The cave of the warrior : a fourth millennium burial in the Judean desert 9654060353, 9789654065467, 9789654060356

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IAA Reports, No. 5

The Cave of the Warrior A FOURTH MILLENNIUM BURIAL IN THE JUDEAN DESERT

TAMAR SCHICK in collaboration with D. Barshad, I. Shaked, E. McEwen, Y. Sitry, A. Oshri, Y Nagar, C. Shimony, E. Werker, I. Segal, Z.C. Koren, A. Nissenbaum, A.J.T. Ml, D.J. Donahue, I. Carmi, D. Segal, O. Negnevitsky, D.T. Ariel

THE ISRAEL ANTIQUITIES AUTHORITY THE ARCHEOLOGICAL STAFF OFFICER OF JUDEA AND SAMARIA JERUSALEM 1998

Publications of the Israel Antiquities Authority

■

Editor: Ayala Sussmann

.

English Style: Inna Pommerantz

Typesetting: N. Ben Zvi Printing Ent., Jerusalem Plates: S. Natan Printed at Ahva Press

Front cover photo: Ilan Sztulman ISBN 965­406­035­3 O THE ISRAEL ANTIQUITIES AUTHORITY POB 586, Jerusalem 91004

eISBN 9789654065467

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Fig. 2.1.

Planofthe caveandcross

the possible destructive influenceof the sudden exposure to air and light, as well as damage by occasional visitors, the excavators were forced to uncover the ifnds rapidly and carry out some conservation, packaging and trans­ portation measures on the spot. In any event, though this seriously interfered with the full scientiifc docu­ mentation of the assemblage as it was uncovered in the cave, it contributed to the exceptional state of preserva­ tion of the organic material.Phase A few remains of an earlier burial were excavated under this burial.

Stratigraphy

I

The ifnds exposed in the cave have clear stratigraphical signiifcance, further conifrmed by the results of the 14C tests carried out on several items (Jull et al., this volume). The ifnds are attributable to three phases (from top to bottom), as follows: Phase A: A covering layer of soil mixed with much gravel and a thick layer of rock­rabbits' dung covered

.

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of the reign of Antigonus, the last Hasmonean ruler (second half of ifrst century BCE; Ariel, this volume) were recovered by a metal detector in the upper part of the covering layer in the front part of the cave. Despite the initial excitement, it soon became evident that there was no connection whatsoever between these coins and the earl­ ier organic materials found in the cave. B: Under the covering upper layer, a well­preserved plaited reed mat came to light, which had been placed in the ifssure (Fig. 2.2), on the cave lfoor. Someof the mat's edges, which protruded above the rock ledge and were thus close to the surface, were damaged and poorly preserved. The mat probably padded the ifssure walls. The skeleton ofan adult male wrapped in cloth (Fig. 2.3) was discovered on the mat. The skeleton was almost fully articulated, with the exception of the skull, which was found nearby, at a distance ofc. 0.40 m from the skeleton. We could not estab­ lish with conifdence whether the skull had been intention­ ally placed next to the skeleton or whether it had been pushed aside toward the right­hand side of the cave by rodent activities (Nagar, this volume). all the material in the cave. Nine coins

2. THE DISCOVERY OF THE CAVE AND ITS EXCAVATION

Fig. 2.2. The plaited reed mat on

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Fig. 2.3. The

5

burial bundle

in situ.

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and the Universityof Tucson, Arizona. The results place these materials in the first half of the fourth millennium BCE (Jull et al., this volume). After the soil had been removed from the cave, other fragments of a textile were recovered in the innermost

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textile item with an earlier presence in the cave in Phase

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A­Small fragments detached from the

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applied on both faces, and, at least in part, prior to the wrapping stage. A heavy smear is visible close to the selvedge fnnge
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Figs. 14.4,14.5. 4:Parasagittal ridge at the right endocranial surfaceofthe frontal bone.5:Healed fracture, 1lf IV (The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities). Jerusalem. Pp. 286­270, 321­322.

91, 93)

Fahn A., Werker E., and Baas R 1986 ' Wood Anatomy and Identiifcation of Trees and Shrubs from Israel and Adjacent Regions. (The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities). Pis. 20­25 Chenopodiaceae. Bnei­Braq.

Fahn A. and Zimmermann M.H. 1982

Development of Successive Cambia in Atriplex Hal­ imus (Chenopodiaceae) . Botanical Gazette 143(3):

Metcalfe C.R. 1960 Anatomy of the Monocotyledons. I. Gramineae (Clarendon Press). Oxford. Pp. 47^9, 202, 254­255,

385­389,425­431,453­455. Watson L. and Dallowitz M.J. 1992 The Grass Genera of the World (C.A.B. Interna­ tional). Canberra. Pp. 134­136, 470­171, 700­704, 801­802, 850­852.

353­357.

Figure Legends Abbreviations: B = silica bodies; E = epidermis; F = sclerenchyma; G = sclerenchyma girder; H = hairs; L = bulliform cells;P = phloem; Ph = prickle hairs; S = stomata; V or vbs = vascular bundles (VI, V2, V3 ­ ifrst, second, or third order);X = xylem. 1.1. Securing Cord Figs. 15.1a­c. Cross Sections of Leaves la. Section of the specimen; on the left side: a wide keel and small portion of a leaf margin. (x 25) lb. Sorghum halepense leaf, showing lamina including the keel. Note the semicircular abaxial surface with arc of vbs and adaxial lfat side. Observe the arrangementof vbs with three small vbs (one V2, two V3) between the larger (VI), and the following inner parenchyma thin­walled cells, ending with the lfat adaxial epidermis. (x 25) lc. Imperata cylindrica leaf, showing keel and part of lamina. Observe the bulliform cells. (x 25)

Figs. 15.1d­f; 2a­c. Epidermis Surface Views Id. Specimen epidermis view, showing rows of stomata lfanked by long cells with concave transverse walls, over intercostal zones, and adjacent rows of paired short cells in­between narrower long cells over costal zones. (x 400) le. Specimen surface view including wide costal zone, showing numerous short cells arranged in rows, alternating with rows of long cells with paired or single short cells. Note the various shapes of silica bodies (nodular, cross­shaped, and nearly dumbbell­shaped) . (x 400(

15.

IDENTIFICATION OF FIBERS OF TEXTILES, BASKETRY AND MATTING

81

If. Sorghum halepense leaf abaxial epidermis, showing rows of stomata and wide long cells flanking concave transverse walls, over intercostal zones, and rows of numerous short cells alternating with rows of narrower long cells over the costal zone (compare to Figs.15.ld, e). (x 400) 2a. Sorghum virgatum leaf abaxial epidermis, showing rows of stomata and thin, sinuous anticlinal walls of broad long cells flanking concave transverse walls over intercostal zones. Observe alternating rows of numerous short cells with rows of narrower long cells above the costal zone on the left (compare to Figs.15. Id, e). (x 400) 2b. Surface view of Saccharum ravennae leaf abaxial epidermis, showing rows of stomata and thick, sinuous anticlinal walls of broad long cells with concave transverse walls in­between, over intercostal zones, and rows of less than 5 short cells above the costal zone in­ between narrower long cells. (x 400) 2c. Surface view of Imperata cylindrica leaf abaxial epidermis, showing rows of stomata and long cells with concave transverse walls, and rows of short cells alternating with almost each long cell over intercostal zones. Rows of numerous short cells alternating with rows of long cells are present over the costal zone on the left side. (x 400)

Figs. 15.2d­f; 15.3a­d. Cross Sections of Leaves and Culms 2d. Cross section of Imperata cylindrica lamina. Note bulliforms present in regular adaxial groups associated with colorless cells to form deeply penetrating fans, and double sheath vascular bundles accompanied by sclerenchyma. (x 100) 2e. Cross section of Imperata cylindrica culm. Small scleriifed hypodermis cells below the epidermis are followed by 1­3 layers of larger sclerenchyma cells. Ground tissue mostly composed of large cells with thinner walls. Numerous vbs restricted to the outer zone of the culm. (x 100) 2f. Cross section of Sorghum halepense culm. Outer ground tissue consisting of small sclerenchyma cells, but ground tissue mostly composed of large cells with thinner walls. Numerous vbs scattered throughout the culm. (x 100) 3a. Enlarged part of specimen from Fig. 15.1a, showing cross sectionof the keel with inner shrunken parenchyma cells and epidermis (folded) on adaxial side (upper right). Part of a leaf margin can be seen on left side (with ribbed lamina taller over the large vbs). Note the arrangementof the vbs on the abaxial sideof the keel with three smaller (one V2, two V3) between the larger (compare with Sorghum halepense, Figs. 15.3c, d. (x 100) 3b. Enlarged part from the previous cross section, showing detailsof vbs (VI, V3). Note the single bundle sheath, and the sclerenchyma girders on the abaxial side. In the large vb metaxylem vessels as well as the phloem zone are present. (x 400) 3c. Portion of Sorghum halepense lamina near the keel, showing details of vbs. The lamina is elevated over the large vb, which has abaxial and adaxial sclerenchyma girders, while the three smaller in­between vbs have abaxial sclerenchyma girders only. (x 100) 3d. Enlarged Sorghum halepense part of the keel, showing typical large (ifrst order) vbs with girders at the abaxial side, flanking 3 smaller vbs (one V2, two V3) (compare with Figs. 15.2a, b). (x 100) 1.2. Plaited Mat Fig. 15.4. Cross Section of Culms

4a. Plaited mat showing part of the hollow culm. Notice the basic­type vascular bundles' arrangement of 6­7 rings among the ground tissue cells. (x 25) 4b. Phragmites communis showing partof the hollow culm. The outer epidermis cells are followed by 5­6 layers of isodiametric thinner­

walled cells. Several layers of small, very thick­walled sclerenchyma are followed by isodiametric thinner­walled cells of the ground tissue. Basic type vbs are arrangedin5or 6 rings, the outermost reduced, abutting on the outer edge of the sclerenchyma ring. Somewhat larger vbsof the second circle merge with the ligniifed ring. (x 100) 4c. Arundo donax showing partof the hollow culm. Observe outer epidermis cells, followed by 4­5 layers of isodiametric thinner­walled cells, then several layers of small, very thick­walled sclerenchyma, then with isodiametric somewhat rounded thinner­walled cells of the ground tissue. The basic type vbs are arranged in 6 rings. Note outermost vbs merged with the outer sclerenchyma. (x 100) 4d. Arundo plinii showing part of the hollow culm. Observe outer epidermis cells followed by 4­5 layers of isodiametric thinner­walled cells. Next are several layers of small very thick­walled sclerenchyma followed by isodiametric somewhat rounded thinner­walled cells of the ground tissue. Notice the arrangement of the basic­type vbs in 6 rings. (x 100) Fig. 15.5a­b. Culm 5a. Plaited mat showing the outer part of a culm with torn areas. Observe the outer small very thick­walled cells, then a few layers of larger cells followed by a wide band of sclerenchyma, small, very thick­walled cells. The inner ground tissue cells are wider. (x 100) 5b. Plaited mat showing inner partof the hollow culm. Observe the large diameter ground tissue cells and the embedded basic type vbs, with double bundle sheath, inner sclerenchymatous and outer parenchymatous. The innermost ground tissue cells are of smaller diameter. (x 100)

Figs.15.5c­e; 6a. Culm Epidermis Surface View 5c. Plaited mat showing thick, sinuous tangential walls of long cells and paired short cells. One of each pair appears to be crescent shaped in outline, but at a higher magniifcation proves to be the rounded silica body of one cell overlapping the other. (x 400) 5d. Phragmites communis showing long cells with sinuous anticlinal walls. (x400). d­1: Observe the long cells and silica bodies. Note the hooked prickle­hairs and the microhairs on the left. d­2: Rows of stomata with tangential concave walls of interstomatal cells. Paired short cells with silica bodies as described in Fig. 15.5c.

82

CARMELA SHIMONY

donax, showing long cells with sinuous anticlinal walls and abundant pairs of short cells. The silica bodies, rounded t0 almost cross shaped, ift into the concavities of the cork cells. Low dome­shape subsidiary stomata cells were observed. (x 400) 5f Arundo plinii showing smaller­sized long cells with thin, very sinuous, anticlinal walls and short cells paired with angled to saddle­ shaped silica bodies. Low dome­shaped subsidiary cells stomata were observed. (x 400) 6a. Plaited mat showing long cells with sinuous, thick anticlinal walls. Note two­celled microhairs and hooked prickle­hair on the right. (x 400) 5e. Arundo

13. Arrow Shaft Fig. 15.6 6b. Arrow shaft showing long cells with sinuous thick anticlinal walls. Paired short cells and silica bodies as described for Figs. 15.5c­ d­2. Small cracks on the surface. (x 400) 6c. Arrow shaft culm cross section showing part of the hollow culm. Observe several layers of smaller isodiametric very thick­walled sclerenchyma cells (left side) followed by isodiametric thinner­walled cells of the ground tissue (size gradually increases). The basic­ type vbs are arranged in several rings. (x 100) 2. Twined Mat Fig. 15.7 7a. Culm cross section showing outer smaller cells, and inner larger ground tissue cells. Basic type vbs are arranged in circles­ )x 25) 7b. Surface view of culm showing long epidermis cells with slightly curved anticlinal walls, and square to tall short cells with variously­

shaped silica bodies. Note the two stomata. (x 400) ; 7c. Leaf abaxial epidermis with prickle­hairs between the intercostal long cells. (x 400) 7d. Leaf abaxial epidermis, mainly showing intercostal broad long cells with anticlinal, very sinuous thick walls, and short tal1 cells between them. Notice stomata with triangular or low dome­shaped subsidiary cells. (x 400) 7e. Leaf abaxial epidermis, showing costal and intercostal zones. Compare the sinuous thick anticlinal walls of the intercostal 1ong cells with the narrower, slightly curved thin walls of the costal zone. Numerous costal short cells and silica bodies are present. (x 400) Coiled Basket .■­. Fig. 15.8a­d. Coiled Basket Stitch 8a. Cross section of the flat strand, tapering towards the distal end. (x 25) 8b. Detail of Fig. 15.8a showing isodiametric thick­walled ifber cells; note the narrow band on the right corner. (x 100) 8c. Further details of Fig. 15.8a, showing thin­walled cambium­like cells in the narrow band area (upper part). Note a vb surrounded 3.

by the ifber cells. (x 400) 8d. Surface view of the cambium­like side. (x 200)

Figs. 15.8e­f, 15.9a­e. Coiled Basket Foundation 8e. Cross section of a culm. Notice the vbs arranged in three rings among the ground tissue cells. (x 25) 8f. Part of Fig. 15.8e, showing the outer epidermis, sclerenchyma layers and larger, thin­walled ground tissue cells. Note the basic type of vbs. (x 100) 9a. Surface view ofa culm (Sample A) showing the structure and arrangementof the long and short cells. Observe the sinuous anticlinal walls of the long cells. Note the low dome­shaped subsidiary stomata cells and the tall or cross­shaped silica bodies. (x 400) 9b. Intercostal zone of leaf abaxial epidermis, showing very broad, long cells with extremely sinuous, thin anticlinal walls (relatively uniform U­shaped undulations). Note the low dome­shaped stomatal subsidiary cells. (x 400) 9c. Leaf abaxial epidermis showing both costal and intercostal zones. Observe the very frequent dumbbell silica bodies of the costal zone, and the small hooked prickle­hairs of the intercostal zone. (x 400) 9d. Surface view of Culm B showing the structure and arrangement of the long and short cells. The long cells show straight anticlinal walls. Note the stomatal, parallel­sided subsidiary cells, and the shape of the silica bodies. (x 400) 9e. Another leaf abaxial epidermis, showing intercostal long cells with sinuous thin anticlinal walls. The long cells appear narrower over the costal zone; short cells and silica bodies are frequent. Note the arrangement of the prickle­hairs and of the thin­walled microhairs over the intercostal zone. (x 400(

15.

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IDENTIFICATION OF FIBERS OF TEXTILES, BASKETRY AND MATTING

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examination of the condition of the textile and verified through actual experimentation on small, detached frag­ ments. For example, a more concentrated glycerol solu­ tion was found to be best for treatment of the stiffer and more brittle fragments. Water, as a chemical, affects the composition of such organic materials as textiles, which contain water within their fibers and cells. This water is in equilibrium with the environment surrounding the material. When sub­ jected to aridity (as in our case), water loss results in shrinkage (Cronyn 1990:287). Water also plays an im­ portant though indirect role in the decay of porous organic materials, by conveying salts; in our case, the proximity of the cave to the Dead Sea is an unknown )though probable) factor in the deterioration of the tex­ tile. In cleaning, of course, water can have a beneficial effect, facilitating the removal of accumulated acidity, which impairs the vitality of the textile. Water provides an eiffcient medium for realigning the weave of a frag­ ment and re­establishing its shape. But water can also have a shock­effect upon very dry linen, and must be used cautiously to avoid irreversible damage. The absence of water generally provides an excellent condition for preservation, though it may have led to shrinkage and embrittlement of the organic material. In our case, the interior of the cave, with its low ceil­ ing, would temper lfuctuations of temperature and humidity. Water was an obvious choice: Its practicality was proved through experimentation, using the minute frag­ ments as trial pieces. But the use of water alone led to disintegration upon drying. To provide the water prerequisite of softening of the textile, to preserve the ifbers and to facilitate lfattening, it was necessary to

117

find a means of reducing this stress. One means was rinsing in a mixture of IMS and deionized water, thus reducing drying time (the proportion of IMS can be increased to almost 1000/0, if needed). Another means, a compromise, was to carry out both humidifying and drying very slowly. Examples follow:

fragments, all differing in condition, were treated solely with mist produced by an ultrasonic 1. Small, folded

humidifier, set for low humidity and strength. A humid­ ity chamber was set up, with the nozzle of the ultrasonic humidifier placed inside. The fragment being tested was covered with filter­paper, to protect it from dripping condensate. Lighter­colored fragments were found to require less time (as little as an hour) to soften and be opened than beige­colored fragments; beige­brown fragments often split while being opened (even after 72 hours of treatment); and brown­black fragments would collapse, regardless of length of treatment. 2. A series of a fragments of similar quality were sprayed with a softening solution of glycerol, IMS and deionized water, sprayed intermittently into the humid­ ity chamber. Though better than No. 1, the results were not satisfactory. 3. A group of fragments was treated with a solution of IMS, deionized water, and glycerol in a higher concen­ tration. It was found that the stiffer and more brittle the fragment, the longer the period of treatment re­ quired, and the higher the concentration of glycerol needed (Table 21.1). The above results are general, due to the wide range of conditions present. The precise treatment of each area was, of necessity, somewhat intuitive. The fragments and areas treated with higher concen­ trations of glycerol called for further treatment: patting with a cotton­wool wad, slightly dampened with a mix­ ture of deionized water and IMS, to draw off the excess glycerol. Glycerol evaporates very slowly, and textiles treated with it in solution need to be rinsed in a mixture of deionized water and IMS.4 A slight glycerol residue does, of course, remain; but the advantages of its use in softening brittle fabric and in preparation for opening up the textile, by far outweigh this disadvantage. The theoretical sideof selecting methodsof treatment should be stressed: (a) Do as little as possible, and with minimum intrusion; (b) organize treatment to proceed as slowly as possible; (c) allow condition to determine the time factor; though treatment should proceed slowly, its duration should also be as brief as possible; (d) be lfexible and exercise caution with regard to cleansing and softening agents; (e) be lfexible in selecting the type

118

OLGA NEGNEVITSKY

Table 21.1. Methods Used for Softening Textiles

Condition of Textile

■

Ultrasonic Humidifier

Time (excl. nighttime breaks)

strength1

Spray of Water, IMS + Glycerol (by volume)

Flexible

Average humidity and

Almost flexible

Average humidity and strength

3­>8 hours

^7:1:2

Brittle

Over average

8^24 hours

~6:1:3

Stiff and brittle

Maximal humidity and strength

24^48 hours

~6:1:3

Brittle, in several layers

Maximal humidity and strength

24­>72 hours

~5:1:4

Stiff and brittle, in several layers

Maximal humidity and strength

24­>72 hours

~3:1:6

of weights used for flattening softened fragments; (f) allow drying to proceed gradually and in a natural manner; (g) assure a storage environment enabling the textile to 'breathe'; (h) minimize ultraviolet light within the work­area, either using shutters or filters on the windows.

Textile B: The Rectangular Cloth Initially, this piece was thought to be a corner of the large textile; after spreading it out, however, it proved to be an independent cloth (95 x 160 cm). The opening of this piece was complex and diiffcult. It was saturated with red ochre, very stiff and brittle ­ a caked, multi­

Fig. 21.7. Textile

­►several

hours

~7:1:2

layered mass (Fig. 21.7). Little cleaning could be accom­ plished with brushes, for it was almost impossible to penetrate folds. After some hours in the humidity cham­ ber, we began opening the textile section after section, taking care to avoid over­humidification, which would have prevented the removal of the damp sand. The stronger areas were cleaned with brushes and the dirt was vacuumed up. At intervals, the chamber was opened and some of the folds could be unfolded and cleaned of sand; further softening proceeded, as described above. As soon as an area was suiffciently supple, flexible weights were placed on it (Fig. 21.8), and the textile was returned to the humidity chamber. Areas treated with higher concentrations of glycerol were specially treated to remove as much glycerol as possible.

B:Detail showing a caked massof many

layers, saturated

withred ochre.

21. THE CONSERVATION OF THE LINEN TEXTILES

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constant complications and ruled out use ofa hermetic­ ally closed humidity chamber, though an improvised tent proved efficient. In general, treatment was the same as had been applied to Textile B. The surface of the textile was first vacuumed; the improvised humidity chamber was then constructed over the piece; light­ weight tripods resting on filter­paper were inserted to raise and support the nylon coveringof the 'tent'. The

Areas saturated with red ochre, and accordingly brittle, were very gradually flattened out, using sand­ bags of graduated weight: once an area had been softened, a light lfexible weight was placed on it. Several hours later it was replaced with a somewhat heavier one, and so on.5 To dry the textile after complete lfattening, iflter­paper was repeatedly changed above and beneath. Sandwiched in this manner, with lfexible weights over the iflter paper, and changing the paper every few hours, it slowly dried out (see Fig. 3.31).6

nylon covering was weighted down by a periphery of sand­bags. The nozzle of the humidiifer was installed within the 'tent' wherever needed, usually on one of the tripods, high above the surface. Where the condition of a particular area was weak, treatment was completed prior to beginning another area (Fig. 21.9), butif less treatment was required, work proceeded concurrently on two areas.

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Textile C: The Sash The stifler, more brittle areas of this textile were treated with a higher concentration of glycerol solution and were left in the humidity chamber for a lengthy period )see Figs. 3.43^7; Color PI. 3.10).

■