steady improvements in the overall scale, grade of business formats, industrial categories, and other aspects of the service industry, which will also have a far-reaching impact on the UC structure, manifesting respectively as the increase in the overall construction and land use scale, the diversification and mixing of land use categories, and the specialization and comprehensivization of the UC zone. In terms of the urban space as a whole, this is manifested as four spatial models of the UC structure (Fig. 2.3). (1) First agglomeration of the service industries The division of labor and commercial trade provide the conditions for the establishment and development of the UC zone. The spatial polarization caused by the first spatial agglomeration of the service industries will promote the birth of the 1MC urban public hub structure. The so-called 1MC means that there is only one UC zone within the city that provides citywide service coverage. It independently assumes all city-level political, cultural, and economic service functions and is the absolute core of urban service industries. Therefore, the 1MC urban public hub structure can be regarded as the prototype of the UC structure, as well as its origin of development. – Drivers of agglomeration among service industries. The characteristics of the service industries determine the appropriate level of agglomeration that must be achieved in order to create favorable conditions for their respective development. As the service products provided by the service industries are intangible, they are non-storable and cannot be transported over long distances. However, it is precisely this non-storability of service products that requires their simultaneous

Single main center

Single main center,

Dual main center,

(1MC) model

multiple sub-centers

multiple sub-centers

(1MC-MMC) model

(2MC-MMC) model

Fig. 2.3 Four types of spatial models for UC structure

Multiple main centers (MMC) model

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production and consumption, thus maintaining temporal consistency. Furthermore, since the products cannot be transported over long distances, they must also maintain spatial consistency in production and consumption. This “spatiotemporal consistency” between the production and consumption of the service industries entails that they must select the spatial location with the optimal transportation location, highest accessibility, and densest crowd flow when choosing the layout of their locations. In addition, the product uniformity of the service industries means that they are also constrained by their small scale of development, as well as their weak radiative power to the surrounding areas and the poor capacity to aggregate crowd flow. This, therefore, has created the need for “symbiotic” agglomeration among different types of service industries within the same space. The agglomeration of the service industries not only increases the industrial radiative capacity of the location but also brings together more types of service industries and attracts the greater aggregation of crowd flows to the location, while also increasing the development and growth of the service industries themselves, thus forming a virtuous cycle. In the initial stage of urban development, the differences in the locations and development potential of different agglomeration sites will result in hierarchical differences in spatial locations. Among them, the most developed site will benefit from the accumulation of benefits over a long time; hence, its primacy will gradually increase compared to other sites, ultimately bringing together the vast majority of service industries within the city and developing into the city’s 1MC. For cities at the 1MC stage, the development mechanism of their service industries predominantly involves agglomeration. As the level of agglomeration among the service industries within the UC zone increases, the overall size of the UC zone will also increase significantly. Thus, the city will remain in the “positive effect” stage of industrial agglomeration for a long time, and its infrastructure will be able to support further agglomeration. – Impact on urban space. The agglomeration of the service industries and the emergence of the 1MC will have a far-reaching impact on the urban space. The city will gradually exhibit significant spatial differentiation and polarization (Fig. 2.4), which will address the problems of homogeneity, relative closedness, and lack of liquidity, thus shifting the urban space toward heterogeneity and openness. Commercial trade will bring about the agglomeration of the service industries under market operations. The more prosperous the trade activities, the more obvious the industrial agglomeration effects, and the more prominent the polarization effects of urban space. From the perspective of functional distribution, there will be significant differences between service and service recipients in the city. The UC zone will bring together the vast majority of the city-level service functions, such as commercial retail, administrative offices, culture and entertainment, and other types of service industries, thus forming the core of urban functions, while also continuing to provide services to the city due to the positive effects of agglomeration. In contrast, the rest

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Fig. 2.4 Spatial differentiation and polarization caused by the first agglomeration of the service industries

of the city, such as residential areas, will be like the cytoplasm outside the nucleus of a cell, forming a clear region of service recipients. From the perspective of land value, the city exhibits a clear spatial difference between core and fringe areas. The vitality of the UC zone brought about by transportation convenience, the agglomeration of the service industries, dense crowd flows, and other factors will also inevitably result in fierce market competition, which in turn will lead to a sharp increase in land value in the UC zone. Spatial distance will then become a key indicator for the measurement of land value, such that the land closer to the center will have higher value. This polarization phenomenon will continue to intensify as the agglomeration within the 1MC increases. (2) Spatial separation of the service industries In the later period of maturity, as the 1MC structure continues to undergo rapid economic development in its urban service industries, the further agglomeration of the service industries will have gradually diminishing positive effects, accompanied by gradually increasing negative effects. The maladies resulting from the overagglomeration of the service industries, including excessively high operating costs, inadequate transportation support, and over-competition, will gradually become more prominent. At a certain critical point, the disadvantages caused by the negative effects will surpass the advantages of the positive effects, which may lead to the spatial separation of the service industries. – Drivers of separation among service industries. There are two main reasons for the spatial separation of the service industries from the UC zone: operating costs and supporting facilities. The types of industries that are affected by operating costs are predominantly low-end service industries, whereas high-end service industries are mainly affected by supporting facilities. Given the substantial differences in profitability, the different types of service industries will have different levels of “separation thresholds.” The so-called “separation threshold” refers to the critical point at which the operating costs and revenues of the service industry

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are at equilibrium. Modern high-end service industries such as business offices, finance and insurance, and professional consultancy have significantly higher thresholds than traditional service industries such as catering, low-end retail, and residential services. With the gradual increase in the industrial agglomeration of the UC zone, the surge in operating costs due to industrial competition will mean that service industries with low profitability will have no choice but to abandon the advantages of the main UC zone, including its transportation location and agglomeration of crowd flow, and opt to settle in other spaces. However, at the same time, service industries with higher profitability will continue to experience the positive effects of agglomeration. Therefore, the increasing level of agglomeration in the UC zone will cause the occurrence of greater spatial differentiation among the service industries. The over-agglomeration of the service industries not only leads to rising operating costs, but also causes the overloaded operation of supporting infrastructure in the UC zone, which will cause a decrease in efficiency. The most notable examples of this are traffic congestion and the decrease in environmental quality. Although high-end service industries, such as business offices, finance and insurance, and other such industries, are less affected by the rise in operating costs and other adverse factors, they have high requirements for transportation accessibility, image presentation, and environmental quality. The negative effects of an overly large and congested UC zone will prompt some high-end service industries to seek to settle in other spaces. – Impact on the UC structure. The spatial separation of the service industries has a relatively small impact on the UC structure, which is mainly reflected in the slowing rate of development within the 1MC amid rapid economic development among the service industries within the city. By observing the overall development process of the UC structure, we will find that the spatial separation of the service industries is a relatively short-lived stage and a transitional stage from the 1MC structure to the UC structure. (3) Re-agglomeration of the service industries according to specialized locations The development of the service industries is dependent on its spatial venue. The service institutions that have separated from the UC zone are not able to exist freely outside the urban space, and re-agglomeration becomes a necessary option for such service institutions. Thus, the spatial separation of the service industries is also accompanied by the start of re-agglomeration. During this process, the different types of service institutions will be guided by their own industrial characteristics and their specific requirements for their spatial venues, thereby exhibiting different results in the selection of spatial venues. After this dynamic process of selection has undergone a certain period of integration through market mechanisms, the various types of service institutions will agglomerate to form several spatial clusters and gradually develop into functional UC zones, giving rise to the UC structure.

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– Drivers of re-agglomeration among service industries. Fundamentally speaking, the agglomeration characteristics of the service industry will result in the re-agglomeration of the service industries that had separated from the UC zone. The agglomeration of the service industries can greatly promote the development and growth of industrial clusters and improve the radiative power of the service industries as a whole. Therefore, under the optimized configuration of the market, a re-agglomeration of the service industries according to specialized locations will occur. For example, the wholesale trade industry is mainly affected by outbound transportation convenience; hence, it mainly relies on outbound transportation facilities, such as railway stations, expressway exits, high-grade road intersections, and other suburban agglomeration development. High-end service industries, such as business offices and finance and insurance, are mainly affected by inbound transportation accessibility and environmental and landscape quality. Hence, they will mainly select spatial venues with beautiful landscapes, high environmental quality, and strong transportation accessibility for agglomeration. With the increase in the agglomeration level of the same service industry, the overall scale of the industry, and the radiation capacity of the venue within each spatial location, these spatial locations for agglomeration will gradually transform into functional urban sub-centers. This will result in the formation of retail commercial sub-centers dominated by retail commercial industries; traditional commercial subcenters dominated by tourism, specialty commerce, and traditional cultural industries; and business and finance sub-centers dominated by business offices, finance and insurance, professional consultancy, and other high-end industries. The emergence of various functional sub-centers marks the establishment of a complete framework within the UC structure. – Impact on the UC structure. The re-agglomeration of the service industries will break apart the 1MC urban structure and will result in the emergence of a true UC structure. It is a leap forward in the development of the spatial structure of the service industries. The transformation of the urban spatial structure from the unipolarity of the 1MC stage to the multipolarity of the UC structure stage will provide greater room and choice for upgrading the scale and grade of the service industry and improving its service functions. In the multipolar UC structure, the main center plays an important role as the core, occupying a position of absolute dominance in terms of spatial hierarchy and scale, radiation range, and industry types. The comprehensive and diversified development of the main center means that it has undertaken the comprehensive service functions that cover the entire city and plays a crucial role in driving forward the development of the UC structure. The functional sub-centers, resulting from another round of spatial agglomeration, are mainly characterized by the unipolarity of their dominant service functions and play an active role in the development of specialized service functions in the city. The emergence of functional sub-centers not only signifies an increase in the overall scale of public functions within the city but also improves the grade of business formats for specialized industries to a certain extent, thereby giving rise

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to the expansion of service radiative capacity and range. At this stage, there is also a mix of low-end service industries, such as daily residential services, within the functional sub-centers. Due to the lack of district-level UC zones, functional sub-centers will also have to undertake part of the district-level functions for surrounding residents while fulfilling its city-level functions. Thus, there is a spatial overlap between city-and district-level service functions. At this stage, sub-centers usually exhibit characteristics of being large but not strong. (4) Upgrading of most developed sub-center to a new main center The newly formed functional sub-centers in the UC structure will gradually exhibit spatial location advantages and industrial competitiveness, and the growth in the scale of urban service industries will depend largely on the new functional subcenters. Among all the functional sub-centers, those with the most optimal spatial location, highest level of developability, and consistency with the direction of urban development will gradually grow, and its dominant industries will slowly become more comprehensive and diversified, ultimately forming a new comprehensive main center outside the existing main center. – Reasons for the birth of a new comprehensive main center. The expansion in the agglomeration scale of the service industries in the functional sub-centers will be accompanied by the emergence of other industry types. However, this will mainly involve derivative agglomeration, and the scale of these service industries will remain small, mainly playing the role of complementing and supporting the dominant industry, whereas the dominant industry will determine the type and development scale of the agglomerated industries to a certain extent. In this case, the positioning of such UC zones is still one of a sub-UC zone. It is only when the development direction of a sub-center is consistent with that of the city as a whole will it gradually develop into an area with the most optimal spatial location and transportation, thereby becoming the preferred choice of location for the spatial agglomeration of various types (and not just one type) of service industries. In addition, the relatively low land prices, abundance of developable land, and other advantages of sub-UC zones will cause increasing diversification and the scaling up of its internal dominant industries, thus gradually transforming into a comprehensive urban main center. For example, the Lujiazui UC zone in Shanghai was initially designated as the city’s CBD sub-UC zone in the early stages of its construction in the 1990s. During the development of Shanghai across the Huangpu River and eastward along Century Avenue, Lujiazui gradually became the area with the most optimal comprehensive location, serving a rapidly growing radiation range and population size. Its dominant industries increased from business finance at the start to retail commerce, business offices, finance and securities, hotels, and other diverse functions, and the UC zone gradually became more comprehensive, eventually evolving into the second main UC zone in Shanghai. In contrast, although Nanjing has multiple sub-centers outside the

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Xinjekou main UC zone, the city has yet to determine the main direction of development and has opted for peripheral expansion. Therefore, these sub-UC zones cannot occupy the most optimal location in the city and hence find it difficult to be upgraded as the city’s second main UC zone. – Impact on the UC structure. The spatial impact of this development stage is mainly reflected in the emergence of a second comprehensive main center within the city. This marks the gradual transformation of the UC structure from a single core to a dual core and its evolution from a “single main center, multiple subcenters” (1MC-MSC) structure to a “dual main centers, multiple sub-centers” (2MC-MSC) structure. The emergence of the new comprehensive main center will alter the hierarchical structure of the 1MC-MSC stage, which is monopolized by the single main center, and the primacy of its spatial scale in the UC structure will continue to decline. This implies the further expansion in the spatial layout scale of the urban service industries as well as the improvement in urban service functions and enhancement in radiative capacity. From the perspective of the hierarchal difference in the sizes of the main and sub-centers, there is a trend toward greater hierarchical differences compared to the previous stage, which provides emerging service institutions with more choices and opportunities for entry. Within the UC zone, the mixed development of functional industries is conducive to the efficient allocation of resources, which not only is beneficial to the derivation of new types of service industries but can also improve the utilization efficiency of infrastructure in the UC zone, including land use and transportation support. From the perspective of urban space, the emergence of a new comprehensive main center that is synchronized with the pace of urban development will be able to provide services to the residents more conveniently and serve as an engine to drive the expansion of urban space. (5) Specialization of main centers and comprehensiveness of sub-centers As a handful of global UC structures continued in their course of development, their main centers began to reach an immense size. For example, the main center of Tokyo covers a land area of 48.3 km2 , and its gross building area has reached an astonishing figure of 98.92 million m2 . Within such a massive UC zone, the various types of service industries are no longer simply undergoing mixed aggregation development but, instead, have achieved the spatial differentiation of specialized functions under market competition. The sub-industries resulting from the fine division of the service industries occupy the areas that are most suited to themselves, thus giving rise to the functional and architectural “purification” of each area in the UC zone (Fig. 2.5), which is strongly recognizable. For example, in many areas within the Tokyo main center, sub-industrial institutions, such as brand headquarters, specialty restaurants, boutique clothing stores etc., account for more than 90%, or even 100%, of the area, which is presented overall as the specialization in the spatial locations of agglomeration among the service industries (Fig. 2.6). At the same time, the functional sub-centers will also show significant increases in radiative capacity and industrial scale, while good development will bring about

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Fig. 2.5 “Purification” of the Tokyo main UC zone: completely occupied by commercial public facilities

Fig. 2.6 “Purification” of the Tokyo main UC zone: completely occupied by commercial public facilities

improvements in spatial environmental quality and infrastructure. In addition, the development of the service industries will bring together a stable flow of people, materials, and capital. The above advantages will not only enable homogeneous agglomeration within the functional sub-centers but will inevitably exert radiative and attractive forces on other categories of service industries, which will result in comprehensiveness in the mixed spatial aggregation of the service industries. For example, the UC zones around the Tokyo main center, such as Shinjuku, Shibuya, and Ikebukuro, have all shown a trend toward comprehensiveness in the diversified development of their dominant functions, including offices, finance, administration, and commerce, thus indicating their gradual shift toward becoming main centers (Figs. 2.7 and 2.8). – Analysis of development drivers for the service industries. The development growth of the comprehensive main centers will trigger a rapid expansion in the construction and land use scale of the UC zone involving the continuous incorporation of surrounding land use within the scope of the UC zone through functional

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Fig. 2.7 Multi-functional development of the Shinjuku UC zone

Fig. 2.8 Multi-functional development of the Shibuya UC zone

substitution and upgrading. The negative effects of agglomeration (traffic congestion, a decline in environmental quality, the mutual interference of functional business formats, and other maladies) will prompt the outward spatial separation of the service industries, which, in turn, will induce the reorganization of the industrial spatial layout within the main center. Various categories of service industries will opt to re-aggregate in locations that match their needs, and the fringe areas of the UC zone with convenient transportation will gradually form specialized venues for industrial agglomeration. Typical cases are Marunouchi and Ginza in Tokyo. Although these two areas are only a few blocks apart, they present completely different styles in terms of spatial form and industry type. Marunouchi is a business node dominated by finance and insurance and corporate

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Fig. 2.9 Marunouchi, Tokyo (business)

Fig. 2.10 Ginza, Tokyo (commerce)

headquarters, whereas Ginza is a commercial node dominated by high-end retail and brand stores (Figs. 2.9 and 2.10). This “fringe agglomeration” phenomenon of UC zones will cause the main center to exhibit a trend of compact local form and loose overall structure. Within the environment of a market economy, service industries can select their spatial locations according to their own needs. The enhancements in the radiative capacity and the gradual improvements of the supporting facilities of the functional sub-centers will trigger a trend toward diversification, comprehensiveness, and mixing within the sub-centers. Unlike the early stage of sub-center development, which mainly involves derivative agglomeration, the later stage is mainly dominated by symbiotic and complementary heterogeneous agglomeration. With the increase in the types of service industries and the enrichment of the dominant industries within the UC zones, some functional sub-centers with superior conditions can be further upgraded into comprehensive urban main centers. District-level centers will reach a substantial spatial scale and gradually cultivate characteristic dominant industries within the complex structure of district-level service industries that will participate in the adjustment and reorganization of the UC

100

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.11 The development models of spatial agglomeration and spatial models of the service industries

structure. The industry types will form a “pyramidal” shape, and the radiative power of the dominant industries at the top of the pyramid will create market competition that will challenge the city-level main and sub-UC zones. – Impact on the UC structure. As the UC structure evolves from the 2MC-MSC to the “multiple main centers” (MMC) stage, its UC structure will be composed of multiple comprehensive main centers, multiple functional sub-centers, and a large number of district-level centers, which will be able to achieve excellent interactions and complementary development within a developed and complete network of transportation facilities. During the specialization of the main centers and the comprehensivization of the sub-centers, the hierarchical differences and spatial boundaries among the main-sub-district UC zones within the UC structure will gradually be blurred, relying on the “fast corridor network” of transportation among the UC zones to gradually integrate all UC zones into an overall network. The public facilities of the main, sub and district-level centers will be connected spatially to form a whole, and the land use efficiency of the UC structure will be further enhanced, thereby forming an important structural support for the radiation of the service facility cluster throughout the city, region, or even the world (Fig. 2.11).

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure …

101

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure from an International Perspective The development of the UC structure occurs in clear stages, from 1MC to 1MC-MSC, 2MC-MSC, and eventually to the MMC structure. Different cities show significant differences in their UC structure due to the differences in the internal and external environments of different cities. Even within the same city, the development of the economic level, improvement of infrastructure, enhancement of radiation capacity, and the strengthening of other development advantages will cause it to shift to higher levels of UC structure. Therefore, based on the high density of cities in Asia from an international perspective, the UC structures of different cities will exhibit their own respective characteristics (Fig. 2.12).

2.2.1 MMC Structure The MMC network structure is the highest tier of UC structure development. It imposes extremely high requirements on all aspects of the city; hence, only a handful of cities worldwide have reached this tier of development at the current stage. Examples are Tokyo in Japan, London in the UK, and other global economic core cities with massive population sizes.

Fig. 2.12 Typical distribution of cities

102

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.13 Modern evolution of the urban population in Tokyo. *Source Tokyo Metropolitan Government website

Tokyo is the capital city of Japan, the largest city in Asia, and the second-largest city in the world. It is one of the largest global economic centers and one of the most populous cities in the world. As of October 1, 2009, Tokyo’s population had reached 12.989 million, accounting for about 10% of Japan’s total population, ranking first among the 47 prefectures in the country7 (Fig. 2.13). Tokyo is also the largest urban center of the service industries in Japan, where the major companies in the country have aggregated. It is also Japan’s economic, commercial, financial, cultural, education, and transportation center, occupying a very high position of primacy within Japan. The UC structure of Tokyo is currently at the MMC stage of development, in which the four comprehensive main centers are Marunouchi-Ginza, Shinjuku, Shibuya, and Ikebukuro, and the four sub-centers are the retail commercial hub (Ueno), the traditional commercial hub (Asakusa), the business office hub (Kinshich¯o), and the business office hub (Shinagawa-Osaki). Figure 2.14, shows that the UC structure presents a spatial form, with Marunouchi-Ginza as the core, surrounded by the other UC zones. This can be attributed mainly to the close association with the direction of the urban rail transit lines, with different tiers of UC zones forming around each station node. The development history of Tokyo’s commercial hub, from the Edo period in the 17th–19th century to the end of the 20th century, can be divided into four stages. Stage 1: the Edo period—formation and development of the Nihonbashi commercial hub in Japan. Stage 2: the Meiji Restoration to pre-WWI—the rise of the Ginza modern commercial hub. Stage 3: post-WWII to the Tokyo Olympics—the formation of the multi-center urban structure. Stage 4: Japan’s economic peak to the collapse of

7 Source:

Tokyo Metropolitan Government website (http://www.metro.tokyo.jp/CHINESE/PRO FILE/overview03.htm).

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure …

103

Fig. 2.14 Distribution of the UC structure in Tokyo

the bubble economy—construction and development of the comprehensive center.8 Overall, these can also be regarded as the four development stages of the UC structure. In Tokyo’s development process, its most crucial main center, from the original Nihonbashi to the present day Marunouchi, Ginza, and Shinbashi, has maintained a good inheritance in spatial location, while urban development has only brought about the spatial expansion of the “city center,” without the migration of the primary UC zone. Hu Baozhe concluded that the initial formation and development of the Edo commercial hub at Nihonbashi can be attributed to the following three reasons: The first is the urban layout characteristics of the Edo period and the superior geographical location of the Nihonbashi area. The second is planning policies. The third is the convenient transportation conditions. The advantages above have given rise to the Nihonbashi commercial hub, and also guaranteed its core position in the historical process of urban development. The maturation of Ginza, Marunouchi, and other areas in the later period can be considered the reinforcement and supplementation of the city center, which, together, constitute the largest and most complex UC zone within the city—the Marunouchi-Ginza comprehensive main center. Although the city has experienced a number of major events, such as the Great Kant o¯ Earthquake and WWII during the course of its development, it was rapidly 8 Hu

[6].

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

rebuilt after the war, and the swift period of development in the 1960s, in particular, have also laid the structural framework for its UC structure. Therefore, we can consider Tokyo’s multi-center urban structure to have been essentially formed during this period. After the war, a number of objective factors led to the dispersal of the excessively large functions within the main center. These included the westward shift of the urban population center, the construction and improvement of the railway system, and the sharp increase in the overall urban population size, as well as the clear stipulation in the National Capital Region Planning Act (formulated in 1958 by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government) of Shinjuku, Ikebukuro, and Shibuya as key development areas. After nearly half a century of development, Shinjuku, Shibuya, and Ikebukuro have gradually transformed into comprehensive main centers of the city, which, together with other UC zones, constitute the multi-center urban network structure.

2.2.2 2MC-MSC Structure Cases of UC structures at the 2MC-MSC stage of development are mostly key international economic core cities that are leaders in terms of economic development, population size, and spatial scale. The basic profile of each case city is shown below (Table 2.5). A detailed analysis of the similarities and dissimilarities among the cities will reveal the following patterns: Based on the analysis of the urban industrial economy, there will be a relatively weak association between the development of the UC structure and the high-end business industry. A notable example is the larger development scale of the UC structure in Beijing and Shanghai compared to Hong Kong. In contrast, there is a close association between the development of the UC structure with the total retail sales of consumer goods; hence, the lifestyle consumption of urban residents provides an important driving force for the development of the UC structure. With respect to urban space, geographic division plays a facilitatory role in the formation of the dual centers. Among the case cities listed above, there are five where the two main centers are divided: Shanghai, Beijing, Hong Kong, Seoul, and Wuhan. Of these, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Seoul, and Wuhan are divided due to the urban natural geographical environment (Huangpu River, Victoria Harbor, Han River, Yangtze River), whereas Beijing is due to the spatial division of the central historical and cultural axis. In contrast, Osaka and other cities with a similar level of economic development are located on plains and have retained a single enormous main UC zone. Therefore, we can infer that the urban spatial separation caused by geographic division is relatively conducive to the generation of multiple urban centers. In terms of city hierarchy, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Beijing, and Seoul are international economic centers that are playing an increasingly important role in the process of globalization, whereas Guangzhou, Wuhan, and Shenzhen are key regional economic centers. With regard to regional environment, Shanghai is the “engine”

512.4

228.1

Wuhan

Shenzhen

Sub-provincial municipality

Sub-provincial municipality

Sub-provincial municipality

Municipality

Special administrative region

Municipality

Municipality

Administrative level

1,953

2,718

3,843

605.41

1,104

12,187

5,155

Area of municipal districts (km2 )

788

461

895

–

233

1311

886

Built-up area (km2 )

7,806.5

3,392.5

7,560.7

18,061

14,802.7

10,325.1

13,560.4

Municipal GDP (RMB 100 million)

2,251.8

1,640.4

2,978.5

–

–

4,502.4

4,503.0

Total municipal retail sales of consumer goods (RMB 100 million)

3,999.4

1,192.3

3,260.4

5,801.6

5,825.1

6,824.0

5,366.2

Construction scale (10,000 m2 )

1,393.1

491.8

1,273.6

3,409.7

1,022.4

3,422.8

2,675.2

Land use scale (ha)

*Source Data for mainland Chinese cities were taken from the China Statistical Yearbook 2009 released by the National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2010, Beijing: China Statistics Press. Data for Hong Kong were taken from Hong Kong in Figs. 2009 released by the Statistics Department of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Data for Seoul were taken from http://chinese.seoul.go.kr/

1,043.7

697.8

Hong Kong

645.8

1,158.8

Beijing

Guangzhou

1,321.7

Shanghai

Seoul

Municipal population (10,000 individuals)

Name of city

Table 2.5 Comprehensive information on 2MC-MSC case cities

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure … 105

106

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

driving the Yangtze River Delta region; Beijing is the leader of the Bohai Economic Rim; Hong Kong, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen are the three core cities of the Pearl River Delta region; while Wuhan is the economic leader of central China. In terms of administrative level, these are all capitals, municipalities, or sub-provincial municipalities, all of which occupy key positions at high administrative levels. Therefore, we can postulate that only cities serving at least as regional economic centers will exhibit a compatible 2MC-MSC UC structure. (1) The UC structure of Shanghai Shanghai is the largest city in China, and also one of the most economically developed. It is also the economic, financial, trade, and shipping center of China’s coastal areas. It serves as a hub of economic interactions between China and the world, the frontier for the entry of multinational companies into China, and the leader of the Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone. At the end of 2008, its population size was about 13.22 million (municipal districts) and the regional GDP was approximately RMB 1.36 trillion (municipal districts). Currently, the development of Shanghai’s UC structure is relatively stable. In 2008, Shanghai presented a 2MC-MSC UC structure composed of two comprehensive main centers and four functional sub-centers. The comprehensive main centers include the People’s Square UC zone and the Lujiazui UC zone, while the functional subcenters include the Wujiaochang UC zone, the Shanghai Railway Station UC zone, the Xujiahui UC zone, and the Hongqiao UC zone (Fig. 2.15). The figure shows six city-level UC zones, five of which are located in Puxi, and only the Lujiazui comprehensive main center is located in Pudong. This can be considered an imbalance in the spatial distribution of the UC zones, which is related to the short time span of development in the Pudong area. In 2008, the total land area of the Shanghai UC structure was 31.77 km2 , and the gross building area was 54.344 million m2 . The People’s Square UC zone is located in the core area of Puxi, with the People’s Square as its core. It includes Nanjing Road, Huaihai Road, the Bund, and other well-known agglomeration sites for the service industries. Since a large part of the UC zones has historically served as concession settlements, this has resulted in the formation of “narrow roads, dense network” road network patterns in the UC zone, which has also provided crucial infrastructural support for the high-intensity and high-density development of the People’s Square UC zone in the present day. After a long period of development, the People’s Square UC zone has gradually developed into a comprehensive main center integrating financial offices, trade consultancy, commercial, culture and entertainment, administration, residential areas, and other urban functions. The total land area of the UC zone is 14.7 km2 and its gross building area is 28.629 million m2 . Pudong is so named because it is located on the eastern bank of Shanghai’s mother river, Huangpu River. Before the 1990s, this area used to be large swathes of farmland and fishing villages. In 1990, China implemented the strategy for the development of Pudong, and after undergoing 17 years of development, Pudong became the window of China’s reform and opening up, and the epitome of Shanghai’s modernization.

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure …

107

Fig. 2.15 Distribution of the UC structure in Shanghai

The Lujiazui UC zone is located in a core part of the Pudong New Area in Shanghai and is also an important component of the Shanghai UC structure. It is located across the river from the bustling The Bund business district in Puxi and is the top region for the development of tertiary industries, such as finance and trade. After many years of development and construction, the Lujiazui UC zone has now become a new hub for business offices and finance and insurance in Greater Shanghai, and even in China. The total land area of the UC zone is 11.1 km2 , and the gross building area is 14.854 million m2 . (2) The UC structure of Beijing The capital of China, Beijing is its second-largest city, as well as its political, economic, transportation and cultural center. Beijing is also an important financial and commercial center and the core city of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Economic Zone. The city has served as a bridgehead for China for the undertaking of industrial transfer and participation in competition during the process of globalization. As of the end of 2008, its urban population size was about 11.588 million (municipal districts), and its GDP was about RMB 1.03251 trillion (municipal districts). Although its pace of urban development is still relatively rapid at this stage, the development of Beijing’s UC structure is relatively stable. In 2008, Beijing presented

108

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

a 2MC-MSC UC structure composed of two comprehensive main centers and four functional sub-centers. The comprehensive main centers include the Chaoyang UC zone and the Xidan UC zone, while the functional sub-centers mainly include the Qianmen UC zone (traditional commercial hub), the Zhongguancun UC zone, the Sanyuanqiao UC zone, and the Xikezhan UC zone (Fig. 2.16). In 2008, the Beijing UC zone covered a total land area of 40.9 km2 and a gross building area of 68.24 million m2 . The Greater Chaoyang UC zone is located in the east of the city and includes core agglomeration sites of the service industries, including business UC zones and Wangfujing. On the one hand, its ability to develop into Beijing’s leading UC zone is closely related to the low cost of renewing urban construction land use in this area. On the other hand, this is associated with its spatial location as the eastern part of the city is closer to Tianjin, which facilitates the cooperation and exchanges

Fig. 2.16 Distribution of the UC structure in Beijing

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure …

109

between the two cities. Since the 1993 Beijing Urban Master Plan, which proposed the construction of Beijing’s business UC zone from Chaoyangmen to Jianguomen within the region between the East 2nd Ring Road and East 3rd Ring road, this UC zone has undergone nearly 20 years of development and has developed into a comprehensive UC zone integrating multiple functions, including retail commerce, administrative offices, trade consultancy, and finance and insurance. The total land area of the UC zone is 19.4 km2 , and the gross building area is 35.658 million m2 . Unlike the Greater Chaoyang UC zone, the greater Xidan UC zone is located in the west of the city, mainly encompassing Xidan (the agglomeration site for commercial offices), Financial Street (the agglomeration site for the finance and insurance industry), and other spatial venues. In the same version of the urban master plan that proposed the concept of the Chaoyang business district, the plan also proposed the construction of a national-level financial management hub between Fuchengmen on West 2nd Ring Road to Fuxingmen. This UC zone achieved the centralized management of national-level bank headquarters and non-bank service headquarters, which eventually evolved into the Financial Street in Beijing. Together to with the neighboring agglomeration sites for retail commerce, they constitute the Greater Xidan UC zone. The total land area of this UC zone is 11.46 km2 , and the gross building area is 17.475 million m2 . (3) The UC structure of Seoul Seoul is South Korea’s largest city and its political, economic, cultural, and educational center. It is also one of the most prosperous modern metropolises and famous tourist cities in the world. Seoul has a population of 10.5 million people and an urban area of 605.8 km2 . The region north of the Han River covers an area of 298.0 km2 , accounting for 49.2% of the total area, while the region south of the Han River covers an area of 307.7 km2 , which accounts for 50.8% of the total area. The development of the Seoul UC structure is relatively stable, presenting a 2MCMSC structure composed of two comprehensive main centers and three functional sub-centers. The comprehensive main centers include the Northern UC zone and the Teheran-ro UC zone, while the functional sub-centers mainly include the Apgujeong sub-center, the Yeouido sub-center, and the Mokdong sub-center. The city-level UC zones are mainly distributed on both sides of the Han River (Fig. 2.17). The total land area of the Seoul UC structure is approximately 27.4 km2 , and the gross building area is 58.02 million m2 . The Northern UC zone is so named because it is located north of the Han River. This UC zone contains numerous historical monuments, such as Dongdaemun and Namdaemun, as well as a large number of modern commercial and business office buildings. Thus, it is the busiest and most characteristic UC zone in Seoul. The total land area of this UC zone is 12 km2 , and the gross building area is 21.96 million m2 . The Northern UC zone serves as the comprehensive main center of Seoul for business and commerce. It contains numerous iconic buildings and famous tourist attractions, such as Dongdaemun and Namdaemun. Hence, it is an important node for Seoul to showcase its traditional charm and modern vitality.

110

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.17 Distribution of the UC structure in Seoul *Source Survey and calculation results from the author’s labo

The Tehran-ro UC zone is located to the south of the Han River and is a key business district in Seoul. Not only does it host the Korea International Exhibition Center, the headquarters of the Korea Electric Power Corporation, the headquarters of Samsung Electronics, and other well-known companies, but it also contains a large number of movie agencies and high-end fashion boutiques. The total land area of this UC zone is 9.6 km2 , and the gross building area is 24.10 million m2 . The Tehran-ro UC zone is typified by the concentration of numerous modern super highrise buildings and well-designed brand stores along its main roads, thus forming an excellent street frontage, which fully demonstrates the trendy style of Seoul as an international, modern metropolis. (4) The UC structure of Hong Kong As one of the “Four Asian Dragons,” Hong Kong is a crucial financial, service, and shipping center in Asia, which is known for its clean government, good public order, free economic system, and complete legal system. As an international financial center and modern service industry hub, Hong Kong has managed to use less than one hundred thousandth of the global land area and less than one thousandth of the global population to achieve the world’s second-largest foreign trade value per capita and the world’s largest entrepôt trade. As of the end of 2008, the city’s population

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure …

111

size was 6.978 million, and the regional GDP was HK$ 1.6785 trillion (about RMB 1.48027). The development of the Hong Kong UC structure is relatively stable. It is currently at the 2MC-2SC stage, composed of two comprehensive main centers, and two functional sub-centers. The comprehensive main centers include the Central District UC zone and the Yau Tsim Mong UC zone, while the functional sub-centers include the Kwun Tong UC zone and the Hung Hom UC zone. These city-level UC zones are mainly distributed on both sides of Victoria Harbor (Fig. 2.18). In 2009, the total land area of the Hong Kong UC structure was 1,431.4 km2 , and the gross building area was 61.467 million m2 . The name of the Yau Tsim Mong UC zone is an acronym of the three major areas of activity within it—Yau Ma Tei, Tsim Sha Tsui, and Mong Kok. In accordance with the Convention of Peking of 1860, the Kowloon Peninsula south of Boundary Street was ceded to the British, and its scope included the entire Yau Tsim Mong UC zone. The area subsequently underwent vigorous development and evolved into one of the thriving comprehensive UC zones for business and commerce. The total land area of this UC zone is 4.24 km2 , and the gross building area is 15.992 million m2 . As the comprehensive main center for business and commerce in Hong Kong,

Fig. 2.18 Distribution of the UC structure in Hong Kong

112

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

the Yau Tsim Mong UC zone contains a landscape axis, iconic buildings, and a large number of cultural facilities. It is one of the main nodes in the presentation of Hong Kong’s urban image. The Central District UC zone is the heartbeat of Hong Kong, as well as the earliest commercial hub that was developed since the opening of Hong Kong Island. As early as 1841, when the British occupied Hong Kong, their first move was to establish a military base in the Central District and quickly build a number of major transportation routes. The 1970s to the 1980s was the peak period of development for the Central District. At that time, high-rise skyscrapers were constantly being built in the Central District, including the headquarters of various banks. Coupled with the boom of the financial markets, this led to an influx of major business and financial activities into the Central District. The total land area of this UC zone is 4.53 km2 , and the gross building area is 31.11 million m2 . As the business and financial hub of Hong Kong, the core area of the Central District is tessellated with skyscrapers, forming a beautiful, world-renowned skyline, which has become an important business card for Hong Kong. (5) The UC structure of Guangzhou Guangzhou has a large-scale three-dimensional network of sea, land, and air transportation. It has a high degree of marketization and internationalization, and the proportion of its tertiary industry is the highest among the megacities in China. Guangzhou is the sub-economic center of South China, as well as its science and technology, educational, transportation, information, and manufacturing center. As of the end of 2008, its urban population was approximately 6.453 million (municipal districts), and regional GDP was about RMB 756.07 billion (municipal districts). Against the background of a strong foundation in the service industries and rapid leaps in development, Guangzhou presents a 2MC-MSC UC structure with two comprehensive main centers and three functional sub-centers. The comprehensive main centers include the Beijing Road UC zone and the Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town UC zone, while the functional sub-centers include the Huanshi East Road UC zone, the Shangxiajiu UC zone, and the Sanyuanli UC zone, as well as a number of districtlevel centers, such as Nonglin Road. The three main-sub-district tiers of UC zones constitute the skeleton of the UC structure in Guangzhou, serving the entire city of Guangzhou and even the South China region. The city-level UC zones are mainly distributed within the “two vertical, one horizontal” structure form of Jiefang Road, Guangzhou Dadao, and Zhongshan Road (Fig. 2.19). In 2008, the total land area covered by the Guangzhou UC structure was 15.0 km2 , and the gross building area was 32.604 million m2 . The Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town UC zone was established after the Guangzhou Municipal Government proposed the policy in 1990 of developing Tianhe into a future city center. With the full support of the municipal government, the development of the district was kickstarted with the construction of large-scale sports facilities and gradually developed into a comprehensive main center that brings together finance, trade, commerce, culture and entertainment, administration, residential areas, and

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure …

113

Fig. 2.19 Distribution of the UC structure in Guangzhou

other urban functions. The total land area of the UC zone is 6.2 km2 , and the gross building area is 12.866 million m2 . The Zhujiang New Town in the south is still at the stage of rapid development and construction. The gradual completion of its construction and the entry of various functional industries will bring about the sharp rise of the construction scale within the UC zone. As a UC zone established with great effort by the municipal government, Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town contains the city’s new axis, iconic buildings, and a large number of cultural facilities. It is one of the main nodes for the presentation of Guangzhou’s future urban image. The Beijing Road UC zone occupies the geographical center of the city. It is the origin of Guangzhou’s urban construction and the busiest commercial distribution center in the history of the city. In recent years, the UC zone has slowly centered on the Beijing Road pedestrian street as its core, integrating the surrounding service functions, including commerce, tourist attractions, cultural monuments, administrative offices, and business finance, thereby developing into a pedestrianized, mixed, and diversified comprehensive UC zone. The core of the UC zone is the Beijing Road pedestrian street, and its spatial framework is the traditional urban axis form of Baiyun Mountain—Memorial Hall—People’s Park — Haizhu Square, which showcases the excellent urban scenery of this landscape city. The total land area of this UC zone is 3.9 km2 , and the gross building area is 9.471 million m2 .

114

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

(6) The UC structure of Shenzhen After undergoing 30 years of construction and development, Shenzhen has been transformed from a former border town to an emerging modern city with international influence, giving rise to the world-renowned “Shenzhen speed.” With high- and newtechnology, finance, logistics, and culture as the four pillar industries, as well as highand new-technology and advanced manufacturing as the foundation, Guangzhou has constructed a modern industrial innovation system supported by modern service industries. It is the city with the most ports in China, and the only one with sea, land, and airports. It is one of the main gateways through which China communicates with the world, and it has the strong economic support of the service industries. As of the end of 2008, its urban population was approximately 2.281 million, and its regional GDP was RMB 780.65 billion. In 2008, Shenzhen presented a 2MC-1SC UC structure composed of two comprehensive main centers and one functional sub-center. The comprehensive main centers include the Luohu UC zone and Futian UC zone, while the sub-center is the Chegongmiao UC zone. The city-level UC zones are mainly distributed in a linear urban structure along the framework formed by Shennan Boulevard (Fig. 2.20). In 2008, the Shenzhen UC structure covered a total land area of 17.4 km2 and a gross building area of 39.994 million m2 . The Luohu UC zone is located in the middle of the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone. It is a commercial UC zone that developed relatively early in Shenzhen and is dominated by commercial trade, finance, information, tourism, hotel and entertainment services, and real estate, with tertiary industries occupying a dominant position. It is the commercial, financial, information, and logistical center of Shenzhen. The development of the UC zone is centered on the main cores of Dongmen,

Fig. 2.20 Distribution of the UC structure in Shenzhen

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure …

115

Huaqiang North and People’s South Road, integrating the surrounding service functions, including commerce, administrative offices, and business finance, thereby developing into a pedestrianized, mixed, and diversified comprehensive UC zone. The total land area of this UC zone is 7.9 km2 , and the gross building area is 2.0227 million m2 . The Futian UC zone is located in the west of the old town in Shenzhen. It is the seat of the Shenzhen Municipal Committee and Municipal Government, which was gradually developed into the city’s comprehensive main center that has brought together numerous service functions, including administrative offices, business offices, culture and entertainment, information consultation, international exhibitions, etc. The total land area of this UC zone is 7.0 km2 , and its gross building area is 14.762 million m2 . The convention and exhibition function within this UC zone is still in its infancy, and many commercial office buildings are still under construction. The gradual completion of its construction and the entry of various functional industries will cause a sharp rise in the construction scale within the UC zone. As a UC zone established with great effort by the municipal government, Futian contains the city’s new axis, iconic buildings, and a large number of cultural facilities. It is the main display window for the presentation of Shenzhen’s future urban image. (7) The UC structure of Wuhan As the capital of Hubei Province, Wuhan is one of the four financial centers of China and the largest economic center of Central China. It is also one of the megacities at the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, hosting a large number of financial institutions. In terms of spatial agglomeration, the various financial institutions are mainly concentrated in the Jianshe Avenue functional sub-center. As of the end of 2008, its urban population size was 5.124 million (municipal districts), and its regional GDP was RMB 339.25 billion (municipal districts). Due to the special geographic conditions of the city created by a bisecting river, Wuhan currently presents a 2MC-1SC structure composed of two comprehensive main centers and one functional sub-center. The comprehensive main centers include the Jianghan Road UC zone and Hongshan Square UC zone, while the functional subcenter is the Jianshe Avenue UC zone (Fig. 2.21). In 2008, the Wuhan UC structure covered a total land area of 6.1 km2 and a gross building area of 11.923 million m2 . The Jianghan Road UC zone is located in the Hankou area, and it was once ceded as a concession in its development process, which also shaped its unique environmental style. After undergoing a long period of development, it has gradually become the comprehensive main center of Wuhan by virtue of its rich and long-standing business atmosphere. The total land area of this UC zone is 2.2 km2 and its gross building area is 4.958 million m2 . The Hongshan Square UC zone is located in Wuchang District. The entire UC zone is built around Hongshan Square as the core of its spatial organization, adopting a multi-axial radial model of development. In addition, the Hubei Provincial Government is located within this UC zone, which has increased the depth and breadth of its service industries. The total land area of this UC zone is 2.8 km2 , and its gross building area is 4.824 million m2 .

116

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.21 Distribution of the UC structure in Wuhan

2.2.3 1MC-MSC Structure The 1MC-MSC UC structure already represents an advanced stage of urban development where the service industries have been diverted to multiple UC zones. From an overall perspective of distribution, the 1MC-MSC structure is mainly concentrated in cities with population sizes of around 2-6 million and occur more easily in cities with flat terrain. Examples are Osaka, Nanjing, Shenyang, Dalian, and Xiamen. The basic profile of each city is shown below (Table 2.6). (1) The UC structure of Osaka Osaka is the second-largest city in Japan after the capital, Tokyo. It is the center of Japan’s Kansai region, a world-famous industrial and commercial port, and the economic, trade, and cultural center of Japan. Osaka is located in the central-western part of Honshu, on the northeastern coast of Osaka Bay in the southwest of Honshu Island. It runs south through the Kitan Strait and the Kii Channel to the Pacific Ocean, and west to the Seto Inland Sea through the Akashi Strait. Since olden times, it has been the gateway to the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto and was also the earliest region for commercial and trade development in Japan. This city is not only a

882.2

541.2

509.0

298.3

173.7

Osaka

Nanjing

Shenyang

Dalian

Xiamen

Sub-provincial municipality

Sub-provincial municipality

Sub-provincial municipality

Sub-provincial municipality

–

Administrative level

1,573

2,415

3,471

4,723

1,894

Area of municipal districts (km2 )

197

258

370

592

–

Built-up area (km2 )

1,560.0

2,773.6

3,385.8

3,447.2

24,466.4

Municipal GDP (RMB 100 million)

418.9

973.8

1,383.0

1,545.9

4,795.4

Total municipal retail sales of consumer goods (RMB 100 million)

861.6

2,079.0

2,564.7

1,958.8

5,052.8

Construction scale (10,000 m2 )

364.5

1,027.0

1,160.6

892.6

2,334.5

Land use scale (ha)

*Source Data for Nanjing, Shenyang, Dalian and Xiamen were taken from the China Statistical Yearbook 2009 released by the National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2010, Beijing: China Statistics Press, ISBN: 9787503758003. Data for Osaka were taken from the Osaka Government website: http://www.pref.osaka. jp/cn/index.html

Municipal population (10,000 individuals)

Name of city

Table 2.6 Comprehensive information on 1MC-MSC case cities

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure … 117

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

modern international metropolis with thriving commerce, developed industry, convenient transportation, and advanced science and technology. It is also an ancient town with a millennium of history, containing numerous monuments, cultural highlights, and celebrities, carrying with it a profound cultural heritage, and occupying a prominent position in Japan. Through the evolution of Osaka, we can trace the historical trajectory of the rise and fall of Japan. Osaka has a flat terrain, and it is surrounded by mountains on the north, east, and south. The Osaka Prefecture covers a land area of 1867 km2 , has a population of 8.9 million (2010), and includes 31 cities, 13 towns and villages.9 The development of the Osaka UC structure is currently at the “1MC, 4SC” stage, composed of one comprehensive main center and four functional sub-centers. The comprehensive main center is the Midosuji UC zone, whereas the functional sub-centers include the Tennoji sub-center, Kujo sub-center, Shin-Osaka sub-center, and Osaka trade sub-center. All city-level UC zones are dependent on Osaka’s rail transport: interconnections between the Midosuji Line and the JR Line (Fig. 2.22). The Midosuji UC zone is the heart of Osaka’s development and its comprehensive service hub. Osaka was originally called Namba and has the longest history of development. The continuous development of its maritime trade promoted the constant renewal and substitution of commerce and handicrafts. The connection of rail transit, such as the Midosuji Line, further encouraged the continued flourishing and renewal of the Midosuji UC zone. This area has now evolved into a fully developed comprehensive UC zone for business and commerce that is second only to the Tokyo main center. The UC structure spans Yodogawa to the north, Tennoji Park to the south, Kizugawa to the West, and Osaka Park Road to the east, covering a total land area of 17.7 km2 , and a gross building area of 51.052 million m2 . The city is crisscrossed with several rail transit lines, such as the Midosuji Line, Hanshin Expressway, Nagahori Tsurumi-ryokuchi Line, and Chuo Line. As the comprehensive main center for business and commerce, the Midosuji UC zone contains the urban axis, iconic buildings, and a large number of cultural facilities. It is the main window for presenting Osaka’s urban image to the world. (2) The UC structure of Nanjing Nanjing is located along the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. It is the capital of Jiangsu Province, and a famous historical and cultural city in China. It is also a key economic center in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River and has a relatively developed service industry. As of the end of 2008, its urban population was approximately 5.412 million (municipal districts), and regional GDP was approximately RMB 344.72 billion (municipal districts). Nanjing currently presents a “1MC, 3SC” UC structure composed of one comprehensive main center, and three functional sub-centers. The comprehensive main center is the Xinjiekou UC zone, while the functional sub-centers include the Hunan Road UC zone, Confucius Temple UC zone, and Hexi UC zone (Fig. 2.23). The Nanjing UC structure covers a total land area of 10.8 km2 and a gross building area of 19.55 million m2 . 9 Data

was taken from the Osaka Government website: http://www.pref.osaka.jp/cn/index.html.

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure …

119

Fig. 2.22 Distribution of the UC structure in Osaka

Before 1929, the Xinjiekou area was merely an ordinary old-town city block. However, since the construction of the provincial capital in 1929, this area has been completely revamped. It is situated at the intersection of four urban arterial roads: Zhongshan Eastern Road, Zhongzheng Road, Hanzhong Road, and Zhongshan Road, forming a traffic circle in the center. Following the transformation of its transportation location, Xinjiekou became a new transportation hub and rapidly formed an emerging commercial hub. A number of public service facilities were subsequently built here, including the National Commercial Bank, Zhejiang Xingye Bank, Bank of Communications, Zhongyang Shopping Mall, Dahua Grand Theater, Xindu Grand Theater, and Fuchang Hotel. The Jinling Hotel built in 1983 was the tallest building in China at that time, which served a symbol of Nanjing for a long time. The Xinjiekou UC zone is the comprehensive main center of Nanjing. This area has the highest number of financial institutions, consulting firms, law firms, accounting firms, and the headquarters and offices of major corporations in Nanjing, with nearly

120

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.23 Distribution of the UC structure in Nanjing

100 Fortune 500 companies. Xinjiekou has been hailed as one of the top ten “famous commercial streets of China,” and had the highest commercial density among the top ten. It is the third-largest commercial street in China after Wangfujing Street of Beijing and Nanjing Road of Shanghai. The Xinjiekou UC zone is centered on the original Xinjiekou traffic circle as the core, radiating outwards with Zhongshan Road as the axis. The total land area of this UC zone is 5.7 km2 , and its gross building area is 12.853 million m2 . (3) The UC structure of Shenyang Shenyang is the largest international metropolis in Northeast China, as well as its political, financial, cultural, transportation, information, and tourism center. It is also the most important heavy industry base in China and has the reputation of being the

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure …

121

“Oriental Ruhr.” As of the end of 2008, its urban population was approximately 5.09 million (municipal districts), and its regional GDP was approximately RMB 338.58 billion (municipal districts). Due to urban topography and developmental inertia, the vast majority of public service functions in Shenyang are aggregated within the main center, and the overall framework of its UC structure has yet to be opened up. Shenyang is currently presenting a 1MC-1SC UC structure composed of one comprehensive main center and one functional sub-center. The comprehensive main center is the ZhongshanHuigong UC zone, and the functional sub-center is the Zhongjie UC zone. The citylevel UC zones are mainly distributed within the grid-like road structure consisting of Nanjing Street, Qingnian Main Street, Heping Road, and Shifu Main Street (Fig. 2.24). In 2008, the Shenyang UC structure covers a total land area of 14.3 km2 and a gross building area of 25.648 million m2 . Under the banner of “Revitalizing the Old Industrial Base,” the development of the UC zones in Shenyang occurred at an extraordinarily rapid pace. Commercial trade quickly gathered on both sides of the Taiyuan Commercial Pedestrian Street, and the Shenyang North Railway Station became an agglomeration site for the financial consulting industry. Driven by the development of large-scale public projects, the Zhongshan-Huigong UC zone gradually developed into a comprehensive main

Fig. 2.24 Distribution of the UC structure in Shenyang

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

center that brought together finance, trade, commerce, culture and entertainment, administration, residential areas, and other urban functions. The total land area of this UC zone is 12.3 km2 , and its gross building area is 22.579 million m2 . This UC zone is currently still in a stage of rapid development and construction. The gradual completion of its construction and the entry of various functional industries will cause a sharp rise in the construction scale within the UC zone. (4) The UC structure of Dalian Dalian is the international shipping and logistics center of Northeast China, and even Northeastern Asia. It has the largest deep-water port in Northeast China and has large-scale sea, land, and air transportation networks. As of the end of 2008, its urban population was approximately 2.983 million (municipal districts), and its regional GDP was approximately RMB 277.36 billion yuan (municipal districts). The development of the Dalian UC structure is relatively stable. Dalian is currently presenting a 1MC-2SC UC structure composed of one comprehensive main center and two functional sub-centers. The comprehensive main center is the Zhongshan Road UC zone, and the functional sub-centers are the Xinghai Square UC zone and Xi’an Road UC zone. The city-level UC zones are mainly distributed along the axial structure of the framework consisting of Zhongshan Road and Renmin Road (Fig. 2.25). In 2008, the Dalian UC structure covered a total land area of 12.7 km2 and a gross building area of 20.790 million m2 . The Zhongshan Road UC zone was established in 1899 during the construction of the Russian colony under Tsarist Russia. After its liberation, the area underwent

Fig. 2.25 Distribution of the UC structure in Dalian

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure …

123

many years of development with the full support of the municipal government. The Zhongshan Road UC zone gradually developed into a comprehensive main center that brought together finance, trade, commerce, culture and entertainment, administration, residential areas, and other urban functions. The total land area of this UC zone is 9.4 km2 , and its gross building area is 16.023 million m2 . (5) The UC structure of Xiamen Xiamen is a sub-provincial municipality, and one of the first five Special Economic Zones in China to open its doors to the outside world. It wields provincial-level authority in economic management and local legislative power. It is also one of the most livable cities in China and an important gateway to the southeast coast of China. As of the end of 2008, its urban population was approximately 1.737 million, and regional GDP was approximately RMB 156.0 billion yuan. The development of the Xiamen UC structure is relatively dispersed due to the constraints of its complex topography, and it is currently at the 1MC-MSC stage of development. Xiamen is currently presenting a 1MC-2SC UC structure composed of one comprehensive main center and two functional sub-centers. The comprehensive main center is the Lianban UC zone, while the two functional sub-centers are the Yundang Lake UC zone and the Zhongshan Road UC zone. The city-level UC zones are mainly distributed within the “two horizontal, one vertical” structure consisting of the Hubin North Road, Jiahe-Xiahe Road, and Hubin West-Siming Road (Fig. 2.26). The UC structure covers a total land area of 4.3 km2 and a gross building area of 8.61 million m2 . The main center of Xiamen is, historically, the Zhongshan Road UC zone. However, due to the adjustment of business formats and restrictions imposed by cultural preservation in recent years, the Zhongshan Road UC zone has been declining gradually. The Lianban UC zone, on the other hand, has more complete commercial facilities and has taken advantage of transportation hubs such as the Xiamen Railway Station, which has enabled its rapid rise as a comprehensive main center for business and commerce in Xiamen. The total land area of the Lianban UC zone is 1.8 km2 , and its gross building area is 4.22 million m2 . It serves as the main commercial and business center of Xiamen.

2.2.4 1MC Structure Cities with a UC structure at the 1MC stage of development tend to have relatively small service industries and urban populations. Examples are Incheon and Daejeon in South Korea and Fuzhou, Xuzhou, and Yancheng in China. The basic profile of each city is shown below (Table 2.7). It can be seen from the table that the cities with a population of less than 3 million have a greater tendency to exhibit the 1MC structural form.

124

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.26 Distribution of the UC structure in Xiamen

(1) The UC Structure of Daejeon Daejeon is located in the central area of South Korea, and 170 km south of Seoul. It is the capital of the Chungcheongnam Province, the largest urban and transportation hub in central South Korea, and one of the six largest cities in the country. It was upgraded to Daejeon City in 1949. By 2003, the city had reached an urban area of 539.79 km2 and a population size of 1.44 million. As the second-largest administrative capital of South Korea, a large number of government agencies are aggregated here. Daejeon is also a science and technology hub, and about 70 leading research institutes have been established in the Daedoek Innopolis. Therefore, Daejeon is also known as the “Silicon Valley of South Korea.” As the seat of the World Technopolis Association (WTA) Office, which is made up of the Daedoek Innopolis and 27 other technopolises at home and abroad, this city of science and technology has achieved remarkable progress. The Taejeon Expo’93 that took place in the Expo Science Park was a

271.1

149.5

203.5

186.7

184.4

161.9

Incheon

Daejeon

Hefei

Fuzhou

Xuzhou

Yancheng

Prefecture-level city

Prefecture-level city

Prefecture-level city

Prefecture-level city

–

–

Administrative level

1862

1160

1043

839

539.8

986

Area of municipal districts (km2 )

125

187

177

280

–

–

Built-up area (km2 )

458.8

1039.2

1111.6

1225.4

1700.0

1531.1

Municipal GDP (RMB 100 million)

180.4

371.5

826.6

516.2

–

–

Total municipal retail sales of consumer goods (RMB 100 million)

108.7

400.2

1176.2

434.3

696.7

257.8

Construction scale (10,000 m2 )

72.5

235.9

410.6

197.3

523.9

228.6

Land use scale (ha)

*Source Data for Chinese cities were taken from the China Statistical Yearbook 2009 released by the National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2010, Beijing: China Statistics Press. Data for Incheon were taken from http://chinese.incheon.go.kr/. Data for Daejeon were taken from http://www.daejeon.go.kr/language/ chinese/index.html

Municipal population (10,000 individuals)

Name of city

Table 2.7 Comprehensive information on 1MC case cities

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure … 125

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

world-class exposition, in which Daejeon used its identity as the owner of high-tech and attracted 14 million tech enthusiasts to visit through interactive exhibitions. In 2010, Daejeon was at the 1MC stage of development, and its comprehensive main center was the Dunsan-dong UC zone. The Daejeon city-level UC structure covered a total land area of 4.36 km2 , and a gross building area of 6.9671 m2 (Fig. 2.27). The Dunsan-dong UC zone mainly stemmed from the Daejeon administrative center. As the city expanded in size, the UC zone also showed similar expansion and upgrading in size and business formats. With the expansion of First Central Road, Second Central Road, and Daejeon West Road, this UC zone gradually developed into a comprehensive public service hub for Daejoen. The total land area of this UC zone is 4.36 km2 , and its gross building area is 6.9671 million m2 . (2) The UC Structure of Incheon Incheon, known as Jemulpo during the Joseon Dynasty, is located in the centralwestern part of the Korean Peninsula, 28 km west of Seoul. It covers an area of 958 km2 and has a population of 2.56 million. It is the second-largest entrepôt city in South Korea. Incheon used to be an entrepôt with China, and it made its name in the 19th century when ships from Germany, France, and the US demanded the opening of ports in this area for berthing. Incheon has been famed as a city of light industry since olden times, and it has now developed into a coastal industrial city with advanced industries for automobile, ironmaking, further, glassware, etc. Furthermore, it has also made great leaps in development with respect to finance, as well as infrastructure such as culture, communications, teaching and research,

Fig. 2.27 Distribution of the UC structure in Daejeon

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure …

127

and transportation. Due to historical reasons, Incheon’s architecture is brimming with foreign flair, including stone-paved ramps, steeple churches, Chinese restaurant signs, and ancient upturned eaves. Incheon is surrounded by many islands, including Yeongjong Island, Yeonpyeong Island, and Deokjeok Island, which have abundant seaside attractions and unique harbor conditions. In 2010, Incheon was at the 1MC stage of development, and its comprehensive main center was the Guwol 1(il)-dong UC zone. The Incheon city-level UC structure covered a total land area of 1.84 km2 and a gross building area of 2.578 million m2 (Fig. 2.28). The Guwol 1(il)-dong UC zone is the comprehensive public service hub for Incheon, where a large number of business formats are aggregated, including administration, business offices, retail commerce, leisure, and entertainment. The total land area of this UC zone is 1.84 km2 and its gross building area is 2.578 million m2 .

Fig. 2.28 Distribution of the UC structure in Incheon

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

(3) The UC Structure of Hefei Hefei is an important educational and scientific research base, a modern manufacturing base, and a regional transportation hub in China. It is also one of the key central cities in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. As of the end of 2008, its urban population was approximately 2.035 million (municipal districts), and its regional GDP was approximately RMB 122.54 billion yuan (municipal districts). In 2010, Hefei presented a 1MC UC structure, and its comprehensive main center was the Changjiang Middle Road UC zone (Fig. 2.29).

Fig. 2.29 Distribution of the UC structure in Hefei

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure …

129

The spatial structure of the Changjiang Middle Road UC zone follows the Changjiang Middle Road as the development axis, forming a comprehensive main center that brings together finance, trade, commerce, culture and entertainment, and other urban functions. The total land area of this UC zone is 2.4 km2 , and its gross building area is 4.343 million m2 . (4) The UC Structure of Fuzhou Fuzhou is the capital of Fujian Province, as well as a famous, national historical, and cultural city. It is also one of the key economic centers in the southeast coast of China and a modern port city. As of the end of 2008, its urban population was approximately 1.867 million (municipal districts), and its regional GDP was approximately RMB 111.16 billion yuan (municipal districts). Fuzhou currently presents a 1MC UC structure, and its comprehensive main center is the Wuyi Road UC zone (Fig. 2.30). Wusi Road and Wuyi Road have always been the venues for economic, trade and financial agglomeration in Fuzhou. The UC zone follows a linear vertical development along these two roads and horizontally along Hualin Road, Hudong Road, and East Street, to form a “丰”-shaped pattern of development. As it continued to expand in scale, this UC zone gradually developed into a comprehensive main center that brought together finance, trade, commerce, culture and entertainment, and other urban functions. The total land area of this UC zone is 4.5 km2 and its gross building area is 11.762 million m2 .

Fig. 2.30 Distribution of the UC structure in Fuzhou

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.31 Distribution of the UC structure in Xuzhou

(5) The UC Structure of Xuzhou Xuzhou is the core city of the Xuzhou Metropolitan Circle under the priority planning and construction of Jiangsu Province in China. It is the intersection point between Beijing-Shanghai Railway and Longhai Railway, a key hub for land and sea transport, as well as a crucial “crossroad” for east-west and north-south economic connections. As of the end of 2008, its urban population was approximately 1.844 million (municipal districts), and its regional GDP was approximately RMB 103.92 billion yuan (municipal districts). Xuzhou currently presents a 1MC UC structure, and its comprehensive main center is the Pengcheng Square UC zone (Fig. 2.31). The Pengcheng Square UC zone is located in the core area of the city. The UC zone takes Pengcheng Square as its spatial core, while following Huaihai Road and Zhongshan Road as the development axes. A variety of public service formats are aggregated within this UC zone, including the administrative functions represented by the municipal government, the commercial trade functions in front of the railway station, the business and commercial functions of Pengcheng Square, and the traditional commercial functions of the Xima Terrace node, which together form the city’s only comprehensive UC zone. The total land area of this UC zone is 2.8 km2 and the gross building area is 4.002 million m2 . (6) The UC Structure of Yancheng Yancheng has excellent deep-water ports and abundant natural resources. It is one of the three central cities along the coast of Jiangsu. As of the end of 2008, its urban population was approximately 1.619 million (municipal districts), and its regional GDP was approximately RMB 45.88 billion yuan (municipal districts). Yancheng

2.2 Investigation of the UC Structure …

131

Fig. 2.32 Distribution of the UC structure in Yancheng

currently presents a 1MC UC structure, and its comprehensive main center is the Jianjun Middle Road UC zone (Fig. 2.32). The spatial structure of its main center follows an outward expansion along the development axes of Jianjun Middle Road and Jiefang Road. The spatial scale of its UC zone is relatively the same due to several limitations, including population size and industrial scale. The total land area of this UC zone is 0.85 km2 , and its gross building area is 1.087 million m2 .

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure Urban development occurs in distinct stages, and each stage will exhibit different urban spatial forms. As one of the key structural frameworks of urban spatial form, the UC structure reflects the characteristics of the different stages from the perspective of public facilities. Throughout the evolution of the UC structure, from the birth of the early UC zone to the present, its spatial structure will undergo a stepwise development trajectory from a 1MC to a 1MC-MSC, 2MC-MSC, and finally an MMC structure. The higher the tier of development, the more functions the UC

132

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

structure will undertake, and the greater the radiation range of its services within the region. By analyzing typical cases of UC structures at each hierarchical tier and studying the thresholds for upgrading to a higher tier, we will be able to establish threshold data standards for evaluating the upgrading process of the UC structure (Fig. 2.33). As the MMC structure is the most advanced form of development in the megacity UC structure, there are only a handful of top-tier cities in the world, such as Tokyo and London, that have attained this structure, which makes it difficult to generalize universal patterns. Therefore, we will not be discussing the upgrade thresholds for the MMC UC structure for the time being.

Fig. 2.33 Case selection for the upgrade thresholds of the UC structure

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

133

2.3.1 Upgrade Thresholds from a 1MC to a 1MC-MSC UC Structure The UC structure is a change in the urban spatial structure brought about by urban development, which leads to the expansion of the urban population and land use area, as well as the diversification of the public service functions undertaken. With the rapid development of the city’s tertiary industry, lifestyle service industries, such as retail commerce, catering and entertainment, and cultural services, as well as knowledgebased service industries, such as finance and securities, trade offices, and financial and legal consultancies, will gradually agglomerate within UC zones. This will cause the agglomeration scale and tier of major UC zones to enter a brand new stage. The city center will begin splitting from the single UC zone and undergo reorganization to form multiple UC zones of different functions and tiers, while the interactions among the UC zones will give rise to the UC spatial structure. The formation of the UC structure will generally undergo the following development process: The continuous aggregation of commercial trade and public activities in the city will give rise to the UC zone, which will become an important space for public activities and exchanges within the city. With the accelerating pace of industrialization, there will be a sharp rise in urban population and land use area. As the UC zone gradually expands in size and undergoes industrial upgrading, it will be constrained by factors such as infrastructure and radiation range during the course of its development. As mentioned in Sect. 1.3 of the previous chapter, the driving mechanism of UC structure development is composed of industrial economic promotion (internal drivers), land space support (basic guarantee), and social policy regulation (external drivers). Endogenous resources, such as geographical location, urban population, natural resources, public policy guidance, cultural background, and market breadth, will strengthen the comparative advantages of the UC zone in the agglomeration of public facilities, thus enabling it to become the core competitive force of the UC structure. Therefore, during the formation of the UC structure, urban population size and land use area are key facilitatory factors in the fission of the 1MC, while historical and cultural preservation and administrative division are key dividing factors in this process. For a city to be upgraded from a 1MC to a 1MC-MSC UC structure, it must first cross three types of thresholds, namely urban thresholds, economic thresholds, and spatial thresholds, which implies the involvement of multiple factors. Based on the collation and analysis of relevant data, these factors include urban area population, urban built-up area, urban GDP, scale of tertiary industry, and so on (Fig. 2.34). (1) Size Thresholds Statistical analysis was performed on the various factors of city size, which included the total population, population density, land use area, and built-up area within the city or urban area. The correlational research indicated that there are two factors related to the upgrading of the UC structure, namely population size and construction land area (Table 2.8).

134

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.34 Analysis of the thresholds for the first upgrade in UC structure

Table 2.8 Correlation analysis of single factors for the size thresholds of the first upgrade Tier of Population Population Population Population Urban Urban UC of city of urban density density area built-up structure proper area (city (urban area proper) area) Pearson correlation

1

Significance (two-tailed) N

23

0.145

0.545a

−0.239a

0.136

0.508

0.007

0.272

0.536

0.062

0.002

23

23

23

23

23

23

0.395 0.601a

a significant correlation at the 0.01 level (two-tailed); b Significant correlation at the 0.05 level (two-

tailed)

– Population size. The increase in population size is an antecedent factor in urban development. The growth in urban population will facilitate the expansion of consumer demand and ultimately promote economic growth. Economic growth will be accompanied by improvement in the income levels of workers in the city,

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

135

which will raise the overall consumption demand of society, thus stimulating further economic growth. This, in turn, will promote the increased demand for tertiary industries, which will help the city to maintain a larger market size. Higher market demand will generate higher supply, which will cause the enterprises within the city to increase their production scale, while also giving rise to more new enterprises to meet the market demand. The increase in population size increases not only the economic demand but also the total land use area for various public service facilities to meet the daily needs of the population throughout the city. The UC zone is the main agglomeration site for urban public service facilities. As the demand for such facilities increases, the area of the UC zone will continue to expand, and with the extension of spatial distances, the marginal benefits of concentric expansion will decrease. When the agglomeration of public service facilities exceeds a certain limit, the returns will not increase with increasing input. Due to the action of market mechanisms, material factors will flow toward places with higher economic benefits. At this point, out of consideration for economic costs and benefits, the city will develop a new UC zone that is separate from the original comprehensive main center to satisfy the demands of urban development (Table 2.9). [Population size threshold]: The urban area population size threshold for upgrading a city from a 1MC to a 1MC-MSC UC structure is between 1.8 and 2.2 million. The UC zone should be the main aggregation site for public service facilities. Judging from the indicators of the UC zones in the case cities, the area of single UC zones is smaller than 10 km2 . Based on the theories of comparative cost advantage and economies of scale, an overly large UC zone will lead to diseconomies of agglomeration, and market competition will guide its development toward multiple functional sub-UC zones (Fig. 2.35). Due to topographical limitations, mountainous cities would have started with higher population densities than plain cities, and also slightly lower indicators of public facilities per capita. Therefore, in the upgrading of the UC structure, mountainous cities have a higher threshold for population size. For example, the urban area population of Guiyang is 2.188 million, which is close to the upper limit of the population threshold. However, it is currently still a 1MC city, and a large number of its public service facilities are concentrated within the Dashizi UC zone, with no signs of forming a sub-center (Fig. 2.36). – Construction land area. The formation of a new UC zone requires the city to reach a certain size. The correlation analysis indicates that an urban built-up area has a highly significant correlation (0.601) with the first upgrade in the UC structure. There are three reasons why the expansion of the urban spatial scale is conducive for the formation of a new UC zone. The first reason is that the city will incorporate areas suitable for the development of UC zones during the course of urban expansion. Beyond the existing scope of the urban built-up area, there exist certain areas with good locations that have the potential of becoming the center of surrounding economic and social activities. As the city expands in

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Table 2.9 Data related to urban population for the first upgrade UC structure

City

Urban area population (10,000)

Population density (city proper)

Population density (urban area) (individuals/km2 )

1MC

Jiujiang

63.8

867.43

858.68

Kaifeng

85.38

818.03

2,358.56

1MC-MSC

Wuhu

104.92

694.95

1,960.64

Yancheng

162.55

618.11

1,211.06

Fuzhou

187.33

746.1

1,605.34

Xuzhou

186.22

850.6

910.11

Guiyang

218.79

456.91

2,942.46

Luoyang

160.07

457.16

2,942.46

Xiamen

177

953.21

1,390.8

Ningbo

221.83

304.83

1,082.51

Nanchang

222.5

411.77

1,796.07

Suzhou

240.14

488.23

2,523.04

Changsha

240.95

551.31

2,523.04

Kunming

250.24

254.1

609.6

Qingdao

275.47

693.7

1,373.3

Taiyuan

285.16

524.37

1,953.15

Dalian

302.01

465.09

1,250.56

Jinan

348.24

697.36

2,486.05

Shenyang

512.23

552.04

1,475.74

Chengdu

520.86

940.21

2,398.07

Nanjing

545.97

956.81

1,155.98

Xi’an

561.58

773.32

1,567.78

size, such land will be used for urban construction, and its location advantage will become increasingly prominent in the course of continuous development, eventually forming a UC zone within the city. The second is that the continuous expansion of the urban area will increase the travel costs of urban residents for accessing the original UC zone, which will reduce its economic benefits. Under the effects of market regulation, new public facilities will be more inclined to agglomerate into a new UC zone to reduce the travel costs of urban residents and increase economic benefits. The third is the constraints of the radiation range of the UC zone. Since the radiation area of the UC zone is limited, when the urban area reaches a certain size, the radiation range of a single point will not be able to cover most of the central urban area. At that point, the city will select a new UC zone within a certain distance beyond the radiation range of the original UC zone in order to meet the daily needs of the population in the urban area.

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

137

Fig. 2.35 Comparison between the UC structure and urban area population size of typical cities in 2011

Fig. 2.36 Distribution of the UC structure in Guiyang

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

[Construction land area threshold]: The spatial size threshold for upgrading a city from a 1MC to a 1MC-MSC UC structure is between 180 km2 and 200 km2 (Fig. 2.37). If given predetermined road network structure, ratio of urban road area, and main mode of urban transportation, the increase in city size will lead to a structural increase in the total traffic flow of urban residents, while the degree of urban road congestion will deteriorate in proportion to the absolute rate at which city size increases. When the urban built-up area reaches the first upgrade threshold, based on the shortest path, the radius of its range would have reached at least 7 or 8 km, which has exceeded the 15-min living circle (Fig. 2.38). In the case of only a single UC zone, its high development intensity and dense crowd flows will impose high requirements for the allocation of transportation service facilities. However, land scarcity implies that it will be difficult to construct large-scale transportation facilities and stations, thus affecting the rapid distribution of the UC zone. In addition, the excessive traffic load of the UC zone will lead to traffic congestion, which will increase the travel costs and travel time of users, thus causing the decline of the many economic and social functions of the UC zone. The increase in travel costs will prompt the city to create a new UC zone, thereby reducing travel costs and increasing economic benefits. As shown in Fig. 2.39, the increase in city size will lead to a continuous rise in travel costs and economic benefits. When the urban built-up area reaches point B, the travel costs will offset the economic benefits brought about by agglomeration. Further expansion will cause travel costs to be greater than the economic benefits, leading to the diseconomy of urban development. Hence, a new UC zone is needed to relieve the pressure placed on urban transportation. In the development process of the UC zone, transportation, economic, social, and other factors will cause imbalances in its development, and the inequality of

Fig. 2.37 Statistics on the UC structure and urban built-up area of typical cities in 2011

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

139

Fig. 2.38 Relationship between the urban built-up area and the living circle of transportation

Fig. 2.39 Relationship between travel costs and economic benefits

growth within the region is an inevitable byproduct and condition of growth itself. The eccentric development of the central region will gradually be reinforced with the expansion, which may ultimately cause the UC zone to split into two or more UC zones (Fig. 2.40). A single center has limited public service capabilities, and its service range is constrained by its location. With the expansion of the city, the radiation capacity of the single center will struggle to meet the demands of all areas within the city, causing an imbalance in the distribution of public service facilities. This will have an impact on the development of the city, and the fair provision of services to all users throughout the city. The oldest UC zone in Shenyang was Middle Street in Shenhe District. It had gradually taken shape as the commercial node of Shenyang during the Ming Dynasty, and it later remained as the UC zone of Shenyang. As the city developed, the urban area in Shenyang continued to expand. In its many years of urban development, the Shenyang urban area has formed a main north-south axis

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.40 Schematic diagram of the fission of the UC zone

centered on Qingnian Main Street and an east-west axis along the Shifu Avenue. The main public construction projects in the urban area have all been arranged along the north-south direction of Qingnian Main Street, and the main commercial projects have been arranged along Shifu Avenue, whereas Middle Street deviates from the geometric center of the city. Due to the influence of its service radius, this UC zone can only radiate the eastern part of the urban area, and it is unable to cover the new center of urban development. Therefore, under the relevant factors of market mechanisms and government regulation, the Zhongshan-Huigong UC zone was formed. Given its unique location (located at the city’s geometric center and near the intersection of the development axes), it has surpassed Middle Street as the comprehensive main center of the city, and Middle Street has become a functional sub-center dominated by traditional commerce. (2) Economic Thresholds A correlation analysis was performed on the single factors that may affect the economic thresholds. These included GDP and GDP per capita of the city/urban area, output value and ratio of the tertiary industry in the city/urban area, and the population size and ratio employed by the tertiary industry. The analysis indicates that the economic thresholds include GDP and the scale of the tertiary industry (Table 2.10). – GDP. GDP is a concrete manifestation of the urban agglomeration effect. In general, the levels of economic development and urbanization tend to present the same direction of change, as a high level of economic development usually needs to be complemented by a large urban population, while a high level of urbanization will, in turn, promote a higher level of economic development. Thus, the effect of GDP on the upgrading of the UC structure is mainly reflected in the adjustment of the functional structure of the UC zone. More specifically, its impact is reflected in the consumption of urban residents, and the attractiveness of the city to corporate headquarters and other business office land use (Fig. 2.41). Relevant research has shown that rapid economic growth has a significant positive correlation with the continuous expansion in the scale of commercial centers.

a Significant

23

23

0.003

0.596a

GDP (urban area)

22

0.050

0.422

GDP per capita (RMB)

23

0.002

0.622a

23

0.006

0.559a

Employed Population population in employed by the urban area the tertiary industry

23

23

0.001

0.629a

−0.167 0.446

Output value of the tertiary industry

Ratio of population employed by the tertiary industry

correlation at the 0.01 level (two-tailed); b Significant correlation at the 0.05 level (two-tailed)

23

23

N

0.005

0.567a

0.556a

0.006

1

GDP per capita

GDP

Significance (two-tailed)

Pearson correlation

Tier of UC structure

Table 2.10 Correlation analysis of factors affecting the economic thresholds of the first upgrade

23

0.330

0.213

Output value of the tertiary industry in the urban area

23

0.044

423b

Ratio of the tertiary industry in the urban area

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure 141

142

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.41 Distribution of the UC structure in Shenyang

Economic growth will lead to an increase in residents’ income levels, which will also raise their level of consumption. Let us look at the relationship between GDP growth and the growth in the total retail sales of consumer goods in Nanjing between 2000 and 2009. During this period, the consumption behavior of consumers was changing constantly; hence, the city was more likely to produce different types of UC zones to meet this ever-changing consumer demand. GDP growth enhanced the comprehensive competitiveness of the city to a certain extent, enabling it to attract a large number of financial and business institutions, various types of consulting service institutions, and numerous management headquarters of production enterprises. The influx of these enterprises brought a series of jobs, which attracted a large number of workers, while also producing a series of derivative consumption and certain consumption chains, thus promoting the fission of the original UC zone and the formation of the new UC zone (Fig. 2.42). [GDP threshold]: When a city is upgraded from a 1MC to a 1MC-MSC structure, its urban area GDP must reach a threshold of approximately RMB 110-120 billion (Fig. 2.43). The data show that when the GDP of most urban areas exceeds RMB 110 billion, there is sufficient economic strength and public service demand for them to surpass the original UC zone and construct a new UC zone in the new town, thus crossing the threshold for the 1MC. The growth of GDP positively correlates with the total retail sales of consumer goods, and the direct reasons for the construction of a UC zone are related to the consumption demands of urban residents. First, the increase in the overall purchasing power and consumption demands of urban residents will lead to an expansion in the number of urban retail outlets and be able to support a larger scale of commercial service facilities. Second, socioeconomic development and the increase in residents’ income will raise their consumption level and

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

143

Fig. 2.42 Relationship between GDP growth and the growth in the total retail sales of consumer goods in Nanjing (2000–2009)

Fig. 2.43 Statistics on the UC structure and urban area GDP of typical cities in 2011

demand, while also causing changes to their consumption structure. This will lead to constant changes in the composition ratio of various functions in the UC zone. In addition, there will be constant changes in residents’ consumption behavior, such as the frequency and method of shopping, while the diversification and individualization of consumption demand will lead to continuous changes in the UC zone. When the original UC zone is no longer able to satisfy these different consumption demands,

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then, new functional and group-specific UC zones will need to be constructed to meet the ever-changing consumption demands of the urban residents. Using Nanjing as an example (Table 2.11), the consumption ratio of food and clothing has dropped significantly over the past ten years, whereas that of healthcare, transportation and communications, culture, education and entertainment, and residential consumption has increased significantly as a share of total consumption expenditures. The changes in the consumption of urban residents have directly affected the functional composition of the UC zone. For example, with the increasing ratio of culture, education, and entertainment consumption and healthcare consumption, there has also been a gradual increase in the proportions of these two types of land uses. Furthermore, the changes in the focus of residents’ consumption have prompted the far-reaching fission of the UC zone, while the diversification and individualization of consumption demand have led to the development of specialty shops and characteristic commercial streets. In addition, as people’s consumption behaviors showed an increasing tendency toward enjoyment and one-stop shopping, they began placing a greater emphasis on the environment of the consumption venue, requiring recreational and comprehensive spatial environments and service functions. This has further promoted the developmental fission of the original UC zone. GDP growth will enhance the competitiveness of the city’s economy and increase its attractiveness to production and lifestyle service industries. The UC zone will attract a growing number of service institutions, and the massive consumer population will generate derivative consumption. The increase in the demand for public service facilities will be accompanied by a large volume of high-end consumption, group consumption, and multi-category consumption. The UC zone must provide the corresponding public service facilities, while the wide range of public service facilities will also form a series of consumption chains, thus promoting the creation of additional UC zones. Furthermore, a large number of agglomerated business and financial industries will avoid the negative effects of agglomeration in the original UC zone and opt to establish new UC zones with higher economic benefits. Based on Table 2.11 Statistics on the consumption of Nanjing urban residents in major years Food Clothing Household Healthcare Transportation Entertainment, Residential (%) (%) goods (%) (%) and culture, and (%) communication education (%) (%) 1980 56.31 14.13

9.96

0.66

1.41

6.41

3.53

1985 55.39 15.00

10.84

0.63

1.19

10.32

2.24

1990 60.06 11.64

9.82

0.50

0.78

6.42

3.16

1995 53.39 12.88

8.18

1.59

4.06

9.15

6.56

2000 39.98 8.41

10.36

5.39

7.09

13.66

9.57

2005 36.06 8.58

7.11

7.58

12.45

16.30

8.72

2009 36.70 8.35

7.39

8.40

13.21

15.85

6.55

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

145

our city survey data, the sub-centers of most 1MC-MSC cities undertake commercial and business functions (Table 2.12). – Scale of the tertiary industry. The tertiary industry is the subsequent driving force of urbanization, and the status of the urban industrial structure fosters the growth of urban space. The development of the UC structure is the result of an urban economic model centered on the tertiary industry. The scale of modern service industries as a share of the tertiary industry is a direct reflection of the city’s level of modernization. On the other hand, the share of the finance industry, real estate industry, information services industry, conventions and exhibitions, and international business industry within the tertiary industry is a direct reflection of the development level and development trend of the UC structure. The ratio relationship among the three industries, the composition ratio and exportoriented economic status of the tertiary industry, and other conditions of economic development will determine the expansion needs of the UC zone and the pattern of spatial expansion to a certain extent. The analysis of industrial structure here includes indicators such as the output value of the tertiary industry within the urban area, the output value of the tertiary industry as a share of total GDP, the population employed by the tertiary industry, etc. The urban statistical data show that when a city is upgraded from a 1MC to a 1MCMSC UC structure, the GDP of its urban tertiary industry must reach the threshold of at least RMB 50 billion. The scatter plot shows that for cities with the 1MC-MSC UC structure, the share of the tertiary industry output value is concentrated within the range of 40–60%, while that of the 1MC and 2MC-MSC structures is more dispersed and does not follow a clear pattern. The population employed by the tertiary industry significantly correlates with the upgrading of the UC structure (significant correlation at the 0.01 level). We can see from the scatterplot that the population employed by the tertiary industry shows a stepwise distribution following the different tiers of the UC structure. The line graph indicates that the upgrade threshold for the population employed by the tertiary industry is approximately 150,000. [Industrial structure threshold]: When a city is upgraded from a 1MC to a 1MC-MSC structure, the GDP of its urban tertiary industry must reach a threshold of at least RMB 50 billion, the share of the tertiary industry output value in the urban area must reach 45%, and the population employed by the tertiary industry in the urban area must reach 150,000 (Figs. 2.44 and 2.45). For example, Xuzhou is a 1MC city with a population size, construction land area, and GDP that have crossed the thresholds for upgrading to a 1MC-MSC structure. However, the share of its tertiary industry output value has always been relatively low, which has prevented its UC structure from being upgraded to a 1MC-MSC structure.

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Table 2.12 Functions of UC zones in each city City

City center

Type of functions

Sub-center

Type of functions

Taiyuan

Liugang

Business, commerce, administration

Changfeng Road

Business

Ningbo

Tianyi Square

Business, commerce, administration

Jiangdong

Business, commerce

Jinan

Yuquan Road

Business, commerce, administration

Olympics Sports Center

Sports, administration

Shenyang

Zhongshan-Huigong

Business, commerce, administration

Middle Street

Traditional commerce

Luoyang

New District

Business, administration, culture

Wangfujing

Business, commerce

Wanda

Business, hotels

Kunming

Jinma Biji

Business, commerce, administration

Xiaoximen

Commerce

Beijing Road

Commerce

Business, commerce, administration

Shengli Road

Commerce

Honggutan

Business, administration

Business, commerce

Gulou

Traditional commerce

Tianjin Railway Station

Commerce, hotels

Business, commerce, hotels

Hehuachi

Commerce, markets

Jinli

Business, commerce

Nanchang

Tianjin

Chengdu

Bayi Square

Xiaobailou

Chunxi Road

Dalian

Zhongshan Square

Business, commerce, administration

Xi’an Road

Business, commerce

Xinghai Square

Business

Xiamen

Lianban

Business, commerce

Yundang Lake

Business

Zhongshan Road

Traditional commerce

Business, commerce, hotels

North Economic Development Zone

Business

High-tech Zone

Business

Xi’an

Zhonggulou

(continued)

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

147

Table 2.12 (continued) City

City center

Type of functions

Sub-center

Type of functions

Changsha

Wuyi Square

Business, commerce, culture

Railway Station

Business, commerce, hotels

Hexi

Administration, culture, education, and scientific research

Qingdao

Hong Kong Middle Road

Commerce, business, administration

Zhongshan Road

Traditional commerce

Taidong

Commerce

Suzhou

Old Town

Business, commerce, administration

Jinjihu East

Business, commerce

Jinjihu West

Business, commerce

Business, commerce, finance

Hunan Road

Business, commerce

Confucius Temple

Traditional commerce

Hexi

Business, finance, conventions

Nanjing

Xinjiekou

Fig. 2.44 Statistics on the UC structure and urban area output value of the tertiary industry of typical cities in 2011

(3) Spatial Thresholds The development of the UC structure is always built upon certain constraints. The Polish economist Paul Marsh proposed in 1963 that certain constraining factors will be encountered during the urban spatial expansion, which will hinder urban growth,

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.45 Statistics on the UC structure and the urban population employed by the tertiary industry of typical cities in 2011

and a leapfrog surge is needed to overcome these constraints. These factors that hinder urban spatial expansion can be regarded as a type of friction, and spatial expansion will naturally proceed in the direction of the least resistance. This theory is also applicable to the formation of the UC structure. The development of the UC zone will be constrained by certain natural or artificial factors, and a large once-off sum of threshold costs must be invested to overcome these types of barriers. It is only after these barriers have been broken that the unit cost of urban construction will be roughly consistent with its original costs. When cities are unable to afford these high threshold costs but have no choice but to expand its UC zone to support the everincreasing city size, urban public facilities will avoid such barriers and agglomerate in areas with the appropriate land prices and locations, thus developing new UC zones to meet the city’s needs. Therefore, spatial division is also a key impact factor for cities to be upgraded from a 1MC structure to a 1MC-MSC UC structure. – Natural factors. The environment in which the city is based has a major impact on the direction and layout structure of its spatial expansion and is the foundational carrier influencing its spatial expansion. Natural factors include mountains, rivers, and areas with special topography. With the development of the UC zone comes its gradual expansion in size. When its development boundary approaches the division of natural geographical barriers, the scale of its expansion will be further restricted. This is an impassable threshold in the development of the UC structure, and the UC zone will only be able to develop within this scope. With the further agglomeration and upgrading of service facilities, there will come a point when the UC zone is no longer able to meet the needs of the city, and a new UC zone that avoids these natural factors will be cultivated. Therefore, natural environmental factors will restrict the development of the original main center and promote the generation of new centers (Fig. 2.46).

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

149

Fig. 2.46 Schematic diagram of natural division thresholds in UC structure development

Qingdao is a city that is greatly influenced by natural factors. The oldest UC zone in Qingdao is the Zhongshan Road commercial UC zone (1980s). During that time, the Qingdao urban area was only 92 km2 , and its urban pattern was one of “residence in the south, industry in the north.” The Zhongshan Road commercial zone is located in the heart of the Qingdao old town and was the commercial, administrative, cultural, and religious hub of the city at that time. In the 1990s, Qingdao became the main import and export port of major trading countries such as Japan and South Korea. Thus, the city underwent rapid development, which led to surges in the urban population and various types of buildings, especially residential buildings. This lead to the overcrowding of urban space and caused the inadequate size of the original UC zone to cope with the needs of the city. The original UC zone was surrounded by water bodies to the west, south, and north and by Mount Lao to the east. Hence, there was no construction land available for further expansion. To sustain the continued development of the city, Qingdao’s city center shifted eastward and formed an administrative hub near Hong Kong Middle Road, and the original Zhongshan Road UC zone became a commercial, tourism, and religious hub. During the eastward migration of the city center, the new businesses quickly began to agglomerate along Hong Kong Middle Road. Owing to the excellent environmental quality and administrative factor of Hong Kong Middle Road, a large number of major corporate headquarters and international financial institutions were attracted to the area, which drove its continuous development, and gradually formed a new comprehensive center in Qingdao. In the subsequent development of the city, the over-mixing of functions in the Hong Kong Road UC zone led to increased building density and population density, which caused immense pressure on the traffic environment. However, the Hong Kong Middle Road UC zone was also affected by its environment, with coastal scenic areas to the east and the Shilaoren tourist resort area to the west; hence, its expansion in size was again restricted. At this point, Qingdao

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.47 Distribution of the UC structure in Qingdao

once more avoided these natural constraints and re-developed a commercial center in the north, the Taidong sub-center, which is one of its existing sub-centers. This subcenter is dominated by commerce, mainly serving the production units and economic institutions in the city and the region (Fig. 2.47). – Historical and cultural preservation zones. A good UC structure morphology is one that is adapted to the sociocultural structure, social life, and social aesthetic psychology. Any UC zone morphology is not merely a spatial concept, but it is formed through the long-term accumulation and action of culture. During the spatial expansion of UC zones, there will be inevitable conflicts between the functional adjustment of spatial land use and the preservation of historical and cultural resources. The development intensity and density of the UC zone may have significant clashes with the preservation of the old city, while historical and cultural preservation zones are a key cultural emblem of the city that has immense value. Therefore, when the development of the UC zone begins to threaten historical and cultural preservation zones, the scale, intensity, and density of the former will all be strictly limited, which will hinder its rapid development. Therefore, the only option would be to establish a new center. Using Luoyang as an example, its population size, spatial scale, economic level, and other relevant data have yet to reach the upgrade thresholds for its UC structure, but its UC structure follows the 1MC-2SC model (Fig. 2.48). The most important

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

151

Fig. 2.48 Distribution of the UC structure in Luoyang

reason for this is the spatial division caused by historical and cultural preservation zones. The Wangfujing UC zone is the oldest commercial center in Luoyang and is located within the old town area. As the ancient capital of nine dynasties, Luoyang contains a large number of historical and cultural preservation zones. The cluster of large archeological sites in Luoyang covers an area of more than 300 km2 , with more than 100 km2 within the administrative boundaries of the urban area, accounting for one-fifth of the urban administrative area (Fig. 2.49). As Luoyang continued to develop, there was a growing need for the agglomeration of public service facilities, despite its relatively low economic level, urban construction scale, and population size, but this was severely limited by the development scope within the old town area. Under these circumstances, Luoyang avoided the historical and cultural preservation zones to protect these archeological sites and established UC zones in new districts. The development of these new UC zones is driven by administrative centers and business offices, while the original old-town UC zone is dominated by commerce. – Large unit threshold. Due to the historical development of Chinese cities, many of them contain several large-scale work-unit compounds. These large units of land use are different from the land uses of market-oriented public service facilities and are difficult to renovate or demolish through the market mechanism. They include military compounds, state-own enterprise compounds, university compounds, etc. These work units often occupy areas with good urban transportation locations and exert a strong spatial division effect on the development of the UC zone by

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.49 Impact of historical and cultural preservation zones and old-town UC zone development in Luoyang

restricting the development of the original UC zone and facilitating the creation of new centers. During the scale expansion of Xinjiekou, Nanjing, in the twenty years since China’s reform and opening up, the direction of development did not travel northward to join the business and commercial land use in Gulou District. Instead, it skipped over the areas near Gulou and developed the new Hunan Road commercial UC zone as a functional urban sub-center. This is precisely due to the spatial division effects

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

153

of large units (Fig. 2.50). Gulou District, which is situated between the Xinjiekou and Hunan Road UC zones, was identified as the city’s secondary commercial center in the 1980s. However, the Gulou commercial center was surrounded by large-scale medical, cultural, communications, and other work units, especially Gulou Hospital and two centuries-old universities (Southeast University and Nanjing University). These units occupy a large land area, possess a long history, and have a well-known social reputation. The constraining effects of such work-unit land use ultimately prevented the formation of the Gulou commercial center and restricted the northward expansion of the Xinjiekou comprehensive commercial center. As the city developed, there was a growing demand for a commercial agglomeration center in the north. The combined action of the two gave rise to a point of commercial agglomeration at Hunan Road, which gradually grew into an important commercial sub-center with the development of the city (Fig. 2.51). – Administrative boundaries. Administrative boundaries are also a key factor influencing the upgrade of the UC structure. The government of each city directly or indirectly affects the agglomeration form of urban public facilities through spatial planning, land policies, etc., which have a significant impact on the

Fig. 2.50 Distribution of the UC structure in Nanjing

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.51 Impact of large units on UC zone development

development of UC zones. After the reform, district governments gained greater autonomy, and each region regulated and controlled its own administrative areas in accordance with the laws of the market economy, with its self-interests as the starting point. Each administrative district had its own commercial and business agglomeration points. Due to considerations for economic benefits and status within the city, each administrative district that had reached a certain stage of development began striving to promote its commercial agglomeration point as the city’s UC zone. Therefore, administrative boundaries also had a facilitatory effect on the creation of new UC zones. In the 1980s, the UC zone of Nanjing was the Xinjiekou 1MC, which was located at the intersection of Baixia District, Jianye District, Xuanwu District, and Gulou

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

155

District. Each district contained the agglomeration of some public services, while the Qinhuai District did not have a UC zone at that time. Owing to economic considerations, the Qinhuai District needed to enhance the influential power of its commercial agglomeration point; hence, it focused on building the Confucius Temple commercial UC zone. It was also because Xinjiekou was managed by multiple administrative districts that Gulou District needed to establish a UC zone solely under its administrative jurisdiction to gain greater benefits and popularity within the city. Thus, it began to vigorously cultivate the Gulou UC zone. Subsequently, however, its closeness to Xinjiekou and the dividing effects of large units meant that Hunan Road was ultimately developed into an urban sub-center instead (Fig. 2.52). To summarize the above, in the first upgrade of a UC structure from a 1MC to a 1MC-MSC structure, the essential change that occurs within the UC structure relates to the increase in the number of UC zones. When a city is upgraded from a 1MC to a 1MC-MSC UC structure, the key to this process lies with the creation of new UC zones. Furthermore, the UC structure unfolds in a two-dimensional space, and the multiple UC zones together constitute the expansion area of the UC structure. The urban region that is located within the expansion area of the UC structure has greater access to public service facilities in the UC zones and greater land use potential. The greater the expansion area, the more complete the urban development (Fig. 2.53).

Fig. 2.52 Impact of administrative boundaries on the UC structure in Nanjing

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.53 Interim summary of patterns in the first upgrade of a 1MC to a 1MC-MSC structure

2.3.2 Upgrade Thresholds from a 1MC-MSC to a 2MC-MSC UC Structure When a city attains the 1MC-MSC UC structure, its main center occupies a position of absolute dominance. The city exhibits a strong sense of cohesion, while public service resources are highly concentrated and operate with high efficiency. However, as the city continues to develop, imbalances in the service range of the UC zones are more likely to occur due to the limited spatial radiation capacity of the main center. Furthermore, owing to the immense economic value of the main center in the 1MC-MSC UC structure, its size will inevitably increase with the development of the city, and it will begin to display a series of maladies caused by the negative effects of agglomeration. These include threats to urban historical preservation and the ecological environment, problems with the internal transportation and outbound connections of the UC zone, and so on. To solve this series of problems, under the dual regulation of the market and the government, a specific sub-center with advantages in transportation location, service range, land stock, demolition and construction costs, etc. will gradually develop into a main UC zone. The newly emerging main UC zone will break the monopoly of the single main center in the 1MC-MSC structure, thereby further expanding the spatial framework of the urban service industries and

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

157

Fig. 2.54 Analysis of the thresholds for the second upgrade of the UC structure from 1MC-MSC to 2MC-MSC

driving the comprehensivization of functions. Thus, the city will present a dual-core spatial form. The 2MC UC structure is related to rapid urban growth, and it requires considerable economic strength to cross the dual thresholds of urban infrastructure and scale of service facilities. As the new UC zone has gradually evolved from an original sub-center, in addition to the three original types thresholds (urban thresholds, economic thresholds, and spatial thresholds), the ontological structure of the existing UC structure and the technological support during urban development are both key impact factors of the second upgrade in the UC structure. These factors will have an even stronger effect than the three dominant factors of city size, economic level, and industrial structure (Fig. 2.54). (1) Size Thresholds With reference to the threshold elements of the first upgrade, a statistical analysis was performed on the single factors of the size thresholds (urban area population and urban built-up area), while also taking into account the impact of the UC structure area on the second upgrade. The three elements were collated and used to conduct a correlation analysis with the UC structures of typical cities. The results indicate that all three elements had a certain extent of influence on the second upgrade, and the significantly correlated factors included construction land area and UC structure area (Table 2.13). – Population size. When a city is upgraded from a 1MC to a 1MC-MSC UC structure, its population size must cross an important threshold. When its UC structure is upgraded a second time, the correlation analysis suggests that population size still has some impact, but the degree of impact is very low. For example, the UC structure of some cities had already been upgraded from a 1MC-MSC to a 2MCMSC model when their population size was 2.5 million, while other cities still

158

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Table 2.13 Correlation analysis on the single factors for the size thresholds of the second upgrade Tier of UC structure Pearson correlation

1

Significance (two-tailed) N a Significant

24

Urban area population (10,000)

Urban built-up area (km2 )

UC structure area

0.536a

0.638a

0.545a

0.007

0.001

0.006

24

24

24

correlation at the 0.01 level (two-tailed);

b Significant

correlation at the 0.05 level

(two-tailed)

failed to complete the second upgrade of their UC structure even when their population size approached 10 million (Figs. 2.55 and 2.56). Therefore, even though population size still had an impact on the second upgrade, it was no longer a dominant factor (Fig. 2.57). – Construction land area. Based on the SPSS correlation test, the correlation between the urban built-up area and the UC structure was 0.638, which indicates a significant correlation, even exceeding the level of the first upgrade (0.601). Hence, this remains a major impact factor in the upgrading process. Based on the survey data and related graphs, the comparative analysis and summary revealed that the threshold of construction land area for the second upgrade is 400–600 km2 . [Construction land area threshold]: When the UC structure is upgraded from a 1MC-MSC to a 2MC-MSC structure, it must cross a threshold of 400–600 km2 for construction land area.

Fig. 2.55 Statistics on the UC structure and urban population size of typical cities in 2011

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.56 Comparison of the UC structure and urban population size of typical cities in 2011

Fig. 2.57 Statistics on the UC structure and urban built-up area of typical cities in 2011

159

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.58 Schematic diagram of urban built-up area in the second upgrade of the UC structure

When an urban built-area reaches 400 km2 , the smallest average radius of the smallest urban area formed is 12 km. Assuming that the UC zone is located at the urban geographic center (widest radiation range), the population living at the fringe of the built-up area will exceed the 30-minute living circle. Thus, the control exerted by the comprehensive main center over the city will diminish, and it will not be able to satisfy the needs of urban development (Fig. 2.58). This is especially true for cities with a more linear urban form, which are characterized by strong trends of ribbon development, and their UC zones are typically located along the city’s development axis. As the city continues to develop along its main axis, service facilities will aggregate continuously in the areas of development extension to form development nodes and gradually form functional UC zones. Thus, the influence of the original main center on the fringe area of the axial extension line will gradually be weakened. As the urban built-up area continues to expand and reaches the limits of the radiative power from the single main center, the sub-center with the most optimal development conditions among the various functional UC zones will undergo the comprehensivization of its functions to support the development of the city in its axial development zones. Thus, a new comprehensive main center is formed (Fig. 2.59). Shenzhen is a clear example of a linear city. Its built-up area at the start of urban construction was less than 3 km2 , and its earliest UC zone was formed near Renmin

Fig. 2.59 Schematic diagram of the formation of the 2MC UC structure in linear cities

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

161

South Road in Luohu District (marked by the International Foreign Trade Center). After the 1990s, financial institutions, with the Shenzhen Stock Exchange as the core, began to drive the rapid development of the financial industry in Shenzhen and became a pillar industry of the city. The existing built-up area had become saturated; thus, new urban public service facilities could only expand toward the periphery. The Luohu UC zone is located in the eastern part of the city. Due to the limitations of mountains, reservoirs, and special economic zone management lines, the spatial expansion of the UC zone toward the south, north, and east began stagnating, and the city mainly developed westward along the axis of Shennan Boulevard. The gradual stretching of its urban form meant that the city required a new main center. According to the plan, the Shenzhen Municipal Government started to build a new UC zone about 6 km away from the Luohu UC zone and began large-scale development and construction in the late 1990s. Today, the Futian UC zone has become the second main center of Shenzhen, and, together with the Luohu main center in the east, it undertakes the business and commercial service functions of the entire city (Fig. 2.60). – Size of UC structure. When studying the impact of city size on the second upgrade of the UC structure, the total land use area of the existing 1MC-MSC UC structure is also a major factor affecting its upgrade process. The correlation analysis shows that the correlation between UC structure area and UC structure tier is 0.45, while data from a large number of typical cities indicate that the second upgrade of the UC structure involves expansion and development based on the original UC structure. The threshold for expansion is approximately 5–15 km2 . Cities that are more divided by mountains, rivers, and other natural barriers, such as Nanning,

Fig. 2.60 Relationship between the UC structure and urban development in Shenzhen

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.61 Statistics on the total land area of the UC structure in typical cities

Chongqing, and Wuhan, will begin upgrading to a 2MC-MSC structure when its UC structure land use area exceeds 5 km2 , whereas normal cities begin to develop the 2MC-MSC structure when they exceed 15 km2 (Fig. 2.61). [UC structure size threshold]: When the UC structure is upgraded from a 1MC-MSC to a 2MC-MSC structure, the land use area of its existing UC structure must cross a threshold of approximately 15 km2 , but mountainous and river cities that are topographically constrained have a lower threshold of approximately 5 km2 . The land use area of the existing UC structure represents the scale of all the original city-level UC zones. When there are multiple UC zones within a city, the main center exerts dominant control over the UC structure, aggregates the highestend function in the city, and guides the orderly development of the city’s multiple centers. However, the range of control within the 1MC-MSC UC structure is limited. When the development area of the UC structure itself is too large and there are vast disparities in the types, quantity, and grade of public facilities, the single main center will not be able to control the operations of the overall UC structure. It will require another main point of control to assist in the agglomeration and development of public service facilities. Cities with more natural barriers, such as mountains and rivers, will be affected by their topography, causing them to produce UC zones that are smaller and relatively dispersed. Thus, the control capacity of the main center in such cities is much lower than that of plain cities, which will lower the upgrade threshold of the UC structure land use area. (2) Economic Thresholds With reference to the threshold elements of the first upgrade, data collection and correlation analysis were performed on the economic single factors—urban area GDP, population employed by the tertiary industry, output value of the tertiary industry, ratio of the tertiary industry, and other indicators. The results indicate that

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Table 2.14 Correlation analysis on the single factors for the economic thresholds of the second upgrade Tier of UC structure

Pearson correlation

1

Significance (two-tailed) N

24

GDP (urban area)

Population employed by the tertiary industry

Output value of Ratio of tertiary the tertiary industry in the industry in the urban area urban area

0.614a

0.547a

0.617a

0.472b

0.001

0.006

0.001

0.020

24

24

24

24

Note a Significant correlation at the 0.01 level (two-tailed); b Significant correlation at the 0.05 level (two-tailed)

during the second upgrade of the UC structure, the economic thresholds include GDP and the scale of the tertiary industry (Table 2.14). – GDP. The level of urban economic development still has a crucial impact on the second upgrade of the UC structure. With further improvement of urban area GDP, the commercial and business spaces within the city will continue to expand and upgrade, while the sharp increase in public service facilities will drive gradual structural changes in the UC structure and promote its second upgrade. [GDP thresholds]: When the UC structure is upgraded from a 1MC-MSC to a 2MC-MSC structure, the threshold for urban area GDP is approximately RMB 400 billion (Fig. 2.62).

Fig. 2.62 Statistics on the UC structure and GDP of urban areas of typical cities in 2011

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

A city’s GDP is a key impact factor influencing the second upgrade of its UC structure. Urban area GDP, in particular, is an excellent measure for the city’s level of economic development. A sizeable increase in GDP indirectly reflects the expansion of industrial economic scale and the upgrading of industrial structure within the city. As the overall strength of the city increases and new industries with higher economic benefits are developed, the new main center will gradually take shape to meet the new development needs of the city. Compared to the GDP threshold of the first upgrade, the threshold of the second upgrade is doubled. Using Chengdu as an example, the statistics of the city show that its built-up area is 439 km2 , which has reached the threshold limit required by the second upgrade (400–600 km2 ). However, the urban area GDP of Chengdu is only RMB 310 billion, which is far below the economic threshold for the second upgrade of its UC structure. Therefore, Chengdu currently still has a 1MC-MSC UC structure (Fig. 2.63). – Scale of tertiary industry. Our data show that in typical cities with a 2MCMSC UC structure, the correlation between the ratio of the tertiary industry and the second upgrade of the UC structure is weaker than that of the first upgrade. The scatterplot shows that the output value ratio of the tertiary industry is more dispersed in the 2MC-MSC UC structure and does not follow a clear pattern. There are also no clear threshold values in the correlation between the population employed by the tertiary industry and the upgrading of the UC structure. The scatterplot shows a stepwise distribution in the population employed by the tertiary

Fig. 2.63 Distribution of the UC structure in Chengdu

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165

industry for different tiers of UC structures, while the line graph indicates that the upgrade threshold for the population employed by the tertiary industry ranges from 500,000 to 1 million (Fig. 2.64). It is only the output value of the tertiary industry for which the vast majority of typical cities with the 2MC-MSC UC structure are above RMB 200 billion and range between RMB 50 billion and 200 billion (Fig. 2.65). [Industrial structure threshold]: During the second upgrade of the UC structure, the threshold for the output value of the tertiary industry is approximately RMB 200 billion. Based on the evolution of the UC structure in Guangzhou, the scale of the tertiary industry played a crucial role in the upgrading process of its UC structure. In 2000, the incorporation of Huadu and Panyu as districts of Guangzhou provided an opportunity

Fig. 2.64 Statistics on the UC structure and the population employed by the tertiary industry in the urban area of typical cities in 2011

Fig. 2.65 Statistics on the UC structure and the tertiary industry output value of typical cities in 2011

166 Table 2.15 Comparison of spatial division factors between the two upgrades of the UC structure

2 Development Models of the UC Structure Spatial division factors First upgrade

Second upgrade

Natural factors

Facilitates first upgrade

Has an impact

Historical and cultural preservation zones

Facilitates first upgrade

Has no impact

Large units

Facilitates first upgrade

Has no impact

Administrative boundaries

Facilitates first upgrade

Has an impact

and space for the structural reorganization of the city. With continuous expansion of its total economy, Guangzhou underwent several rounds of upgrades in its industrial structure, thus enabling continuous growth in the output value and ratio of the tertiary industry, which eventually became the dominant industry within the city. An enormous output value was produced due to the growing scale of the tertiary industry, with its increasing quantity and variety, especially with the vigorous development of the financial industry and the convention and exhibition industry, which subsequently even led to the formation of a sub-center within the UC structure with conventions and exhibitions as its dominant function. Thus, the rapid development of the tertiary industry promoted the expansion and upgrade of the UC structure. – Spatial thresholds. When the UC structure undergoes the second upgrade, the creation of the comprehensive main center will still be significantly influenced by spatial division effects. As the core of the second upgrade no longer depends on the increasing number of UC zones but on the upgrade in the hierarchical tier of the UC zone (i.e., from a sub-center to a main center), there will be differences in the impact factors of the spatial thresholds for the second upgrade compared to the first upgrade, and certain key factors in the first upgrade will have much weaker effects during the second upgrade (Table 2.15). During the second upgrade, two factors will no longer affect the structural upgrade of the UC structure. The first factor is historical and cultural preservation zones. During the first upgrade of the UC structure, historical and cultural preservation will have a facilitatory effect primarily because it helps to increase the number of UC zones. However, the second upgrade is no longer concerned with the increase in the number of UC zones but with the upgrade in the tier of the UC structure, which is no longer affected by factors of historical and cultural preservation. The second factor is the presence of large units. First, during the first upgrade of the UC zone, large units also have a facilitatory effect on the creation of new UC zones. However, as the city develops and grows in size, it will undergo an expansion in the range of its built-up area during the second upgrade. Although large units will cause a certain extent of division in the expansion of the UC zone, this impact is relatively low. Second, large units play a facilitatory role only in increasing the number of UC zones during the upgrade process, which does not affect the tier upgrade of the UC zone. Therefore,

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167

the spatial threshold factors that will have an impact on the second upgrade of the UC structure are natural factors and administrative boundaries. – Natural factors. During the first upgrade of the UC structure, natural factors had an immense impact on the creation of new UC zones. Large mountains and rivers can cause divisions in the expansion of the single main center; thus promoting the formation of new sub-centers. However, the promotion of a sub-center into a new main center during the second upgrade will require even stricter conditions than those of the first upgrade. Natural barriers can form strong divisions in the construction of the UC structure space. If the UC structure is divided by a large quantity and high density of natural factors, this will lead to the scattered and chaotic spatial distribution of the UC zones, causing a large number of small and dispersed UC zones to appear. Due to the impact of natural barriers, the radiation range of the main UC zone will be relatively small, and there is a very high likelihood that sub-centers situated in the city’s main development direction and transportation hub will develop into a second main center. This, therefore, has a significant facilitatory effect on the upgrading of the UC structure into a 2MC-MSC structure. Chongqing is a mountainous city with multiple factors of natural barriers and significant differences in topography. The eastern and southern parts are enclosed within two mountain ranges, the Daba Mountains and Wuling Mountains. The northwestern and central parts mainly consist of hills and low mountains, with two important river systems (Jialing River and Yangtze River) cutting through the city. The special mountainous terrain has determined the differences in the division of the urban road network. Furthermore, the big height differences in the terrain have led to difficulties in vertical traffic connections and inconvenient transportation between the UC zones. Thus, the natural barriers have promoted the development of the UC structure toward the 2MC-MSC structure. The main center, that is, the Jiefangbei UC zone, is located in the Yuzhong District of the main urban area, and it is the comprehensive main center of the city, bringing together a variety of urban functions, including finance, trade, commerce, entertainment, administration, and residences. The new main center, that is, the Guanyin Bridge UC zone, was originally a sub-center in the north of the city. Not only is it the political, economic, and cultural center of Jiangbei District and the northern commercial trade center of the city, it also lies in a core position of urban development and has a superior geographic location, with surrounding connections to Jiangbei International Airport, Longtousi Railway Station, Chongqing Railway Station, Chaotianmen Dock, Jiangbeicheng, and Cuntan International Container Terminal. Thus, it has great advantages in the agglomeration of service facilities. This enabled its gradual development from a sub-center with the strongest agglomeration, diffusion, and radiation capacities into a dynamic urban main center (Fig. 2.66). – Administrative boundaries. The division of administrative boundaries plays an important role in driving both the first and second upgrades of the UC structure. Due to the considerations for their own development, the government of each

168

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.66 Distribution of the UC structure in Chongqing

district will strive to promote the growth of UC zones within its administrative jurisdiction, with the aim of reaching a certain scale in the long run and creating conducive conditions for the upgrade of the UC zone to a comprehensive main center. Due to the relative independence between the jurisdictions and the growing authority of the district-level governments with urban development, which will increase the district’s recognizability within the city and strengthen its market cohesion, a second main center is likely to be created within the boundaries of highly-developed administrative divisions. The development of the UC structure in Beijing has been strongly influenced by district-level governments. Xicheng District formed a large-scale comprehensive center with business finance and commercial catering as its dominant functions, namely, the Xidan-Financial Street main center, and Chaoyang District formed a comprehensive center with business offices and commercial entertainment as its

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

169

dominant functions, namely, the Chaoyang-Wangfujing main center. There is a strong dividing effect caused by the administrative boundary between Dongcheng District and Xicheng District, and the intersection between their administrative boundaries lies on the central axis of the Forbidden City, which is an important historical and cultural preservation zone. Therefore, the UC zones within these two administrative areas are mutually independent, each becoming a main center in its own right and promoting the development of the city toward the 2MC-MSC structure (Fig. 2.67). (4) Infrastructure Support The development and evolution of the UC structure are driven by improvements in infrastructure such as transportation and information. The technological innovations of infrastructure will reduce the operating distance of public service facilities and promote the spatial expansion of the UC structure. With the popularization of the

Fig. 2.67 Relationship between the UC structure and the administrative boundaries of district governments in Beijing

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Internet, remote working and online shopping have become routine and commonplace behaviors in megacities. This will facilitate the outward migration of public service facilities and the greater dispersion in the spatial form of the UC structure. – Transportation support threshold. The intensive transfers and distribution of the transportation system is a key component of the service functions rendered by the UC structure, as well as a necessary condition for the formation of UC zones. Convenient transportation will expand the commuting radius of commerce and business, which will inevitably lead to the agglomeration of urban public facilities and promote the expansion in the scale of the UC zone. The most fundamental guarantee in the development of UC zones is the effective transfer and distribution of the transportation system. If the transportation support is unable to meet the internal and external requirements of the UC zone, it will hinder the sustainable growth of the area, at which point there will be two possible options. The first option is to transfer the growth of the UC zone to other areas. The second is to overcome this bottleneck through the construction of large-capacity public transportation (e.g., rail transit), thereby continuing to maintain the opening of intensive rail transit lines in the city center, which will catalyze the adjustment of the land use pattern in the UC structure. With the development of the city and the greater development intensity of the UC zones, conventional modes of transportation will no longer be able to meet its massive transportation needs; hence, the presence of rail rapid transit will have a significant impact on the UC structure. Rail rapid transit (or rapid transit) is a collective term for urban rail transit that includes the urban underground (subway or metro), light rail transit (light rail), monorail, tram, NewTransport System (NTS), high-speed maglev trains, and suburban commuter trains. Their common features include large transport volume, high speed, safety, reliability, punctuality, and comfort. They can operate on rails that are at the ground level, elevated, underground, or semi-underground. Currently, the form of rail transit that is most closely related to the upgrade of UC structures in China is the subway. Rail transit bears the bulk of the transport volume in the UC zone, thus achieving the rapid transfer and distribution of passenger flow to effectively resolve the problems of traffic congestion. Rail transit stations are also attractive to surrounding public service facilities, and can easily form points of economic activity, thus becoming commercial agglomeration points, even gradually evolving into district-level, sub-centers, or main centers (Fig. 2.68). An analysis of the relationship between the development process of the UC structure in Shanghai and the construction of its rail transit clearly shows that since the construction of the Shanghai Metro, the city has essentially expanded along the metro lines, and has formed commercial agglomeration points around metro stations, which have gradually evolved into various levels of UC zones. The main and sub-centers of the Shanghai UC structure are all located around metro stations, while the intersections of multiple lines can easily develop into city-level UC zones due to the advantages brought about by the large volume of crowd concentration and evacuation and their role as transportation hubs. The two main centers in Shanghai are both

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

171

Fig. 2.68 Schematic diagram of the impact of rail transport on the second upgrade of the UC structure

interchanges for multiple metro lines, and the formation of the Wujiaochang subcenter was also greatly facilitated by the rail transit. The formation of the Guangzhou UC structure was also inseparable from the construction of its rail transit. The Tianhe District, which is located in the eastern part of Guangzhou, is one of the key administrative areas for the development of the real estate market, and it has shown a trend of rapid growth since the construction of the Guangzhou Metro. When Line 1 became fully operational, there was a significant improvement in the transportation between Tianhe District and the old town area, which made it more convenient for residents to carry out economic activities, such as daily living, work, commerce, and office work, between the old and new town areas. Furthermore, Line 3 starts at the Tianhe Coach Terminal and ends at Panyu Square, while Line 4 also serves the city’s eastward and southward expansion strategies. Driven by the infrastructure provided by multiple metro lines, the Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town UC zone became one of the city’s main centers and upgraded the UC structure to the 2MC-MSC model (Fig. 2.69). – Information technology threshold. Information technology also has a substantial impact on the UC structure. The informatization of the city will expand the spatial range of commercial and business activities, while its networkization will overcome the various constraints in the spatial development of UC zones and promote the formation of new UC zones. The rapid development of the information industry itself will also enable the significant increase in the ratio of modern

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.69 Schematic diagram of the impact of information technology on the second upgrade of the UC structure

service industries, represented by the information service industry, thus promoting the upgrade of the UC zones. The advances in information technology will promote a more intensified division of labor within urban industries. The management departments of enterprises will further be concentrated in the UC zones and will organize production through remote connections. High-end commerce, finance, information services, and other functions will be able to agglomerate in emerging UC zones, thus forming the active zones of a city in the information age. Areas that contain a large number of universities and scientific research institutions, high-tech talents, advanced management levels, and that are close to the key nodes of the global information network, are the frontiers of urban development, and can easily form UC zones. In addition, there will be fewer restrictions on the flow of information, technology, and talents among the UC zones within the UC structure. Amidst this flow of resources, sub-centers with good infrastructure conditions will gradually narrow the gap with the main center and can easily give rise to a new main center. (5) Ontological structure of the UC structure The key to the second upgrade of the UC structure lies with the upgrade of sub-centers within the original structure. The breakthrough from a functional sub-center to a comprehensive main center is a gradual process. Through the analysis of structural factors such as primacy, range, and land use structure, we can investigate some of the structural factors in the 2MC-MSC UC structure, such as the relationship between

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

173

Table 2.16 Correlation analysis of the factors of ontological structure in the second upgrade Tier of UC structure

Pearson correlation

1

Significance (two-tailed) N

24

GDP (urban area)

Population employed by the tertiary industry

Output value of Ratio of tertiary the tertiary industry in the industry in the urban area urban area

−0.517a

−558a

0.142

−0.067

0.010

0.005

0.507

0.756

24

24

24

24

Note a Significant correlation at the 0.01 level (two-tailed); b Significant correlation at the 0.05 level (two-tailed)

land use with building intensity, or the ratio of various land use functions. Based on this, we will be able to explore the upgrade thresholds for development intensity and functional layout (in terms of scale) that must be reached by the functional sub-center that is most likely to develop into a comprehensive main center in the 1MC-MSC structure. Calculations were performed for the primacy and range, including the primacy and range of land use area and building area, followed by a correlation analysis, which found that primacy significantly correlated with the second upgrade (Table 2.16). – UC zone primacy. There are strong hierarchical differences among the different UC zones within the UC structure, and the difference between the main and subcenters is necessarily larger than that the difference between the two main centers. Thus, the boundary of the hierarchical difference will inevitably become a key measure for differentiating between a 1MC-MSC and 2MC-MSC structure. By using primacy to explore the approximate range of land use and building primacy between the two tiers of UC structure, it will be possible to determine the potential upgrade thresholds. The separate analysis of the building area primacy of the main UC zone in the UC structure revealed that the building primacy of the 2MC-MSC structure did not exceed 2.2. Within this range, a city with a more developed UC structure (complete hierarchical structure and wide area of radiation) will have a main center with a greater building area primacy. This implies that during the gradual improvement of the UC structure, the various UC zones within it were constantly developing and strengthening their interrelations, thus gradually forming a certain hierarchical structure (Figs. 2.70, 2.71 and Table 2.17). The separate analysis on land use area primacy revealed that the land use primacy of the 2MC-MSC UC structure is concentrated within a small fluctuation range. Within the range of 1.2–2.1, it is possible to pre-determine the conditions of land use primacy for the second upgrade of the UC structure.

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.70 Statistics on the building area primacy of the UC zones in typical cities

Fig. 2.71 Statistics on the land area primacy of the UC zones in typical cities

[Primacy threshold]: During the second upgrade of the UC structure, the land use area primacy of the main center should be between 1.2 and 2.1, and its building area primacy should not exceed 2.2. Primacy represents the size difference between two UC zones. The primacy of the land use area within the UC structure represents the relationship with respect to the size difference between the largest UC zone within the UC structure and the remaining UC zones. Generally, the size of the main center tends to be larger than that of the sub-centers, while the reduction in primacy implies that the sub-UC zones within the 1MC-MSC UC structure are undergoing rapid development and constant expansion, narrowing the gap in size with the single main center until the sub-center eventually develops into another main center.

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175

Table 2.17 Statistics on the primacy and range of the UC structure UC structure

City

1MC-MSC UC Taiyuan structure Ningbo

Land use primacy

Building area primacy

Land use range ratio

Building area range ratio

2.2

1.8

2.2

1.8

6.1

10.1

6.1

10.1

Jinan

1.5

3.9

1.5

3.9

Shenyang

6.3

4.7

6.3

4.7

Kunming

4.1

4.9

5.2

5.8

Nanchang

4.8

2.1

1.8

1.9

Tianjin

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.6

Chengdu

6.8

8.0

7.2

9.5

Dalian

3.7

5.8

5.6

6.7

Xiamen

1.1

1.8

1.4

1.9

Xi’an

2.6

2.2

3.4

3.2

Changsha

3.2

6.0

4.2

5.8

Qingdao

3.6

3.4

4.9

5.0

Suzhou

0.7

1.6

1.5

3.1

Nanjing

1.8

5.5

3.3

5.7

2MC-MSC UC Nanning structure Wuhan

1.4

1.4

2.4

2.5

1.3

1.0

2.2

2.3

Shenzhen

1.1

1.4

3.1

3.5

Hangzhou

1.6

0.3

3.7

1.3

Chongqing

1.5

1.8

3.3

2.6

Guangzhou

1.6

1.4

3.1

3.3

Beijing

2.1

2.4

9.8

10.4

Shanghai

1.3

1.9

8.5

8.7

– UC zone land use structure. The land use structure of a UC zone can reflect core issues such as its future development direction, current vitality, and current development stage. UC zones of different functions, positioning, and stages will also have corresponding differences in land use structure. Based on the quantitative analysis of land use in UC zones, it will be possible to observe differences in land use structure among the UC zones. The key to analyzing the land use structure of UC zones lies with the degree of mixing in land use and the ratio of mixed land use. UC zones with a higher degree of mixing in land use will have a higher level of comprehensive utilization and greater economic efficiency. The ratio of mixed land use, on the other hand, indirectly reflects the spatial vitality of the UC zone, such that the higher the ratio of mixed land use, the greater the operational vitality of the city block. Mixed land development not only increases the intensity of land use, but also attracts a variety of interspersed

176

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

activities, which can improve the popularity of the UC zone. Therefore, by studying the composition and ratio of mixed land use in the UC zones, it will be possible to determine the current development trends of the UC zones (Table 2.18). Several cases were selected from among the typical cities of the UC structures to analyze the land use structure of their main and sub-UC zones. The results showed a generally high degree of mixing in the land use of the main centers. In some cities that are gradually moving toward the 2MC-MSC UC structure, their most developed subcenters have a higher degree of land use mixing compared to other sub-centers and a greater ratio of mixed land use, thus indicating their development toward becoming the second main center of the city in the future. For example, among the 1MC-MSC cities, Tianjin has reached the size and economic thresholds for the second upgrade. Its existing main center has an immense size and highly mixed functions, but its sub-centers have relatively uniform land use functions and show a substantial gap in development intensity compared to the main center. Therefore, Tianjin cannot yet be upgraded to the 2MC-MSC structure (Fig. 2.72 and Table 2.19). – Relationship with urban development. Urban development structure has a significant impact on the upgrading of the UC structure, especially on the second upgrade. Based on the analysis of spatial operation, the driving force of UC structure development can be summarized into three aspects: industrial promotion, spatial support, and management and regulation. Among these, the management and regulation by the government can have a substantial impact on the development of the UC structure. Government-led urban development strategies, spatial expansion direction, adjustments of administrative division, relocation of social service centers, and other decisions will directly affect the adjustment of urban spatial structure and the overall fulfillment of functions, guide the location selection of service institutions, and promote an unbalanced development model that focuses on growth. During the second upgrade of the UC structure, the selection of the new main center will be influenced by these factors and tend to be located on the urban development axis, with the main center as the core. Second, economic operational activities should pursue savings on travel time and transportation costs to improve efficiency and follow the principle of least effort, that is, the highest efficiency of crowd flow and logistics distribution. Therefore, when the UC structure undergoes a second upgrade, the new comprehensive UC zone tends to be located on the city’s economic axis or its extension. Hangzhou had originally been carrying on with a development model that was centered on the eastern shore of West Lake within the Yan’an Road region of the old town. As the service functions of the city center became more complex, the development of the main center was subjected to numerous restrictions. The adjustment of the administrative divisions in 2001 provided a dominant direction to the development of Hangzhou’s urban form, which involved a spatial layout strategy of “eastward urban expansion, westward tourism advancement, and development along and across the river.” This clearly specified the eastward development of the city and led to the establishment of a new UC zone in the Qianjiang New Town area (the

UC structure

1MC-1SC

1MC-2SC

1MC-2SC

City

Ningbo

Kunming

Nanchang

Land use structure of main center

Table 2.18 Land use structure of UC zones in typical cities Land use structure of sub-centers

(continued)

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure 177

UC structure

1MC-2SC

City

Suzhou

Table 2.18 (continued)

Land use structure of main center

Land use structure of sub-centers

178 2 Development Models of the UC Structure

2.3 Upgrade Threshold of the UC Structure

179

Fig. 2.72 Distribution of the UC structure in Tianjin

Qianjiang New Town UC zone). Its development to date has resulted in the formation of the Yan’an Lu and Qianjiang New Town UC zones, which are the two main centers of Hangzhou. In contrast, Nanjing, which is also a large economic center and a developed service industry, has established several new towns, but it has generally maintained a sprawling model of development in the long term. The Xinjiekou UC zone, which is located in the most core area of the city, has constantly remained the city’s main center, with persistent difficulties in forming the second main center in Hezi. Therefore, Nanjing has retained the 1MC-MSC UC structure to this day (Fig. 2.73). During the second upgrade of the city, the essential change in the UC structure lies with the widening gap in the hierarchy of the UC zones. The key to the upgrade from a 1MC-MSC to a 2MC-MSC UC structure is the creation of a new main UC zone. A sub-center is upgraded to a main center, and strong hierarchical relations will emerge among the UC zones, thus enabling the main centers, sub-centers, and district-level centers to form a complete hierarchical system (Figs. 2.74 and 2.75).

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Table 2.19 Land use structure of UC zones in various cities City

UC structure

Nanning

2MC-1SC

Land use structure

Chongqing 2MC-3SC

Shanghai

2MC-4SC

2.4 Evaluation Model of UC Structure Development The development of the service industries is internal support for the development and upgrading of the UC structure. Therefore, an objective and rational scientific evaluation of the development stage of service industry agglomeration and its spatial linkage

2.4 Evaluation Model of UC Structure Development

181

Fig. 2.73 Distribution of the UC structure in Hangzhou

with the UC structure will help to clarify the core trends of UC structure development and elucidate the patterns and characteristics for the new stage of development in the UC structure.

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2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.74 Interim summary of patterns in the second upgrade of the 1MC-MSC to the 2MC-MSC structure

2.4.1 Fuzzy Evaluation Model for the Spatial Agglomeration of the Service Industries According to the theoretical, functional, and statistical connotations of the UC structure, combined with the characteristics of the urban service industry groups, the driving forces behind the development of urban service industries can be divided into the macro, meso, and micro levels, which can be used to construct the layers of evaluation. We have proposed an indicator system that reflects the degree of agglomeration within the urban service industries (see Table 2.20). Based on the performance and position of each indicator, we can perform analysis, comparison, discrimination, and evaluation of the micro- and meso-level processes, and the overall trends in the development of urban service institutions, as well as the restoration, replication,

2.4 Evaluation Model of UC Structure Development

183

Fig. 2.75 Summary of the upgrade thresholds for the UC structure

simulation, and prediction of the future evolution in the macro development of the urban service industries. This will help in the pre-selection of plans, monitoring, and early warning, which will help urban decision-makers and the public to understand the spatial agglomeration of the service industries. Overall layer: This layer expresses the overall capacity of urban service industry development. It represents the overall trends of spatial agglomeration among the service industries, as well as the overall grasp of the dynamic monitoring over the strategic implementation of spatial agglomeration of urban service industries. Systems layer: According to the theoretical understanding of the spatial agglomeration of the service industries, its internal logical relationships can be expressed as macro-environmental indicators, meso environmental indicators, and microenvironmental indicators. Status layer: Within each division of support system, this layer can represent the relational structure of system status behavior. Predictable, comparable, and acquirable status elements and element groups are used as a direct measure of the quantitative, intensity, and speed performances of the status layer. At a given point in time, they appear static, whereas, over time, they exhibit dynamic characteristics. (1) Evaluation method: Fuzzy comprehensive judgement As it is difficult to obtain accurate statistical data for the spatial agglomeration indicators of the service industries, we employed fuzzy comprehensive judgement to establish the evaluation model. More specifically, assuming that all factors are fuzzy, we adopted hierarchical evaluation data intervals and processed each factor in the indicator system using the grading method. This approach was applied by Jiang Sangeng in the evaluation of cultural and creative industry clusters.10 10 Jiang

[7].

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Table 2.20 Fuzzy evaluation indicator system of the spatial agglomeration of the service industries Overall layer

Systems layer

Status layer

Spatial agglomeration level of service industries U

Macro condition indicator U1

Transportation location advantage U11 Technological resources advantage U11 Public policy advantage U11 Cultural tradition advantage U11

Meso condition indicator U2

Completeness of infrastructure U21 Concentration of service industries U22 Connectivity of service industries U23 Capacity for inter-industrial joint actions U24 Significance of industrial competitive relationships U25 Rate of information technology diffusion U26

Micro condition indicator U3

Embeddedness of leading service institutions U31 Derivation of related service institutions U32 Willingness of service institutions to cooperate U33 Learning and innovative capacity of service institutions U34 Number of highly qualified entrepreneurs U35

*Source Compiled based on Jiang [7]

The fuzzy comprehensive judgement method uses the principles of fuzzy mathematics to reach a general evaluation and judgement of objects or phenomena that are comprehensively affected by multiple factors. When performing a fuzzy comprehensive judgment, it is first necessary to establish the set of evaluation factors and select the appropriate criteria for each evaluation factor. The individual evaluation of each factor can help to obtain the degree of membership in the criteria levels to which each factor belongs, and the weights are determined by the different effects of each evaluation factor on the evaluation outcome. Following this, fuzzy transformation is performed to obtain the final comprehensive evaluation outcome, that is, the degree

2.4 Evaluation Model of UC Structure Development

Selection of evaluation factor set Construction of fuzzy matrix Selection of fuzzy transformation

185

Designing of evaluation criteria set Determination of factor weights Outcome of comprehensive judgment

Fig. 2.76 Flowchart of the fuzzy comprehensive judgement method

of membership to a specific criterion. The establishment process of the model is shown in Fig. 2.76 below. It can be seen from the fuzzy evaluation indicator system for the spatial agglomeration level of the service industries that this system has a large number of elements, as well as fuzzy characteristics, which implies that neither the one-level nor the two-level comprehensive evaluation model would be adequate. This is because if only the single-level fuzzy comprehensive judgment is adopted, then, the presence of numerous factors will lead to difficulties in weight assignment and giving full consideration to the layers of factors. As for the two-level fuzzy comprehensive judgment, if the focus is on solving the allocation of weights, the fuzziness of the factors will be neglected; however, if the focus is on the fuzziness of the elements, the model will not be able to cope with the large number of weights. Therefore, we adopted the three-level fuzzy comprehensive judgment, which involves dividing each factor into several levels, while also dividing all factors into several categories according to their nature. During the evaluation, one-level fuzzy comprehensive judgment is first performed on the different levels of each factor to obtain the evaluation outcomes of individual factors. Then, a two-level fuzzy comprehensive judgment is performed on all factors in each category to obtain the evaluation outcomes for individual categories of factors. Finally, a comprehensive judgment is performed among all the categories to obtain the evaluation outcome for all factors. This approach not only addresses the fuzziness of factors but also prevents the difficulties in weight allocation caused by a large number of factors. (2) Establishment of Factor Set All 15 elements that determine the spatial agglomeration characteristics of the service industries together constitute the factor set U, and the factors in U are divided according to their nature into three categories, that is, U is divided into three corresponding subsets: U = {U1 , U2 , U3 }, and each subset contains different factors. For example, the first subset contains four factors: U1 = {U11 , U12 , U13 , U14 }; the second subset contains 6 factors U2 = {U21 , U22 , U23 , …, U26 }; and the third subset contains five factors: U3 = {U31 , U32 , U33 , …, U35 }. Each factor Uij (i = 1, 2, 3, i.e., the number of factors on the systems layer; j = 1,… n, where n is the number of factors on the status layer) is divided into P ranks based on its degree. For simplicity, let P be 5 here. This gives:   Ui j = Ui j1 , Ui j2 , . . . , Ui j5

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Uij is known as the grade set of the jth factor of the ith category. For example, the factor “Connectivity of service industries U23 ” can be divided into five ranks: “Strong, Fairly Strong, Average, Fairly Weak, Weak.” To simplify our calculations, the ranks of each factor were arranged according to the trend of impact on the evaluation target, that is, arranged in the order of increasing spatial agglomeration of the service industries. (3) Establishment of weight sets A given factor’s degree of membership in the kth rank (also known as the rank weight) was based on the evaluation of expert panels. The specific evaluation process was as follows: A group of evaluators (e.g., experts in urban economy, management, planning, etc., generally consisting of 20–50 people) ranked the basic factors included in the survey, and the evaluation results were statistically analyzed. The value of Ajk is the quotient obtained by dividing the number of experts who believed that factor Uij belonged to rank Uijk by the total number of experts. Therefore, the rank weight set of the factor is as follows:   Ai j = ai j1 , ai j2 , . . . , ai jn . where aijk has been normalized. When solving problems of multi-level comprehensive evaluation, it is also necessary to assign corresponding weights according to the importance of each factor in each layer, that is, the confirmed membership degree of importance of each factor to higher-layer factors. The weight set of first-layer factors is A = (aij1, aij2 , …, aijn. ); the weight set of second-layer factors is: Ai = (ai1 ,ai2 , . . . , ain ). The weight sets in this model were determined using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). The basic steps were as follows: Based on the factor hierarchical classification model, pairwise comparisons were performed among the factors using the 1-9 proportional scale to construct the judgment matrix M. This process was also completed by the experts mentioned above. The eigenvalue problem of matrix M was solved. M w = λmax w, its solution w (eigenvector) is the ranked weight of the relative importance for all factors within the same layer with respect to a given factor in the previous layer, and a consistency check was performed. (4) Establishment of Judgment Set The size of the judgment set can be determined according to the actual level of subdivisions and amount of computation. Here, we divided the spatial agglomeration level of the service industries into l ranks, and let l be 5, that is, the level of recognizability was divided into five ranks, namely high, fairly high, average, fairly low, and low.

2.4 Evaluation Model of UC Structure Development

187

V = {V1 , V2 , . . . , V5 } where V is the judgment set. (5) One-Level Fuzzy Comprehensive Judgment The impact of each factor on the comprehensive indicator can be found by comprehensively evaluating each of its ranks. Thus, when performing a single-factor evaluation, it is not necessary to pre-determine the specific status of each factor. This method can effectively reflect the impact of a given factor regardless of how fuzzy it is. Let the evaluation be based on the kth rank of the jth factor in the ith category, and the membership degree of the lth element in the judgment set of the target be rijk1 (k = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; l = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5), then the rank judgment matrix of the given factor will be:   Ri j = ri jkl 3×5 (6) Two-level fuzzy comprehensive judgment The two-level fuzzy comprehensive judgment is based on the evaluation of all factors within the factor subset. Clearly, the single-factor judgment of Uij should be a onelevel fuzzy comprehensive judgment set; thus, the single-factor judgment matrix of Ui is:     Ri = bi jl 3×5 , = ri jl 3×5 Therefore, the two-level fuzzy comprehensive judgment set is Bi = Ai  Ri = (bi1 , …, bi5 ) (7) Three-level fuzzy comprehensive judgment This refers to the fuzzy comprehensive judgment among the various categories. Clearly, the single-factor judgment set of the ith category should be a second-level fuzzy comprehensive judgment set; thus, the single-factor judgment matrix of A is: Ri = (bil )3×5 = (ril )3×5 Let the weight of the ith category be ai , and the weight set of factor set U be A = (a1 , a2 , …, a3 ). Therefore, the three-level fuzzy comprehensive judgment set is: B = A  R = (b1 , . . . , b5 ) where b1 , …, b5 is the membership degree of the evaluation target for comment V1 , V2, …, V5 .

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(8) Selection of fuzzy operators Both single-level and multi-level judgment involve a uniform equation: B = AR. The different synthesis methods between the weight vector A and the single-factor judgment matrix R will lead to different evaluation models, thus giving rise to the problem of selecting fuzzy operators. The principle of operator selector is as follows: if only key factors need to be considered, then M(∧, ∨) or M(·, ∨) type operators can be selected; if the target must be evaluated based on the comprehensive consideration of all factors, then M(·, ) type operators can be selected; the M(·, ) operator was selected in this case. This operator takes into account the impact of all factors and retains all the information for single-factor judgment. During the calculation, upper limits were not imposed on ai (i = 1, 2, 3) and rij (j = 1, 2, …, n), but normalization was required for ai . This is a significant advantage and a unique feature of this model. (9) Processing of evaluation indicators Evaluation indicators are generally processed using the maximum membership method, weighted average method, and fuzzy distribution method. The maximum membership method focuses on the contribution of the largest evaluation indicator and discards the information provided by other indicators, which implies that its evaluation outcome is not sufficiently comprehensive. Furthermore, it will be difficult to determine the evaluation outcome if there is more than one largest evaluation indicator. The fuzzy distribution method can reflect the distribution status of the evaluation target with respect to the characteristic under evaluation, which provides the evaluator with a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of the evaluation target; this method can also be applied with flexibility. The weighted average method is also a good processing method, which takes into account the contribution of all evaluation indicators. When evaluating non-quantitative, qualitative indicators, the elements in the judgment set must first be quantified when using the weighted average method. The weighted average method was applied in this case, for example, the corresponding scores of the comment set V were specified as follows: V1 = 5, V2 = 4, V3 = 3, V4 = 2, V5 = 1 Thus, the equation for the evaluation outcome V is given by: V = BVT = B(5, 4, 3, 2, 1)T V is an algebraic value between 1 and 5; the closer it is to 5, the greater the probability for the presence of spatial agglomeration of the service industries; the closer it is to 1, the smaller the probability for the presence of spatial agglomeration. Generally, V > 3 essentially indicates the presence of significant spatial agglomeration of the service industries that can foster the formation of a UC structure.

2.4 Evaluation Model of UC Structure Development

189

2.4.2 Linkage Analysis Model of the Service Industries and the UC Functional Structure The spatial agglomeration of the service industries leads to the formation and development of the UC structure, while the internal industrial structure of the service industries also determines the spatial structural relationships within the UC structure. There is a linked development between the service industries and public facility spaces, a pattern that I have previously proposed and demonstrated in Quantitative Research on the CBD of Chinese Cities—Form, Function, Industry.11 The strength of each function and the size of the radiation range in the UC structure generally depend on the degree of direct or indirect agglomeration of its carrier industry, as well as the development levels of its products, capital, talents, and technology market. Different UC structures have different dominant industries due to their different industry composition and characteristics, which directly results in the diversity of dominant functions within the UC structure. Therefore, we can start from the interrelations among the various service industries to establish a theoretical model of industrial analysis, explore the patterns in the linked development of between each urban service industry and the UC structure, and analyze the functional composition in the future development of the UC structure. (1) Basic Technology Roadmap The Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix12 was used as a technological prototype to analyze the service industry characteristics of each city and to further clarify the functional composition of its UC structure. In a city with complex industries, the interaction between business growth rate and industry scale will produce four types of service industries with different qualities, which will give rise to different prospects of industrial development. These are (1) the “high-high” industry group with a high business growth rate and a high industry scale—strong industries; (2) the “low-low” industry group with a low business growth rate and a low industry scale— weak industries; (3) the “high-low” industry group with a high business growth rate and a low industry scale—growing industries; (4) the “low-high” industry group with a low business growth rate and a high industry scale—mature industries. To cities, the simultaneous presence of strong, mature, and growing industries will ensure stable profits and promising development prospects in urban service industries. Furthermore, its UC structure will have greater vitality and potential and will form a more appropriate functional structure. Therefore, inputting the specific data for each service industry into the BCG Matrix will help to analyze the economic structure of the urban service industries and to determine a functional structure for the future development of the UC structure. 11 Yang

and Mingwei [8].

12 The BCG Matrix, also known as the four-quadrant analysis, is a method used to analyze and plan

a company’s product portfolio, which was pioneered by the famous American management scientist and founder of the Boston Consulting Group, Bruce Henderson, in 1970.

190

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

Fig. 2.77 Construction of the BCG Matrix. Source Yang and Mingwei [9]

The business growth rate and industry scale were calculated for each service industry in order to construct the matrix (Fig. 2.77).13 On the coordinate system, the vertical axis represents the business growth rate of a given industry (unit: %) and the horizontal axis represents its industry scale (unit: RMB 100 million). The average values of the two were used as the criteria for the dividing lines in order to divide the matrix into four quadrants. Then, the corresponding position of each industry (circle) is marked on the coordinate system based on these two indicators, and different symbols are used to represent the differences in the order of each industry. The service industries were divided into four categories based on the results of positioning. (2) Definition and Explanation of Industries in Each Quadrant According to the principles of the BCG Matrix, on the one hand, a service industry with a larger scale will have greater profitability and can better occupy higher-tier UC zones and more advantageous locations in the UC structure. On the other hand, a service industry with a higher business growth rate will require greater operational space to maintain its business expansion and will have a greater spatial demand for large-scale expansion within the UC structure. The basic application rules of the BCG Matrix can thus be formed according to the division of the position and movement of the industries within the quadrants. As shown in Fig. 2.78, the first quadrant contains strong industries that form an industry group with high business growth rates and industry scale. Given the large size and high profitability of such industries, coupled with their extremely rapid development, they occupy a dominant position among urban service industries and are also the main force of investment and construction within the UC structure. The second quadrant contains growing industries that form an industry group with 13 Yang

and Mingwei [9].

2.4 Evaluation Model of UC Structure Development

191

Fig. 2.78 Industries in each quadrant of the BCG Matrix. Source Same as above

high business growth rates and low industry scale. The former implies that they have substantial development opportunities and promising prospects, while the latter indicates that they occupy a weak position and are still growing within the urban economy. These industries are characterized by low profitability, insufficient funds, and a high debt ratio. Therefore, the spatial expansion of growing industries is mostly carried out in lower-tier UC zones with low land prices that are also relatively close to major business units. The third quadrant contains weak industries that form an industry group with low business growth rates and industry scale. Such industries are characterized by low profitability, capital preservation or low growth rate, and high debt ratio. They are unable to generate revenue for the city, much less expand spatially in main centers with high land prices. The fourth quadrant contains mature industries that form an industry group with a low growth rate and high industry scale. Such industries have entered a period of maturity and are characterized by large sales, high profitability, and low debt ratio. They can provide the city with a large amount of capital and fiscal taxation. However, due to the stability of their businesses and relatively low growth rate, coupled with the fact that these industries have already invested heavily in the construction of the operating area required for its businesses during its peak period before maturity, these mature industries do not require space for further expansion within the UC structure. (3) Positioning of the Origin of the BCG Matrix The positioning of the matrix origin will determine the orientation of the division of the quadrants. In the contest for land resources within a UC structure, the various service industries are actually competing with each other. Through the regulation of different rents and market leverage, the large-scale and profitable service industries will be given priority for the best locations and occupy the largest area in UC zones; whereas the small-scale and low-profit service industries will only be able to acquire

192

2 Development Models of the UC Structure

land in the fringe areas of the UC zones. Therefore, with respect to the UC structure, the composition of its dominant functions and the characteristics of its future development will depend on the market competition among the service industries. Hence, determining the industry group to which an industry belongs will mainly depend on the relative position of the industry among the service industry groups within the city. Thus, the origin of the BCG Matrix is taken as the average values of the business growth rate and industry scale of all service industries within the city. As an example, the BCG Matrix of the service industries in Guangzhou shows that the service industries can be broken down into four industry groups, which can be used to determine the composition of the dominant functions within the UC structure in the future (Fig. 2.79). – Strong industries: These refer to the industry group within the quadrant of high industry scale and high business growth rate. Such industries should actively expand their economic scale and market opportunities, strive for long-term profits, and support their rapid development. According to our analysis, the strong industries in Zhengzhou include the financial industry and the wholesale retail industry. – Mature industries: These refer to the industry group within the quadrant of high industry scale and low business growth rate. Such industries have entered a

Fig. 2.79 Matrix analysis of the service industries in Zhengzhou. *Source Southeast University Academy of Urban Planning and Design. Regulatory detailed planning and urban planning of the old-town commercial center in Zhengzhou, 2008

2.4 Evaluation Model of UC Structure Development

193

period of maturity and should take steps to prevent a decline in market share. The mature industries in Zhengzhou include the transportation, warehousing, and postal industries. – Growing industries: These refer to the industry group within the quadrant of low industry scale and high business growth rate. This category is dominated by emerging industries that may give rise to immense market opportunities and broad prospects. They have the potential to transform into “strong industries” if they continue to expand in scale. The vast majority of the industries in Zhengzhou, including information services, real estate, public administration, business services, residential services, accommodation and catering, health and welfare, environmental management, etc., are all growing industries. – Weak industries: These refer to the industry group within the quadrant of low industry scale and low business growth rate. Measures should be taken to actively promote the transformation of such industries into growing industries. The weak industries in Zhengzhou mainly include education, culture and entertainment, and technological services. In summary, among the service industries in Zhengzhou, the strong and growing industries occupy a dominant position. This implies that it has a good development structure for its service industries, and it is presented with good opportunities for the corresponding development of its UC structure. Zhengzhou is currently in a critical period between the transition from stable development to leapfrog development. During this period, an appropriate location should be selected for the cultivation of new UC zones to promote the evolution and improvement of the overall UC structure, which will provide sufficient service industry and market support to facilitate the agglomeration of service institutions.

References 1. Sangeng, Jiang. 2007. Research on the modern service industry. Beijing: China Economic Publishing House. 2. Zhenhua, Zhou (ed.). 2005. Research on the development of the modern service industry. Shanghai: Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences Press. 3. Xu, Kangning. 2001. Competitive strategies of modern enterprises. Nanjing University Press. 4. Liu, Mengda. 2005. New spaces for regional economic development—empirical research based on the shaoxing industrial cluster and its competitiveness. Zhejiang University Press. 5. Qiong, Xu, Ni Jun, and Bai Guangrun. 2004. Analysis of correlation effects in commercial micro-areas. Journal of East China Normal University 5: 95–99. 6. Baozhe, Hu. 2001. Tokyo’s commercial hub. Tianjin: Tianjin University Press. 7. Sangeng, Jiang. 2008. Research on the central business district. Beijing: China Economy Press. 8. Junyan, Yang, and Wu Mingwei. 2008. Quantitative research on the CBD of Chinese Cities— form, function, industry. Nanjing: Southeast University Press. 9. Yang, Junyan, Wu Mingwei. 2006. Theoretical model of the linked development between the CBD and business industries. City Planning Review, (4).

Chapter 3

Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

The UC structure is the spatial carrier for the agglomeration of various service industries. Based on the spatial data for typical UC structures, this chapter will analyze the correlation between these data using impact factors such as urban industries, population, and land; examine the structural hierarchical relationships of the UC structure itself, such as primacy, centrality, and dislocation; and study its spatial morphological relationships, such as expansion area and spatial differentiation. Based on these analyses, we will explore the spatial characteristics and development patterns of the UC structure. The judgment of UC structure development does not stop at its fuzzy qualitative description, but it also involves quantitative research on the correlation, hierarchical structure, and spatial morphological characteristics of its scale functions.1

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure The development and evolution of the UC structure are affected by a multifaceted combination of factors, which mainly include internal drivers, basic guarantee, and external drivers. These three factors can be further divided into nine components: economic development level, industrial structure characteristics, population spatial characteristics, urban structural form, land use characteristics, transportation support

1 Note:

The main economic statistics for selected cities in China were all taken from the China Statistical Yearbook 2009. Unless specified otherwise, the statistical range of the data refers to the municipal districts under the jurisdiction of the city. All data related to the UC structure were from the survey and calculation results from the author’s laboratory. Unless specified otherwise, the data for Hong Kong were taken from Hong Kong in figures 2009 released by the Statistics Department of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 B. Shi et al., The Centre of City: Urban Central Structure, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6675-6_3

195

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3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

characteristics, public policy guidance, sociocultural characteristics, and commercial psychological model. Although these nine components will have some degree of impact on the UC structure, the extent of their influence will vary significantly. For example, the level of economic development has a relatively large impact on the UC structure, whereas that of natural geographical characteristics is comparatively smaller. The UC structure is, in essence, the spatial carrier of the service industries within the city. A higher level of economic development implies a greater scale of service industries within the city, as well as a larger spatial scale of the UC structure. Therefore, the level of economic development, scale of service industries, and spatial scale of the UC structure can be considered to be roughly positively correlated. The level of economic development has a decisive impact on the UC structure. In contrast, given the increasing maturity of construction technology in the present day, natural geographical characteristics are having a diminishing impact on the UC structure. From the UC zones in the rugged hilly terrain of Chongqing to those in the low-lying regions of erosion and siltation in Hexi, Nanjing, the problems of natural geography that had hindered the spatial agglomeration of service industries in the past have now been solved through technological means. With respect to the correlations between the variables of the UC structure, these can be divided into two categories: functional relations and statistical relations. Functional relations refer to deterministic relationships with one-to-one correspondence, which are easier to analyze and measure. However, the relationships among variables are seldom so simple in reality. Although the variables are, indeed, related in some fashion, their relationships cannot be described using a deterministic functional equation like a functional relation. For a given value of variable x, there may several possible values for another variable y. Such relations (where the values of one variable cannot be determined using the values of another variable) are known as statistical relations. The process of measuring the strength of the linear correlation between a UC structure and its corresponding variables and then expressing this correlation using suitable statistical indicators is known as correlation analysis. A correlation coefficient is a measure of the degree of correlation between variables; hence, it can be regarded mainly as a mathematical measure of the degree of closeness among two or more variables. If the correlation coefficient is calculated based on all the data combined, then, this is known as a global correlation coefficient and is denoted as p. If it is calculated based on sample data, then, this is known as a sample correlation coefficient and is denoted as r. In statistics, the sample correlation coefficient r is generally used to infer the global correlation coefficient. The range of the correlation coefficient is between −1 and +1, that is, −1 ≤ r ≤ +1, where: 0 < r ≤ 1 indicates that there is a positive correlation between the variables, that is, the two variables are moving in the same direction. −1 ≤ r < 0 indicates that there is a negative correlation between the variables, that is, the two variables are moving in opposite directions.

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure

197

When |r| = 1, then, the value of one variable is completely dependent on another variable, and there is a functional relationship between the two. If r =+1, then the variables are completely positively correlated. If r = −1, then, the variables are completely negatively correlated. When r = 0, it means that there is no linear correlation between the variables, but this does not exclude the possibility of other non-linear associations between the variables. Based on experience, the degree of linear correlation between variables can be divided into the following cases: |r| ≥ 0.8 can be regarded as a high degree of correlation; 0.5 ≤ |r| < 0.8 can be regarded as a moderate degree of correlation; 0.3 ≤ |r| < 0.5 can be regarded as a low degree of correlation; and |r| < 0.3 indicates an extremely weak correlation between the variables, and it can be regarded as correlated. The correlation coefficient between different variables was analyzed using the operations of the SPSS software. During the actual application of the SPSS software, the differences in research purpose, variable types, and other factors will require different methods of correlation analysis, which mainly include the bivariate correlation analysis of interval variables and the Pearson correlation coefficient. An interval variable is one where the values it takes can be compared, and their difference can be calculated through addition and subtraction. Typical interval variables include age, income, performance, etc. The Pearson correlation coefficient is used to measure the linear relation between variable intervals, and its main formula is as follows: n 

r=

(xi − x)(yi − y)

i=1 n 

i=1

(xi − x)2

n 

(yi − y)2

i=1

The following sections will present a discussion on the correlation of various indicators with the spatial scale and hierarchical composition of the UC structure from the perspectives of industry, population, land, and function.

3.1.1 Industrial Correlations of the UC Structure (1) Industrial correlations A city’s level of economic development has a crucial impact on its UC structure. Generally, a higher level of urban development is usually accompanied by a more

198

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

advanced stage of UC structure development. Therefore, in terms of industrial correlations, this section will mainly focus on the linkage of urban GDP, GDP per capita, tertiary industry GDP, and total retail sales of consumer goods with the various indicators of the UC structure (see Table 3.1). Based on the complete preparation of numerous basic data related to the level of industrial economic development in each city, as well as the spatial scale and structure of its UC structure, SPSS was used to calculate the corresponding pairwise correlations of the data, with the aim exploring the interactions and connections between the various elements of the UC structure and the elements of the city in greater depth. The final calculation results are shown below (Table 3.2). The calculation results in the table clearly show the degree of correlation between the various factors of urban industrial economic development and UC structure. Based on the evaluation criteria specified above, |r| ≥ 0.8 indicates a high degree of correlation. Therefore, there is an extremely close association between the total retail sales of consumer goods and the UC structure, which showed a high degree of correlation with all aspects of the UC structure. The total retail sales of consumer goods refer to the total retail sales of consumer goods provided by the wholesale and retail, accommodation and catering, and other industries to urban and rural residents, and social groups. This indicator reflects the total amount of lifestyle consumer goods supplied to residents and social groups through various channels of commodity circulation. It is an important indicator for studying issues such as people’s lifestyles, purchasing power for consumer goods, and currency circulation. In general, it is closely associated with urban population size, residents’ income level, commodity consumption environment, and other factors. Cities with a larger population size, higher income level of residents, and more superior commodity consumption environment will also have a higher total retail sales of consumer goods. This indirectly demonstrates that the development of the UC structure is intimately linked with the internal conditions of the city itself, and the function of the UC structure is still dominated by its service to the production, living, and security of urban residents. The GDP of the municipal districts, GDP of the tertiary industry, and ratio of the tertiary industry are all moderately correlated with the UC structure. In general, the rising economic level of the city as a whole will also bring about the gradual evolution of the UC structure towards a higher tier. GDP per capita can be considered as uncorrelated to UC structure. This may be due to China’s special Huji (household registration) system,2 which implies that the statistics of the urban population only include the registered population in the city, while leaving out a large floating population that also generate GDP for the city. This effect is most pronounced in core economic cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen and Nanjing, causing fluctuations in GDP per capita that has resulted in its relatively weak correlation with the UC structure. 2 Note:

China’s Huji system divides the population based on geographical region and family relations. Household registrations are divided into agricultural and non-agricultural registrations to control population migration, i.e. it is the dual management of urban and rural households.

13,560.4

7,560.7

7,806.5

3,447.2

2,773.6

3,392.5

1,560.0

1,111.6

3,385.8

1,225.4

2,421.9

1,664.0

1,039.2

458.8

Shenzhen

Nanjing

Dalian

Wuhan

Xiamen

Fuzhou

Shenyang

Hefei

Wuxi

Changzhou

Xuzhou

Yancheng

10,325.1

Beijing

Guangzhou

14,802.7

Hong Kong

Shanghai

GDP/RMB 100 million

City

28,627

56,580

73,858

102,332

60,982

66,515

40,868

62,651

55,469

83,541

64,096

89,814

85,854

75,053

64,936

21,2145

GDP per capita/RMB

Table 3.1 Industrial correlation analysis

173.4

420.9

630.7

1,094.7

598.0

1,638.7

638.1

720.7

1,818.4

1,292.5

1,785.6

3,981.3

4,634.7

7,295.5

7,599.3

13,662.9

GDP of tertiary industry/RMB 100 million

37.8

40.5

37.9

45.2

48.8

48.4

57.4

46.2

53.6

46.6

51.8

51.0

61.3

53.8

73.6

92.3

Ratio of tertiary industry/%

180.4

371.5

569.7

888.0

516.2

1,383.0

826.6

418.9

1,640.4

973.8

1,545.9

2,251.8

2,978.5

4,503.0

4,502.4

/

Total retail sales of consumer goods/RMB 100 million

108.7

400.2

494.9

484.5

434.3

2,564.7

1,176.2

861.6

1,192.3

2,079.0

1,958.8

3,999.4

3,260.4

5,366.2

6,824.0

5,825.1

Building area/10,000 m2

UC structure

72.5

235.9

248.1

230.3

197.3

1,160.6

410.6

364.5

491.8

1,027.0

892.6

1,393.1

1,273.6

2,675.2

3,422.8

1,022.4

Land use area/ha

0.85

2.81

2.97

2.72

2.42

18.12

7.23

12.9

33.7

15.5

45.0

28.4

25.6

71.4

1,14.1

40.2

Expansion area/km2

1MC

1MC

1MC

1MC

1MC

1MC-1SC

1MC

1MC-2SC

2MC-1SC

1MC-2SC

1MC-3SC

2MC-1SC

2MC-3SC

2MC-4SC

2MC-4SC

2MC-1SC

Hierarchical structure

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure 199

200

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

Table 3.2 Correlation analysis of urban industry and UC structure space Correlation

GDP

GDP per capita

GDP of tertiary industry

Ratio of tertiary industry

Total retail sales of consumer goods

Building area

0.935

0.510

0.887

0.785

0.950

Land use area

0.756

0.132

0.626

0.508

0.945

Expansion area

0.734

0.152

0.657

0.600

0.898

Hierarchical structure

0.736

0.157

0.601

0.503

0.905

3.1.2 Population Correlations of the UC Structure As the spatial carrier of the city’s comprehensive functions, the UC structure contains a wide variety of service industries with multiple functions. Unlike the central business district (CBD), which is only affected by high-end modern service industries such as business offices, finance and insurance, etc., the UC structure is subjected to more extensive influence. For example, the scale of the spatial agglomeration among high-end functions within the CBD is closely related to the position occupied by the city in the process of globalization. Therefore, Hong Kong, as an international economic center, is superior to Beijing and Shanghai with respect to the business spatial scale and grade of business formats in its CBD. However, the UC structure does not merely involve the city’s external competitiveness and role fulfilment, but can also be profoundly influenced by the various characteristics of the city itself. Using the urban population as an example, our analysis was able to verify its impact on the spatial scale of the UC structure. In 2008, the population in the municipal districts of Beijing was approximately 11.588 million, that of Shanghai was approximately 13.217 million, whereas that of Hong Kong was only 6.978 million. The gross building area of the UC structure in 2008 were as follows: 58.251 million m2 in Hong Kong, 68.240 million m2 in Beijing, and 53.662 million m2 in Shanghai, which shows that the building area was comparable among the three UC structures, even with a slight lag in Hong Kong behind Beijing. Therefore, this data comparison reveals that urban population size has a far-reaching impact on the UC structure. The discussion on population correlations mainly involves the association between factors such as the population size of the city proper, the population size of the municipal districts, and the population density of the municipal districts, with the various indicators of the UC structure (Table 3.3). Based on the calculations using SPSS, the following results on population correlations were obtained (Table 3.4). The calculation results in the table show that the UC structure moderately correlated with the population of the city proper, highly correlated with the population of

1,391.0

784.1

228.1

624.5

583.4

833.2

173.7

636.0

713.5

486.7

464.2

358.7

946.9

811.7

Shenzhen

Nanjing

Dalian

Wuhan

Xiamen

Fuzhou

Shenyang

Hefei

Wuxi

Changzhou

Xuzhou

Yancheng

1,299.9

Beijing

Guangzhou

697.8

Hong Kong

Shanghai

Population of city proper (10,000 people)

City

161.9

184.4

225.9

237.4

203.5

509.0

186.7

173.7

512.4

298.3

541.2

228.1

645.8

1,321.7

1,158.8

697.8

Population of municipal districts (10,000 people)

Table 3.3 Population correlation analysis

869.3

1,589.7

1,206.6

1,462.9

2,425.3

1,466.5

1,789.8

1,104.1

1,885.3

1,235.2

1,146.0

1,167.8

1,680.5

2,563.9

950.8

/

108.7

400.2

494.9

484.5

434.3

2,564.7

1,176.2

861.6

1,192.3

2,079.0

1,958.8

3,999.4

3,260.4

5,366.2

6,824.0

5,825.1

Population density of UC Structure municipal districts Building (people/km2 ) area/10,000 m2

72.5

235.9

248.1

230.3

197.3

1,160.6

410.6

364.5

491.8

1,027.0

892.6

1,393.1

1,273.6

2,675.2

3,422.8

1,022.4

Land use area/ha

0.85

2.81

2.97

2.72

2.42

18.12

7.23

12.9

33.7

15.5

45.0

28.4

25.6

71.4

1,14.1

40.2

Expansion area/km2

1MC

1MC

1MC

1MC

1MC

1MC-1SC

1MC

1MC-2SC

2MC-1SC

1MC-2SC

1MC-3SC

2MC-1SC

2MC-3SC

2MC-4SC

2MC-4SC

2MC-1SC

Hierarchical structure

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure 201

202

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

Table 3.4 Correlation analysis of urban population and UC structure space Correlation

Population of city proper

Population of municipal districts

Population density of municipal districts

Building area

0.517

0.835

Land use area

0.654

0.889

0.045

Expansion area

0.666

0.897

−0.011

Hierarchical structure

0.553

0.865

0.071

0.033

the municipal districts, but did not correlate with the population density of the municipal districts. Overall, the UC structure mainly undertakes two aspects of service contents. First, it serves the residents within the city by meeting their daily needs of production, living, and security. Second, it serves the residents outside the city by providing extensional services that radiate to the surrounding areas of the city. With respect to the necessity of service provision, the former is necessary, whereas the latter is optional. It is precisely due to the presence and division of labor between these two types of service contents that have given rise to the characteristics of population correlations above. In short, the larger the statistical range, the lower the population correlation (note: the smallest range with respect to the statistical standards of the data is the municipal districts). From a theoretical point of view, if all the service functions of a city only serve the local residents, then the regional extensional services can be ignored. Thus, the urban population (municipal districts) will virtually be able to maintain a functional relationship with a UC structure that has a correlation of 1. Naturally, this is preconditioned on the fact that the statistical standards for the spatial scale of the UC structure must include all spatial carriers of the service industries within the city at the city, district, and residential group levels. However, the presence of regional service functions during the course of city-level development has resulted in a lower correlation between the two, such that the expansion in the statistical range of the population will lead to the continuous decline in correlation. If considered from another perspective, it can be said that a city with stronger regional service functions will have a lower correlation between its UC structure and the urban registered population. Typical cases include Shenzhen and Hong Kong. The table also shows that there is no correlation between the population density of the municipal districts and the spatial scale of the UC structure. This could be attributed to the data bias caused by the homogenization of population density values. In the basic data, the population density of the municipal districts is calculated by dividing the total population of the municipal districts by the total land area of the municipal districts. This gives an average value that does not truly reflect the actual population density of the city. Moreover, the total land use area of the municipal districts also includes a large amount of non-urban land use. In general, population density has a significant impact on single UC zones, but a relatively small effect on the UC structure. Regions with higher population density are more likely to undergo spatial agglomeration of the service industries, thereby forming UC zones.

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure

203

3.1.3 Land Correlations of the UC Structure The development of the UC structure is also affected by the overall spatial form of the city. Generally, the greater the land use area, the larger the expansion area of the UC structure. This is mainly due to the limitations imposed by the service radius of the UC zone. A larger city is more likely to develop a larger number of UC zones, which will be able to meet the needs of the city. Therefore, we will mainly discuss the linkage between the UC structure and the land area of the city proper, land area of the municipal districts, built-up area, and the urban construction land area (Table 3.5). The following results on spatial correlations were obtained from the SPSS calculations (Table 3.6). The calculation results in the table show that aside from the land area of the city proper, which did not correlate with the UC structure, the remaining three indicators were all moderately or highly correlated. This can mainly be attributed to the fact that the research scope of the latter three indicators coincides with the research scope of the UC structure, which basically falls within the scope of the municipal districts. The land area of the city proper includes a large amount of land belonging to countylevel cities under the jurisdiction of the city, and the mismatch in research scope led to the final correlation results between the two.

3.1.4 Functional Correlations of the UC Structure (1) Classification of service industries and land use in UC zones As different disciplines have different understandings of the service industries, they each have their own classifications and statistical criteria for the service industries. Our research in this case, for example, involves economics and urban planning; hence, the prerequisite for studying the level of industrial spatial matching is to integrate and match the different classification standards between the two disciplines. The results are as follows (Table 3.7). By establishing the comparison platform above, we have achieved the linking of urban planning with economics, which is also one of the key foundations for studying the UC structure. (2) Functional composition There is also a wide range of opinions regarding the functional composition of the UC zone, with differing perspectives in each discipline. The theory suggests that the two most prominent areas among the UC zones are the civic center and the CBD, while the functions of the UC zone are dominated by the merits of the CBD. The Chinese scholar, Professor Wu Mingwei, provides a general and comprehensive explanation for the functional composition of UC zones in Planning of the Urban Centrality Zone.

6,340

7,434

1,953

6,582

12,574

8,494

1,573

13,047

12,980

7,047

4,788

4,385

11,258

16,972

Shenzhen

Nanjing

Dalian

Wuhan

Xiamen

Fuzhou

Shenyang

Hefei

Wuxi

Changzhou

Xuzhou

Yancheng

16,411

Beijing

Guangzhou

1,104

Hong Kong

Shanghai

Land area of city proper (km2 )

City

1,862

1,160

1,872

1,623

839

3,471

1,043

1,573

2,718

2,415

4,723

1,953

3,843

5,155

12,187

1,104

Land area of municipal districts (km2 )

Table 3.5 Spatial correlation analysis

125

187

121

208

280

370

177

197

461

258

592

788

895

886

1,311

233

Built-up area (km2 )

81

140

121

195

293

370

131

197

/

397

597

773

/

2,429

1,311

/

Urban construction land area (km2 )

108.7

400.2

494.9

484.5

434.3

2,564.7

1,176.2

861.6

1,192.3

2,079.0

1,958.8

3,999.4

3,260.4

5,366.2

6,824.0

5,825.1

Building area/10,000 m2

UC structure

72.5

235.9

248.1

230.3

197.3

1,160.6

410.6

364.5

491.8

1,027.0

892.6

1,393.1

1,273.6

2,675.2

3,422.8

1,022.4

Land use area/ha

0.85

2.81

2.97

2.72

2.42

18.12

7.23

12.9

33.7

15.5

45.0

28.4

25.6

71.4

114.1

40.2

Expansion area/km2

1MC

1MC

1MC

1MC

1MC

1MC-1SC

1MC

1MC-2SC

2MC-1SC

1MC-2SC

1MC-3SC

2MC-1SC

2MC-3SC

2MC-4SC

2MC-4SC

2MC-1SC

Hierarchical structure

204 3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure

205

Table 3.6 Correlation analysis of urban spatial scale and UC structure space Correlation

Land area of city proper

Building area

−0.062

Land use area

0.172

Expansion area

0.133 −0.037

Hierarchical structure

Land area of municipal districts

Built-up area

Urban construction land use area

0.660

0.762

0.841

0.864

0.892

0.857

0.900

0.860

0.799

0.758

0.874

0.866

Table 3.7 Integration and matching of urban planning land use and economic industries Classification Classification of service of urban land industries use

Classification of urban land use

Classification of service industries

C1 1. Water management industry Land use for 2. Environmental management administrative industry 3. Public facility management offices industry 4. Organs of the Communist Party of China 5. State organs 6. The Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference and democratic parties 7. Mass organizations, social groups, and religious organizations 8. Self-governing grassroots organizations 9. International organizations

C4 Sports land use

1. Sports

C5 Land use for healthcare

1. Healthcare

C21 Commercial land use

1. 2. 3. 4.

Retail industry Catering industry Leasing industry Other service industries

C9 Land use for other public facilities

1. Social security industry 2. Social welfare industry

C22 Land use for finance and insurance

1. 2. 3. 4.

Banking industry Securities industry Insurance industry Other financial activities

W Warehouse land use

1. Warehouse industry

C6 1. Higher education Land use for 2. Other education education, and 3. Research and scientific research and experimental development development 4. Science and technology exchange and promotion service industry

(continued)

206

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

Table 3.7 (continued) Classification Classification of service of urban land industries use

Classification of urban land use

Classification of service industries

C23 Land use for trade consultancy

1. Telecommunications and other information transmission service industries 2. Computer services industry 3. Software industry 4. Real estate 5. Business services industry 6. Professional and technical services industry 7. Geological exploration industry

T Land use for outbound transportation

1. Railway transport industry 2. Road transport industry 3. Urban public transportation industry 4. Waterborne transport industry 5. Air transport industry 6. Pipeline transport industry 7. Cargo handling and other transport industries

C25 Land use for the hotel industry

1. Accommodation industry

U Land use for public municipal utilities

1. Postal industry

C26 Market land use

1. Wholesale industry

R Residential land use

1. Residential services industry 2. Pre-school education 3. Primary education 4. Secondary education

C3 1. News and publishing Cultural and industry entertainment 2. Radio, television, film, and audiovisual industry land use 3. Arts and culture industry 4. Entertainment industry

The UC zone is the area with the greatest vitality in the development of the city. It can be said that in contemporary cities, the majority of facilities for high-end service functions are concentrated within the UC zone. As a functional agglomeration zone that serves the city and the region, the functions of the UC zone must inevitably adapt and be subjected to the requirements of the city itself and the needs of the city’s radiation area. The partitioning and combination of different functions will give rise to different landscapes and vitality in the UC zone. He believes that the service functions of the UC zone mainly consist of the following aspects:

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure

207

(1) Business functions Business functions are the basic functions of the UC zone. They undertake the operation, management, and service provision of the city and its radiation area, and their business facilities include corporate headquarters (production and operational management), international and domestic trade (commodity circulation), banks, securities, insurance (currency investment and credit), etc. The increase in urban business function is directly related to urban economic development and industrial structure upgrade. Cities with different sizes and tiers show substantial disparities in the functional composition of business hubs. Global cities or international metropolises show a much greater ratio and absolute size of office, trade, and financial functions, whereas small to medium-sized cities have weaker business functions and a larger share of commercial retail, thus forming city centers that are dominated by commercial retail. (2) Lifestyle service functions Lifestyle service industries are industries that are closely linked to the lives of urban residents. They include catering services, commercial services, tourism services, etc., of which the commercial retail industry forms an important component of the UC zone. In addition, the growing momentum of the tourism industry implies that it is a rising star in the urban economy. Thus, the series of supporting service facilities related to tourism, such as hotel services, should have a place in the UC zone. (3) Social service functions Social service industries include cultural activities, education and training, healthcare, social welfare, and so on. Scientific research, cultural creation and dissemination, and lifelong learning for all are crucial functions of information cities in the 21st century. Cultural and entertainment functions will occupy an increasingly important position in the future development of UC zones. Culture and entertainment involve the production and exchange of cultural products or intangible goods, while also possessing unique value as the spokespersons and promoters of regional culture. Therefore, theaters, museums, and other cultural buildings have become increasingly important in UC zones. Employment training and continuing education are the inevitable results of economic development and changes in the corporate structure under the future conditions of the knowledge economy. With the shortening of the knowledge life cycle, the training function will become a crucial component among the functions of the UC zone in the future. (4) Specialized market functions Specialized markets include wholesale markets, various specialty streets, etc.

208

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

(5) Administrative management functions Administrative management functions have always been part of the functions of the UC zone. The departments of administrative management are the implementers of macro-management and policy formation. They form an important guarantee for the normal operations of the city. (6) Residential functions Residence is a traditional responsibility of the UC zone. Against the backdrop of economic globalization and integration, there will be an accelerated pace of personnel turnover and a gradual increase in office-style apartments in UC zones. An appropriate number of apartments and houses, as well as supporting open spaces such as parks and green space, will prevent the UC zone from becoming an empty “office zone” at night, which is why many cities around the world have a certain proportion of houses and apartments in UC zones. (3) Calculation of functional correlations The development and evolution of the UC structure are affected by a multifaceted combination of factors, which mainly includes internal drivers, basic guarantee, and external drivers. These three factors can be further divided into nine components: economic development level, industrial structure characteristics, population spatial characteristics, urban structural form, land use characteristics, transportation support characteristics, public policy guidance, sociocultural characteristics, and commercial psychological model. Although these nine components will have some degree of impact on the UC structure, the extent of their influence will vary significantly. For example, the level of economic development has a relatively large impact on the UC structure, whereas that of natural geographical characteristics is comparatively smaller. The UC structure is, in essence, the spatial carrier of the service industries within the city. A higher level of economic development implies a greater scale of service industries within the city, as well as a larger spatial scale of the UC structure. Therefore, the level of economic development, scale of service industries, and spatial scale of the UC structure can be considered to be roughly positively correlated. The level of economic development has a decisive impact on the UC structure. In contrast, given the increasing maturity of construction technology in the present day, the impact of natural geographical characteristics on the UC structure is diminishing. Correlation between urban industrial development and spatial functions of UC zones How does the GDP of the primary, secondary, and tertiary industries of a city relate to the spatial functions of its UC structure (see Fig. 3.1), and are they highly correlated? These are issues that need to be verified. The gross building area for each of the six types of UC structure spatial functions was calculated for typical cities, which were analyzed together with data related to

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure

209

Fig. 3.1 Radar chart of GDP and business functions in typical cities

the level of economic development such as GDP, GDP per capita, GDP growth, and ratio of tertiary industry output value. The following are the correlations of these data calculated using SPSS. ➀ Correlation between the overall level of industrial development and the spatial functions of UC zones The results listed in Table 3.9 (r values) were obtained from the SPSS calculations. |r| ≥ 0.8 indicates a high degree of correlation. Generally, the functions of the UC zone had a high correlation with GDP, low correlation with GDP per capita, and no correlation with GDP growth. Among the various functions, business functions, lifestyle service functions, social service functions, and residential functions were highly correlated with GDP, whereas specialized market functions and administrative management functions had a lower correlation with GDP. Correlation between GDP and building area for business functions Table 3.8 shows the correlation analysis between the GDP and building area for business functions of typical cities. The result obtained from the SPSS calculation was 0.881 (Table 3.9). In addition, a correlation scatterplot between the two was produced, with the building area for business functions as the X axis, and GDP as the Y axis (see Fig. 3.2). The red line in Fig. 3.2 represents a correlation of 1, which implies that the variables are completely correlated. Figure 3.2 shows that almost all of the data

5,087

4,329

2,102

902

2,604

1,737

1,838

831

3,351

Hangzhou

Ningbo

Hefei

Wuhu

Fuzhou

Xiamen

Nanchang

Jiujiang

Jinan

2,390

Xuzhou

7,740

4,230

Nanjing

1,917

15,046

Shanghai

Yancheng

12,150

Beijing

Suzhou

4,350

4,269

1,545

Taiyuan

Shenyang

3,001

Shijiazhuang

Dalian

GDP (RMB 100 million)

City

50,376

17,420

39,669

68,938

38,015

39,142

41,543

60,720

63,333

23,607

122,565

25,100

67,455

78,989

70,452

54,654

70,781

44,319

30,428

GDP per capita (RMB)

12.18

13.80

13.10

8.00

13.00

15.36

17.80

6.70

10.00

13.40

11.50

13.95

11.55

8.24

10.20

14.05

15.00

2.60

11.10

GDP growth (%)

200

19

145

165

314

36

100

17

482

148

148

71

501

1,568

2,022

558

408

1,309

169

Business functions (10,000 m2 )

Table 3.8 Data on the GDP and six types of UC zone functions of typical cities

195

43

173

229

219

76

97

234

208

35

237

98

355

797

993

549

528

186

145

Lifestyle service functions (10,000 m2 )

53

7

41

27

39

29

35

47

128

9

53

27

150

277

348

139

119

12

40

Social service functions (10,000 m2 )

0

0

3

2

0

0

0

121

26

0

2

0

2

62

32

6

8

9

63

Specialized market functions (10,000 m2 )

123

1

61

30

62

3

12

34

34

27

39

27

67

127

236

121

48

24

23

Civic management functions (10,000 m2 )

(continued)

455

56

361

405

584

81

185

400

793

47

383

172

832

2,471

2,979

1,152

947

350

382

Residential functions (10,000 m2 )

210 3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

GDP (RMB 100 million)

4,854

779

2,001

4,621

3,748

8,201

9,138

1,525

6,530

4,503

972

2,724

City

Qingdao

Kaifeng

Luoyang

Wuhan

Changsha

Shenzhen

Guangzhou

Nanning

Chongqing

Chengdu

Guiyang

Xi’an

Table 3.8 (continued)

32,411

24,585

35,215

22,920

21,945

89,082

92,772

56,620

51,144

31,170

16,571

57,251

GDP per capita (RMB)

14.50

13.30

14.70

14.90

15.10

11.70

10.70

14.70

13.70

13.30

12.10

12.20

GDP growth (%)

354

132

373

455

156

713

1,058

253

274

61

3

246

Business functions (10,000 m2 )

399

146

485

568

218

644

748

380

225

152

49

268

Lifestyle service functions (10,000 m2 )

52

26

51

39

43

159

126

67

39

14

2

52

Social service functions (10,000 m2 )

5

1

72

28

6

649

2

3

0

0

4

11

Specialized market functions (10,000 m2 )

44

25

82

31

92

139

110

64

74

56

2

25

Civic management functions (10,000 m2 )

737

298

992

1,087

493

1,489

1,884

673

575

261

53

499

Residential functions (10,000 m2 )

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure 211

212

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

Table 3.9 Correlation analysis of GDP and UC zone spatial functions Business functions

Lifestyle service functions

Social service functions

GDP

0.881

0.85

0.853

0.558

0.704

0.894

GDP per capita

0.485

0.531

0.551

0.141

0.439

0.508

−0.225

−0.145

−0.223

−0.117

−0.123

GDP growth

Specialized market functions

Administrative management functions

Residential functions

−0.22

Fig. 3.2 Correlation between business functions and GDP

points of typical cities on the scatterplot are distributed around the red line, which indicates a high degree of correlation between GDP and the building area for business functions. Among them, 18 cities are distributed above the red line, which implies that GDP was higher relative to the building area for business functions in the UC zones; 12 cities are distributed on the red line; and one city is below the red line, which implies that the building area for business functions was higher relative to GDP. Correlation between GDP and building area for lifestyle service functions Table 3.8 shows the correlation analysis between the GDP and building area for lifestyle service functions of typical cities. The result obtained from the SPSS calculation was 0.894 (Table 3.9). In addition, a correlation scatterplot between the two was produced, with the building area for lifestyle service functions as the X axis, and GDP as the Y axis (see Fig. 3.3).

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure

213

Fig. 3.3 Correlation between lifestyle service functions and GDP

The red line in Fig. 3.3 represents a correlation of 1, which implies that the variables are completely correlated. Figure 3.3 shows that almost all of the data points of typical cities on the scatterplot are distributed around the red line, which indicates a high degree of correlation between GDP and the building area for lifestyle service functions. Among them, four cities are distributed above the red line, which implies that GDP was higher relative to the building area for lifestyle service functions in the UC zones; eight cities are distributed on the red line; and 19 cities are below the red line, which implies that the building area for lifestyle service functions was higher relative to GDP. Correlation between GDP and building area for social service functions Table 3.8 shows the correlation analysis between the GDP and building area for social service functions of typical cities. The result obtained from the SPSS calculation was 0.853 (Table 3.9). In addition, the correlation scatterplot between the two was produced, with the building area for social service functions as the X axis, and GDP as the Y axis (see Fig. 3.4). The red line in Fig. 3.4 represents a correlation of 1, which implies that the variables are completely correlated. Figure 3.4 shows that almost all of the data points of typical cities on the scatterplot are distributed around the red line, which indicates a high degree of correlation between GDP and the building area for social service functions. Among them, 15 cities are distributed above the red line, which implies that GDP was higher relative to the building area for social service functions in the UC zones; nine cities are distributed on the red line; and seven cities are below

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3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

Fig. 3.4 Correlation between social service functions and GDP

the red line, which implies that the building area for social service functions was higher relative to GDP. Correlation between GDP and building area for residential functions Table 3.10 shows the correlation analysis between the GDP and building area for residential functions of typical cities. The result obtained from the SPSS calculation was 0.894 (Table 3.11). In addition, the correlation scatterplot between the two was produced, with the building area for residential functions as the X axis, and GDP as the Y axis (see Fig. 3.5). The red line in Fig. 3.5 represents a correlation of 1, which implies that the variables are completely correlated. Figure 3.5 shows that almost all of the data points of typical cities on the scatterplot are distributed around the red line, which indicates a high degree of correlation between GDP and the building area for residential functions. Among them, eight cities are distributed above the red line, which implies that GDP was higher relative to the building area for residential functions in the UC zones; six cities are distributed on the red line; and 17 cities are below the red line, which implies that the building area for residential functions was higher relative to GDP. Our findings indicate that a city with higher GDP has larger building areas for business functions, lifestyle service functions, social service functions, and residential functions in the UC zone. In contrast, the building area for specialized markets had a low correlation with the city’s GDP because specialized markets tend to be located in the fringe areas of the UC zone. Conversely, larger specialized markets will lead to the formation of a new UC zone, which will result in their extensive coverage

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure

215

Table 3.10 Data on the primary, secondary and tertiary industries of typical cities City

Ratio of primary industry (%)

Ratio of secondary industry (%)

Ratio of tertiary industry (%)

Output value of primary industry (RMB 10,000)

Output value of secondary industry (RMB 10,000)

Output value of tertiary industry (RMB 10,000)

Shijiazhuang

10.27

49.58

40.15

3,082,314

14,880,344

12,050,137

1.85

43.72

54.43

285,869

6,755,793

8,410,746

Taiyuan Dalian

7.21

48.91

43.89

3,135,993

21,273,428

19,089,977

Shenyang

4.85

49.84

45.31

2,070,229

21,274,272

19,340,635

Beijing

0.97

23.50

75.53

1,178,841

28,559,550

91,791,609

Shanghai

0.76

39.89

59.36

1,143,530

60,020,289

89,315,727

Nanjing

3.05

45.64

51.31

1,290,229

19,306,910

21,705,468

Xuzhou

10.46

52.26

37.29

2,500,107

12,490,976

8,912,906

Suzhou

1.85

58.75

39.41

1,431,937

45,473,675

30,504,128

Yancheng

17.24

48.19

34.58

3,304,908

9,238,023

6,628,986

Hangzhou

3.74

46.92

49.33

1,902,744

23,870,798

25,096,898

Ningbo

4.24

54.56

41.20

1,835,624

23,620,674

17,836,726

Hefei

5.17

52.56

42.26

1,086,796

11,082,814

12,538,475

Wuhu

4.64

62.64

32.72

418,527

5,650,126

2,951,343

Fuzhou

9.29

42.56

48.15

2,419,157

11,082,814

12,538,475

Xiamen

1.18

47.26

51.56

204,993

8,210,172

8,957,183

Nanchang

6.09

55.32

38.59

1,119,037

10,165,054

7,090,915

11.07

53.06

35.88

920,319

4,411,215

2,982,932

5.58

43.37

51.05

1,870,061

14,534,867

2,982,932

Qingdao

4.74

49.86

45.40

2,300,733

24,201,381

22,036,557

Kaifeng

21.65

44.41

33.95

1,685,938

3,458,315

2,643,769

Luoyang

8.68

58.31

33.01

1,737,288

11,670,656

6,606,900

Wuhan

3.23

46.36

50.42

1,492,537

21,422,306

23,298,376

Changsha

4.79

50.57

44.64

17,937,288

11,670,656

16,716,626

Guangzhou

1.89

37.26

60.85

1,727,122

34,048,983

55,606,029

Shenzhen

0.08

46.66

53.25

65,610

38,267,347

43,672,016

Nanning

13.93

34.59

51.48

2,123,927

5,273,987

7,849,229

Chongqing

9.29

52.81

37.89

6,066,379

34,484,982

24,742,207

Chengdu

5.95

44.46

49.59

2,679,048

20,018,573

22,328,409

Guiyang

5.15

40.65

54.20

500,548

3,950,928

5,267,905

Xi’an

4.05

42.02

53.92

1,103,252

11,446,584

14,688,239.36

Jiujiang Jinan

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Table 3.11 Correlation analysis of the primary, secondary, and tertiary industries and the spatial functions of UC zones Business functions

Lifestyle service functions

Social service functions

Specialized market functions

Administrative management functions

Residential functions

Ratio of primary industry

−0.487

−0.521

−0.496

−0.154

−0.438

−0.505

Ratio of secondary industry

−0.625

−0.53

−0.583

−0.333

−0.669

−0.612

0.727

0.352

0.767

0.756

Ratio of tertiary industry

0.756

0.698

Output value of primary industry

−0.096

0.062

−0.11

0.292

−0.101

−0.026

Output value of secondary industry

0.672

0.716

0.65

0.479

0.485

0.713

Output value of tertiary industry

0.948

0.865

0.919

0.548

0.789

0.939

Fig. 3.5 Correlation between residential functions and GDP

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure

217

and immense scale. For example, the clothing market in the Qianjiang New Town of Hangzhou has a service range that covers the entire Yangtze River Delta region, which is unmatched by other cities. Land use for administrative functions also had a low correlation with GDP, which was due to the relationship between administrative management functions and administrative levels. If we compare two cities with similar levels of economic development, the one that serves as a provincial capital will have more prominent administrative management functions, thereby lowering its correlation with GDP. The low correlation with GDP per capita can largely be attributed to China’s special household registration system, which implies that the statistics of the urban population only include the registered population in the city, while leaving out a large floating population that also generates GDP for the city. This effect is most pronounced in core economic cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and Nanjing, causing fluctuations in GDP per capita that has resulted in its relatively weak correlation with the spatial functions of its UC zones. GDP growth can be regarded as uncorrelated. This is because cities with similar rates of GDP growth could be cities with a highly developed economy and massive UC structure, or cities with an average level of economic development and small UC structure, thus showing no correlation whatsoever. ➁ Correlation between the characteristics of industrial structure and the spatial functions of UC zones The overall level of industrial development has a relatively high degree of correlation with the spatial functions of the UC zones. Data analysis can also be performed to determine whether the structural characteristics of the primary, secondary, and tertiary industries within the GDP are also highly correlated with the spatial functions of UC zones (see Fig. 3.6). Calculation of correlations between the characteristics of industrial structure and the spatial functions of UC zones The SPSS calculations produced the results listed in Table 3.11. Similarly, |r| ≥ 0.8 indicates a high degree of correlation. The UC zone function showed a moderate negative correlation with the ratio of the primary industry and that of the secondary industry, but it moderately positively correlated with the ratio of the tertiary industry. On the other hand, the UC zone function was not correlated with the output value of the primary industry, moderately positively correlated with that of the secondary industry, and highly correlated with that of the tertiary industry. Among the various functions of the UC zone, it was also the specialized market and administrative management functions that showed a relatively low level of correlation. Correlation between the output value of the tertiary industry and the building area for business functions Table 3.10 shows the correlation analysis between the output value of the tertiary industry and building area for the business functions of typical cities. The result

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3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

Fig. 3.6 Radar chart of tertiary industry output value and business functions in typical cities

obtained from the SPSS calculation was 0.948 (Table 3.11). In addition, a correlation scatterplot between the two was produced, with the building area for business functions as the X axis and the output value of the tertiary industry as the Y axis (see Fig. 3.7). The red line in Fig. 3.7 represents a correlation of 1, which implies that the variables are completely correlated. Figure 3.7 shows that almost all of the data points of typical cities on the scatterplot are distributed around the red line, which indicates a high degree of correlation between the output value of the tertiary industry and the building area for business functions. Among them, 25 cities were distributed above the red line, which implies that the output value of the tertiary industry was higher relative to the building area for business functions in the UC zones; six cities were distributed on the red line; and zero cities were below the red line. Correlation between the output value of the tertiary industry and the building area for lifestyle service functions Table 3.10 shows the correlation analysis between the output value of the tertiary industry and building area for the lifestyle service functions of typical cities. The result obtained from the SPSS calculation was 0.865 (Table 3.11). In addition, a correlation scatterplot between the two was produced, with the building area for lifestyle service functions as the X axis and the output value of the tertiary industry as the Y axis (see Fig. 3.8).

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure

219

Fig. 3.7 Correlation between business functions and the output value of the tertiary industry

Fig. 3.8 Correlation between lifestyle service functions and the output value of the tertiary industry

The red line in Fig. 3.8 represents a correlation of 1, which implies that the variables are completely correlated. Figure 3.8 shows that almost all of the data points of typical cities on the scatterplot are distributed around the red line, which indicates a high degree of correlation between the output value of the tertiary industry

220

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

and the building area for lifestyle service functions. Among them, five cities were distributed above the red line, which implies that the output value of the tertiary industry was higher relative to the building area for lifestyle service functions in the UC zones. Twenty cities were distributed on the red line. Six cities were below the red line, which implies that the building area for lifestyle service functions was higher relative to the output value of the tertiary industry. Correlation between the output value of the tertiary industry and the building area for social service functions Table 3.10 shows the correlation analysis between the output value of the tertiary industry and building area for the social service functions of typical cities. The result obtained from the SPSS calculation was 0.919 (Table 3.11). In addition, a correlation scatterplot between the two was produced, with the building area for social service functions as the X axis and the output value of the tertiary industry as the Y axis (see Fig. 3.9). The red line in Fig. 3.9 represents a correlation of 1, which implies that the variables are completely correlated. Figure 3.9 shows that almost all of the data points of typical cities on the scatterplot are distributed around the red line, which indicates a high degree of correlation between the output value of the tertiary industry and the building area for social service functions. Fourteen cities were distributed above the red line, which implies that the output value of the tertiary industry was higher relative to the building area for social service functions in the UC zones. Ten cities were distributed on the red line. Seven cities were below the red line, which

Fig. 3.9 Correlation between social service functions and the output value of the tertiary industry

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure

221

Fig. 3.10 Correlation between residential functions and output value of the tertiary industry

implies that the building area for social service functions was higher relative to the output value of the tertiary industry. Correlation between the output value of the tertiary industry and the building area for residential functions Table 3.10 shows the correlation analysis between the output value of the tertiary industry and building area for the residential functions of typical cities. The result obtained from the SPSS calculation was 0.939 (Table 3.11). In addition, a correlation scatterplot between the two was produced, with the building area for residential functions as the X axis and the output value of the tertiary industry as the Y axis (see Fig. 3.10). The red line in Fig. 3.10 represents a correlation of 1, which implies that the variables were completely correlated. Figure 3.10 shows that almost all of the data points of typical cities on the scatterplot are distributed around the red line, which indicates a high degree of correlation between the output value of the tertiary industry and the building area for residential functions. Ten of the cities were distributed above the red line, which implies that the output value of the tertiary industry was higher relative to the building area for residential functions in the UC zones. Six cities were distributed on the red line. Fifteen cities were below the red line, which implies that the building area for residential functions was higher relative to the output value of the tertiary industry. The ratios of the primary and secondary industries moderately negatively correlated with the functions of the UC structure. This is because, in the course of urban development, there was a continuous expansion in the functions of the city, while the evolution from an average to a high degree of urbanization was accompanied

222

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

by the shrinking of the primary and secondary industries and the rise of the tertiary industry. ➂ Correlation between the development of the tertiary industry and the spatial functions of UC zones The research findings indicate that there is a very high correlation between the functions of the UC structure and urban GDP, of which the tertiary industry maintains a high degree of correlation. The tertiary industry has become the main driving force behind the development of economic centers, while the changes and development of UC structure functions are a manifestation of the development level of the tertiary industry in physical space. The results obtained from the SPSS calculation showed that UC structure functions are intimately associated with the tertiary industry. The tertiary industry includes the transportation, warehousing, and postal industries; information transmission, computer services, and software industries; wholesale and retail industries; accommodation and catering industries; financial industry; real estate; leasing and business service industries; scientific research, technical services, and geological exploration industries; water, environmental, and public facility management industries; residential and other service industries; education industry; healthcare, social security, and social welfare industries; cultural, sports, and entertainment industries; public management and social organizations. These can be categorized into three types of service industries, namely lifestyle, production, and social service industries. The corresponding functional land use of lifestyle service industries in the UC zone include commercial catering, markets, etc.; that of production service industries include finance, trade consultancy, conventions and exhibitions, etc.; and that of social service industries include administrative offices, culture, sports, healthcare, education, etc. Typical cities with well-developed tertiary industries were selected to calculate data related to their tertiary industries, which were then used to perform the correlation analysis with the three functional land uses of UC zones. This allowed us to examine how the two are associated (see Fig. 3.11) and whether there is a high degree of correlation. Correlation between lifestyle service industries and the building area for lifestyle functions The data on the lifestyle GDP and lifestyle building area of the 15 cities listed in Table 3.12 were selected for correlation analysis. The result obtained from the SPSS calculation was 0.881. In addition, a correlation scatterplot between the two was produced, with the building area for lifestyle functions as the X axis and the lifestyle service industries as the Y axis (see Fig. 3.12). |r| ≥ 0.8 indicates a high degree of correlation. The results showed that there is a high degree of correlation between lifestyle service industries and the building area for lifestyle functions. The red line in Fig. 3.12 represents a correlation of 1, which implies that the variables are completely correlated. Figure 3.12 shows that almost all of the data points of the 15 typical cities on the scatterplot are distributed around the red line, which indicates a high degree of correlation between the two.

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223

Fig. 3.11 Radar chart of tertiary industry output value and business functions in typical cities Table 3.12 Data related to the service industries and UC structure of typical cities City

GDP of lifestyle service industries (RMB 100 million)

GDP of production service industries (RMB 100 million)

GDP of social service industries (RMB 100 million)

Building area of lifestyle public facilities (10,000 m2 )

Building area of production public facilities (10,000 m2 )

Building area of social public facilities (10,000 m2 )

Shenyang

556.81

829.37

491.13

5,547

558

260

Nanjing

529.07

1,129.40

511.95

357

501

217

Hangzhou

585.03

1,129.40

553.62

234

505

139

Qingdao

719.58

956.07

497.36

279

246

76

Shenzhen

1,128.42

2,654.76

509.99

279

246

207

Wuhan

657.38

1,046.56

578.05

225

282

105

Ningbo

536.55

892.48

327.81

247

174

Shanghai

2,579.04

4,920.55

1,343.77

858

1,613

360

Beijing

1,861.40

5,098.80

1,960.00

1,024

2,022

585

Xiamen

292.07

454.42

138.08

231

165

57

Guangzhou

1,508.21

2,980.56

950.56

709

736

276

Xuzhou

312.68

411.95

156.18

98

71

54

Jinan

575.00

768.06

353.68

195

200

176

Suzhou

1,149.97

1,423.30

433.67

239

148

93

Chongqing

726.34

1,199.15

516.81

596

471

54

79

224

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

Fig. 3.12 Correlation between building area for lifestyle functions and lifestyle GDP

These cities can be further divided into three categories. Parity: six cities (Hangzhou, Qingdao, Wuhan, Ningbo, Xuzhou, and Jinan) were virtually on the red line. Excess: in two cities (Shanghai and Suzhou), the lifestyle GDP was higher relative to the lifestyle building area. Deficit: in seven cities (Shenyang, Nanjing, Shenzhen, Beijing, Xiamen, Guangzhou, and Chongqing), the lifestyle building area was higher relative to the lifestyle GDP. Correlation between production service industries and the building area for production functions The data on the production GDP and production building area of typical cities were selected for correlation analysis. The result obtained from the SPSS calculation was 0.952 (Table 3.13). In addition, a correlation scatterplot between the two was produced, with the building area for production functions as the X axis and the production GDP as the Y axis (see Fig. 3.13). |r| ≥ 0.8 indicates a high degree of correlation. The results indicate a high degree of correlation between production service industries and the building area for production functions. The red line in the figure represents a correlation of 1, which implies that the variables are completely correlated. Figure 3.13 shows that almost all of the data points of the 15 cities on the scatterplot are distributed around the red line, which indicates a high degree of correlation between the two. These cities can be further divided into three categories. Parity: five cities (Nanjing, Hangzhou, Shenzhen, Xiamen, and Chongqing) were virtually on the red line. Excess: in nine cities (Qingdao, Ningbo, Shanghai, Suzhou, Jinan, Wuhan, Xuzhou, Beijing, and Guangzhou), the production GDP was higher relative to the

Shenyang

Xiamen

Wuhan

Dalian

Nanjing

Shenzhen

Guangzhou

Shanghai

Middle Street

165.2

Zhongshan-Huigong

995.4

142.1

148.0

167.2

Yundang Lake

232.9

Lianban

Jianghan Road

203.0

763.0

Hongshan Square

Xinghai Square

Zhongshan Road

126.7

448.7

553.9

Hunan Road

657.2

Xinjiekou

Futian

335.8

512.6

Luohu

Beijing Road

Zhujiang New Town

953.4

1,197.8

941.8

Lujiazui

1,640.9

People’s Square

Xidan

Chaoyang

330.4

452.6

Beijing

Yau Tsim Mong

Central District

Hong Kong

Land use area P2 (ha)

Land use area P1 (ha)

City

Table 3.13 Basic data on the primacy of the hierarchical structure

6.03

1.04

1.39

3.76

3.54

1.19

1.53

1.26

1.74

1.37

Land use scale➂ primacy

2,257.9

Zhongshan-Huigong

422.5

Lianban

495.8

Jianghan Road

1,602.3

Zhongshan Road

1,285.4

Xinjiekou

2,022.7

Luohu

1,286.6

Zhujiang New Town

2,873.3

People’s Square

3,565.8

Chaoyang

3,110.4

Central District

Building area P1 (10,000 m2 )

306.9

Middle Street

235.1

Yundang Lake

482.4

Hongshan Square

276.7

Xinghai Square

363.0

Hunan Road

1,476.2

Futian

947.1

Beijing Road

1,485.4

Lujiazui

1,747.5

Xidan

1,642.0

Yau Tsim Mong

Building area P2 (10,000 m2 )

7.36

1.80

1.03

5.79

3.54

1.37

1.36

1.93

2.04

1.89

Construction scale primacy

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure 225

226

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

Fig. 3.13 Correlation between building area for production functions and production GDP

production building area. Deficit: in one city (Shenyang), the production building area was higher relative to the production GDP. Correlation between social service industries and the building area for social functions The data on the social GDP and social building area of the 15 cities listed in Table 3.12 were selected for correlation analysis. The result obtained from the SPSS calculation was 0.915. In addition, a correlation scatterplot between the two was produced, with the building area for social functions as the X axis and the social GDP as the Y axis (see Fig. 3.14). |r| ≥ 0.8 indicates a high degree of correlation. The results indicate a high degree of correlation between the social service industries and the building area for social functions. The red line in Fig. 3.14 represents a correlation of 1, which implies that the variables are completely correlated. Figure 3.14 shows that almost all of the data points of the 15 cities on the scatterplot are distributed around the red line, which indicates a high degree of correlation between the two. These cities can be further divided into three categories. Parity: five cities (Beijing, Ningbo, Xiamen, Guangzhou, and Xuzhou) were virtually on the red line. Excess: in six cities (Hangzhou, Qingdao, Wuhan, Shanghai, Suzhou, and Chongqing), the social GDP was higher relative to the social building area. Deficit: in four cities (Shenyang, Nanjing, Shenzhen, and Jinan), the social building area was higher relative to the social GDP. In summary, the following conclusions can be drawn.

3.1 Correlation Analysis of the UC Structure

227

Fig. 3.14 Correlation between building area for social functions and social GDP

There is a high degree of correlation between the lifestyle service industries and the building area for lifestyle functions. Lifestyle service industries include tertiary industries such as wholesale and retail, accommodation and catering, residential services, and other service industries. The corresponding building area for lifestyle functions includes that of commerce, markets, hotels, and mixed-use buildings for the above uses. The correlation between the two, calculated using SPSS, was 0.881, that is, > 0.8, which indicates a high degree of correlation. There is a high degree of correlation between the production service industries and the building area for production functions. Production service industries include tertiary industries such as the transportation, warehousing and postal industries, information transmission, computer services, and software industries, financial industry, real estate, leasing, and business service industries. The corresponding building area for production functions includes that of finance, trade consultancy, conventions, and exhibitions. The correlation between the two, calculated using SPSS, was 0.952, that is, >0.8, which indicates a high degree of correlation. There is a high degree of correlation between the social service industries and the building area for social functions. Social service industries include tertiary industries such as the scientific research, technical services, and geological exploration industries; water, environmental, and public facility management industries; education industry; healthcare, social security, and social welfare industries; culture, sports, and entertainment industries; public administration; and social organizations. The corresponding building area for social functions includes that of administrative offices, culture and entertainment, sports, healthcare, and education. The correlation

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3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

between the two, calculated using SPSS, was 0.915, that is, >0.8, which indicates a high degree of correlation. The more developed the lifestyle, production, and social service industries in the city, the larger the area of the corresponding functional buildings in the UC zone. Lifestyle service industries maintained a high correlation with the building area for lifestyle functions; production service industries maintained a high correlation with the building area for production functions; and social service industries maintained a high correlation with the building area for social functions. Therefore, more advanced development of the lifestyle, production, and social service industries as part of the city’s tertiary industry will result in a greater building area of public facilities within the UC zone. According to the correlation patterns above, the scale and structure of public facilities within the UC zone can be determined based on the development trends of different categories of service industries within the city, thereby allowing us to predict the future volume of construction that may take place in UC zones for commercial, business, and social public service facilities.

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure There is a strong hierarchical relationship among the UC zones within the UC structure, which is not only reflected in the spatial scale of the UC zones but also in the grade and scale of their service industries. There are significant hierarchical differences among comprehensive main centers, specialized sub-centers, and districtlevel centers in terms of size hierarchy, radiative capacity, grade of business formats, industry types, supporting infrastructure, and other aspects. These hierarchical differences can be mainly attributed to the different roles played by the UC zones within the UC structure. As the unified whole constituted by all the UC zones within the city, an important feature exhibited by the UC structure is its hierarchicality, which is most prominently manifested in the hierarchy of the spatial scale among the UC zones. Whether it is in terms of land use or construction scale, the UC structure will always follow a spatial distribution with the main center as the largest, followed by the sub-centers, and finally the district-level centers as the smallest. Although there are certain differences in the UC hierarchical structure among different cities, there is a clear hierarchicality in the spatial scale of all UC structures. Fundamentally, the polarization in the urban spatial structure caused by the agglomeration and dispersion mechanisms of the service industries is the essential cause of spatial differentiation, as well as the fundamental reason for the hierarchical differences in spatial scale within the UC structure. The spatial layout and scale of UC zones are determined by the service providers and service recipients within the UC zones, while these institutional units are, in turn, determined by the development level of the service industries within the city. Thus, the layout of the service industries within the city can be considered to be a determinant of the spatial layout of UC

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure

229

Fig. 3.15 Impact on industrial and spatial layout

zones within the UC structure. Since space is the carrier of the service industries, the development scale of the service industries is largely determined by the spatial scale of the UC zone. Therefore, the hierarchicality of scale in the agglomeration of service industries within the UC zone has led to the hierarchicality of its external spatial scale (Fig. 3.15). The hierarchy of spatial scale in the UC structure is largely due to the comprehensive effects of multiple factors on the service industries under the regulation of the market economy. Different service industries will also have a significant impact on the spatial venue and development scale. For example, business offices, finance and insurance, and similar service industries will bring about high-density development, whereas traditional commerce will emphasize low-density construction. Although the following can all be categorized as retail commerce, residential service industries are mainly agglomerated in district-level centers and a small number of suburban sub-centers, and they have a smaller scale of development, whereas large-scale retail commerce industries are mostly agglomerated in comprehensive main centers and sub-centers, where they undertake city-level service functions. This has also led to substantial hierarchical differences in the scale of service industries. Therefore, the categories of service industries within the UC zones will determine the scale of their spatial construction to a certain extent, while also indirectly affecting the hierarchy of the spatial scale in the UC structure. Naturally, several other factors can also influence the hierarchy of the spatial scale in the UC structure, such as political, legal, cultural, psychological, and natural environmental factors. It is precisely the superimposed influence of multiple factors that has given rise to the differences in the hierarchy of spatial scale in each UC structure. Based on a survey of towns in southern Germany, Walter Christäller published Central Places in Southern Germany in 1933, which systematically elucidated the number, size and distribution patterns of central places, and established the central place theory.3 Through the abstract analysis and summary of the spatial distances, industrial service range, and other aspects of central places, Christäller provided 3 Xueqiang

et al. [1].

230

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

Fig. 3.16 Overlapping of circular market areas and the formation of the hexagonal network

Fig. 3.17 K = 3 (marketing principle) formation of the UC structure

theoretical proof for the presence and underlying cause for the hierarchy of spatial scale within the UC structure (Fig. 3.16).4 By analyzing and discussing the spatial layout pattern of each tier of central places on an “ideal surface,” he derived a network of central places distributed in a hexagonal lattice and explored the model proposed by the central place theory based on marketing, transport, and administrative principles (Fig. 3.17). The theory also points out that central place functions are also hierarchical, that is, higher (lower) order central places will produce higher (lower) order central goods or provide higher (lower) order services. Not only is this one of the foundations for the establishment of the central place theory; it also reveals the 4 Xueqiang

et al. [2].

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure

231

root cause for the spatial hierarchy within the UC structure at the meso and micro scales.

3.2.1 The Primacy of the Hierarchical Structure The law of the primate city is a generalization proposed by Mark Jefferson in 1939 on the distribution patterns of sizes among national cities. Based on the analysis of 51 countries (six of which were analyzed at two different time periods), he found that the largest city in 28 countries had a population that was at least twice as large as the next largest city, while the largest city in 18 countries was at least three times as large as the next largest city. Therefore, Jefferson believed that this phenomenon constituted a systematic relationship. The concept of the primate city has now been widely applied. Primacy refers to the ratio between the population of the largest city and the second-largest city in the country and has become an indicator that is commonly used to measure the distribution of city size. Primacy represents, to a certain extent, the concentration of the urban population in the UC structure within the largest city.5 With its expanding scope of application, primacy has been used to study an increasing variety of research targets. It is no longer limited to research on urban populations, but it can also be employed in the indicator analysis of building area, land use area, industrial scale, and other aspects of the hierarchal structure. Therefore, this concept was introduced into the research on the hierarchical relationship of the UC structure, with a focus on the agglomeration level of spatial scale within the primate UC zones of the UC structure; thus, it can be defined as spatial scale primacy. This refers to the ratio of the spatial scale between the primate UC zone and the next largest UC zone. Evidently, spatial scale primacy can be further divided, based on the differences in research targets, into two major categories: land use scale primacy and construction scale primacy. The basic data of the various case cities are shown below (Table 3.13). Spatial scale primacy =

the primate UC zone P1 the next largest UC zone P2

(3.1)

The data show that the UC structure can be divided, according to its hierarchical differences, into two major categories: 1MC-MSC and 2MC-MSC. 1MCMSC mainly includes cities such as Nanjing, Dalian, Xiamen, and Shenyang, while 2MC-MSC include cities such as Hong Kong, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and Wuhan. In general, the primacy of the hierarchical structure is significantly higher in 1MC-MSC cities compared to 2MC-MSC cities. Furthermore, nearly all cities showed higher values for construction scale primacy compared to land use scale primacy. This may have been because the agglomeration effect of the primate 5 Xueqiang

et al. [3].

232

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

main center has enabled it to attract the majority of high-end industries such as business offices and finance and insurance within the city, and the corresponding spatial carrier for such industries tend to exhibit a high intensity of vertical development, thereby increasing the construction scale primacy. Based on the development of the UC structure, we can analyze a possible process of changes in the primacy of the UC structure from a relatively abstract perspective. We will discuss each stage of this process in greater detail to observe the changes more clearly. Stage 1: Evolution from 1MC to the 1MC-MSC structure. During the 1MC stage, sub-centers have not yet emerged; hence, the primacy of the hierarchical structure does not exist. As sub-centers begin to appear, the primacy of the hierarchical structure will also begin to take shape. At this point, primacy will be at a relatively high level as the sub-centers have only undergone a short period of development and are still in their infancy, thus showing low levels on both the land use scale and the construction scale. In contrast, the comprehensive main center has undergone a relatively stable and long period of development, enabling it to occupy an absolute position of dominance in terms of spatial scale. Therefore, the primacy of the hierarchical structure will peak at this point. From this point onwards, the comprehensive main center will begin to experience a slowdown in development and a lower growth rate in spatial scale due to the “negative effects” of agglomeration. Conversely, the sub-centers will have entered a stage of rapid development, thus exhibiting a flourishing trend of swift expansion and a constant stream of new buildings. Therefore, in the early development of the 1MC-SC stage, the primacy of the hierarchical structure will show an overall trend of continuous decline. Stage 2: Evolution from 1MC-MSC to 2MC-MSC. With the continuous development and growth of the sub-centers, their urban functions will gradually shift from those of a specialized sub-center to those of a comprehensive main center, thus gradually reducing the primacy of the hierarchical structure. At this stage, two possible situations may occur in the changes of primacy. In the first scenario, the spatial scale of the new main center is inferior to that of the original main center and remains in the second place. An obvious example of this is Shanghai. The new main center, Lujiazui, undertakes various urban functions, such as business offices and finance and insurance, but due to urban location, population distribution, psychological factors, and various other reasons, its development scale is still inferior to that of the People’s Square UC zone. Therefore, Shanghai’s primacy level is still showing a slow decline and has begun to plateau (Fig. 3.18). In the second scenario, the new main center will gradually replace the original main center as the primate UC zone during the course of development. For example, in Guangzhou, the Zhujiang New Town UC zone has aggregated a large number of high-end service industries, whereas the low development intensity and land use rate in the Beijing Road UC zone have caused it to slowly lag behind Zhujiang New Town in terms of spatial scale, thus causing the primacy in Guangzhou to exhibit a trend of initial decrease, followed by an increase. At a certain critical point, the spatial scales of the two main centers will be roughly equal, at which point the primacy will be 1, which is the lowest point in the primacy

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure

233

Fig. 3.18 Schematic diagram 1 on the development of primacy

of a hierarchical structure. After increasing by a certain amount from this lowest point, the primacy will gradually begin to plateau (Fig. 3.19). The data also show that, even though Wuhan has a 2MC-MSC UC structure, while Xiamen is in the 1MC-MSC camp, the former shows substantial fluctuations in the primacy of its hierarchical structure compared to other cities. This phenomenon is due to the following reasons: Wuhan has formed a unique UC structure due to its special urban location and natural geographical conditions. Wuhan is separated by the Yangtze River valley and its longest tributary, the Han River, into three sections, forming a spatial pattern around the tripod of three towns: Wuchang, Hankou, and Hanyang. Hence, Wuhan can be regarded as the integration of “two cities and one county.” The limitations in supporting transportation facilities have led to the relatively independent and balanced development of Wuchang and Hankou, which has Fig. 3.19 Schematic diagram 2 on the development of primacy

234

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

resulted in fluctuations in the primacy of the hierarchical structure. In addition, the lack of aggregated urban construction in Wuhan has also affected the development of its UC structure to a certain extent, as well as the shaping of the image for the entire UC zone.

3.2.2 The Hierarchical Difference of a Hierarchical Structure The comprehensive main center plays a crucial role in the development of a UC structure. Not only is it the leading force of urban development, but it is also the core of urban public services. The diversified aggregation of its internal service functions will also enable more intensive and effective operations among the UC zones. The spatial scale of the comprehensive main center can indirectly reflect the development status and stage of the city. The development of the city’s sub-centers, on the other hand, is affected by a multitude of factors, such as urban development strategy, population size, regional transportation location, direction of industrial development, and so on, leading to significant differences in the development status of sub-centers among different cities. The division of labor between the main and sub-centers within the UC structure can be gleaned from the differences in their spatial scales. Unlike primacy, which studies the spatial scale of the two largest UC zones within the UC structure, the hierarchical difference mainly focuses on the proportional relationship between the average spatial scales of the comprehensive main centers and the specialized sub-centers. Based on the comparative analysis of the average spatial scales between the main and sub-centers in the UC structure, we can obtain the ratio of the dominant role played by the comprehensive main center in the UC structure, as well as reflect the structural characteristics of the spatial scale in the UC structure. The basic data of the various case cities are shown below (Table 3.14). Spatial scale hierarchical =

the average spatial scales of the comprehensive main centers nters S1 the average spatial scale of the specialized sub − ce S2

(3.2)

The data shows that, apart from Xiamen, the values of the hierarchical difference for the remaining three 1MC-MSC cities (Nanjing, Dalian, and Shenyang) were about 6–7, while those of 2MC-MSC cities did not show a clear pattern, which can be explained by the development stages of their UC structure. Among the 2MCMSC cities, Hong Kong has the most advanced and longest duration of development, followed by Beijing and Shanghai, while the “dual core” UC structure has emerged most recently in Guangzhou and Shenzhen. Thus, the cities can be divided into the three sub-categories above, based on the development stages of their UC structure, while similar results have also been yielded from the data.

Nanjing

Shenzhen

Guangzhou

Shanghai

Hexi, Hunan Road Confucius Temple

148.0

Xinjiekou

448.7

181.9

605.6

141.8

Che Kung Temple

424.2

Luohu, Futian

Sanyuanli, Huanshi East Road, Shangxiajiu

128.1

1,081.3

Zhujiang New Town Beijing Road

Xujiahui, Railway Station Hongqiao, Jiangwan

210.0

1,291.3

People’s Square Lujiazui

Zhongguancun, Sanyuan Bridge West Station, Qianmen

Chaoyang, Xidan

239.4

391.5

Beijing

Kwun Tong

Central District, Yau Tsim Mong

Hong Kong

3.03

3.33

2.99

8.44

6.15

1.64

Average land use Hierarchical area of sub-center(s) difference in land use (ha) scale

Average land use area of main center(s) (ha)

City

Table 3.14 Basic data on the hierarchical difference of the hierarchical structure

1,285.4

Xinjiekou

1,749.4

Luohu, Futian

1,116.8

Zhujiang New Town Beijing Road

2,179.3

People’s Square Lujiazui

2,656.6

Chaoyang, Xidan

2,376.2

Central District, Yau Tsim Mong

Average building area of main center(s) (10,000 m2 )

224.5

Hexi, Hunan Road Confucius Temple

500.5

Che Kung Temple

342.2

Sanyuanli, Huanshi East Road, Shangxiajiu

251.9

Xujiahui, Railway Station Hongqiao, Jiangwan

377.7

Zhongguancun, Sanyuan Bridge West Station, Qianmen

1,072.8

Kwun Tong

Average building area of sub-center(s) (10,000 m2 )

5.73

3.50

3.26

8.65

7.03

2.21

(continued)

Hierarchical difference of construction scale

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure 235

Shenyang

Xiamen

165.2

995.4

108.3

Middle Street

148.0

Zhongshan-Huigong

Zhongshan Road, Yundang Lake

91.7

200.0

Lianban

Jianshe Avenue

Jianghan Road Hongshan Square

132.0

763.0

Wuhan

Xinghai Square, Xi’an Road

Zhongshan Road

Dalian

6.03

1.37

2.18

5.78

Average land use Hierarchical area of sub-center(s) difference in land use (ha) scale

Average land use area of main center(s) (ha)

City

Table 3.14 (continued)

2,257.9

Zhongshan-Huigong

422.5

Lianban

489.1

Jianghan Road Hongshan Square

1,602.3

Zhongshan Road

Average building area of main center(s) (10,000 m2 )

306.9

Middle Street

219.6

Zhongshan Road, Yundang Lake

214.1

Jianshe Avenue

238.3

Xinghai Square, Xi’an Road

Average building area of sub-center(s) (10,000 m2 )

7.36

1.92

2.28

6.72

Hierarchical difference of construction scale

236 3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure

237

Fig. 3.20 Distribution of construction land use in Zhujiang New Town, Guangzhou. *Source Southeast University Academy of Urban Planning and Design, Guangzhou city-level UC structure planning, 2008

This can mainly be attributed to the fact that Guangzhou and Shenzhen are relatively young 2MC-MSC cities, and their new comprehensive main centers are undergoing rapid expansion in spatial size. Due to a relatively short time span of development, the spatial scale of the comprehensive main center is still fairly small, resulting in relatively low values of hierarchical difference. Using Guangzhou in 2008 as an example, the entire Zhujiang New Town main center was still in the construction phase (Fig. 3.20),6 and the construction land area within the UC zone was only 1.2 km2 , accounting for 23.7% of the total construction land area. As the dominant functions of new construction land are mainly based on industries with high-intensity 6 Reference

[4].

238

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

spatial development, such as business offices, finance and insurance, etc., there is reason to believe that after this round of rapid development, the spatial scale of the Zhujiang New Town UC zone will be increased substantially. The Beijing Road UC zone, on the other hand, has undergone “shrinking” of its spatial scale due to low land use rate, low development intensity, and other factors. As the core area of the UC zone, the Beijing Road pedestrian street has maintained a “single-layer” development model (Fig. 3.21), which is not only a waste of land resources in the UC zone but also reduces its operational efficiency. Beijing and Shanghai are equivalent to Guangzhou and Shenzhen after the latter have undergone a round of rapid development, exhibiting a substantial increase in the spatial scale of the comprehensive main centers following the new round of rapid construction. In addition, the strong

Fig. 3.21 Single-layer development along Beijing Road in Guangzhou. *Source Southeast University Academy of Urban Planning and Design, Guangzhou city-level UC structure planning, 2008

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure

239

agglomeration effect of the main centers in Beijing and Shanghai has restricted the development of the specialized sub-centers to a certain extent, thus elevating the values of hierarchical difference. As for Hong Kong, the gradual saturation in the development of its comprehensive main centers has created excellent opportunities for the development of its sub-centers, and the trend of increase in the spatial scale of the latter will also lead to the decrease in the hierarchical difference of the hierarchical structure. As with the primacy of the hierarchical structure, the analysis of the hierarchical difference should also take into account the characteristics of the UC structure at different stages of its evolution to observe the different patterns of change that may occur at different stages. Stage 1: Evolution from 1MC to the 1MC-MSC structure. The “negative effects” of agglomeration experienced by the main center will lead to industrial separation, thereby producing specialized sub-centers. At this point, the sub-centers have only undergone a short period of development and have a small spatial scale, hence resulting in high values of hierarchical difference in the hierarchical structure. However, these values will show an overall trend of decrease in subsequent development, which is mainly due to the significant lag in the development rate of the main center compared to the sub-centers at this stage. It is worth noting that as the specialized sub-centers expand in spatial scale, the urban positioning of the sub-center with the most advanced development will gradually change, specifically, the transformation from the original specialized sub-center into a comprehensive main center. This type of role transformation will have a profound impact on the hierarchical difference of the hierarchical structure. When a certain critical point is reached during this role transformation, the dual positioning of the UC zone will determine the dual attributes of the hierarchical difference. When the UC zone exists as a specialized sub-center, this implies that the hierarchical difference has reached the lowest point of Stage 1. On the other hand, when it serves as a new main center, this implies that the hierarchical difference has jumped to the higher starting point of Stage 2. Stage 2: Evolution from 1MC-MSC to 2MC-MSC. With the completion of the role transformation in the UC zone, the specialized sub-center with the largest spatial scale will become a comprehensive main center, thus causing a leap in the hierarchical difference, while also signifying the start of the second stage of development. As mentioned in the previous analysis, the hierarchical difference will exhibit an overall trend of an initial increase, followed by a decrease during the second stage of development. The main reason for this occurrence is the substitution of key spatial expansion targets in the UC structure. It can be inferred that the subsequent Stage 3 (evolution from 2MC-MSC to MMC) will also exhibit a dynamic process of change that is similar to that of Stage 2; hence, the curve depicting the main changes in the hierarchical difference of the hierarchical structure can be plotted as shown in Fig. 3.22.

240

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

Fig. 3.22 Schematic diagram on the development of hierarchical difference

3.2.3 The Centrality of the Hierarchical Structure The centrality of a place can be understood as the sum of the relative significance of the place to its surrounding area. In simple terms, it is the strength of the radiation emitted by the place to its surrounding areas. When applied to UC zones, it is the size of the role played by the UC zone with respect to the provision of central service functions, which can be measured relatively simply using the ratio of its spatial construction scale within the entire UC structure, such that a higher ratio indicates a higher centrality. The primate UC zone plays an important “leadership” role within the UC structure, occupying a leading position both in terms of land use and construction scale. Therefore, this section will mainly discuss the comparative analysis of the spatial scale centrality of the primate main centers within the UC structures of different cities, in an attempt to uncover underlying patterns. Therefore, the spatial scale centrality of the primate main center is defined as the ratio between the spatial scale of the primate main center and the overall spatial scale of the UC structure. The Spatial scale centrality of the primate main centers =

the spatial scales of the primate main center the overall spatial scale of the UC structure

(3.3) Two patterns can be observed from the data in the table. First, nearly all cities showed a higher construction scale centrality compared to land use scale centrality. This implies that, compared with other UC zones, the primate main center is clearly characterized by high-intensity development as a spatial carrier. Different industrial

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure

241

categories correspond to different characteristics in spatial form. For example, traditional commerce emphasizes low-density development and the preservation of traditional styles; the convention and exhibition industry emphasize buildings with large spaces and wide span. Business offices, finance and insurance, and other high-end service industries emphasize high-intensity, vertical development. The high-intensity development of the primate main center can indirectly reflect the higher agglomeration of high-end service industries, such as business offices, finance and insurance, etc., within this UC zone compared to other UC zones. This conclusion can also be verified using the results of spatial location selection by the service industries under the conditions of a market economy. Although the “negative effects” of agglomeration have emerged in the primate main center due to excessive industrial competition, it still provides a superior platform to high-end service industries as the largest and most accessible UC zone with the most complete supporting infrastructure within the city. High-end service industries can rely on their strong profitability to gradually occupy superior locations within the city and undergo spatial agglomeration within the primate main center, thus leading to an increase in the centrality of construction scale (Table 3.15). Second, overall, the centrality of the hierarchical structure will exhibit a general trend of decline until it reaches a plateau as the city evolves from 1MC-MSC to 2MC-MSC. During the 1MC stage, the primate main center is the only spatial venue for the provision of city-level comprehensive services within the city; hence, the centrality of the hierarchical structure at this stage is 1. Following the separation and re-agglomeration of the service industries, the emergence of specialized subcenters will lead to a significant decrease in centrality, and a quicker pace of spatial expansion in the specialized sub-centers will lead to a more significant decrease Table 3.15 Basic data on the centrality of the hierarchical structure City

Land use area of primate main center (ha)

Land use area of UC structure (ha)

Land use scale centrality

Building area of primate main center (10,000 m2 )

Building area of UC structure (10,000 m2 )

Construction scale centrality

Hong Kong

452.6

1,022.4

0.443

3,110.4

5,825.1

0.534

Beijing

1,640.9

3,422.8

0.479

3,565.8

6,824.0

0.523

Shanghai

1,197.8

2,675.2

0.448

2,873.3

5,366.2

0.535

Guangzhou

512.6

1,273.6

0.402

1,286.6

3,260.4

0.395

Shenzhen

657.2

1,393.1

0.472

2,022.7

3,999.4

0.506

Nanjing

448.7

892.6

0.503

1,285.4

1,958.8

0.656

Dalian

763.0

1,027.0

0.743

1,602.3

2,079.0

0.771

Wuhan

167.2

491.8

0.340

495.8

1,192.3

0.416

Xiamen

148.0

364.5

0.406

422.5

861.6

0.490

Shenyang

995.4

1,160.6

0.858

2,257.9

2,564.7

0.880

242

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

Fig. 3.23 Schematic diagram on the development of centrality

in the centrality of the primate main center. In addition, the “negative effects” of agglomeration that occur during the later stages in the development of the primate main center will inevitably have an adverse impact on the expansion rate of its spatial scale, thus causing a continuous decline in centrality (Fig. 3.23). Naturally, under special circumstances, the centrality of the hierarchical structure will also exhibit a certain extent of rebounds and fluctuations. For instance, it may be affected by the large-scale construction of the primate main center led by the government, but which will not affect the overall trend of gradual decline in the centrality of the hierarchical structure. Nevertheless, the centrality of the hierarchical structure will not decrease indefinitely. This is because the primate main center holds certain special advantages that other UC zones do not possess, which will enable it to undertake numerous highend service functions and assume its core role as the “engine” that drives the UC structure. Therefore, in the later stages of UC structure development, the centrality of the UC structure will maintain a state of relative stability.

3.2.4 The Completeness of the Hierarchical Structure The city provides an extensive range of public service functions, while the various service industries will undergo continuous agglomeration and dispersion within the city based on their own development needs, thus forming several categories of UC zones. According to the analysis in previous chapters, we know that, aside from the comprehensive main center, there are nine other categories of city-level UC zones, namely retail commercial hubs, traditional commercial hubs, convention and exhibition hubs, business and financial hubs, transportation hubs, scientific research and education hubs, arts and culture hubs, sports and fitness hubs, and administrative office hubs. Evidently, these categories of UC zones only exist in theory. During the actual process of urban development, the effects and constraints of multiple factors will lead to differences in the types and quantities of UC zone categories within the

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure

243

UC structure, which will even result in the absence of certain UC zone categories and the multiple simultaneous spatial development of others. As one of the three core cities in the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone, Guangzhou serves as an engine that drives regional economic development. The city is equipped with a relatively complete range of service industry categories, with a good level of development in multiple industry types, including business offices, large-scale retail commerce, traditional retail commerce, and wholesale trade industry. Guangzhou’s UC structure is currently at the 2MC-MSC development stage, consisting of three specialized sub-centers: Sanyuanli (trade and wholesale hub), Huanshi East Road (business and finance hub), and Shangxiajiu (traditional commercial hub). Owing to the major development opportunities provided by the Asian Games, urban construction is currently booming in Guangzhou, which is accompanied by the gradual improvement in the categories of service functions provided by the city. The Pazhou and Baiyun New Town convention and exhibition hubs have begun to take shape, and should eventually occupy a position in the UC structure as specialized subcenters in the near future. In terms of social sub-centers, the newly built Olympics Sports Center for the Asian Games has gradually assumed city-level functions that serve all residents within the city. In general, Guangzhou’s UC structure is relatively complete with respect to the framework of its service functions, while the establishment of various categories of specialized sub-centers has also reinforced this trend. However, there is a prominent shortage of district-level centers (Fig. 3.24), and one of

Fig. 3.24 Schematic diagram on the service function framework of Guangzhou’s UC structure

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3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

the characteristics of higher-order UC structures is the relative completeness, developmental maturity and saturation, large quantity, and dense spatial distribution of district-level centers. Typical cases include Hong Kong and Singapore. Therefore, the completeness of the hierarchical structure refers to the difference between the UC zone categories and the theoretical conception within the UC structure. It reflects the quantitative hierarchical differences among the comprehensive main center, specialized sub-centers, social sub-centers and district-level centers. Naturally, the UC zone categories included within the city is also an indirect reflection of the development direction of its service industries. The following is a comparative analysis of the case cities in an attempt to summarize the underlying patterns of this concept (Table 3.16). The table shows that there are significant individual differences among the cities with respect to the categories and quantities of both specialized sub-centers and social sub-centers. In essence, specialized sub-centers and social sub-centers have significant differences in the origins of their formation. Specialized sub-centers stem from the gradual spatial agglomeration of the service industries within the context of a market economy, while in social sub-centers, the agglomeration of its service industries is mainly led by the government due to the special attributes of its dominant service functions. Therefore, we can consider the categories and quantities of specialized sub-centers as a reflection of the city’s overall economic and social attributes, while the social sub-centers are a reflection of its political attributes. First, with regard to the categories of specialized sub-centers, none of the case cities has developed all six types of specialized sub-centers, which implies that, within the environment of a market economy, the spatial location selection for the agglomeration of the service industries is affected by factors such as the environment of the surrounding areas, development strategies, and the cultural atmosphere of the city. The more comprehensive the service functions undertaken by the city, the more prone the UC structure is toward developing diversified UC zones. However, at the same time, there must be spatial venues within the city that match the development of the service industries. For example, the formation of a traditional commercial hub is dependent on a rich local culture. Therefore, cities with a long history of development and unique regional features are more likely to produce and develop traditional commercial hubs. Examples among the case cities include Beijing, Nanjing, Guangzhou, Shenyang, and Xiamen. Second, with regard to the contents of social sub-centers, since their formation is led by the government, a higher number of social sub-centers signifies the greater decision-making power of the government in urban development and stronger political attributes exhibited by the city. Among the case cities (except for Hong Kong), there are eight municipalities and provincial capitals, which have an average of 3.63 social sub-centers, while the average of the other seven cities is only 2.14. Due to its relatively pure market economy environment, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region has only one social sub-center, while the remaining 15 case cities in mainland China have an average of 2.9 social sub-centers. The number of social sub-centers in Beijing and Shanghai indirectly reflect the functional difference between Beijing as a political and cultural center, and Shanghai as an economic center.

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure

245

Table 3.16 Comparative analysis of UC zone categories City

Specialized sub-centers

Social sub-centers

Categories

Quantity

Categories

Quantity

Hong Kong

Business and finance

1

Sports and fitness

1

Beijing

Business and finance, traditional commerce

4

Sports and fitness, administrative offices, culture, entertainment, education and scientific research, transportation hub

6

Shanghai

Business and finance, retail commerce

4

Culture and entertainment, transportation hub

2

Guangzhou

Wholesale trade, business and finance Traditional commerce

3

Sports and fitness, administrative offices Education and scientific research, transportation hub

6

Shenzhen

Business and finance

1

Administrative offices, 3 transportation hub, sports and fitness

Nanjing

Retail commerce, traditional commerce Business and finance

3

Sports and fitness, education and scientific research, administrative offices Culture and entertainment, transportation hub

5

Dalian

Business offices, retail commerce

2

Transportation hub, administrative offices, sports and fitness

3

Wuhan

Business and finance

1

Administrative offices, transportation hub

2

Xiamen

Business and finance, traditional commerce

2

Transportation hub, culture and sports

2

Fuzhou

/

0

Culture and sports, transportation hub

3

Shenyang

Traditional commerce

1

Transportation hub, sports and fitness, administrative offices

3

Hefei

/

0

Administrative offices, transportation hub

2

Wuxi

/

0

Culture and entertainment, 3 transportation hub, sports and fitness

Changzhou

/

0

Transportation hub, 2 administrative offices, culture and sports

Xuzhou

/

0

Administrative offices, transportation hub

2

Yancheng

/

0

/

0

246

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

Fig. 3.25 Interaction of the Zhongguancun sub-center with surrounding education and research institutions

Third, based on the interactions between the specialized sub-centers and social sub-centers, we can see that spatial overlaps may occur under specific circumstances, and a close interactive relationship can be observed between the two. The public service attributes of social sub-centers can bring about the aggregated flow of people and materials, which is conducive to the development of specialized sub-centers. Therefore, the presence of social sub-centers will promote the co-location of specialized sub-centers to a certain extent, especially in the case of transportation hubs. The relationship between the two can be illustrated using examples in Beijing, such as the relationship between the Zhongguancun sub-center with the surrounding higher education institutions and scientific research institutes (Fig. 3.25); the relationship between the Sanyuan Bridge specialized sub-center and the neighboring embassy areas; and the relationship between the West Station sub-center and the Beijing West Railway Station.

3.2.5 The Dislocation of the Hierarchical Structure The UC structure is a collective whole composed of the UC zones within the city, which implies that its internal core functions are mainly public service functions. Due to the variations in location conditions, development stages, radiation range, and other factors exhibited by different UC zones, there are substantial disparities in the internal dominant functions of the UC structure, which are reflected spatially as differences in the spatial scale of different industrial functions within the UC structure. The positive effects of the spatial agglomeration of the service industries are also accompanied by certain maladies, such as the mutual interference among different business formats,

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure

247

and chaotic external spatial forms, which are disadvantageous to the development of the UC zone and the establishment of a characteristic image. Therefore, the dislocation of the hierarchical structure mainly refers to the comparative analysis of the spatial scale and ratio of the dominant service industries within the UC structure and UC zone to determine the distinctiveness of the industrial characteristics within the UC zones and the division of labor among the individual UC zones within the UC structure. The more significant the division of labor, the greater the dislocation of the hierarchical structure. Dislocation can be considered from two different levels: the first is the global, macro level of the city, that is, the UC structure level; and the second is the local, meso level of the districts, that is, the UC zone level. The macro level is the superposition of the meso level, while the meso level is the constituent unit of the macro level. It should be noted that different categories of service industries will exhibit significant differences in the development intensity of their corresponding spatial carriers, such as the difference between business offices (C23) and traditional commerce (C21). More specifically, the business industry will opt for high-intensity development to dilute costs, while traditional commerce is limited by the overall style of the region, resulting in its low-intensity development. Therefore, in this section, the land use scale of the service industries was chosen as the main evaluation criterion for dislocation. With regard to the decomposition principle of urban mixed land use (Cbx), during the actual process of urban development, the high land prices of the UC zone will put significant pressure on the development of the service industries, which will give rise to mixed land use to minimize operating costs. In simple terms, having multiple service functions on the same piece of land can be regarded as producing manifold economic benefits. The preliminary quantification stage of the basic data mainly involves dividing mixed land use (Cbx) into the following types: commercial and residential mix (Cb1), commercial and offices mix (Cb2), commercial and cultural mix (Cb3), and commercial and hotel mix (Cb4).7 However, in the course of the research on dislocation, we found that the manifold attributes of mixed land use meant that they could not clearly reflect the dominant functions of the UC zone; hence, they must undergo decomposition. The main method of decomposition was as follows: A. B. C. D.

Cb1 = C21; Cb2 = C21 + C23; Cb3 = C21 + C3; Cb4 = C21 + C25.

Since the dominant functions are all based on the functional land use of the UC zones, commercial-residential mixed land use can be considered as only providing 7 During

the field survey of UC zones, there were a few cases where three or even more service functions were mixed. However, given that there is uncertainty in the division of the spatial scale among different service industries and the share of each function was too small, mixed land use was defined in the quantitative analysis as the mix of two dominant business formats, which were divided into the four types mentioned above.

248

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

commercial service functions. Cb2, Cb3, and Cb4 present dual attributes service functions, aggregating two types of UC zone service functions on the same piece of land; hence, they can be regarded as the superposition of two types of service functions. Thus, these were decomposed into the original components of the service industries. The following is a detailed comparative analysis of the degree of dislocation at the meso and macro levels. (1) Meso level—UC zones In the development process of the UC zone, a clear functional composition not only results in greater agglomeration advantages and wider radiation range, but it can also provide the development of the UC zone with a clearer image of functional positioning and characteristics, which are especially important in the development of specialized sub-centers. As the engine that drives the development of the UC zone, the strength of the dominant industries will directly affect the current development and future potential of the UC zone. Therefore, the meso level is mainly concerned with the strength of the dominant functions within each UC zone of the case cities, as well as its interactions with the positioning of the UC zone. With reference to the classification of UC zones in previous chapters, urban land use can be roughly divided into production, lifestyle, and security categories. Production urban land use mainly includes four subcategories: land use for finance and insurance (C22), land use for trade consultancy (C23), land use for the hotel industry (C25), and land use for the convention and exhibition industry (C27); of these, C22, C23, and C25 can also collectively be referred to as urban land use for the business and finance industries. Lifestyle urban land use mainly includes commercial land use (C21), and market land use (C26). Security urban land use mainly includes land use for administrative offices (C1), land use for culture and entertainment (C3), land use for sports (C4), land use for healthcare (C5), land use for education, scientific research and development (C6), etc.8 The spatial agglomeration of the service industries above can result in the formation of city-level UC zones mentioned previously in the classification of UC zones, namely business and financial hubs, convention and exhibition hubs, retail commercial hubs, traditional commercial hubs, administrative office hubs, arts and culture hubs, sports and fitness hubs, and scientific research and education hubs. The following is the statistical analysis of actual cases to examine the strength of the dominant functions in individual UC zones and the distinctiveness of the service industry characteristics among specialized sub-centers. The basic data for each UC zone in the case cities were compiled as shown in Table 3.17. Although the table presenting the basic data is somewhat cumbersome, we can still observe the following patterns based on the service industry composition of the numerous UC zones in the case cities. 8 Certain urban service industries that account for a low proportion in the UC zone, such as land use

for other public facilities, warehousing land use, land use for outbound transportation, land use for municipal public facilities, etc., were omitted here.

Shanghai

Retail commerce

Business offices

Railway Station

Traditional commerce

Qianmen

Xujiahui

Business offices

West Station

Comprehensive services

Business offices

Sanyuan Bridge

Lujiazui

Business offices

Zhongguancun

Comprehensive services

Comprehensive services

Xidan

People’s Square

Comprehensive services

Business offices

Kwun Tong

Chaoyang

Comprehensive services

Yau Tsim Mong

Beijing

Comprehensive services

Central District

Hong Kong

Positioning of UC zone

UC zone

City

44.8

39.9

17.1

44.2

100.0

29.2

35.0

23.7

13.2

36.9

33.1

50.7

47.3

0.0

15.0

0.0

1.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.7

0.8

0.0

0.0

0.0

2.8

1.0

11.6

3.8

0.0

0.0

0.7

0.4

14.0

1.5

3.4

0.2

1.4

18.3

24.5

25.6

29.7

0.0

33.0

39.6

51.8

20.7

29.6

42.9

23.9

21.0

C23

26.8

6.8

6.0

8.9

0.0

25.3

18.9

5.2

11.5

9.9

0.1

6.6

1.7

C25

48.0

32.3

43.2

42.4

0.0

58.3

59.2

57.4

46.2

41.0

46.5

30.8

24.1

Business

C22

C21

C26

Ratio of production land use (%)

Ratio of lifestyle land use (%)

Table 3.17 Basic data on the dislocation of the hierarchical structure

0.0

0.0

5.5

2.3

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

C27

4.0

5.7

16.0

3.5

0.0

8.2

3.0

0.6

17.0

5.4

12.3

3.0

6.7

C1

1.9

3.3

9.5

2.2

0.0

0.0

1.4

1.9

4.2

5.2

2.7

5.3

3.5

C3

0.0

0.0

7.3

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.9

5.0

5.2

3.9

10.0

C4

0.0

1.0

1.3

1.7

0.0

2.7

0.9

1.7

7.0

1.9

0.2

4.0

1.4

C5

(continued)

1.3

2.8

0.1

2.0

0.0

1.7

0.5

14.6

9.6

3.7

0.0

2.4

7.0

C6

Ratio of security land use (%)

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure 249

Nanjing

Shenzhen

Guangzhou

City

Comprehensive services

Business offices

Che Kung Temple

Xinjiekou

Comprehensive services

Traditional commerce

Shangxiajiu

Futian

Wholesale trade

Sanyuanli

Comprehensive services

Business offices

Huanshi East Road

Luohu

Comprehensive services

Beijing Road

Retail commerce

Jiangwan

Comprehensive services

Business offices

Hongqiao

Zhujiang New Town

Positioning of UC zone

UC zone

Table 3.17 (continued)

36.8

49.3

41.6

44.6

50.4

24.0

28.3

48.8

42.4

16.1

30.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

5.0

10.4

0.0

4.2

3.8

7.9

5.7

5.4

5.1

2.8

4.0

0.3

0.1

0.9

1.2

2.3

0.4

2.7

22.6

39.0

23.9

20.9

12.5

18.4

20.9

15.8

14.8

11.1

21.4

C23

5.0

3.5

3.7

15.2

10.1

16.2

28.3

3.0

5.0

5.7

14.7

C25

33.0

47.6

30.5

40.1

22.9

34.7

50.1

19.9

22.1

17.2

38.8

Business

C22

C21

C26

Ratio of production land use (%)

Ratio of lifestyle land use (%)

0.0

0.0

10.1

0.0

0.0

9.4

0.0

0.0

0.5

0.0

2.5

C27

7.6

3.1

6.0

7.1

4.9

2.2

1.6

19.1

3.6

10.6

8.7

C1

7.1

0.0

8.0

3.3

13.2

2.8

6.5

6.1

1.9

2.5

5.3

C3

0.1

0.0

0.3

0.0

2.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

17.6

0.0

0.0

C4

7.1

0.0

1.6

3.0

0.7

15.0

4.3

1.2

0.2

3.8

6.3

C5

(continued)

8.4

0.0

1.9

1.8

0.3

1.5

9.2

0.7

8.0

41.9

2.0

C6

Ratio of security land use (%)

250 3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

Xiamen

Wuhan

Dalian

City

Finance and insurance

Jianshe Avenue

Comprehensive services

Comprehensive services

Hongshan Square

Lianban

Comprehensive services

Retail commerce

Jianghan Road

Business offices

Xi’an Road

Confucius Temple

Xinghai Square

Business offices

Traditional commerce

Hexi

Comprehensive services

Retail commerce

Hunan Road

Zhongshan Road

Positioning of UC zone

UC zone

Table 3.17 (continued)

61.1

24.5

22.5

50.9

63.4

44.6

39.1

50.2

18.6

55.2

1.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.4

0.6

1.4

0.0

5.3

16.2

3.2

2.9

3.4

1.0

5.2

0.1

0.0

0.5

16.4

29.1

23.0

17.2

20.6

16.2

17.1

3.4

8.0

19.9

C23

10.6

13.2

11.3

10.3

8.9

8.8

14.9

20.9

0.9

8.9

C25

32.4

58.5

37.6

30.5

32.9

26.1

37.2

24.4

8.9

29.3

Business

C22

C21

C26

Ratio of production land use (%)

Ratio of lifestyle land use (%)

0.0

0.0

0.0

3.4

0.0

16.6

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

C27

2.5

1.4

35.4

9.1

2.2

0.0

7.3

2.0

2.6

7.8

C1

1.5

14.8

2.7

2.2

0.0

5.8

2.4

7.9

2.8

2.8

C3

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

6.9

1.7

2.5

65.6

0.0

C4

0.7

0.8

1.9

3.2

1.5

0.0

5.1

6.1

0.0

0.0

C5

(continued)

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.7

0.0

0.0

5.8

6.3

0.0

4.9

C6

Ratio of security land use (%)

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure 251

Changjiang Middle Road

Chong’an Temple

Yanling Road

Pengcheng Square

Jianjun Middle Road

Wuxi

Changzhou

Xuzhou

Yancheng

Comprehensive services

Comprehensive services

Comprehensive services

Comprehensive services

Comprehensive services

Traditional commerce

Middle Street

Hefei

Comprehensive services

Zhongshan-Huigong

Shenyang

Business offices

Yundang Lake

Comprehensive services

Traditional commerce

Zhongshan Road

Wuyi Road

Positioning of UC zone

UC zone

Fuzhou

City

Table 3.17 (continued)

49.5

50.0

42.9

56.5

46.0

75.1

34.7

45.5

34.0

61.5

0.0

0.0

0.3

0.0

0.0

2.8

0.3

0.0

0.0

0.0

4.0

2.8

2.9

1.3

4.4

2.5

8.1

5.1

3.9

3.1

14.0

16.6

23.9

16.4

18.1

6.5

17.6

23.5

14.7

5.5

C23

12.0

6.3

9.3

6.0

7.0

7.9

10.2

10.2

14.4

14.3

C25

30.1

25.6

36.2

23.8

29.6

17.0

36.0

38.7

33.0

22.9

Business

C22

C21

C26

Ratio of production land use (%)

Ratio of lifestyle land use (%)

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.7

0.0

0.0

C27

4.6

8.4

2.1

9.9

11.5

2.6

12.6

7.6

24.8

5.1

C1

3.4

2.4

4.3

2.3

3.5

1.9

3.7

2.7

0.0

0.0

C3

0.0

0.3

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.1

0.8

0.0

0.0

C4

9.0

5.9

13.4

3.6

9.4

0.6

5.6

3.7

8.2

6.8

C5

3.5

7.3

0.9

3.8

0.0

0.0

6.1

0.2

0.0

3.7

C6

Ratio of security land use (%)

252 3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

3.2 Analysis of the Hierarchical Structure in the UC Structure

253

In general, the composition of the service functions in comprehensive main centers can be divided into two main categories. The first is where the UC zone is composed of two dominant functions, and the land use scale of both functions account for more than 80% of the entire UC zone. This usually means the two categories of commercial and business land use, with a smaller land use scale for other categories. Typical cases include the Yau Tsim Mong UC zone in Hong Kong and the People’s Square UC zone in Shanghai. The other form is the relatively even distribution of functions within the UC zone, where production, lifestyle, and security land uses show a “tripod” pattern of spatial distribution. Typical cases include the Xidan UC zone in Beijing, Zhujiang New Town UC zone in Guangzhou, and Lujiazui UC zone in Shanghai. The fundamental difference between these two categories of UC zones lies in their agglomeration scale of security service industries. The former shows a small scale, while the latter shows a large scale. Given the driving mechanism and conditions for the agglomeration of security service industries, we can infer the general difference between these two categories of UC zones, that is, the former shows more natural development within the environment of a market economy, while the latter has a stronger atmosphere of artificial planning and government policies. In terms of specialized sub-centers, the UC zones with the most distinctive dominant function are essentially traditional commercial hubs, such as Confucius Temple in Nanjing, Shangxiajiu in Guangzhou, Qianmen in Bejing, and Middle Street in Shenyang, where the land use of the dominant function accounts for more than 60% of the total land use scale (Note: This includes land use for the hotel industry [C25] because it plays the role of a supporting service in traditional commercial hubs, and is a derivative of the dominant function). A possible reason for this result is that during the development of traditional commercial hubs, the development of other non-related service industries was severely restricted due to the formation of traditional features, historical and cultural preservation, and other factors. The specialized sub-centers can be divided, according to the ratio of the land use scale for the dominant function, into three major categories: If the ratio of the land use scale for the dominant function is ≥60%, then, the UC zone is considered to have a distinctive dominant function. If the ratio is 2 indicate that the UC structure had a high level of competitiveness. Analyses were performed from the following perspectives: average values, trend lines of single-category land use, trend lines of UC zones, UC zone functions, and super-high LQ.

3.3 Analysis of the Spatial Form of the UC Structure

259

Fig. 3.31 Scatterplot of land use LQ for UC zones in typical cities

(1) Overall average of LQ The average the LQ of each UC zone in typical cities was calculated and arranged in descending order. The UC zones were then divided into two categories: LQ ≥ 1.0 and LQ < 1.0. Among the UC zones ≥1.0, the LQ of all UC zones in Tianjin were generally fairly high; the UC zones in Chongqing, Chengdu, Xi’an, and Qingdao with fairly high LQs were all main centers; while the sub-centers in Nanjing and Changsha had very high LQs (Figs. 3.32, 3.33 Tables 3.18, 3.19). (2) Comparison of LQ trend line patterns by UC zone Trend lines of LQ changes were plotted using UC zones as the unit, of which the UC zones with the highest trend lines were, in descending order, the Confucius Temple, Nanjing; Taidong, Qingdao; Hexi, Changsha; Hexi, Nanjing; Jiefangbei, Chongqing; Drum Tower, Tianjin; and Bell and Drum Tower, Xi’an. In fact, the results indicate that comprehensive main centers do not have a clear advantage in LQ. Instead, certain sub-centers had a greater advantage, and the top three were the Confucius Temple UC zone in Nanjing, Taidong UC zone in Qingdao, and Hexi UC zone in Changsha (Figs. 3.34 and 3.35).

260 Fig. 3.32 Conclusions drawn from the analysis of the overall LQ averages

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy

3.3 Analysis of the Spatial Form of the UC Structure

261

Fig. 3.33 LQ trend lines of UC zones. *Source Figures by Lu Xiaobo

(3) Comparison of LQ trend line patterns by single-category land use Trend lines of LQ changes were plotted based on single-category land use to explore the most advantageous and influential land use types among the UC zones. We found that the land use trend lines for markets, commerce and hotels, and education were relatively high, while those of conventions and exhibitions and commerce and culture were relatively low. Thus, the land use types can be divided into three categories as shown in Fig. 3.36. (4) Determination of UC zone functions Solely in terms of UC zones, the LQ intuitively reflects the main land use functions of a given UC zone. Land use categories with LQ > 1.5 were selected to represent the main land use functions of the UC zone, which were then used to determine the positioning of the UC zone. In many cases, the positioning of the UC zone tends to stop at the level of perception or be determined solely by the size of the land use area. However, by applying the LQ at the quantitative level, we will be able to further explore the status and role of a specific land use function in the UC zone within the overall UC structure. A high-LQ function may sometimes indicate the specialized function of a certain area, while UC zones with mediocre LQs and without any prominent land use functions

262 Table 3.18 Overall average of LQs in descending order

3 Functional Analysis of the UC Structure Hierarchy UC zone

Average

Confucius Temple, Nanjing

2.2

Taidong, Qingdao

1.8

Jiefangbei, Chongqing

1.4

Hexi, Nanjing

1.4

Hexi, Changsha

1.4

Bell and Drum Tower, Xi’an

1.1

Drum Tower, Tianjin

1.1

Xiaobailou, Tianjin

1

Railway Station, Tianjin

1

Chunxi Road, Chengdu

1

Guanyin Bridge, Chengdu

0.9

Zhongshan Road, Shijiazhuang

0.9

Zhongshan Road, Qingdao

0.9

Hong Kong Middle Road, Qingdao

0.9

Yuquan Road, Jinan

0.9

Olympic Sports Center, Jinan

0.9

Hehuachi, Chengdu

0.9

Wuyi Square, Changsha

0.9

Shapingba, Chongqing

0.8

Nanping, Chongqing

0.7

Xinjiekou, Nanjing

0.7

Hunan Road, Nanjing

0.7

Jinlin, Chengdu

0.7

Railway Station, Changsha

0.7

North Economic Development Zone, Xi’an

0.6

Yangjiaping, Chongqing

0.5

High-Tech Zone, Xi’an

0.5

≥1

R+r, then, the relative relationship between the MC and SC of the UC structure is of the separation-type. When R-r < d120 min

Suitability = 1

Very unsuitable

4.2 Suitability Index System for the Spatial Layout … 343

Social subsystem A2

Subsystem A

Distance to commercial cultural heritage

Commercial cultural heritage C10

800 M

None

Suitability = 1

Very unsuitable

344 4 Spatial Layout of the UC Structure

Subsystem A

Accessibility of residential communities B6

Quality of landscape environment B5

First-level indicators B

Evaluation factors

Table 4.4 (continued)

Distance to large-scale greenspaces

Openness of large-scale greenspaces C14

Distance of Distance of land existing centers parcel to existing C15 centers

Distance to urban 1600 M

Very low

Suitability = 1

Very unsuitable

4.2 Suitability Index System for the Spatial Layout … 345

Ecological subsystem A3

Subsystem A

Air quality B8

Geological conditions B7

First-level indicators B

Evaluation factors

Table 4.4 (continued)

Distance of land parcel to the chemical industry, oil refinery, and other heavy industries

Slope degree of units

Slope variation C18

Air pollution C19

Bearing capacity of foundation

Distance of land parcel to residential areas

200 MPA

8 km

Above 25

400 M

Suitability = 1

Very unsuitable

346 4 Spatial Layout of the UC Structure

Subsystem A

Disaster risks B9

First-level indicators B

Evaluation factors

Table 4.4 (continued)

Once every 50 years

400 M–800 M

Suitability = 7

Serious risk High risk

Level of flood Once every risk to land parcel 100 years

Other risks C22 Level of other disaster risks

Impact of flooding C21

1600 M

Suitability = 1

Very unsuitable

4.2 Suitability Index System for the Spatial Layout … 347

348

4 Spatial Layout of the UC Structure

Fig. 4.6 Overall framework of the index system

4.2.2 Selection of Evaluation Methods The current commonly used methods for index system evaluation are all relatively mature, each of which has its own characteristics. The comprehensive scoring method is simple and easy to implement, but its evaluation system is limited to the scope of subjective evaluation. The two-dimensional contingency table method is visually intuitive, easy to understand, and clearly presented, but its evaluation assumes that all indicators have equal weight and does not distinguish among them. The fuzzy comprehensive judgment method is characterized by its strong discriminability and comparability, but it involves a more complicated process due to the use of fuzzy mathematical principles to perform fuzzy transformations. A key advantage of the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is its formation of a complete evaluation index system. The entire evaluation procedure and evaluation system is systematic and integrated, from the selection of evaluation indicators and construction of the system to the allocation of indicator weights and from the quantification of the indicators to the acquisition of the final evaluation results, thus ensuring that the evaluation process is as objective and scientific as possible. This method is currently widely applied in multi-objective, multi-level comprehensive evaluation and analysis. Therefore, AHP was applied in this book to analyze the spatial layout suitability of the citylevel UC structure. The quantification of specific indicators was achieved using two approaches, namely AHP evaluation models supported by entropy methods and the quantification of qualitative indicators supported by the democratic evaluation of

4.2 Suitability Index System for the Spatial Layout …

349

Table 4.5 AHP framework Overall goal level Criteria level

Criteria level

Indicator level

Indicator level

Basic indicator Basic indicator

expert panels. The quantification of the “grading intervals” for the indicators was obtained using fuzzy membership functions.1 AHP is currently the most commonly used method of analytical evaluation, which was proposed by Professor T. L. Saaty, an American expert in operations research from the University of Pittsburgh. AHP is an effective approach for dealing with complex problems using a completely quantitative method. It fully embodies the ideas and methods of system analysis and system synthesis in systems engineering, and it is especially suitable for the analysis and evaluation of socioeconomic systems with both qualitative and quantitative factors. It decomposes complex problems into several effective levels and gives a quantitative expression of the relative importance for each level based on certain objective judgments. Mathematical methods are then used to determine the numerical values expressing the relative importance of all elements at each level, thus deriving the analysis of the overall problem from the analysis of each level (Table 4.5). The AHP model is a mathematical model of this decision-making method. It is a framework that reflects the hierarchical relationships of a complex, and it is divided into the overall goal level (comprehensive indicator level), criteria level (first-level indicators), indicator level (second-level indicators), and basic indicator level.

1 As

these research methods are relatively mature, the detailed descriptions and operations of the models and methods have been omitted here. This index system involves multiple evaluation goals. The index weighting system can be adjusted according to the evaluation goals, and the importance of the indicators can be adjusted to meet the requirements of other evaluation goals.

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4 Spatial Layout of the UC Structure

4.2.3 Index Standardization and Weight Determination Due to the different data dimensions of the various indicators when evaluating the spatial layout suitability of the city-level UC structure, it is necessary to integrate these indicators before performing the actual calculations; hence, pre-processing involved the nondimensionalization of all indicator data. If standardization is not performed, then indicators with relatively large standard deviations will implicitly have larger weights during calculation compared to indicators with smaller standard deviations. This will, in turn, exaggerate the difference in the value ranges of the indicators. Therefore, to ensure the rationality of the comparisons, nondimensionalization was performed on all indicators using one of three methods: standardization, indexation, and the threshold method. The equation for standardization is given below: Xi =

xi − x¯ Q2

xi is the original data, x¯ is the mean, Q 2 is the variance, and X i is the standardized data. The equation for indexation is given below: Xi =

xi X 0i

xi is the original value, X oi is the maximum value, and X i is the index. The equation for the threshold method is given below: Xi =

xmax − xi xmax − xmin

X i is the converted value, xmax is the maximum sample value, xmin is the minimum sample value, and xi is the original value. Special focus: Variance Variance is a commonly used processing method in data standardization, which helps to eliminate data dispersion in statistics. The formula for this is given below: S2 =

 1 ¯ 2 + (x2 − x) ¯ 2 + . . . . . . + (x x − x) ¯ 2 (x1 − x) 2

4.2 Suitability Index System for the Spatial Layout …

351

A greater variance implies that this set of data is more dispersed and, hence, has greater fluctuations. A smaller variance implies that this set of data is more aggregated and, hence, has smaller fluctuations. This formula can simply be remembered as “variance is equal to the mean of the squared deviations.” Variance and standard deviation are both “eigenvalues” describing the “degree of dispersion” in the data. This approach means that neither the basic content of the data and the correlations among the data nor the subsequent results and the relationships among the indicators will be affected. The weight determination of each indicator is a major evaluation factor in the suitability analysis of UC structure spatial layout, as its accuracy determines how correct and scientific the evaluation results will be. Therefore, AHP was used to determine the weight assignment of the suitability index system. Since each level of indicators has different weights for the goals of the previous level, the weight of each indicator was calculated based on the hierarchical structure of the index system, and the procedures are as follows: (1) Compilation of the weight judgment matrix The information contained in the AHP mainly relies on a series of judgments based on the pairwise comparison of the relative importance between the indicators for each level, for which a suitable scale is introduced to quantify this comparison with numerical values, thereby generating a judgment matrix for each level. The 1–9 scale proposed by Saaty is shown below (Table 4.6). To ensure more accurate and scientific results, the scale values were determined by consulting expert opinion. Experts of the relevant disciplines were selected to compile the weight judgment matrix, and each weight judgment value was based Table 4.6 Saaty’s scaling method and definitions Scale value Definitions 1

Pairwise comparison indicates that both factors are of equal importance

3

Pairwise comparison indicates that one factor is of slight importance over the other

5

Pairwise comparison indicates that one factor is of strong importance over the other

7

Pairwise comparison indicates that one factor is of very strong importance over the other

9

Pairwise comparison indicates that one factor is of extreme importance over the other

2, 4, 6, 8

Intermediate values between the two adjacent judgments above

*Source Handbook of Research on the Index System for Sustainable Urban Environmental Development in China [M]. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press, 2002

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4 Spatial Layout of the UC Structure

Table 4.7 Matrix of C9, C10, and C11 relative to B4 B4

C9

C10

C11

C9

1

20/11

20/9

C10

11/20

1

11/9

C11

9/20

9/11

1

on the geometric mean of expert opinions. Finally, the Delphi method was used to quantify the judgment matrix. We will now use urban cultural accumulation B4 as an example to illustrate the calculation of indicator weights. The cultural accumulation status indicator is subordinated by historical cultural heritage C9, commercial cultural heritage C10, and public psychological recognition C11. Thus, the matrix of C9, C10, and C11 relative to B4 is as follows (Table 4.7): Cultural accumulation B4

Historical cultural heritage C9 Commercial cultural heritage C10 Public psychological recognition C11

(2) Weight calculation method ➀ The continued product of the elements in each row of the judgment matrix was calculated: M1 = 1 × 20 × 20 = 4.0404 11 9 M2 =

11 11 ×1× = 0.6722 20 9

M3 =

9 9 × × 1 = 0.3682 20 11

➁ The n th root of M was calculated, where n is the order of the matrix √ 3

W1 = W2 = W3 =

4.0404 = 1.5927

√ 3 0.6722 = 0.876

√ 3

0.3682 = 0.7167

➂ Vector Wi was normalized, i.e., Wi = Wi /

n  i=1

Wi

4.2 Suitability Index System for the Spatial Layout …

353

Table 4.8 Average random consistency index Judgment matrix order n

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Rl value

0

0

0.58

0.9

1.12

1.24

1.32

1.41

1.45

*Source Evaluation and survey of urban construction in 2005 by the Jiangsu Provincial Rural and Urban Development Department

W1 =

1.5927 = 0.5 1.5927 + 0.876 + 0.7167

W2 =

0.876 = 0.275 1.5927 + 0.876 + 0.7167

W3 =

0.7167 = 0.225 1.5927 + 0.876 + 0.7167

➃ The maximum eigenvalue λ M AX of the matrix was calculated: λ M AX =

n  (B1 W )i i=1

nWi

= 3.0247

➄ Testing of single-order consistency The hierarchical single-order consistency index can test the conformity of the data. If Cl = 0, this implies that the judgment matrix is completely consistent; if Cl = 0 and C R0.1, this implies that the judgment matrix has satisfactory consistency. Otherwise, the scale values of the judgment matrix will need to be adjusted, then recalculated and retested. Of these, C R = Cl/Rl, which is known as the random consistency ratio of the judgment matrix, where Rl is the average random consistency index, and its value is given in Table 4.8. 3.0247 − 3 = 0.0124 3−1 0.0124 CR = = 0.02140.1 0.58 Cl =

The final results had satisfactory consistency. Therefore, the calculation results for the weights of urban cultural accumulation were as follows: Wc9 = 0.5 Wc10 = 0.275 Wc11 = 0.225 λ M AX = 3.0247 C R = 0.0214 The method above can be used to determine the weights of different indicators for evaluating the spatial layout suitability of the city-level UC structure. It is worth

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4 Spatial Layout of the UC Structure

noting that not only must the calculation results be re-adjusted according to the weight coefficients of the different production and lifestyle functions, but that corresponding adjustments should also be made to the indicator weights for different cities in order to adapt to the spatial characteristics of the different cities and reflect the balance of specific functional value among different regions.

4.3 Approaches and Methods of UC Structure Layout The city-level UC structure undertakes a number of functions in the spatial expansion of megacities, including the agglomeration of service industries, providing a guarantee for the service industries, and serving as an engine to drive development. Therefore, its status in the overall strategy of urban development has become increasingly important. The suitability evaluation of its spatial layout effectively analyzes the problems with public facility layout encountered during the current process of rapid urban development, which will allow the government to alter its spatial development policies in a timely manner. In addition, the analysis of spatial indicators will also enable the dynamic tracking and management and the guided early warnings of the spatial agglomeration status for service facilities, thereby maximizing the development and application of the most superior urban land resources.

4.3.1 Spatial Suitability Evaluation of the City-Level UC Structure When analyzing the future development of the city-level UC structure, it is necessary to first select the unit of urban spatial analysis as the basic data. Two methods are commonly used in the actual evaluation: The first method is to use grid cells as the evaluation unit, which involves the geometric grid partitioning of all land within the administrative boundary of the urban area, and performing an overall evaluation on its spatial suitability for developing a city-level UC structure. The second is to use planned city blocks as the evaluation unit, which involves analyzing the boundary of the future urban area as determined by the city’s master plan. The former encompasses a comprehensive range of research targets but has low accuracy for individual evaluation indicators; thus, it is suitable for cities that lack the latest version of the urban master plan. The latter has a more concentrated research target, but also higher accuracy for individual evaluation indicators. (1) Suitability evaluation of UC structure spatial layout based on grids Grid cells were used as the units to evaluate the spatial layout suitability of the citylevel UC structure in Wuxi. A 4 km2 (2 km × 2 km) grid was used to divide the Wuxi urban area (excluding the Taihu Lake) into 386 basic evaluation units (referred

4.3 Approaches and Methods of UC Structure Layout

355

Fig. 4.7 Scope of construction-limiting mandatory factors (A4) in Wuxi. *Source Figures by Sun Wei (same reference below)

to as grid cells). Each unit was then evaluated with respect to the economic, social, and ecological aspects that are closely related to service facility agglomeration to determine the relative distribution suitability of the city-level UC structure and to optimize its layout. First, the scope of construction-limiting mandatory factors (A4) was delineated. Areas with special requirements for ecological protection in the Wuxi urban area mainly included mountains, wetlands,2 and lakes. The Wuxi urban area includes many mountains, especially the Mashan and Dafu areas along the Taihu Lake in the west and south. Mountains not only have air-purifying abilities, but also provide good ecological diversity; thus, they are valuable ecological landscape resources. In the process of spatial development, mountains should be given adequate protection, while the large-scale agglomeration and excessive development of the city-level UC structure should be prohibited. The wetlands in the Wuxi urban area are mainly distributed within 1 km along the banks of the Taihu Lake. In addition, the “Regulations on the water pollution management of Taihu Lake in Jiangsu Province” clearly stipulates that Taihu Lake and the 5 km area along its banks are Grade I ecological conservation areas, which also have extremely high protection requirements, and must be strictly preserved during development. Therefore, this area is also not suitable for large-scale spatial development or UC zone agglomeration. The purple line of historical and cultural preservation mainly encompasses the national, provincial, and municipal preservation units of historical and cultural heritage in the Wuxi urban area, with strict controls imposed on the land use type and architectural style within a certain range around these areas to ensure their compatibility with the historical and cultural remains. In addition, the Shifang Airport area in the southeast of the city has aviation height restrictions in place; thus, it is also unsuitable for developing UC zones with a high density of public facilities. Construction is restricted by mandatory regulations in these areas; hence, the grid cells associated with the different factors are not included in the evaluation but are directly incorporated into the final results of the index control system (Fig. 4.7).

2 Wetlands

include permanent or temporary swamps, peatlands, or land-water ecotones.

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4 Spatial Layout of the UC Structure

Analysis of transportaƟon accessibility (C1)

Analysis of expressway accessibility (C2)

Analysis of railway staƟon accessibility (C4)

Analysis of land prices (C5)

Fig. 4.8 Evaluation of individual economic attributes among grid cells (A1)

Second, the economic suitability of each grid cell was evaluated, which was mainly reflected by the transportation accessibility, land costs, and completeness of supporting facilities (Fig. 4.8). Transportation accessibility reflects the convenience and comprehensive transportation conditions of each grid cell to regional transportation nodes. Land costs reflect the demolition and construction costs of each grid cell. The completeness of supporting facilities reflects the facility development level of each grid cell. The zone of influence for each factor in the Wuxi area was partitioned into the evaluation units, and the area ratio occupied by each factor in each grid cell was determined to ascertain the relative degree of influence in each unit. Based on the transportation convenience of the four major elements, namely urban roads, expressways, rail transit, and railway stations, the transportation accessibility score for each evaluation unit was comprehensively calculated to determine whether each unit has convenient transportation. The transportation accessibility of urban roads was calculated using the temporal accessibility model. The convenience of rail transit was reflected by the planned spatial routes for rail transit in 2020. The convenience of railway stations was obtained by superimposing the spatial layout factors of passenger stations and planned high-speed railway stations. The distance accessibility for the different modes of transportation was comprehensively calculated to obtain the transportation convenience of each grid cell. Based on the above ideas and methods, the relative scores for the other two evaluation indicators (i.e., land costs and facility completeness) were obtained, and the economic suitability of each grid cell was comprehensively calculated (A1).

4.3 Approaches and Methods of UC Structure Layout

357

Third, the social suitability of each grid cell was evaluated, which was mainly reflected by the cultural accumulation, quality of landscape environment, and accessibility of residential communities in each grid cell. With the development of the economy and the improvement of activity conditions, a good landscape environment has become one of the main factors affecting people’s choices of locations for public interactions. The Wuxi urban area contains a large number of mountains and is bordered by Taihu Lake in the south, with several large-scale greenspaces, such as Taihu Square, within the city, which indicates that it has a good landscape environment. In particular, the land adjacent to mountains and greenspaces not only has good environmental quality but also has a pleasant landscape; hence, it has excellent conditions for the establishment of large-scale public facilities. The mountains, water bodies, large-scale greenspaces, and other natural landscape elements within the Wuxi urban area were divided into the corresponding evaluation units, which were used as the basis for calculating the absolute values for the landscape quality of each grid cell. The areas directly adjacent to natural landscape resources were delineated as locations with the best landscape environment, while the landscape environment of remaining areas decreased sequentially as the distance increased. Following the same principle, the Delphi method was used to calculate the cultural, landscape, and residential community factors, and the weights were summed to obtain the comprehensive average distribution of the social value in the Wuxi urban area (A2). In general, the areas with good social suitability in the Wuxi urban area were concentrated along the landscape axis, such as along the banks of Taihu Lake and near mountains. The central urban area and the plains of the Shannan area also had good social suitability. Due to their relatively weak landscape and cultural resources, the eastern and northwestern parts of the urban area had relatively low social suitability (Fig. 4.9). Fourth, the ecological suitability of each grid cell was evaluated, which was mainly reflected by the geological conditions, air quality, and disaster risks in each grid cell. The topographical conditions of the Wuxi urban area are complex and diverse, including mountains with elevations above 200 m and low-lying land with elevations below 2 m; numerous rivers, lakes, and a dense river network; and rich land resources and good texture, but with significant variations in permeability. These areas are not all suitable for the agglomeration of public service facilities. The low-lying land in the urban area is mainly concentrated around the Yuqi, Qianzhou, and Shitangwan areas in the northwest, with ground elevations of less than 2 m. The layer-wise mark ground elevation of Qianzhou is only 0.26 m, which is nearly at sea level. This type of area is prone to flooding, which will incur high construction costs during the development process and has fragile ecological conditions. Therefore, it is not suitable for the construction of UC zones. Land subsidence is currently the most widespread geological problem in the Wuxi urban area, with an area of up to 350 km2 showing a subsidence of greater than 1 m. At the center of the subsidence funnel in the western part of the urban area, the greatest land subsidence is nearly 2.5 m, which has led to immense direct and indirect economic losses. Wuxi is situated closed to the Yangtze River and Taihu Lake, with a well-developed water system, which provides the city with a beautiful landscape environment, while also giving

358

Analysis of historical cultural heritage (C9)

SpaƟal analysis of mountain openness (C13)

4 Spatial Layout of the UC Structure

Analysis of public psychological recogniƟon (C11)

Analysis of distance to exisƟng UC zones (C15)

Fig. 4.9 Evaluation of individual social attributes among grid cells (A2)

rise to risks of flooding. The influence of such ecological disasters, which have a significant impact on the agglomeration of public facilities and the construction of UC zones, was divided into individual grid cells, and the area ratio occupied by each factor in the grid cells was regarded as the evaluation indicator for disaster risks. The ecological evaluation factors above were comprehensively calculated, and the Delphi method was used to calculate the ecological security value for each grid cell (A3). In general, the areas along the banks of Taihu Lake, as well as the mountainous and hilly regions in the southwestern part of the urban area, had the highest ecological value in Wuxi. The higher-altitude northwestern part of the urban area is subjected to frequent occurrences of geological disasters. The eastern area has relatively poor ecological value, especially in the east and south, where the ecological constraints are very low. Therefore, these areas are suitable for the construction of high-intensity UC zones (Fig. 4.10). By calculating the nine indicators (i.e., transportation accessibility, land costs, completeness of supporting facilities, cultural accumulation, quality of landscape environment, accessibility of residential communities, geological conditions, air quality, and disaster risk) for each grid cell, it is possible to comprehensively evaluate its suitability for the construction of UC zones.

4.3 Approaches and Methods of UC Structure Layout

Analysis of soil geological subsidence (C17)

Degree of air polluƟon (C19)

359

Analysis of topological slope variaƟons (C18)

Degree of noise polluƟon (C20)

Fig. 4.10 Evaluation of individual ecological attributes among grid cells (A3)

(2) Suitability evaluation of UC structure spatial layout based on planned city blocks Still using Wuxi as an example, its master plan specifies a “1 + 5 + 6” urban functional pattern, where the functional zoning of the city is composed of the main city, five new towns, and six suburban towns. The main center covers an area of approximately 946 km2 and is divided by mountains, lakes, rivers, roads, and railways into more than 2,700 city blocks. The suitability evaluation for the spatial layout of the city-level UC structure can be directly performed based on these city blocks (Fig. 4.11). The evaluation process can be directly applied to each city block unit to analyze its pros and cons with respect to the different indicators, including transportation accessibility, land prices and demolition costs, completeness of supporting facilities, cultural accumulation, quality of landscape environment, accessibility of residential communities, geological conditions, air quality, and disaster risks (Figs. 4.12, 4.13, 4.14 and 4.15). – Transportation accessibility. The accessibility of transportation plays a crucial role in the development of the city-level UC structure. Whether it is business and commerce or culture and recreation, the normal operation of all UC service functions is preconditioned on the convenience of regional transportation conditions.

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4 Spatial Layout of the UC Structure

Fig. 4.11 City block division in the Wuxi master plan. *Source Urban Planning Bureau of Wuxi City, 2007

Factors of ecological landscape

Factors of the historical purple line

Fig. 4.12 Scope of construction-limiting mandatory factors (A4) in the main city of Wuxi

Based on the suitability evaluation of transportation accessibility, it can be seen that the most accessible area within the Wuxi urban area is, no doubt, the Wuxi old town. The Wuxi old town is located at the center of Wuxi’s divergent urban transportation system and, hence it is extremely convenient for transportation. In addition, the transportation network in the old town is developmentally mature, with

4.3 Approaches and Methods of UC Structure Layout

Analysis of transportaƟon accessibility (C1)

Analysis of land prices(C5)

361

Analysis of service facility completeness(C8)

Fig. 4.13 Evaluation of individual social attributes among city blocks (A1)

Openness of water bodies (C13)

Openness of large-scale greenspaces (C14)

Analysis of distance to exisƟng UC zones (C15)

Fig. 4.14 Evaluation of individual social attributes among city blocks (A2)

Analysis of topological slope variaƟons(C18)

Analysis of noise polluƟon (C20)

Degree of flood impact (C21)

Fig. 4.15 Evaluation of individual ecological attributes among city blocks (A3)

362

4 Spatial Layout of the UC Structure

a complete road hierarchy and an advanced system of local roads. Therefore, in terms of transportation accessibility, the Wuxi old town is the most suitable for UC zone development. The areas around the Wuxi Inner Ring Road also have good transportation accessibility. These areas are closely connected with the old town, while also having convenient transportation links with other areas in the city, which is conducive to the development of business and commercial activities. In addition, due to the presence of Shanghai-Nanjing Expressway, Airport Expressway, and Chengxi Expressway, the Huishan and Dongting areas on the periphery of the city are conveniently connected to the main city and other regions, thus showing relatively prominent transportation accessibility. Therefore, the establishment of a city-level UC structure should also be encouraged in these areas. – Land prices. Based on the spatial distribution of land prices in Wuxi, the UC zone development of the old town area is relatively advanced due to its long history of commercial and business activities, which also implies that it has the highest land prices. Relatively high land prices can also facilitate the relocation of functional land uses that are no longer beneficial to UC zone development, such as low-end residences, which will enable the concentrated development of UC zone functions. In addition, high land prices can also increase the floor area ratio, which will encourage the creation of a pleasing urban skyline in the UC zone, thereby enhancing its quality and image. However, the old town is not suitable for the establishment of a new UC zone. Newly formed UC zones are generally located in areas with relatively low land prices, whereas more mature UC zones tend to be located in areas with higher land prices. Assuming that the other development factors are the same, areas with lower land prices are more suitable for the development of UC zones. From this perspective, the lower land prices of the areas around the Inner Ring Road are more conducive to the establishment and development of new UC zones. – Landscape environment. Based on the evaluation map of landscape environment, the areas around Mount Xi, Mount Hui, and Taihu Lake showed good ecological factors within the Wuxi urban area. These areas were either adjacent to natural mountains or large-scale lakes, thus providing them with abundant ecological resources, which are sufficient to support the development of large-scale UC zones in their surrounding regions. In addition, the ecological conditions of the areas around the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal, the Xinzhou area, and the areas around the Sports Center also have prominent ecological conditions; hence, they are suitable candidates for the layout of district-level UC zones. Given the increasing land scarcity and spatial uniformity of UC zone development, as well as its resulting traffic congestion, environmental pollution, and ecological deterioration, the presence of Mount Xi, Mount Hui, Taihu Lake, and other ecological greenspaces and water bodies is especially valuable within this context. Not only are they able to greatly improve the spatial effect and landscape quality of the UC zone, but they can also help to reduce the environmental pollution caused by transportation and commercial activities, while also improving the ecological effects of the UC zone.

4.3 Approaches and Methods of UC Structure Layout

363

– Historical cultural accumulation. As the birthplace of both the ancient Wu culture and modern Chinese national industry and commerce, Wuxi is steeped in a rich accumulation of historical culture. By analyzing the distribution of the different grades of cultural preservation units and industrial heritage preservation sites, as well as their range of influence, it can be seen in the Wuxi old town that this ancient city to the south of the Yangtze River has retained its ancient spatial layout, including the “turtleback-shaped,” “one bow (river), nine arrows,” “jade beltshaped,” and “belt-shaped” patterns, which has remained largely unchanged even to this day. It has the densest distribution of cultural preservation units, bringing together four major historical blocks (i.e., Rongxiang, Huishan, Qingming Bridge, and Xiaolou Lane), urban historical sites (e.g., Chong’an Temple and Donglin ancient archway), and various neighborhoods (e.g., Rihui Lane, Taosha Lane, Jieguanting Alley, and Caijia Alley), which are dotted among the modern city. Not only are they numerous in quantity, but they also possess valuable historical and cultural value. Similarly, there are also many historical monuments and industrial heritage remains along the Grand Canal and railway lines, which together constitute an important historical context for the city. In addition, the western part of the city and areas around Taihu Lake are dominated by natural parks, such as Yuantouzhu and Xihui Park, which provide distinctive local characteristics. – Completeness of service facilities. The central urban area bordered by Jiefang Ring Road is the area with the most complete public service facilities in Wuxi. It is also Wuxi’s central commercial district, carrying on the bustling merchant activity of its ancient past, while also embodying its current urban image of fashion and leisure. This area not only accommodates large-scale commercial facilities, such as Nanchan Temple and Chaoyang Square, but it is also home to the station-front business district and other commercial circulation platforms, while also aggregating various comprehensive cultural and recreational venues, such as Chong’an Temple and Shenglimen area. Furthermore, Taihu New Town and Lihu New Town are the “two wings” for the outward extension of public facilities in the main city. Lihu New Town is dominated by commercial and trade circulation, focusing on the supporting business services industry for the Lihu High-Tech R&D Zone, as well as supporting commercial facilities for high-end residential areas and open parks along the lake. Taihu New Town, on the other hand, is focused on the supporting business services industry and lifestyle service industries for the urban sub-center, university town, and creative industry park. – Air quality. Air quality is a key factor that is often overlooked in the layout of the UC zone. As for Wuxi, numerous factors may affect the air quality of the UC zone, including the sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxide pollution caused by urban traffic; waste gas and particulate pollution caused by the chemical industry, steel industry, metallurgy, and other heavy industries; and sand and dust pollution caused by climate change in other regions. Generally, the areas around Taihu Lake in the western part of Wuxi, such as Taihu New Town, Lihu New Town, and Yuantouzhu, tend to have higher humidity, which has a better absorption effect on floating particles in the atmosphere. Therefore, these areas tend to have better air quality. However, the eastern part is home to a large number of industries and

364

4 Spatial Layout of the UC Structure

warehouses, and their production activities will inevitably give rise to the emission of waste gas and particulates, which will have a certain negative impact on their surrounding environment. Therefore, the overall air quality of these areas tends to be inferior to that of the central old town and western lakeside areas.

4.3.2 Optimization Calculation of the Layout Model (1) Optimization model of city-level UC structure The overall layout of the city-level UC structure can be coordinated based on the results of the suitability evaluation. The Monte Carlo method can be adopted for the subsequent optimization model. This method uses random sampling techniques to perform statistical testing in order to obtain the statistical eigenvalues as the numerical solution of the problem to be solved. The basic idea of using the Monte Carlo method to optimize the layout of the city-level UC structure is as follows: First, random sampling techniques are used to generate a layout plan of public facilities in the citylevel UC structure. Pre-set optimization objective functions (i.e., economic, social, and ecological benefit evaluation functions) are used to evaluate the optimal objective value of the given layout plan, which completes the first simulation. Re-sampling is then performed to obtain a new layout plan for a second simulation, followed by multiple iterations of this operation. Finally, the plan with the highest optimal objective value is selected from among the simulations as the optimal solution for the layout of the city-level UC structure (Table 4.9). (2) Random allocation model The goal of the optimization calculation model for the city-level UC structure is to assign the predicted land use for each UC zone to each evaluation unit according to certain constraints. The upper limit of public facility agglomeration within the evaluation unit is calculated based on the typical patterns of public facility land use layouts in the main core of UC zones, and the maximum density of public facilities in the evaluation unit is 100%. After excluding the area of water bodies and greenspaces, the constraint for the maximum public facility land use allocated to each evaluation unit is as follows:   100 − Swater/ green Pmax ≤ 100 Pmax is the maximum ratio of public facilities that can be accommodated within the evaluation unit, and Swater/green is the area ratio of non-construction land (e.g., water bodies and greenspaces) among the grid cells. Based on the practical and comprehensive survey and calculation results of nearly 100 UC zones around the

4.3 Approaches and Methods of UC Structure Layout

365

Table 4.9 Flowchart of the city-level UC structure optimization model

world, the maximum public facility density in the actual allocation of UC zones within the evaluation unit is between 90% and 100%. This parameter value can be fine-tuned according to different cities and different UC zones. In addition, based on the requirements for the land use allocation of public facilities, the sum of land use among all UC zones must be equal to the total land use scale of public service facilities as determined by the city’s master plan, which is given below: 386 

Pi = Ptotal

i=1

Pi is the public facility land use for the ith evaluation unit, and Ptotal is the total public facility land use to be allocated. When designing the model, attention was paid to ensure that the selection of items was as random as possible. The FORTRAN random number generator was used to achieve this aim, which generated random numbers between 0 and 1. A random number between 0 and 1 was first generated for each evaluation unit, which was adjusted to [0, Pmax ] interval through certain mathematical transformations. This population number is smaller than or equal to the maximum public facility land use

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4 Spatial Layout of the UC Structure

number Pmax for which each evaluation unit can be allocated; hence, the allocation is able to satisfy the first constraint. However, the sum of the random numbers for all evaluation units does not necessarily equal the total land use scale to be allocated; therefore, the total amount must be adjusted according to the equation below: ξi 386 

= ξi

Pi Ptotal

i=1

ξi is the random number before adjustment, and Pi is the random number after adjustment, i.e., the public facility land use number allocated to the ith evaluation unit. At this point, Pi satisfies both the first and second constraints, which completes a valid allocation of public facility land use. (3) Objective function evaluation model The rationality of the allocation of public facility land use for each evaluation unit was described using three subsystem indicators, namely economic benefits, social benefits, and ecological benefits. Then, the ecological, production, and lifestyle benefits of the public facility land use allocation were integrated across all evaluation units to obtain the total benefits of the overall allocation. The advantages and disadvantages of the allocation plan were then evaluated based on this total benefit. To calculate the relative levels of economic, social, and ecological benefits, an evaluation sub-model was developed to generate a quantitative index between 0 and 1, which assessed the economic, social, and ecological benefits of the public facility land use allocation over several grid cells, and the total benefits of the UC structure. This number is known as an “evaluation,” as the quantification method is an estimate based on the degree to which the target criteria have been satisfied. Therefore, if the result is 0, this does not imply that the given benefit at a given time for a given spatial unit is 0, but that the given benefit is still unable to meet the minimum requirements of urban service industry agglomeration at the given point in time. A result of 1 implies that the target benefit criteria can be met, and not that the given benefit has reached “perfection.” The comprehensive benefits of public facility land use allocation among the evaluation units were obtained through the weighted sum of the economic, social, and ecological benefits. The respective weights were determined based on the comparison of multiple plans and expert consultation.3 The total benefits of land use allocation for urban public facilities (the sum of the benefits from the land use allocation of public facilities across all evaluation units) is the final objective function of the model. The size of this value represents how “good or bad” a given land use allocation plan for urban public facilities is, based on which the spatial distribution of the city-level UC structure can be rationally constructed. 3 Indicator

weights should be determined separately according to the economic, social, and ecological characteristics of different cities and should also be adjusted according to different development intentions. The same set of fixed weights should not be applied to the calculations of different cities.

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Regardless of whether grid cells or planned city blocks are used as the basic unit to evaluate the suitability zoning for the spatial distribution of public facilities, they can both be used to formulate the optimal layout model of the centers in the UC structure at a global and comprehensive level. It is worth noting that the evaluation results for the suitability zoning of the UC structure spatial distribution do not point to a unique final solution. Instead, under different development intentions, urban decision-makers can construct different scenarios according to the suitability zoning of the UC structure spatial distribution in order to make the most optimal choice. Using Wuxi as a case study, the grid partitioning method was applied for the optimized simulation of public facility distribution. The model was first used to perform the optimized simulation for the allocation of the total land use capacity of public facilities in the Wuxi urban area (total land use of urban public facilities in 2020 as specified in the city’s master plan), with more than 100 million optimization cycles. After more than 100 million computational simulations on the workstation, 20 land use allocation plans for public facilities that gave the greatest total benefits4 were selected. As a more dispersed layout of public facility land use will result in higher costs of infrastructure construction, dispersed plans of public facility layout are undesirable. Therefore, the degree of dispersion in public facility land use was evaluated for 20 plans to select a few plans with the lowest dispersion as the optimized plan for the allocation of public facility land use in the Wuxi urban area. Based on this criterion, four scenarios were ultimately obtained that served as the recommended allocation plans for public facility land use in 2020. Different optimization models were used for these four scenarios, but all of them were spatially agglomerated and had the highest overall benefit evaluation, respectively predicting the optimized agglomeration model of the future public facility land use in Wuxi (Fig. 4.16). This optimized agglomeration model of public facility land use is an idealized plan for the formation of the UC structure based on a centralized layout of urban public facility land use. This is because the allocation of grid cells does not take into account the current factors of public facility land use. Actually, there is a substantial gap between the current status of public facility land use and its optimized allocation for numerous grid cells, which will undoubtedly increase the difficulty of achieving this idealized plan. Therefore, the relative compromise method can be implemented to ensure that the final layout plan for public facility land use is of practical significance. This involves performing optimization adjustments to the ideal layout of public facility land use according to the current layout, thus ensuring that the allocation of public facility land use adheres to the principles of optimization, but does not deviate from reality. Based on this, we can infer the optimal spatial distribution plan for Wuxi’s future city-level UC structure. Naturally, the analytical results based on grid cells as the basic evaluation units must be converted twice in combination with land use blocks, and this process may lead to deviations caused by data transformation. Therefore, grid cell partitioning

4 The maximum total benefits obtained from the comprehensive calculations are only relative values

with respect to all plans involved in the simulation.

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Scenario 2. Layout opƟmizaƟon of public facility agglomeraƟon

Scenario 2. Layout opƟmizaƟon of public facility agglomeraƟon

Scenario 3. Layout opƟmizaƟon of public facility agglomeraƟon

Scenario 4. Layout opƟmizaƟon of public facility agglomeraƟon

Fig. 4.16 Ideal plans for the optimal spatial layout of public facility land use in the Wuxi urban area. *Source Figures by the author

is an approach premised on the lack of clear overall planning for the transportation network and city block partitioning. The analysis and calculations based on city blocks as the basic evaluation unit enables the direct extraction of relevant data from the current city block units. This was followed by a comprehensive evaluation of the factors above using GIS, upon which the impact of ecological mandatory factors on UC zone construction was superimposed, and the resulting score obtained served as the final evaluation data of suitability. The evaluation results can also directly guide the planning and development of each city block, even to simulate the spatial development form of the citylevel UC structure in the future, with a much higher level of accuracy (Fig. 4.17). The suitability evaluation of the spatial layout in the city-level UC structure based on city blocks as the evaluation unit is more suitable for the spatial cohesion of the evaluation results and future planning. Based on the spatial analysis and evaluation above, a framework for the relative spatial form of the city blocks in Wuxi can be established to determine the height zoning and spatial agglomeration system of public facilities. This will enable the layout calculations for the rational planning of public

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Fig. 4.17 Comprehensive evaluation of public facility space in the Wuxi main city based on city blocks

facility agglomeration according to the strategic intentions of urban development, thus ultimately forming the spatial layout plan of the city-level UC structure. Using Hangzhou as an example, the evaluation of the spatial suitability zoning within its city-level UC structure can also be decomposed into indicators such as transportation accessibility, land prices and demolition costs, completeness of supporting service facilities, cultural accumulation, quality of landscape environment, and accessibility of residential communities, as well as ecological, historical and other height-limiting mandatory factors (Fig. 4.18). The final results of the comprehensive evaluation are shown in Figs. 4.19 and 4.20. The most suitable area for UC zone construction is the area along Yan’an Road. Yan’an Road is located in the center of the old town, east of the West Lake. It has been a site for the aggregation of shops and merchants in the ancient city of Hangzhou for several centuries, which has left behind a large number of historical cultural remains and a profound level of cultural accumulation (C9). With the rise of modern commerce after the reform and opening up, the area has now aggregated a large number of city-level comprehensive commercial buildings (C10). Owing to its long history of development, the commercial core of this area is deeply rooted in the hearts of the people; hence, it has a very high level of public recognition (C11). Wulin Gate at the northern end of Yan’an Road is a key transportation center in Hangzhou, while

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Analysis of transportaƟon accessibility (C1)

Analysis of land prices (C5)

Public psychological recogniƟon (C11)

Accessibility of rail transit (C3)

Completeness of service faciliƟes (C8)

Openness of mountains (C13)

Accessibility of railway staƟons (C4)

Analysis of historical cultural heritage (C9)

Analysis of noise polluƟon (C20)

Fig. 4.18 Factor evaluation and analysis of city block units in the Hangzhou urban area

the railway station hub (C4) is located at its southern end. Additionally, a number of rail transit lines and traffic routes within the city intersect at this site (C3), thus placing the Yan’an Road area in the lead with respect to transportation accessibility within the city (C1). Furthermore, the excellent landscape environment along the West Lake has also added to the development of this area (C11). A large number of cultural attractions are distributed along the lake, including the Ten Scenic Spots of West Lake, overlooked by the Su Causeway and Bai Causeway across the lake. Given its location near mountains and waters (C12), the Yan’an Road UC zone has a superior and elegant landscape environment, which also attracts a large number of foreign tourists who come for sightseeing, thus providing the service industries within the Bai Causeway UC zone with an ample flow of customers.

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Fig. 4.19 Comprehensive evaluation and analysis of the Hangzhou urban area 4.3-14: Analysis of the future trends in the UC structure of the Hangzhou urban area

The second most suitable area for UC zone construction is the Qianjiang New Town area. The land supply in this area is more abundant compared to the old town (C5), while the land prices and demolition costs are lower (C6). In terms of transportation, the Qianjiang New Town area is also the transportation hub of the Binjiang Area in Hangzhou. It is close to the Xiaoshan International Airport, Hangyong Expressway, Hangjinqu Expressway, Zhejiang-Jiangxi Railway, Xiaoshan-Ningbo Railway, as well as the Shixin North Road and Airport Expressway running through the Xiaoshan old and new town areas. The planned Metro Lines 2 and 6, as well as the river-crossing tunnel, will also pass through this area. Therefore, it is a hub of transportation links for southeast Hangzhou and a gateway for cross-river development, which has good transportation accessibility (C1, C2, C3, and C4). Furthermore, the

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Fig. 4.20 Analysis of the future trends in the UC structure of the Hangzhou urban area

Qiantang New Town area is bordered by the Qiantang River, which provides it with good landscape characteristics (C11). The Binjiang New Town area lies in third place. This area is located along the riverfront landscape belt on the south bank of the Qiantang River (C11). It has a relatively clear transportation structure and convenient regional transportation (C2, C3), but it is disadvantaged by its long distance from existing UC zones. Furthermore, with the river acting as a natural moat, and the inadequate psychological recognition of urban residents, the issue of whether it can support the large span of the UC structure remains to be explored and discussed. Based on the above, the correlation analysis of various factors, such as the future urban population and economy in Hangzhou, will lead to the preliminary determination of Hangzhou’s future city-level UC structure as a 2MC-7SC model. – Yan’an Road commercial and business main UC zone. This mainly refers to the area with Yan’an Road as the central axis, encompassing the Wulin, Hubin, Wushan, and other areas. In addition to the Yan’an Road commercial main core, it

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also includes the Wulin Square business sub-core, Qingchun Road business subcore, Hubin tourism services sub-core, and Wulin Road commercial sub-core. It will become the largest city-level commercial and business center in Hangzhou in the future. Not only has it accumulated a fairly robust foundation for the service industries, but it also has a mature functional division in business formats and spatial layout. It has strong industrial inclusiveness involving a wide range of business formats, as well as a high concentration of service institutions, convenient transportation, and complete infrastructure. In the future, the Yan’an Road main center will continue to improve its degree of commercial agglomeration, upgrade the quality of commercial facilities, increase the ratio of new business formats, and enhance its service functions, thus forming a highly agglomerated, modern commercial and business center. – Qianjiang New Town business and commercial main UC zone. This includes the Qingchun East Road cultural sub-core, the Qianjiang Road administrative subcore, the Jiangdong Road convention and exhibition sub-core, and the Binjiang tourism services sub-core. Its future functional positioning will be as an urban political and cultural hub and a regional business office hub, providing service functions such as administration, trade offices, finance and securities, information conventions and exhibitions, culture and tourism, and so on. It will gradually become a regional production command and economic operation center. Wushan traditional commercial sub-center. The Wushan traditional commercial sub-center starts from Yan’an South Road, stretching northward to Jiefang Road, southward to Wushan Square, eastward to Qinghefang Street, and westward to Nanshan Road, thus echoing the Yan’an Road main UC zone. Due to the West Lake in Wushan and the numerous historical commercial remains, this area has taken its place as a traditional commercial sub-center in Hangzhou that is rich in historical cultural characteristics. The main business formats in the Wushan commercial sub-center are tourism, shopping, and leisure and entertainment, focusing on the historical and commercial cultural connotations of the old Hangzhou to attract foreign tourists and local residents. The area includes a large number of famous brand outlets, specialty stores, specialty restaurants; cafes, bars, tea rooms, and other leisure and entertainment establishments; as well as various business formats such as art galleries, antique, calligraphy and painting shops, tourist souvenir shops, and time-honored brands. The inner Qinghefang block with its historical and cultural characteristics is adjacent to Yongjin Square, Qingbo Building, and other business office buildings in the outer area, showcasing both traditional commercial culture and modern business offices, which elicits a sense of spatial juxtaposition between the old and the new. – Chengzhang business and trade sub-center. The Chengzhang commercial and trade sub-center relies on the large passenger flow from the transportation hub to form a business and trade sub-center dominated by high-end business office buildings and supplemented by catering, entertainment, and shopping and aggregating a variety of institutions such as foreign and domestic major corporations, financial consortia, and tourism distribution centers. The business format of the

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Chengzhan sub-center is mainly characterized by business consumption. The majority of consumers are businesspeople or tourists traveling to Huangzhou, as well as some office workers and local residents. Sanwen Road electronic information sub-center. The Sanwen Road electronic information sub-center is dominated by digital and electronic sales services, with the scope of its service provision covering the entire Hangzhou city. Largescale electronic information markets are aggregated here, with business formats related to electronic information, including offices, trade, technical consultancy, and professional services, distributed along the streets. Huanglong business sub-center. This sub-center radiates outward from the Huanglong Sports Center, mainly encompassing Baochu Road, Hangda Road, and Huanglong Road in the north-south direction, and Xixi Road, Shuguang Road, and Tianmushan Road in the east-west direction. It is a key center for the aggregation of business offices, tourism, conventions and exhibitions, sports, and leisure. It also contains high-end business office buildings, such as the World Trade Center, as well as relatively developed catering and commercial industries. Shengfu Road administrative office sub-center. This area is located on the northeastern side of West Lake. It is the seat of the Zhejiang Provincial Government, Zhejiang People’s Great Hall, and other administrative office buildings. Its functions are dominated by administrative offices, with the aggregation of business offices, technical consultancy, and similar formats in its surrounding derived from the dominant function, thus forming an administrative office sub-center. Hangzhou East Railway Station sub-center. The new Hangzhou East Railway Station is the largest transportation hub in Zhejiang Province, with transfers to any mode of urban transportation, including maglev train, metro, high-speed railway, expressway bus, bus rapid transit, and canal cruises, thus providing convenient access to all areas in Hangzhou, even to all cities in Zhejiang. With the transportation hub as the core, a multi-layer radiation circle has formed in this area based on the large amount of regional passenger flow, integrating commerce, business, offices, and tourism. Binjiang New Town sub-center. The Binjiang New Town sub-center is not only a sub-center in Hangzhou but also a district-level distribution center that undertakes the service industry functions of UC zones within the larger context of Hangzhou. It is the engine that is driving the development of Binjiang New Town. This area not only contains a large number of students in the Binjiang Higher Education Park, but also the residential population in the Binjiang residential district. Its functional overlap as a district-level center and city-level sub-center will cause the Binjiang New Town sub-center to reach a relatively large spatial scale in the future.

4.3.3 Development Strategies for the City-Level UC Structure The development of the city-level UC structure is conducive to reinforcing the highend functions of urban service industries, forming a concentrated area of service

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economic activities, as well as generating regional agglomeration and radiation effects. Thus, it is of crucial strategic significance for enhancing the city’s hard competitiveness and improving its soft competitiveness. Therefore, the vast majority of cities in China have proposed the construction of new urban centers to upgrade the monocentric structure into a polycentric city-level UC structure. The development process of the UC structure mainly involves two strategy types: spatial expansion and content enhancement. (1) Spatial expansion strategies of the UC structure The city-level UC structure is composed of several UC zones that undertake different functions and are relatively independent in terms of space. By connecting the locations of these UC zones from an overall perspective of the city, we will obtain the range of the spatial framework for the UC structure. An overly narrow range of coverage will lead to the insufficient expansion of the overall service space within the city, which will affect its service radiation functions. A confined UC structure framework will result in several maladies. First, it will affect the ability of the UC structure to perform its own service functions. If the main UC zones are all located within the core parts of the main city, this will produce a large influx of people, which will further exacerbate the service load and traffic pressure on the old-town UC structure serving as the business and trading core of the entire city. This will be prominently manifested as bottlenecks, or even serious congestion, in surrounding transportation nodes. Second, it will lead to mutual overlaps in the dominant functions of the different centers. Different specialized services require different spatial locations, the overly dense distribution of the UC structure will cause the UC zones to have similar locations and service radii. This will cause the inability to widen the distance in industrial locations, thus directly contributing to difficulties in the dislocated development of dominant functions among the different centers. Third, it does not provide a sufficient driving force for new-town construction. Rapid urbanization has led to the swift expansion of built-up areas in Chinese cities, especially in megacities. In this strategy of rapid new-town development, the construction of new UC zones will provide a driving force for the rapid rise of new towns. If the citylevel UC structure is completely concentrated within a narrow range in the old town, then, service facilities will obtain excellent comprehensive service functions within the old-town UC zone and the strong polarization effect will, instead, suppress the normal development of other commercial hubs, especially that of new-town commercial hubs. This will lead to difficulties in forming a new-town UC structure network, and it will affect the agglomeration of service facilities in new towns. Thus, new town construction is likely to morph into “commuter towns” that are dominated by residential land use, leading to the loss of a deep-seated driving force for development. For example, in Guangzhou, the spatial distribution range of its UC structure composed of five UC zones in 2008 was only 34 km2 . It was too confined within the old town and could not match the rapid new-town development in its surrounding areas, which ultimately affected the development of a series of new towns, including Baiyun, Pazhou, and Liwan (Fig. 4.21).

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Fig. 4.21 The framework of the Guangzhou UC structure is spatially too narrow

Therefore, the spatial expansion of the city-level UC structure can help to widen the differences in spatial locations, which, in turn, will facilitate the greater dislocated development of its internal functions. The cultivation of “suburban” sub-centers in suitable peripheral locations is the main means by which to expand the UC structure. The construction of “suburban” sub-centers has dual functions: First, the construction of sub-centers in the UC structure is characterized as spatially “intensive but not expansive.” The sub-centers do not require a large land use area, but it must have prominent location advantages and environmental characteristics. Their planned service industries must also be high-end service industries, such as conventions, exhibitions, and business, serving the region or even the world. Expanding the framework of the city-level UC structure will promote the dislocated development of industries at suitable locations, and hence drive new-town construction. Second, the construction of district-level centers is characterized as spatially “expansive but not intensive,” with a land use area accounting for a relatively large proportion of the total sub-center area. These centers should provide lifestyle commerce, mid- to low-end service industries, and other functions to meet the proximate living needs of newtown residents, thereby driving the rapid agglomeration of the population in the new town and enhancing its popularity. For example, to address the issue of its narrow UC structure, Guangzhou proposed the construction of multiple “suburban” sub-centers, including Baiyun, Pazhou, Liwan, and the Olympic Sports Center, in its new master plan, which aims to widen the spatial framework of the UC structure.

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The different development conditions of the city-level UC structures will also give rise to differences in the planning and construction characteristics of UC zones. In general, there are mainly four models for the cultivation of UC zones: – Development models driven by social UC zones. This model was commonly used in China’s construction new-town UC zones in the first decade of the 21st century. It involved the initial construction of zones for administrative offices, sports and fitness, art and culture, or scientific research and education in the planned core area. Its aim was to establish a core image for the UC zone through government relocation, the construction of Olympic Sports Centers, the construction of university towns, and other means, which would drive the aggregation of marketoriented service facilities, including offices, trade, comprehensive commerce, and hotels, thereby forming a preliminary framework for the UC zone. The advantage of this model is that the government has direct and powerful control, while the presence of large public buildings, such as government buildings, stadiums, and university science and technology zones, will enable the rapid establishment of a spatial image for the UC zone. However, if this approach is not aligned with the realities of urban development, it will become synonymous with the construction of large squares and large axes, resulting in vacant and impersonal UC zones that are unattractive to the population (Fig. 4.22). – Development models driven by transportation facilities. This model relies on the layout of high-speed railway stations and subway (light rail) interchanges for the planning of business-oriented UC zones. It is a model of development and

Fig. 4.22 Development models driven by social UC zones are prone to producing grand but unpopular areas

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construction involving policy interventions by the government, and it is dominated by the market-oriented operations of land property rights. This is currently the main model of new-town UC zones, especially in megacities. To fully utilize the economic driving force of major infrastructures that require enormous investments, it is hoped that a development model based on the station-front business and trade zone will help in the establishment of a UC zone that will promote the agglomeration of service facilities. Some cities have even positioned the UC zones in front of high-speed railway stations as future main centers of urban development. However, high-speed railway stations are unlike ordinary passenger railway stations. The former is characterized by high-price consumption, highspeed operations with zero-distance transfers, and remote and off-center locations, which imply that its large passenger flows will quickly disperse from the highspeed railway station area. This is somewhat similar to the transportation model of airports, where it is difficult to form UC zones that can retain large crowd flows for consumption. By observing cities with high-speed railways around the world, we can see that almost none of them have cultivated city-level UC zones adjacent to high-speed railway stations; instead, most of them have established district-level lifestyle centers near subway interchanges. Therefore, current plans for high-end city-level UC zones based on high-speed railway stations should be carefully examined and rationally evaluated. – Development model driven by flagship projects. Through government guidance and invitations to invest in a designated location, it is possible to aggregate financial banks, corporate headquarters, large-scale convention centers, or exhibition centers as a specific area, which then serves as the engine that drives UC zone development. For example, in Lujiazui, Pudong, several large-scale international headquarter projects, including Jin Mao Tower and Standard Chartered Bank, were first established during the early stages of its development. In Wuhan, the regional headquarters of several major banks were aggregated along Jianshe Avenue. In Guangzhou, the early stages of the Baiyun New Town UC zone first involved placing an international conventions center at its core position, while prior to the cultivation of the Pazhou convention and exhibition center, the world’s largest international exhibitions center was placed in the middle of Pazhou Island. As for Beijing, the World Trade Center was first established in the Chaoyang UC zone during the initial stages of its construction, while a concentrated layout of four major banks was introduced during the early construction of the Financial Street UC zone. These major flagship projects represent the highest end of modern service industries and an international corporate image. Their high-end brand image and bulk business flows will give rise to the agglomeration of numerous derivative service industries. However, since UC zones are the most densely populated areas in the city, they will also differentiate between high-end and low-end service industry employees and between production and lifestyle needs. Therefore, if planning is focused solely on flagship projects, while neglecting the development of mid- to low-end service formats and supporting lifestyle service industries, then, the UC zone will become a high-class but deserted “pendulum city.”

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– Development model of gradual market-oriented agglomeration. This model involves the aggregation of small- to medium service institutions due to the superior location of a given area, which eventually reaches a certain scale after a period of time, and its comprehensive advantages will, in turn, attract larger service institutions. For example, the Central District of Hong Kong has undergone nearly 50 years of development, during which large-scale buildings were continuously built and demolished, as the space gradually expanded outward, eventually forming its current ribbon-like pattern. This is a purely market-oriented startup model, where the UC zone naturally aggregates and grows, while the government only intervenes through management functions, thus incurring low costs and low risks. However, this approach of UC zone cultivation requires a long time. Furthermore, during the course of free development, the UC zone will be prone to chaotic business formats and spatial mixing, eventually shifting toward low-end business formats, which is undesirable in the construction of new-town UC zones. From the comprehensive analysis of these UC zone development models and representative cities, we can see that the municipal government is still a decisive and dominant force in the planning and construction of UC zones, differing only with respect to the degree and method of intervention. However, it also shows that service institutions are no longer simply builders and implementers but have also begun to intervene in the planning of high-end functions and business formats in the UC zone. Therefore, two tendencies must be avoided during the cultivation of new-town centers and expansion of the UC structure. The first is the tendency toward the uniformity of dominant functions, leading to a lack of diversified and supporting functions. Many new UC zones have relatively uniform industrial categories, which are dominated by administration, sports, and culture, while such functions tend to have high thresholds for industrial capital, service recipients, and employees, as well as a narrow scope, which limit their ability to attract urban crowd flows (Fig. 4.23). In addition, there is a lack of policies encouraging the relocation of urban industries and populations, the absence of unified incentive measures, as well as a lack of market size due to the remote location of new UC zones Thus, despite the presence of numerous public greenspaces and social service facilities, the development of these UC zones remains slow, leading to difficulties in achieving their expected purpose (Fig. 4.24). The absence of established UC zones will, in turn, restrict the development of the real estate industry in the new town, thus forming a vicious cycle. Therefore, in the development planning of the UC structure, it is necessary to avoid development models that focus simply on a few types of industries. Instead, new-town UC zones must be developed and constructed as true urban centers, paying special attention to the cultivation of its composite functions. New-town UC zones should be modern, multi-functional city centers of higher standards, consisting of complete infrastructure, rational industrial structure, developed service industries, and superior environments. In the cultivation of comprehensive functions, emphasis should be placed on the construction of service facilities for commerce, culture, leisure and entertainment, and communication.

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Fig. 4.23 This new-town center only has administrative and cultural functions, lacking in sufficient employment motivation and spatial vitality behind its grand façade. *Source Evaluation and survey of urban construction in 2005 by the Jiangsu Provincial Rural and Urban Development Department

The second is the tendency toward a surplus of high-end facilities, and a lack of district-level lifestyle service functions, thus leading to insufficient popularity. The construction of new-town UC zones must ensure the provision of a complete UC zone package, with an emphasis on coordinating local employment and local residences, providing the support of routine service facilities required by large-scale

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Fig. 4.24 Behind the façade of its numerous greenspaces, the UC zone lacks dominant functions and employment motivation. *Source Survey of riverfront urban construction in 2006 by the Anhui Provincial Government

high-end public facilities and urban residents, as well as reducing the commute of residents to ease urban commuting traffic. If the mutual coordination between the high-end service industries and the routine lifestyle services for local residents is neglected, it will only be possible to attend concerts, host international conventions, and swim and row, but not to buy groceries, seek medical help, or attend school in these high-end UC zones, which means that the daily life of residents cannot be guaranteed. Such cases, which have a surplus of high-end services but insufficient lifestyle service facilities, are relatively prevalent and can prevent new-town UC zones from attracting a local residential population. Therefore, it is necessary to increase the land use scale and distribution range of district-level service facilities within new-town UC zones, so that it can provide a full package of local lifestyle facilities while fulfilling its sub-center functions, which will increase the popularity of the UC zones and attract a sufficient number of residents. (2) Content improvement strategies of the UC structure The city-level UC structure has exhibited a trend of heterogeneous development that is exemplified by diversification, specialization, and characterization. It has

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evolved from the vertical hierarchical system dominated by lifestyle service functions (different tiers of commercial hubs) in the past to a dynamic, diverse, comprehensive, and open UC structure that seeks to survive and develop through competition, while also being mutually complementary and mutually restrictive as a whole. – Development model based on the diversification of dominant functions. The excessive uniformity of the dominant functions in the main center will lead to problems such as a small overall scale and indistinct hierarchical differences. Hence, it is necessary to expand its diversified functions in a timely manner to improve the core service functions of the main center and truly exert its radiative effects. The development of the Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town UC zone in Guangzhou can illustrate the diversification process of dominant functions in a UC zone. In 1990, the Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town UC zone only consisted of the newly built Tianhe Sports Center, while Zhujiang New Town in the south still contained a large expanse of rural farmland. At this point, the UC zone only provided the single function of sports and fitness. Subsequently, business offices gradually began to aggregate in its surrounding, and the area eventually expanded into a UC zone with business and sports functions. At this point, its business functions were gradually taking shape, but there was a serious lack of lifestyle functions, which were also limited in size. The UC zone only consisted of a single layer of business office buildings along the Tianhe Sports Center, and could only serve as a sub-center to relieve the pressure of service institutions in the old-town UC zone. At present, with the cultivation and agglomeration of the comprehensive commercial hub in the north, the business office hub in the center and various comprehensive cultural hubs in the south of the Zhujiang New Town, the TianheZhujiang New Town UC zone have achieved multifunctional mixed development and have truly become a comprehensive UC zone in Guangzhou. This is a typical development process from being monofunctional to becoming multifunctional (Fig. 4.25). – Development model based on functional specialization. An excessively low proportion of land use occupied by dominant functions is the main factor contributing to the “hollowing out” of sub-center functions. Spatial and industrial policy regulation should be implemented in sub-centers to guide them toward a development model of specialization. The continuous dislocated development and spatial differentiation of dominant functions among different sub-centers will further fine-tune the functions of the UC structure and the functional division of labor among the sub-centers, while the continuous emergence and development different functional sub-centers will be able to meet the needs of the city’s diversified activities. Established sub-centers should gradually divert their overlapping functional land use. In addition, among the residential, industrial, and other land uses demolished during old-town reconstruction, a sizeable proportion must be set aside for dominant functions, while large-scale institutions and projects should be introduced into sub-centers in order to gradually increase their characteristic functional land use. During the construction of new sub-centers, a certain proportion of land use must be designated for characteristic city-level dominant functions

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Fig. 4.25 Development process of the Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town UC zone in Guangzhou. Note Construction of the Tianhe UC zone began in 1990, and the Zhujiang New Town UC zone was later built in the south. After more than 10 years of development, the two gradually merged into one. *Source Urban Planning Bureau of Guangzhou City

and be subjected to rigid control to prevent such functions from being invaded by residential and other land uses during the development process. – Development model based on highlighting the landscape culture. Natural landscapes (e.g., mountains and rivers), cultural characteristics, and artificial landscapes (e.g., iconic buildings, sculptures, etc.) can attract the public activities and consumption behaviors of urban residents, even bringing in additional revenues from tourism. This point has been demonstrated by the UC zones of cities around the world, which includes large-scale public buildings such as the Sydney Opera House; high-rise buildings such as the Twin Towers of Kuala Lumpur and the Oriental Pearl Tower of Lujiazui, Shanghai; and characteristic landscapes such as the Statue of Liberty in Manhattan or the Avenue of Stars in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong. Therefore, when planning the city-level UC structure, the landscape cultural connotations of UC zone construction should be reinforced, the repetitive style of the UC zones should be altered, while the historical culture and local traditions should be explored, thereby highlighting the cultural characteristics of the city in terms of spatial form, architectural style, business format layout, landscape design, and so on. For example, as a famous national-level historical and cultural city that was established 2,200 years ago, Guangzhou has a long history that most prominently features the intense clash of modern Chinese and Western cultures. The Lingnan regional culture, historical and traditional culture, cuisine culture, foreign trade culture, and colonial culture have all left deep marks on this city. However, none of the current city centers, whether the Beijing Road, Zhujiang New Town, or Huanshi East Road UC zone, are able to reflect the deep-seated cultural characteristics of Guangzhou. Moreover, the Beijing Road and Zhujiang New Town UC zones are bordered by the river in the south, but their core areas are located in the middle of the city, where the landscape characteristics of the city cannot be fully utilized. Therefore, when making planning adjustments, projects to reinforce the landscape of the current UC structure should be implemented.

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A public spatial system of mountains and rivers should be developed in the old town from the perspective of vision and sightlines. Greenspaces and waterfront plazas should be established in nodal areas, using point public spaces to maximize the landscape benefits while incurring the minimum cost. The construction of new UC zones should focus on highlighting the features of mountains and rivers, controlling the volume and height of buildings along visual corridors, and placing large-scale, wedge-shaped greenspaces in order to fully utilize the landscape culture as a display window for the UC structure.

4.4 Approaches and Methods for the Spatial Layout of District-Level Centers With the advancement of the UC structure toward higher orders, two new tendencies will emerge in the agglomeration of urban public facilities: One tendency is the concentration of high-end service facilities in city-level UC zones with the best comprehensive conditions, thus forming a 1MC-MSC or even a 2MC-MSC UC structure. The other change is the separation of lifestyle-oriented mid- to low-end service facilities from the city-level UC structure, and their agglomeration in the various districts, thereby forming multiple district-level centers. Structurally, the district-level centers of the UC structure are second-level public hubs beneath city-level centers. District-level centers are the carriers of service functions within the districts. As the agglomeration core for the economic, political, cultural, and other activities of urban district functional entities, they provide comprehensive service functions to the district that they serve. There are multifaceted reasons for the emergence of district-level centers. First, the expanding scale of megacities will lead to a sharp increase in the transportation and time costs of inbound travel for residents living in the outskirts. Routine public services, in particular, will become increasingly inconvenient, thus necessitating the establishment of convenient public hubs in nearby areas. Second, in the process of upgrading the business formats of city-level centers, certain lower-grade service functions that were replaced in the city-level centers will need to find new spaces for development in the surrounding areas. Furthermore, due to the influence of factors such as administrative divisions, urban functional divisions, and natural barriers, it is necessary to set up relatively independent public service hubs in certain areas within the city. Given the impact of the factors above, district-level centers will be distributed and develop in specific areas within the city.

4.4.1 Spatial Layout Theory of District-Level Centers City-level centers are unlike district-level centers. The latter mainly serves a specific population in a specific district; hence, the impact factors affecting its spatial layout

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are markedly different from those affecting city-level centers. The spatial layout of district-level centers mainly involves the following three major elements: (1) Internal transportation accessibility The internal transportation accessibility of districts mainly refers to the convenience of accessing the district-level public center from any location within the district via a specific mode of transportation by all local residents with service needs. It directly manifests as the transportation time and economic costs needed for residents to reach the district-level center to obtain public services. District-level centers mainly provide daily comprehensive services to address the majority of lifestyle consumption required by residents, and so its location should be conveniently accessible to users. Therefore, the transportation accessibility of district-level centers is a primary concern in its layout. The transportation accessibility of district-level centers mainly emphasizes the accessibility of slow transportation. For cities in general, the service radius of districtlevel centers tends to be below 5 km. Within this scale, the time taken for slow transportation modes (e.g., buses, cycling, and walking) is not significantly different from motorized transportation, while also incurring the lowest economic costs and avoiding problems such as parking and traffic that are inevitable with motorized transportation. Therefore, from the perspective of comprehensive benefits, slow transportation is the most economical and convenient mode of transportation to and from district-level centers. Given these transportation characteristics, the layout and location selection of district-level centers should mainly focus on locations with good slow transportation accessibility. In fact, locations with good motorized transportation accessibility, such as expressway intersections and arterial road intersections, may not be suitable for the layout of district-level centers. Conversely, areas around rail transit and bus stations, the intersections of arterial and collector roads, areas with dense local roads, and other locations that are convenient for the rapid access and dispersion of slow transportation should be the key focus in the location selection of district-level centers. Another emphasis of transportation accessibility in district-level centers is the time cost of reaching the center within the district. The greatest advantage of district-level centers over city-level centers is that the former is able to provide the most convenient public services within the district they serve. If the time taken to reach the center from within the district is too long, then, the functions of the district-level center will be replaced by the main center. For most cities, overall, the time taken to reach the district-level centers from within the urban districts via public transportation should not exceed 30 min. This is a basic threshold to ensure that the district-level center is able to effectively serve the district. (2) Service equity There are several differences in the layout of district-level centers compared to that of city-level centers. First, the layout of district-level centers emphasizes the social welfare provided by public services and aims to safeguard the basic living needs of

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residents. In contrast, the layout of city-level centers emphasizes the profitability of public services and aims to maximize the creation of benefits. Second, the layout of district-level centers prioritizes equality and attempts to balance out the disparities in service capabilities among different locations through the layout of districtlevel centers. In contrast, the layout of city-level centers prioritizes efficiency, which attempts to strengthen regional competitiveness and improve the overall efficiency of the service industries through the layout of UC zones. Third, in terms of service functions, district-level centers mainly provide basic and routine services, while city-level centers mainly provide high-end services. Finally, the radiation range of district-level centers is limited and is constrained to the district where it is located. This is also the fundamental difference between district-level and city-level centers. As for the distribution of social and public services, a consensus has never been reached with regard to attaining an equitable layout, and the related concepts can be divided into the following four types: – Spatial equity: Regardless of whether or not the residents within the planning zone have the same socioeconomic status, intention, demand, population distribution, or other factors, all of them have access to consistent facilities and services. In other words, the emphasis is on equal access to basic public facilities for residents living in different locations. – Supply equity: Service facilities are distributed fairly according to the needs of the community. This is also known as “compensatory” spatial equality, which also stresses the concept of “utilization efficiency.” The majority of planning practices for public facilities found in urban planning textbooks in the past have tended toward this concept. – Demand equity: Service facilities are distributed fairly according to the demands of local residents, for example, based on residents’ attitude and enthusiasm in fighting for public facilities and making decisions based on the pressure of regional public opinion. – Market equity: Service facilities are distributed fairly according to market principles, such as the prices or taxes that the districts are willing to pay. For example, in municipal construction, road construction is often determined by whether residents are willing to pay a considerable amount of matching funds. The first option above is used to define an “equitable layout” of district-level centers, that is, whether the spatial distance to the district-level center is equitable among residents. This is reflected in the relative equity among different districts in terms of the ability to access their respective public service hubs, as well as the relative equity among different areas within the districts to access their respective public service hubs. (3) Spatial overlap The functions of the UC structure are not simply divided among the different tiers of UC zones. Although city-level centers (including the main and sub-centers) mainly provide city-wide high-end and comprehensive services, they often still have

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Fig. 4.26 Functional overlap of district-level centers

to address the routine services and mid- to low-end consumer functions of their surrounding areas (Fig. 4.26). Therefore, many city-level centers also serve as the district-level centers of their respective districts. Under such circumstances, the citylevel and district-level centers spatially coincide, which is also the spatial overlap of district-level centers (Figs. 4.26 and 4.27). The hierarchical overlaps of district-level centers with other UC zones can be divided into the following two cases: – Overlaps between district-level centers and city-level main centers. These overlaps are mostly observed within the old towns of megacities. During the development of main centers, a large number of low-end routine service industries will be accumulated over a long period, but these industries tend to have low competitiveness on a citywide scale and can only be maintained by the routine consumption of local residents in surrounding areas. Due to the high land prices of the main center, these low-end business formats are often cramped together, basically appearing only in the form of ground-level street commerce, and they have extremely limited space for development. With respect to the business format development of the entire UC zone, the overlap between the main center and district-level center not only occupies precious development space within the main center but also affects the upgrading of its business formats, resulting in a trend toward low-end business formats. In the development of the UC structure, the development of main centers should be characterized by the agglomeration of high-end business formats, with the goal of aggregating top-end institutions on the service industry chain to participate in regional competition. Therefore, the overlapping district-level UC zone functions should be separated from the main center.

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Fig. 4.27 Spatial overlaps in the UC structure

– Overlaps between district-level centers and city-level sub-centers. Overlaps can also occur between district-level centers and city-level sub-centers. This usually occurs during the planning of urban sub-centers in new-town construction, where certain mid- to low-end supporting functions are introduced in addition to high-end functions in order to meet the routine consumption services of newtown residents, thus resulting in the spatial overlap between district-level centers and city-level sub-centers. As this type of sub-center has also incorporated the functions of district-level centers, they tend to be larger in scale than conventional urban sub-centers. The actual process of new-town development generally involves the initial construction of one or several flagship buildings in the subcenter, which serve to attract certain high-end business formats, thereby boosting its popularity. Then, as the real estate in the area continues to mature, district-level routine service functions will begin to agglomerate in order to provide the newtown residents with a certain scale of services, thereby driving the improvement

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of the supporting facilities of various services. Finally, a large number of highend, city-level commercial and business formats will slowly begin to agglomerate, eventually forming a UC zone. As the sub-center continues to develop, its districtlevel UC functions will gradually be separated from the sub-UC zone and seek out new location layouts. The original business formats of the sub-UC zone will be upgraded and slowly transform the area into a pure urban sub-center. Therefore, in this development process, it is necessary to reserve sufficient land for the development of city-level high-end facilities, thereby preventing the short-sighted problem of allowing core areas to be occupied by mid- to low-end district-level service institutions at the initial stages of new-town construction, which will lead to insufficient land use for the agglomeration of high-end city-level service institutions in the later stages.

4.4.2 Factors Influencing Urban Spatial Plate Division In the layout and location selection of district-level centers, the spatial area served by each district-level center must first be clearly delineated. In reality, the service coverage area of the district-level centers is often a composite result. Its scope is not simply based on the boundaries of urban division, but is the outcome of different partitioning effects on urban land use under various impact factors, ultimately forming separate spatial plates with their respective common attributes. District-level spatial plates are the matrix that directly gives rise to district-level centers. During the formation of spatial plates, their relative independence and coherence will induce the formation of district-level centers. Conversely, the capacity of district-level centers to provide comprehensive and convenient public services is also a precondition for the relative independence of maintaining social life within the spatial plates. It is precisely due to this close connection between district-level centers and the spatial plates where they are located that the layout and location selection of district-level centers must involve an in-depth understanding of the factors influencing the division of spatial plates. Only then can we scientifically determine the location layout of district-level centers. The factors of spatial plate division for district-level centers can be summarized into six elements, namely natural boundaries, artificial boundaries, administrative boundaries, service population, and existing foundation (Fig. 4.28). – Natural boundaries. Natural boundaries mainly refer to natural elements, such as rivers and mountains, that have a strong spatial delimitation effect within the city. These include rivers, lakes, mountains, and other features that act as natural barriers. These natural features can cut off the connection between the activities of two areas by restricting the passage of traffic, thus encouraging both sides to form their respective centers of public activities. This also includes the planned preservation of ecological protection zones in urban construction. These natural elements form “natural patches” in the city that have crucial ecological value. To strengthen the protection of these natural elements, it is necessary to limit human

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Fig. 4.28 Elements of spatial plate division

activities in these areas. Hence, placing public service hubs on either side of these elements can help to reduce traversing traffic to access public services, thus effectively protecting these ecological elements (Fig. 4.29). Finally, this also includes natural elements that can affect urban construction and residents’ lives, such as

Fig. 4.29 Natural boundaries

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unoccupied mining areas and seismic fault zones. Under the special circumstances, certain areas will give rise to urban forms and resident lifestyles that are significantly different from those of other areas; hence, special consideration should be given to the placement of public service hubs in such cases. – Artificial boundaries. Artificial boundaries refer to artificial elements that have certain spatial division and isolation effects, such as railways and high-grade expressways. Among them, elements such as railways, expressways, and diversion channels are strong barriers in terms of physical space and social psychology as they separate the line of sight and are difficult to traverse. In addition, although elements such as urban freeways, arterial roads, and surface pipelines are not impenetrable, they act as a barrier to behaviors; hence, they will also serve as elements of division in spatial plates in some cases. The elements of artificial boundaries that can have a partitioning effect on spatial plates also include largescale enterprises and city blocks with large compounds where universities and ministries are located. Such large-scale land parcels not only hinder daily traffic, but their land use functions also cannot be divided among the different spatial plates; hence, they serve to integrate and coordinate the division of spatial plates (Fig. 4.30).

Fig. 4.30 Artificial boundaries

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– Administrative boundaries. The power of government regulation and intervention plays a crucial role in the formation and dynamic evolution of urban spatial plates. The government often exercises its regulatory power by intervening in the agglomeration of specific industries in administrative areas under its jurisdiction according to the needs of local interests. The administrative areas referred to here include the different levels of division, such as municipal districts, towns, and sub-districts. This will give rise to issues concerning the relationship between the spatial plates and administrative boundaries, which will require special attention, especially given the spatial development model of administrative regions with prominent economic characteristics in China (Fig. 4.31). – Planning and regulation. Another approach by which the government regulates and intervenes in the formation of spatial plates is through the policy regulation of urban planning. How urban managers conceive the area’s spatial organization, as well as their ideas for development, is often reflected in the corresponding planning policies. Planning policies related to the division of spatial plates can be divided into two types. The first type of planning policy involves the spatial organization of the city proper or the urban area, and a typical example is the proposal of group divisions in urban planning. The second type of planning policy is to propose

Fig. 4.31 Administrative boundaries

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specific development intentions for certain areas, such as by proposing the concept of “new towns” in the corresponding plans for cities and districts. Such forms of spatial division proposed in urban planning are guidelines for urban construction that are highly feasible; hence, they are important elements of reference in the division of spatial plates (Fig. 4.32). – Service populations. The division of spatial plates should also take into account the size of the service population within each plate. This refers to the service population of the district-level centers, and it is a general term that includes the resident and working population within the spatial plate where the district-level center is located. These service populations are the main consumers of public

Fig. 4.32 Regulation of planning groups

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service facilities within the district-level centers, and their number directly determines the demand for public service facilities. The size of the service population within the spatial plates cannot be too small—otherwise it will not be sufficient to support the development of the district-level centers; neither can it be too large— otherwise there will be a shortage of supporting public facilities. By the same principle, the sizes of the service population should also be relatively even among the different spatial plates (Fig. 4.33). – Existing foundation. The existing foundation refers to the impact of current district-level centers on the division of spatial plates. If district-level centers are already distributed in certain areas of the city, then, the surrounding scope of their service coverage will naturally form a spatial plate centered on these district-level centers, while the areas beyond the boundary of these spatial plates will fall within the scope of other district-level centers. At the same time, existing long-standing district-level centers will also give rise to strong psychological recognition among residents of that district, which will affect the division of spatial plates (Fig. 4.34).

Fig. 4.33 Service populations

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Fig. 4.34 Existing foundation

4.4.3 Division of District-Level Spatial Plates and Location Selection of Centers Prior to the division of spatial plates, it is necessary to first classify the six division factors of urban spatial plates: – Rigid division factors. Rigid division factors refer to factors that can be clearly delineated in space and, hence, have a strong spatial barrier effect. Rigid division factors include artificial boundaries, natural boundaries, and administrative boundaries. The elements of artificial boundaries mainly include railways, expressways, urban freeways, arterial roads, and so on. The elements of natural boundaries include mountains, lakes, main rivers, and so on. The elements of administrative boundaries include district-level boundaries, sub-district boundaries, and so on. Rigid division factors have clear spatial delineation and a strong capacity for spatial division; hence they serve as good references.

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– Flexible division factors. Flexible division factors refer to factors that cannot be clearly delineated spatially, but still have some capacity for spatial division. Flexible division factors include planning regulations, service populations, and existing foundation. The elements of planning regulation include groups, zoning, new towns, and so on. The elements of service populations mainly refer to the consumer population within the district that includes both the resident population and the working population. The elements of the existing foundation mainly refer to the impact of current district-level UC zones on the division of spatial plates. Although flexible division factors cannot be clearly delineated spatially, they reflect the basic requirements that should be considered in the layout of district-level centers; hence, they should serve as adjustment factors in the division of districts. (1) First division of spatial plates Once the functions of the impact factors on spatial plates have been clarified, the first division of spatial plates can be performed. The purpose of the first division is to divide the city into a few major regions in order to understand its basic spatial composition. In terms of spatial scale, each region may include several spatial plates.

Fig. 4.35 First division of spatial plates

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The first division is mainly based on rigid division factors, which are integrated with respect to their level of influence and priority to determine the spatial boundaries of the first division (Fig. 4.35). – Second division of spatial plates Based on the first division, a second division must be performed on the partitioned regions to divide the city into spatial plates at the scale of districts. The second division is mainly based on flexible division factors. After the first division, elements of planning regulation, service populations, and existing foundation can be integrated to further sub-divide the spatial plates within the region. This is then evened out by the consumer population to determine the final boundaries of the spatial plates (Fig. 4.36, Table 4.10). (2) Location selection of district-level centers Once the district-level spatial plates have been determined, the final step in the layout of district-level centers is to select the location of district-level UC facilities.

Fig. 4.36 Second division of spatial plate

Flexible division

Artificial boundaries

Rigid division





▲ ▲

 

Consumer population

New towns Existing centers

▲ ▲

 

Zoning

Existing foundation

▲ ▲



Groups











Sub-district boundaries

——

▲

District-level boundaries

Normal rivers

Main rivers

Lakes





——





Arterial roads Mountains



▲ ▲

Urban freeways



Expressways

Basis for second division

Basis for first division ▲

Railways

Service population

Planning regulation

Administrative boundaries

Natural boundaries

Division factors

Type of factor

Table 4.10 Criteria for spatial plate division

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Fig. 4.37 Spatial location selection of district-level centers

The facility layout of district-level centers within the spatial plates is mainly based on two factors. The first is the internal transportation accessibility of the districts. By calculating the time needed to access the public areas from any location within the spatial plate, we can directly reflect the internal transportation accessibility of the districts. The second factor is the geometric centroid of the spatial plates. Districtlevel centers that are located at the geometric centroid indicate that they are essentially situated at the central location of the given district. By combining the two factors above, it will then be possible to achieve the layout of the facility locations for the district-level centers (Fig. 4.37).

Chapter 5

UC Structure Planning

The UC structure is an important scientific issue in the study of urban space and is also a planning category that frequently appears in the practical process of urbanization in China. This chapter incorporates the practices of UC structure planning and explains in detail how the relevant analytical, layout, and planning techniques described in previous chapters can be applied to the UC structure planning faced by urban planners in practice.

5.1 Monograph on UC Structure Planning Determining a UC structure is a complex task in urban planning that requires a great deal of detailed research to reach an objective and rational judgement, thereby providing a solid platform for its planning. To summarize this monograph on UC structure, the topics it covers can be roughly divided into the following: the historical development and evolution of the UC structure, delineation of the UC structure spatial range, analysis of the current spatial status of the UC structure, problem-solving approaches for the UC structure, and analysis of the industrial development of the UC structure (Fig. 5.1).

5.1.1 Historical Development and Evolution of the UC Structure During the course of the research on UC structures, we noticed that the evolution and development of such spatial structures are always intricately linked with major transformations in the social, economic, and cultural structures. The structures are © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 B. Shi et al., The Centre of City: Urban Central Structure, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6675-6_5

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Fig. 5.1 Framework of the monograph on UC structure planning. *Source Compiled by the author

historical, which also implies that the spatial changes in the UC structure are always rooted in social history, and new forms will emerge with economic and cultural transformation and renewal. They are traditional, which also implies that their historical existence is the perpetual crystallization of a specific ethos and is embedded within an ever-changing urban environment. Naturally, our research on the spatial evolution of the UC structure does not merely pay homage to the historical maps of cities that have previously been documented in the literature. Instead, it is an exploration of factors that have existed in history and are still influencing changes in UC structures today. A fundamental purpose of such an exploration is to place the historical factors influencing the spatial evolution of the city center within the context of the urban structure in which they were born, thus enabling us to examine their occurrence, development, and impact on future evolution. Therefore, in the early stages of UC structure planning, it is worth gaining a systematic understanding of the context of its historical development in order to examine the trajectory of its evolution, which will facilitate the determination of its future development trends. Let us examine Hangzhou as an example. Hangzhou is a famous national historical and cultural city with a history of more than two millennia. During the long course of its urban development, the formation, evolution, and transformation of the Hangzhou city center have had a profound impact on the current distribution and spatial characteristics of its UC structure. Hence, the analysis of its UC structure must begin from the context of its spatial evolution and development (Table 5.1). Therefore, when analyzing the historical evolution of the Hangzhou UC structure, it is possible to summarize the model of the UC structure and the path of location migration based on the eight stages of urban development, thus allowing us to analyze

Representative year

589 CE

907 CE

Historical era

Sui and Tang Dynasties

Wu-Yue Period

During the Wu-Yue Period, a number of temples and pagodas were restored or built in and around Hangzhou, and around the West Lake, embellishing the lake and the mountains. The Wuyue Period inherited the urban layout pattern of the Sui and Tang Dynasties. The seat of the prefectural government was located at Yaogucheng in Hangzhou at that time. At this point, the commercial center had not changed, and it remained outside the city near Yaogucheng

In the 9th year of Kaihuang in the Sui Dynasty, the Qiantang Commandery was abolished, and Hangzhou was established, which had a perimeter of 36 li and 90 bu. By the late Sui Dynasty, Hangzhou had developed into a bustling commercial city. During the transition from the Sui to the Tang Dynasty, the administrative center shifted from the north of Hangzhou toward the south, bringing it closer to the commercial center outside the city, thus giving rise to an integrated model of commerce and government

Spatial distribution pattern of the UC structure

Table 5.1 Structural changes and development in the Hangzhou UC structure Urban structure map

(continued)

UC structure distribution map

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Representative year

1129 CE

1271 CE

Historical era

Southern Song Dynasty

Yuan Dynasty

Table 5.1 (continued) Spatial distribution pattern of the UC structure

The construction of city walls was prohibited as a sign of unity, and the century-old “city wall of nine-turns” surrounding Lin’an was gradually levelled by its residents. The city wall of Hangzhou was rebuilt at the end of the Yuan Dynasty. It had a perimeter of more than 35 li, and it became the foundation for the city wall in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The feudal administrative center shifted from the south toward the Lin’an city center and formed a new commercial center in what is now the Hefang Street area, adjacent to the seat of the Lin’an prefectural government along the city’s north-south axis

Hangzhou was renamed Lin’an Prefecture, and a magnificent capital city was built that reached the Wu Mountain in the south, the Grand Canal in the north, the Qiantang River in the southeast, and the West Lake in the west. The city wall was irregularly shaped as it was built according to local conditions, and hence Hangzhou was also known as the “City of Nine Turns.” Stretching northward from the Hening Gate of the Imperial Palace to the Wulin Gate was an imperial street running through the prefectural city (now Zhongshan Road), which was also known as “Heavenly Street,” and was a bustling street in the city

Urban structure map

(continued)

UC structure distribution map

404 5 UC Structure Planning

Representative year

1636

1912

Historical era

Qing Dynasty

Republic of China

Table 5.1 (continued) Spatial distribution pattern of the UC structure

During the Republic of China, the Qiantang, Yongjin and other gates in Hangzhou were dismantled, along with their adjacent city wall, causing the city to merge organically with the West Lake, thereby altering the layout since the Sui Dynasty, which had kept the West Lake outside the city. The administrative and commercial centers began shifting toward the east bank of the West Lake. There was a northward shift in the commercial center as well, but the change in distance was not significant and the commercial center was still adjacent to the administrative center

The Qing Dynasty carried on with the old system of the Ming Dynasty, and Hangzhou remained the capital of Zhejiang Province. The city wall during the Ming and Qing Dynasties essentially followed the pattern laid down by Zhang Shicheng. Changes took place in the urban structure, with the administrative center moving toward the area along the east bank of the West Lake, while the commercial center remained unchanged

Urban structure map

(continued)

UC structure distribution map

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2002

Post-liberation to reform and opening up

Post-reform and opening up

Spatial distribution pattern of the UC structure

Since the 1980 s, the reform and opening up led to the rapid expansion of the city, which spread rapidly toward the east and the west. The urban built-up area in Hangzhou had rapidly progressed from construction along and around the lake and had now begun its development along the river. The West Lake era of Hangzhou had transformed into the Qiantang River era. At this point, the development of new districts was driven jointly by the administrative center to the north of the West Lake and the newly formed northern commercial center—Wulin Square. The city’s original commercial center and the newly formed centers in other areas were growing in strength. At this juncture, Hangzhou was gradually evolving from the single-center to the multi-center development of its UC structure

After its liberation, Hangzhou began its northward development across the Grand Canal, while also overcoming the limitations of building roads along the river and began cross-river development. The new administrative center was formed on the north side of the West Lake. The commercial center was located near Qingchun Road and Yan’an Road, which had shifted closer to the city center compared with its original position on the east bank of the West Lank before its liberation

Urban structure map

UC structure distribution map

*Source Southeast University Academy of Urban Planning and Design; Urban landscape planning on the east bank of West Lake in Hangzhou. 2009 (same reference below)

Representative year

1965

Historical era

Table 5.1 (continued)

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Fig. 5.2 Migration of the Hangzhou city center in different periods

the humanistic concentricity and spatial adhesion of the UC structure distribution in Hangzhou and to reveal the psychological and spatial resistance in its evolution and development (Fig. 5.2). ➀ 1MC stage: Hangzhou remained at the 1MC stage from the Sui and Tang Dynasties to the period of reform and opening up. The overall trend of development was the northward shift of the city from the south of Hangzhou near the Wu Mountain to the east bank of the West Lake. In addition, the city’s commercial center and special administrative functional zones were always tightly linked at each stage. ➁ Expansion stage from 1MC to 1MC-MSC: After the reform and opening up, Hangzhou formed a 1MC-MSC circle-core structure with Wulin Square as the main center surrounded by multiple sub-centers. However, because of constraints due to geographic conditions, the sub-core system was not complete. In addition, the city’s main center began shifting from Wulin Square-Yan’an Road toward Jiefang Road and Zhongcheng Road.

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Fig. 5.3 Current distribution of the UC structure in Hangzhou

➂ 1MC-MSC stage with ribbon development along main roads: Currently, the main city of Hangzhou has formed a 1MC-5SC hierarchical UC structure. The distribution of public facilities and high-rise buildings in Hangzhou is generally spread out along the main roads and lack clear concentrated distribution circles of public buildings. The UC structure in Hangzhou has undergone multiple evolutions and migrations throughout its history and has ultimately formed the following pattern of UC structure (Fig. 5.3): – Main center: Wulin Square—Yan’an Road commercial and business UC zone includes the Yan’an Road commercial center and Wulin Square business subcore, the Qingchun Road business sub-core, the Hubin tourism services subcore, and the Wulin Road commercial sub-core. As the northern starting point of Yan’an Road, the Wulin Square commercial main center has aggregated a variety of building types, including those for offices, commerce, and culture, and it undertakes the functions of the main UC zone in the city. – Sub-centers: These include the Qianjiang New Town administrative and cultural sub-center, the Huanglong business sub-center, Shengfu Road administrative subcenter, Hefang Street traditional commercial sub-center, and Chengzhan commercial and trade sub-center. The sub-centers are mainly distributed along the West Lake and around the key nodes for outbound transportation. – District-level centers: These include the Nanshan Road district-level commercial center, Hangzhou Road district-level specialty commercial center, Hubin districtlevel commercial sub-center, and the East Railway Station district-level center. The district-level commercial centers have mainly inherited Hangzhou’s historical context and are mostly commercial blocks with rich historical resources. The protected city blocks in the old town areas have often evolved into such districtlevel centers.

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As one of the core cities in the Pearl River Delta region in China, Guangzhou has undergone a long history of urban development. The development of the commercial and trade economy has had a profound impact on the spatial structure of the UC zones in Guangzhou. From a historical perspective, the developmental context for the spatial structure of Guangzhou’s UC zones can be roughly divided into four periods: the 1MC, 1MC-1SC, 1MC-MSC, and 2MC-MSC periods. ➀ 1MC period: In the early urban development of Guangzhou, the development of commerce, trade, and other service industries were constrained by the transportation and transport conditions at that time. Due to the relative backwardness of land transportation, waterborne transportation became the preferred choice for trading due to its low costs. By relying on the Pearl River waterway as an entry point to the sea, Guangzhou formed a commercial and trade center in the Shangxiajiu area of Xiguan, which was mainly involved in the transaction and wholesale trading of commodities. It had a small scale of development and a relatively limited radiation range. ➁ 1MC-1SC period: Following the innovations in transportation technology after the Republic of China, coupled with the low efficiency and uncertainties of waterborne transportation,1 this was gradually replaced by land transportation, which became the main mode of short-distance trade. Therefore, the innovations in the transportation for trade led to the evolution in the pattern of the UC zones. Shangxiajiu was gradually replaced by the Beijing Road UC zone as the city center of Guangzhou, while the former eventually diminished into a traditional commercial sub-center. ➂ 1MC-MSC period: With the advent of industrialization, urban development underwent explosive growth, leading to the considerable increase in both the scale of the UC zones and the types of industries, while railways and highways became the main mode of freight transport. In addition to these, there was the emergence and explosive growth of the financial and trade industries, as well as the layout of large-scale infrastructure by the government. All these had a far-reaching impact on the spatial structure of the UC zones, which underwent rapid expansion in construction scale. At the same time, spatial dispersion was also observed among the service industries, which refers to the spillover of the service industries resulting from the maladies of over-agglomeration in the main center, such as traffic pressure and the steady deterioration in environmental quality. Gradually, several functional sub-centers began forming around the Beijing Road main center, such as the Shangxiajiu traditional commercial center, the Sanyuanli wholesale trade and conventions and exhibitions sub-center, the Huanshi East Road business sub-center, and so on. In the late 1990s, a series of business office buildings were constructed, including those in Zhongxin Plaza, and Tianhe District gradually transitioned from a specialized functional zone dominated by sports into a business-oriented urban sub-center. In the meantime, the Beijing Road main center developed into a comprehensive main UC zone 1 Early

waterborne transportation was overly dependent on the weather and was limited by the shipbuilding technology at the time, which meant that it was relatively unsafe.

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that brought together retail commerce, trade offices, culture and entertainment, and other industries. ➃ 2MC-MSC period: Since the turn of the new century, the reinforcement of Guangzhou’s status as a core city of the Pearl River Delta region has enabled it to play an increasingly important role as a regional core city, and expand the scale of the corresponding functional industries, the most important of which were the financial and trade industries. This accelerated the development of the Tianhe sub-center, while also nurturing the emergence of the Zhujiang New Town UC zone. With the development of the Zhujiang New Town and the settlement of large-scale retail commerce, such as Zhengjia Plaza in Tianhe, the TianheZhujiang New Town UC zone gradually expanded in scale and its public facilities became spatially amalgamated, thus leading to its upgrade to a comprehensive main UC zone. The new Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town UC zone is composed of the Zhujiang New Town in the south and the Tianhe business sub-center in the north. The development trend involving a mutual attraction between polar opposites has formed a state of joint development between the two. From the perspective of urban space, the two parts have now merged into a new whole, that is, the new Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town UC zone, and its dominant functions include business offices, large-scale retail commerce, and culture and entertainment. After more than a century of development, the Guangzhou UC structure has undergone the 1MC, 1MC-1SC, 1MC-MSC, and 2MC-MSC periods and has finally evolved into its current spatial distribution of functional centers composed of the Beijing Road UC zone, Zhujiang New Town UC zone, Sanyuanli UC zone, Huanshi East Road UC zone, and Shangxiajiu UC zone (Fig. 5.4). With respect to the timeline of formation, the Shangxiajiu UC zone was formed early in the 20th century. The Beijing Road UC zone gradually developed and matured after the reform and opening up. The Huanshi East Road and Sanyuanli UC zones were formed in the late 1980s with the completion and aggregation of a group of star-rated international hotels and high-end office buildings. The Zhujiang New Town UC zone was formed in the 1990s alongside the development of the Tianhe UC zone. Therefore, the Shangxiajiu, Beijing Road, Sanyuanli, Huanshi East Road, and Zhujiang New Town areas, plus the Pazhou Convention and Exhibition Center that is currently under construction, can be regarded as the traditional commercial hub, modern commercial hub, traditional convention and exhibition hub, modern convention and exhibition hub, traditional business hub, and modern business hub of Guangzhou, which respectively represent the different stages of development in the city’s dominant functions. This sequence of development also reflects the trend of continuous expansion and eastward migration of its center in Guangzhou city. Using Changzhou as an example, the evolution of its UC structure is manifested as a process of simultaneous development between the UC structure and urban form. The urban form of Changzhou started from the old-city stage of development, where its boundary was defined by the city walls and underwent several decades of axial

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Fig. 5.4 Analysis on the evolution of UC zones in Guangzhou through four stages: 1MC, 1MC1SC, 1MC-MSC, and 2MC-MSC. *Source Southeast University Academy of Urban Planning and Design, Research on the city-level UC structure planning of Guangzhou. 2008 (same reference below)

expansion to form a “multi-core, multi-level, multi-axial” spatial framework. Alongside the continuous evolution of its urban form, Changzhou also transformed from a monocentric to a polycentric city (Table 5.2). The evolution in the urban form of Changzhou can be divided according to its spatial expansion into six stages, and the corresponding relationship with the development period of the UC structure is as follows: ➀ Stage 1: Urban development was centered on the city wall. The urban form was delimited by the city wall, and the commercial center was located within the old town. ➁ Stage 2: Urban development broke through the city wall, extended westward along the river, and later eastward toward Qishuyan. ➂ Stage 3: Urban development mainly moved southward to merge with Hutang, with continuous growth toward the east and west to form an overall spindle shape. [1MC period] The first three stages in the evolution of Changzhou’s urban form were the 1MC period of the UC structure. The scope of the urban area in Changzhou underwent gradual expansion with the city wall as its foundation. The UC zone was located in the old town within the city wall, that is, near the current Yanling Road. During this period, the urban form gradually evolved from a cluster into a spindle shape.

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Table 5.2 Evolution of the spatial form and UC structure of Changzhou Scope of urban area

Urban form

UC structure

Stage 1 Monocentric

Stage 2 Stage 3

Transition toward polycentric

Stage 4 Stage 5

Polycentric

Stage 6 *Source: Southeast University Academy of Urban Planning and Design, Research on the UC structure planning of Changzh ou, 2012 (same reference below).

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➃ Stage 4: Urban development moved northward along the Yangtze River, and formed an overall spatial form of “one city with four wings.” [Transitional period] Stage 4 in the evolution of the urban form in Changzhou is the transitional period of its UC structure. As the scope of the urban area expanded toward the north and south, its urban form shifted from east-west expansion to a crossaxis expansion, giving rise to the gradual formation of two district-level centers in the north and south beyond the main center, which serve High-Tech District in the north and Wujin District in the south, respectively. ➄ Stage 5: The scope of the urban area was extended to the Yangtze River and the north-south framework was stretched open to form the 1MC-2SC overall spatial form. ➅ Stage 6: With the adjustments to the administrative divisions of Changzhou and Wujin, the city of Wujin was incorporated into Changzhou, thus fully opening up the urban structural framework and developing an overall form with “multi-core, multi-axial, multi-level” spatial growth. [1MC-2SC period] Stages 5 and 6 are the polycentric period of the Changzhou UC structure. During this period, Changzhou underwent a rapid expansion in the scope of its urban area and strengthened the north-south development axis, which dominated the evolution of its spatial form. In addition to the continuous expansion in the scale of the Yanling Road main center, the two city-level sub-centers on the north-south development axis, the Wujin and High-Tech Districts, also took shape, thus forming a 1MC-2SC UC structure in Changzhou. We will now examine Zhengzhou as another example. Zhengzhou is a core city of the Central Plains city cluster with an “X”-shaped basic framework. Over more than a century of development, its UC structure has undergone the 1MC and 1MC-1SC stages and has finally evolved into its current spatial distribution of functional centers composed of the Erqi Square and Zhengdong New District UC zones. The development of the Zhengzhou UC structure can be divided into three stages (Fig. 5.5). ➀ Period before the founding of China: Until the end of the 19th century, the urban area in Zhengzhou was only 2.23 km2 , with a population of less than 20,000. In 1906, the construction of the Beijing-Hankou Railway brought about new opportunities to the declining Zhengzhou, and the convenient transportation enabled the development of the city’s industry and commerce. Zhengzhou began to take shape as an important distribution center for agricultural and sideline products and an import port for industrial products. After the devastation from the war, when Zhengzhou was liberated in 1948, its urban area was only 5.2 km2 , with an urban population of 16,400 and a single road (Datong Road) that was 728 m long. Its public facilities were rudimentary, and it had yet to form a complete and orderly structural system of UC zones. ➁ Period after the founding of China and before the reform and opening up: During this period of national economic recovery and the “One-Five” planned

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Fig. 5.5 Development and evolution of the Zhengzhou city center

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construction,2 driven by the policy of “transforming consumer cities into production cities,” Zhengzhou became the capital and key construction city of Henan Province in 1954. The roads of the entire urban area extended in all four directions with Erqi Square as the center, thus preliminarily forming a spatial structure with a more reasonable functional zoning within the city, where the industrial zone is located in the west and the administrative and cultural zones are in the northeast. ➂ Since the reform and opening up: With further economic development, the urban structure presented a development pattern of eastward expansion and westward migration. Based on the overall planning pattern of 1994, Zhengdong New District was developed into a new growth point within the UC structure, part of the administrative and cultural functions of the city center gradually migrated eastward, broad swathes of the Erqi Square UC zone underwent large-scale transformation, the commercial service facilities in the old town were reinforced, and mixed commercial and business UC zones were gradually formed. This enabled the UC structure to exhibit a 1MC-MSC spatial structure and gave rise to the prototype for dual main centers, which pointed out the direction for the future development of the Zhengzhou UC structure. Zhengzhou currently has a 1MC-3SC UC structure. The 1MC refers to the Erqi Square main center, and the 3SC refers to the Zhengdong New District sub-center, Huayuan Road sub-center, and Bishagang sub-center. In addition to these, there are also three special functional areas, namely, the Henan Art Center, the Zhengzhou municipal government, and the Henan provincial administrative center (Fig. 5.6). – The Erqi Square main center. The Erqi Square main center is located within the old town in Zhengzhou, with Erqi Square as the core. Its business format is primarily retail commerce, and its UC zone functions are mainly aggregated along Fushou Street and Renmin Road, showing a trend of eastward extension along East Street toward the Shang City archeological site in the east. – Zhengdong New District sub-center. The Zhengdong New District sub-center is located at the junction between Zhongzhou Avenue and Jinshui Road, with Ruyi Lake and Hongbaihua Park as its core. Its business format is primarily business offices, and its UC zone functions are mainly aggregated along the Shangwu Outer Ring Road and Shangwu Inner Ring Road, showing a trend of east-west extension along Jinshui Road and north-south extension along Zhongzhou Avenue. – Huayuan Road sub-center. The Huayuan Road sub-center is located within the old town of Zhengzhou, with both sides of Jinshui Road as its core, showing a trend of north-south ribbon development. Its business formats are primarily administrative offices, commerce, and business. Its UC zone functions are mainly aggregated along Huayuan Road, showing a trend of east-west extension along Agricultural Road.

2 That is, China’s first Five-Year Plan (1953–1957), its formulation and implementation marked the

beginning of China’s systematic construction of socialism.

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Fig. 5.6 Current distribution of the 1MC-3SC UC structure in Zhengzhou. *Source Southeast University Academy of Urban Planning and Design, Overall urban design of UC zones in Zhengzhou, 2012

– Bishagang sub-center. The Bishagang sub-center is located on the west side of the Zhengzhou Railway Station, with both sides of Zhongyuan Road as its core. Its business formats are primarily administration and business, and its UC zone functions are mainly aggregated along Zhongyuan Road, showing a trend of eastwest extension along Zhongyuan Road. In general, the spatial structural form of the UC structure in Zhengzhou has broken away from the monocentric model with Erqi Square as the main center and the city expanding outward from the main center in concentric circles. With the eastward migration of the urban built-up area and the rapid development of the Zhengdong New District, the existing 1MC-3SC UC structure is facing major transformation, and gradually developing toward a 2MC model. In terms of Nanjing, the city has also undergone the 1MC, 1MC-1SC, and 1MCMSC stages during the lengthy course of its development, ultimately forming its current spatial distribution of functional centers composed of the Xinjiekou UC zone, Confucius Temple UC zone, Hunan Road UC zone, and Hexi UC zone. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Nanjing consistently retained the 1MC UC structure, and the Confucius Temple UC zone had already begun to take shape. From the Ming and Qing Dynasties to the Republic of China, the Confucius Temple remained the cultural and commercial center of Nanjing. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the Confucius Temple was not only a venue for imperial examinations that had aggregated a large number of government agencies, but it was also a trading

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place of various commodities. This scene of commercial prosperity formed a unique style, which inspired a poem accurately depicting the bustling scene of the Confucius Temple UC zone near the Qinhuai River: “the sound of oars and the lights of the city can be heard and seen for ten miles, the sing-song girls and the flower boats frolic amid the turbid waves.” By the time of modern Nanjing, the formulation of the capital plan in 1929 gave rise to a series of measures, such as the construction of Zhongshan Road and the Xianguan Railway Station, which led to the northward shift of its social and economic center. In addition, the changes to the examination system meant that the candidates no longer gathered in the examination halls, and the south of Nanjing had reached its saturation point, which caused many commercial institutions in Confucius Temple to move to Xinjiekou. This led to the decline of the former and its gradual substitution by Xinjiekou as the new main UC zone, thus ushering in the 1MC-1SC period in Nanjing. From the founding of China until the beginning of the reform and opening up, the convenient transportation provided by the urban railway enabled the gradual development of the Daxing Palace UC zone in Nanjing. The city thus formed a 1MC-3SC UC structure with Xinjiekou as the main center and the Drum Tower, Confucius Temple, and Daxing Palace as the sub-centers. From the 1990s onward, the rapid urbanization of Nanjing led to the formation of the 1MC-2SC structure with Xinjiekou as the main center and Confucius Temple and Hunan Road as the sub-centers. The reduction in the number of city-level UC zones was mainly due to the rapid expansion in the scale of urban commercial land use. Under this trend of development, the Xinjiekou UC zone experienced a rapid increase in the land use scale, causing it to merge with the Drum Tower and Daxing Palace sub-centers along the main axis of development, thus forming a multicore, circle-core structural model. Furthermore, the main center had also undergone transformation in the business format of its service industries, shifting from the original retail commercial center to a CBD with various services, including finance and insurance, information consultancy, and culture and entertainment. The Hunan Road UC zone was established after the reform and opening up. In the 1980s, it only assumed the role of a district-level UC zone in Nanjing. However, after the 1990s, the guidance of planning policies, as well as the convenience provided by its geographic location and transportation conditions, meant that the scale of its commercial industries grew at twice the rate of Xinjiekou during the same period, and led to its integration with the Shanxi Road UC zone. Thus, in a little more than a decade, the Hunan Road UC zone swiftly developed into a sub-center in Nanjing. In this round of large-scale development, the Confucius Temple UC zone undertook its own renovation and transformation, which involved restoring and constructing a batch of cultural relics and tourist attractions, treating the sewage in the Qinhuai River, and rapidly renewing the houses and streets along the river. This imbued the area with a new sense of vitality, enabling it to attract tourists from all over the world using its unique landscape as a representative scenic area in Nanjing. In this round of development, the Confucius Temple UC zone not only achieved the development

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and growth of its own scale but also merged with the Sanshan Street UC zone, thus forming the new Confucius Temple UC zone (Fig. 5.7). Since 2002, the greatest change to the UC structure is the maturation of numerous district-level centers, causing mid- to low-end commerce to gradually depart from

Fig. 5.7 Development and evolution of the UC structure in Nanjing

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city-level UC zones and move to district-level centers such as Longjiang, Rehe Road, and Ruijin Road, thus further augmenting the hierarchy of the UC structure. As for the city-level centers, aside from developing higher-end business formats, the government began to vigorously develop Hexi New Town and promoting the establishment of the Hexi UC zone. With the improvement in its supporting infrastructure, the promotion of government policies, the construction of high-end office buildings, the large influx of urban residents, and the business opportunities provided by largescale sporting events such as the 10th National Games and Youth Olympic Games, the Hexi UC zone rapidly developed into a sub-center in Nanjing. This led to yet another change in the UC structure of Nanjing, giving rise to the 1MC-3SC UC structure with Xinjiekou as the main center, and Confucius Temple, Hunan Road, and Hexi as the sub-centers. After 2011, the South Railway Station area centered on the high-speed railway station in the south also underwent rapid development and formed a new urban sub-center within a short time. During this process, the Xinjiekou UC zone retained its status as the single main center of Nanjing, but the development and construction of other UC zones meant that there was a slight decline in its high level of primacy. In the next stage of development, it is possible that subcenters with superior development conditions, such as the Hexi Olympic Center, may take the leap toward becoming a main center, thus forming the higher-order 2MCMSC spatial structure. This sequence of development will also reflect the trend of continuous outward expansion in Nanjing.

5.1.2 Delineation of the UC Structure Spatial Range To study the UC structure from the perspective of urban planning, it is first necessary to analyze its functional activities, spatial structure, and supporting environment. These tasks require the establishment of a quantifiable geographic range to aid in our research in order to maximize the basis for data comparison and in-depth analysis. To analyze the spatial structure of the UC structure, the Murphy index was used as a basis for delineation, which was combined with three delineation parameters: the peak land price method, functional unit method, and traffic flow analysis. This helped to quantitatively analyze and determine the boundaries of each main, suband, district-level UC zone through comprehensive multi-factor overlay analysis and multiple verifications. In addition, the analysis of land use functions was also performed to describe and clarify the spatial boundaries for each special functional zone. Delineation must be performed within a uniform time period, using exactly the same survey standards, statistical accuracy, and calculation methods. Only then will the results of quantitative delineation have an acceptable level of accuracy and comparability. The spatial delineation of the UC structure starts with analyzing the land use pattern of urban public facilities. Using Guangzhou as an example, the investigation on the current spatial distribution of its public facilities will play a crucial role in guiding the subsequent quantification and boundary determination of its UC zones.

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The spatial delineation is based on the detailed survey and statistical analysis of the current urban land use status in Guangzhou (Fig. 5.8). It is the rough framework for the fuzzy agglomeration range for each tier of UC zone according to the spatial agglomeration characteristics and urban development status of land use for public facilities. Quantitative delineation techniques were applied on this basis to calculate the UC structure of Guangzhou in 20083 (Table 5.3). The city-level UC structure of Guangzhou is composed of the Beijing Road UC zone, Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town UC zone, Sanyuanli UC zone, Huanshi East Road UC zone, and Shangxiajiu UC zone. Together, they constitute the skeleton of the Guangzhou UC structure, serving the entire city and even the South China region (Fig. 5.9). The total land use area of the UC structure is 15.03 km2 and its gross building area is 32.604 million m2 . It is distributed along a ring road around the central city, with Jiefang Road, Guangzhou Avenue and Zhongshan Road forming a “two vertical and one horizontal” axial framework (Fig. 5.10). – Beijing Road main UC zone. The Beijing Road UC zone is located at the center of Guangzhou. It is the origin for the construction of Guangzhou and the busiest commercial distribution center in history. In recent years, the Yuexiu District Government has decided to integrate Beijing Road (together with the interconnected Jiaoyu Road and Xihu Road) with its surrounding commercial outlets, tourist attractions, and cultural monuments and has planned to construct a comprehensive “Yangcheng Commercial Tourism Zone.” The Beijing Road UC zone is centered on Beijing Road as the core and is distributed along the Baiyun MountainMemorial Hall-People’s Park-Haizhu Square axis. It covers an area of 3.88 km2 , with a main core of 56.1 ha. The Beijing Road UC zone consists of T-shaped axes formed by Zhongshan Road and Beijing Road, with a large amount of retail commerce distributed along these axes. Its interior is dominated by the Beijing Road commercial pedestrian street as the main core, and it has aggregated large-scale retail commerce. It is spatially rich in distinctive features, with Baiyun Mountain encroaching the urban space, forming a north-south historical and traditional axis with the Zhongshan Memorial Hall, Municipal People’s Congress, Municipal Government, People’s Park, and Haizhu Square. This axis intersects with the east-west water system of the Pearl River at Haizhu Square and forms the waterfront landscape axis along the Pearl River. – Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town main UC zone: The construction of the TianheZhujiang New Town UC zone began in 1990 after the Guangzhou Municipal Government proposed the policy of establishing Tianhe as a future city center. It is a modern CBD that brings together international finance, trade, commerce, culture and entertainment, administration, residence, and other city-level functional facilities, thus serving as a base for promoting the international exchange and cooperation of business institutions. With the full support of the municipal 3 Please refer to the appendix of this book for details on the techniques used for the spatial delineation

of UC zones.

5.1 Monograph on UC Structure Planning Fig. 5.8 Current distribution of various public facilities in Guangzhou. *Source Southeast University Academy of Urban Planning and Design, Guangzhou

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Table 5.3 Delineation of UC zone range in Guangzhou Main centers

Notes

Beijing Road UC Dominant zone functions

Spatial form Retail commerce, trade consultancy, administrative offices

Land use area 387.8 (ha) Building area 947.1 (10,000 m2 )

Tianhe-Zhujiang Dominant New Town UC functions zone

Trade consultancy, retail commerce, finance and insurance

Land use area 624.3 (ha) Building area 1286.6 (10,000 m2 )

(continued)

government, the development boom in Tianhe was driven by large-scale municipal projects, and it achieved significant progress within a short period. The total land use area of the Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town UC zone is 6.24 km2 and its gross building area is 12.8657 million m2 , while the main core spans an area of 160.7 ha. The area is bristling with hotels, office buildings, commercial buildings, shops, and apartments, while the advanced development of the banking and securities industry has secured the status of Zhujiang New Town as a financial hub. At present, the Zhujiang New Town UC zone is beginning to take shape.

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Table 5.3 (continued) Sub-centers

Notes

Sanyuanli UC zone

Dominant functions

Spatial form Conventions and exhibitions, trade consultancy, retail commerce

Land use area 259.3 (ha) Building area 423.3 (10,000 m2 )

Huanshi East Road UC zone

Dominant functions

Trade consultancy, hotels, retail commerce

Land use area 138.0 (ha) Building area 385.1 (10,000 m2 ) Shangxiajiu UC zone

Dominant functions

Retail commerce, trade consultancy, hotels

Land use area 94.7 (ha) Building area 218.4 (10,000 m2 )

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Fig. 5.9 Current UC structure of Guangzhou

Fig. 5.10 Current land use range of the Guangzhou UC structure

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– Sanyuanli sub-UC zone: The development and formation of the Sanyuanli UC zone have mainly relied on its location advantages, of which the railway station is a key node in regional transportation and has driven the development of a series of industries, including apparel trade and wholesale markets. In addition, the relocation of the Canton Fair to this area has also attracted a number of largescale hotels. This area is also an important wholesale base and logistic center for the entire Guangzhou city and even Guangdong Province. The total land use area of this sub-UC zone is 2.59 km2 and its gross building area is 4.2325 million m2 , while the main core spans an area of 67.8 ha. It has a staggered distribution of hotels and wholesale markets, and the advanced development of the wholesale industry has secured the core position of the Sanyuanli UC zone in regional wholesale and logistics. The Sanyuanli sub-UC zone has relied on the Canton Fair and railway station for its development. It is dominated by the conventions and exhibitions industry, as well as wholesale and trade markets, and has aggregated supporting service facilities, such as hotels and retail commerce. This has enabled it to serve as an important hub for wholesale and logistics, as well as conventions and exhibitions, for the entire Guangzhou city and even Guangdong Province. The key regional functions provided by this UC zone include wholesale and logistics and conventions and exhibitions. The latter, in particular, was once an important driving force behind the economic leap in Guangzhou, as it led to the success of regional functions, including wholesale and logistics and the hotel industry. Its land use structure is dominated by conventions and exhibitions and mixed land use. It has a moderate level of development intensity, and its average city block area is 23.6 ha. – Huanshi East Road sub-UC zone: The Huanshi East Road sub-UC zone has agglomerated naturally with the development of the business economy in Guangzhou. Business buildings are mainly distributed linearly along the roads, and its UC functions are dominated by hotels, corporate offices, and information consultancy. The sub-zone covers a total land use area of 1.38 km2 and a gross building area of 3.8514 million m2 , with a main core of 12.0 ha. Its land use is dominated by trade consultancy and hotels and exhibits high development intensity. This UC zone has a high development intensity, with a mixed land use intensity of more than 8 for finance and insurance, trade consultancy, and business offices, whereas the land use intensity for retail commerce is less than 2. – Shangxiajiu sub-UC zone: This UC zone is located adjacent to Shangjiu Road, Xiajiu Road, and Dishifu Road in Liwan District (commonly known as Xiguan). It is one of the prosperous traditional commercial centers in Guangzhou, renowned at home and abroad. Its total length is about 1,218 m, and it is home to 238 commercial shops of various categories and thousands of merchants. This area was already a commercial agglomeration zone as early as the 1520 s. With the opening of Daguan River in the Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Thirteen Factories playing

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a key role in foreign trade, Shangxiajiu became the largest commercial distribution center in Guangzhou. After comprehensive reconstruction, the Shangxiajiu sub-UC zone now covers a total land use area of 0.95 km2 and a gross building area of 2.1836 million m2 . The Shangxiajiu pedestrian street is now a traditional hub for retail commerce, culture, and entertainment in Guangzhou, which, together with the Shamian building cluster, forms a traditional UC zone rich in historical and cultural characteristics. Retail commerce is an important function of the Shangxiajiu UC zone, with the Shangxiajiu pedestrian street and the banks of the Pearl River as the main traditional commercial zone, as well as the Shamian area as the modern cultural zone. In addition, the trade consultancy and hotel industries have also promoted the development of the Shangxiajiu UC zone. This UC zone consists of mixed commercial and residential land use. It is dominated by culture, entertainment, and retail commerce; has a low development intensity; and has an average city block area of 2.2 ha. As for the Nanjing UC structure, similar detailed surveys and statistical analyses were performed on the current status of its urban land use. A rough framework for the fuzzy agglomeration range for each tier of UC zone was then established according to the spatial agglomeration characteristics and urban development status of land use for public facilities. Quantitative delineation techniques were then applied on this basis to calculate the three-tier (main-sub-district) UC structure of Nanjing (Fig. 5.11). The Nanjing UC structure is composed of the Xinjiekou main UC zone, Hunan Road commercial and catering sub-center, Confucius Temple traditional commercial sub-center, Hexi business and cultural sub-center, as well as nine district-level

Fig. 5.11 Schematic diagram on the hierarchy of the public UC structure in Nanjing

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centers, including Longjiang, Zhongyangmen, Ruijin Road, Dongshan, and so on (Table 5.4). Together, they constitute the framework of the Nanjing UC structure, serving Nanjing and its surrounding areas (Fig. 5.12). The UC structure (including the district level) covers a total land use area of 15.4 km2 and a gross building area of 26.494 million m2 (Fig. 5.13).

Table 5.4 Delineation of UC zone range in Nanjing Main center

Notes

Xinjiekou UC zone

Dominant functions

Business, finance, commerce

Spatial form

Land use area (ha)

566.3

Building area (10,000 m2 )

1,284.3

Sub-center

Notes

Hunan Road UC zone

Dominant functions

Retail commercial hub

Land use area (ha)

140.9

Building area (10,000 m2 )

346.9

Dominant functions

Traditional commercial hub

Land use area (ha)

63.1

Building area (10,000 m2 )

91.7

Confucius Temple UC zone

Spatial form

(continued)

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Table 5.4 (continued) Hexi UC zone

Dominant functions

Business and financial hub

Land use area (ha)

307.8

Building area (10,000 m2 )

231.9

District-level center

Notes

Longjiang district-level center

Dominant functions

Serves the Longjiang area Provides a complete range of business services

Land use area (ha)

104.5

Building area (10,000 m2 )

102.8

Description of features

Dependent on the Zhongyangmen Coach Station, serving the surrounding areas and focusing on retail commerce

Land use area (ha)

121.3

Building area (10,000 m2 )

167.1

Zhongyangmen district-level center

Spatial form

(continued)

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Table 5.4 (continued) Ruijin Road district-level center

Rehe Road district-level center

Zhujiangzhen district-level center

Dachang district-level center

Description of features

Dependent on the revamping of traditional industrial plants on Ruijin Road and focusing on retail commerce

Land use area (ha)

60.8

Building area (10,000 m2 )

73.8

Description of features

Serves the Xiaguan area, providing uniform service types, and focusing on retail commerce

Land use area (ha)

17.3

Building area (10,000 m2 )

34.3

Description of features

Serves the Zhujiangzhen area, providing a complete range of services, including commercial, business, and cultural functions

Land use area (ha)

15.4

Building area (10,000 m2 )

21.5

Description of features

Serves the Dachang area, providing a complete range of services, including retail commerce, culture and entertainment, and other functions (continued)

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Table 5.4 (continued)

Dongshan old-town district-level center

Tangshan district-level center

Mofan Road district-level center

Land use area (ha)

18.8

Building area (10,000 m2 )

41.3

Description of features

Serves the Dongshan area, occupies a relatively large area and provides a complete range of services, focusing on commerce and business

Land use area (ha)

122.4

Building area (10,000 m2 )

126.4

Description of features

Serves the Tangshan area and occupies a small area, mainly providing retail commerce and catering

Land use area (ha)

10.9

Building area (10,000 m2 )

11.5

Description of features

Serves the areas around Mofan Road and occupies a relatively large area, mainly providing retail commerce

Land use area (ha)

145.9

Building area (10,000 m2 )

225.0

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Fig. 5.12 Current status of the UC structure in Nanjing

– Main UC zone: The Xinjiekou main UC zone is the most important comprehensive center in the city. It is the core area of urban structure and function, as well as the comprehensive focal point of urban public buildings and service industries. It provides the city with facilities and service space for economic, cultural, social, and other activities, serving as a comprehensive and specialized functional UC zone for the entire city and even the larger region encompassing the Lower Reaches of the Yangtze River. The Xinjiekou UC zone began to take shape at the start of the capital construction in 1929. It is located at the intersection of four main roads, namely Zhongshan East Road, Zhongzheng Road, Hanzhong Road, and Zhongshan Road, forming a circular plaza in the middle, with a width of more than 40 m. Since it became the new center of urban transportation accessibility, Xinjiekou quickly evolved into an emerging commercial center. In the 1930s, numerous facilities were built here, including the Domestic Commodity Bank, Zhejiang Xingye Bank, Bank of Communications, Central Emporium, Dahua Grand Theater, Xindu Grand Theater, and Fuchang Hotel. The dominant functions of the Xinjiekou UC zone mainly consisted of business offices, commercial services, finance and insurance, and information consultancy. The Xinjiekou main UC zone serves as the aggregation core of economic, cultural, and other activities

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Fig. 5.13 Current land use scope of the UC structure in Nanjing

in the Nanjing city, as well as the derivative area of urban public buildings and service industries, thus intensively embodying the level of economic and social development in the city. It undertakes the functions of economic operation and public administration, and the radiation range of its services encompasses the entire Nanjing Metropolitan Area. Within this highly developed and mature UC zone, its relatively large spatial scale has led to the gradual evolution of its structure into various main and sub-cores, indicating dislocated development. Its main core is mainly distributed around the circular plaza at the junction of the four main roads and is surrounded by sub-cores that are more specialized, formed by areas such as Daxing Palace and Taiping South Road, which together constitute the comprehensive service functions provided by the UC zone. – Sub-UC zones: These mainly include the Hunan Road commercial and catering sub-center, the Confucius Temple traditional commercial center, and Hexi business and cultural sub-center. The sub-centers are city-level functional centers that supplement the main UC zone. They are dominated by one or two categories of city-level specialized service functions, with a high concentration of singlecategory public activities, and the radiation range of their specialized services cover the entire city. In terms of dominant functions, the Hunan Road UC zone is

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dominated by retail commerce, business offices, and the hotel and leisure industries. The Confucius Temple UC zone has long served as Nanjing’s traditional commercial center, rising and falling several times in the course of its history. However, in 1985, the Nanjing Municipal Government restored the Confucius Temple building complex, thereby establishing a traditional commercial center with the architectural styles of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and dominated by the tourism and cultural industries. Since then, it has regained its vitality, and its functions are mainly focused on retail commerce. The development of the Hexi UC zone began with the construction of the Olympic Sports Center in 2002. Its dominant functions include business offices, sports, and conventions and exhibitions. It can be seen from the several co-existing specialized sub-centers in Nanjing that traditional and emerging UC zones can exist simultaneously under specific development conditions and that they have different functional connotations and characteristics, thereby enriching and expanding the contents of the UC service functions and improving the UC structure. It should also be noted that the Hexi sub-center mentioned above not only provides sub-center functions but also develops in conjunction with district-level centers, thereby driving new town development. Therefore, many sub-centers serve as both sub-centers and newtown district-level centers. This overlapping UC positioning requires that the UC zone reach a certain land use scale and construction scale before it can perform the necessary functions. – District-level centers: There are nine district-level centers, namely Longjiang, Zhongyangmen, Mofan Road, Ruijin Road, Rehe Road, Dongshan, Tangshan, Zhujiangzhen, and Dachang, which mainly provide services to regions or administrative areas with relatively independent policy zoning. They are the carriers of service functions within the district, and are the agglomeration cores of economic, political, cultural, and other activities within the functional entities of urban districts, providing comprehensive service functions to the districts they serve. Based on the differences in service range, district-level centers can vary significantly in the land use scale and grade of business formats. We will now examine Changzhou as another example. The land use for public facilities in Changzhou was classified into administrative office facilities, commercial and financial facilities, cultural and entertainment facilities, sports facilities, healthcare facilities, and educational facilities in order to study the distributions of land use for various public facilities, thus enabling us to delineate the range of the UC structure (Fig. 5.14). [Distribution of administrative office facilities] The city-level public service hub is located on the north side of Longcheng Avenue and has a reasonable size. It is currently undergoing further agglomeration and construction of various facilities in the surrounding areas. The land use for administrative offices in the Wujin, Qishuyan, Xinbei, and Zhonglou Districts is relatively loosely arranged, whereas that of the Tianning District is more compact. [Distribution of commercial and financial facilities] The distribution of commercial and financial facilities is relatively balanced, with the formation of the Nanda

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Fig. 5.14 Current distribution of various public facilities in Changzhou. *Source Southeast University Academy of Urban Planning and Design, Research on the UC structure planning of Changzhou. 2012 (same reference below)

Street and Laimeng commercial pedestrian city block in the old town. The retail commercial facilities are mainly distributed along Yanling Road and in Wujin and Xinbei Districts. Several influential specialty markets have formed within the city and on its periphery.

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[Distribution of cultural and entertainment facilities] Land use for cultural and entertainment facilities is mainly distributed along Yanling Road in the old town. The facilities are numerous but relatively small in the land use scale. In addition, both Wujin and Xinbei Districts have concentrated land use patterns for cultural facilities. Xinbei District has formed a cultural hub, and its core facilities include “three halls and one center” (i.e., an art museum, a science and technology museum, a library, and a supporting service center). [Distribution of sports facilities] The city’s sports hub occupies an area of 27.74 ha and includes “one stadium and three halls” (i.e. a stadium, a gymnasium, an aquatic center, and a tennis hall). The Qingtan Sports Center in the city center is relatively small and has limited room for expansion. Wujin District has fairly complete districtlevel sports facilities, but those of other districts are relatively lacking. [Distribution of healthcare facilities] Healthcare facilities are mainly concentrated within the city center, followed by Wujin District. Basic healthcare services are relatively lacking in other peripheral areas. [Distribution of education and scientific research facilities] At present, the land use for various educational and scientific research facilities has been consolidated to a certain extent in the old town, while the western and northern parts of the city have also formed relatively concentrated university campuses. Within the urban area, primary and secondary schools are densely distributed in Tianning and Zhonglou Districts but are less rationally distributed in Xinbei, Wujin, and Qishuyan Districts. According to the research on the current spatial distribution of public facilities, we applied the classification criteria above for UC zones and combined them with the results of the UC zone survey and the delineation of the UC zone range (Table 5.5). The survey determined the Yanling Road UC zone to be the main center and the Xinbei and Wujin UC zones as the sub-centers; the special functional zones include the Zhonglou special administrative functional zone and the Xinbei special cultural functional zone (Fig. 5.15). [Yanling Road main center] The Yanling Road main center is located within the old town of Changzhou, and its main business format is retail commerce. Its UC zone functions are mainly aggregated along Nanda Street-Beida Street and Yanling Road, showing a trend of extension in the north-south direction along Nanda Street-Beida Street. The UC zone is rich in historical and cultural resources, but they have now been damaged to a certain extent. [Wujin sub-center] The Wujin sub-center is situated at the core of Wujin District, and its UC zone functions are mainly administrative office functions distributed in and around the seat of the Wujin district government. Commercial and mixed commercial land use is aggregated at Wujin automobile city and along Changwu North Road. The Wujin UC zone has a low average floor area ratio and low land use intensity, with large areas of land under construction within the UC zone, most of which are high-rise residential areas. [Xinbei sub-center] The Xinbei sub-center is situated at the core of the Xinbei District. The UC functional land use in the south is mainly social functional land use, mainly including the administrative offices of the Changzhou Municipal Government and the “three halls and one center.” The north is dominated by trade consultancy and

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Table 5.5 Delineation of UC zone range in Changzhou Main center

Notes

Yanling Road UC zone

Dominant functions

Retail commerce, trade consultancy, culture and entertainment

Land use area (ha)

344.5

Building area (10,000 m2 )

530.3

Sub-centers

Notes

Wujin UC zone Dominant functions

Xinbei UC zone

Spatial form

Spatial form Administrative offices, retail commerce

Land use area (ha)

556.1

Building area (10,000 m2 )

457.6

Dominant functions

Administrative offices, trade consultancy

Land use area (ha)

384.6

Building area (10,000 m2 )

362.9

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Fig. 5.15 Current UC structure of Changzhou

mixed commercial land use along Tongjiang Middle Road. The connections between the land use of the north and south are fairly weak within the UC zone.

5.1.3 Analysis of the Current Spatial Status of the UC Structure Once the spatial delineation of the UC structure has been completed, we can perform an in-depth analysis of its current spatial status and its existing problems and causes of formation. Guangzhou, for example, has progressed from a single UC zone toward a polycentric model within the context of its solid service industry foundation and rapid leapfrog development. However, the government, urban residents, and the academic community have all perceived certain problems in the spatial form of the UC zones in Guangzhou. Therefore, on the basis of delineating the spatial range of each UC zone and developing a platform for quantitative analysis, it is possible to perform a specialized analysis on the current status of the UC structure with respect to its hierarchical size, location distribution, and functional formats to draw a comprehensive conclusion from the evaluation.

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Fig. 5.16 Hierarchical classification of UC zones. *Source Southeast University Academy of Urban Planning and Design, Research on the city-level UC structure planning of Guangzhou. 2008 (same reference below)

(1) Analysis of the hierarchical size of the UC structure – Large total size but incomplete hierarchical structure. The total land use area of all UC zones in Guangzhou is 15 km2 , which is larger than that of the Central District—Tsim Sha Tsui UC zone (8.5 km2 ) in Hong Kong. The two main UC zones, Beijing Road and Zhujiang New Town, are both larger than the Central District and Tsim Sha Tsui UC zones. However, Guangzhou’s main center—subcenter—district-level center hierarchical structure is incomplete (lack of traditional commercial hubs and cultural and entertainment hubs), and there are significant differences in its development intensity (the floor area ratio of Guangzhou’s main UC zone is 2.2, while that of Hong Kong is 4.9) (Fig. 5.16). – Low primacy and unclear hierarchical differences within the UC structure. Within the Guangzhou UC structure, the largest UC zone, that is, the Zhujiang New Town main UC zone, has a land use primacy of 1.6 and a building area primacy of 1.4. In contrast, in 2008, the primacy of the Central District main UC zone in Hong Kong was 2.6 and its building area primacy was 3.0. The hierarchical difference of the land use area between the main UC zones (Beijing Road and Zhujiang New Town) and the three sub-centers was 3.1, while that of the building area was 3.2. In contrast, the hierarchical difference between the main and sub-centers in Hong Kong during the same period was 10. Therefore, the overall sense of sequentiality in the Guangzhou UC structure is relatively weak (Fig. 5.17). – Main UC zones are developmentally advanced but structurally immature. The Beijing Road UC zone covers an area of 6.2 km2 , and the Zhujiang New Town UC zone covers 3.7 km2 . However, their circle-core structure has only begun to take shape, and the distribution of sub-cores is somewhat unreasonable (Figs. 5.18 and 5.19). The hierarchical difference for land use between the main UC zones (Beijing Road and Zhujiang New Town) and the three sub-UC zones is 3.1, while that for the building area is 3.2; in contrast, the hierarchical difference between

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Fig. 5.17 Overall sense of sequentiality in UC structure

Fig. 5.18 Current circle-core structure of the Beijing Road UC zone

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Fig. 5.19 Current circle core structure of the Zhujiang New Town UC zone

the main and sub-centers in Hong Kong during the same period was nearly 10. Therefore, the overall sense of sequentiality in the Guangzhou UC structure is relatively weak. – Sub-centers are highly developed but without prominent dominant features. The Sanyuanli UC zone is centered on conventions and exhibitions, but the land use for conventions and exhibitions as well as hotels and other supporting services occupies only 30 ha, accounting for 11% of the total land use. The Huanshi East Road UC zone is dominated by international business offices, but business-related land use (B21, B29, B14, and Cb2) occupies only 25 ha, accounting for 18% of the total land use. The Shangxiajiu UC zone is dominated by specialty commerce, but commercial land use occupies only 5.3 ha, accounting for 6% of the total land

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Table 5.6 Summary of data on the dominant functions of sub-centers in Guangzhou UC zone

Total land use area (ha) Building area (10,000 m2 )

Dominant categories of land use

Sanyuanli sub-center

259.3

423.3

Conventions and exhibitions, trade consultancy, retail commerce

Huanshi East Road sub-center

138.0

385.1

Trade consultancy, hotel, retail commerce

94.7

218.4

Retail commerce, trade consultancy, hotels

Shangxiajiu sub-center

use. Based on the dominant land use of these three sub-UC zones, we can see that their individual characteristics are not prominent (Table 5.6). – District-level centers urgently need to be cultivated. As an international megacity, the development of district-level centers within a networktized UC structure will play a vital basic supporting role by undertaking the service functions for daily life in the city. This will enable city-level centers to be gradually set apart in terms of service functions and features, thereby enhancing their radiative power within the region. However, the development of district-level centers in Guangzhou is currently very slow, with only centers such as Nonglin Road and Jiangwan Road within the urban area that are barely able to serve the districts. This implies that city-level UC zones are required to undertake a heavy load of basic service functions, which has affected their ability to enhance their radiative power. (2) Analysis of the location distribution of the UC structure With respect to the location distribution of UC zones, four typical categories can be found in Guangzhou; namely (1) UC zones located in the center of the city: Beijing Road UC zone; (2) UC zones located eccentrically at the waterfront: Pazhou (under construction); (3) UC zones located on the extensional axis of urban development: Zhujiang New Town UC zone; and (4) UC zones located along the ring roads of urban transportation: Sanyuanli UC zone, Huanshi East Road UC zone, and Shangxiajiu UC zone. The location distribution of these centers has given rise to three existing problems within the UC structure. – All UC zones are located within a 35 km2 range of urban land use inside the perimeter of the urban area. Hence, they are all “urban UC zones,” and there is a lack of “suburban UC zones,” which does not provide the sufficient driving force for new-town construction. They are all spatially distributed to the north of the Pearl River, with a lack of UC service functions in the southwestern and southern areas, coupled with severe traffic congestion across the river. The UC zones are located too close to each other, leading to frequent mutual interruptions and overlapping service range, which is not conducive to their growth and maturity (Figs. 5.20 and 5.21).

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Fig. 5.20 Expansion area of the Guangzhou UC structure

Fig. 5.21 Analysis of the overlapping service range of the Guangzhou UC structure

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– Inadequate system of road connectivity and lack of rapid traversing traffic. Beijing Road and Shangxiajiu, in particular, lack evacuation corridors and have poor transportation accessibility. – The UC zones fail to showcase the superior landscape features of Guangzhou given its close proximity to the mountains and rivers. The southern parts of the Beijing Road and Zhujiang New Town UC zones are both adjacent to the river, but both their core areas are within the center of the city, which prevents them from fully utilizing the potential of the city’s landscape features. In contrast, the Central District of Hong Kong (which is backed by mountains and faces the water), the Bund and Lujiazui in Shanghai, and other UC zones have unique landscapes with distinctive features. Guangzhou has excellent natural landscape resources, with Baiyun Mountain in its vicinity and the Pearl River traversing through the city. However, the spatial layout of its current UC zones does not fully explore and utilize the existing resources. The core nodes of the Beijing Road UC zone and the Zhujiang New Town UC zone are both located in the center of the city, which does not achieve the purpose of fully utilizing the potential and shaping the unique features of the UC zones. By observing cities with unique characteristics and high recognizability on an international level, such as Rome, Chicago and Sydney, as well as within China, such as Hong Kong, Shanghai, Chongqing, Qingdao, and Xiamen, we can see that they have all relied on their natural landscape to carry out the layout and construction of UC zones, thereby attaining good urban landscape effects. (3) Analysis of the functional formats of the UC structure – Preliminary formation of mutual functional dislocation and internal spatial separation. A certain level of dislocated development has emerged among the dominant functions of the UC zones in Guangzhou, each of which has evolved into a relatively unique form in accordance with the differences in its functional format. The different land use functions among the UC zones reflect the differences in their dominant functions. Based on the quantitative analysis of the current land use functions of the UC zones, we know that the dominant functions of the Beijing Road UC zone include administration, finance, and commerce; those of the Zhujiang New Town UC zone include offices, trade consultancy, and commerce; those of the Sanyuanli UC zone include hotels, commerce, markets, conventions and exhibitions; those of the Huanshi East Road UC zone include hotels and offices; and those of the Shangxiajiu UC zone include commerce and culture. At present, a certain degree of spatial separation has emerged among the functional formats within the UC zones. For example, in the Beijing Road and Zhujiang New Town UC zones, multiple sub-cores have appeared around their transportation and distribution rings, which, together with the main core, constitute an emergent UC zone circle-core structure. The sub-cores of the Beijing Road UC zone include the Dongfeng Road administrative sub-core, the Dongfeng Road business sub-core, the Zhonghua Square commercial and business sub-core, and so on. As for the Zhujiang

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Fig. 5.22 Schematic diagram on the current functional dislocation of the five major UC zones in Guangzhou

New Town UC zone, the Guangzhou East Railway Station business sub-core, the Tianhe East Road commercial sub-core, and the Wuyang New Town business subcore have emerged (Fig. 5.22). – Clear occurrence of spatial agglomeration but absence of service industry chains. Agglomeration has occurred among similar categories of functional formats within the UC zones, leading to the mutual separation of dissimilar industries and the mutual aggregation of similar industries. For example, in the Beijing Road UC zone, hotels have aggregated along Yanjiang Road, business offices have aggregated along Dongfeng Road, and wholesale trade and commerce have aggregated around Haizhu Square; in the Zhujiang New Town UC zone, commerce for electronic products has aggregated along Tianhe East Road (Fig. 5.23). However, the development of the service industries within these agglomeration zones is on a small scale, and the industries are relatively uniform. They have yet to form a complete functional industry service chain, and they are still at the initial stage of industrial development. In future development, the cultivation of the industrial chain and the improvement of the spatial agglomeration among business formats will be significant to the development of the industries and the enhancement of their radiative capacity.

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Fig. 5.23 Analysis of the current agglomeration of functional formats within the UC structure of Guangzhou

– Low grade of business formats and undistinctive characteristics. An overview of the current status of the functional formats within the UC zone will highlight the problem with the low grade of business formats. The Beijing Road commercial pedestrian street has a mix of commercial formats, with different grades of businesses arranged in a staggered fashion, which gives a chaotic impression. The mixing of business formats has also impeded further improvement in the overall grade of business formats within the UC zone, thus severely affecting the radiative influence of its functions. The dominant commercial format of the Sanyuanli UC zone is the wholesale of small commodities. The limitations caused by the profitability of the wholesale industry and the characteristics of the industry itself have caused the Sanyuanli UC zone to exhibit an overall low grade of business formats. A similar issue can also be found in the Shangxiajiu UC zone. Within the entire UC structure, only the Huanshi East Road UC zone has maintained an overall high grade of business format and a strong radiative capacity. The mixing of functional formats within the UC zone has also rendered the characteristics of the UC zones less prominent. Although the commercial formats within the UC structure have undergone a certain degree of separation and agglomeration, the intermixing of different format grades within each UC zone is also obvious, which has affected the creation of characteristic functional formats within each UC zone and the establishment of the UC zone image (Fig. 5.24).

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Fig. 5.24 Chaotic functional formats around the Beijing Road pedestrian street

(4) Comprehensive evaluation of the UC structure • Transition stage from multiple dispersed centers to a complete UC structure network – Characteristics of spatial development: macro separation, micro centralization. Through the investigation and analysis of the nature of construction land use, as well as the nature and intensity of land use within the Guangzhou UC structure, which were combined with relevant parameters such as industrial and transportation analyses, we have formed the following basic judgement: The Guangzhou UC structure is currently evolving from multiple scattered UC zones toward an orderly UC structure network. Its functional structure has begun to exhibit a development trend toward macro separation and micro centralization, and this trend will continue to be reinforced for a considerable length of time. With the rapid expansion of Guangzhou toward its periphery, it will gradually form a trend of “a centralized core with multidirectional separation.” The Beijing Road UC zone has a special location, as it is essentially located at the intersection of three centers in the old town of Guangzhou: the city’s geometric center, the distribution centroid of urban residents, and the center of urban transportation. Moreover, the Beijing Road comprehensive center was derived from the original commercial center, which makes it difficult for it to form a CBD or CRD (Capital Recreation District) with pure functions. Instead, it is laid out in a mixed and centralized form. The Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town UC zone is a new-town UC zone whose development began after the 1990s. Driven by the sports functions provided by the Tianhe area at the initial stage, other functions were gradually introduced, including business offices, finance and securities, and

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hotels, which promoted its marketization and diversification. This was followed by its subsequent merging with Zhujiang New Town in the south, thus forming a CBD development model with axial agglomeration. This “dual core” main center model shows a clear division of labor, which is also in line with the functional positioning determined by the old town and new town areas of Guangzhou. Compared to the past, the core areas of the Beijing Road commercial center and the Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town business center now exhibit stronger agglomeration in terms of functional structure and architectural form. The city’s positioning in its master planning, the regional advantages of its core areas, the improvements in its road transportation, and its excellent municipal infrastructure have provided stronger support for building renovation and functional agglomeration. This has enabled the formation of comprehensive service zones within the core areas dominated by business offices and commercial service functions (Fig. 5.25). Nevertheless, with the development and improvement of the city’s high-end service industries and the special requirements imposed by different functions on their own development space, an increasingly clearer trend of separation has been observed among many specialized service functions within the UC zones of Guangzhou. More specifically, this has resulted in the dispersed, ribbon development of public

Fig. 5.25 The “macro separation, micro centralization” trend of the Guangzhou UC structure

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spaces along both sides of arterial roads toward the east, south, and north, which is centered on the Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town and Beijing Road UC zones as the cores, and distributed along Zhongshan Road—Huangpu Avenue, Jiefang Road, and Guangzhou Avenue as the vertical and horizontal axes, relying on the nodes at the Huanshi Road and Huancheng Expressway. Functions such as conventions and exhibitions are concentrated in the Liuhua Lake and Pazhou areas in the northwest and southeast. Business services and similar functions are concentrated around Huanshi East Road and to the east of Tianhe in the northeast, and future development may be extended to Haizhu District and Liwan District on the south bank of the Pearl River. The cultural functions have shown a clear trend of concentration toward the south and east, owing to the improvements in the location environment of the relevant urban areas, and the enhancement of transportation (Fig. 5.26). As the UC zones evolve, apart from a small number of industries with high added value (such as business offices and trade consultancy) that will continue to agglomerate within the main centers, the other industries (such as commerce and culture) will all be constrained by the high costs of the UC zones and begin to spread outward. • Trends of the networkization characteristics in the UC structure Under the development trend of macro separation and micro centralization among the city-level public facilities in Guangzhou, the UC structure has departed from the past agglomeration toward the main center and shifted toward a networktized model of spatial distribution, thus exhibiting three characteristics.

Fig. 5.26 Current direction of industrial dispersion within the UC structure

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– The “emptying” of commercial hubs. The rapid expansion of the city has led to the dispersal of the population in the main city toward the periphery, which is then accompanied by the dispersal of commercial service facilities. Coupled with the exacerbation of traffic congestion within the main city, these factors have led to the emptying of commercial service facilities in the main centers, causing a gradual decline in terms of their position and share in the overall commercial network, as well as a corresponding decrease in the primacy value of the UC structure. The statistical data suggest that among the shopping destinations in Guangzhou, the proportion of residents opting for the Beijing Road UC zone and the TianheZhujiang New Town UC zone has been decreasing year after year. Spatially, this is reflected in the decreasing land use share of large-scale, comprehensive shopping malls and the increase in small-scale, specialty commerce. – Gradual rise of functional sub-centers. Driven by the specialized division of labor among the service industries in Guangzhou, the number of specialized service institutions for functions such as conventions and exhibitions, finance, and culture has increased, and the institutions have gradually undergone spatial agglomeration. Since the UC zones in Guangzhou have reached a relatively large size, the high land prices in the main UC zones have led to the increased costs of production and living factors, the lack of space has led to traffic congestion, and agglomeration has led to negative externalities, including higher costs of production and living. Therefore, the negative effects of agglomeration have become even more dominant, which, in turn, has given rise to the succession and upgrading of the UC zones. Due to traffic congestion, degradation of environmental quality, and mutual interference of business formats within the UC zones, many service institutions have begun spreading outward and have undergone re-agglomeration and reorganization at locations suited to their own industries, thereby forming functional sub-centers (Fig. 5.27). – Emergence of district-level centers. During the course of spatial separation, the UC structure is also simultaneously undergoing the separation of its business formats. Thus, service industries with high profitability, such as high-end commerce, financial office headquarters, and leisure and entertainment, will occupy the main space of the UC zone. In contrast, low-margin business formats within the same industry, such as everyday commerce, general service industries, and small offices, will not afford the high land prices and operating costs; hence, they will gradually be separated from the UC zone through market competition, thereby forming district-level centers. Cultivating a large number of district-level centers will free the city-level centers from low-margin everyday services, allowing them to vigorously develop their core service industries. This is an important sign of maturity in the UC structure.

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Fig. 5.27 Analysis of the direction of industrial development of the functional sub-centers in Guangzhou

• Presentation of street-oriented linear characteristics in the spatial form – The current model mainly involves development along the streets The development patterns of the commercial and business centers in megacities generally tend to involve the evolution from the 1MC model in the early stages to linear development along streets, to core concentrated pedestrianized areas, and then to the high-end circle-core structural model. However, the city-level UC zones in Guangzhou are mostly centered on one core city block, and they tend to develop linearly along arterial roads, giving rise to regional ribbon development along urban local roads. This has led to a lack of in-depth development, and most of the UC zone is covered by a block composed of multiple connecting commercial streets. Take the Beijing Road UC zone for example. Currently, its commercial and business functional structure is more focused on linear development along main roads, including Zhongshan Road, Jiefang Avenue, Dongfeng Road, and Yanjiang Road, whereas internally, it relies on small local roads, such as Beijing Road and Wenming Road. This linear development model is advantageous for the early development of commercial and business functions, as it maximizes the attraction of crowd flows

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on the streets and forms a commercial atmosphere. However, further urban development will also give rise to increased transportation capacity, reduced land stock, enhanced commercial shopping environment, and improved business office environment, which will gradually highlight the disadvantages of this street-oriented development model. The mutual interference between the throughput traffic for commercial and business office functions on the same roads, the low land use efficiency of city blocks, and the deterioration of the commercial shopping and business office environments will encourage the corresponding adjustments to the development model for land use within the UC zone (Fig. 5.28). – Transformation of the city block-oriented development model City block-oriented development based on local conditions has begun to take shape in the main urban area of Guangzhou. The Zhujiang New Town UC zone, that is, the city block where Zhengjia Plaza and Tianhe are located, has begun forming a model of overall city block development, thus creating a commercial city block to provide pedestrianized shopping environments. This city block has already realized good economic and social benefits. In future development concepts, this city blockoriented development model will play a positive role in creating a good environment

Fig. 5.28 Current street-oriented development model in the Beijing Road UC zone

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for commercial shopping and business offices, improving the utilization efficiency of the city’s scarce land resources, providing rational solutions to the contradiction between urban transportation and city block transportation within the UC zones, and shaping an orderly overall spatial form in the city. • Highly mixed land uses in UC zones – Analysis of the degree of mixed land use Mixed land use is a key measure of urban development in the post-industrial era. Its proportion indicates the degree of intensive land use and the development concept of the UC zone, thus reflecting the vitality of industrial aggregation within the UC zone. UC zones with a high ratio of mixed land use tend to have higher industrial aggregation and greater industrial vitality. Thus, the ratio of mixed land use will increase in the future trends of land use and industrial development in UC zones. Currently, the Beijing Road UC zone has a commercial-offices mixed land use area of 19.8 ha, a commercial-residential mixed land use area of 54.9 ha, a commercialcultural mixed land use area of 1.1 ha, a commercial-hotel mixed land use area of 0.3 ha, and a total mixed land use area of 76.1 ha, accounting for 22.7% of total land use area (Fig. 5.29). The Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town UC zone has a commercialoffices mixed land use area of 34.4 ha, a commercial-residential mixed land use area of 60.4 ha, a commercial-hotel mixed land use area of 1.3 ha, and a total mixed land use area of 96.1 ha, accounting for 18.7% of total land use area (Fig. 5.30). The Shangxiajiu UC zone has a commercial-offices mixed land use area of 4.2 ha, a commercial-residential mixed land use area of 14.7 ha, a commercial-hotel mixed land use area of 0.4 ha, and a total mixed land use area of 19.3 ha, accounting for 24.0% of total land use area. The Sanyuanli UC zone has a commercial-offices mixed land use area of 13.1 ha, a commercial-residential mixed land use area of 13.2 ha, a commercial-hotel mixed land use area of 1.6 ha, and a total mixed land use area of 27.9 ha, accounting for 12.2% of the total land use area. The Huanshi East Road UC zone has a commercial-offices mixed land use area of 7.2 ha, a commercialresidential mixed land use area of 5.2 ha, a commercial-hotel mixed land use area of 1.3 ha, and a total mixed land use area of 13.7 ha, accounting for 11.9% of the total land use area (Table 5.7). The mixed land use area within the entire Guangzhou UC structure is 233.1 ha, accounting for 18.3% of the total land use area of the UC structure. With the development of the UC zones and the gradual improvement of the UC structure, the ratio of mixed land use within the UC zones will continue to increase in the future. – Imbalanced land use. The imbalances in land use are mainly manifested in the following aspects: First, new development projects are mostly initiated along arterial roads. This is because the inferior transportation conditions and accessibility at the center of city blocks have impeded its development. Second, the differences in the transportation conditions and surrounding infrastructure among the different areas within the UC zone have led to imbalances in its internal development. Areas with a solid foundation for development will have more promising potential, while

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Fig. 5.29 Distribution of mixed land use in the Beijing Road UC zone

areas that were previously underdeveloped will have poorer development potential due to their backward transportation and supporting facilities. This will further aggravate the imbalances within the UC zone. Third, non-commercial land use will reduce the land use efficiency of the entire region, thus preventing the effective allocation of resources. Moreover, the further development of the UC zone will exacerbate the conflict between land use for commercial services and business offices. Finally, the efficiency of existing commercial land use is uneven. There is still a large number of low-rise, small, and street-fronted shops within the UC zone, which occupy a large area of land but are chaotically distributed, thus preventing the true value of land in the UC zone from being utilized (Fig. 5.31). • UC zones currently have a moderate development intensity and a certain level of development potential – Development intensity. The development intensity of the UC zone can indirectly reflect the degree of its intensive land use, its operational efficiency, and the utilization rate of various resource allocations. The higher the level of development intensity, the greater the degree of intensive land use and the higher the efficiency of resource allocation.

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Fig. 5.30 Distribution of mixed land use in the Zhujiang New Town UC zone Table 5.7 Analysis of the mixed land use of UC zones in Guangzhou UC zone

Construction land in the UC zone (ha)

Commercial-offices mixed land use area (ha)

Commercial-residential mixed land use area (ha)

Ratio of mixed land use (%)

Zhujiang New Town

512.6

34.4

60.4

18.7

Beijing Road

335.3

19.8

54.9

22.7

Sanyuanli

229.5

13.1

13.2

12.2

Huanshi East Road

115.4

7.2

5.2

11.9

Shangxiajiu

80.4

4.2

14.7

24.0

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Fig. 5.31 The current city blocks of the Beijing Road UC zone are functionally chaotic, with numerous dilapidated and low-rise non-UC function land use

Table 5.8 Construction intensity of UC zones in Guangzhou UC zone

Total land use area (ha)

Gross building area of UC zone (10,000 m2 )

Construction intensity of UC zone

Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong

236.6

1,052.9

4.45

Central District, Hong Kong

610.4

3,111.3

5.10

People’s Square, Shanghai

1,467.4

2,873.3

1.96

Chaoyang, Beijing

1,935.1

3,565.8

1.84

Xidan, Beijing

1,137.2

1,747.5

1.54

Zhujiang New Town, Guangzhou

623.3

1,286.6

2.06

Beijing Road, Guangzhou

387.8

947.1

2.44

The current development intensity of most UC zones in Guangzhou is between 2 and 3. The Zhujiang New Town UC zone has an average floor area ratio of 2.06; that of the Beijing Road UC zone is 2.44; that of the Sanyuanli UC zone is 1.63; that of the Huanshi East Road UC zone is 2.79; and that of the Shangxiajiu UC zone is 2.31. For the same period, the average floor area ratio for the development of the Tsim Sha Tsui UC zone in Hong Kong is 4.45, while that of the Central District UC zone is 5.10 (Table 5.8).

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It can be seen from the data that Guangzhou has a high level of developmental maturity when compared to UC zones within China, but it is still relatively far behind the level of international metropolitan UC zones. On one hand, this difference is reflected in the excessively high proportion of land use for non-UC categories of public service facilities, such as leftover old-fashioned residences occupying land more suited for commercial development, which are low-density buildings occupying large swathes of urban land that generate low levels of land revenues and are no longer suitable to exist in UC zones. On the other hand, this difference is also manifested in the fact that the construction intensity of public facilities has yet to reach the required level of intensiveness. The large number of low-rise public buildings that occupy a large area of land means that the land value of the UC zones cannot be fully exploited. Hence, more intensive land uses are needed to generate greater income. – Development potential. Land that is currently occupied by dilapidated and lowrise residential, residential-commercial, and small-scale commercial land uses is available for construction in future development (excluding historical and cultural blocks). The present amount of such land will determine the future development volume and development potential of the UC zone. These sites tend to have relatively dilapidated buildings, poor residential conditions, and they are incompatible with the urban style but have a good location. Hence, they can serve as a source of land for the further development of commercial and business UC zones, thereby forming a complete UC zone environment, as well as a continuous public activity space and network system. An analysis of the data on land available for construction in each UC zone shows that all UC zones in Guangzhou still have some development potential but at a relatively small scale. In particular, the Zhujiang New Town, Huanshi East Road, and Shangxiajiu UC zones have essentially reached a state of saturation, and they have minimal development potential. The Beijing Road and Sanyuanli UC zones, however, have retained about 10% of land available for future construction. The low reserves of exploitable land will hinder the future development of the UC zones to a certain extent. Taking Changzhou as an example, quantitative spatial data can be used to analyze the current spatial indicators of its UC structure, which can be incorporated into a global database with unified standards in order to explore the issues and potential of its development through comparative analysis. • Analysis of hierarchical difference—Emerging UC structure but with ambiguous hierarchy The comprehensive main center plays a crucial role in the development of the UC structure. It is not only the main driving force of urban development but also the core of urban public services. In addition, the diversified agglomeration of its internal service functions will also lead to more intensive and effective modes of operation. The spatial scale of the city’s comprehensive main center can indirectly reflect its development status and phase. In contrast, the development of sub-centers can be

5.1 Monograph on UC Structure Planning Table 5.9 Calculations of the hierarchical difference in the Changzhou UC structure

457

UC zone

Land use scale (ha)

Yanling Road main center (S1)

344.5

Wujin sub-center

556.1

Xinbei sub-center

362.9

Average land use scale of sub-centers

459.5

Hierarchical difference of UC structure

0.75

*Source Southeast University Academy of Urban Planning and Design, Research on the UC structure planning of Changzhou. 2012 (same reference below)

affected by a number of different factors, such as the urban development strategy, urban population, regional transportation location, direction of industrial development, and so on, thus creating differences in the sub-center development among different cities. The division of labor between the main and sub-centers can be reflected, to a certain extent, by the differences in their spatial scale. Hierarchical difference mainly analyzes the ratio relationship between the spatial scale of the comprehensive main center S1 and the average spatial scale of the specialized sub-centers S2. A comparative analysis between the average spatial scale of the main and sub-centers in the UC structure can show the ratio of the dominant role played by the comprehensive main center in the UC structure, while also reflecting the structural characteristics of its land use scale. Calculating the hierarchical difference between the main and sub-centers in the Changzhou UC structure can indicate, to a certain extent, the division of labor between the two, especially the ratio of the dominant role played by the Yanling Road comprehensive main center. The land use scale of the 1MC-2SC structure in Changzhou is shown below (Table 5.9). As can be seen from the comparison of typical UC structures that among the cities with the 1MC-MSC structure (except Xiamen), the hierarchical differences between Nanjing, Dalian, and Shenyang are all between 6 and 7, which is relatively high level, whereas the differences among 2MC-MSC cities, such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen, are all above 3. However, Changzhou, which has a 1MCMSC UC structure, has a hierarchical difference of only 0.75, which is not only much smaller than that of other typical 1MC-MSC cities but is also less than 1, implying that it is at an extremely low level. This indicates that compared to the land use scale of the two sub-centers (Wujin and Xinbei), the spatial scale of the Yanling Road main center is fairly small, which suggests that its comprehensive main center plays a less dominant role in the UC structure. In the future development, the dominant role of the Yanling Road UC zone should be strengthened, its land use area expanded, and the agglomeration of UC zone functions reinforced (Fig. 5.32).

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Fig. 5.32 Comparison of hierarchical difference among typical UC structures in China

• Analysis of completeness—Different functions in UC zones but the absence of certain functions The range of public service functions provided by the city is broad, and the different service industries will continuously undergo agglomeration and dispersion within the city based on their own developmental needs, thereby forming various categories of public service hubs. In addition to comprehensive main centers, the UC structure may also have different city-level public service hubs, including retail commercial hubs, traditional commercial hubs, convention and exhibition hubs, business and financial hubs, transportation hubs, scientific research and educational hubs, arts and culture hubs, sports and fitness hubs, and administrative office hubs. Evidently, these categories of public service hubs only represent the ideal state of UC structure development. During the actual course of urban development, the UC structure may be influenced and constrained but multiple factors, which will lead to the formation of different types and quantities of UC zones, and even to the absence of certain public service hubs or multiple co-existing hubs of the same category in its spatial development. The completeness of the UC structure analyzes the difference between the UC zone categories in the UC structure and the theoretical construct. It reflects the quantitative hierarchical relationship between the comprehensive main center, specialized sub-center, special functional zones, and district-level centers. Naturally, the categories of public service hubs included within the city can also indirectly reflect the development direction of its service industries. A comparison will reveal that the sub-centers and special functional zones of the Changzhou UC structure have a relatively narrow coverage of UC zone categories, and the number of district-level centers is unreasonable. The completeness of UC zone categories in Changzhou is relatively low, showing the absence of categories such as convention and exhibition hubs, sports and fitness hubs, and traditional commercial hubs, as well as an urgent need to cultivate and develop the business and financial hubs. There are only four district-level centers, which is out of sync with the built-up area and population size of Changzhou. There is an urgent need to cultivate new district-level centers due to their insufficient numbers and limited coverage (Fig. 5.33 and Table 5.10).

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Fig. 5.33 Analysis of the completeness of the Changzhou UC structure. (*Note In the figure, orange boxes represent the absence of this UC zone category in the UC structure; yellow boxes represent the gradual development and formation of this UC zone category)

• Analysis of facilitation rate—Rapid development of social facilities but lack of facilitation The development and construction of new-town UC zones in Chinese cities generally involve four stages. The first stage is mainly led by the government, with early investment in social facilities and infrastructure construction. This is the start-up period that drives new-town development, and social facilities are often located at the core positions of the new town, such as the Oriental Pearl Tower in Pudong, Shanghai, and the sports center in Tianhe, Guangzhou. The second stage begins with the completion of the initial investment, and the social facilities will facilitate the increase in the surrounding land value. The government will control certain key plots, while also developing residential areas and lifestyle service industries, thus bringing the new town into the development phase. The third stage is the maturation of the new-town UC zone, involving the extensive development of key areas, as well as the accumulation and strengthening of high-end functions, such as business and finance, thus guiding the development of the new-town UC zone toward maturity. The fourth stage is the completion period of the new-town UC zone, with a focus on its self-optimization and improvement of the overall environment. Among them, social facilities play a key role in the first and second stages of development in new-town UC zones, driving their initiation and advancement. The facilitation rate of social facilities in UC zones mainly analyzes the ratio between the land use scales of business-oriented and social service industries (Fig. 5.34). A higher value indicates greater facilitation and driving force. The facilitation rate of social facilities in the UC zone reflects the efficiency of the driving force

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Table 5.10 Analysis of the completeness of the Changzhou UC structure City

Functional sub-centers

Special functional zone

District-level centers

Categories

Categories

Quantity

Quantity

Quantity

Beijing

Business and 4 finance, traditional commerce

Sports and fitness, administrative offices, culture and entertainment, education and scientific research, transportation hub

6

11

Shanghai

Business and finance, retail commerce

4

Culture and entertainment, transportation hub

2

11

Guangzhou

Wholesale trade, 3 business and finance, traditional commerce

Sports and fitness, administrative offices, education and scientific research, transportation hub

6

9

Hangzhou

Retail commerce, business and finance

2

Education and scientific research, transportation hub, sports and fitness

3

7

Suzhou

Retail commerce, traditional commerce, business and finance

3

Education and scientific research, sports and fitness, conventions and exhibitions

3

6

Changzhou

Retail commerce

2

Culture and entertainment, administrative offices

2

4

Fig. 5.34 Equation for the facilitation rate of social facilities

generated by social facilities in the new-town UC zone. It also indirectly reflects how reasonable the construction scale of social facilities is in the new-town UC zone. The Xinbei and Wujin UC zones in Changzhou have both reached a certain level of spatial scale in their construction. Furthermore, they have also received a large amount of early investment, including administrative office facilities and cultural and sports buildings. Calculating the facilitation rate of social facilities in the new-town

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Table 5.11 Analysis of the facilitation rate of social facilities in the Changzhou UC structure UC zone

Land use scale of social service industries (ha)

Land use scale of business-oriented service industries (ha)

Facilitation rate of social facilities

Xinbei UC zone

74.1

89.4

1.206

Wujin UC zone

72.1

154.5

2.142

UC zone of Changzhou can reflect the actual facilitatory efficiency of these social facilities in new-town development (Table 5.11). As shown above, the facilitation rate of social facilities in the Xinbei UC zone is 1.206, while that in the Wujin UC zone is 2.142. Compared with the facilitation rate of social facilities in the new towns of other cities, those in the Xinbei and Wujin UC zones are relatively low. Among them, the facilitation rate of social facilities in the Wujin UC zone is only slightly lower than the average level of other cities, which indicates that it is at a good level, whereas the rate in the Xinbei UC zone is extremely low. Based on the land use analysis of the Xinbei UC zone, we found that the agglomeration of businessoriented service facilities had failed to form around large-scale social facilities, such as the offices of the Changzhou Municipal Government and the “three halls and one center.” Instead, these areas were dominated by the extensive development of real estate. Therefore, the substantial investment in social service facilities was unable to facilitate the agglomeration of market-oriented service facilities, which resulted in the lack of vitality in the UC zone. • Equity analysis—District-level centers are somewhat developed but are unevenly distributed City-level centers are unlike district-level centers. The latter mainly serves a specific population in a specific district; hence, the impact factors affecting its spatial layout are markedly different from those affecting city-level centers. The spatial layout of district-level centers mainly involves three major elements: transportation accessibility, service equity, and spatial overlap. There are several differences in the layout of district-level centers compared to that of city-level centers. First, the layout of district-level centers emphasizes the social welfare provided by public services and aims to safeguard the basic living needs of residents. In contrast, the layout of city-level centers emphasizes the profitability of public services and aims to maximize the creation of benefits. Second, the layout of district-level centers prioritizes equality and attempts to balance out the disparities in service capabilities among different locations through the layout of district-level centers. In contrast, the layout of city-level centers prioritizes efficiency, which attempts to strengthen regional competitiveness and improve the overall efficiency of the service industries through the layout of UC zones. Third, in terms of service functions, district-level centers mainly provide basic and routine services, whereas city-level centers mainly provide high-end services. Finally, the radiation

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range of district-level centers is limited and is basically constrained to the district where it is located. This is also the fundamental difference between district-level and city-level centers. As for the distribution of social and public services, a consensus has never been reached with regard to attaining an equitable layout, and the related concepts can be divided into four types: spatial equity, supply equity, demand equity, and market equity. Changzhou has adopted a combination of spatial and supply equity. Spatial equity: Regardless of whether or not the residents within the planning zone have the same socioeconomic status, intention, demand, population distribution, or other factors, all of them have access to consistent facilities and services. In other words, the emphasis is on equal access to basic public facilities for residents living in different locations. Supply equity: Service facilities are distributed fairly according to the needs of the community. This is also known as “compensatory” spatial equality, which also stresses the concept of “utilization efficiency.” The majority of planning practices for public facilities in the past have leaned toward this concept. The current city-level and district-level UC zones were superimposed on the consumer population density map (*a darker color indicates higher density). As shown in Fig. 5.35, the current layout of district-level centers in Changzhou basically covers areas with high consumer population density, which are located in the old town, as well as to its north and south. However, there are still areas with uneven distribution, mainly reflected in the following points: (a) The spatial relationship of the Hutang, Feilong Road, and Qinye Road districtlevel centers is too close to the city-level center, resulting in the uneconomical distribution of district-level centers. (b) There is a lack of coverage by district-level centers in high-density areas, such as the northwestern side of the central urban area, the eastern side of the central urban area, and the Xinlong area. The above suggests that the district-level centers in Changzhou have undergone a certain extent of development, providing coverage to the majority of densely populated areas in the old town, as well as areas to its north and south. However, the Hutang, Feilong Road, and Qinye Road district-level centers are too closely connected with the city-level center, resulting in an uneconomical layout. In addition, some areas with high consumer population density lack coverage by district-level centers and urgently require cultivation. These include the northwestern side of the central urban area, the eastern part of the central urban area, and the Xinlong area. • Analysis of expansion area—Broad expansion of spatial framework, but insufficient coverage With urban expansion comes the gradual development and formation of a polycentric urban spatial pattern. These megacities, including Hangzhou, Luoyang, Kunming, Chongqing, Tianjin, and Nanjing, have all formed a non-monocentric urban spatial pattern, while their UC structures can no longer be based merely on the qualitative

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Fig. 5.35 Current consumer population density map of Changzhou. (*Note A darker color indicates higher density)

description of how many main and sub-centers they contain. To enable direct quantitative research on the hierarchy and scale of the UC structure, the concept of the expansion area of the UC structure was proposed. The expansion area of the UC structure analyzes the area covered and encompassed by the UC structure. Within a certain range, a larger expansion area implies that the UC structure has a greater coverage and radiation range and is more reasonable. As shown in Fig. 5.36, the calculations indicate that the expansion area of the Changzhou UC structure is 401 ha, which is relatively small compared to that of other typical 1MC-MSC cities. This is mainly because the three city-level UC zones in Changzhou are all located on the north-south axis, exhibiting a linear pattern. As a

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Fig. 5.36 Expansion area of the Changzhou UC structure

result, the expansion area has a large north-south distance but is overly narrow in the east-west direction. In contrast, cities with a larger expansion area, such as Nanjing, Qingdao, and Xi’an, have more varied layout directions in their UC structures. Therefore, from the perspective of the spatial morphological characteristics of the expansion area, the current layout of the Changzhou UC structure is unreasonable in certain aspects, unidirectionally biased (which is not conducive to the radiative and facilitatory role played by the UC zones), and susceptible to inequitable development among the various areas in the city. • Analysis of spread—The spatial morphology stretches from north to south but is limited in the east-west direction Given the same UC structure area, there can still be significant differences in the spatial morphology and degree of spread among UC structures. According to the research in Chap. 3, the axial extension is more beneficial to the UC structure, as it provides more contact interfaces for services. The distances of the Xinbei and Wujin UC zones from the centroid of the Yanling Road main center are 6.42 km and 10.24 km, respectively, while the radius of the main UC zone is 2.05 km. Based on the formula for the degree of spread, that of the Changzhou UC structure is 7.31 km. This value is much greater than the average degree of spread among 1MC-MSC

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UC structures, even approaching or surpassing that of 2MC-MSC cities, such as Chongqing (6.5 km) and Suzhou (8.7 km) (Fig. 5.37). On the one hand, this level of spread implies that the Changzhou UC structure shows good axial extension in the north-south direction and has a relatively large contact interface. On the other hand, as shown in the figure, the spread along the east-west axis is fairly poor, and the UC structure shows inadequate expansion in the east-west direction. This indicates that the Changzhou UC structure currently has a good degree of spread along the north-south axis, but an extremely low degree of spread along the east-west axis. Therefore, the east-west expansion of the UC structure should be strengthened. • Analysis of spatial characteristics—Resources incorporated in spatial layout, but with limited characteristics The spatial characteristics of the UC structure can be divided into the following four basic categories: characteristics showcasing a mountainous landscape (e.g., the Baiyun New Town UC zone in Guangzhou), characteristics showcasing waterfront recreation (e.g., the Old Town UC zone in Paris); characteristics showcasing history and culture (e.g., Xintiandi in Shanghai), and characteristics showcasing a modern city (e.g., the Hong Kong Island UC zone in Hong Kong) (Fig. 5.38).

Fig. 5.37 Spread analysis of the Changzhou UC structure

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Fig. 5.38 Categories of UC structure spatial characteristics

The spatial layout of UC zones in Changzhou is intimately linked to its historical and cultural resources and its natural resources. The spatial layouts of the three city-level UC zones are adjacent to or encompass important historical and cultural resources or natural landscape resources (Table 5.12). For example, the Yanling Road UC zone is located within the old town in Changzhou, with the Ancient Canal traversing the area. Moreover, the Tianning Temple is located to the southeast of the Yangling Road UC zone and is the most important historical landmark in the Changzhou old town. However, the problem with the spatial characteristics of the Changzhou UC structure lies with the fact that the spatial layouts of the three city-level UC zones are adjacent to or encompass important historical and cultural Table 5.12 Characteristic resources of the UC zones in Changzhou

Characteristic resources of the UC zone

Category of UC zone spatial characteristics

Ancient Canal

Characteristics of waterfront recreation

Tianning Temple

Historical and cultural characteristics

Yancheng Ruins

Historical and cultural characteristics

Dinosaur Park

Characteristics of a modern city

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resources or natural landscape resources but have yet to combine with these resources to form UC zones with distinct spatial characteristics. The Yanling Road main center has yet to combine with the waterfront area to form a leisure and recreation hub; it also has not formed a sightline connection or a complementary spatial form with the Tianning Temple landmark. This problem can also be found between the Xinbei UC zone and the Dinosaur Park, and between the Wujin UC zone and the Yancheng Ruins. There is a lack of correspondence between the UC zone spatial form and such resources, which have not been incorporated within the UC zones to form their own unique spatial appeal (Fig. 5.39). • Analysis of land use ratio—Surplus land use scale for commerce, but insufficient for business The land use ratio of the UC zone is one of its most important quantitative indicators. It reflects, to a certain extent, the development trend of various functions in the UC zone and the supply of land for different functions. Yanling Road UC zone: In the Yanling Road UC zone, residential land use is the largest in terms of scale. This is followed by commercial land use, which reflects the relatively advanced development of retail commerce. After these come commercialoffices mixed land use, healthcare land use, and commercial-residential mixed land

Fig. 5.39 Distribution of the characteristic resources for the UC zones in Changzhou

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use. The scale of business land use, especially that for the financial and insurance industry, is relatively small. Overall, the Yanling Road UC zone has shown rapid development in its commercial functions but weaker and unbalanced development in its business functions. Wujin UC zone: This UC zone has a large amount of land with ongoing construction. Among the land uses for UC zone functions, the land use scale for administrative offices is the largest, accounting for 10.7% of the total land use area in the UC zone. This is followed by commercial and market land uses, of which large-scale markets have benefited from the development of the Wujin Automobile City. There is a serious shortage of land uses for trade consultancy and financial offices, which is similar to the situation in the Yanling Road UC zone. Xinbei UC zone: As with the Wujin UC zone, among the land uses for UC zone functions, administrative offices occupy the largest land use scale, and there is a surplus of social facilities. However, compared with the Yanling Road and Wujin UC zones, it has a larger scale of business land use. In terms of the overall UC structure in Changzhou, there are imbalances in the scale of various land uses among the UC zones, which are mainly reflected in two aspects: First, the land use scale of social facilities accounts for a higher proportion compared with that of business-oriented facilities. Second, there is an imbalance between commercial and business land use scale, wherein commercial land use is adequate and is in surplus, whereas business land use is severely inadequate. This reflects the weak development of business functions among the UC zones in Changzhou, which urgently needs to be reinforced and expanded in scale in order to strengthen the business functions within the UC zones (Table 5.13). • Analysis of land use intensity—Sprawling land use in UC zones, but with insufficient intensity The analysis of land use intensity in the UC structure generally includes the analysis of the overall land use intensity and the intensity of different land use categories. The overall land use intensity of the UC structure (generally expressed using the average Table 5.13 Comparison of business land use scale in UC zones between Changzhou and other cities UC zone

Total land use scale of UC zones (ha)

Business land use scale (ha)

Ratio of business land use as a share of total land use in the UC zone (%)

Changzhou

1,285.2

59.2

4.61

Shanghai

3,177.8

269.9

8.49

Hangzhou

1,808.2

144.4

7.99

Kunming

546.4

38.7

7.08

Nanning

621.5

31.4

5.05

381.8

18.0

4.71

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floor area ratio) can reflect the intensive use of land in the UC structure to a certain extent. Generally, the higher the average floor area ratio, the more intensive the use of land in the UC structure. Based on our survey and calculations, the average floor area ratios of the two new-town centers (the Xinbei and Wujin UC zones) in the Changzhou UC structure are 1.11 and 0.91, respectively, which are much lower than the level of UC zones in other cities. This indicates that the land use in the new-town UC zones of Changzhou is not intensive, and there is serious wastage in land use. The intensity of land use construction should be enhanced in the new-town UC zones to optimize land use efficiency (Figs. 5.40 and 5.41). The intensity of different land use categories in the UC structure reflects the degree of efficient and intensive land use by different categories of UC zone functions. The average floor area ratios for different categories of functional land use in the new-town UC zones of Changzhou are shown in Table 5.14. There is low land use intensity, and the problem with non-intensive land use lies mainly with land use for administrative offices, commerce, finance and insurance, markets, and culture and entertainment. The average floor area ratio of mixed commercial land use, especially commercialresidential mixed land use, is relatively high. With respect to land use categories with significant problems, their tendency toward inefficient sprawling should be restricted, with a focus on compact development to improve land use intensity, especially that of the core areas in the UC zone (Table 5.14).

Fig. 5.40 Land use intensity of the Xinbei UC zone in Changzhou

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Fig. 5.41 Comparison of average floor area ratio between the UC zones of Changzhou and other cities

Table 5.14 Comparison of land use scale in UC zones between Xinbei and Wujin Land use functions

Land use code

Xinbei UC zone Average floor area ratio

Wujin UC zone Average floor area ratio

Administrative offices

A1

1.04

0.53

Commercial land use

B11

0.81

1.15

Finance and insurance industry

B21

–

0.98

Trade consultancy

B29

1.21

2.64

Hotel industry

B14

3.12

1.12

Markets

B12

–

0.62

Culture and entertainment

A2

0.58

0.79

Commercial-residential mixed land use

CB1

2.77

3.35

Commercial-offices mixed land use

CB2

2.73

2.65

Commercial-cultural mixed land use

CB3

–

–

Commercial-hotel mixed CB4 land use

2.94

–

Total

1.11

0.91

–

• Analysis of land use vitality—Ample vitality in new-town centers, but lacking in synergy The scale and categories of land under construction in a new-town UC zone can reflect the current construction vitality and construction tendency of land use in the new town. Surveys were conducted on the scale and distribution of different land use categories under construction in the two new-town centers within the Changzhou UC structure, namely the Xinbei and Wujin UC zones (Figs. 5.42 and 5.43). The statistical results indicate that the land under construction in the UC zone is predominantly residential land use, with a scale of 111.9 ha, accounting for 79.2% of the total land

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Fig. 5.42 Land use categories under construction in the Wujin UC zone

area under construction, while also occupying a large number of core plots in the Wujin and Xinbei UC zones (Table 5.15). This implies that there is ample land use vitality in the new-town centers of Changzhou, but there is a lack of guidance and intervention in the construction process. This has resulted in a large amount of wasted land use in core areas of the UC zones and the absence of scientific guidance in land use layout. • Analysis of land use potential—Spatial inadequacy in the old-town center, with impending upgrade Land use in the UC zone was divided into three categories for analysis: built-up land, land under construction, and buildable land. Buildable land refers to land that currently has poor quality buildings and outdated functions that urgently need to be updated. Therefore, the ratio of buildable land as a share of total UC zone land use reflects the potential for future transformation and upgrading. The Yanling Road UC

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Fig. 5.43 Land use categories under construction in the Xinbei UC zone

zone is the oldest urban center in Changzhou, with the longest period of development and complex historical evolution. Our calculations of the area of buildable land in the Yanling Road UC zone indicate that the total scale of such land use is only 47.1 ha, accounting for 12.1% of the total UC zone area (Fig. 5.44; Table 5.16). On the one hand, this suggests that the Yanling Road UC zone has insufficient land use potential, which may hinder the further development of this main center and the reinforcement of its UC zone functions. On the other hand, this also indicates that the Yanling Road UC zone may face the pressure to update and upgrade in the future.

Administrative offices

A1

3.8

Category of land use

Code

Scale (ha)

8.2

B11

Commercial land use 4.6

B29

Trade consultancy 6.2

A2

Culture and entertainment 2.6

CB2

Commercial-offices mixed land use

Table 5.15 Scale of different land use categories under construction in the new-town UC zones of Changzhou

4.0

CB1

Commercial-residential mixed land use

111.9

R

Residential land use

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Fig. 5.44 Spatial location of the area of buildable land in the Yanling Road UC zone

Table 5.16 Land use potential of the Yanling Road UC zone in Changzhou

Scale of built-up land (ha)

Scale of land under construction (ha)

Scale of buildable land (ha)

253.7

11.3

41.7

5.1.4 Analysis of the Industrial Development of the UC Structure (1) Three stages of UC structure development within the context of globalization Against the backdrop of globalization dominated by the market economy, the management, operation, and control of the market economy is characterized by its hierarchicality and systems network, with central cities in different geographic regions undertaking the corresponding “service functions.” The rational positioning of such service functions in the operation of the system’s network has become the fundamental basis for the development of service centers for the corresponding functions, thereby forming a multi-level and diversified network structure. Within this network structure, each urban center is responsible for certain functions, each of which is different and holds a different level of importance according to its position

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in the network and the degree to which it coordinates and controls the network. This, therefore, forms the hierarchical UC structure. The differences in the spatial locations of different UC zones will lead to disparities in transportation accessibility, which will affect the selection of spatial venues for the agglomeration of urban service industries. This, in turn, will result in the different distribution of spatial locations in the UC structure. Sites with superior transportation conditions can provide a good support structure for the agglomeration of urban service industries, which is more conducive to the formation and development of the urban center. The preferred spatial location of the urban center is one at the center of transportation accessibility, the centroid of urban geography, and the centroid of urban population distribution. As the city continues to develop, it will undergo the aggregation of the population, the agglomeration of urban industries, and the improvement of transportation accessibility, which then gradually increases the available locations for UC zones and enhances the complexity of the UC structure. In terms of the city as a whole, once it surpasses the 1MC stage, the UC structure will undergo three stages of development. ➀ 1MC-MSC stage: Once the continuous growth of the main UC zone reaches a certain stage, its industrial aggregation will shift toward diseconomies due to adverse factors such as land prices and traffic congestion. Thus, the service industries within the UC zone will begin to disperse and relocate to other spatial locations in the city, which directly results in the emergence of urban sub-centers. Under normal circumstances, there is a wider range of choice and more locations available when selecting the space for sub-centers as opposed to main centers. At this stage of urban development, the city will exhibit a “1MC + MSC” UC structure, that is, a UC structure with a strong main center and several growing sub-centers. Within the UC structure, the main center is clearly superior to the sub-centers in terms of primacy, function, scale, and other aspects. ➁ 2MC-MSC stage: With the development of multiple sub-centers and the directional development of the city, the construction scale and functional formats in one of the sub-centers will gradually stand out as being close to or even surpassing the main center in terms of scale, development potential, and radiative power. Thus, the UC structure will have evolved into a 2MC-MSC structural form. Due to the rise of the business industry and vigorous new-town construction, some sub-centers dominated by business offices will exhibit a much higher development rate and development potential than the old-town commercial center, ultimately forming a dual-core structure centered on the new-town business and commercial hub and the old-town commercial and business hub. ➂ Networktized MMC stage: As the UC zones continue to develop, the dispersion effects of the main centers and the agglomeration effects of the sub-centers will work in synergy, giving rise to “spillover-backwash” oscillation effects among the service industries of the multiple sub-centers. The specialization of the main centers and the comprehensivization of the sub-centers will occur simultaneously, thereby gradually shrinking the gap between the main and sub-centers with respect to scale and function. Within the UC structure, the primacy of the

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main centers will decrease gradually, and the multiple centers will present a reticular development in the main urban area, ultimately forming a network-like polycentric structure. (2) Analysis of the Development of Urban Service Industries in China from a National Perspective The UC structure is the site for the aggregation of urban public facilities and service industries, mainly providing the city and its surrounding region with facilities and service space for economic, political, cultural, social, and other activities in an aggregated manner. By studying the position of a given city among China’s megaregions and the structure of its own service industries, it is possible to rationally predict the development stage of its UC structure. Let us examine Zhengzhou as an example. By studying the position occupied by Zhengzhou among the Chinese municipalities and provincial capitals, as well as the Central Plains Urban Agglomeration (CPUA), and the structure of its service industries, it is possible to predict the development stage of its UC zones. – Positional analysis of Zhengzhou within the urban service industries of municipalities and provincial capitals in China. The history of economic development in countries worldwide shows that economic development is, on the one hand, the continuous growth of GDP, national income, and other economic aggregates; on the other hand, it is the continuous evolution of the industrial structure from a lower to a higher level that accompanies the growth in the economic aggregates. In terms of economic aggregates, the GDP of the four municipalities and the various major provincial capitals in 2004-2006 are shown below (Fig. 5.45): Comparison 1: Compared with the municipalities and the provincial capitals of more developed regions, Zhengzhou’s overall economic characteristic is its relatively weak economic foundation. In 2004, its GDP was ranked 17th in the country, while in 2005

Fig. 5.45 GDP of municipalities and major provincial capitals in 2004–2006

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and 2006, it ranked 18th. In 2006, the difference in GDP among cities ranked 15th to 22nd was small, and fluctuations are likely to occur in the coming years. In 2004 and 2005, the GDP growth rates of the major cities are shown below (Fig. 5.46): Comparison 2: The difference in GDP growth rates among the cities was small, essentially increasing at a rate of more than 10% each year. In 2004, the GDP growth rate of Zhengzhou was 15.7%, ranking 5th with Hangzhou, whereas, in 2005, it ranked 15th, thus showing a significant drop in growth rate. Its rate of urban development is at an average level among the 18 cities (the top 18 cities ranked by GDP in 2006, same reference below). The GDP per capita of each city in 2004-2006 is shown below (Fig. 5.47): Comparison 3: The GDP per capita of Zhengzhou was ranked 13th among the 18 cities in 2004, 14th in 2005, and 13th in 2006. It was slightly higher than Taiyuan and showed a small incremental gap with Chengdu and Changchun. Its short-term goal should be to secure its current position and attempt to surpass Chengdu and Changchun. Its position was close to the middle in the comparison system. In terms of service industries, the retail sales of consumer goods in the municipalities and major provincial capitals in 2003-2005 are shown below (Fig. 5.48): Comparison 4: In terms of scale, Zhengzhou ranked 16th in retail sales of consumer goods from 2003 to 2005. In 2005, its retail sales were lower by 17.8% compared to

Fig. 5.46 GDP growth rate of major cities in 2004 and 2005

Fig. 5.47 GDP per capita of each city in 2004–2006

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Fig. 5.48 Retail sales of consumer goods in the municipalities and major provincial capitals in 2003–2005

Changchun at 15th, and higher by 14.1% compared to Taiyuan at 17th. Due to the significant differences, we predict that the ranking will maintain the status quo in the short-term. However, from the perspective of development prospects, there was a significant increase in 2005, which indicates a good trend of development. The per capita retail sales of consumer goods for each city in 2004 and 2005 are shown in Fig. 5.49: Comparison 5: In 2004, Zhengzhou ranked 13th in the retail sales of consumer goods per capita and jumped to 10th in 2005, showing a significant increase. This indicates that there was a significant increase in the efficiency of employees in the tertiary industry. As for the horizontal comparison, the per capita retail sales in 2005 were lower than that of Changchun by 9.9%, higher than Harbin by 3.5%, and higher than Wuhan by 5.8%. The city’s goal should be to maintain its existing position while improving steadily. The population employed by the service industries for each city in 2003–2005 is shown below (Fig. 5.50):

Fig. 5.49 Per capita retail sales of consumer goods for each city in 2004 and 2005

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Fig. 5.50 Population employed by the service industries for each city in 2003–2005

Comparison 6: In 2003 and 2004, Zhengzhou ranked 16th in terms of the population employed by the service industries, and 15th in 2005, showing minimal difference with Changchun, Taiyuan, and Changsha. The overall population employed by the tertiary industry is relatively small and shows a low level of annual increase. The growth rate of personnel employed by the service industries for each city in 2004 and 2005 is shown below (Fig. 5.51): Comparison 7: In 2004, Zhengzhou ranked 5th among the 18 cities in terms of the growth rate of personnel employed by the tertiary industry, and ranked 9th in 2005, thus showing a trend of decrease. Its growth rate is relatively quick, but the absolute value is fairly small, showing an annual average growth rate of less than 3.5%. Hence, it is experiencing a period of stable and positive growth.

Fig. 5.51 Growth rate of personnel employed by the service industries for each city in 2004 and 2005

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Conclusion from the comprehensive analysis of GDP – Economic aggregate. In terms of economic scale, the economic development of the various cities is relatively uneven. Zhengzhou ranked 17th to 18th in China and occupied the middle position of the third echelon among the municipalities and provincial capitals. Hence, its economic aggregate was relatively low. With respect to per capita efficiency, it ranked about 13th in the country, which indicates that its efficiency was higher than the aggregate. As for development prospects, Zhengzhou’s average annual growth rate reached 13.6%, and it has further narrowed the gap with more developed cities; hence, it has broad development prospects (Fig. 5.52). – Service industries. In terms of economic scale, Zhengzhou has a relatively small service industry, which has restricted consumer demand and hindered its effective promotion of economic growth. Zhengzhou only ranked 16th in retail sales of consumer goods. With respect to staffing, it ranked about 15th in terms of the population employed by the tertiary industry, which was experiencing a period of steady growth. In terms of per capita efficiency, its per capita retail sales of consumer goods jumped to 10th in 2005, thus showing leapfrog growth, and it is likely to enter the second echelon. In terms of development prospects, Zhengzhou showed a significant increase in the retail sales of consumer goods in 2005, and the service industries accounted for 62.52% of GDP. This indicates rapid growth and the initial formation of an industrial structure centered on the service industries, thus exhibiting good development trends (Fig. 5.53). – Positional analysis of Zhengzhou in the CPUA service industry. The CPUA refers to the city-dense area centered on Zhengzhou that consists of multiple provincial cities, including Luoyang, Kaifeng, Xinxiang, Jiaozuo, Xuchang, Luohe, Pingdingshan, and Jiyuan. It is located between Beijing, Wuhan, Jinan, and Xi’an and is the urban agglomeration with the largest size, densest population, greatest economic strength, and most advantageous transportation location in the central region. It will soon become an important growth pole that will compete

Fig. 5.52 GDP of municipalities and major provincial capitals in 2004–2006

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Fig. 5.53 Per capita retail sales of consumer goods for municipalities and provincial capitals in 2004–2006

Fig. 5.54 GDP of the CPUA in 2004–2006

globally, promote the rise of central China, and drive the development of the central and western regions. In terms of economic aggregate, the GDP of the CPUA in 2004-2006 was as follows (Fig. 5.54). Comparison 1: Zhengzhou’s GDP holds an absolute advantage in the CPUA. The GDP growth rate for each city in the CPUA in 2004 and 2005 is shown below (Fig. 5.55). Comparison 2: Zhengzhou’s GDP growth rate is at a moderate level in the CPUA. The growth rate in 2005 decreased significantly compared to 2004. The GDP per capita for each city in the CPUA in 2004-2005 is shown below (Fig. 5.56).

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Fig. 5.55 GDP growth rate of the CPUA in 2004–2006

Fig. 5.56 GDP per capita of the CPUA in 2004-2006

Comparison 3: The gap in the GDP per capita between Zhengzhou and Luoyang has been narrowing each year. The difference was only RMB 108 in 2006; hence, the two are essentially equal, and Zhengzhou may be overtaken. With regard to the service industries, the retail sales of consumer goods for each city in the CPUA in 2003–2005 are shown below (Fig. 5.57). The per capita retail sales of consumer goods for each city in 2004 and 2005 are also shown in Fig. 5.57 (data do not include Jiyuan).

Fig. 5.57 Per capita retail sales of consumer goods of the CPUA in 2003–2005

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Comparison 4: Zhengzhou showed a rapid increase in the total retail sales of consumer goods in 2005 and held an absolute advantage in the CPUA. The development of the service industry in Jiyuan is lagging behind. The population employed by the service industries for each city in 2003-2005 is shown in Fig. 5.58 (data do not include Jiyuan). Comparison 5: Zhengzhou showed a significant increase in per capita retail sales of consumer goods in 2005 but was still lower than Xuchang. Its total retail sales were 33.3% lower than Xuchang, and 6.6% higher than Luoyang. The growth rate of the population employed by the service industries for each city in 2003-2005 is shown in Fig. 5.59 (data do not include Jiyuan). Comparison 6: Zhengzhou holds an absolute advantage in terms of the population employed by the tertiary industry. The growth rate of the population employed by the service industries for each city in 2004 and 2005 is shown in Fig. 5.60 (data do not include Jiyuan). Fig. 5.58 Population employed by the service industries in the CPUA in 2004–2005

Fig. 5.59 Growth rate of population employed by the service industries in the CPUA in 2003–2005

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Fig. 5.60 Growth rate of population employed by the service industries in the CPUA in 2004–2005

Comparison 7: Zhengzhou showed a small increase in the growth rate of the population employed by the tertiary industry, occupying a middling position in the CPUA. Its level was close to that of Kaifeng and Pingdingshan in 2005.

Conclusions from the comprehensive analysis of the regional GDP of the CPUA In terms of urban economic scale, Zhengzhou occupies a strong, leading position in the CPUA, whether in terms of GDP, total retail sales of consumer goods, or the population employed by the tertiary industry. Therefore, it has the advantage of being the primate city in the CPUA. With regard to per capita efficiency, Zhengzhou is in the first echelon in terms of GDP per capita and per capita retail sales of consumer goods, but it does not play a clear leading role. As for its development prospects, Zhengzhou is only growing at an average rate within the CPUA when measured according to the GDP growth rate and the growth rate of the population employed by the tertiary industry. Thus, it is yet to fully exert a strong leading role as a central city (Fig. 5.61). In terms of radiative effect, Zhengzhou is located closest to cities such as Kaifeng, Xinxiang, and Jiaozuo, which have a per capita GDP that is lower than the CPUA average and relatively backward service industries. However, these cities do not seem to have been significantly affected by the economic development in Zhengzhou. This implies that while Zhengzhou has undergone rapid economic development and has begun to exhibit agglomeration effects, it is far from fully exerting its diffusion effects and does not provide a significant driving force for its fringe areas. Therefore, Zhengzhou has yet to form a growth pole for regional economic development. – Analysis and prediction of Zhengzhou’s service industry structure (determination of UC structure development stage) The composition of Zhengzhou’s service industries in 2003-2005 was as follows (Figs. 5.62, 5.63, and 5.64).

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Fig. 5.61 Per capita retail sales of consumer goods for municipalities and major provincial cities in 2004–2006 Fig. 5.62 Composition of service industries in Zhengzhou in 2003

Fig. 5.63 Composition of service industries in Zhengzhou in 2004

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Fig. 5.64 Composition of service industries in Zhengzhou in 2005

Analysis 1: The trade and catering,transportation, finance and insurance, and real estate industries were relatively large in scale,whereas the other industries were relatively small.

Analysis 2: The trade and catering,transportation, finance and insurance, and real estate industries were relatively large in scale,whereas the other industries were relatively small.

Analysis 3: The transportation and transport, finance and insurance, and real estate industries were relatively large in scale, whereas the other industries were relatively small.

Comparison 1: The composition ratios of the service industries in Zhengzhou were very similar in 2003 and 2004. After the adjustment of classification categories in 2005, the share of the main components did not change significantly. Analysis 4: Real estate, finance and insurance, social services, and trade and catering increased significantly, whereas other industries showed smaller increases.

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Analysis 5: Transportation, real estate, finance and insurance, social services, education and culture, and trade and catering increased significantly, whereas other industries showed smaller increases.

Analysis 6: Information services, real estate, finance, public administration,trade, business services, residential services, accommodation and catering, health and welfare, and environmental management increased significantly, whereas other industries showed smaller increases.

Comparison 2: The growth rate of various tertiary industries in Zhengzhou have been increasing each year, showing a fast momentum in development. Conclusions from the comprehensive analysis of the service industries in Zhengzhou – Zhengzhou’s service industry is currently weak in strength and radiative capacity. Whether it is its economic aggregate or share of service industries, Zhengzhou is still at a middling level when compared to the municipalities and major provincial capitals. As the core city of the CPUA, it is relatively weak with respect to its overall strength and its radiative capacity for the surrounding areas. In 2006, Zhengzhou’s primacy was 1.71, which was much lower than that of Wuhan in the Wuhan Economic Circle (5.39) and Shanghai in the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration (3.75). – Zhengzhou has experienced the rapid growth of its service industries in recent years. Its year-over-year growth was 10.7% in 2003, 14.1% in 2004, and 13.9% in 2005. Its service industry is mainly driven by growing and strong industries, which provide it with a powerful momentum for development (Figs. 5.65, 5.66 and 5.67). – Zhengzhou’s service industry has extremely promising prospects for future development. With the expansion of its economic scale and enhancement of its core competitiveness, it is foreseeable that the development of Zhengzhou’s service industry will fully exert its economic agglomeration effects, dispersion function, Fig. 5.65 Growth rate of service industries in Zhengzhou in 2003

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Fig. 5.66 Growth rate of service industries in Zhengzhou in 2004

Fig. 5.67 Growth rate of service industries in Zhengzhou in 2005

and radiative function, thus enabling Zhengzhou to play a leading role in the entire CPUA or an even larger area. In summary, the overall strength and radiative capacity of the service industries in Zhengzhou are relatively weak at the current stage. However, it has grown rapidly in recent years, showing a strong momentum of development and promising prospects. The development of UC zones in Zhengzhou is currently facing an unprecedented opportunity and is currently undergoing a critical period of transition from steady to leapfrog development. Therefore, the cultivation of its industrial development should mainly involve actively expanding the economic scale of its strong industries (financial industry and whole retail industry) and supporting its emerging industries. (3) Detailed analysis of production service industries • Establishment of a suitability index system for CBD construction Based on the analysis of the impact factors for the formation of CBDs, a suitability index system for CBD construction in Chinese cities was established (Fig. 5.68). This system is composed of the integrated and comprehensive results from 29 basic elements, six major status elements, and three major support systems. Fifty cities in China that are above the prefecture level were selected for the analysis, which included all municipalities, provincial capitals, capitals of autonomous regions, and cities of special economic zones, as well as key economic cities (but excluding Lhasa). The multi-stage operations of analytic hierarchy process and the spatiotemporal discrimination of weight thresholds were performed to achieve the basic evaluation and dynamic monitoring of the feasibility of CBD development in Chinese cities.

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Fig. 5.68 Suitability index system for CBD construction in Chinese cities. *Source Yang Junyan, Wu Mingwei. Quantitative Research on the CBD of Chinese Cities—Form, Function, Industry [M] Nanjing: Southeast University Press. 2008 (same reference below)

This enabled the quantitative determination of the actual conditions and possible potential for CBD development in various Chinese cities, thereby providing a reference for scientific decision-making in the CBD development strategy of Guangzhou. The multi-stage operations of analytic hierarchy process were performed to quantitatively evaluate the feasibility CBD development in Chinese cities, and screening was performed on the evaluation results (Table 5.17). Using Guangzhou as an example, its comprehensive score is 46.5, placing it 4th among 50 cities, thus indicating that it has the foundation to develop high-end service industries.

70.9

49.3

46.5

22.3

20.5

19.8

19.8

19.4

16.8

15.9

15.4

15.4

15.3

14.6

13.1

12.4

12.4

12.2

12.2

Shenzhen

Guangzhou

Tianjin

Nanjing

Wuhan

Dalian

Hangzhou

Chongqing

Q ingdao

Chengdu

Xiamen

Fuzhou

Shenyang

Ningbo

Zhuhai

Suzhou

Harbin

Jinan

86.0

Shanghai

Beijing

Total score

City

2.1

1.7

2.6

2.0

2.6

2.5

3.0

2.1

2.6

3.1

2.6

3.7

2.8

2.6

3.2

3.3

7.5

5.2

8.6

14.1

Hinterland economic environment

1.7

1.5

2.6

1.8

1.8

2.4

1.8

2.4

1.9

2.2

2.2

3.4

3.1

3.0

3.4

5.7

10.5

12.2

14.5

18.8

Urban economic environment

1.0

0.8

1.0

1.0

0.9

1.4

0.6

1.1

1.1

1.4

1.4

1.7

1.5

2.2

2.2

3.7

4.9

4.8

7.8

9.1

Urban agglomeration intensity

1.7

1.7

1.4

1.4

2.1

2.1

2.0

2.6

2.8

2.6

3.0

2.8

4.2

3.1

3.2

3.3

7.6

8.5

20.6

23.0

Industrial agglomeration intensity

Table 5.17 Suitability index of Chinese megacities for CBD construction and its sub-indicators

2.7

2.9

2.5

2.4

3.4

3.3

3.2

2.7

3.2

3.2

3.6

3.6

3.6

3.0

3.4

3.8

4.1

3.4

5.2

5.6

Basic support from location

3.0

3.8

2.2

3.8

2.4

3.0

4.8

4.5

3.9

3.4

4.2

4.1

4.7

6.0

5.1

2.6

11.8

15.4

14.2

15.4

(continued)

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6.5

6.4

Xuzhou

7.4

Changzhou

Zhongshan

7.5

Huizhou

6.5

7.7

Shijiazhuang

Taiyuan

7.7

Nanchang

6.8

7.8

Hefei

6.7

8.6

Urumqi

Wenzhou

8.9

Foshan

Yantai

9.8

10.1

Dongguan

9.7

10.3

Changchun

Changsha

10.4

Wuxi

Haikou

10.8

10.4

Zhengzhou

11.5

Xi’an

Kunming

Total score

City

Table 5.17 (continued)

1.1

1.9

0.5

1.2

1.5

1.6

2.2

1.6

1.0

1.2

0.9

2.0

1.4

1.3

2.1

1.7

2.1

1.2

1.1

1.9

Hinterland economic environment

0.5

1.5

0.6

0.9

0.7

1.0

2.0

0.9

0.7

1.5

0.8

1.3

1.1

0.5

2.4

1.3

2.0

1.0

1.2

1.8

Urban economic environment

0.4

1.3

0.7

0.5

0.4

1.1

0.3

0.6

0.4

0.5

0.6

1.3

0.5

0.4

1.4

1.3

1.1

0.6

0.6

1.1

Urban agglomeration intensity

0.5

0.6

1.1

0.9

0.8

0.6

0.6

1.2

1.2

1.2

1.0

1.0

2.3

1.0

0.8

1.2

1.0

1.4

1.6

2.2

Industrial agglomeration intensity

2.0

0.5

2.1

1.6

1.8

2.1

1.4

2.0

2.2

2.3

3.0

1.7

1.9

2.5

2.3

2.4

2.4

3.1

2.3

2.3

Basic support from location

1.9

0.7

1.7

1.6

1.7

1.0

0.9

1.4

2.2

1.1

2.5

1.6

2.4

4.1

1.1

2.4

1.7

3.2

4.1

2.3

(continued)

Basic support from facilities

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2.7

2.2

Xining

4.9

Lanzhou

Hohhot

5.6

Tangshan

4.7

5.6

Qinhuangdao

3.2

5.7

Guiyang

Yinchuan

5.8

Nanning

Weihai

5.8

Total score

Nantong

City

Table 5.17 (continued)

0.0

0.2

0.4

1.1

0.3

1.0

0.8

0.5

0.8

1.3

Hinterland economic environment

0.0

0.2

0.1

0.4

0.5

0.5

0.4

0.5

0.4

0.6

Urban economic environment

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.4

0.3

0.3

Urban agglomeration intensity

0.3

0.7

0.1

0.5

0.4

0.7

0.6

0.9

0.8

0.7

Industrial agglomeration intensity

0.8

1.2

1.7

1.7

1.8

2.3

2.1

1.8

1.5

2.2

Basic support from location

1.1

0.3

0.7

0.8

1.3

0.7

1.4

1.5

1.9

0.7

Basic support from facilities

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• Analysis of suitability index for CBD construction in Guangzhou The comprehensive data indicates that Guangzhou has entered a new stage of economic regional integration and international development. With the support of its open hinterland and the enormous potential for the future development of its business industry, it has fully established the foundation for developing a regional CBD. In addition, accelerating the development of the CBD will play an important role in enhancing its regional agglomeration benefits and business radiation capacity. Guangzhou should further refine the development positioning of its highend service industries, strengthen its collaborative relationship with international CBDs (e.g., Hong Kong), and acquire opportunities in regional integration, which will enable it to open the doors to the international business system. A separate analysis of each sub-indicator of the suitability index system for Guangzhou can further clarify its current advantages and disadvantages in CBD construction and its future development trends. – Hinterland economic environment The urban hinterland provides the nutrition and foundation for cultivating urban development and growth, thus playing a crucial role in the development of the CBD. The hinterland refers to the market, logistics, crowd flow, and capital flow. It entails the leeway for adjustments to industrial structure. It also implies the supply of labor. The evaluation index of the hinterland economic environment generally consists of the following sub-factors: total hinterland economic output, total hinterland tertiary output, hinterland market size, and export orientation of hinterland economy. From the perspective of the hinterland economic environment, Guangzhou scored 7.5 points, ranking 3rd among the 50 typical cities selected, only behind Shanghai and Beijing. However, given that Guangzhou’s overall ranking is 4th, this implies that its index for hinterland economic environment has a greater competitive advantage compared to its comprehensive index. Based on the individual data for each city, Shanghai holds an absolute advantage and is in the first echelon; Beijing and Guangzhou are in the second echelon; Shenzhen is in the third echelon; while Hangzhou, Tianjin, Nanjing, Qingdao, Fuzhou, and others are in the fourth echelon. The gap between Guangzhou and Beijing was relatively small, with Beijing scoring 8.6 points. However, the gap with Shanghai was relatively large, with Guangzhou scoring approximately half that of Shanghai. Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou are the three most active economies that rely on the east coast of China. Shanghai is dependent on the Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone in East China, Beijing is reliant on the Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan Economic Zone in the north, and Guangzhou takes the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone in the south as its hinterland. These three major cities are the leaders in the development of the economies upon which they rely. It can be seen that compared with the Yangtze River Delta and Beijing-TianjinTangshan economies, the inadequacies in the overall operational efficiency, total economic output, total tertiary output and market size of the Pearl River Delta

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have caused Guangzhou to lag behind Beijing and Shanghai in this single area of hinterland economic environment. Therefore, Guangzhou can further strengthen the construction of its hinterland economic environment in the future and achieve coordinated development with its surrounding cities to enjoy the advantages of urban agglomeration. This will be of crucial significance to the future CBD development of Guangzhou. – Urban economic environment The urban economic environment directly affects the city’s CBD development and determines the scale and speed of future CBD development. The evaluation subfactors of the urban environment include total urban economic output, urban fiscal revenue, urban capital stock, economic regionalization, urban market size, urban GDP per capita, and the ratio of output value from foreign enterprises. With respect to urban economic environment alone, Guangzhou scored 10.5 points, and it ranked 4th among the cities, with Shanghai holding the absolute advantage at 18.8 points in 1st place. In general, Shanghai is in the first echelon; Beijing, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou are in the second echelon; Tianjin is in the third echelon; while Hangzhou, Nanjing, Dalian, and Wuhan are in the fourth echelon. From a national perspective, a scenario of quadrupod development has formed in China, whereby the values of Shanghai, Beijing, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou are nearly double that of Tianjin in 5th place. The four major cities hold an unshakable and absolute advantage in terms of urban economic environment. Guangzhou’s urban economic environment is consistent with its comprehensive ranking, thus indicating that the development of its urban economy and business industry is relatively in sync. In future development, as Guangzhou’s urban economic environment continues to develop and improve, it will inevitably play a role in leading and driving the development of the business industry in the CBD of Guangzhou, thus enabling it to better promote the development and growth of the city’s business economic industry. – Economic agglomeration intensity The evaluation sub-factors of economic agglomeration intensity include comprehensive market share, economic agglomeration, and urban facilitation rate. With respect to urban economic agglomeration intensity alone, Guangzhou scored 4.9 points, ranking 3rd among all the cities. From an overall perspective, Shanghai and Beijing are in the first echelon, Guangzhou and Shenzhen are in the second echelon, Tianjin is in the third echelon, and Nanjing and Wuhan are in the fourth echelon. The results indicate that Guangzhou ranks 3rd to 4th for each individual item, thus occupying a leading position in the country for all indicators, while also showing a relatively even distribution of strength. However, this also implies that Guangzhou lacks a single ability or a few individual abilities that can truly take the lead in the country. A good competitive structure should have a “pyramidal shape,” with a few “leading items” at the forefront of the country that can guide the progressive

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development of the city. Therefore, in future, Guangzhou should focus on the current lack of a “leading engine,” and improve the competitive structure of its service industries, which will doubtlessly benefit the healthy development of its UC structure.

5.2 Spatial Layout Determination of UC Structure Development The UC structure is a new type of core space that emerged within the context of urbanization in China. Not only does it have notable significance as an example and key value in the systematic exploration of evolutionary patterns and spatial mechanisms, but the provision of rational guidance for its spatial layout has also become a real issue that has received widespread attention. It is one of the important areas in China’s strategy to promote the efficient aggregation of service industries and intensive land use. Therefore, there is an urgent need to carry out multi-dimensional systems research from the analysis of functional structure to the integration of spatial systems, thereby promoting scientific decision-making in its planning and layout.

5.2.1 Analysis of the Functional Structure of the UC Structure From a micro perspective, the economic development of service institutions determines the spatial size and location of public service facilities, which is an inevitable structure resulting from market competition. From a macro perspective, the spatial ratio structure of the UC structure is also closely related to the development level of the service industries. Based on the research in previous sections, we can establish a linkage analysis model of the service industries and the functional structure of the UC structure. By collecting the development data of various service industries in the city and building a development matrix for the service industries using data matrix techniques, it is possible to perform an in-depth analysis of the development stages and trends of the various service industries, thereby determining the functional composition of the UC structure in future development.4 Using Nanjing as an example, the service industries in Nanjing can roughly be divided into ten categories: the financial and insurance industry; transportation, warehousing, and postal and telecommunications industries; wholesale trade, retail trade, and catering industry; real estate industry; health, sports, and social welfare industry; education, arts and culture, and radio, film and television industry; scientific research and comprehensive technical services industry; state and party organs, social organizations, and social services industry. Nanjing only began recording separate statistics 4 For

more details on the specific principles and steps, please refer to Chap. 2.

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on urban area GDP in 1986; hence, planning was based on data from 1986 onward (Figs. 5.69, 5.70, 5.71, 5.72, 5.73 and 5.74). Systematic analysis and evaluation were performed on the service industries and the spatial development of the service industries within the UC structure based on the statistical data to explore the impact of service industry development on the UC structure. Figures 5.75 and 5.76 show the urban area GDP and growth rates of the various service industries in Nanjing over the course of 22 years from 1986 to 2007. Using the industry’s urban area GDP as the horizontal axis, growth rate as the vertical axis, and 2007 as the origin for the division of the quadrants, a service industry and spatial linkage matrix was constructed to examine the development of each industry over the past 22 years.

Fig. 5.69 GDP of the financial and insurance industry. *Source Figure by Chen Jipeng

Fig. 5.70 Growth rate of the financial and insurance industry

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Fig. 5.71 Development matrix of the financial and insurance industry

Fig. 5.72 GDP of the wholesale trade, retail trade, and catering industry

(1) Development status of the service industries in Nanjing – Financial and insurance industry Based on the data trends over the course of 22 years from 1986 to 2007, the financial and insurance industry grew at a relatively slow pace, with substantial fluctuations in the growth rate. Its GDP showed a 40-fold increase from RMB 524 million to RMB 20.822 billion (Fig. 5.69). The growth rate of the financial and insurance industry varied significantly from 1987 to 1999, showing a cycle from the peak to the trough of about four years. Despite showing significant changes, the growth rate still fluctuated at around 25%, with a range of 20–30%. Owing to the large fluctuations in growth rate, the financial and insurance industry hovered between a growing industry and

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Fig. 5.73 Growth rate of the wholesale trade, retail trade, and catering industry

Fig. 5.74 Development matrix of the wholesale trade, retail trade, and catering industry

a weak industry. From 2000 to 2003, it underwent another round of small increase, reaching a peak of 24.61%, following which the industry experienced negative growth in 2004, falling by more than 20%. However, in the subsequent years, the financial and insurance industry took a turn for the better and increased to a greater extent each year, with the growth rate reaching an all-time high of 54.24% (Fig. 5.70). After a period of rapid development, it leapt from a weak industry to a strong industry and maintained a good momentum (Fig. 5.71).

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Fig. 5.75 Development matrix of the transportation, warehousing, and postal and telecommunications industry

Fig. 5.76 Development matrix of the real estate industry

– Wholesale trade, retail trade, and catering industry The data trends over the course of 22 years from 1986 to 2007 show that the wholesale trade, retail trade, and catering industry faced significant fluctuations in its development but exhibited a sizeable level of overall growth, increasing 70-fold from RMB 573 million to RMB 40.392 billion (Fig. 5.72). During the four years from 1987 to 1990, the development of this industry had stagnated and even regressed. However, in the four years after this slump, it maintained a fast pace of growth, reaching

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127.54% at one point and thus moving from a weak industry to a growing industry. From 1995 onward, its growth rate slowed down significantly, continuing to decline in the first four years and slowly recovering in the later period. Its average growth rate was only 10%, which caused it to revert to a weak industry. Another peak in growth began in 2002, with a growth rate of 71.78% in 2004 (Fig. 5.73). With this growth, the industry moved from a weak industry to a growing industry and then to a strong industry. The growth rate decreased significantly from 2005 and remained at around 20%, while showing a downward year-by-year trend. As the growth rate decreased, the momentum of development began to weaken and the industry settled into a mature industry (Fig. 5.74). – Transportation, warehousing, and postal and telecommunications industry The data trends over 22 years show that the transportation, warehousing, and postal and telecommunications industry consistently maintained a relatively slow and steady development, with the growth rate fluctuating at around 20%. Its GDP increased 30-fold from RMB 524 million to RMB 15.754 billion. Prior to 2004, the growth rate of this industry consistently fluctuated at around 20%, and its GDP grew at a slow pace, causing it to hover between a growing and a weak industry. In 2004, however, the industry leapt to the level of a strong industry following a substantial increase of 77.6% in its GDP. Nevertheless, the unstable momentum of growth in 2005 led to a significant decline, or even regression, thus causing a negative growth rate and its reversion from a strong to a weak industry. With the small degree of increase over the next two years, the industry continued to experience an increase in its GDP on the basis of its original foundation; however, given the relatively small growth rate, it eventually settled into a mature industry (Fig. 5.75). – Real estate industry The data trends over the 22 years from 1986 to 2007 show that the real estate industry has consistently maintained a high rate of development, with its GDP increasing 303-fold from RMB 49 million to RMB 14.857 billion. The industry experienced substantial fluctuations in its growth rate, with sharp increases in special years. The growth rate fluctuated significantly from 1987 to 1991, even showing negative growth in 1989. The industry then underwent a steep increase in GDP in 1992, with a growth rate of up to 234.86%. In 1993–2001, the development of the real estate industry returned to normal but continued to maintain high growth, with an average growth rate of 40%. After undergoing the previous period of rapid growth, the real estate industry experienced a slower speed of development from 2002 onward. Apart from exceeding 40% in 2006, the growth rate remained below 20% in the other years. Despite its relatively weak foundation among the service industries in Nanjing, the real estate industry has been experiencing rapid growth during these 22 years. Apart from being a weak industry in the first four years, it has remained a growing industry, and it eventually became a strong industry by the end of the statistical period (Fig. 5.76).

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– Health, sports, and social welfare industry The data trends over the 22 years from 1986 to 2007 show that the health, sports, and social welfare industry has had a relatively weak foundation, exhibiting significant fluctuations in its development. Apart from experiencing rapid growth in certain years, its growth is relatively slow in other years, with the growth rate remaining at around 20%. In 1986, its GDP was only RMB 52 million, but after 22 years of relatively fast development, its GDP increased 108-fold to RMB 5.602 billion. From 1987 to 1991, the industry experienced relatively slow development, with an average growth rate below 10%, thus rendering it a weak industry. In the three years from 1992 to 1994, the industry experienced rapid development, with an average growth rate of 73%. Under this trend of development, the industry moved from a weak to a growing industry. However, from 1995 to 2003, the pace of development decreased once more, showing an average growth rate of about 20%, while the industry hovered between a growing and a weak industry with the fluctuations in growth rate. In 2004, it underwent another round of rapid growth, with a growth rate of up to 51.01%, thus becoming a growing industry. In the following years, the pace of development gradually decelerated, and the industry once again reverted to a weak industry due to the lack of growth momentum (Fig. 5.77). – Education, culture, radio, film, and television industry The data trends over the 22 years from 1986 to 2007 show that the education, culture, radio, film, and television industry has undergone relatively rapid development, with significant fluctuations in its growth rate. Its GDP increased 80-fold from RMB 205 million in 1986 to RMB 16.201 billion. Growth was relatively slow from 1987 to 1991, with the growth rate fluctuating at around 15%, thus classifying it as a weak

Fig. 5.77 Development matrix of the health, sports, and social welfare industry

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Fig. 5.78 Development matrix of the education, culture, radio, film, and television industry

industry. From 1992 to 1994, the industry underwent a round of rapid growth, with an average growth rate of 40%, thus placing it among growing industries during this period. After 1995, the growth rate dropped to about 20%, with a slight upward trend in subsequent years, during which the industry hovered between a growing and a weak industry. The industry underwent yet another round of rapid growth in 2004 and 2005, after which the growth rate declined, which propelled the industry toward becoming a strong industry by the end of the statistical period (Fig. 5.78). – Scientific research and comprehensive technical services industry The data trends over the 22 years from 1986 to 2007 show that the scientific research and comprehensive technical services industry showed a weak foundation but a rapid rate of development, increasing 88-fold from RMB 66 million in 1986 to RMB 5.256 billion. From 1987 to 1994, the scientific research and comprehensive technical services industry developed rapidly but experienced considerable fluctuations, with growth rates of up to 55% in 1989, 1992, and 1993 but exhibiting very low levels in the remaining years, even showing negative growth in 1994. During this period, the industry hovered between being a growing industry and being a weak industry. After 1995, the industry showed an improvement in its development trend, with the growth rate increasing year by year, but remaining a weak industry. From 2001 onward, the scientific research and comprehensive technical services industry underwent yet another round of rapid growth, reaching a peak growth rate of 54.86% in 2004, and the good trend of development over these few years enabled it to become a growing industry. After 2005, the industry experienced a slower growth rate, which decreased year by year, causing it to revert to a weak industry once more (Fig. 5.79).

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Fig. 5.79 Development matrix of the scientific research and comprehensive technical services industry

– State and party organs and social organizations The data trends over the 22 years from 1986 to 2007 show that state and party organs and social organizations underwent vigorous development, with its GDP increasing 202-fold from RMB 75 million in 1986 to RMB 15.121 billion. From 1987 to 1991, the industry experienced relatively slow development, with an average growth rate of about 10%. The industry had a weak foundation, which gave it a slower start; hence, it was classified as a weak industry during this period. For a period of three years from 1992, the industry underwent a round of rapid growth, showing an average growth rate of 141.54%, which elevated it to a growing industry. After 1995, the industry experienced a slower pace of development, with a growth rate as low as 20%, but also showing a gradual trend of increase. The industry was at the fringe of a growing industry during this period. After 2002, the industry underwent two rounds of small increases, and then its growth rate gradually decelerated each year, eventually settling into a mature industry by the end of the statistical period (Fig. 5.80). – Social services industry The data trends over the 22 years from 1986 to 2007 show that the social services industry had a solid foundation but a relatively slow rate of growth. Its GDP increased 69-fold from RMB 166 million in 1986 to RMB 11.562 billion. There were substantial fluctuations in the development of this industry from 1987 to 1993, with a difference in growth rates of more than 40%. During this period, the industry underwent the transition from a weak to a growing industry. In 1994, the industry underwent a round of rapid growth, with a growth rate of up to 143.52%, thus evolving into a strong growing industry. After 1995, its GDP developed at a slower rate, decreasing

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Fig. 5.80 Development matrix of the state and party organ and social organization service industry

to about 20%. In subsequent years, the growth rate of this industry declined further, falling below 20%, thus causing it to revert to a weak industry. After 2000, the industry regained its pace of development and gradually grew in scale, undergoing a small peak of development in 2004, with a growth rate of 47.26%. During this period, the industry reclaimed its status as a growing industry. After 2005, the rate of development gradually decelerated once again, causing it to revert to a weak industry (Fig. 5.81).

Fig. 5.81 Development matrix of the social services industry

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(2) Compositional analysis of service industry groups To enhance the comprehensive competitiveness of the UC structure, it is necessary to ensure that there are fully competitive dominant industries that can drive the development of the overall urban service industry and that of the economy. The dominant industries of a city are representative of the development and trends of its service economy, while also serving as the main development force behind the UC structure. Therefore, by analyzing the matrix composition of service industry groups, the development of the service industries can be divided into four categories (Table 5.18). Based on the distribution matrix of the various service industries, the service industries in Nanjing exhibited the following distribution characteristics (Fig. 5.82). Weak industry group: The health, sports, and social welfare industry; scientific research and comprehensive technical services industry; state and party organs and social organizations, and other industries constitute the weak industry group in the service industry composition of Nanjing. However, as the economically developed Table 5.18 Distribution among the service industry groups in Nanjing Weak industry group

Growing industry group

Scientific research and Real estate comprehensive technical services Health, sports, and social welfare State and party organs and social organizations Social services Others

Strong industry group

Mature industry group

Finance and insurance

Trade and catering Transportation, and postal and telecommunications Education, culture, radio, film, and television

*Source Compiled by Chen Jipeng

Fig. 5.82 Distribution matrix of the development and evolution of the service industries in Nanjing

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Fig. 5.83 Development matrix of the weak service industry group in Nanjing

capital city of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing’s state and party organs and social organizations had flourished during the statistical period and had reached the origin of the matrix, showing a good development trend but a relatively low growth rate. Thus, we predict that this industry will soon become a mature industry and serve as a dominant driving force in Nanjing’s service industry. Furthermore, the social services industry also showed relatively good development within the weak industry group, indicating that this industry has a good foundation but a relatively slow growth rate, and hence will develop into a growing or strong industry in the future. Although the other industries were classified as weak industries, they were close to the edge of growing industries (Fig. 5.83). Growing industry group: The real estate industry is the only growing industry in Nanjing. It has a relatively weak foundation, as it was worth only RMB 49 million at the start of the statistical period, and had the lowest GDP among the ten industries. However, by the end of the statistical period, it had increased 303-fold to RMB 14.857 billion and underwent the fastest growth among the ten industries. The real estate industry is now close to the origin of the matrix, and it has maintained relatively good development. Thus, the real estate industry has great potential to grow into a strong industry in the near future (Fig. 5.84). Strong industry group: The financial and insurance industry is a strong industry within the composition of Nanjing’s service industry. Only a few service industries in Nanjing have both a large industrial scale and a rapid growth in business volume, which is also a major problem in the composition of Nanjing’s service industry. In terms of the matrix distribution, the trade and catering industry, education, culture, radio, film, and television industry and the transportation, and postal and telecommunications industry among the mature industries; the real estate industry among the growing industries; and the social services industry among the weak industries are the most likely to develop into the strong industries of Nanjing in the next few years. However, the lack of strong industries during the statistical period has directly contributed to problems such as indistinctive industrial characteristics, which need to be resolved in future development (Fig. 5.85).

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Fig. 5.84 Development matrix of the growing service industry group in Nanjing

Fig. 5.85 Development matrix of strong service industries in Nanjing

Mature industries: The three core service industries, namely the trade and catering industry, the transportation, and postal and telecommunications industry, and the education, culture, radio, film, and television industry have all entered a period of maturity. After undergoing the peak period development in 1991–1993 and in 2004, these industries have grown in scale and generate large profits, but their GDP growth rates have gradually decreased. In particular, the growth rate of the transportation and postal and telecommunications industry has been less than 10% since 2004. The growth rate of the trade and catering industry has been declining in recent years and has essentially remained at around 16%. If this trend can be reversed with the support of economic policies, it will be possible for this industry to return to the strong industry group. The education, culture, radio, film, and television industries are also presented with a similar opportunity (Fig. 5.86).

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Fig. 5.86 Development matrix of the mature service industries in Nanjing

(3) Conclusion By analyzing the historical development and compositional evolution of the service industries in Nanjing over the course of 22 years, we were able to explore their development trends and their relationship with land use demand within the UC structure. The analysis indicates that Nanjing is currently experiencing an overall trough of development in its service industries, which is mainly reflected in the fact that there is only one industry each in the growing and strong industry groups, whereas the others are all weak or mature industries. The boost from hosting a series of largescale events in the future, such as the Youth Olympic Games, will inevitably give rise to another round of rapid development in Nanjing. To cope with this new round of growth and prevent land shortage caused by insufficient planning, it is necessary to understand the development trends and land use requirements of the various service industries in Nanjing. Mature industries: The wholesale trade, retail trade, and catering industry has reached saturation and has a low demand for land use in the UC zone. Although the growth rate of the transportation industry has slowed down, the Nanjing South Railway Station will undoubtedly provide a strong impetus for the next round of growth in the transportation industry. Therefore, the demand for transportation land use in the UC zone will almost certainly increase in the near future. The education and cultural industry has also stabilized as the construction of several major university towns in Nanjing was completed, which implies that its demand for land will be reduced further. Strong industries: The financial and insurance industry has shown a good trend of development. With the swift development of Nanjing’s, and even Jiangsu’s, real economy, the financial and insurance industry has gained further ground for its rapid development and growth. In addition to the six major traditional banks, private financial and insurance institutions have also been expanding rapidly and have agglomerated in the city center. Nevertheless, the reduced land availability in the main UC zone is tending toward saturation, thus causing the fringe areas of the main UC zone to

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become the main agglomeration sites for construction in the financial and insurance industry. Growing industries: The real estate industry has undergone a healthy development due to the last real estate boom and is currently edging toward a strong industry. However, the introduction of a series of policies in China, such as that pertaining to second-home mortgages, will no doubt affect the overzealous real estate market, and hence slow down the development of the real estate industry. Therefore, its service institutions will have reduced demand for land in the UC zone. Weak industries: There is potential for development in all of Nanjing’s weak industries. The growth rates of two industries in particular (i.e., the scientific research and comprehensive technical services industry and the state and party organs and social organizations) have remained very high. Scientific research and innovation industry, and the IT industry will drive the development of Nanjing’s service industry in future and, hence, will undoubtedly increase its demand for land use. State and party organs and social organizations will also expand outward along with Nanjing’s administrative hub. Understanding the development trends of the different service industries in Nanjing and their demand for land in the UC zones helps in formulating plans, predictions, and strategies to meet the service industries’ demand for construction land in their next stages of development. This will prevent disorderly construction and other unfavorable situations caused by the lack of planning. Using Changzhou as a case study, it is possible to illustrate how the linkage analysis model of the service industries and the UC functional structure can be used to analyze the development stages of the different categories of service industries and to apply the linkage matrix method to the decision-making involving the service industry portfolio and the rationality of the UC structure. The service industries in Changzhou can be divided according to their scale based on statistical data into 14 categories, namely the wholesale and retail industry; real estate industry; financial industry; leasing and business services industry; transportation and warehousing industry; accommodation and catering industry; public administration and social organizations; education sector; information transmission, computer services, and software industry; health, social security, and social welfare industry; residential services and other service industries; scientific research, technical services, and geological exploration industry; culture, sports, and entertainment industry; and water conservancy, environmental, and public facility management industry. The following is an analysis of the urban area GDP and growth rates of each service industry in Changzhou over the course of five years from 2006 to 2010, which were used to construct a linkage matrix in order to clarify the development status and trends of Changzhou’s service industries in recent years. [Wholesale and retail industry] The data trends over the five years from 2006 to 2010 show that the wholesale and retail industry maintained a relatively high rate of development, with its growth rate essentially fluctuating at around 20%. Its GDP doubled within five years, increasing from RMB 13.25 billion to RMB 26.106 billion. Prior to 2008, the growth rate of this industry showed slight fluctuations at around 20%, and its GDP has grown steadily, thus maintaining its status as a strong

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industry. In 2009, its growth rate dropped to 5.4%, which brought it into the territory of mature industries, but the large increase of its GDP in 2010 of 25.35% restored its status as a strong industry. [Real estate industry] The real estate industry has maintained a relatively high speed of development, with its growth rate generally fluctuating at around 30%. Its GDP tripled within five years, increasing from RMB 4.655 billion to RMB 13.198 billion. In 2006, the growth rate of this industry reached 41.62%, but decreased significantly in the next two years, causing a plateau in GDP growth, which led to its decline from a growing to a weak industry. In 2009, there was a surge in the growth rate to 57.86%, which propelled it into the territory of strong industries. The large increase in GDP over the final two years has restored its status as a strong industry. [Financial industry] The financial industry has consistently maintained a high speed of development, with an average growth rate of 28.68%. Its GDP has more than doubled in five years, increasing from RMB 5.256 billion to RMB 12.697 billion. In 2006, the industry showed a growth rate of 44.32% and was classified as a growing industry. In 2008, its growth rate fell to 20.41%, and then slowly began to rise again. However, the financial industry had crossed into the territory of strong industries since 2007, and it has consistently maintained its status as a strong industry. [Leasing and business services industry] The leasing and business services industry has maintained a high speed of development, with an average growth rate of 56.98%. Its GDP grew six-fold from 2006 to 2010, increasing from RMB 1.405 billion to RMB 8.181 billion. The GDP of this industry has been growing rapidly since 2006, and it underwent an explosive growth of 157.08% in 2008, thus maintaining its status as a growing industry. In 2009, it began evolving into a strong industry, then its growth rate decelerated in 2010, causing it to enter the territory of mature industries. [Transportation and warehousing industry] This industry has consistently maintained a relatively high speed of development, with its growth rate generally fluctuating at around 20%. Its GDP doubled within five years, increasing from RMB 3.04 billion to RMB 7.74 billion. Prior to 2008, the industry showed slight fluctuations in its growth rate at around 20% and steady growth in GDP, while its status hovered between that of a weak industry and a growing industry. Its growth rate underwent a rapid increase of 43.84% in 2009, thus propelling it into the territory of mature industries. However, after a growth of 19.21% in 2010, the industry reverted once again to its status as a mature industry. [Accommodation and catering industry] The data trends in 2006–2010 show that the accommodation and catering industry has consistently maintained a relatively high speed of development, with its growth rate essentially fluctuating at around 30%. Its GDP tripled within five years, increasing from RMB 2.031 billion to RMB 6.286 billion. Over these five years, the industry showed fluctuations in its growth rate and its GDP increased steadily, thus maintaining its status as a growing industry. [Public administration and social organizations] The data trends over these five years show that the public administration and social organizations maintained consistent growth, with an average growth rate of 17.43%. Its GDP grew less than one-fold in five years from RMB 3.232 billion to RMB 5.302 billion. The growth rate of this

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industry has been declining since 2006, then it slowly began to increase in 2008, during which its status fell from that of a growing industry to a weak industry. [Education industry] The data trends from 2006 to 2010 show that the education industry has consistently maintained a relatively high speed of development, with its growth rate essentially fluctuating at around 20%. Its GDP doubled within five years from RMB 2.666 billion to RMB 4.888 billion. Prior to 2008, the industry showed slight fluctuations in its growth rate at around 25% and a steady growth in GDP, thus maintaining its status as a growing industry. In 2008, its growth rate dropped to 12.94%, which placed it among the weak industries, but increased to 20.99% in 2010, thus restoring its status as a growing industry. [Information transmission, computer services, and software industry] This industry has consistently maintained a relatively low speed of development and a steady growth rate that has basically fluctuated at around 10%. Its GDP increased from RMB 2.113 billion to RMB 3.178 billion. From 2006 to 2010, its GDP has been increasing at a slow pace, with a growth rate of about 10%, thus consistently placing it among the weak industries. [Health, social security, and social welfare industry] This industry has consistently maintained a relatively low speed of development, with a growth rate that has essentially fluctuated at around 15%. Its GDP increased from RMB 1.344 billion to RMB 2.184 billion. In 2006, the growth rate of this industry was 16.67%, thus placing it among the weak industry. However, its growth rate increased to 20.61% in 2007, which propelled it into the territory of growing industries, but it then hovered around 10% after 2008, thus reverting to its status as a weak industry. [Residential services and other service industries] These industries experienced substantial fluctuations, showing negative growth from a GDP of RMB 1.726 billion in 2006 to RMB 1.591 in 2010. Prior to 2008, these industries had been growing at a relatively fast pace, with a growth rate of 28.45% in 2008, which propelled it to its status as a growing industry. However, the negative growth rates in the following two years, which had fallen to 12.60% by 2010, meant that the industry remained in its status as a weak industry. [Scientific research, technical services, and geological exploration industry] This industry has consistently maintained a high speed of development, with its growth rate essentially fluctuating at around 25%. Its GDP had doubled within five years, increasing from RMB 631 million to RMB 1.494 billion. In the five years from 2006 to 2010, the industry had consistently maintained its status as a growing industry. [Culture, sports, and entertainment industry] The data trends over these five years show that the culture, sports, and entertainment industry has consistently maintained a relatively high speed of development, with its growth rate basically fluctuating at around 30%. Its GDP had more than doubled from 2006 to 2010, increasing from RMB 502 million to RMB 1.38 billion. During the five years from 2006 to 2010, the industry had consistently maintained its status as a growing industry. [Water conservancy, environmental, and public facility management industry] The data trends over these five years show that the water conservancy, environmental, and public facility management industry has consistently maintained a relatively high speed of development, with its growth rate basically fluctuating at around 25%.

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Table 5.19 Distribution and overview of service industry groups in Changzhou Type of industry group

Weak industry group

Growing industry group

Strong industry group

Mature industry group

Composition of industry group

Information transmission, computer services, and software Social welfare industry Residential services Public administration

Accommodation and catering Education Environmental and public facility management Culture, sports, and entertainment Scientific research, technical services, and geological exploration

Wholesale and retail industry Real estate industry Financial industry Leasing and business services

Transportation

Total ratio of industry group (%)

12.87

15.82

63.19

8.12

Average growth rate of industry group (%)

11.81

21.27

25.25

19.21

[Compositional analysis of the service industry groups in Changzhou]

Its GDP tripled from 2006 to 2010, increasing from RMB 328 million to RMB 1.017 billion. During the five years from 2006 to 2010, the industry had consistently maintained its status as a growing industry. The service industries were classified into four major service industry groups and three service categories based on the results of the service industry matrix analysis in order to examine the compositional characteristics of the dominant service industries in Changzhou (Table 5.19). Weak industry group in Changzhou: At present, the weak industry group of Changzhou’s service industry structure consists of four industries, namely the information transmission, computer services, and software industry; the health, social security, and social welfare industry; residential services and other service industries; and public administration and social organizations. This group accounts for 12.87% of the overall service industry, with an average growth rate of 11.81%. More specifically, as the base of China’s animation industry, Changzhou has shown a good trend of development in its information transmission, computer services, and software industry, but the growth rate of this industry has remained low. This industry is expected to become a strong industry in the future if appropriate guiding and supporting policies are further implemented, thus enabling it to serve as a distinctive feature among Changzhou’s service industries. In addition, among the weak industries, the health, social security, and social welfare industry and public administration and social organizations have also shown relatively healthy development, exhibiting a relatively fast growth rate but a weak foundation. Given the accelerating progress

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of urban construction in Changzhou, this industry has the strength to develop into a growing industry in the near future. Although residential services and other service industries are currently classified as weak industries, they have great potential to revert once more to the ranks of growing industries (Figs. 5.87 and 5.88). The growing industry group in Changzhou: Changzhou’s growing industry group includes five industries, namely the accommodation and catering industry; education industry; water conservancy, environmental, and public facility management industry; culture, sports, and entertainment industry; scientific research, technical services, and geological exploration industry. This group accounts for 15.82% of the overall service industry, with an average growth rate of 21.27%. Among them, the accommodation and catering industry and the culture, sports, and entertainment industry are growing at a rapid pace. Chain-based specialty catering services are expected to become the rising star among Changzhou’s strong industries in the future. The environmental and public facility management industry and the scientific

Fig. 5.87 Distribution matrix of the different service industry groups in Changzhou

Fig. 5.88 Distribution matrix of the weak service industry group in Changzhou

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Fig. 5.89 Distribution matrix of the growing service industry group in Changzhou

research, technical services, and geological exploration industry will need a longer duration to complete its period of growth (Fig. 5.89). Strong industry group in Changzhou: Changzhou currently has four major strong industries, namely the wholesale and retail industry, real estate industry, financial industry, and leasing and business services industry. This group accounts for 63.19% of the overall service industry, with an exceptional average growth rate of 25.25% over these five years, but which has been showing a trend of deceleration in recent years. Among them, the GDP of the leasing and business services industry increased sharply from RMB 1.405 billion to RMB 8.181 billion within five years, but its growth rate decreased significantly in the later stages and began approaching the fringe of mature industries. However, with appropriate industrial guidance, it is still possible for it to maintain its status as a strong industry. The remaining three industries have established a good development foundation and maintained its strong momentum of growth. Therefore, these industries will form the core of Changzhou’s dominant industries in future (Fig. 5.90). The mature industry group in Changzhou: The transportation and warehousing industry is the only mature industry in Changzhou. After undergoing the peak of

Fig. 5.90 Distribution matrix of the strong service industry group in Changzhou

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Fig. 5.91 Distribution matrix of the mature service industry group in Changzhou

its development in 2009, the growth rate of the transportation industry began to decrease. However, the improvement in the geographical conditions of Changzhou’s transportation and the support of relevant industrial policies will enable the logistics and transportation industry in Changzhou to reverse its current trend and return once more to the strong industry group (Fig. 5.91). [Development status of the three major categories of service industries] By dividing the service industries into the production, lifestyle, and social categories, we can see that among the production service industries, the financial industry and the leasing and business services industry have become Changzhou’s strong industries; the transportation and warehousing industry is the only mature industry; and only the information transmission, computer services, and software industry has remained within the scope of weak industries. Among lifestyle service industries, the wholesale and retail industry and the real estate industry have occupied their position as strong industries; while the accommodation and catering industry and the culture, sports, and entertainment industry are still in the growing phase. Among social service industries, the health, social security, and social welfare industry and public administration and social organizations are classified as weak industries, while the remaining major industries have been equipped with the strength of growing industries (Table 5.20). [Conclusions from the determination of functional structure] Production service industry: The short-term focus is on expanding the total output of the industry and consolidating strong industries, including the financial industry and the leasing and business services industry. The long-term goal is to continue improving the strong industries and vigorously promoting the development of the information transmission, computer services, and software industry. The main body will consist of high-end services (Fig. 5.92). Lifestyle service industries: The short-term focus is on improving the quality of lifestyle services and upgrading the more mature wholesale and retail industry. The long-term goal is to vigorously promote and improve the different categories of

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Table 5.20 Current development status of the three major categories of service industries in Changzhou Industry category

Lifestyle service industry

Production service industry

Social service industry

Weak industry

Residential service and other service industries

Information transmission, computer services, and software industry

Health, social security, and social welfare industry Public administration and social organizations

Growing industry

Culture, sports, and entertainment industry Accommodation and catering industry

/

Water conservancy, environmental, and public facility management industry Scientific research, technical services, and geological exploration industry Education

Strong industry

Real estate Wholesale and retail industry

Financial industry Leasing and business services industry

/

Mature industry

/

Transportation and warehousing industry

/

Fig. 5.92 Distribution matrix of production service industries in Changzhou

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service industries, as well as the synchronous progress of supporting services for the culture, sports, and entertainment industry (Fig. 5.93). Social service industries: The short-term focus is to strengthen the targeted cultivation of growing industries, such as the environmental and education industry. The long-term goal is to promote industrial development and ensure equitable development of social service industries (Fig. 5.94). Based on the above, detailed guidance for the future development of each category of service industry was formulated, thus laying an industrial foundation for the overall functional ratio composition of the UC structure. On this basis, the functional structure and spatial composition of the future UC structure in Changzhou can be formulated (Table 5.21).

Fig. 5.93 Distribution matrix of lifestyle service industries in Changzhou

Fig. 5.94 Distribution matrix of social service industries in Changzhou

Production service industries

▲

◆

◆

◆

Transportation, warehousing, and postal and telecommunications industry

▲

★

◆

Leasing and business services industry

Information transmission, computer services, and software industry

★

◆

Financial industry

◆

★

Residential services and other service industries

★

◆

★

◆

★

(continued)

Maturation and upgrading

Accommodation and catering industry

Wholesale and retail industry

Lifestyle service industries

Cultivation of growth

Consolidation of strong industry

Long-term (–2022) Maturation and upgrading

Cultivation of growth

Consolidation of strong industry

Short-term (–2017)

Real estate industry

Sub-industries

Major categories

Table 5.21 Guidance for the development of service industries in Changzhou

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公 益 型 服 务 业

Major categories

▲

▲

▲

Water conservancy, environmental, and public facility management industry

▲

▲

▲

Culture, sports, and ▲ entertainment industry

Health, social security, ▲ and social welfare

Education

Public administration and social organization

▲

Cultivation of growth

Consolidation of strong industry

Long-term (–2022) Maturation and upgrading

Cultivation of growth

Consolidation of strong industry

Short-term (–2017)

Scientific research, ▲ technical services, and geological exploration industry

Sub-industries

Table 5.21 (continued) Maturation and upgrading

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5.2.2 Spatial Suitability Evaluation of UC Structure Layout The suitability evaluation of the spatial layout of the UC structure is based on urban construction land use, which integrates the economical, social, and ecological properties of various land uses to evaluate their suitability for the planning and construction of UC zones. From an economic perspective, the evaluation of urban construction land use is mainly based on the comprehensive qualitative evaluation of the economic and technical aspects of land use, including transportation accessibility, land costs, and supporting facilities. From the perspective of social attributes, the evaluation of urban construction land use mainly involves the comprehensive qualitative evaluation of the social and cultural aspects, including cultural accumulation, landscape quality, and residential communities. From the perspective of natural ecological conditions, the evaluation of urban construction land use mainly involves the comprehensive qualitative evaluation of natural environmental conditions, including geological conditions, air quality, and disaster risk. Using the analysis based on this evaluation, we can determine the land use construction of UC zones. Such an evaluation will both satisfy the needs of urban planning and construction, while also providing an overall analysis of the comprehensive benefits for nature and society, thus serving as a rational and scientific basis for the spatial layout and reasonable structure of the UC structure. Using Nanjing as a case study to analyze the spatial layout suitability of its UC structure will provide a representative example for examining the layout of the UC structure. Nanjing is currently in the rapid development phase of urbanization, which has led to the scarcity of land resources in the main city and its outward expansion to relieve the intense population pressure. Furthermore, the construction of urban public service hubs is an important part of urban spatial expansion. The city is bordered by the Yangtze River in the north, sits astride mountains such as Mount Zhong and Mount Lao, and is embellished by water systems such as Xuanwu Lake and Qinhuai River, which have provided excellent conditions for the development and construction of public facilities. At the same time, these conditions have also imposed significant constraints on the layout and planning of the UC structure. First, the barrier effect of the Yangtze River on transportation has caused the development in the Jiangbei Area to be over-dependent on the construction of cross-river channels; hence, the layout of public service hubs needs to address the connection with cross-river channels. Second, some areas around the main city have relatively inadequate infrastructure and public facilities, which makes it difficult to support the development of public service hubs, thus limiting the expansion of the new town area. The spatial suitability evaluation of the Nanjing UC structure was conducted using the Nanjing Metropolitan Area as the evaluation range as defined in the 2007–2020 Nanjing City Master Plan, which covers an area of 4,386.6 km2 . Using the vectorbased spatial information acquired, the GIS technological platform was employed to

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perform data processing in order to obtain multi-factor evaluation maps with spatial suitability zoning of the UC structure layout.5 – Evaluation of the economic subsystem The indicators of transportation accessibility include road accessibility, expressway accessibility, rail transit station accessibility, and railway station accessibility. Road accessibility can be evaluated based on the time taken to reach a given land parcel from the Xinjiekou center. It can be seen that the road accessibility in the various areas around the main city of Nanjing is fairly uneven. Road accessibility is high from the main city toward Jiangning, and traffic is relatively smooth. The accessibility in the direction toward Xianlin is somewhat inadequate due to the spatial barriers caused by Xuanwu Lake and Mount Zhon. Although multiple cross-river channels have been built, the Yangtze River still has a significant impact on the transportation accessibility of Jiangbei, while the transportation accessibility of Pukou District is lagging behind that of other areas. The evaluation results of expressway accessibility show that there is significantly higher transportation accessibility in land parcels along the inner and outer ring expressways. Areas at expressway junctions, such as the south of Hexi, Baixiang, and Bagua, also had relatively high accessibility. The evaluation of rail transit station accessibility shows that as of 2020, Nanjing’s metro and tram lines have covered the entire scope of its main city and has basically formed connections with Pukou, Xianlin, and Jiangning. Accessibility around Qiaolin and Lukou in the south of Nanjing is inadequate. The evaluation of railway station accessibility indicates that the Nanjing Railway station exerted the greatest radiative power on the main city, while the construction of the Nanjing South Railway Station has also significantly enhanced the transportation accessibility to the south of the main city. The land cost evaluation of Nanjing includes the evaluation of land prices and demolition costs. Based on the spatial distribution map of urban land prices in Nanjing, it can be seen that the old-town UC zone is relatively well developed due to the long history of commercial and business activities; hence, its land prices are also the most expensive. The relatively high land prices can also facilitate the relocation of functional land uses that are not conducive to UC zone development, such as low-end residences, thus enabling the concentrated development of UC zone functions in the old town. In addition, high land prices can also increase the floor area ratio of the area, which will encourage the emergence of a pleasing urban skyline, thereby improving the quality and image of the UC zone. However, the old town is not suitable for the creation of new UC zones. UC zones in the initial stages of development are generally located in urban areas with relatively low land prices and demolition costs, whereas more mature UC zones tend to be located in areas with high land prices. Given that the other factors of development are similar, the fringe areas of the city, with their low land prices and demolition costs, are more suitable for the development of new UC zones. From this perspective, the cost of land around 5 For details on the technical methods, steps, and index system composition of the suitability evalu-

ation for UC structure spatial layout, please refer to Chap. 4 of this book. Appropriate adjustments were made during the actual process according to the spatial features of the different cities.

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the outer ring expressway of Nanjing is lower than that of the main city, hence the cheaper land costs and current state of low construction intensity implies that such areas are more conducive to the creation and development of emerging UC zones. The evaluation of supporting facilities included the evaluation of municipal facilities and public service facilities. Supporting facilities are the material guarantee for the formation of the UC zone. The UC zone is the agglomeration site for urban retail commerce and specialty brand outlets, offices, and financial institutions, as well as cultural activities, entertainment, and conventions and exhibitions. Therefore, it imposes extremely high requirements on the development foundation and advancement level of public service facilities and municipal facilities. In addition, there are intertwined consumer chain collaborations among the service industries, and having a complete package of various lifestyle service facilities (e.g., dining, residence, children’s education etc.) is more conducive to the effective agglomeration and reasonable allocation of capital, technology, information, and other high-end resources. Based on the current allocation of municipal facilities and public service facilities, the resources in the main city and its peripheral areas, including Jiangning, Pukou, and Xianlin, are superior to those of other areas, with better conditions for UC zone development. – Evaluation of the social subsystem The indicators of cultural accumulation include the evaluation of historical cultural heritage, commercial cultural heritage, and public psychological recognition. As the ancient capital of six dynasties, Nanjing has an abundance of historical cultural remains not only in the old town but also in its surrounding areas such as Dachang and Fangshan. Many areas in Nanjing were historically commercial zones that were extremely prosperous and have had a long history of commercial operations. This has imbued such areas with a deep accumulation of commercial culture and prominent value in invisible branding, which can also effectively reduce the operational risks of new service institutions. Their developmental inertia is conducive to the continued agglomeration of service institutions and has an immense impact on decision-making for the agglomeration of high-end service institutions. Furthermore, our questionnaire surveys showed that the public has already formed a relatively solid psychological recognition for modern urban centers, such as Xinjiekou and Gulou, which, in turn, can promote the sustained and stable development of these areas. This will bring about significant economies of scale and the benefits of specialized service chains, thereby catalyzing the location selection of emerging service institutions. The indicators of landscape ecology include the openness of mountain ranges, the openness of water bodies, and the openness of large-scale greenspaces. The mountainside and waterfront areas around the Purple Mountain, Fang Mountain, and Waiqinhuai River have superior landscape conditions, which can increase their attractiveness to the public compared to other regions if considered under similar conditions. Therefore, these are also important factors in the location selection of service facility zones.

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The accessibility evaluation of residential communities includes two indicators: the distance of existing centers and the distance of residential communities. The Xinjiekou, Confucius Temple, Hexi, and Longjiang areas have amassed a large number of public facilities and are surrounded by large-scale residential communities. Therefore, constructing public facilities around these existing centers will bring about greater social benefits. In addition, the distribution of urban residential communities is one of the key factors affecting the spatial location of public service facilities. In order to prevent UC zones from becoming “pendulum cities,” it is necessary to maintain the normal operations of UC zones around medium- to large-sized residential communities, thus ensuring the proximate consumption of residential communities and the all-day vitality of the region. – Evaluation of ecological subsystem The indicators of geological conditions include the evaluation of soil geology and slope evaluation. The distribution of areas along the Yangtze river, such as Baguazhou, is affected by soil liquefaction, and the soil texture is relatively soft, whereas the Laoshan and Zhongshan mountain ranges have large variations in the degree of slope. These conditions will have a significant negative impact on the construction of service facilities and the development of service industries. The indicators of environmental quality include the evaluation of air pollution and noise pollution. Due to the impact of the heavy chemical industry in Jiangbei, there is serious pollution in the Pukou and Dachang areas, as well as the downwind Xianlin area, which is not conducive to the development of public facilities in these areas. The disaster risk indicator includes the evaluation of flood risk and other risks. In Nanjing, this mainly includes areas through which earthquake fault zones traverse and pest-ridden areas along the Yangtze River, which are limited by their own conditions and, hence, are not suitable for the construction of UC zones (Fig. 5.95, 5.96, 5.97, 5.98, 5.99, 5.100, 5.101, 5.102, 5.103, 5.104, 5.105, 5.106, 5.107, 5.108, 5.109, 5.110, 5.111, 5.112, 5.113, 5.114, 5.115, 5.116 and 5.117). – Results of comprehensive evaluation The comprehensive evaluation involved overlaying the single factors to perform the suitability evaluation of Nanjing’s public hubs. The following conclusions can be drawn from the results of the comprehensive evaluation: 1. Xinjiekou in the old town had the highest suitability for UC zone construction, scoring highly for transportation accessibility, public facilities, municipal facilities, and public psychological recognition. The Xinjiekou-Gulou-Hunan Road areas have shown a trend toward contiguity, which may enable the main UC zone in Nanjing to evolve into a multi-core, interlocking, giant spatial structure in the future (Fig. 5.118).

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Fig. 5.95 Evaluation of road accessibility

2. The southern area of the old town has relatively high suitability for construction, scoring fairly highly for transportation accessibility, public facilities, openness of water bodies, historical heritage, and public psychological recognition. However, due to the large number of historical and cultural preservation zones and traditional city blocks, this area is not suitable for the construction of a main UC zone. Therefore, it should incorporate historical remains, such as the Confucius Temple, to develop a cultural UC zone (Fig. 5.119). 3. The Nanjing South Railway Station area has low suitability for UC zone construction and small development potential. Although the Nanjing South Railway Station area showed high scores for transportation accessibility, it had low scores for public facilities, municipal facilities, and ecological landscape due to its long distance from the main center. Therefore, the area does not provide sufficient support for the development of a UC zone (Fig. 5.120).

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Fig. 5.96 Evaluation of expressway accessibility

4. The Olympic Sports Center area currently provides weak support, but it has the potential for development. Although the Hexi Olympic Sports Center has high transportation accessibility, municipal facilities, service facilities, and public psychological recognition, it has insufficient driving force for UC zone development due to its geology, flood risks, and other factors. Furthermore, the land stock around the Olympic Sports Center is also insufficient to support UC zone development (Figs. 5.121 and 5.122). Kunshan is another typical case for which the UC structure planning can be analyzed based on the spatial layout suitability of its public facilities. Kunshan is located in the core of the Yangtze River Delta, bordered by Shanghai to the east and Suzhou to the west. As a gateway connecting the entire Jiangsu Province to Shanghai, Kunshan shares in the technological diffusion and talent spillover from Shanghai, while also possessing clear advantages in strategic transportation due to the

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Fig. 5.97 Analysis of rail transit station accessibility

presence of the Shanghai-Nanjing Expressway and Shanghai-Nanjing High-Speed Railway, which have the highest order and highest traffic volume. Thus, Kunshan has consistently ranked first among the top 100 county-level cities in China, and hence has a strong need to agglomerate service facilities and develop a UC structure. Based on its current status, Kunshan is now undergoing a phase of rapid urban expansion and has shown a sprawling spatial trend, which has weak service functions, uniform land use functions, and prominent spatial separation between the urban and industrial zones. The construction of urban public service facilities is lagging behind the development of economic construction; hence, there is a need to strengthen the construction of the UC structure in order to consolidate the urban spatial structure. In addition, Kunshan is also a typical plain city with a network of water bodies. The area covered by water bodies in the city proper is 208.68 km2 , accounting for 22.5% of the total area. There are also 2,311 waterways of different orders, reaching a total

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Fig. 5.98 Analysis of railway station accessibility

length of 2,634.877 km. It has a rich urban waterfront landscape and a large number of urban landscape water systems. These landscape resources have also had a major impact on the construction and layout of public facilities. The spatial suitability evaluation of urban public facilities in Kunshan was conducted using the central urban area as the evaluation range as defined in the 2009-2030 Kunshan City Master Plan, which covers an area of 471.5 km2 . Based on the electronic information acquired, the GIS technological platform was used to perform data processing to obtain the multi-factor evaluation maps for the spatial suitability of a public facility layout. In the evaluation system for the spatial suitability of public facilities in Kunshan, the factors affecting a public facility layout include land use type, transportation accessibility, land price, railway station, rail transit, greenspace landscape, and waterfront landscape (Fig. 5.123).

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Fig. 5.99 Suitability analysis of land prices

– Analysis of land use type factors The Renmin Road area in the center of Kunshan old town is currently the area with the most complete commercial service facilities in Kunshan, and it is also its commercial hub. This area has accommodated many large-scale commercial facilities, and its thriving commercial tradition will no doubt carry on. Furthermore, it is home to business and trade circulation platforms such as the business district near the railway station, while also aggregating comprehensive cultural and leisure venues, such as Chong’an Temple and Victory Gate.

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Fig. 5.100 Suitability analysis of demolition costs

– Analysis of land price factors Based on the spatial distribution map of urban land prices in Kunshan, the old town area showed the highest land prices due to the long-term presence of commercial and business activities, as well as the high level of UC zone development. The relatively high land prices can also facilitate the relocation of functional land uses that are not conducive to UC zone development, such as low-end residences, thus enabling the concentrated development of UC zone functions in the old town. In addition, high land prices can also increase the floor area ratio of the area, which will encourage the emergence of a pleasing urban skyline, thereby improving the quality and image of the UC zone.

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Fig. 5.101 Suitability analysis of municipal facilities

– Analysis of transportation accessibility factors The old-town area has the highest level of transportation accessibility in the central urban area of Kunshan. The old town area is located in the core of the city, possessing a complete road hierarchy and dense network of local roads. Therefore, it is the most suitable for UC zone development. Other areas with good transportation accessibility include areas along the routes of the urban bus rapid transit. – Analysis of railway station factors There are four railway passenger stations in the central urban area of Kunshan, namely Kunshan Railway Station, Kunshan South Railway Station, Huaqiao Railway Station, and Yangcheng Lake Railway Station. Among these, the Kunshan Railway Station

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Fig. 5.102 Suitability analysis of service facilities

and Kunshan South Railway Station are the main gateways of railway passenger transportation. The areas around these stations provide access to convenient regional transportation and are especially suitable for the development of the business industry. – Analysis of rail transit line factors Rail transit can greatly improve the transportation connection of its surrounding area with other areas; hence, it is a key factor affecting UC zone layout. – Greenspace landscape factors Areas with good greenspace landscape resources in the Kunshan urban area include large-scale public greenspaces, such as Yushan, Forest Park, and City Park. Their surrounding plots are environmentally superior and have substantial potential for land

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Fig. 5.103 Suitability analysis of historical cultural heritage

appreciation. Not only are these areas suitable for developing business, commercial, and other public service functions, but they can also help to shape the landscape characteristics of the UC zone. – Waterfront landscape factors Kunshan has a large number of water systems, with outstanding landscape conditions in areas adjacent to large-scale water bodies, such as Wusong River and Kuilei Lake, which are most suitable for UC zone construction. The areas along rivers, such as Qingyang Port and Loujiang River, are also key areas of UC zone layout (Figs. 5.124, 5.125, 5.126, 5.127, 5.128, 5.129, 5.130, 5.131 and 5.132).

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Fig. 5.104 Suitability analysis of commercial culture

– Results of comprehensive evaluation The comprehensive evaluation involved overlaying the single factors to perform the suitability evaluation of Kunshan’s public hubs. The following conclusions can be drawn from the results of the comprehensive evaluation: • The core urban area had the highest layout suitability. This site is located in the city center. It has a well-developed road network, and it is served by multiple rail transit lines, while also being close to the Kunshan Railway Station and the Kunshan South Railway Station. Thus, it has access to convenient transportation. A number of urban water bodies are distributed around the area, which are coupled with large-scale urban greenspaces. Thus, it has an abundance of landscape resources. In summary, this is a priority development area for the Kunshan UC structure.

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Fig. 5.105 Analysis of public psychological recognition

• The western sub-UC zone on Qianjin West Road. This site is located on the city’s main axis (i.e., Qianjin Road), and is close to rail transit stations. Thus, it has access to convenient transportation. The Kunshan Forest Park in the north provides rich landscape resources. Several large-scale public facilities are currently distributed in its surrounding area, including the Kunshan New Hi-Tech Innovation Service Center, Kunshan Stadium, and Kunshan Culture and Art Center, thus providing it with a good foundation for development. • The eastern sub-UC zone on Qianjin East Road. This site is located close to rail transit stations; hence, it has access to convenient transportation. Chenxi Park in the west provides rich landscape resources, while its proximity to the Xijia River provides an excellent waterfront landscape. Several large-scale public facilities are currently distributed in its surrounding area, including the Times Building and

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Fig. 5.106 Suitability analysis of the openness of mountain ranges

Kunshan International Convention and Exhibition Center, thus providing it with good conditions for UC zone development. • Huaqiao area. The Huaqiao area consists of the Huaqiao High-Speed Railway Station in the north and is close to rail transit stations, thus providing it with superior transportation conditions. Wusong River in the south provides the area with a unique waterfront landscape. Therefore, when considered together, its conditions are suitable for the development of the business industry. • Zhoushi and Zhangpu areas. Zhoushi Town and Zhangpu Town are located on the periphery of the central urban area, where the land prices are lower. Driven by the construction of rail transit lines, these areas have the potential for the development of new UC zones (Figs. 5.133, 5.134, 5.135 and 5.136).

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Fig. 5.107 Suitability analysis of the openness of water bodies

5.2.3 GIS-Based Calculation of Optimal Layout Model As mentioned previously in Sect. 3 of Chap. 4, in the spatial suitability evaluation of UC structure layout, grid cells or planning blocks can be selected as the basic unit of spatial analysis. Regardless of whether grid cells or planning blocks are used as the basic unit to evaluate the spatial distribution suitability of public facilities, the optimal layout model can be formulated for each center in the UC structure at a global, comprehensive level. It is worth noting that the evaluation results of suitability zoning for the spatial distribution of the UC structure do not point to a single final solution. Instead, under different development intentions, urban decision-makers can construct different development scenarios based on the results of the suitability evaluation for the spatial distribution of the UC structure, thus enabling them to make the optimal choice for UC structure layout (Fig. 5.137).

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Fig. 5.108 Suitability analysis of the openness of greenspaces

(1) Grid partitioning method for the optimized simulation of public facility distribution Using Wuxi as a case study, the grid partitioning method was applied for the optimized simulation of public facility distribution. The model was first used to perform the optimized simulation for the allocation of the total land use capacity of public facilities in the Wuxi urban area, with more than 100 million optimization cycles. Then, 20 land use allocation plans for public facilities that gave the greatest total benefit6 were selected. A more dispersed layout of public facility land use is undesirable, as it will result in higher costs of infrastructure construction. Therefore, the degree of dispersion in public facility land use was evaluated for the 20 plans in order 6 The

maximum benefit values are only relative to all plans involved in the simulation.

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Fig. 5.109 Suitability analysis of the distance of existing centers

to select several plans with the lowest dispersion as the optimized plan for the allocation of public facility land use in the Wuxi urban area (Fig. 5.138). This optimized plan for public facility land use is an idealized plan, as the allocation of grid cells does not take into account the current factors of public facility land use. In reality, there is a substantial gap between the current status of public facility land use and its optimized allocation for numerous grid cells, which will undoubtedly increase the difficulty of achieving this idealized plan. Therefore, the relative compromise method can be implemented to ensure that the final layout plan for public facility land use is of practical significance. This involves performing optimization adjustments to the ideal layout of public facility land use according to the current layout, thus ensuring that the allocation of public facility land use adheres to the principles of optimization, but also does not deviate from reality. Three scenarios were ultimately obtained that served as the recommended allocation plans for public facility

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Fig. 5.110 Suitability analysis of the distance of residential communities

land use in 2020, and different optimization models were used for each. After more than 100 million cycles of simulation, three scenarios were obtained that predict the optimized allocation plans for public facility land use (see Fig. 5.2.71, 5.2.72, and 5.2.73). Based on this, a rational decision can be reached regarding the most optimal plan of spatial distribution for the Wuxi UC structure in future. During the actual application process, the results, which are based on grid cells as the basic evaluation units, must be converted twice in combination with land use blocks, and this process may lead to deviations caused by data transformation. Therefore, grid cell partitioning is an approach premised on the lack of clear overall planning for the transportation network and city block partitioning.

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Fig. 5.111 Suitability analysis of soil geology

(2) City block partitioning method for the optimized simulation of public service distribution Unlike grid cells, another approach to optimizing the distribution of public facilities is to use the transportation networks and city blocks delineated by the master plan as the units of evaluation and partitioning. The following is a scenario analysis of the spatial development of Nanjing’s urban public hubs. Using Nanjing as an example, based on the spatial suitability evaluation of its UC structure, three possible directions of development can be deduced:

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Fig. 5.112 Suitability analysis of terrain slope

1. 3MC-MSC: Full development of the Hexi and South Railway Station areas into the two main centers beyond Xinjiekou. Xinjiekou will serve as the lifestyle service main center, Hexi as the social (culture, sports, administration, conventions and exhibitions, etc.) service main center, and the South Railway Station as the production service main center, which together constitute the polycentric network structure of the Nanjing UC structure. Compared to cities with a polycentric network structure (e.g., London or Tokyo), Nanjing’s UC structure is still relatively immature with respect to both scale and development stage. The city has yet to reach the corresponding scale of service demand, and it will struggle to provide sufficient land resources. Furthermore, there are still doubts about the support provided for potential points of development in the main center. Therefore, the likelihood of its development into a polycentric network UC structure is relatively small.

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Fig. 5.113 Suitability analysis of air pollution

2. 2MC-MSC: Emergence of another urban main center beyond Xinjiekou. The Hexi or South Railway Station core area may develop into an urban main center to relieve the pressure on the main center, while other public service hubs serve as sub-centers. When compared to other cities in China and abroad, the 2MC-MSC spatial structure is the most consistent with Nanjing’s current stage of development; hence, it can be regarded as the development goal guiding its cultivation. However, as a rapid transit hub without transfers, the South Railway Station is unable to emit commercial and business radiative power toward its surrounding areas; thus, the support that it provides is insufficient for development. Moreover, it is difficult to guarantee the developmental driving force generated by the Hexi Olympic Sports Center due to its location, geology, and other factors. Therefore, whether Nanjing will develop a

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Fig. 5.114 Suitability analysis of noise pollution

2MC-MSC UC structure in the future will depend on the provision of adequate policy and industrial support, thus forming a synergy for UC zone development. 3. 1MC-MSC: Xinjiekou remains the only main center in Nanjing. Due to the insufficient driving force behind the development of other potential main centers, these areas are unable to compete with Xinjiekou to become a new main center; hence, they remain as sub-centers. The 1MC-MSC spatial structure is characterized by a large-scale, multi-core, and interlocking main urban area, with the absence of other urban main centers. The main problem with Nanjing evolving into a 1MC-MSC UC structure lies in the fact that having Xinjiekou as the only main center will place an undue burden of development functions on its old town area. This will result in the inability to relieve traffic pressure, inequitable spatial distribution of public service radiation,

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Fig. 5.115 Suitability analysis of flood disasters

shortage of land resources, and difficulty in resolving the conflict between historical and cultural preservation and service industry development. Judging from the spatial suitability evaluation of public facilities, under the effects of a pure market economy without policy regulation, there is a high likelihood that Nanjing will develop into a 1MC-MSC UC structure, which it should avoid if possible (Table 5.22). The research on the layout of public facility agglomeration in Kunshan presents another means by which to study the optimization model of the UC structure. Kunshan is currently undergoing a period of rapid expansion; therefore, it is faced with various demands in urban development. During this period, the city’s choice of development strategy will have a significant impact on the development of its UC structure morphology. Therefore, in the investigation on the most optimal layout of the Kunshan UC structure, models were constructed for three major scenarios (i.e., no policy intervention, continuation of existing policies, and prioritization of ecological

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Fig. 5.116 Suitability analysis of other disasters

livability), and the possible scenarios of public facility agglomeration in Kunshan were simulated under the corresponding development strategies. – Model with no policy interventions. The absence of policy interventions refers to the lack of pre-defined external policies, while the development and agglomeration of public facilities mainly depend on the result of competition in the market economy. The evaluation mainly relies on the existing background resource conditions of each evaluation unit as the basis of evaluation and does not incorporate policy regulation and other specific factors of planning and regulation. In this scenario, the determinable factors affecting the adjustment of public facility layout can be considered as playing a decisive role. – Model with the continuation of existing policies. The continuation of existing policies implies that the strategies laid out in the current urban master plan and controlled detailed plan remain unchanged. Its specific content involves factors

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Fig. 5.117 Spatial suitability evaluation of the Nanjing UC structure

that have a crucial impact on the layout of urban public facility agglomeration, including the key zones of development intention identified in the master plan; the layout commercial hubs and commercial streets identified in the commercial network plan; and rail network planning. – Model with the prioritization of ecological livability. This model is based on the strategic vision of constructing a “livable city” in Kunshan, and it involves implementing this vision in the layout of urban public facilities. The public facility layout that meets the requirements of ecological livability was determined based on the evaluation indicators for environmental health, living comfort, and other aspects within the evaluation criteria of livable cities (Fig. 5.137).

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Fig. 5.118 Suitability analysis of the Xinjiekou area for UC zone construction

Fig. 5.119 Suitability analysis of the southern area of the old town for UC zone construction

The scenario analysis based on the differently oriented models of public facility layout above will enable the further comprehensive determination of the most optimal layout for the UC structure in the future. The Zhengzhou City Master Plan identified the following as its future major centers: the Erqi Square center, Zhengdong New Area UC zone, New Zhengzhou Railway Station hub, Bishagang center, and Zijingshan center. The Erqi Square UC zone is the city’s main agglomeration site for public service facilities; the Zhengdong

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Fig. 5.120 Suitability analysis of the Nanjing South Railway Station area for UC zone construction

Fig. 5.121 Suitability analysis of the Olympic Sports Center area for UC zone construction

New Area UC zone is currently being cultivated as a high-end business services hub; the formation of the New Zhengzhou Station hub was mainly dependent on the highspeed rail hub; and the Bishagang and Zijingshan centers are currently the more developmentally mature commercial sub-centers in Zhengzhou. In the investigation on the development of the Zhengzhou UC structure, three possible trends of future development were analyzed (Fig. 5.139). Scenario 1: 1MC-MSC. The main center is Erqi Square, which is accompanied by five sub-centers (Zhengdong New Area sub-center, Zhengzhou East Railway Station sub-center, Huayuan Road sub-center, Bishagang sub-center, and Futa sub-center) and four special functional zones (i.e., the university town educational functional zone, Huiji convention and exhibition special functional zone, administrative and

5.2 Spatial Layout Determination of UC Structure Development

Fig. 5.122 Potential points for the spatial layout of the Nanjing UC structure

Fig. 5.123 Suitability factors of public facility layout in Kunshan

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Fig. 5.124 Evaluation of land use factors

Fig. 5.125 Evaluation of land price factors

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Fig. 5.126 Evaluation of transportation accessibility factors

Fig. 5.127 Evaluation of railway station factors

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Fig. 5.128 Evaluation of rail transit line factors

Fig. 5.129 Evaluation of greenspace landscape factors

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Fig. 5.130 Evaluation of waterfront landscape factors

Fig. 5.131 Spatial suitability evaluation of the Kunshan UC structure

cultural special functional zone, and municipal administrative hub special functional zone) (Table 5.23). Scenario 2: 2MC-MSC. The main centers are Erqi Square and Zhengdong New Area, which are accompanied by five sub-centers (Zhengzhou East Railway Station sub-center, Huayuan Road sub-center, Bishagang sub-center, Futa sub-center, and Longhu sub-center) and four special functional zones (i.e., the university town educational functional zone, Huiji convention and exhibition special functional zone,

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Fig. 5.132 Potential points for the spatial layout of the Kunshan UC structure

Fig. 5.133 One of the idealized plans for the optimal spatial layout of public facility land use in the Wuxi urban area

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Fig. 5.134 Scenario 1. Predicted optimization results of public facility layout in 2020

Fig. 5.135 Scenario 2. Predicted optimization results of public facility layout in 2020

administrative and cultural special functional zone, and municipal administrative hub special functional zone). Scenario 2: 3MC-MSC. The main centers are Erqi Square, Zhengdong New Area, and Zhengzhou East Railway Station, which are accompanied by six subcenters (Huayuan Road sub-center, Bishagang sub-center, Futa sub-center, Longhu

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Fig. 5.136 Scenario 3. Predicted optimization results of public facility layout in 2020

Fig. 5.137 Scenarios of UC structure development in Kunshan

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Fig. 5.138 Scenarios for the UC structure development in Zhengzhou

sub-center, Zijinshan South Road sub-center, and the municipal administrative subcenter) and three special functional zones (the university town educational functional zone, Huiji convention and exhibition special functional zone, and administrative and cultural special functional zone). Based on the analysis above, we can conclude that Scenario 2 is the preferred model in the short-term; thus, the future positioning of the UC zone hierarchy in the planning of Zhengzhou should be based on a model with two main centers (Erqi Square main center and Zhengdong New Area main center), five sub-centers (Zhengzhou East Railway Station sub-center, Huayuan Road sub-center, Bishagang sub-center, Futa sub-center, and Longhu sub-center); and four special functional zones (the university town educational functional zone, Huiji convention and exhibition special functional zone, administrative and cultural special functional zone, and municipal administrative hub special functional zone).

Xinjiekou Hexi South Railway Station

Xinjiekou Hexi/South Railway Station

3MC-MSC

2MC-MSC

Main center

2MC-MSC

Polycentric network

Shanghai

Tokyo

UC structure Typical cases

Table 5.22 Scenarios for the development of the Nanjing UC structure Evaluation

As a rapid transit hub without transfers, the South Railway Station does not provide sufficient support for development and the developmental driving force of the Olympic Sports Center is difficult to guarantee

Long-term goal

Recommendations

(continued)

Suited to Short-term goal Nanjing’s current stage, but with certain difficulties in development

Lack of the Small likelihood corresponding of development scale in service demand, and difficulties in providing sufficient land resources, with doubtful support for the development of potential main centers

Development constraints

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1MC-MSC

Xinjiekou

Main center

Table 5.22 (continued)

1MC

Wuxi Xuzhou

UC structure Typical cases Inability to relieve traffic pressure in the old town, inequitable spatial distribution of public service radiation, sharp conflicts in the supply of land resources, and difficulty in embodying the uniqueness of Nanjing’s urban image and spatial landscape

Development constraints Most likely direction of development

Evaluation Avoid if possible

Recommendations

5.2 Spatial Layout Determination of UC Structure Development 559

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Fig. 5.139 Planned UC structure of Guangzhou. *Source Southeast University Academy of Urban Planning and Design, Guangzhou city-level UC structure planning, 2008

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Table 5.23 Scenarios for the UC structure development in Zhengzhou Scenario

Name of major center

Functions Development undertaken by each potential of each center center

Scenario 1

Erqi Square main center

Regional center of traditional commercial service industries, which will assume the future business functions of the city

– This area is the – Commerce in Erqi city’s main Square attracts large high-density flows of people and zone for materials, while also employment and giving rise to problems residential such as traffic population, congestion and presenting with dispersion difficulties. – The presence of railway advantages of tracks in the west and commercial shopping malls in the agglomeration – This area is a east will limit the future regional development space transportation available to Erqi Square hub, with excellent transportation accessibility – This area is surrounded by rich cultural and historical resources and can easily form a presentation and experiential hub for historical and cultural heritage

Scenario 2

Erqi Square main center

Regional hub for the traditional commercial service industry

Same as above

Zhengdong New Production service Area main hub with finance, center expositions, conventions and exhibitions, and consultancy as its core functions, serving Henan Province and Central China

– Large wetland park in the north that is suitable for the development of high-quality business functions – The Zhengdong New Area CBD currently has a functional platform that can serve the region

Impact on the entire UC structure

– The dislocated development between the Erqi Square commercial hub and Zhengdong regional service hub will relieve some of the pressure caused by insufficient capacity in the Erqi commercial district – Easy to establish a new diamagnetic center

(continued)

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Table 5.23 (continued) Scenario

Name of major center

Functions Development undertaken by each potential of each center center

Scenario 3

Erqi Square main center

Regional hub for the traditional commercial service industry

Zhengdong New Production service Area main hub with finance, center expositions, conventions and exhibitions, and consultancy as its core functions, serving Henan Province and Central China Zhengzhou East Railway Station main center

Emerging commercial hub, base for corporate headquarters, regional communication and information hub

Impact on the entire UC structure

– Due to the – Insufficient driving limited volume force behind the of total demand, development of the old the momentum commercial hub, which of development will not be revitalized in will be somewhat time and, hence, will weakened face the risk of rapid decline – Due to the – The cultivation of the limited volume Zhengdong regional of total demand, service hub will be the momentum somewhat weakened of development – There will be overlaps will be somewhat in the positioning of the weakened New Zhengzhou Railway Station as a passenger transport hub and the Zhengdong – Able to rely on regional service hub. the favorable The limited volume of factors brought total demand will make about by the it difficult to support the high-speed rail to large-scale development form a regional of the new district high-end business hub

5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure The development planning of the UC structure has manifold implications: With respect to the planning of urban spatial structure, the communal space for the agglomeration of public facilities provides a representative sample for the considerations and spatial econometrics of the UC structure. Uncovering the deeper patterns and characteristics behind this new form of urban public space and drawing on similar global experiences in spatial development and construction will provide us with the necessary basis and reference for the healthy consolidation of urban spatial structure against the backdrop of rapid urbanization. In terms of industrial economy, the UC structure is the implementation and manifestation of the “intensive land use” strategy at the city level, and focusing on this core area where the conflicts of urban development are the most prominent will not only contribute to the compact development of healthy urbanization and the improvement of high-end service industries, but also to our understanding of this central area that is indispensable to the current harmonious and

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orderly development of urban construction. With regard to the management of planning policies, consolidating the arrangements for relevant policy systems, including the layout of public centers and organizational operations, will provide a reference for scientific decision-making to achieve healthy urbanization in the current stage of intensive development. This section uses Guangzhou as a case study to explore the planning framework and strategic research of the UC structure and to propose an approach for its planning and regulation, thereby clarifying the future direction for the spatial development and integration of urban public facilities. Guangzhou is a key economic center in the Pearl River Delta region of China. It is a famous historical and cultural city that is situated near mountains and rivers, leading the nation in terms of economic marketization and internationalization. It is fairly representative of the megacities in China, and the planning of its UC structure may serve as a demonstration for similar cities. Within the context of a solid service industry foundation and leapfrog urban development, the Guangzhou UC structure has already progressed from a monocentric model to a polycentric network development, blending traditional extensional expansion with clustered leapfrog development. Thus, its developmental and successional changes are a concentrated manifestation of the development model for its entire UC structure. Therefore, conducting an empirical case study of planning in Guangzhou is pertinent to our research and can serve as a demonstration for the broader application of this approach in studying the development mechanism and orderly control of UC structures in China. In view of this, Guangzhou was chosen as a case study to investigate the planning strategies for the development of the spatial form and functional division within the UC structure.

5.3.1 Future Development Patterns of the UC Structure Establishing the future development patterns of the UC structure is the most important part of the UC structure planning process. On the basis of analyzing the current status and positioning of the UC structure, it is possible to propose an overall layout for its future development. By combining the analysis of the current UC zones, the support of the service industries, and the requirements of master planning, the future development goal of the Guangzhou UC structure is to reach an international regional level that radiates the whole of Southeast Asia. It has a 2MC-MSC structure, and its main UC zones have gradually shifted from a circle-core structure to a multi-core interlocking region. Through old-town revitalization, industrial upgrading and transformation, as well as the development and construction of key areas, a polycentric structure can be established in the city, which will strengthen its regional driving force, radiation range, and comprehensive service functions. This will enable the construction of a 2MC-6SC UC structure, which can effectively improve its regional UC functions

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and the formation of a diversified and multi-level UC structure composed of main centers, sub-centers, and district-level centers. (1) Urban main centers The urban main centers are the primary UC zones, which include the traditional city-level comprehensive center in the main urban area, the new Tianhe city-level comprehensive center (with which the former has begun to interlock in terms of spatial region), and their respective urban sub-cores. The main center is the city-level center with a high concentration of city-level public activities. As the agglomeration core for urban political, economic, cultural, and other activities, as well as the derivative area for urban public buildings and service industries, the main center is a concentrated manifestation of the city’s level of economic and social development and undertakes the functions of economic operations and public administration. The sub-core is where specific functions are provided by specialized service facilities in an appropriate site within the city due to its historical origin, special location, or transportation advantages. As sub-cores are located within the urban area and are subjected to the powerful influence of the main UC zone, they tend to be smaller in scale and are highly specialized. The main UC zones are the primary public UC areas, which include the TianheZhujiang New Town main UC zone, the Beijing Road main UC zone, and their respective derivative multi-core areas. The Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town main UC zone includes the Zhujiang New Town core area, providing business, commercial, and sports functions; the Pazhou core, providing international convention and exhibition functions; the Chigang core, providing the exhibition of arts and culture; and the Yuancun core, providing business offices, hotels, and creative industry functions. The Beijing Road main UC zone, on the other hand, includes the Beijing Road core area, providing business and trade functions; the Huanshi East road core, providing international hotels, offices, and trade functions; the Liuhua Lake core, providing convention and exhibition, and wholesale logistics functions; and the ShangxiajiuShamian core, providing traditional commercial and cultural functions. [Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town main UC zone] This UC zone is a city-level comprehensive center for business, commercial, cultural, and sports services in Guangzhou. It has aggregated various categories of high-end service industries, including trade offices, finance and securities, professional consultancy, and retail commerce, and it undertakes the city’s main UC zone functions. It is a modern CBD that brings together the facilities for primary urban functions, such as international finance, trade, commerce, and entertainment, as well as a core area that participates in regional high-end business competition and radiation. The plan proposes strengthening the construction of the Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town main center, agglomerating and reinforcing the commercial and business core centered on Tianhe, as well as transforming and upgrading the Guangzhou East Railway Station business core, the Tianhe East Road commercial core, and the Wuyang New Town business core. In addition, new cores should be cultivated near

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the intersection between Guangzhou Avenue and Huangpu Avenue, and between Linjiang Avenue and Liede Road, in order to form a complete circle-core structure in the main UC zone, which can be developed into a multi-core interlocking structure. Furthermore, there should be increased construction and development intensity in the main core, enhanced land use intensity, and vigorous development of dominant UC zone functions (e.g., business, finance, and trade) in order to improve the core service functions of the main UC zone. This will enable the formation of the largest business core area in Guangzhou, or even the entire Pearl River Delta, thus increasing the scale primacy over the Beijing Road main center and forming a UC zone radiative capacity at the regional level. The current status of traffic dispersion is based on the distribution loop system composed of Tianhe Road—Guangzhou Avenue—Linjiang Avenue—Liede Road. The construction of open spaces should be increased in the “shadow regions” between the main cores of the UC zone, and large-scale greening should be introduced through the mountains in the north and the Pearl River in the south, thereby achieving the goal of showcasing the landscape and highlighting the image of the UC zone. The density of local roads within the UC zone should be enhanced to form a complete network, thus calming traffic in the UC zone. Through the landscape transformation of Huangpu Avenue and Guangzhou Avenue, two important parkways can be established within the UC zone that can capture the image of the UC zone. Cultural characteristics should be added in the UC zone with respect to spatial form, architectural style, and business format distribution. – Pazhou international convention and exhibition core: This area is the international convention and exhibition, consultancy, and R&D hub of Guangzhou. Its dominant function is large-scale comprehensive conventions and exhibitions, with a focus on developing internationally oriented, modern convention and exhibition businesses, and their supporting industries, including technical consultancy, hotels, innovative R&D, commerce, and entertainment. With the convention and exhibition industry as the engine driving development, the diversified functions and supporting functions of the UC zone should be actively developed, the degree of land use mix should be increased, and a suitable scale of urban public space should be established, thereby forging a good atmosphere within the UC zone. Improvements should be made to the district-level commercial, cultural, sports, healthcare, and other service facilities in the UC zone in order to provide a full package of local lifestyle facilities, which will enhance its popularity. The waterfront environment of the Pearl River in the north of the UC zone should be fully utilized to shape a unique image for this convention and exhibition hub (Fig. 5.140). – Chigang arts and culture core: This area is the city-level agglomeration site for arts and culture in Guangzhou, and its dominant function involves the largescale exhibition of arts and culture. It is composed of four functional zones on both banks of the Pearl River, with the Chigang Pagoda on the south bank as the functional agglomeration zone, Haishaxin Island as the cultural landscape icon, and the large-scale cultural facilities in Ersha Island and the north bank of Zhujiang New Town as the expansion zone. These areas are connected by a

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Fig. 5.140 Spatial structure of the main UC zones. *Source Southeast University Academy of Urban Planning and Design, Guangzhou city-level UC structure planning, 2008

waterfront walkway, thus forming the largest waterfront venue for public activities in Guangzhou. By relying on the Guangzhou New TV Tower, Guangzhou Opera House, Guangdong Museum and other key city-level cultural buildings, diversified functions and supporting functions should be actively developed in the UC zone, while also increasing the degree of land use mix and shaping an urban public space of the appropriate scale, thereby forming a good atmosphere within the UC zone. Improvements should be made to the district-level commercial, sports, healthcare, and other service facilities in the UC zone, in order to provide a full package of local lifestyle facilities, which will enhance its popularity. The waterfront environment of the Pearl River, Haishaxin Island, Ersha Island, and other similar resources in the UC zone should be fully utilized to create the largest waterfront venue for public activities in Guangzhou and showcase its unique landscape.

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– Yuancun financial and business core: By relying on the location and land resource advantages of this area due to its proximity to Zhujiang New Town, the landscape characteristics shaped by the Pearl River should be fully utilized to create a sub-core with business offices, hotels, and the creative industry as its dominant functions. The focus should be on the functional dislocation with Zhujiang New Town in order to supplement its development. The degree of land use mix and land use vitality in the UC zone should be enhanced. [Beijing Road main commercial UC zone] This UC zone is a city-level comprehensive center in Guangzhou providing commercial, business, administrative, and cultural services. Various types of buildings are aggregated here, including commercial, offices, and cultural buildings. It undertakes the city’s main UC zone functions, providing a variety of lifestyle services to the entire city. This UC zone consists of the Beijing road retail commercial core, the Zhongshan Road city-level administrative office core, the Dongfeng Road trade consultancy core, Yanjiang West Road hotel core, Haizhu Square business office core, and Zhonghua Square business core. The plan proposes strengthening the construction of the Beijing Road commercial main center, agglomerating and reinforcing the current commercial and business core centered on the Beijing Road pedestrian street, as well as transforming and upgrading the Dongfeng Road business core, Dongfeng Road administrative core, Zhonghua Square commercial and business core, Yanjiang Road business core, and Haizhu Square wholesale commercial core. Furthermore, a new main core should be cultivated near the intersection between Jiefang Road and Zhongshan Road to form a complete circle-core structure in the main UC zone, which can be developed into a multi-core interlocking structure. There should also be increased construction and development intensity in the main core; enhanced land use intensity; gradual relocation of land use by low-density buildings that are not suited to a modern UC zone, such as the Xincun residential quarter, old-style residences, or enclosed compounds, accompanied by the introduction of high-rise apartment and mixed commercialresidential buildings; as well as the construction of transportation-integrated public buildings. In addition, the superficial single-layer commercial development along streetfronts should be altered, shifting instead to large-scale mixed development projects for commerce, entertainment, offices, apartment residences, and so on, thus introducing a deeper level of the city block development model and enhancing the core service functions of the main UC zone. The current status of traffic dispersion is based on the distribution loop system composed of Dongfeng Road—Jiefang Road—Yanjiang Road—Donghaochong Viaduct. The construction of open spaces should be increased in the “shadow regions” between the main cores of the UC zone, and large-scale greening should be introduced through Baiyun Mountain in the north and the Pearl River in the south, thereby achieving the goal of showcasing the landscape and highlighting the image of the UC zone. The density of local roads within the UC zone should be enhanced to form a complete network, thus enabling traffic calming in the UC zone. Through the landscape transformation of Dongfeng Road and Jiefang Road, two important parkways can be established within the UC zone

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that can capture its image. Cultural characteristics should be added in the UC zone with respect to spatial form, architectural style, and business format distribution. – Huanshi East Road business core: This area is the agglomeration site for international hotels, offices, and trade. Its UC functions mainly include hotels, corporate offices, and information consultancy, which are distributed along the roads. On the basis of developing its dominant functions, the in-depth, composite development of business, commerce, culture, and entertainment should be introduced in the city blocks, and the degree of mixed land use functions should be enhanced within the UC zone, while also actively improving its supporting infrastructure in order to increase its popularity. – Liuhua Lake traditional convention and exhibition core: This area is the regional service hub of Guangzhou for conventions and exhibitions, wholesale logistics, and hotels. It is dominated by convention and exhibition facilities, and wholesale markets, while also aggregating supporting service facilities, such as hotels and retail commerce, thus forming an important hub for wholesale logistics and conventions and exhibitions in Guangzhou, or perhaps even the entire Guangdong Province. On the basis of reinforcing its dominant functions (e.g., conventions and exhibitions, wholesale, etc.), the UC zone should also actively develop its diversified and supporting functions, enhance its degree of land use mix, and create an urban public space of the appropriate scale, thereby forging a good atmosphere within the UC zone. Improvements should be made to the district-level commercial, cultural, healthcare, and other service facilities in the UC zone, in order to provide a full package of local lifestyle facilities, which will enhance its popularity. – Shangxiajiu-Shamian traditional commercial and cultural core: This area is the characteristic service hub for traditional commercial, historical, and cultural activities in Guangzhou. The Qilou residential buildings and modern colonialstyle architecture of this area serve as carriers that embody the characteristics of Guangzhou’s local culture, Western style, religious culture, and riverside features. Hence, it is a display window of the traditional culture in Guangzhou, or even the Lingnan region in Pearl River Delta. By relying on current resources such as Hualin Temple, Shangxiajiu pedestrian street, and Shamian area, it will be possible to shape a traditional commercial hub imbued with the characteristics of Guangzhou, while also fully developing tourism commerce, enhancing the degree of land use mix, reinforcing the overall scale of special land use functions in key areas, as well as creating a display window of traditional, colonial and modern western cultures based around the Pearl River.

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(2) Urban sub-centers In addition to providing sub-center functions, sub-centers generally develop in conjunction with district-level centers and, hence, play a role in driving new-town development. Therefore, sub-centers provide both city-level specialized service functions and district-level comprehensive service functions. This overlap in UC positioning implies that sub-centers must reach certain thresholds in land use scale and building scale before they can perform the necessary functions. In this plan, six sub-centers in the periphery of the main urban area were identified. – Baiyun New Town sub-center: City-level functions include culture (cultural exhibitions and cultural entertainment) and conventions (large-scale convention centers, hotels, information centers); district-level functions include commerce, business, and sports (serving Baiyun New Town and its surrounding areas). It is functionally positioned as a city-level cultural and convention sub-center, with a focus on developing comprehensive functions, such as culture, conventions, commerce, offices, hotels, and entertainment. The initial stage of development should involve the development of rail transit-dependent retail commerce as startup projects. While focusing on the development of its cultural and convention functions, it is also necessary to actively ensure improvements in district-level support functions, such as commerce, business, and sports, and enhance the degree of land use mix within the UC zone. By relying on Baiyun Mountain and Baiyun Airport, the advantages of the mountainous environment and the cultural heritage of the old airport should be highlighted to create an environmentally pleasant business convention hub. – Baietan sub-center: City-level functions include culture (cultural and creative industries), urban leisure (historical and cultural leisure and tourism area), business (headquarter hub oriented toward Guangzhou-Foshan integration), and commerce (commercial shopping malls oriented toward Guangzhou-Foshan integration); district-level functions include administrative and comprehensive supporting services (serving the south of Liwan District and its surrounding areas). The large number of well-preserved modern industrial heritage buildings and the environmental advantages of the Pearl River should be utilized to develop the cultural and creative industries and the leisure and tourism industries. Production service industries and lifestyle resources should be actively drawn in from Foshan to create a business and commercial hub that radiates to Foshan. In addition, district-level supporting infrastructure should be actively improved and the degree of land use mix enhanced in order to increase the population of the UC zone. – Olympic Stadium New Town sub-center: City-level functions include sports (sports and fitness base), and urban leisure (sightseeing area based on the natural features of ecological corridors); district-level functions include commerce, culture, and entertainment (serving the Olympic Stadium New Town district and its surrounding areas). While focusing on the development of the sports and urban

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leisure functions, it is also necessary to actively ensure improvements in districtlevel supporting functions, such as commerce, business, culture, and entertainment, control the land use intensity within the UC zone, and protect the landscape of the ecological corridors. – Haizhu Lijiao sub-center: City-level functions include urban leisure (based on the Wanmu Orchard ecological agriculture sightseeing area) and administration. District-level functions include commerce, culture, and entertainment (serving the south of Haizhu, north of Panyu, and Luoxi Island). With urban leisure and other tourism projects as the engine driving development, the administrative office functions of the UC zone should be actively developed, while also ensuring the improvement of district-level supporting functions, such as commerce, culture, and entertainment. The land use scale and development intensity of the UC zone should be properly controlled and coordinated with ecological greenspaces. Residents within the area should also be provided with complete living conditions. In addition, open spaces should be created within the UC zone based around the natural environment of the Pearl River. – Hanxi Chimelong sub-center: City-level functions include urban leisure (urban leisure and entertainment area based on the Safari Park and Chimelong Paradise) and commerce (large-scale specialty commercial malls); district-level functions include business, culture, and entertainment (serving Panyu District). The UC zone should make full use of its current resources and actively develop its urban leisure functions based on the Safari Park, Chimelong Paradise, and other facilities. Large-scale commercial malls should be established to serve the entire city. It should also actively work in conjunction with the neighboring New Railway Station special functional zone and Shiqiao district-level center in order to jointly improve the infrastructure for the living security of residents. – Huangpu Dashadi sub-center: City-level functions include business (serving the Lingang business district in Dongguan), culture (cultural and creative industries), and tourism and sightseeing (tourism exhibition area relying on the characteristic culture of Huangpu). District-level functions include commerce, and administration (serving the eastern areas). The Huangpu culture should be fully promoted to create a city-level tourism area with Huangpu characteristics. Key resources should be actively drawn in from Dongguan to create a business and commercial hub that covers the Dongguan area. In addition, active improvements should be made to district-level infrastructure support, and the degree of land use mix should be increased to enhance the popularity of the UC zone. (3) Spatial layout framework Based on previous quantitative research on the overall UC structure of Guangzhou and the integrated conception of its surrounding areas, planning can be performed for its future UC structure, which can be summarized as “two cores, two loops; three verticals, three horizontals; six sub-cores, six sub-centers.” The details of these are given below:

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[Two cores, two loops]: The Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town and Beijing Road UC zones can be regarded as the city’s comprehensive service cores, while the Huanshi Road and Huancheng Expressway can be regarded as the inner and outer distribution loops. [Three verticals, three horizontals]: Jichang Road-Jiefang Road, Guangzhou Avenue, and Huanan Expressway can be regarded as the north-south transportation landscape axes, while Zhongshan Road-Huacheng Avenue, Dongfeng RoadHuangpu Avenue, and Huadi Avenue-Xingang Road can be regarded as the eastwest transportation landscape axes. A number of transportation landscape axes can be established, which will be similar to Shennan Avenue of Shenzhen, Xuanwu Avenue of Nanjing, Century Avenue of Pudong in Shanghai, Connaught Road of the Hong Kong Central District, and Shenton Way of Singapore. Such thoroughfares not only have a strong capacity for the distribution of traffic flow but are also good transportation landscape axes, as well as strips of urban public space and greenspace. Some can even reflect the image and style of the entire city. [Six sub-cores, six sub-centers]: The sub-cores of the urban area should be optimized, and new sub-centers should be established in order to develop 14 subcenters of different levels, sizes, and locations to relieve the internal pressure of the overall UC structure.

5.3.2 Development Strategies for the Spatial Form of the UC Structure The development of the UC structure often encounters problems with an imperfect hierarchical system that lacks a large number of sub-centers and district-level centers. In the planning of the Guangzhou city-level UC structure, the existing spatial features of each UC zone are used to highlight the dislocated division of labor in their dominant functions and landscape image. In addition, it proposes the construction of a large number of district-level centers that serve their respective local areas, which will enable routine service functions to be stripped from the city-level UC structure, thus widening the vertical difference in the functional sequence of the UC structure. (1) Function-oriented optimization strategy: Three dispersions and three agglomerations The current land use layout of the main city in Guangzhou reveals that it is expansive but weak, and its main problem lies with the mixing of characteristics. Therefore, the plan proposes an optimization strategy that involves “three dispersions and three agglomerations” of its urban functions: – Dispersion of low-end routine business formats toward district-level centers. Lifestyle commerce, mid- to low-end service industries, and similar functions mainly serve to satisfy the proximate living needs of urban residents, and they are

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characterized by their continuous, consumable, and interfering nature. Dispersing such functions toward newly established district-level centers will effectively drive the dominant functions of the entire UC structure toward a more distinct and orderly development goal. Dispersion of characteristic service functions toward sub-centers with landscape resources. Characteristic industries with special transportation and environmental requirements, such as business conventions, the creative industry, and science and technology R&D, should be dispersed toward UC zones near mountains or rivers, such as Liwan Baietan, Baiyun New Town, and Pazhou. This will enable these service industries to fully exert their innovative service functions and provide better coverage of the South China region, while also highlighting the landscape characteristics of the UC zone. Dispersion of social service industries toward new-town sub-centers around the UC structure. Social service industries, such as education and scientific research, administrative offices, sports, culture, and healthcare, should be dispersed toward the surrounding new-town sub-centers. On the one hand, these facilities require large investments, occupy a large area, show low development intensity, have a strong motivation for relocation, and can easily be relocated from the old town to provide more space in the UC structure. On the other hand, these are necessary facilities for high-quality living, which can serve a large population in the new town and act as the engine that drives new-town development. Agglomeration of cultural and entertainment functions toward riverfront sub-centers along the Pearl River. Leisurely paced and relaxing service functions, such as culture, recreation, entertainment, and art exhibitions, should be aggregated in the Shangxiajiu-Shamian nightlife area and the Chigang-Ersha cultural and recreation area. Not only does the Pearl River green corridor serve as a backdrop to this urban waterfront space, but these cultural public facilities themselves will also act as nodes and highlights within the waterfront public spatial system, and their unique design will add a focal point to the landscape of the Pearl River. Agglomeration of comprehensive megaprojects toward the main UC zones. Mixed development based on comprehensive megaprojects require enormous sums of investments, involve complex functions, and will give rise to an immense driving force upon completion. The aggregation of such projects toward the main UC zones will resolve the issues of weak cores and single-layer street-fronted development within these areas, while also reducing the high costs of demolition and renovation. Agglomeration of specialized services toward the sub-cores. The circle-core structure is a necessary step in the maturation of the main UC zone. By consciously cultivating the development of specialized sub-cores in the main UC zone, guiding the agglomeration of relevant specialty projects in the sub-cores, as well as resolving the issues with the traffic distribution loop and local road system within the UC zones, it will be possible to substantially promote the development of a multi-core structure.

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(2) Diversified development strategies for land use: Mixing and specialization Functional mixing will become the dominant trend of development within the main UC zones. With the emergence of numerous financial, trade, office, cultural, entertainment, and residential buildings, the scale of the main UC zones will continue to expand based on its original foundation. Building and environmental quality will continue to improve and shift toward comprehensive multifunctionality, which will be reflected in the increased amount of mixed land use. The mixing of mixed land use is mainly manifested in three aspects: (1) the mixing of different commercial formats, such as shopping malls, commercial streets, and so on; (2) the mixing of commerce with leisure, entertainment, culture, sports, and other service facilities; and (3) the mixing of dynamic service facilities (e.g., commerce, culture, and entertainment) with relatively static facilities (e.g., residences, offices, and hotels). These functions should not be simply pieced together, but they should be organically combined, requiring the clear, effective, and fitting complementation and mutual facilitation of different functional facilities through functional zoning, dynamic-static zoning, traffic flow lines, and other means. This will enable its unified coordination as a whole to form a complete lifestyle chain, thus maximizing its comprehensive benefits. The sub-cores of the urban main and sub-centers will exhibit a significant trend of specialization. The dominant functions of different public centers will continue to undergo dislocated development and spatial differentiation. The sub-core functions of the Beijing Road and Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town main centers will become more sophisticated, the division of functions among the sub-centers will become more refined, and different specialized centers will continue to emerge and develop in order to meet the requirements of the city’s diversified activities. The urban public centers of Guangzhou have exhibited a trend of heterogeneous development and a pattern of coexistence that is characterized by mixing, diversification, and specialization. It has evolved from the vertical hierarchical system dominated by lifestyle service functions (commercial hubs) in the past to a dynamic, diverse, comprehensive, and open UC structure that seeks to survive and develop through competition, while also being mutually complementary and mutually restrictive as a whole. (3) Composite development strategies of space: Mega-fication and intensification Based on international experience, the future development and construction of UC zones in Guangzhou has reached an advanced stage that needs to be driven by comprehensive mega-development. Comprehensive, large-scale development projects can be combined with socioeconomic development goals and the requirements of urban master planning to obtain favorable economic, social, and environmental benefits. Such expansion and construction will require collaborative and coordinated development through the entire process.

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Within this context of urban development, the next stage will involve the HOPSCA (also known as urban complex) development model. HOPSCA refers to highly intensive city-block building complexes with a variety of functions, including residences, offices, business, travel, shopping, culture, entertainment, social interactions, and recreation, which interact with each other and form mutual value chains. HOPSCA is an acronym for hotels, offices, parks, shopping malls, conventions, and apartments. It encompasses a wide range of urban functions, such as business offices, residences, hotels, commerce, leisure and entertainment, vertically and horizontally intersecting transportation, parking systems, and so on. It exhibits intensiveness, overall unity, spatial continuity, and integrity. In addition, it has the characteristics of a complete city block, which has resulted from the evolution of building complexes toward mega urban spaces, complex urban value, and the intensive development of urban functions. Furthermore, HOPSCA uses city blocks to achieve the organic combination with external urban space and to form effective connections with the transportation systems, thus forming a mixed-use center of urban functions that will extend the spatial value of the city (Fig. 5.141). La Défense in France is a successful example of the HOPSCA planning model. It is the largest commercial hub in Europe, covering an area of 105,000 m2 . It also has the largest bus interchange in Europe, with a 67-ha pedestrian system and a centralized parking lot with 26,000 parking spaces, thus providing a complete range of transportation facilities. There is also a 25-ha park with more than 400 types of plants, an open-air museum with 60 modern sculptures, and an environment with a good greening system. Due to the mutual influences and interactions among the massive amount of resources, La Défense is now equipped with the basic functions of a small city, not only providing a one-stop portal for the business, residential, office, and other living needs of residents, but also serving as the CBD of Paris. (4) Guidance strategies for traffic calming: Pedestrianization and threedimensionality Pedestrianization is an effective means by which to promote traffic calming, improve traffic conditions, and revive urban vitality. It can reduce the conflict among different modes of transportation, enhance the environmental and aesthetic quality of the city, restore the status of people within the city, improve urban social values, and promote a more humane and vibrant urban space. In addition, it can encourage the economic development of UC zones by attracting a large volume of crowd flow to stimulate the development of retail commerce. Given these numerous advantages, the formation of diverse pedestrian zones within the UC zones not only consists of convenient pedestrian walkways, but also includes commerce, entertainment facilities, squares, and parks. The various pedestrian facilities together constitute a pedestrian circulation system, which can be properly integrated with other modes of transportation. The establishment of pedestrian zones will promote a wide variety of social, economic, and cultural activities, which not only benefits the historical preservation of the city center, but also strengthens the regional identity of the people, thus enabling the organic combination of economic, environmental, and social benefits. The pedestrian

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Fig. 5.141 Typical cases of urban complexes around the world

zone of Munich, Germany is a representative example in this case. Its pedestrian zone is closely integrated with the ring road, rail transit, and public transportation, employing a three-dimensional spatial system that combines aboveground streets and squares with continuous underground shopping malls and transportation. It is a system that both cares for people, while also respecting and protecting architectural

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heritage, not only preserving and embodying cultural traditions but also enabling efficient and modern urban living. The formation of pedestrian systems is generally achieved through the temporal or spatial separation of pedestrians and vehicles. Temporal separation refers to the alternating use of the same space by both pedestrians and vehicles at different times, for example, by limiting vehicle access during peak pedestrian times before and after work or during weekends. Spatial separation can be divided into planar or threedimensional separation, where pedestrian and vehicle systems are separated in space. This includes elevated pedestrian systems and underground pedestrian spaces. They are combined with urban commercial and leisure facilities and rail transit systems, and they are adapted to their local climate, thus forming an all-weather public pedestrian system. The underground spaces of Canada and Japan are well-developed. For instance, in Toronto, nearly all land parcels in its UC zones are covered by underground walkways, connecting multiple subway stations and providing access to the aboveground system through key public buildings, squares, and complexes in the UC zones. The United States, on the other hand, mostly uses elevated pedestrian systems, such as the skyways of Minneapolis and Cincinnati. The elevated walkway in Hong Kong also has unique characteristics. It combines commercial and business activities with recreational and leisure activities, works closely with relevant buildings, and is interconnected with the main transportation stations in the city. It is intended to weaken the boundaries of private and public territories, showing both indoor and outdoor characteristics. Pedestrian spaces can take various forms, which can be divided into the following categories based on the pedestrian-vehicle relationship and the architectural forms involved. 1. Pure pedestrian streets. This is the most common mode of aboveground pedestrian transport, where all vehicle access is prohibited (except for emergency vehicles, e.g., fire engines, ambulances, and police vehicles) in the pedestrian zones. The ground is uniformly paved, with trees planted to form tree-lined walkways, thus allowing pedestrians to stroll freely without the interference from vehicles. 2. Semi-pedestrian streets. These are shared by both pedestrians and vehicles, but with priority given to pedestrians. A small number of buses or low-speed sightseeing buses are retained in the pedestrian streets for the convenience of pedestrians (especially for the elderly or children). For areas where vehicles can be completely excluded, restrictions can be imposed on the types of vehicles, entry times, and driving speed. For example, driving speed can be reduced by widening sidewalks and narrowing vehicle lanes, building curved roads, or installing special road paving. 3. Skyways. These are a three-dimensional mode of transportation that can be implemented when the conflict between pedestrians and vehicles cannot be resolved in aboveground transportation. An elevated corridor is formed through the construction of two-story skyways that connect different buildings, which prevents the intersection of pedestrians and vehicles, while also expanding the area for urban commercial activity. Elevated walkways can be enclosed or spacious,

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Fig. 5.142 Typical UC zone pedestrian systems around the world

providing residents with a safe and comfortable pedestrian environment within the all-weather elevated corridor (Fig. 5.142). 4. Artificial aboveground pedestrian systems. These are pedestrian environments created through elevated platforms or rooftops, with various types of buildings above the platform, as well as vehicle lands, warehouses, and parking lots beneath the platform. This is another type of three-dimensional arrangement for pedestrians and vehicles. Unlike skyways, these systems provide greater freedom and flexibility for human activities. For example, the La Défense sub-center of Paris is an integrated area for commerce, offices, and residences that is dominated by trade. It is situated in the northwestern corner of Paris, occupying an area of 760 ha. It contains administrative, business, and other types of high-rise buildings, a large-scale exhibition center, and a large-scale shopping mall, employing approximately 20,000 people every day. The UC zone strictly enforces the separation of pedestrians and vehicles in accordance with the principles of the Athens Charter. All transportation systems are set beneath enormous reinforced concrete slabs and are arranged in layers into roads, national railways, urban rail transit lines, and parking lots. Pedestrians are connected vertically to the stations and parking lots beneath the platform via stairs, escalators, and other equipment. This system provides the area with extremely convenient transportation. In addition to buildings, the aboveground surface is also home to 48 ha of garden squares and pedestrian walkways (Fig. 5.143).

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Fig. 5.143 Typical three-dimensional transportation systems around the world

5. Underground pedestrian space. An underground pedestrian walkway is a threedimensional approach of diverting pedestrians and vehicles, which is widely used at urban intersections, rail transit, and railway stations. It makes full use of the underground space, which not only saves on land use and increases urban spatial capacity, but also relieves the pressure of crowd flow on aboveground transportation. Canada, Japan, and other countries have sophisticated experience in the development and utilization of underground space. Underground pedestrian commercial streets are often combined with subway access to attract a

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large volume of passing pedestrians, which not only provides complete facilities to meet the daily needs of urban residents, but also connects the main office buildings, hotels, railway stations, and other buildings in the city to form an underground pedestrian system. Attention is also paid to the beautification of the indoor space, with the addition of fountains, plants, sculptures, and other landscape elements in the underground streets to instill an artistic charm in the space. Take the Les Halles commercial UC zone in Paris for example. To protect the traditional buildings around the area and to create an open, aboveground pedestrian space in the city, the old-town reconstruction was combined with the construction of a metro transit hub, which involved building a verity of cultural and entertainment facilities, including an underground mall, swimming pool, gymnasium, image library, assembly halls, cinemas, and ballrooms. A sunken plaza is used locally to introduce natural light, which has greatly improved the environment of the underground pedestrian space. 6. Indoor pedestrian systems. This approach involves enclosing streets with glass ceilings to transform an outdoor space into an indoor space. Such pedestrian streets have been built since the eighteenth century. Its advantage is that it provides an artificial environment that provides shelter from the wind, rain, cold, and sun, thus meeting the requirements for all-weather shopping, and is especially suitable for colder areas in the north. Due to land scarcity, modern city centers often adopt three-dimensional, large-scale building complexes, where shopping, dining, entertainment, offices, parking, and other facilities are aggregated in one building. This is combined with an atrium layout to form an indoor pedestrian street, while escalators, transparent elevators, and skyways are used to create a three-dimensional, multi-level pedestrian space. The high-intensity urban traffic brought about by rapid economic development has led to immense pressure on the transportation system in the UC zone, which has given rise to the three-dimensionality of transportation. The aboveground, underground, and elevated modes of transportation are mutually independent in vertical space, but they are connected via certain nodes, which has greatly improved the transportation efficiency of the UC zones. Three-dimensional urban transportation (e.g., three-dimensional urban streets and subway access) often pass through the interior of buildings. As the atrium of an indoor plaza, this is not only an organizational form of interior three-dimensional transportation, but it also provides connections with underground commercial streets or subway access, thus exhibiting trends toward three-dimensionality and multi-dimensionality in its spatial and flowline organization. (5) Linked development strategies of buildings and transportation: Integration and unification Building and transportation complexes emphasize the integrated development of the city, buildings, and municipal facilities, organically combining the urban environment, building space, and transportation facilities for the elevated, aboveground, and underground spatial development of urban buildings and thus forming a fluid and

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continuous spatial system. They are the main sources and service recipients generated by urban transportation, as well as the key nodes of the urban transportation system. The building complex accommodates greater space for urban transportation, such as pedestrian walkways, recreational atriums, drop-off zones, and transport interchanges, while the various spatial elements form a three-dimensional network that allows pedestrians to pass through or stop. The integration of building space with urban transportation space consciously places the various modes of public transportation within the complex to form a comprehensive interchange hub. This greatly improves the traveling environment, enhances the vitality of the city, and promotes the integrated development of the city, buildings, and transportation, thereby achieving the goal of “zero-distance transfer.” Zero-distance transfer refers to the use of architectural means to spatially connect the different transportation stations in a threedimensional manner. It provides people with convenient choices when transferring between different modes of transportation, thereby enhancing the operational efficiency of the integrated transportation system and bringing about greater comprehensive benefits to the entire region. The Lucky Plaza building complex in Montreal, Canada, is a typical example of a modern commercial hub combined with a transportation hub. It is a group of 14-story buildings built across railway lines, consisting of a retail commercial hub (second and third floors), exhibition halls (fourth and fifth floors), shopping malls (sixth to tenth floors), an international trade center (eleventh floor), and hotels (twelfth to fourteenth floors). In Hong Kong, 70% of the shopping mall complexes are built above metro lines, thus presenting typical features of metro commercial circles. Transfers between multiple modes of transportation take place within the complex, which creates a comfortable and accessible platform. For example, the trapezoidal atrium of Festival Walk is a nodal space for the three-dimensional organization of bus stops, taxi stands, underground garages and metro access. The interiors of urban transportation space in Hong Kong are generally organized as follows: the underground level is connected to the metro station or parking lot; the ground floor contains the public transport interchange and vehicle access, which are adjacent to the metro entrance to enable transfers on the same floor; the second floor is connected to elevated walkways to form a network; and the rooftop terrace is designed as an urban garden or pedestrian platform. All levels are connected via escalators and atrium spaces to form a unified whole, and they are also interconnected with outdoor urban spaces and surrounding buildings. The building complex provides a comfortable indoor space for transfers. The urban transportation space directly diverts the crowd flow into the building complex, thus enhancing the latter’s competitiveness in the city. Therefore, the spatial integration of the building complex with urban transportation is mutually beneficial, resulting in a win-win situation (Figs. 5.144 and 5.145). Given the extensive integration of business formats, the consumer service chain will begin to flatten, thus shortening the distance between the producers and the consumers, while also reducing the cost of marketing and attracting customers borne by suppliers, which, in turn, will decrease product prices and enhance the attractiveness of the retail industry (Figs. 5.146 and 5.147).

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Fig. 5.144 Waterpark in West Edmonton Mall

Fig. 5.145 Public space of Canal City Hakata in Fukuoka, Japan

(6) Underground spatial development strategies: Undergroundization and integration The rise in urban agglomeration has led to the increasing scarcity of land within the urban center, especially in the central commercial district. Hence, the comprehensive development and utilization of underground space has become one of the best means by which to address multiple problems within the city. The underground space is the “liminal space” produced by the interactions between the buildings and the city. On the one hand, it is often connected with aboveground and underground transportation facilities, undertaking the organization and dispersion of urban crowd flows. On the other hand, it is connected with shopping malls and shopping centers, thus forming part of the shopping environment. This feature has, therefore, endowed the underground space with dual characteristics in both function and space. In terms of function, it is the unification of transportation and commerce. The underground space can be used to consolidate the underground transportation nodes into a smooth and accessible three-dimensional transportation network, which will relieve the pressure on the aboveground distribution of underground transportation nodes and reduce the overlaps with aboveground traffic flowlines, thus serving as a

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Fig. 5.146 The Mall of America indoor pedestrian street

Fig. 5.147 Interior of Southdale Center

crucial means by which to resolve the conflicts in UC zone transportation (Figs. 5.148, 5.149 and 5.150). In addition, linear transportation provides the possibility of increasing the commercial contact surface, while the creation of an outdoor spatial effect in the underground space provides a relatively closed artificial environment free from vehicle interference and unaffected by natural changes in climate. This will, therefore, give rise to a brand-new space for commerce and social interactions, which then becomes an extension of urban public space.

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Fig. 5.148 Integration of the subway and underground shopping street in the commercial district of Brooklyn, New York

Fig. 5.149 Deep development model of the Tokyo Metro

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Fig. 5.150 Sectional view of the Rockefeller Center sunken plaza

The underground space is connected with the subway. The subway is the most important form of public transportation in many cities, often handling the distribution of large crowd flows. The underground commercial space is directly connected with the subway station, and it extends to the basement of large department stores or shopping centers to achieve traffic dispersion, thus mutually benefitting both transportation and commerce. In France, metro stations are often combined with bus stations and railway stations to form a layered, three-dimensional transportation hub, such that the underground commercial streets that are connected to the commercial centers will also form a composite commercial spatial network. The commercial district of Brooklyn, New York, has also successfully combined subways with underground commercial streets. Its design forms a lively pedestrian corridor for merchandise retail in the mezzanine between the subway and the ground floor, which leads to multiple aboveground squares and streets. It is a design that has been highly rated. The underground space is connected with underground pedestrian walkways. Underground pedestrian walkways are often located beneath commercial roads in UC zones, serving to connect commercial buildings on both sides of the road. Initially, these walkways are often underground commercial streets selling popular merchandise. However, once the individual sections of such local corridor areas have been developed, they will form the interlocking network of an underground walkway system. Underground commercial streets may be expanded to form the extensions of large-scale commercial buildings, be connected with various commercial buildings in different layers, or create new commercial spaces at road intersections, thereby combining transportation goals with commercial interest. The famous Rockefeller Center in New York occupies three blocks of Manhattan. It first formed a local underground walkway system that connected six buildings, with shops on both sides of the walkway. Currently, this system passes through city block roads and city boulevards, connecting multiple commercial centers and 21 large-scale public buildings in the horizontal direction. This corridor and shopping promenade, which spans nearly 2 km in length, has formed a massive underground commercial center. The underground space is connected with underground car parks beneath city squares and parks. Squares and parks are urban public spaces, where a large number of residents come for leisure, entertainment, social interactions, and fitness. The construction of underground car parks and commercial streets can both address the

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serious parking problem in the city center and provide new ideas for the comprehensive utilization of land. Furthermore, as such commercial streets often occupy a relatively large area, show strong integrity, and have a comfortable and stable environment, they can easily form higher-end and more tasteful specialty shopping streets. The Hong Kong brand outlet street underneath People’s Square in Shanghai is directly connected with underground car parks, metro stations, and aboveground squares, providing an extremely convenient pedestrian system that extends in all directions. The Central Park underground street in Nagoya is the second largest in Japan. It was built under the 100 m-wide Hisaya Odori park, and it is connected with the parking garage underneath the park. It is connected to the aboveground strip of urban greenery via 1.5 km of underground walkways, 13 exits, and 20 stairs, together forming the most distinctive underground street in Japan. The underground space in the UC zone should undergo a network-based integrated design at the urban area level. It must be incorporated into the city’s overall transportation and spatial system in order to serve as the link between building groups with respect to functional and spatial organization, thus forming an organic component in urban commercial space. Overall planning should be conducted from the perspective of systematic architecture to achieve the integrated thinking of a unified design. Based on a complete comprehensive transportation system, commercial, service, transportation, and municipal facilities should be effectively integrated to develop a unified underground space with comprehensive functions. The basement levels of high-rise buildings should be used as the core nodes, which can be combined with underground transportation hubs to form access points, thereby creating a regional underground network. By increasing the “lines” of underground commercial streets, this can be used to achieve the “surface” expansion of the underground space. Emphasis should be placed on dealing with the organic aggregation and conversion of the “points” in the basement of high-rise buildings and the “access points” in underground transportation hubs with the ground surface, thereby creating an organic and unified urban underground space. This elevates the perspective of urban development from twodimensional to three-dimensional thinking, while also achieving a necessary step in the three-dimensional development of urban space. Rapid transit systems, such as subways and light rails, are characterized by their large carrying capacity and concentrated crowd flows. Hence, they not only constitute the basic framework of the public transportation system but will exert a crucial impact on urban form and urban structure as well, while also forming the development axis for the expansion and utilization of urban underground space. In addition, rail transit interchanges can serve as a single point that drives the overall development of the underground space in the entire area. The so-called form of the development and utilization of urban underground space refers to the spatial network system that can be coordinated with the overall form of urban development, and it is composed of the development axes, points, lines, and surfaces (volume) in the development and utilization of underground space. By fully taking into account the impact of Guangzhou’s current rail transit lines, in the near future, Guangzhou will be able to form a “single axis, dual core, dual area, and multi node” underground spatial layout around the UC structure. The single

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axis refers to using Line 1 of the Guangzhou Metro as the axis for underground development to connect the underground space in Guangzhou. Line 1 is the main rapid transit line in the east-west direction, which has always been the direction of urban development in Guangzhou. It will connect the three most important UC zones in the city: the Shangxiajiu UC zone, Beijing Road UC zone, and Zhujiang New Town UC zone. The dual cores are located in the Beijing Road and Zhujiang New Town UC zones, where Line 1 intersects with Line 2 and Line 3 to form rail transit hubs. The formation of these hubs will inevitably bring about a greater crowd flow and higher popularity. Hence, core development can be carried out based on the rail transit stations to form a “dual core” structure in the underground spatial layout.

5.3.3 Approaches to Problem-Solving in the UC Structure Based on the analysis of the land use spatial characteristics and the planning of the spatial morphological framework, we can analyze and compare the practical problems encountered during the development of the Guangzhou UC structure. The Guangzhou UC structure was examined at four levels: the hierarchical relationships of the UC structure, the spatial form of UC zone land use, the characteristics of industrial functions, and transportation and landscape support. Based on these, the major problems in UC structure development were determined, and relevant solutions were proposed. These analyses will clarify the thinking behind the spatial development of the Guangzhou UC structure to a certain extent and provide a rational basis for the functional positioning and spatial layout of multiple UC zones in urban strategic planning (Table 5.24). The current problems of the Guangzhou UC structure can be broken down into three levels: external connections among UC zones, internal connections within oldtown UC zones, and internal connections within new-town UC zones. These problems represent an in-depth analysis of the challenges faced by the Guangzhou UC structure from a quantitative perspective, the solutions to which will clarify the countermeasures required in UC structure planning, which can be translated into planning and regulatory strategies. (1) Problems and solutions to the external connections among UC zones [Narrow spatial distribution and insufficient overall expansion] The spatial distribution of the Guangzhou UC structure spans only 34 km2 , and its restrictive framework has led to several maladies: First, the UC structure has affected the performance of its own service functions. All city-level centers are located within the core of the main city, generating a large volume of crowd flow, which has further exacerbated the service load and traffic pressure borne by the old-town UC structure as the commercial core for the entire city. This has led to bottlenecks in surrounding transportation nodes most prominently reflected in the serious congestion of the major bridges crossing the Pearl River. Second, there are overlaps in the dominant functions of

Narrow spatial distribution and insufficient expansion of UC structure

Indistinctive hierarchical difference and low main center primacy

Spatial distribution

Hierarchical sequence

UC structure

Current form

Major development problems

Level

Schematic diagram of planning strategies

Table 5.24 Regulatory strategies for the hierarchical structure of the Guangzhou UC structure Relevant theory

Strengthen the construction scale of the main centers; implement measures such as agglomerating main cores, cultivating sub-cores, and increasing the density of local road networks; enhancing intensive land use and land use vitality of main UC zones (continued)

Vigorously cultivate Theory of UC Baiyun New Town, hierarchical Baietan and other structure “suburban” sub-centers to expand the service range of the UC structure from 35 km2 to approximately 100 km2

Planning solution

5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure 587

Spatial form

Level

Incomplete UC zone structure, overly small main core, irrational distribution of sub-cores

Incomplete hierarchy, lack of sub-centers and district-level centers

Completeness of UC structure

Morphological structure

Current form

Major development problems

Table 5.24 (continued) Schematic diagram of planning strategies

Relevant theory

(continued)

Combine old-town Theory of UC transformation with zone spatial new-town UC zone succession construction to upgrade main cores, cultivate multiple distinctive sub-cores in the vicinity, and form connections with distribution loops in order to establish an orderly structure system

Establish traditional and cultural, business convention, and other sub-centers to highlight the dislocated division of dominant features; cultivate district-level centers, stripping routine service functions from the city-level UC structure and increasing the hierarchical difference of the UC structure

Planning solution

588 5 UC Structure Planning

Level

Current form Lack of land use mixing and overly large scale

Uniform UC zone functions, lack of diversified functions

Major development problems

Land use structure

Functional structure

Table 5.24 (continued) Schematic diagram of planning strategies

Cultivate comprehensive UC zone functions, establish complete infrastructure, rational industrial structure, and developed service industries, emphasizing the construction of commercial, cultural, leisure, and entertainment service facilities

Increase the mixing of commercial-apartment, and commercial-office land uses, promote diversified development, while also reducing the spatial scale of roads and city blocks, and increasing people-oriented spaces to meet people’s usage requirements

Planning solution

(continued)

Relevant theory

5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure 589

Functional division

Level

Unclear future development prospects of service industries

Lack of lifestyle service functions in new-town UC zones leading to insufficient popularity

Service diversity

Industrial support

Current form

Major development problems

Table 5.24 (continued) Schematic diagram of planning strategies

Clarify the development status of different service industries in future development, and allocate the corresponding land use in the UC structure

Increase the land use scale and spatial distribution of district-level service facilities in new-town UC zones to provide a full package of local lifestyle facilities

Planning solution

(continued)

Theory of the coordinated development of industrial space

Relevant theory

590 5 UC Structure Planning

Level Indistinctive dominant functions of sub-centers

Dominant functions

Cultural characteristics Absence of cultural characteristics in public hubs, modelization caused by international development

Current form

Major development problems

Table 5.24 (continued) Schematic diagram of planning strategies

Reinforce cultural connotations in the construction of public hubs, explore historical culture and local traditions, highlight the cultural characteristics of Guangzhou through spatial form, business format distribution, landscape elements, etc.

Enhance the land use of dominant functions in conjunction with old-town transformation, introduce large-scale projects, and ensure a certain proportion of land use for dominant sub-center functions. In the construction of new sub-centers, designate a certain proportion of land use for city-level dominant functions and enforce rigid control

Planning solution

(continued)

Relevant theory

5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure 591

(continued)

Focus on road landscape design, the renovation of roadside building façades, and three-dimensional road greening, which can be combined with urban characteristics and the public spatial system to create three transportation landscape axes, serving as parkways that represent the image of the UC zone

Public hub roads only focus on traffic capacity, without landscape effects

Road landscape

Relevant theory

Accelerate the Theory of public construction of traffic hub distribution dispersion capacity at the sub-center periphery and construct distribution loops through connecting ramps; construct a complete local road network with “high-density dual-lane roads” and traffic calming

Planning solution

Transportation support Insufficient traffic distribution system, congestion in UC zones

Schematic diagram of planning strategies

Transportation and landscape support

Current form

Major development problems

Level

Table 5.24 (continued)

592 5 UC Structure Planning

Level

Current form Public hubs do not showcase the superior landscape characteristics of Guangzhou

Major development problems

Landscape characteristics

Table 5.24 (continued) Schematic diagram of planning strategies Projects to highlight the landscape of the UC zone should be implemented from the perspective of vision and sightlines. Greenspaces and waterfront spaces should be established at 34 nodal points in the UC structure, while the volume and height of buildings along the visual corridor should be controlled to highlight the landscape characteristics

Planning solution

Relevant theory

5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure 593

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5 UC Structure Planning

the different centers. As different specialized functions require different spatial locations, an overly dense distribution of the UC structure will lead to similar UC zone locations and service radius. The inability to stretch out the distance in industrial locations will contribute directly to difficulties in carrying out the dislocated development of dominant functions. Third, the UC structure does not exert a sufficient facilitatory effect on new-town construction. Guangzhou is currently experiencing rapid expansion in its surrounding built-up areas. In this strategy of rapid new-town development, the construction of a new city-level center will serve as an “engine” that will drive the rapid rise of the new town. However, Guangzhou’s city-level UC structure is completely aggregated within the main city. As business owners are able to obtain high-quality comprehensive service functions in the old-town UC zone, the strong polarization effect has instead suppressed the normal development of secondary commercial hubs, especially that of new-town commercial hubs. This has led to the delay in the formation of a diversified new-town UC structure corresponding to the city’s polycentric clustered layout, which has affected the daily lives of its residents. If the UC structure does not keep up with the development of its surrounding areas, then new-town construction will only create “commuter towns” dominated by residential land use, thus losing its deep-seated momentum for development. – Solution: “Suburban” sub-centers, such as Baiyun, Pazhou, Liwan, and the Olympic Sports Center, should be vigorously cultivated. The construction of suburban sub-centers will serve two purposes: First, the construction of subcenters in the UC structure must be “intensive, not expansive.” The sub-centers do not require a large land use area, but they must have prominent location advantages and environmental characteristics. Their planned service industries must also be high-end service industries, such as conventions and exhibitions and business, serving the region, or even the world. Thus, the framework of the Guangzhou UC structure should be expanded, and dislocated development of the service industries should be promoted at suitable locations in order to drive new-town construction. Second, the construction of district-level centers should be “expansive, not intensive,” with a land use area accounting for a relatively large proportion of the total sub-center area. These centers should provide lifestyle commerce, mid- to lowend service industries, and other functions to meet the proximate living needs of new-town residents, thereby driving the rapid agglomeration of the population in the new town and enhancing its popularity (Figs. 5.151 and 5.152). [Indistinct hierarchical difference and low main center primacy]. The Beijing Road and Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town main UC zones show a low level of intensive land use and a severe waste of space. This, on the one hand, is reflected in the excessively high proportion of land use by non-UC public facilities. For example, residual old-style dwellings or enclosed compounds are currently occupying land that is more suited to commercial development, extensively covering large swathes of urban land in low-density buildings that generate low land income, which is no longer appropriate for UC zones. On the other hand, this can be seen in the fact that the construction intensity of commercial, cultural, entertainment, business offices,

5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure

595

Fig. 5.151 Current dominant functions of UC zones in Guangzhou

and other public facilities have yet to reach the required level of intensiveness. The large number of expansive, low-rise public buildings has meant that the land value of the UC zone has not been fully utilized. Therefore, the land needs to be used more intensively to play a greater role in service provision (Table 5.25). – Solution: The construction of the Beijing Road and Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town main UC zones should be reinforced, while implementing measures such as agglomerating main cores, cultivating sub-cores, opening up the traffic distribution loops, and increasing the density of local road networks. The degree of intensive land use and land use vitality of the main UC zones should also be enhanced, together with the gradual relocation of low-density buildings that are not suitable for modern UC zones, such as the Xincun residential quarter, old-style residences, or enclosed compounds, as well as the introduction of high-rise apartments, mixed commercial-residential buildings, and transportation-integrated public buildings. A deeper development model should be encouraged in city blocks to enhance the core service functions of the main UC zone (Figs. 5.153, 5.154 and 5.155). [Incomplete hierarchical structure, lacking in sub-centers and district-level centers] Based on the completeness evaluation of the UC structure, it can be seen that Guangzhou UC structure is still far from the ideal state with a complete range of service categories. On the one hand, it is lacking in traditional commercial hubs, culture and entertainment hubs, and other sub-centers that can reflect the quality of public services. On the other hand, it has a serious shortage of district-level centers, which means that its city-level UC zones must provide low-end routine service functions, thus causing confusion in the grades of business formats and the lack of hierarchy in the UC structure (Fig. 5.156).

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5 UC Structure Planning

Fig. 5.152 Vigorous development of “suburban” sub-centers

– Solution: The existing Qilou commercial buildings, riverside colonial-style buildings, temples, and other cultural buildings should be used to construct the Shangxiajiu-Shamian traditional commercial and cultural core. Baiyun Mountain and Baiyun Airport should be used as the carriers to create a pleasant business convention core in Guangzhou. The Pazhou international convention and exhibition core should be cultivated, centered on the Pearl River and its islands. A sports and culture core should also be developed around the Olympic Sports Center. The dislocated division of labor should be established to highlight the dominant characteristics of the multiple UC zones. In addition, a large number of district-level centers that serve the local areas should also be constructed, thus stripping the routine service functions from the city-level UC structure to widen the vertical difference in the functional sequence of the UC structure.

5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure

597

Table 5.25 Development intensity of the main functional formats for various UC zones in China UC zone

Retail commerce (B11)

Central District, 3.0 Hong Kong

Finance and insurance (B21)

Trade consultancy (B29)

Commercial-offices mix (Cb2)

Hotels (B14)

23.7

23.8

16.2

15.7

Zhujiang New Town, Guangzhou

1.9

1.8

9.1

7.9

4.0

Beijing Road, Guangzhou

2.6

0.6

7.3

8.2

7.3

Sanyuanli, Guangzhou

1.3

0.2

1.9

4.2

3.0

Huanshi East Road, Guangzhou

1.4

12.3

9.1

8.5

4.4

Shangxiajiu, Guangzhou

2.3

5.6

1.9

7.8

3.5

People’s Square, Shanghai

2.6

6.6

5.4

5.8

5.0

Lujiazui, Shanghai

2.3

6.5

5.5

5.3

4.3

Chaoyang, Beijing

1.6

6.3

5.1

5.4

3.8

Xidan, Beijing

2.1

4.1

4.0

4.2

2.3

Yan’an Road, Hangzhou

1.8

4.0

3.2

3.3

2.7

Fig. 5.153 Planned circle-core structure for the Beijing Road UC zone and Zhujiang New Town UC zone

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5 UC Structure Planning

Fig. 5.154 Improve current sub-centers, and cultivate “suburban” sub-centers

[Inadequate transportation distribution system, with clear congestion to and from the UC zones] There is too much fast-moving traffic through the UC zones and a lack of local roads. The “traffic calming” organizational form is lacking within the UC zones. Due to the imbalance in the road hierarchy of the UC structure and the inadequacy of the transportation distribution system, the Zhujiang New Town, Beijing Road, and other UC zones often have to deal with the awkward situation of large-scale traffic jams, especially when there is increased traffic volume during rush hours, which have caused traffic jams to be an almost daily occurrence. – Solution: The construction of sub-centers and district-level centers should be accelerated to separate the excessive agglomeration in the Guangzhou UC structure and disperse the corresponding traffic flow. The construction of a concentric, circular road network should be reinforced in the UC zone, with communication via connecting ramps, in order to establish distribution loops. While ensuring the dispersion corridors in the expressway network, a complete local road network should also be constructed, which are characterized by “high-density dual-lane roads” to achieve traffic calming within the UC zones. A high network density dominated by collector and local roads with guaranteed transportation accessibility of the UC zones.

5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure

599

Fig. 5.155 Planned UC structure

[Absence of central cultural characteristics] As a famous national-level historical and cultural city that was established 2,200 years ago, Guangzhou has a long history that most prominently features the intense clash of modern Chinese and Western cultures. The Lingnan regional culture, historical and traditional culture, cuisine culture, foreign trade culture, and colonial culture have all left deep marks on this city. However, none of the current city centers, whether the Beijing Road, Zhujiang New Town, or Huanshi East Road UC zone, is able to reflect the deep-seated cultural characteristics of Guangzhou (Figs. 5.157 and 5.158). – Solution: The cultural connotations of UC zone construction should be reinforced, the repetitive style of the UC zones should be altered, while the historical culture

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5 UC Structure Planning

Fig. 5.156 The current road networks of the Zhujiang New Town and Beijing Road UC zones are too sparse with excessively high road levels

Fig. 5.157 Historical and current styles of UC zones in Guangzhou

Fig. 5.158 The Confucius Temple in Nanjing fully embodies the city’s rich Qinhuai historical and cultural atmosphere. Clarke Quay in Singapore has traditional-style buildings and distinctive commercial formats that fully reflect Singapore’s unique tropical culture

5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure

601

and local traditions should be explored, thereby highlighting the cultural characteristics of Guangzhou in terms of spatial form, architectural style, business format layout, landscape design, and so on. [UC zone roads that are purely thoroughfares without landscape functions] UC zones are the areas with the densest crowd and traffic flows, which also act as a display window for the image of the city. Therefore, the roads do not merely serve as thoroughfares, but also have landscape functions, which can leave a deep impression on people. However, among the UC zones in Guangzhou, the arterial roads of both the old town (e.g., Dongfeng Road, Zhongshan Road, and Jiefang Road) and the new town (Huangpu Avenue and Tianhe North Road) are thoroughfares that purely emphasize transportation, with a separation between transportation and landscape (Table 5.26). – Solution: Road landscape design, the renovation of roadside building façades, and road greening should be implemented to highlight the urban characteristics and public spatial system, focusing on creating multiple transportation landscape axes to form parkways that represent the image of the UC zone. [Failure to showcase the superior landscape features of Guangzhou]. The Beijing Road and Zhujiang New Town main UC zones are located in high-quality scenic areas with mountains in the north and the river in the south. However, many of their core areas are in the middle of the city, where the public are unable to view the mountains or the river, which implies that the landscape characteristics of the city have not been fully utilized (Fig. 5.159). – Solution: Projects to highlight the landscape of the UC zone should be implemented. A public spatial system of mountains and rivers should be developed in the old town from the perspective of vision and sightlines. Greenspaces and waterfront plazas should be established in nodal areas, such as Huanshi Road, Jiefang Road, Dongfeng Road, and Yanjiang Road, using point public spaces to maximize the landscape benefits while incurring minimum cost. The construction of new UC zones should focus on highlighting the features of the mountains and rivers, controlling the volume and height of buildings along the visual corridor, and using the shadow regions of the UC zones for the incorporation of large-scale greenspaces (Fig. 5.160). (2) Problems and solutions to the internal connections within old-town UC zones [Incomplete circle-core structure of main centers]. The circle-core structure has begun to take shape within the Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town and Beijing Road main UC zones. However, its current status and future development trends indicate that the development of the circle-core structure is imbalanced. More specifically, the main core of the Tianhe-Zhujiang New Town main UC zone is centered on the

602

5 UC Structure Planning

Table 5.26 Spatial analysis of parkways in typical UC zones Road name

Details of parkway landscape

Century Avenue, Shanghai

Road width (m) 100 Road length (km) 5.5

Shennan Avenue, Shenzhen

Road width (m) 140 Road length (km) 24.8

Connaught Road, Hong Kong

Road width (m) 35 Road length (km) 4.3

Shenton Way, Singapore

Road width (m) 25 (single lane) Road length (km) 2.6

Beijing West Road, Nanjing

Road width (m) 48 Road length (km) 2.5

buildings around the Tianhe Sports Center, with Tianhe East Road–Linjiang AvenueGuangzhou Avenue–Guangyuan Road forming the outer ring road (distribution loop), and Tianhe North Road–Tiyu West Road forming the inner ring road. Sub-cores have gradually aggregated at Nantian Square and Fengxing Square along the outer ring road. The circle-core structure of the Beijing Road UC zone mainly consists of

5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure

603

Fig. 5.159 The Beijing Road and Zhujiang New Town UC zones have not fully utilized the natural landscape resources in their vicinities

New York

Chicago

Fig. 5.160 Using existing resources to introduce large-scale greenspaces in the UC zones

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5 UC Structure Planning

the Beijing Road retail commercial belt as the main core, where large-scale retail commerce has aggregated. Radiating from the main core to the periphery, a provincial administrative office zone has formed around the Zhongshan Memorial Hall, a trade consultancy zone has formed around the Municipal People’s Congress, a hotel agglomeration zone has formed along Yanjiang West Road, a business office zone has formed in Haizhu Square, and a commercial zone has formed in Zhonghua Square. Both UC zones are still a long way from forming a mature circle-core structure. – Solution: In future development, it is necessary to combine the transformation of the old town with the upgrading of its main core, the cultivation of multiple distinctive sub-cores in its surrounding, and the formation links with distribution loops, thereby forging an orderly structural system (Figs. 5.161 and 5.162). [Indistinctive dominant functions in sub-centers]. The Sanyuanli UC zone is centered on conventions and exhibitions. However, the land use area of this function and its supporting facilities (e.g., hotels) occupy 30 ha, accounting for 11% of the total land use. The Huanshi East Road UC zone is dominated by foreign business offices, but business-type land uses (B21, B29, B14, and CB2) occupy on 25 ha, accounting for only 18% of total land use. The Shangxiajiu UC zone is dominated by specialty commerce, but commercial land use covers an area of 5.3 ha, accounting for only 6%

Fig. 5.161 Current incomplete circle-core structure of Beijing Road

5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure

605

Fig. 5.162 Plan for the circle-core structure of the Beijing Road UC zone

of total land use. Therefore, the low proportion of land use occupied by dominant functions is the main reason for the “hollowing out” of sub-center functions. – Solution: Overlapping functional land use in established sub-centers should be gradually diverted. Once residential, industrial, and other land uses have been demolished during old-town transformation, a considerable share of the land must be set aside for dominant functions, while large-scale institutions and projects should be introduced into the sub-center in order to gradually increase the characteristic functions of the sub-centers. During new-town construction, a certain proportion of land use must be designated for characteristic city-level dominant functions and be subjected to rigid control in order to prevent such functions from being invaded by residential and other land uses during the development process. (3) Problems and solutions to the internal connections within new-town UC zones [Lack of mixed land use and excessively large-scale land use] The planning of new-town centers is often synonymous with super high-rise iconic buildings, megasized squares, and greenspaces, and large-scale urban axes, which can lead to a substantial waste of land. Planning frequently involves simple land uses for retail commerce (B11), finance and securities (B21), and commercial offices (B29), in

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5 UC Structure Planning

the hopes of creating an “organized” landscape for new-town UC zones in order to highlight their modern urban style. However, in the actual construction process, such development, characterized by single land uses, is not consistent with the high land prices of new-town construction. Hence, its operability is low in practice and will also give rise to a sense of enclosed city blocks and the aloofness of overly large buildings (Figs. 5.163, 5.164, 5.165, 5.166, 5.167 and 5.168). Fig. 5.163 Overly large new-town construction

Fig. 5.164 Good spatial scale and mix of functional formats

5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure

607

Fig. 5.165 Uniform dominant function

Fig. 5.166 Complete urban functions and supporting infrastructure

– Solution: The mixing of commercial-apartment and commercial-office land uses should be increased to enable the diversified development of the UC zone, while the spatial scale of roads, city blocks, and buildings should also be reduced. People-oriented spaces should be increased to better align with people’s usage habits and requirements. [Uniform dominant functions, with a lack of diversified and supporting functions] Many new UC zones have relatively uniform industrial categories, and they are often dominated by administration, sports, and culture. Such functions often have high thresholds for industrial capital, service recipients and employees, relatively narrow range, and limited capacity for attracting urban crowd flow. Furthermore, there is a lack of policies encouraging industrial and population relocation from the urban area, as well as a lack of unified incentive measures. In addition, the new UC zone is located in the outer suburbs, where market inadequacy will lead to the slow development of the new-town UC zone and, hence, cause difficulties in achieving its expected goals. Thus, the failure of the UC zone, which was intended to drive newtown development, will instead restrict the development of its real estate industry, thereby forming a vicious cycle. The Olympic Sports Center is a typical example of this.

608

Fig. 5.167 Surplus high-end facilities, insufficient low-end facilities

Fig. 5.168 Complete package to enhance UC zone popularity

5 UC Structure Planning

5.3 Planning Framework and Development Strategies for the UC Structure

609

– Solution: A pure development model involving only certain industry types should be avoided for new-town UC zones. New-town UC zones should undergo development and construction as true city centers, while paying special attention to the cultivation of its comprehensive functions. New-town UC zones should be modern, multi-functional city centers of higher standard, with complete infrastructure, rational industrial structure, developed service industries, and superior environments. In the cultivation of comprehensive functions, emphasis should be placed on the construction of service facilities for commerce, culture, leisure, entertainment, and communication. [Surplus of city-level high-end facilities and lack of district-level lifestyle service functions, leading to insufficient popularity] The construction of the Pazhou convention and exhibition sub-center, Olympic Sports Center sub-center, and other new-town UC zones must ensure the provision of a complete UC zone package, with an emphasis on coordinating local employment and local residences, providing the support of routine service facilities required by large-scale high-end public facilities and urban residents, as well as reducing the commute of residents to ease urban commuting traffic. If the mutual coordination between the high-end service industries and the routine lifestyle services for local residents is neglected, it will only be possible to attend concerts, host international conventions, and swim and row, but not to buy groceries, seek medical help, or attend school, which means that the daily life of residents cannot be guaranteed. Such cases with a surplus of high-end services but insufficient lifestyle service facilities are relatively prevalent, which can prevent new-town UC zones from attracting a local residential population, making them pure “pendulum cities.” – Solution: The land use scale and distribution range of district-level service facilities should be added to new-town UC zones. This will allow them to fulfill their sub-center functions, while also providing a full package of local lifestyle facilities, thus enhancing their popularity and attracting a sufficient number of residents.